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State Farm Stadium, formerly known as University of Phoenix Stadium, is a multi-purpose stadium located in Glendale, Arizona, west of Phoenix. It is the home of the Arizona Cardinals of the National Football League (NFL) and the annual Fiesta Bowl. It replaced Tempe's Sun Devil Stadium as the Valley of the Sun's main stadium. The stadium is adjacent to the Gila River Arena, home of the Arizona Coyotes NHL team. The stadium has hosted the Fiesta Bowl, the 2007 and 2011 BCS National Championship Games, the 2016 College Football Playoff National Championship, Super Bowl XLII in 2008, the Pro Bowl and Super Bowl XLIX in 2015, and will host Super Bowl LVII in 2023. It was one of the stadiums for the 2015 CONCACAF Gold Cup and the Copa América Centenario in 2016. It hosted the NCAA Final Four in 2017 and will do so again in 2024. The University of Phoenix acquired the naming rights in September 2006, shortly after the stadium had opened under the name Cardinals Stadium and retained the rights until September 2018 when State Farm acquired the naming rights. The Cardinals and State Farm reached agreement on an 18-year commitment that resulted in the team’s home venue becoming State Farm Stadium. Since moving to Arizona from St. Louis, Missouri in 1988, the Cardinals had played at Sun Devil Stadium on the campus of Arizona State University. The Cardinals had only planned to play there until a new stadium could be built in Phoenix. However, the savings and loan crisis derailed funding for a new stadium during the 1990s. Over time, the Cardinals expressed frustration at being merely tenants in a college football stadium. The lack of having their own stadium denied them additional revenue streams available to other NFL teams. The Cardinals campaigned several times in the years prior to its construction for a new and more modern facility. The ceremonial groundbreaking for the new stadium was held on April 12, 2003, and the 63,400-seat stadium opened on August 1, 2006 after three years of construction. The stadium was designed by Eisenman Architects and HOK Sport (now Populous). The stadium is considered an architectural icon for the region and was named by Business Week as one of the 10 “most impressive” sports facilities on the globe due to the combination of its retractable roof (engineering design by Walter P Moore) and roll-in natural grass field, similar to the GelreDome and the Veltins-Arena. LED video and ribbon displays from Daktronics in Brookings, South Dakota were installed in 2006 prior to Arizona's first game of the season at the new stadium. The cost of the project was $455 million. That total included $395.4 million for the stadium, $41.7 million for site improvements, and $17.8 million for the land. Contributors to the stadium included the Arizona Sports and Tourism Authority ($302.3 million), the Arizona Cardinals ($143.2 million), and the City of Glendale ($9.5 million). The stadium has 88 luxury suites -- called luxury lofts -- with space for 16 future suites as the stadium matures. The surrounding the stadium is called Sportsman's Park. Included within the Park is an landscaped tailgating area called the Great Lawn. There are no obstructed view seats in the stadium. There are visible areas in the upper deck of the end zone where seats could have been put in but were not due to the giant super columns supporting the roof structure. The stadium seating capacity can be expanded by 8,800 for "mega-events" such as college bowls, NFL Super Bowls, the NFC Championship Game, and the Final Four by adding risers and ganged, portable "X-frame" folding seats. The endzone area on the side of the facility where the field tray rolls in and out of the facility can be expanded to accommodate the additional seats. The roof is made out of translucent Birdair fabric and opens in 12 minutes. It is the first retractable roof ever built on an incline. Events held at the stadium include Arizona Cardinals home games; public grand opening tours held August 19 and 20, 2006 (attended by 120,000 people); various shows, expositions, tradeshows and motor sport events; the AIA 4A and 5A state championship games for football; and international soccer exhibition matches. The multipurpose nature of the facility has allowed it to host 91 events representing 110 event days between the dates of August 4, 2006 through the BCS National Championship January 8, 2007. The first preseason football game was played August 12, 2006 when the Cardinals defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers, 21–13. The first regular season game was played September 10 against the San Francisco 49ers (the Cardinals won 34-27). The stadium's air-conditioning system made it possible for the Cardinals to play at home on the opening weekend of the NFL season for the first time since moving to Arizona in 1988. On October 16, 2006, the stadium hosted a notable game between the Cardinals and the undefeated Chicago Bears where the Bears came back from a 20-point deficit to defeat the Cardinals. The Bears would later go on to play in Super Bowl XLI. University of Phoenix Stadium hosted Super Bowl XLII on February 3, 2008 in which the New York Giants defeated the previously undefeated New England Patriots 17–14 with a paid attendance crowd of 71,101. This was the second time the Phoenix area hosted a Super Bowl, the other being Super Bowl XXX held in nearby Tempe at Sun Devil Stadium in 1996 when the Dallas Cowboys defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers. The Cardinals' first home playoff game since 1947 took place at the stadium on January 3, 2009, with Arizona beating the Atlanta Falcons, 30–24. The stadium also hosted the between the Cardinals and Philadelphia Eagles on January 18, 2009, which the Cardinals won 32–25 in front of over 70,000 fans in attendance. The 2015 Pro Bowl was the first Pro Bowl to be held at the same location as the same year's Super Bowl since 2010. The Pro Bowl returned to Hawaii in 2016. On February 1, 2015, the New England Patriots defeated the Seattle Seahawks in Super Bowl XLIX held at the stadium. The stadium was the venue for the Fiesta Bowl on January 1, 2007 featuring the Boise State Broncos vs. the University of Oklahoma Sooners (Boise State won 43-42 in overtime); and the BCS National Championship on January 8, 2007 between the (1) Ohio State Buckeyes and the (2) University of Florida Gators, which the Gators won 41-14. It also hosted the 2008 Fiesta Bowl between the Oklahoma Sooners and the West Virginia University Mountaineers, as well as the 2009 Fiesta Bowl between the Texas Longhorns and the Ohio State Buckeyes. It has also held many high school graduations. On January 10, 2011, the 2011 BCS National Championship Game between the Auburn Tigers and the Oregon Ducks had an attendance record setting 78,603 on hand for the game. On January 11, 2016, University of Phoenix Stadium hosted the College Football Playoff National Championship Game featuring No. 2 ranked Alabama Crimson Tide and No. 1 ranked Clemson Tigers. Before 2018, the venue was known as University of Phoenix Stadium. It hosted the Final Four, the semifinals and championship game of the NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament, in 2017, and will do so again in 2024. On February 7, 2007, the stadium hosted a soccer match attended by 62,462 fans. The United States men's national soccer team defeated Mexico, 2–0. On January 21, 2012, the U.S. played against Venezuela and won the match 1–0. On January 30, 2013, Mexico played against Denmark, a game that was broadcast on Televisa Deportes, UniMás, and TV Azteca. The match ended in a 1–1 draw. On November 19, 2015, the stadium was one of the sites selected for the 2016 Copa América Centenario. The stadium hosted three matches, including Mexico vs. Uruguay on June 5, and the third-place match (United States vs. Colombia) on June 25. In club soccer, Real Madrid battled MLS side LA Galaxy in August 2013. The Spanish side defeated the Galaxy 3–1. The stadium has hosted the CONCACAF Gold Cup and will host the first semi-final of the 2019 Gold Cup. The stadium hosted the WWE event WrestleMania XXVI which took place on March 28, 2010, with 72,219 fans in attendance. This was the first WrestleMania since WrestleMania XI with a non-title match as a main event, the first WrestleMania to be held in the state of Arizona and the third to be held in an open-air venue, after WrestleMania IX and WrestleMania XXIV. The event grossed $5.8 million in ticket sales, making the event the highest grossing and attended entertainment event held at the University of Phoenix Stadium. Other events included the Fiesta Bowl National Band Championship High School Marching Band competition. It has also held many high school graduations. On August 1, 2009, the stadium hosted Monster Jam Summer Heat, with Maximum Destruction defeating Captain's Curse in the racing finals and Grave Digger winning the freestyle event. The stadium hosted the inaugural Stadium Super Trucks race on April 6, 2013. On January 30, 2016, Monster Jam returned to the stadium for the first time since 2009, with 16 of the best trucks. On February 6, the AMA Supercross Championship raced for the first time, after visiting Chase Field from 1999 to 2015. On February 10, 2019 Russell M. Nelson, President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, spoke to an audience of 68,000, a larger capacity than many events due to the majority of the field space being filled with seats. On September 26, 2006 the University of Phoenix acquired the naming rights to the stadium totalling $154.5 million over 20 years. On April 11, 2017, the University of Phoenix terminated the naming rights just 11 years into the 20-year deal, citing financial woes; however, the university kept its name on the stadium until a replacement company was found to give naming rights to. On September 4th, 2018, State Farm reached a deal securing the rights through 2036. University of Phoenix will remain involved as a sponsor with the team in a reduced capacity as the Cardinals' "official education partner." The stadium has approximately 14,000 on-site parking spaces (plus 12,000 adjacent spaces), located in numerous lots that surround the stadium's 2,000 disabled parking spaces. The design improvement, featured for example in a Discovery program about this stadium, is zoning. Parking spaces for guests are zoned with preferred leaving directions, to achieve the fastest possible movement of traffic. Arizona Cardinals' website for stadium, Global Spectrum’s website for stadium, Arizona Sports and Tourism Authority, University of Phoenix Stadium Seating Chart The University of Phoenix (UOPX) is a for-profit university headquartered in Phoenix, Arizona. Founded in 1976, the school confers certificates and degrees in over 100 certificate programs and degree programs at the certificate, associate, bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degree levels. It is regionally accredited by the Higher Learning Commission and has an open enrollment admission policy, accepting all applicants with a high-school diploma, GED, or its equivalent as sufficient for admission. In 2017, the school's parent company, Apollo Education, was acquired by Apollo Global Management, an American private equity firm. It is the largest recipient of federal GI Bill tuition benefits and the largest for-profit recipient by Pell Grant assistance funding. For the 2008–2009 fiscal year, its student body received more Pell Grant money than any other university. A 2010 report found that the university's online graduation rate was only 5 percent. The university has paid hundreds of millions of dollars in fines and settlements concerning its student recruiting practices and education programs, particularly including deceptive advertising to prospective students. The University of Phoenix was founded by John Sperling and John D. Murphy in 1976, where the first class consisted of eight students. In 1980, UoPX expanded to San Jose, California, and in 1989, the university launched its online program. In 1994, the University of Phoenix leaders decided to take the parent company, Apollo Group, public. UoPX enrollment exceeded 100,000 students by 1999. According to Senator Tom Harkin, who chaired hearings on for-profit colleges, "I think what really turned this company is when they started going to Wall Street." In 2008, UoPX was the top recipient of student financial aid funds, receiving nearly $2.48 billion. For the 2008–2009 fiscal year, the University of Phoenix student body received more Pell Grant money ($656.9 million) than any other university. In 2010, the University of Phoenix had an enrollment of more than 470,000 students with revenues of $4.95 billion. A 2010 report found that the UoPX online graduation rate was only 5 percent. Between 2010 and 2016, enrollment declined more than 70 percent amid multiple investigations, lawsuits and controversies. In August 2011, Apollo group announced it would buy 100% of Carnegie Learning to accelerate its efforts to incorporate adaptive learning into its academic platform. In 2013, USA Today listed UoPX as a "red flag" institution for posting a student loan default rate (26%) surpassing its graduation rate (17%). Other controversies concerned marketing and recruitment practices, instructional hours, being one of the top recipients of student aid, and having a student body shouldering the most student debt of any college. In 2014, the University of Phoenix partnered with 47 historically black colleges and universities to offer UoP classes that transfer to these institutions. The University of Phoenix claimed a peak enrollment of more than 470,000 students in 2010, but its numbers have declined sharply since then. Enrollment was 142,500 on August 31, 2016. and 119,938 in the 2016–17 school year. UoPX has been under investigation by the US Federal Trade Commission since 2015. In February 2016, Apollo Group announced it would be sold to a private investment group made up of Apollo Global Management, the Vistria Group, and the Najafi Companies, for $1 billion. Former U.S. Department of Education Deputy Secretary Anthony W. Miller, partner and chief operating officer of Vistria, became chairman. The sale was approved by both the U.S. Department of Education and the accreditation group the Higher Learning Commission in order to go forward. In December 2016, the US Department of Education approved of the sale of Apollo Education Group to Apollo Global Management. The company provided a letter of credit for up to $385 million. In 2019, former University of Phoenix students, represented by Harvard Law School's Project on Predatory Student Lending, were part of a lawsuit against the US Department of Education demanding student loan forgiveness. The main campus is in Phoenix, Arizona, but most students participate online. At its peak, University of Phoenix operated more than 500 campuses and learning sites. UoPX campuses will be closing in Albuquerque, Atlanta, Charlotte, Chicago, Columbia, South Carolina, Detroit, El Paso, Honolulu, Jersey City, Philadelphia, Tucson, Virginia Beach, and several locations in California and Florida. School of Advanced Studies, School of Business, College of Education, College of Health Professions, School of Health Services Administration, College of Humanities and Sciences, College of Information Systems and Technology, School of Nursing, College of Security and Criminal Justice, College of Social Sciences Besides traditional education programs, the school offers continuing education courses for teachers and practitioners, professional development courses for companies, and specialized courses of study for military personnel. Students spend 20 to 24 hours with an instructor during each course. The university requires students to collaborate on learning team projects, where the class is divided into teams of four to five students. Each learning team is assigned a team forum where team members discuss the project and submit their agreed upon portions of the learning team assignment for compilation by the nominated learning team leader. Students have access to class-specific online resources, which include an electronic library, textbooks, and other course materials. Some academics and former students argue the abbreviated courses and the use of learning teams result in an inferior education. The University of Phoenix has been criticized for lack of academic rigor. Henry M. Levin, a professor of higher education at Teachers College at Columbia University, called its business degree an "MBA Lite", saying "I've looked at [its] course materials. It's a very low level of instruction." The university runs a program called "corporate articulation agreements" that allow people working at other companies to earn college credit for training they have completed at their jobs. To qualify for college credit, students can either create a professional training portfolio or write an "experiential essay". The portfolio is a collection of documents such as transcripts from other schools, certificates, licenses, workshops or seminars. The University of Phoenix has an open admissions policy, which means it is accessible to anyone with a high school diploma, GED, or its equivalent. Prior to 2010, Phoenix recruited students using high-pressure sales tactics, including making claims that classes were filling fast, by admissions counselors who are paid, in part, based on their success in recruiting students. The university recruits students and obtains financial aid on their behalf, such as the Academic Competitiveness Grant, Federal Pell Grant, National Science & Mathematics Access to Retain Talent Grant (National SMART Grant), Federal Direct Student Loan Program, Federal Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grant, Federal Direct PLUS Loans, Federal Perkins Loan, and the Wounded Warrior Project. According to the U.S. Department of Education's College Scorecard, the University of Phoenix's average annual cost was $18,007 (about average). In 2015, the average attendee had earned $47,100 a year (above average). The institution's graduation rate was 17% (significantly below average). According to the current College Scorecard, University of Phoenix-Arizona, which includes the online segment, has a graduation rate of 15 percent and a student loan repayment rate of 28 percent. The average salary after attending has not changed from 2015. In 2016, a Brookings Institution study estimated University of Phoenix's 5-year student loan default rate at 47 percent. The University of Phoenix has been regionally accredited since 1978 by The Higher Learning Commission (HLC). In February 2013, a peer review group recommended to the HLC that the university be put on probation because the University of Phoenix "has insufficient autonomy relative to its parent corporation." On May 9, 2013, the Apollo Group filed a report with the Securities and Exchange Commission which stated that the HLC Institutional Actions Council First Committee ("IACFC") had recommended to the HLC that the university retain its regional accreditation, but that the university be placed on "notice" for two years. Their concerns centered on the university's governance, student assessment, and faculty scholarship in relation to Ph.D. programs. In July 2015, the Higher Learning Commission removed University of Phoenix from Notice Status. Some individual colleges within the University of Phoenix hold specialty accreditation or are pre-accredited by accrediting agencies that are recognized by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation. School of Business accreditation through the Accreditation Council for Business Schools and Programs (ACBSP). Because Phoenix's business programs are not accredited by the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB), some companies will not provide tuition reimbursement for employees attending Phoenix., College of Education Master of Education is accredited by the Teacher Education Accreditation Council (TEAC), College of Nursing B.S. and M.S. degree programs are accredited by the Commission on Collegiate Nursing Education (CCNE),, College of Social Sciences The Master of Science in Counseling program in Community Counseling (Phoenix and Tucson campuses only), the Master of Science in Counseling program in Mental Health Counseling (Utah campuses only), and the Master of Science in Counseling program in Clinical Mental Health Counseling (Phoenix and Tucson campuses only) are accredited by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP). University of Phoenix is a wholly owned subsidiary of Apollo Global Management. Apollo Global purchased their parent company, Apollo Education Group, for approximately $1.1 billion. The President of University of Phoenix is Peter Cohen. Mr. Cohen previously worked at McGraw-Hill Education. The Chief Academic Officer at University of Phoenix is John Woods. Dr. Woods previously worked at two other for-profit college companies: Harrison College and Career Education Corporation. In 2008, Pereira & O'Dell became the lead ad agency for the University of Phoenix for a reported $220 million. The firm was also the ad agency for Lego and Yahoo. In the early 2010s, Apollo Group, the University of Phoenix's former parent company, spent between $376 million and $655 million per year on advertising and marketing, which included the University of Phoenix brand. Much of the advertising was Internet advertising. In 2010, the university paid $154.5 million for 20-year naming rights for advertising purposes of the University of Phoenix Stadium in Glendale, Arizona, a municipal sports arena, home of the NFL's Arizona Cardinals. The company terminated its naming rights deal on April 11, 2017, citing the company's economic difficulties. On September 4, 2018, the stadium's naming rights were acquired by State Farm. However, the Cardinals still designate the university as the official education partner of the team. In 2012, Arnold Worldwide took over for Pereira & O' Dellafter as the ad agency for the University of Phoenix. (2013) Financial guru Suze Orman was hired to provide a personal finance class to University of Phoenix students., (2013) The University of Phoenix was a co-sponsor of Advancing the Dream at the Apollo Theater., (2014) An ad featured a girl wanting to be an astronaut, and connected a University of Phoenix education with careers. The commercial was narrated by actress Phylicia Rashad. In 2016, 180LA took over for Arnold Worldwide as the ad agency for the University of Phoenix. (2016) The University of Phoenix began its "We Rise" campaign appropriating the words of Maya Angelou. One of its advertisements used an updated version of the song "If I Only Had a Brain" from The Wizard of Oz. Talk show celebrity Ellen DeGeneres also gave 10 scholarships to viewers of her show., (2017) University of Phoenix marketing campaigns highlighted female empowerment and immigration. In one commercial, the "We Can Do It" campaign appropriated Rosie the Riveter., (2018) The University of Phoenix highlighted the school as an innovator in the 1970s, giving working adults greater access to higher education. In 2019, 180LA created a campaign called "Discover Your Wings", a fantastical story that targets busy parents. According to the marketing firm "the dragon's story parallels the struggles University of Phoenix students face each and every day handling daily duties and making a living yet still striving to get an education to better their station in life." The University of Phoenix also advertised on the finale of the TV show, The Big Bang Theory. In June 2019, University of Phoenix reported that they had transferred their $188 million marketing budget to TBWA\Chiat\Day Los Angeles and RAPP. Several American policymakers have been affiliated with the University of Phoenix and Apollo Education. Former Secretary of Education Margaret Spellings has been a member of the Apollo Group Board of Directors. Jane Oates, a former staffer for Senator Ted Kennedy and the Department of Labor, became the Apollo Group's vice president for external relations in 2013. US Representative Nancy Pelosi's close friendship with University of Phoenix founder John Sperling has been documented by Suzanne Mettler in her book Degrees of Inequality. University of Phoenix has community partnerships with Boys and Girls Clubs of America, the American Red Cross, and the Junior League. In 2016, University of Phoenix partnered with the ASIS Foundation to provide scholarships for students studying for security-related degrees. In March 2016, the first ten scholarship recipients were announced. In 2017, Vistria Group was part of the deal with Apollo Global Management to take over the schools. Vistria included two friends of former President Barack Obama: Tony Miller and Martin Nesbitt. In 2019, University of Phoenix's parent company, Apollo Education Group, was the third largest higher education lobby. Since 2009, the University of Phoenix has received $1.2 billion of federal money issued through the G.I. Bill. The university enrolled almost 50,000 such students in 2014, twice as many as any other institution. Some critics of for- profit higher education have alleged that Apollo Education Group and University of Phoenix "prey upon veterans". In 2013, the US Department of Defense ended its contract with University of Phoenix for military bases in Europe. U.S. military commanders at Fort Campbell, Kentucky allowed University of Phoenix representatives to erect advertising and place promotional materials in high-traffic areas. Access was provided in exchange for cash. In August 2010, an ABC News investigation identified a University of Phoenix recruiter who sought new students from Y-Haven, a homeless shelter in Cleveland, Ohio. When asked for comment, a university spokesperson responded that the recruiter had been terminated, and that "Any such activity is strictly forbidden by our Code of Business Conduct and Ethics, and employees who violate this policy face disciplinary action up to and including termination." In a separate telephone conversation with an undercover ABC News producer, another University of Phoenix recruiter falsely claimed that the university's Bachelor of Science in Education degree would be sufficient to qualify the producer to teach in Texas or New York. The recruiter also advised the producer to apply for the largest possible loans from federal financial aid programs. A co-founder of University of Phoenix, John D. Murphy, wrote in Mission Forsaken (2013) about the school's degeneration from a provider of working adult continuing education programs to a money making machine whose sole criterion for admission was eligibility for federally funded student loans. University of Phoenix students owe more than $35 billion in student loan debt, the most of any US college. In 2014, the school was highlighted in an article in Money entitled "The 5 Colleges That Leave the Most Students Crippled By Debt". According to the U.S. Department of Education College Scorecard, approximately 28 percent are repaying their loans. The university has paid several government fines and settled whistle-blower lawsuits concerning its admissions practices and education programs. In 2000, the federal government fined the university $6 million for including study- group meetings as instructional hours. In 2002, the Department of Education relaxed requirements on instructional hours. A 2003 lawsuit filed by two former university recruiters alleged that the school improperly obtained hundreds of millions of dollars in financial aid by paying its admission counselors based on the number of students they enrolled, a violation of the Higher Education Act. The university's parent company settled by paying the government $67.5 million, plus $11 million in legal fees, without admitting any wrongdoing. In 2004, the Department of Education alleged that UOPX again violated Higher Education Act provisions that prohibiting financial incentives to admission representatives and pressured its recruiters to enroll students. UOPX disputed the findings but paid a $9.8 million fine as part of a settlement where it admitted no wrongdoing and was not required to return any financial aid funds. The university also paid $3.5 million to the Department of Labor to settle a violation of overtime compensation regarding hours worked by UOPX's recruiters. The University of Phoenix settled a false-claims suit for $78.5 million in 2009 over its recruiter-pay practices. In 2009, the Department of Education produced a report claiming the untimely return of unearned Title IV funds for more than 10 percent of sampled students. The report also expressed concern that some students register and begin attending classes before completely understanding the implications of enrollment, including their eligibility for student financial aid. In January 2010, the parent company Apollo Group was required to post a letter of credit for $125 million by January 30 of the same year. In 2010, UOPX came under government scrutiny after its Phoenix and Philadelphia campuses were found to have been engaging in deceptive enrollment practices and fraudulent solicitation of FAFSA funds. In 2014 the US Department of Education's Office of the Inspector General demanded records from the school and Apollo Group going back to 2007 "related to marketing, recruitment, enrollment, financial aid, fraud prevention, [and] student retention". In October 2015, the U.S. Department of Defense suspended the school's ability to recruit on U.S. military bases and receive federal funding for educating members of the U.S. military. In describing the suspension, The Washington Post noted that "the decision arrives amid allegations that the university sponsored recruiting events in violation of an executive order preventing for-profit colleges from gaining preferential access to the military." Some federal legislators, including U.S. Senators John McCain, Jeff Flake, and Lamar Alexander protested the suspension, which was lifted in January 2016. In 2016, Apollo Education Group shareholders filed a class-action lawsuit against the corporation, arguing that it withheld information leading to large losses in stock prices. Several of the allegations related to University of Phoenix's recruiting of military personnel and veterans. On December 10, 2019, the University of Phoenix agreed to pay a settlement of $191 million related to charges that it recruited students using misleading advertisements. NPR reported this amount includes $50 million in cash as well as a $141 million cancellation in student debt, though the cancellations "won't affect student borrowers' obligations for federal or private loans." According to the College Scorecard, the University of Phoenix student body is 29 percent white, 21 percent black, 10 percent Hispanic, 1 percent Asian, and 33 percent unknown. In 2016-17, about 3,000 students used DOD Tuition Assistance and 13,000 students used GI Bill funds. The University of Phoenix has been a partner of US Army University and has had a presence at a few military education bases. The institution depends almost entirely on contingent faculty: about 97 percent of Phoenix instructors teach part-time, compared to 47 percent nationwide. This reliance on part-time faculty has been criticized by regulators and academic critics. Most of the classes are centrally crafted and standardized to ensure consistency and to maximize profits. Additionally, no faculty members get tenure. Adjuncts earn approximately $1000–$2000 per course. Approximately 21 cents of every tuition dollar is spent on instruction. According to the College Navigator the student to faculty ratio is 38 to 1. College Navigator reports 231 full-time and 7,211 part-time faculty in its Arizona segment; full-time faculty make up 3.2 percent of the total faculty. In the California segment there are 4 full-time faculty and 1,304 part-time faculty; full-time faculty make up less than 1 percent of faculty. African-Americans make up 19.3 percent of the university's faculty members, and 4.9 percent are Latino Women make up 56% of the faculty. In February 2017, after the take over by Apollo Global Management, University of Phoenix laid off 170 full-time faculty. More than 1 million alumni are counted as graduates of the university. Phoenix alumni in the government sector include former Obama White House cybersecurity coordinator Howard Schmidt, former U.S. Secretary of Transportation Mary Peters (1994), and member of the Utah House of Representatives Brad Dee (1991). In the private sector, alumni include former MBA Chair at the Forbes School of Business & Technology and radio host Diane Hamilton. In military and law enforcement, alumni include U.S. Navy Admiral Kirkland H. Donald, and assistant director of U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement Harold Hurtt (1991). Former MSNBC anchor and a host of NBC's Early Today Christina Brown is also an alumna of the university. Athletes who have earned degrees from the university include four-time NBA Championship-winner Shaquille O'Neal (2005), three-time WNBA MVP Lisa Leslie, professional tennis player Michael Russell (2012). and Arizona Cardinals professional NFL football player (wide receiver) Larry Fitzgerald (2016). Fitzgerald graduated with a bachelor's degree shortly before his 33rd birthday. He majored in communications with a minor in marketing. (He began college in 2002 at the University of Pittsburgh.) He was a spokesman for the University of Phoenix and he tells the story of promising his mother Carol that he would someday graduate from college. She died while he was still enrolled at Pittsburgh. Cuomo, Chris; Vlasto, Chris; Wagschal, Gerry; Pearle, Lauren; Andreadis, Cleopatra (August 19, 2010). "ABC News Investigates For-Profit Education: Recruiters at the University of Phoenix". ABC News. Retrieved October 20, 2012. Official website, "College, Inc.", PBS Frontline documentary, May 4, 2010 The Copa Panamericana 2007 was a minor football club tournament organized by DIRECTV between July 16 and July 22 in the University of Phoenix Stadium in Glendale, Arizona, USA. The tournament was divided in two groups of three, who played each other once, with the top club in each group progressing to the final match. The champion, Cruz Azul, received $250,000 USD. Alianza Lima, Boca Juniors, Caracas FC, Club América, Cruz Azul, Deportivo Cali All seven matches were held at the University of Phoenix Stadium, with a total capacity of some 70,000 people. 3 Goals Israel López (Cruz Azul) 2 Goals Federico Insúa (América), Miguel Sabah (Cruz Azul), Mauro Boselli (Boca Juniors) 1 Goal Ever Espinoza (Caracas), Leonel Vielma (Caracas), Martín Palermo (Boca Juniors), Jesús Dátolo (Boca Juniors), Diego Valdéz (Deportivo Cali), César Delgado (Cruz Azul) https://web.archive.org/web/20070714050952/http://www.copapanamericana2007.com/

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This is a list of fictional characters in the anime, manga, and film series Ghost in the Shell created by Masamune Shirow. is the Chief Executive Director of Public Security Section 9. In , Lt. Col. Aramaki is a strict chief, and is informally referred to by Section 9 agents as the "old ape" (most likely because in the original manga he was drawn with a face that appeared to be half monkey, half man). Even so, he is fiercely loyal to the members of Section 9, and often puts his own career on the line to ensure the survival of the rest of his team. In , Aramaki uses his political connections and no small amount of bargaining with the new prime minister to get Section 9 reinstated. He is shown to have a disconnected brother of similar age in the Dejima with the refugees, and in it is implied that he is the student of a once-feared military general, as well as that he was once married. It is revealed in Mamoru Oshii's Ghost in the Shell that Aramaki, together with Togusa, are the only fully human members of Section 9 (aside from a cyberbrain). In the Stand Alone Complex Visual Book released by Hobby Japan, Aramaki's hair was poked at for fun in one comic strip when Batou makes some comments about it. Aramaki lifts his hair to reveal metallic parts, possibly for his cyberbrain. This incident freaked Batou out., Near the end of , Aramaki's missing brother, , appears to Kuze and asks him what he intends to do with the refugees. He was last seen in the last episode helping the refugees evacuate to the Dejima bridge via small boats., The Solid State Society film reveals that he was estranged from his mentor Colonel Tonoda whom he helped to put in prison (like his character does in the course of the original G.I.T.S manga) sometime before the SAC series began, and that he was actually married at one point., Aramaki's physical appearance looks almost exactly like that of the character "Dusty the coffin maker" in the 1968 Spaghetti Western: If You Meet Sartana Pray for Your Death. is a cyborgnetic counter-cyberterrorist field commander in the employ of "Public Security Section 9", a fictional division of the real Japanese National Public Safety Commission, as the squad leader and lead investigator. is the lead investigator and main male character in the Ghost in the Shell series. Recruited from the Rangers, Batou is the second best melee fighter in Section 9 and is the second-in-command under Major Motoko Kusanagi. In the movie adaptations of Shirow's manga, Batou is a direct representation of Mamoru Oshii's opinions, views, and feelings that are presented throughout the story. Although not officially stated, he seems to jointly hold the position of 3rd in command with Ishikawa. He served in the military with Motoko and Ishikawa (under both of them), and has cybernetic eyes that are used by Rangers, improved strength from cybernetic arms, legs, and also contains other unlisted parts (these parts are not stated, but rather implied). He primarily does field work with Togusa, and takes point for the Major on serious occasions. Batou keeps his private life away from work and his background are mostly unknown. He also gave his favorite Tachikoma an unapproved, non- synthetic oil until the Major caught him. In the first Stand Alone Complex series, the Laughing Man hacked into his eyes so that Batou could not see him. According with Tachikomatic Days of episode 21 (Season 1), he has a can of beer after his bath and he takes out his eyes before going to sleep. Batou is also a chain smoker. He also cares for a cloned basset hound named Gabriel, and Oshii himself possesses a female basset hound named Gabriel. Stand Alone Complex character designer Hajime Shimomura said that Batou's image was based on the Minotaur. Batou often uses up his paycheck buying muscle training equipment for the upper body, which others find useless, considering his extensive number of cyborg parts (mainly torso and arms). In the first season of Stand Alone Complex, it is inferred that he uses it to remind himself of who he is, despite his cyberization, much like the watch the Major wears. In an interview on the DVD releases of Stand Alone Complex, Batou's Japanese voice actor theorized that Batou's use of exercise equipment was more for the purpose of exercising his mind and self-discipline rather than enhancing his body. is the lead investigator and second most prominently featured male character in the Ghost in the Shell manga and anime series. In it is stated that he is the only "entirely human" member of Section 9 who has not undergone cybernetic replacement in some manner as he had been referred to as "natural". Togusa is openly suspicious and has reservations regarding technology; while Section 9 agents may respect Togusa's rejection of cybernetic enhancements, the rest of society views people like him as a Luddite. In the 1995 film it is claimed that this is precisely because of his lack of cybernetic enhancements that he was chosen for Kusanagi's team. In the manga, it is unclear as to what extent he has undergone cybernization, although in both anime films and television series he only has cybernetic memory upgrades and other small communication brain implants like all other members. Togusa is also the only member of Section 9 not have military experience, having only served as a civilian police officer in the past. To Section 9, Togusa is a reminder to them all of true humanity, because he is a normal person compared to the rest of Section 9. He has a family, and strong moral beliefs that visibly get in his way. He primarily does work with Batou, but also investigates on his own at times. Togusa often plays the role of the idealist in Ghost in the Shell, and could easily be said to be the least likely to win in an even fight against anyone else in Section 9. Togusa is 27 years old and is in height. In Solid State Society, he is squad leader of the now expanded Section 9, after Kusanagi's departure and Batou's refusal of the position. It is also stated in Solid State Society that Togusa had finally undergone cyberization, the extent of which, however, is unknown. According to character designer Hajime Shimomura, he did the designs of Togusa based on him being the gentle lion. In addition, Shimomura mentions that he was hard to do since his appearance in the manga looks deformed. is the lead investigator, covert intelligence, information warfare and technology specialist in Public Security Section 9. Ishikawa is a master at recognizing data manipulation, along with being highly skilled at hacking in general. He has a low prosthetic percentage; his character dialogue (and his long recovery time from an injury) suggests that he is one of the least augmented members of Section 9. His appearance is characterized by a large beard and perpetually unkempt hair, and he is the oldest of Section 9's field operatives. Ishikawa is especially well known for his frequent, long-winded and often rather complicated expository speeches to the other characters, in order to inform them (and the show's audience) of new story developments. He formerly served with Kusanagi and Batou in South America when they were with the Ground Self-Defense Forces in the Japanese UN contingent. He was one of the earliest members recruited to be in Section 9 and seems to know the Major and her dislikes quite well. He is shown as being in charge of a pachinko parlor called Parlor Ishikawa, and on occasion uses the cyberbrains of the old men who play there to complete particularly heavy data gathering (though it seems the men suffer no ill effects or are even aware of their situation, and are in fact 'paid' with wins at pachinko for use of their 'processor' time). Ishikawa is the most seemingly laid-back member of the unit. Despite being a member of Section 9, Ishikawa appears to be relatively physically weak in comparison to the other members. He is almost never shown in combat (though in one episode he fires a shoulder-mounted cannon to disable a heavily armored vehicle) and takes a support role during most missions in which he is dispatched. When he is captured late in the first season, he is shown as being easily taken into custody by Umibozu commandos sent to arrest him. This is possibly due to the fact that he is one of the least cybernetically enhanced members (along with Togusa and Saito) and thus, would have been at a disadvantage had he physically resisted. Late into the second series, Ishikawa is wounded in a suicide bomb attack on Section 9's tilt wing aircraft. Following this he is seen hospitalized and wearing a bandage on his left arm, this lends credit to the theory that he has little external cyberization, especially when in contrast to Batou's quick recovery from wounds in the same episode. As a point of humor, a bottle of what appears to be Chivas Regal is seen in his office in the closing animation of season 1, as well as a similar bottle appearing in the first Ghost in the Shell movie, though no indications are given that he is alcoholic. It is known that he smokes cigarettes and cigars on occasion, particularly in stressful circumstances., As stated in 2nd GiG episode 12, Ishikawa is a fan of American super hero comics., Ishikawa also makes an appearance in to deliver important information to Batou., According with Tachikomatic Days of episode 22 (Season 1), he has a glass of milk after his bath and he takes off his beard before going to sleep. This was meant to contrast with the previous episode (21), that stated that Batou has a beer after his bath and takes out his cybernetic eyeballs before going to sleep. Tachikomatic Days are not meant to be taken seriously . is Section 9's tactical sniper specialist. Known to have been a mercenary in the South American campaign, Saito was recruited by the Major while they were on opposing sides. He can handle any automatic firearm with deadly accuracy and precision. Regarded as one of the least cyberized, Saito's left arm is cybernetic, allowing him to support and steady extremely large Anti-materiel rifles with superhuman skill. His left eye was replaced with the "Hawkeye", a prosthetic eye that interfaces with satellites to allow for shots of incredible accuracy. The Hawkeye, however, can be hacked, as it is in Episode 2 of SAC. It is impossible for Saito to escape hacking by going into autistic mode because he needs to maintain his Hawkeye's satellite uplink. Saito is also valued for his ability to think like enemy snipers; on two separate occasions his ability at determining sniping locations impacted Section 9's actions. Character designer Hajime Shimomura had commented that Saito was not difficult to do, although he said he had drawing ideas based on someone who would wear "a bleached cotton cloth wrapped around his chest and wears a loincloth." Anime Vision.com has said that Saito's presence in the episode "Poker Face" is intriguing since he did not confirm if he really encountered Motoko Kusanagi during his mercenary days, keeping his past hidden from his fellow officers. Ladriya is Section 9's advanced weapons specialist. Ladriya is the only Section 9 character not drawn specifically from the Ghost in the Shell source material, and she adds another female perspective to the team. Her skill is with a knife, though Samal credits her with being "one of the more intuitive of the gang." "She's a bit feisty, she's a bit cheeky as well. But when it comes down to it I'm quite proud of the fact that she's quite ruthless when it's necessary", said Samal. Though Ladriya is a character Samal had to build from scratch, she said she drew some inspiration from one of the male Section 9 characters who didn't make it to the big screen who is "a bit of a lady killer" in the manga (likely Pazu). She used that to color in her version of the character, saying, "I thought, 'Wouldn't it be great if Ladriya is a bit like the female equivalent of that? Like a tiny bit into blokes.'" is Section 9's explosive weapons and bomb disposal specialist, providing rear support for the rest of the unit and handles heavy weaponry during assignments, as shown several times during . He also works as the team's resident cyberviral warfare expert, often developing vaccines for viruses within minutes of their creation. Like many of the members of Section 9, Borma is part cyborg. Though he's "kind of the silent type," he also packs some of the most explosive weapons of the Section 9 team. Borma is the jack of all trades who often handles the task of rear support. "He originally was basically "the backup", and meant to be carrying the large caliber heavy assault weapons. He carries a shotgun. It's a bigger gun, just like Batou", stated Tawanda Manyimo. In most assignments, he's the only member to carry heavy weaponry. He is usually teamed with either Saito for sniper team duties, Paz for general operations and Ishikawa for cyberweb research and viral warfare. Due to his various jobs behind the scenes, Borma's character receives the least attention of any member of Section 9. Borma was in the JSDF as a demolitions expert, possibly hinting that he was either a combat engineer or a special forces operative. This character's name is often pronounced as its Japanese counterpart as Boma. Borma is the only Section 9 operative with similar height and enhanced strength to Batou. He also has optical implant eyes of a similar general design to Batou's, though his optics are a different color, indicating another model with different capabilities. Both his eyes and his baldness are his trademark features. Maven is Section 9's resident expert on guerilla warfare and topography, stemming from her time in the jungles of South America. She first came to Chief Aramaki's attention during an operation in which she single-handedly held off an insurgent attack after her entire squad was killed. Since then, she has been working for Section 9, where she has proven both resourceful and deadly. R&D; combat specialist who proved herself to be a lethal operative during the conflicts in South America. She has a fiery temper and the skills to match. Maven worked with the Kodansu Corporation during WWIV where she served in R&D; and field testing of technologies. She spearheaded the development of the therm-optic barrier to aid in the evacuation of refugees during the Bolivia Crisis. With the passing of Bill 196J, the Kodansu Corporation was effectively shut down and all its research and equipment was appropriated by the Japanese government. Following this, Maven found work with police forces in Fukuoka. She was later acquired by Section 9 to aid in the deployment of her past research projects. Though it is not known just how much of her body is cybernetic, it is suspected that she has experimental prosthetics from her time working for Kodansu. Maven does not appear in the manga, television series or movies; only in the video game "Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex - First Assault Online" is an investigator and "deep-cover" infiltration specialist in Section 9. Before joining Public Security Section 9, Paz was rumored by various police circles to have been a gangster in several yakuza groups in Japan. Paz is the backup "jack-of-all-trades" for the field agents and is also a known chain smoker within the unit. Upon his first encounter with the Major, he remarked, "I never sleep with the same woman twice." His basis for such is later found to be that he does not want to pull others into the world he lives in. He uses a folding knife in combat. In SAC 2nd GIG episode 13, Paz encounters an ex- lover scorned (Kaori Kawashima) who had adopted a body that was identical to his own down to the smallest detail. A knife fight ensues, and one "Paz" is stabbed through the eye and killed. It isn't made clear whether or not the victim was the real Paz or the impostor (Kaori), as they both have cuts across their torsos, and the surviving "Paz" says nothing. However, the torso wound of the deceased Paz appeared to be deeper, suggesting that the original survived. His name is often pronounced as its Japanese counterpart, Pazu in series. is one of Public Security Section 9's new recruits in . Azuma was recruited as one of the field operatives in Section 9 from JGSDF Intelligence. He was present at the shipyard battle in which fellow rookie Yano died and was pulled out of field duty prior to the Dejima confrontation. At the end of 2nd Gig it is implied that Azuma is now a full-fledged member of Section 9. Azuma is featured prominently at the beginning of , supporting Togusa in an incident at the airport, as well as in . Azuma also shows up in the manga Ghost in the Shell: Human-Error Processor 1.5 by Masamune Shirow as a source of comedy. is one of Public Security Section 9's new recruits in . Yano was recruited by Section 9 as a rookie and field operative. Yano was killed in the raid on Kuze's false location in the 2nd GIG episode "", making him Section 9's first officer to be killed in the line of duty from hostile gunfire. Yano also appears briefly in the manga as a new recruit. In the manga he was killed by a Russian named Koil Krasnov, whom he was tailing as his first assignment. is one of Public Security Section 9's new recruits in . Proto is Section 9's only (prototype) bioroid member and was also the Tachikoma's maintenance technician (before becoming one of the new recruits). During the Dejima crisis Proto played a key role in helping Aramaki rescue the Prime Minister Yoko Kayabuki, who had been relieved of her duty and arrested under charges of treason. Proto managed to gain access to the net, where he communicated with Section 9's Tachikoma units. Through them Proto was able to gain building blueprints and up-to-date information on Section 9's Dejima operation, as well as the location of the Prime Minister, before an attack barrier disabled him. Proto appears again in the movie, wearing the black uniform of Section 9 along with a sidearm, which suggests that he is now a field officer. In the various editions of Ghost in the Shell, Section 9 utilizes different kinds of , or . All seem to act like children. In the original manga, the think tanks used by Section 9 are the . Unable to get the rights to use the original spider-tank design from the manga, Masamune Shirow created a new design for television, which he named the "Tachikoma". There are distinct differences between the two, most significantly in the 'eyes' and the vertically oriented abdomen. Still, the tanks are easily recognizable as descendants of the original Fuchikoma. The are the think tanks utilized by Section 9 in the Stand Alone Complex series. In both the manga and television series, one spider-tank is preferred by Batou who uses a natural oil to lubricate its parts, and this usage of natural oil and its experiences with Batou begin to disseminate through the others, slowly causing the whole group of them to develop their AIs into separate identities, which Kusanagi begins to suspect are unique Ghosts. This leads to their decommissioning, although they all react to the Umibouzu assault on Section 9 and try to help, but their new hardware for civilian work prevents them from doing so. In the premiere of 2nd GIG, Batou is pleased to see that the Tachikoma have been recommissioned, but when one speaks with the original robotic voice he is disheartened until the Tachikoma breaks into laughter, revealing that they have retained their ghosts. At the end of 2nd GIG, when the American Empire is attempting to bomb Dejima, the Tachikoma finish saving the refugees' ghosts before uploading their own ghosts into the satellite that contains their AI to stop the final missile, resulting in their apparent death. In the final scene of 2nd GIG, Section 9 is seen using new think tanks known as , devoid of the individuality of their Tachikoma predecessors as well as an inferior AI. With the return of Kusanagi during Solid State Society, it is revealed that the Tachikoma's AIs were spared from destruction, with Kusanagi accompanied by the "ghosts" of two of them, now calling themselves and . Musashi, who has modified its digital self to be yellow in color, is Batou's preferred Tachikoma. In the novelization of the film, the other Tachikoma AIs have also given themselves names: , , , , , , and . In the events of , the burgeoning Section 9 uses a think tank known as the , short for . Voiced by: Kayumi Iemasa (Japanese, original voice), Yoshiko Sakakibara (Japanese, re-release); Tom Wyner (English; as "Abe Lasser") The is the main antagonist of the original Ghost in the Shell manga as well as in the first film. Although it is first suspected of being a super hacker, capable of "ghost hacking", or taking control of a cyberized person's body without their knowledge, Section 9 later discovers that it is actually an advanced artificial intelligence program, known as Project 2501, created by Section 6, the Treaty Bureau of Japan's Ministry of Foreign Affairs. When Project 2501 went rogue, Section 6 was able to trap it in a firewalled system, but it escaped after using a factory to produce a robot body that gets hit by a truck and taken in by Section 9. When the truth is revealed to Section 9, the "Puppet Master" demands asylum as a sentient creature, arguing that its self- preserving programming is no different from DNA. After a battle between Section 6 and Section 9, Major Motoko Kusanagi manages to link with the "Puppet Master" and converses with it, learning that it wishes to preserve itself and pass on its ideas as any biological creature would, but rather than make copies of itself with the same weaknesses and flaws, it wishes to merge with Kusanagi. Although she fears that she will lose her individuality, Project 2501 reminds her about identity and change and impermanence. Motoko finally agrees and the "Puppet Master" is merged with her ghost, just as Section 6 snipers destroy the robot shell and severely damage the Major's own prosthetic body. Voiced by: Koichi Yamadera (Japanese); Steve Blum (English, TV series; Bandai Visual dub), Michael Adamthwaite (English, OVAs; Bandai Visual dub) The , , is a corporate terrorist hacker, who ultimately reveals to the Major that he had discovered that several micromachine manufacturing corporations, in association with the Japanese government, suppressed information on an inexpensive cure to a debilitating cyberization disease in order to profit from the more expensive micromachine treatment. He also had a fascination with J. D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye, his own alias coming from Salinger's short story, "The Laughing Man". He is an expert hacker, able to hide his physical presence by editing himself out of video feeds and cybernetic eyes, concealing his identity by superimposing an animated logo over his face, and hijacking cybernetic brains altogether, all in real-time. The Complex story arc of focuses on the Laughing Man case, and on a medical/governmental conspiracy tied into the fate of the Laughing Man. His voice actor is Kōichi Yamadera, while he is voiced in Bandai Entertainment's English dub by Steven Blum. The Laughing Man logo was designed by Paul Nicholson, a London-based designer for graphics and clothing company, Terratag. Nicholson was asked to read a short story by J.D. Salinger, "The Laughing Man," and to base the logo on that. The story centers around a boys' after school organization called the Commanche Club. The Commanche Club's Chief often brings the boys to Central Park for baseball games, and these games are the source of the baseball cap featured in the logo. The text given to Nicholson by Production I.G. read: "I thought what I'd do was, I'd pretend I was one of those deaf-mutes." The phrase is an excerpt from The Catcher in the Rye, also by Salinger. Nicholson said of the latter, "At first this text made no sense but now, having seen the whole series, I can understand the relevance to the character." Another reference taken directly from J. D. Salinger's short story "The Laughing Man" occurs in episode 11, titled "Portraits/In The Forest of the Imagoes". In this episode a child at a vocational aid center refers to a character named Chief who is going to visit, Chief is the name given by the children to The Laughing Man as well as the main character's childhood idol in the short story. The Laughing Man logo has been co-opted by pop culture in advocacy for the Electronic Frontier Foundation and the loose hacktivist collective Anonymous (using the latter's motto "We are Anonymous. We are Legion. We do not forgive. We do not forget. Expect us."). The is a fictional terrorist group that Public Security Section 9 deal with in . Their motives are to suppress the refugees into despair and show Japan that they do not belong. The Individual Eleven bases their name and motive from the essay, "The Individual Eleven", which is actually a fake essay implanted with a computer virus that infects all who read it, and even infects Borma of Section 9, although through quick action, he shows no further signs of symptoms as a result. The virus remains dormant up until the user downloads all of the other ten essays by Patrick Sylvestre (a fictional political theorist), when it programs the person infected by it to commit suicide. However, the virus itself does not cause the members of the Individual Eleven to commit the acts of terror; it is their own political views which cause them to do so. Kuze is the only member to be unaffected by the Individual Eleven virus. The eleventh essay supposedly refers to the events surrounding the May 15 Incident, which was one of several incidents that led to the rise of Japanese militarism. The virus only affects those who possess cyberbrains, and, in addition, it is suggested by Kazundo Goda that the virus affects only those individuals who were virgins prior to undergoing full cyberization. The Individual Eleven logo was designed by TERRATAG. The logo shows three characters. From top to bottom, they stand for three different numbers (9, 10 and 11). At the same time, in as Kanji they mean , , and . The logo is used as the mysterious mark of the terrorists in much the same way as a traditional Japanese family mark (kamon) or a samurai logo on their flag. is an architect, a former SDF member, and a member of the Individual Eleven terrorist group whose formation was brought about by Kazundo Goda. He is the second primary adversary of Section 9, along with Goda, in 2nd GIG. Unlike the rest of the Individual Eleven members, Kuze does not commit suicide. Instead, he identifies with the grievances of the sizable refugee population in Japan, assuming leadership of a refugee resistance movement. It is later revealed Kuze and Motoko had known each other since childhood, and were involved in the same plane crash that forced them to transfer into prosthetic bodies to survive. They both became separated afterwards and Kuze joined the JSDF, where he became disillusioned with Japan's foreign and domestic policies and deserted, eventually resurfacing as the leader of the refugees. When the JSDF attack Dejima, Kuze leads the defense of the city while at the same time ensuring the noncombatant refugees are evacuated. He assists Section 9 in averting the nuclear strike aimed at Dejima and is subsequently arrested. However, he is assassinated by American Empire agents in order to prevent him from becoming a new symbol for the refugees. According to the interview with Takayuki Goto, Kuze is modeled after the half-Japanese and half-Taiwanese actor Takeshi Kaneshiro. Kuze appears in the live action adaptation, portrayed by Michael Pitt, though this Kuze takes on aspects of the Puppet Master's characterization, including having a proficiency for hacking and a desire to fuse his psyche with that of the Major. is the name of an entity responsible for controlling the remote body of Civil Servant . According to dialogue in Solid State Society, Tateaki Koshiki died mysteriously at home from illness, but that his remote was subsequently involved in the conspiracy that was uncovered during the course of the film. The existence of a hidden Puppeteer was therefore theorized to have been responsible for Tateaki Koshiki's actions following his demise. After distinguishing himself, Tateaki Koshiki got reassigned to the Health-Welfare joint project headed by Ito Munei. He secretly built his own infrastructure into the project sometime during its development. This infrastructure abducted children at risk from their families and sheltered them with the , who would bequeath them their wealth upon death, before the children were finally brought to Munei's secret education facilities at the . The Puppeteer's role was also in using his hub-cyberbrain to crystallize the rhizome of the Noble Rot Senior Citizens that utilized the Healthcare network to become the "Solid State Society". Alternatively, it is suggested by Batou that The Puppeteer may have been the personification of the collective consciousness of the Noble Rot Senior Citizens. However, it is also heavily implied that the Puppeteer was a part of Motoko's subconscious, which began acting independently during her time diving the Net. is Japan's newly elected prime minister in . Kayabuki first appears in and is elected as Japan's first female prime minister. She reinstates Section 9 after a deal was made with Aramaki in the , 2 years after the raid by Umibozu commandos on Section 9's headquarters. Politically, she was selected by the ruling party as an internal political movement to conservatism in the wake of the Laughing Man scandal that brought down the previous government. However, she was perceived as being politically weak - the Cabinet at this time was increasing in political power and becoming led by personality rather than by electoral responsibility. The undercurrent of secret manipulation by the Cabinet Intelligence Agency through the Individual Eleven / Refugee Crisis sought to make the Prime Minister a rubber stamping figurehead. Kayabuki becomes a victim of the Individual Eleven and is involved with Section 9's investigation into the case. During the refugee crisis, she is arrested under charges of treason for requesting United Nations intervention in the crisis, though this action on the part of the Ruling Party chairman was not sanctioned by either party, or electorate - her escape from custody and the aid of Section 9 prevented this secret coup d'état from becoming a reality, and also then sent a clear signal to the American Empire that Japan prefers a Stand- alone status within the international community. This demonstration of capability, and the calling in of favours owed at the height of the crisis increased her ability to control Japan in the wake thereof. She also demonstrated that she held clout from a military stand-point: The JASDF was her tool of choice for reminding the contending land and sea force commanders where Japan's true military prowess was to be found, from both a domestic and military stand-point. Kayabuki displayed great wisdom by selecting Daisuke Aramaki and Major Kusanagi as personal advisors that prevented potentially cataclysmic events during the beginning of her premiership. She appears briefly in , where she remains Prime Minister, and Daisuke Aramaki's immediate superior. is head of a data manipulation division within the Cabinet Intelligence Service and is one of the primary adversaries of Section 9 during the second anime series 2nd GIG. His face was badly disfigured in an accident during his youth, but he chose not to have it reconstructed, reasoning that his scars would leave a greater impression on people. During the series, Motoko Kusanagi hacks into the Cabinet Intelligence Agency database to try to determine what Gōda's motives are. She learns that Gōda has given up dreams of power and instead works to facilitate the emergence of a hero for the masses in order to produce a conflict situation that will force a change in direction for Japan, a change that Gōda believes will return it to its glory days. To that end, Gōda masterminds the formation of the Individual Eleven terrorist group and the emergence of Hideo Kuze as the leader of alienated refugees. It is later revealed that Gōda's true intentions are to instigate a conflict between the refugees and the Japanese government, which would convince Japan to sign a landmark security treaty with the American Empire. After his plans are foiled by Section 9, he attempts to seek asylum in the American Empire but is assassinated by Motoko under Kayabuki's orders. is an army Intelligence Officer and former colleague of Aramaki. He often provides Aramaki with inside information. He appears to be of the same JGSDF Academy Class as Chief Aramaki, and appears to have equivalent rank (Colonel), though he is also interested in advancing his career politically, often handing unpleasant tasks over to Section 9 in order to prevent blame for 'dirty business' being officially attached to his record of conduct. As the Chief Cabinet Secretary, is the main powerbroker within the Kayabuki government. He is in league with Kazundo Goda and helps to further the CIS's aims. During the Dejima conflict, Takakura attempts to stage a coup d'état to oust Kayabuki from power. With the help of Section 9, Kayabuki is able to thwart Takakura's plans and has him arrested. Kurutan voiced by: Yuko Sumitomo (Japanese); Amanda Winn-Lee (English, Bandai Visual dub) Both Kurutan and Ran first appeared in Ghost in the Shell during a virtual threesome with Kusanagi. Kurutan is a bright-haired nurse featured in Stand Alone Complex, episode 8, where an organ trafficking case involved two of her patients. She calls in Kusanagi and Section 9 after the police investigation flounders. In episode 22, Kurutan acts a "witness" during Kusanagi's body-swapping procedure. Ran is dark-haired; during episode 5, Kusanagi was in Kurutan's apartment, borrowing her virtual reality equipment to review the "Laughing Man" case. World of Ghost in the Shell, Kaoru Ishikawa Michael Carmen Pitt (born April 10, 1981) is an American actor, model, and musician. Pitt is known in film for his roles in Murder by Numbers (2002), Bernardo Bertolucci's The Dreamers (2003), Gus Van Sant's Last Days (2005), Michael Haneke's Funny Games (2007) and M. Night Shyamalan's The Village (2004), and in television for his roles as Henry Parker in the teen drama Dawson's Creek, Jimmy Darmody in the HBO series Boardwalk Empire and Mason Verger in the NBC series Hannibal. He has also appeared in the films Hedwig and the Angry Inch (2001), Bully (2001), Silk (2007), Seven Psychopaths (2012), I Origins (2014), and Ghost in the Shell (2017). In 2001, Pitt earned a breakout role as the lover of a trans rock star named Hedwig in the film adaptation of John Cameron Mitchell's Tony Award-winning production Hedwig and the Angry Inch. Although not his first film role, Pitt's performance as Tommy Gnosis led to a series of supporting roles in many acclaimed and often controversial films, including Larry Clark's Bully, Murder by Numbers, and Funny Games, a remake of Michael Haneke's 1997 film of the same name. One of Pitt's more notable roles was as the lead in Bernardo Bertolucci's The Dreamers. Pitt attributes his success in films to a combination of hard work and the presence of "a few angels in my life." He has also stressed that he chooses roles not with the hope that they will garner commercial success or to gain notoriety but to create art, challenge the audience, and ultimately contribute to a project that he is proud of: To be honest, I make very controversial films. The films that I've made have been very, very bold choices. As the years go by, I think my work is going to come more and more in context. The truth is that you can't take what people say too seriously. If I cared what people think about my career, I would have not done—just look at my work. Don't look at me, look at what I've done. Every movie that I've picked, from my first film on, has been considered by everyone to be "career suicide." And I have an amazing life. I have an amazing career. I work with artists. But I'm not making Spider-Man. Pitt has also appeared in Asia Argento's Heart Is Deceitful Above All Things and M. Night Shyamalan's The Village and starred in Gus Van Sant's Last Days as a rock musician "inspired" by Nirvana frontman, Kurt Cobain. He performed all of the songs, which closely resembled Cobain's guitar and singing styles. On the set of Last Days, he met Thurston Moore of Sonic Youth, who had been hired by Van Sant to serve as the film's music consultant. The pair formed a close bond, with Moore writing, "[Gus] wanted me to hang out with Michael and talk about his character, and let him be in character. We ended up spending a lot of time together. My daughter Coco still relates to Michael as Blake from 'Last Days'". In 2006, he starred in the unconventional romantic comedy Delirious as a young homeless man who befriends a celebrity photographer and falls in love with a pop singer. The movie appeared at the Sundance Film Festival. The following year, he played opposite Keira Knightley in Silk, adapted from the novel by Alessandro Baricco, as Hervé Joncour, a French silkworm smuggler, who falls in love with a baron's concubine while in Japan. In 2014, Pitt juggled two starring roles, as Tommy Uva in the comedic American crime drama Rob the Mob and as a molecular biologist in search of the truth about the origins of the eye in the science fiction romantic drama I Origins. In 2017, Pitt starred in the science fiction action film Ghost in the Shell as the villanous hacker, Kuze, the Laughing Man. Pitt made his Off-Broadway debut in 1999 in the play The Trestle at Pope Lick Creek at the New York Theatre Workshop. During his theater debut, a casting agent whom Pitt had mistaken for a police officer attempting to arrest him noticed him and recommended him for a guest role on the television series Dawson's Creek. He played Henry Parker in 15 episodes (1999-2000). In 2010, Pitt was cast as Jimmy Darmody in the HBO series Boardwalk Empire (about the rise of Atlantic City during the Prohibition era), as the protégé of corrupt politician Nucky Thompson, played by Delirious co-star Steve Buscemi. He appeared in the show's first two seasons and was nominated for a Screen Actors Guild Award and a Critics's Choice Award for his performance. In 2014, he was cast in the recurring role of Mason Verger in the NBC series Hannibal playing the role in the show's second season. He subsequently left and was replaced by Joe Anderson. Pitt sang and played guitar in his band, Pagoda, whose self-titled debut album was released by Universal/Fontana/Ecstatic Peace in 2007. Under the title Jimi Pitt and the Twins of Evil, Pitt performed "Hey Joe" with the Twins of Evil for The Dreamers soundtrack. In January 2015, Pitt made his official directorial debut with a campaign film for fashion label Rag & Bone's Spring 2015 collection. The video features Pitt and prior co-stars actress Astrid Bergès-Frisbey—the new face of Rag & Bone womenswear—and British actor Stephen Graham, from I Origins and Boardwalk Empire, respectively. Says Rag & Bone co-head, Marcus Wainwright, "[Pitt]'s a really talented actor and musician, and he came to us with this concept of doing a film-based campaign. We thought it was awesome and well worth trying." Pitt has also directed a number of music videos for Pagoda. Pitt has modeled for numerous designer campaigns. In 2012, he was named the face of Italian fashion house Prada and modeled their menswear line. He was also featured in two separate Rag & Bone campaigns prior to the release of his self-directed campaign—once for Fall/Winter 2013, with French actress Léa Seydoux, and once for Fall/Winter 2014, with acclaimed actress Winona Ryder. Pitt is of half-Italian heritage. In 2005, Pitt revealed that he had been "engaged for a long time now" to the model Jamie Bochert, and said of her: "She's my other half." Pitt is a native of West Orange, New Jersey. Pitt's parents are Donald B. Pitt and Eleanor C. (nee DeMaio) Pitt ("Carol"). He has two older sisters, Allison and Stacey and one older brother, Brian. Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex is a Japanese anime television series produced by Production I.G and based on Masamune Shirow's manga Ghost in the Shell. It was written and directed by Kenji Kamiyama, with original character design by Hajime Shimomura and a soundtrack by Yoko Kanno. The first season aired from October 2002 to October 2003 and was positively received by critics. A second season, titled Ghost in the Shell: S.A.C. 2nd GIG, aired from January 2004 to January 2005. A new anime installment titled Ghost in the Shell: SAC_2045 was formally announced in December 2018 and will release on Netflix in Q2 2020. The series centers on the members of an elite law enforcement unit known as Public Security Section 9 as they investigate cybercrime and terrorism cases; the cases in the first season often are connected to their pursuit of an elite "Super Class A" hacker and corporate terrorist known only as "The Laughing Man", whose actions end up creating the series' titular "Stand Alone Complex". A series of associated short comic animations, titled Tachikomatic Days, aired after each episode. These shorts star the Tachikoma "think-tanks" from the main series, and they typically relate directly to the story of the preceding Stand Alone Complex episode. The first season was adapted into a feature-length OVA titled The Laughing Man, which was released in 2005. The series had also received video game spin-offs for the PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable, and mobile phones. 2nd GIG was also later adapted into a feature-length OVA entitled Individual Eleven, which was released in 2006. , a TV-film sequel to the Stand Alone Complex series, was also released in that year. The series takes place in the year 2030, where many people have become cyborgs with prosthetic bodies. Primarily set in the fictional Japanese city of , the series follows the members of Public Security Section 9, a special-operations task-force made up of former military officers and police detectives. While the group investigates various crimes, both seasons feature ongoing investigations into two incidents that embroil the group in corruption within other branches of the Japanese government. The first season of Stand Alone Complex focuses on the Laughing Man incident, wherein a hacktivist ultimately reveals to the Major that he had discovered that several micromachine manufacturing corporations, in association with the Japanese government, suppressed information on an inexpensive cure to a debilitating cyberization disease in order to profit from the more expensive micromachine treatment. Following this, he abducted one of the owners of the company and attempted to force him to reveal the truth on live television, resulting in the hacker live-hacking everyone's vision and cameras at the event to cover his face with the stylized laughing face logo that became synonymous with his image. His popularity spawned several genuine imitators, resulting in the series' titular Stand Alone Complex. After an investigation by the authorities causes him to resurface in the present, Section 9 discovers these companies and several Japanese politicians later used the Laughing Man's image to garner public support and profit, and they begin a campaign, spearheaded by Togusa and the Major, to disseminate the truth. This ultimately leads to the Cabinet labeling them as domestic terrorists and forcibly disbanding them, resulting in the capture of several members and the apparent death of Motoko Kusanagi. However, it is all a ruse to deceive the government, and the very alive and well members of Section 9 regroup to bring the micromachine corporations and corrupt politicians to justice, resulting in the dissolution of the current Japanese government. The second season, 2nd GIG, set two years after the events of the first season, explores the political and social ramifications of the two world wars that took place prior to the events of the series. At the time of the Third and the Fourth World Wars, about three million Asians became refugees and were invited into Japan as a source of cheap labor. These "invited refugees", based on the reclaimed island of Dejima, soon became unemployed in the post-war period, and their social unrest borders on outright war. Section 9's involvement in the refugee issue begins after they successfully stop a hostage crisis caused by a domestic terrorist group known as the Individual Eleven, after which newly elected Prime Minister Yoko Kayabuki officially reinstates the organization. The group seems to be modeling themselves after the May 15 Incident, where a group of naval officers assassinated the Prime Minister and then gained the support of the public, and hope to stir up the refugees' spirits by fighting for them against the Japanese government. The group also comes into contact with Kazundo Goda, head of the Cabinet Intelligence Service, who gets assistance from the group in defusing several instances between the refugees as well as assisting him in transporting plutonium through Dejima, result in several failures and refugee deaths, further straining relations. Section 9 ultimately discovers that Goda has been manipulating both events behind the scenes, leaking the social virus that creates the Individual Eleven ideology and creating a new Stand Alone Complex, as well as the intentional failures with the refugees. However, he cannot account for the charismatic Hideo Kuze who genuinely believes in the best for the refugees and helps rally for their independence from Japan. Throughout the investigation, Kusanagi discovers she may know Kuze from her childhood. Ultimately, Goda is found guilty of his part in the refugee incidents and killed before he can defect to the American Empire, but not before his ministrations also result in the death of Kuze. In the film , taking place two years following the resolution of the Individual Eleven incident, the Major has left Section 9, and Togusa is now field commander, leading an investigation into several deaths of refugees from the Siak Republic, which results in the discovery of a government computer system coordinating the kidnappings of 20 thousand abused children who have had their cyberbrains replaced and placing them under the care of several senior citizens made comatose by another government program that takes care of all of their bodily needs. Their investigation, which brings the Major out of hiding, reveals an entity known as the Puppeteer behind the kidnappings, but the Puppeteer is a rhizome formed by the collective will of the senior citizens, and it was only the Siak Republic's intent to use the kidnapped children in their plans that led to their downfall. However, the investigation further reveals that a member of the House of Representatives is also using the children for his nationalistic purposes, and Section 9 with the Major infiltrates a welfare center where the MP brainwashes the children, resulting in the Puppeteer revealing his own identity that the senior citizens wished to give the children free will in their future, with the politician interfering in that new plan. Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex was animated by Production I.G, and produced by Bandai Visual, Bandai Entertainment, Dentsu, Nippon Television Network, Tokuma Shoten, Victor Entertainment, Anchor Bay Entertainment, and Manga Entertainment. The series was directed and written by Kenji Kamiyama, with additional screenwriters including Junichi Fujisaku, Yoshiki Sakurai, Shōtarō Suga, Dai Satō, Nobutoshi Terado, Yutaka Ōmatsu, and Yūichirō Matsuka. Masamune Shirow, author of the original Ghost in the Shell manga, provided plot for several episodes, sketches of characters and mechanical designs (including the Tachikoma), and gave his approval to the scripts before production. The series was produced with an 800 million yen investment. Kenji Kamiyama decided to make the anime television series as a "relative" to the manga and film, serving as a separate parallel world from both. For the second season, Mamoru Oshii had contributed with his ideas to the concept of the entire series and initial planning stages. Shuko Murase stated that they were initially going to concentrate on how Japan was going to participate in war after 9/11 as intended to portray a fictional future. But by the time they were working on the episodes, the Iraq War had already started and Japan's Self-Defense Force was sent to Iraq. During this time Japan also had an election. Murase continued to state that he created the "Individual Eleven" episodes to express irresponsibility of the Japanese people when they voted for the politicians that planned to send Japanese troops to Iraq and Afghanistan. The soundtrack for the series was composed by Yoko Kanno and produced by Victor Entertainment. The first season's opening theme is "Inner Universe" performed by Origa (written by Origa and Shanti Snyder). The lyrics are in Russian, English, and Latin. The first season's ending theme is "Lithium Flower" performed by Scott Matthew (written by Tim Jensen). When the series was later re-broadcast on terrestrial television in Japan, "Inner Universe" was replaced with "GET9", performed by jillmax (written by Tim Jensen), while "Lithium Flower" was replaced with "I Do", written and performed by Ilaria Graziano. The opening theme for S.A.C. 2nd GIG is "Rise" performed by Origa (written by Tim Jensen), while the ending theme is "Living Inside the Shell" performed by Steve Conte (written by Shanti Snyder). 2nd GIG also used alternate opening and closing themes when it was re-broadcast on terrestrial television, with "Rise" was replaced by "CHRisTmas in the SiLenT ForeSt" performed by Ilaria Graziano (written by Shanti Snyder), and "Living Inside the Shell" was replaced by "Snyper", performed by Ilaria Graziano (written by Tim Jensen). The anime television network Animax first licensed and broadcast the series in 2002 across most of Asia, as well as in Latin America. It was subsequently licensed by both Anchor Bay Entertainment and Manga Entertainment in North America, and Madman Entertainment in Australia. It was broadcast in the United States on Cartoon Network's Adult Swim programming block, in Canada by YTV and in the United Kingdom by AnimeCentral. A series of associated short comic animations, titled , aired immediately after each episode of the series. These shorts star the Tachikoma "think-tanks" from the main series, and typically relate directly to the story of the preceding Stand Alone Complex episode. The second season of Stand Alone Complex, titled Ghost in the Shell: S.A.C. 2nd GIG, aired on Animax from 1 January 2004 to 8 January 2005. The production of a second season was immediately decided after the first season's TV airing. The second season was initially hinted when Bandai has extended the episode list to 52 episodes at Otakon of 2003. On Halloween of 2003, Production I.G officially announced a second season for Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex. It premiered on 1 January 2004 in Japan on SKY PerfecTV!'s Perfect Choice (Animax), on a pay-per-view basis. The series was later aired on the terrestrial Nippon TV from 6 April 2005. Animax also later aired the series across its other networks worldwide, including its English language networks in Southeast Asia and South Asia, as well as its other networks in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Latin America, and several other regions. 2nd GIG was also later aired in the United States on Cartoon Network's Adult Swim block. Bandai Visual owns the DVD distribution rights in Japan, while Anchor Bay Entertainment and Manga Entertainment owns the distribution rights in North America and Europe. The show began airing daily on AnimeCentral beginning 4 November 2007 in both English (two nightly screenings) and original Japanese (one late-night screening). On 18 March 2015 it was announced that Stand Alone Complex would receive a full weekly rebroadcasting in Japan on BS11, starting on 1 April 2015 onward. On April 25, 2017, Starz announced that they would be offering episodes of the series for their Video on Demand service starting May 1, 2017. A feature-length OVA titled Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex - The Laughing Man was released in Japan on 23 September 2005, and in North America on 2 October 2007. The OVA retells the first season of the anime television series with minor alterations to the storyline to accommodate an abbreviated take on the Laughing Man affair. Some additional animation and voice work was also added. Although the Japanese-language version retained the voice cast from the anime series, the English version has a new cast of voice actors. The dialogue recording for the English version was produced by Ocean Productions. A Blu-ray version was released on 22 December 2010. Ghost in the Shell: S.A.C. 2nd GIG – Individual Eleven is a feature-length OVA which retells the events of S.A.C. 2nd GIG, altered to focus on both the Individual Eleven investigation and the relationship between Hideo Kuze and Motoko Kusanagi. Newly animated scenes and a remixed soundtrack are also included. A TV-film sequel titled was released in 2006. Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex has received three video game spin offs. The first video game is for the PlayStation 2 and was developed by Cavia. It was released on 4 March 2004 in Japan and 8 November 2004 in North America. The second video game is for the PSP, was developed by G-Artist, and is also titled . It was released in Japan on 15 September 2005 and in North America on 25 October 2005. The third is an online first person shooter for the PC, titled Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex - First Assault Online. Although it is still in beta at the time of this writing it is an open beta and it already has many players. Several mobile phone games have been released exclusively to Japan. The first is titled and was developed by GREE and released on 14 February 2011. The second shares the name of the anime and PlayStation 2 video game, was developed by Mobage and released on 16 November 2011. The game focuses on an unnamed new detective who works for Section 9. The third is a social game also developed by Mobage, titled , and released on 29 March 2012. On 13 December 2012, Nexon stated it had obtained the rights of Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex for the purpose of the creation of a massively multiplayer online game. On 12 February 2013, the first details were released through Online Gamer Japan. The game was formally announced on 17 September 2015, under the title of . The game is a first-person shooter with a heavy basis on hacking and customization of the player's cyberized body. First Assault Online entered early access on Steam on 14 December 2015, and has mostly positive reviews from users. A three-volume novel series based on the anime television series and collecting self-contained stories was written by staff writer Junichi Fujisaku and illustrated by Kazuto Nakazawa. The novels were published by Tokuma Shoten and distributed by Dark Horse Comics in the United States. The first volume, titled Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex - The Lost Memory, was released on 21 January 2004 in Japan and on 24 May 2006 in the US. The second volume, Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex - Revenge of the Cold Machines, was released on 8 July 2004 in Japan and on 26 September 2006 in the US. The third volume, Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex - White Maze was released on 4 February 2005 in Japan and on 2 January 2007 in the US. Two short prose stories were released in the Ghost in the Shell: Five New Short Stories prose anthology released in 2017. The first was called Shadow.Net written by Toh Enjoe which references the Puppeteer's actions from the Solid State Society film but could also conceivably be referring to the events in the manga. The second story(which appears as the third story in the collection) was called Soft and White by Kafka Asagiri which revolves around the Laughing Man's actions in the time period between Standalone Complex and 2nd GIG. Two manga series based on Stand Alone Complex have been published by Kodansha. The first series, , is based on the associated Tachikomatic Days shorts. The manga was drawn by Mayasuki Yamamoto and was launched on December 9, 2009 in Monthly Young Magazine. Three tankōbon volumes were released on November 5, 2010, March 4, 2011 and August 5, 2011 respectively. The second manga series, sharing its name with the television series, is illustrated by Yu Kinutani and launched on December 14, 2009 in Weekly Young Magazine, and later transferred to Monthly Young Magazine on April 14, 2010. The manga is an adaptation of the first season of the anime series. Three tankōbon volumes were released. The first volume subtitled "Episode 1: Section9" was released on April 6, 2010 in Japan and on May 24, 2011 in North America. The second volume subtitiled "Episode 2: Testation" was released on November 5, 2010 in Japan and on November 29, 2011 in North America. The third volume subtitled "Episode 3: Idolater" was released on August 5, 2011 in Japan. The fourth volume subtitled "Episode 4: ¥€$" was released on March 6, 2012 in Japan. An official guidebook/DVD to the first 19 episodes of the TV series titled Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex Official Log 1 was released by Bandai and Manga Entertainment on 25 October 2005. The guidebook and DVD contains several interviews from several staff members, reports on several animation techniques and other reports on several concepts of the series. A second guidebook/DVD titled Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex Official Log 2 was released on 24 January 2006 featuring background, commentary and examination of the remaining 7 episodes. Another guidebook titled was published by Tokuma Shoten and released on 31 March 2007. Another guidebook titled Tachikoma's All Memory. Numerous figurines have been released for Stand Alone Complex versions of the characters with Motoko and Tachikoma being a central focus. Various figures have been produced from CM Corporation, and Kaitendo. Tachikoma figures have been produced by various companies, including one by the Good Smile Company in cooperation with Nendoron. A 1/24th scale plastic model kit of the Tachikoma was produced by Wave in December 2005. Other merchandise includes clothing, key chains, notebooks, patches, bags, posters and body pillows. Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex received mostly positive reviews from critics, who praised the series' high quality of animation and the musical score by Yoko Kanno. In particular, reviewers reacted positively to the world of high-technology that Stand Alone Complex presents, described as "believably futuristic". Lawrence Person from Locus Online wrote that "the world of [Stand Alone Complex] is recognizably our own, or rather, one recognizably extrapolated from modern Japan. While parts of the technology seem unlikely in the time-frame allotted, none seems impossible." In addition, several reviews mentioned what they perceived to be overarching themes explored in the series as a result of the setting; specifically, the meaning of humanity in a world where the lines between man and machine were becoming increasingly blurred, as well as various societal issues that might emerge as a result of advances in technology. Reviewers agreed that the main "Laughing Man" storyline was satisfying, characterizing it variously as "interesting", "complex", and "engaging". Reaction to the series' "Stand Alone" episodes, however, was mixed: some reviewers considered these episodes to be boring and, in some cases, the worst episodes of the series, while others contended that they allowed further development of the characters and the futuristic setting. Certain commentators specifically focused on the series' success or failure in achieving the high standards set by the critically acclaimed 1995 film Ghost in the Shell. Opinion in this regard was divided: although these reviewers took an overall favorable view, some reviews criticized the quality of animation, while others felt that the series' story lacked the depth of the original film. This "lack of depth", however, was attributed to the fact that Stand Alone Complex is an action-oriented series with a limited episode length in which to explore deeper themes. Bolstering the generally positive reviews of the series, Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex won an Excellence Prize (Animation Division) at the 2002 Japan Media Arts Festival, a Notable Entry Award at the 2003 Tokyo International Anime Fair, and was featured in June 2004 by Newtype USA, with a "double scoop" cover story. The Japan Media Arts Festival provided a brief summary of Stand Alone Complex, calling it a "completely original television series...entertaining and easy to understand". Chris Beveridge of Mania gave 2nd GIG an overall score of A praising its coloring stating, "Colors are gorgeous and solid, especially all the various areas of large soft colors that look to be amazingly solid and with no visible break-up even during pausing." Mark Thomas of Mania also gave it an overall score of A, stating: "It has plenty of good action and thought provoking plot points." Andy Patricio of IGN rated the first DVD volume 9/10 praised the animation, stating: "Artwork is richer; this is easily the best-looking anime Production I.G. has ever produced. CG is richer and more widely-used. Animation is more complex and fluid, although it's still a little jerky, which is common in TV shows." Joe Luscik of Animefringe ranked the series 4.5 out of 5 praising the animation stating it "is just awesome". Adam Arseneau of DVD Verdict praised the direction of the 2nd season compared to the first stating, "The tongue-in-cheek humor that made the show clever and endearing is still present, but the atmosphere feels more violent, more urban and dystopic, as if no longer afraid to address the social problems of the future." Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex official website, Production I.G's Stand Alone Complex website, Official Adult Swim website

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The Office of Refugee Resettlement (ORR) is a program of the Administration for Children and Families, an office within the United States Department of Health and Human Services, created with the passing of the United States Refugee Act of 1980 (Public Law 96-212). The ORR offers support for refugees seeking safe haven within the United States, including victims of human trafficking, those seeking asylum from persecution, survivors of torture and war, and unaccompanied alien children. The mission and purpose of the ORR is to assist in the relocation process and provide needed services to individuals granted asylum within the United States. Since 1975, the United States has assisted in the resettlement of more than 3 million refugees. Annual admissions of refugees to the United States since the 1980 Refugee Act was enacted have ranged from 27,100 to as many as 207,116. In Fiscal Year 2019, Refugee and Resettlement Assistance comprised a discretionary budget of $1.905 billion. The largest share of that, $1.303 billion, was designated for the Unaccompanied Alien Children program housing child migrants. Other major programs include Transitional and Medical Services, $354 million; Refugee Support Services, $207 million; and the Trafficking Victims Support Program, $27 million. The office is currently headed by Jonathan Hildreth Hayes, who has served as interim director since November 2018. Before World War II, nonprofit voluntary agencies called "Volags" were generally responsible for aiding immigrants and refugees. In 1946, the U.S. federal government began supporting these organizations financially with the Corporate Affidavit Program. However, beginning with an influx of refugees fleeing Castro’s Cuba, the federal government began to take the primary financial role in assisting refugees. This response set a precedent of federal involvement, with Eisenhower and Kennedy expanding efforts to assist nonprofits in settling refugees—efforts which became permanent with the Migration and Refugee Assistance Act of 1962. The Office of Refugee Resettlement was officially established with the passage of the Refugee Act of 1980. It was created in "an attempt to design a coherent and comprehensive refugee admission and resettlement policy". The act (a) gave recognition to the Office of the U.S. Coordinator for Refugee Affairs, which was given authority over the development of U.S. “refugee admission and resettlement policy”, and (b) established the Office of Refugee Resettlement (ORR) within the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, which was given the authority to provide grants with nonprofits for resettlement services (including training and healthcare), and reimbursed states for efforts undertaken within the first three years of a refugee’s living in the United States. In its goal of allowing the United States to respond quickly and efficiently to the needs of refugees, the Refugee Act of 1980 also established a new appointed office, the U.S. Coordinator for Refugee Affairs, who is appointed by the President and consults with the ORR. In 2000, additional categories of potential recipients of ORR services were added including persons granted asylum, survivors of torture, unaccompanied alien children and certified adult victims of human trafficking. The Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2008 added trafficked children to the list of individuals qualified for services. The Unaccompanied Alien Children program was transferred to ORR by the Homeland Security Act of 2002, effective on March 1, 2003. The Office' work is subject to the provisions of the Flores Agreement in 1997, the Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000 and its reauthorization acts, the William Wilberforce Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act (TVPRA) of 2005 and 2008. In 2010, the ORR reported to U.S. Congress six guiding principles which represented a modification of its priorities: Appropriation placement and services, Client-centered case management, Newly-arriving refugees, Health and mental health services, Outreach, Data-informed decision-making Additionally, the ORR reshaped its vision: “to assist refugees with accessing mainstream opportunities and resources”. The current acting director of ORR is Jonathan Hayes. The former ORR director was anti-abortion activist E. Scott Lloyd. The Office of the Director also includes the ORR Deputy Director who oversees ORR's refugee program and the ORR Deputy Director, Children's Services who oversees ORR's unaccompanied alien children program. The ORR has eight major divisions at the federal level, each with a director and support staff: 1. Division of Policy & Procedures 2. Division of Budget & Data Analysis 3. Division of Refugee Assistance 4. Division of Refugee Health 5. Division of Refugee Services 6. Division of Unaccompanied Children Operations 7. Division of Planning and Logistics 8. Division of Health for Unaccompanied Children Service delivery to refugees varies based on the division providing services and the program being performed. For example, the Division of Resettlement Services works through private nonprofit and public organizations to provide economic support and social integration services to refugees. This particular division “administers the Voluntary Agency Match Grant Program and seven competitive refugee social services discretionary grant programs. Discretionary grants are awarded on a competitive basis". The ORR receives an appropriation from Congress each year with some specifications on allotments for each division, and divides the allotment among its programs. These programs then appropriate the money to their partnering agencies in the form of grants, following specified formula guidelines. States ultimately hold the responsibility for carrying out the ORR’s mission: “Federal resettlement assistance to refugees is provided primarily through the state-administered refugee resettlement program. States provide transitional cash and medical assistance and social services, as well as maintain legal responsibility for the care of unaccompanied refugee children." The ORR uses a matching grant program to provide funding for its affiliate voluntary agencies. These voluntary agencies are then expected to operate the program through their national networks. The ORR “awards $2 for every $1 raised by the agency up to a maximum of $2,500 in Federal funds per enrollee. Note that while federal and match funds are calculated on a per capita or client basis, the actual spending of such funds is not per capita based." The ORR partners with several federal agencies, including the Department of Health and Human Services, the Department of Homeland Security, the Department of Justice, and the Department of State. Within the Department of Health and Human Services the ORR partners with the Office for Civil Rights, the Center for Disease Control, the Office of Head Start, the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, and the U.S. Administration on Aging. Within the Department of Homeland Security it partners with Customs and Border Control, Immigration and Custom Enforcement, and U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services. Within the Department of Justice, it partners with the Executive Office of Immigration Review. Lastly, within the Department of State it partners with the Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration. Office of Refugee Resettlement official web page, Office of Refugee Resettlement in the Federal Register The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) is a United Nations agency with the mandate to protect refugees, forcibly displaced communities and stateless people, and assist in their voluntary repatriation, local integration or resettlement to a third country. UNHCR‘s mandate does not apply to Palestinian refugees, who are assisted by UNWRA. UNHCR was created in 1950, during the aftermaths of World War II. Its headquarters are in Geneva, Switzerland and it is a member of the United Nations Development Group. The UNHCR has won two Nobel Peace Prizes, once in 1954 and again in 1981 and a Prince of Asturias Awards for International Cooperation in 1991. Following the demise of the League of Nations and the formation of the United Nations the international community was acutely aware of the refugee crisis following the end of World War II. In 1947, the International Refugee Organization (IRO) was founded by the United Nations. The IRO was the first international agency to deal comprehensively with all aspects of refugees' lives. Preceding this was the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration, which was established in 1944 to address the millions of people displaced across Europe as a result of World War II. In the late 1940s, the IRO fell out of favor, but the UN agreed that a body was required to oversee global refugee issues. Despite many heated debates in the General Assembly, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees was founded as a subsidiary organ of the General Assembly by Resolution 319 (IV) of the United Nations General Assembly of December 1949. However, the organization was only intended to operate for 3 years, from January 1951, due to the disagreement of many UN member states over the implications of a permanent body. UNHCR's mandate was originally set out in its statute, annexed to resolution 428 (V) of the United Nations General Assembly of 1950. This mandate has been subsequently broadened by numerous resolutions of the General Assembly and its Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). According to UNHCR, [its] mandate is to provide, on a non-political and humanitarian basis, international protection to refugees and to seek permanent solutions for them. Soon after the signing of the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, it became clear that refugees were not solely restricted to Europe. In 1956, UNHCR was involved in coordinating the response to the uprising in Hungary. Just a year later, UNHCR was tasked with dealing with Chinese refugees in Hong Kong, while also responding Algerian refugees who had fled to Morocco and Tunisia in the wake of Algeria's war for independence. The responses marked the beginning of a wider, global mandate in refugee protection and humanitarian assistance. Decolonization in the 1960s triggered large refugee movements in Africa, creating a massive challenge that would transform UNHCR; unlike the refugee crises in Europe, there were no durable solutions in Africa and many refugees who fled one country only found instability in their new country of refuge. By the end of the decade, two-thirds of UNHCR's budget was focused on operations in Africa and in just one decade, the organization's focus had shifted from an almost exclusive focus on Europe. In 1967, the Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees was ratified to remove the geographical and temporal restrictions of UNHCR under the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees. As the Convention was confined to the refugee crisis in the aftermath of World War II in Europe, the Protocol was made to address the “new refugee situations that have arisen since the Convention was adopted and the refugees concerned that may therefore not fall within the scope of the Convention”. In the 1970s, UNHCR refugee operations continued to spread around the globe, with the mass exodus of East Pakistanis to India shortly before the birth of Bangladesh. Adding to the woes in Asia was the Vietnam war, with millions fleeing the war- torn country. The 1980s saw new challenges for UNHCR, with many member states unwilling to resettle refugees due to the sharp rise in refugee numbers over the 1970s. Often, these refugees were not fleeing wars between states, but inter-ethnic conflict in newly independent states. The targeting of civilians as military strategy added to the displacement in many nations, so even 'minor' conflicts could result in a large number of displaced persons. Whether in Asia, Central America or Africa, these conflicts, fueled by superpower rivalry and aggravated by socio-economic problems within the concerned countries, durable solutions continued to prove a massive challenge for the UNHCR. As a result, the UNHCR became more heavily involved with assistance programs within refugee camps, often located in hostile environments. The end of the Cold War marked continued inter-ethnic conflict and contributed heavily to refugee flight. In addition, humanitarian intervention by multinational forces became more frequent and the media began to play a big role, particularly in the lead up to the 1999 NATO mission in Yugoslavia, while by contrast, the 1994 Rwandan Genocide had little attention. The genocide in Rwanda caused a massive refugee crisis, again highlighting the difficulties for UNHCR to uphold its mandate, and the UNHCR continued to battle against restrictive refugee policies in so called 'rich' nations. UNHCR was established on 14 December 1950 and succeeded the earlier United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration. The agency is mandated to lead and co-ordinate international action to protect refugees (other than Palestinian refugees, who are assisted by UNWRA) and resolve refugee problems worldwide. Its primary purpose is to safeguard the rights and well-being of refugees. It strives to ensure that everyone can exercise the right to seek asylum and find safe refuge in another state, with the option to return home voluntarily, integrate locally or to resettle in a third country. UNHCR's mandate has gradually been expanded to include protecting and providing humanitarian assistance to whom it describes as other persons "of concern," including internally displaced persons (IDPs) who would fit the legal definition of a refugee under the 1951 United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and 1967 Protocol, the 1969 Organization for African Unity Convention, or some other treaty if they left their country, but who presently remain in their country of origin. UNHCR presently has major missions in Lebanon, South Sudan, Chad/Darfur, Democratic Republic of Congo, Iraq, Afghanistan as well as Kenya to assist and provide services to IDPs and refugees in camps and in urban settings. UNHCR maintains a database of refugee information, ProGres, which was created during the Kosovo War in the 1990s. The database today contains data on over 11 million refugees, or about 11% of all displaced persons globally. The database contains biometric data, including fingerprints and iris scans and is used to determine aid distribution for recipients. The results of using biometric verification has been successful. When introduced in Kenyan refugee camps of Kakuma and Dadaab in the year 2013, the UN World Food Programme was able to eliminate $1.4m in waste and fraud. To achieve its mandate, the UNHCR engaged in activities both in the countries of interest and in countries with donors. For example, the UNHCR hosts expert roundtables to discuss issues of concern to the international refugee community. The United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) has a wider definition of "refugee" than does UNHCR. UNRWA’s definition includes the patrilineal descendants of the original Palestinian refugees, but is limited to refugees resulting from the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. Refugees who meet the UNRWA definition are ineligible for assistance from UNHCR. Several new programs have recently been introduced to support and to heighten awareness of the issues faced by refugees around the world. These two new programs are a product of the benchmarks set out by the United Nations Millennium Development Goals. The UNHCR works in different regions of the world to raise awareness about the refugee crisis and the needs of these refugees. Since 2009, the UNHCR acknowledged a large presence of migration and refugees in the Caribbean, where the refugee crisis remained largely unreported. Many refugees who, instead of applying to the U.N., improperly search for asylum in the United States are unable to reach their destination and end up in the Caribbean. However, migrant laws in most of these nations lacked any protections for asylum-seekers, even the ability to be recognized as a refugee or asylum seeker itself. The UNHCR organized talks with these nations in Costa Rica in 2009, in an effort to bring forward the lack of protections for refugees, who are often labeled as "illegal" and prosecuted as unauthorized migrants. NOTE: A refugee-seeker applies through the U.N. for placement and an asylum-seeker applies within the Country in which asylum is sought. This is why some Countries label refugees as illegal when they did not apply through the U.N. for placement and entered the Country unlawfully. In 2007, UNHCR offices in Canada launched an aggressive media campaign to shed light on the plight of refugees. This campaign was meant to humanize the refugee crisis by showing refugees living in the midst of disturbing conditions. Using emotional appeals to raise public awareness, the campaign hoped to increase the interest of particularly "30 to 45-year-old professionals who are generally well educated, well read, but have not had direct experience or knowledge of refugee issues,” according to fund-raising officer Jonathan Wade. In Ireland, the UNHCR works to inform the public through different channels. The UNHCR in Ireland actively pursues media relations and "[they] supply the media with accurate and reliable information coupled with our unique insight based on our refugee protection mandate and role as one of the world’s leading humanitarian agencies". It also engages its community by holding public events in aims of informing people of current refugee crises. One of these is the annual UNHCR/SARI Fair play Football Cup.. The UNHCR was prominent in helping the Syrian refugees in Lebanon. When the Lebanese government was unable to withstand the influx of refugees, the UNHCR stepped in and eased the displacement for the refugees mainly by offering food and healthcare. They also helped register the refugees, so they would not be considered illegal in the eyes of the Lebanese government (Janmyr). Many contemporary artists had art workshops and art project and took many initiatives for refugees including artist Ai Weiwei and Anish Kapoor led London walk of compassion for refugees walking from the Royal Academy of Arts to the Orbit. Among art exhibitions and artworks on refugees, celebrity artist Ai Weiwei created an inflatable artwork is 230 feet long which he exhibited at Prague’s National Gallery and Sydney Biennale in 2018,The human rights activist has brought a 196-foot-long inflatable installation to Sydney’s Cockatoo Island as one of the cornerstones of the Biennale of Sydney exhibition. Ai states: ‘There’s no refugee crisis, only a human crisis… In dealing with refugees we’ve lost our very basic values. In this time of uncertainty, we need more tolerance, compassion and trust for each other, since we are all one, otherwise humanity will face an even bigger crisis.’ Danish artist OLAFUR ELIASSON’S GREEN LIGHT welcomes conversation about refugee crisis. In Paris walls along the Seine a photo exhibition along the banks included a 370-meter long panorama featuring portraits of refugees and photographs titled “Dreams of Humanity” taken by Syrian refugee children living in Iraq which was organized in collaboration with famous photojournalist Reza in partnership with UNHCR. Bangladeshi artist Firoz Mahmud has been conducting an art project on refugees, displaced people and minorities, titling 'Soaked Dream project' of dream and future desire of those deprived and underprivileged people which he exhibited at Bangkok Art Biennale curated by Apinan Poshyananda, Lahore Biennale, Dhaka Art Summit, MAXXI Rome, Office for Contemporary Art, Oslo and many cities in the world. The Harmony Art Collective had an exhibition of young refugees made murals together in Darling Quarter, Sydney. As UNHCR is a programme governed by the UN General Assembly, and the UN Economic and Social Council, it cooperates with many other programs and agencies under the United Nations in order to effectively protect the rights of refugees. On 19 September 2016, UN General Assembly hosted the UN Summit for Refugees and Migrants, a high-level summit to address large movements of refugees and migrants, with the aim of bringing countries together behind a more humane and coordinated approach. Leaders of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, UN Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women, UN Office on Drugs and Crime, and The World Bank were present. The summit addressed the root causes and drive for migration and the necessity of global cooperation. As a result of this summit, the United Nations unveiled a draft set of principles that urge the international community to build on the momentum set by the adoption of the New York Declaration for Refugees and Migrants (2016). Specifically, the 20 draft principles focus on human rights; non-discrimination; rescue and assistance; access to justice; border governance; returns; violence; detention; family unity; child migrants; women migrants; right to health; adequate standard of living; decent work; right to education; right to information; monitoring and accountability; migrants’ human rights defenders; data; and international cooperation. On 28 September 2016, the UNHCR partnered with the UN Food and Agricultural Organization in Tehran for the Solutions Strategy for Afghan Refugees. FAO highlighted the contributions to be made by FAO towards SSAR objectives on livelihood related activities including livestock and fishery initiatives as well as nutritional projects in Iranian schools. FAO and UNHCR are committed to increasing refugees’ access to livelihood opportunities and reducing dependency on humanitarian aid. Of late, a joint livelihood strategy for South Sudan was launched looking to address this issue with a clearly defined action plan. The strategy targets both refugees (70 percent) and local communities (30 percent) in refugee-hosting areas across the country. Since 1954, the UNHCR Nansen Refugee Award has been annually awarded to a person or an organization in recognition of outstanding service to the cause of refugees, displaced or stateless people. The UNHCR itself was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1954 and 1981. The UNHCR was awarded the Indira Gandhi Prize in 2015. In 1991 was awarded with the prestigious Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation. The UNHCR's Mid-Year Trends report of June 2015 (based on information for mid-2015 or latest available information up to that date) reported an "unprecedented" 57,959,702 individuals falling under its mandate (for reference, on January the 1st, 2007, 21,018,589 people - or less than half of the number in 2015 - fell under the mandate of the UNHCR). The sharp increase was mainly attributed to the Syrian Civil War, "with the outbreak of armed crises or the deterioration of ongoing ones in countries like Afghanistan, Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Mali, Somalia, South Sudan and the Ukraine contributing to prevailing trends." Persons of concern include refugees and asylum-seekers, people in refugee-like conditions, internally- displaced people (IDPs), stateless persons and "others of concern to the UNHCR". Sorted by the UNHCR bureau in which refuge or asylum is sought, the number for June 2015 included: 16,796,426 in the Middle East and North Africa, of which, 2,941,121 are refugees, 64,166 are in refugee-like situations, 109,847 have pending asylum cases, 374,309 are stateless ("persons not considered as nationals by any State"), 13,297,101 are IDPs or people in IDP-like situations assisted by the UNHCR, 9,694,535 in the Asia and Pacific bureau, of which, 3,506,644 are refugees, 278,350 are in refugee-like situations, 133,894 have pending asylum cases, 1,801,802 are stateless ("persons not considered as nationals by any State"), 2,965,211 are IDPs or people in IDP-like situations assisted by the UNHCR, 8,451,275 in East and Horn of Africa, of which, 2,713,748 are refugees, 33,553 are in refugee-like situations, 108,016 have pending asylum cases, 233,726 are stateless ("persons not considered as nationals by any State", 5,119,463 are IDPs or people in IDP-like situations assisted by the UNHCR, 7,726,594 in the Americas, of which, 501,049 are refugees, 251,888 are in refugee-like situations, 276,394 have pending asylum cases, 136,413 are stateless ("persons not considered as nationals by any State"), 6,520,270 are IDPs or people in IDP-like situations assisted by the UNHCR, 7,585,581 in Europe, of which, 3,506,644 are refugees, 14,261 are in refugee-like situations, 827,374 are asylum-seekers, 610,532 are stateless ("persons not considered as nationals by any State", 2,574,886 are IDPs or people in IDP-like situations assisted by the UNHCR, 3,580,181 in Central Africa-Great Lakes, of which, 865,112 are refugees, 13,741 are in refugee-like situations, 18,623 have pending asylum cases, 1,302 are stateless ("persons not considered as nationals by any State", 2,021,269 are IDPs or people in IDP-like situations assisted by the UNHCR, 2,754,893 in Western Africa of which, 258,893 are refugees, (Information not applicable/unavailable) on number in refugee-like situations, 9,298 have pending asylum cases, 700,116 are stateless ("persons not considered as nationals by any State"), 1,549,516 are IDPs or people in IDP-like situations assisted by the UNHCR, 1,370,217 in Southern Africa, of which, 179,837 are refugees, (Information not applicable/unavailable) on number in refugee-like situations, 860,500 have pending asylum cases, 300,000 are stateless ("persons not considered as nationals by any State"), (Information not applicable/unavailable) on number of IDPs or people in IDP-like situations assisted by the UNHCR , the UNHCR employed a staff of 16,765 people in 138 countries. The UN General Assembly elects High Commissioners every five years. High Commissioners are supported by the 'Executive Committee to the High Commissioner's Programme' and he or she has to make annual reports to the UN General Assembly and needs to follow their directives. The current High Commissioner is Filippo Grandi, who has held the post since 1 January 2016. Prior to the establishment of the UNHCR, Fridtjof Nansen was the League's High Commissioner for Refugees. The post of High Commissioner has been held by: Angelina Jolie After 10 years serving as a Goodwill Ambassador, Angelina Jolie was promoted in 2012 to Special Envoy to the High Commissioner. In this role she represents the UNHCR and High Commissioner Filipo Grandi at the diplomatic level and works to facilitate long-term solutions for people displaced by large-scale crises, such as Afghanistan and Somalia. "This is an exceptional position reflecting an exceptional role she has played for us," said a UNHCR spokesman. UNHCR is also represented by a number of UNHCR Goodwill Ambassadors, who at present are: Barbara Hendricks (Honorary Lifetime Goodwill Ambassador), Cate Blanchett, David Morrissey, Neil Gaiman, Yao Chen, Julien Clerc, George Dalaras, Alessandro Gassman, Muazzez Ersoy, Khaled Hosseini, Kristin Davis, Adel Emam, Ger Duany, Rokia Traore, Osvaldo Laport, Jesús Vázquez, Alek Wek, Jung Woo-sung, Praya Lundberg, John Abraham, Yusra Mardini, Sheikha Rima al-Sabah, Iskui Abalyan, Atom Araullo Previous ambassadors include: Richard Burton, Nazia Hassan, James Mason, Sophia Loren Against All Odds (video game), Albert Einstein German Academic Refugee Initiative Fund, a scholarship program for refugees administered by UNHCR, Australia, Dadaab, Nansen International Office for Refugees, UNHCR Representation in India, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Representation in Cyprus, United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East Janmyr, Maja. 2016. “Precarity in Exile: The Legal Status of Syrian Refugees in Lebanon”. Refugee Survey Quarterly, no. 35 (November): 58-78. Gil Loescher, Alexander Betts and James Milner. UNHCR: The Politics and Practice of Refugee Protection into the Twenty-First Century, Routledge. 2008., Alexander Betts. Protection by Persuasion: International Cooperation in the Refugee Regime, Cornell University Press. 2009., Gil Loescher. The UNHCR and World Politics: A Perilous Path. Oxford University Press. 2002, Fiona Terry. Condemned to Repeat? The Paradox of Humanitarian Action. Cornell University Press. 2002., Nicholas Steiner. Problems of Protection. Routledge. 2003. UNHCR's "Refworld" refugee document and news web site: from UNHCR's Status Determination and Protection Information Section (SDPIS) in the Division of International Protection Services (DIPS)., Bottled Water Program in Support of the UNHCR, News from UNHCR official website, "Basic facts" from official website, Measuring Protection by Numbers, Report from official website, United Nations Rule of Law: The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, on the rule of law work conducted by the High Commissioner for Refugees., History of the United Nations – UK Government site, "Who is a Refugee and who is not – the Crisis of Identity as a Challenge to Protection" Online video of an address by Ms. Erika Feller, director, Department of International Protection, UNHCR, in 2005, USCRI's Campaign to End Refugee Warehousing, USCRI's joint Statement Calling for Solutions to End the Warehousing of Refugees, "Prisons of the Stateless: The Derelictions of UNHCR" by Jacob Stevens, Nine Million, EarthWater The United States Refugee Act of 1980 (Public Law 96-212) is an amendment to the earlier Immigration and Nationality Act and the Migration and Refugee Assistance Act, and was created to provide a permanent and systematic procedure for the admission to the United States of refugees of special humanitarian concern to the U.S., and to provide comprehensive and uniform provisions for the effective resettlement and absorption of those refugees who are admitted. The act was completed on March 3, 1980, was signed by President Jimmy Carter on March 17, 1980 and became effective on April 1, 1980. This was the first comprehensive amendment of U.S. general immigration laws designed to face up to the realities of modern refugee situations by stating a clear-cut national policy and providing a flexible mechanism to meet the rapidly shifting developments of today's world policy. The main objectives of the act were to create a new definition of refugee based on the one created at the UN Convention and Protocol on the Status of Refugees, raise the limitation from 17,400 to 50,000 refugees admitted each fiscal year, provide emergency procedures for when that number exceeds 50,000, and to establish the Office of U.S. Coordinator for Refugee Affairs and the Office of Refugee Resettlement. Most important, it established explicit procedures on how to deal with refugees in the U.S. by creating a uniform and effective resettlement and absorption policy. The Act recognizes that it has been the historic policy of the United States to respond to the urgent needs of persons subject to persecution in their homelands and to provide assistance, asylum, and resettlement opportunities to admitted refugees. The goal of the Refugee Act was to create a uniform procedure with which to provide these opportunities to refugees. The Act amended the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 by defining a refugee as any person who is outside his or her country of residence or nationality, or without nationality, and is unable or unwilling to return to, and is unable or unwilling to avail himself or herself of the protection of, that country because of persecution or a well-founded fear of persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. The annual admission of refugees is set to a 50,000 cap per fiscal year, but in an emergency situation, the President may change the number for a period of twelve months. The Attorney General is also granted power to admit additional refugees and grant asylum to current aliens, but all admissions must be reported to Congress and be limited to 5,000 people. The Act created the position of U.S. Coordinator for Refugee Affairs who was now responsible to the president for the development of overall US refugee admission and resettlement policy. Title IV of the Immigration and Nationality Act was amended here when the Act created the Office of Refugee Resettlement, which is responsible for funding and administering federal programs for domestic resettlement and assistance to refugees. The office must make available resources for employment training and placement for refugees to be economically self-sufficient, provide opportunities for English language training, ensure cash assistance, and guarantee gender equality in all training and instruction. The Office must also create grants for these projects, consult with state and local governments about sponsorship and distribution of refugees, and develop a system to monitor the use of government funds using evaluations, auditing and data collection. To receive assistance for programs, the States must first explain how they plan to accomplish the goals of these programs, meet the director's standards, and submit a report at the end of each fiscal year. The Secretary of State was authorized to take on the role from 1980 to 1981, and the new director worked with them to develop and implement programs for existing refugees and eventually took up the position from 1982 onward. The director must submit a congressional report at the end of each fiscal year to committees on the Judiciary of the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate. The reports should contain information on the geographic location, employment status, and problems of the refugees and also contain suggestions for alternative resettlement strategies. The Office was authorized $200,000,000 during 1980 and 1981, and that number is now decided at the beginning of each fiscal year based on the results received at the end of each year. It was only after World War II that the United States began to differentiate the term "refugee" from "immigrant" and began creating policy that dealt specifically with refugees while working outside of immigration policy. Early action came in the form of the Displaced Persons Act of 1948, the Refugee Relief Act of 1953, and the Refugee-Escapee Act of 1957. The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952, which was later amended in 1965 to include policy for refugees on a case by case basis, was the first Act that consolidated U.S. immigration policy into one body of text. The creation of the Refugee Act began with hearings by the United States Senate Judiciary Subcommittee on Immigration, Refugees and Border Security from 1965 to 1968, which recommended for Congress create a uniform system for refugees, but received little support. Edward Kennedy began writing to propose a bill to reform refugee policy in 1978 and first introduced the idea to the United States Senate in 1979. With his proposal, he hoped to address the need for a reformed policy that was not specifically designed for people from communist regimes in Eastern Europe or repressive governments in the Middle East, as it was in the past. At the time, there was an average of 200,000 refugees coming to the United States, most of which were Indochinese and Soviet Jews. The cost of resettlement was close to $4000, but most refugees eventually paid that amount in federal income taxes. Many Americans feared a floodgate scenario with a large and sudden increase of the refugee population, but the 50,000 cap would account for only 10% of immigration flow to the U.S. and would allow one refugee for every 4000 Americans, small numbers compared to those of countries like Canada, France, and Australia. The bill was adopted by the Senate by a unanimous vote on September 6, 1979, and it remained essentially intact until it was signed in 1980. Deborah E. Anker, M. H. (1981). The Forty Year Crisis: A Legislative History of the *Refugee Act of 1980. The San Diego Law Review, 9-89., Kennedy, E. M. (1981). Refugee Act of 1980. Refugees Today, 141-156., Refugee Act of 1980. Pub. L. 96-212. 94 Stat. 102. 17 March 1980. Print., Roberts, M. A. (1982). The U.S. and Refugees: The Refugee Act of 1980. A Journal of Opinion: African Refugees and Human Rights, 4-6. US Dept. of Health and Human Services page about the Refugee Act

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Sports in the United States are an important part of American culture. American football is the most popular sport to watch in the United States, followed by baseball, basketball, and ice hockey. Soccer, tennis, golf, wrestling, auto racing, arena football, field lacrosse, box lacrosse and volleyball are also popular sports in the country. Based on Olympic Games, World Championships, and other major competitions in respective sports, the United States is the most successful sports nation in the world. Based on revenue, the four major professional sports leagues in the United States are Major League Baseball (MLB), the National Basketball Association (NBA), the National Football League (NFL), and the National Hockey League (NHL). The market for professional sports in the United States is roughly $69 billion, roughly 50% larger than that of all of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa combined. All four enjoy wide-ranging domestic media coverage and are considered the preeminent leagues in their respective sports in the world, although American football does not have a substantial following in other nations. Three of those leagues have teams that represent Canadian cities, and all four are the most financially lucrative sports leagues of their sport. Major League Soccer (MLS), which also includes teams based in Canada, is sometimes included in a "top five" of leagues. With an average attendance of over 20,000 per game, MLS has the third highest average attendance of any sports league in the U.S. after the National Football League (NFL) and Major League Baseball (MLB), and is the seventh highest attended professional soccer league worldwide. Professional teams in all major sports in the United States operate as franchises within a league, meaning that a team may move to a different city if the team's owners believe there would be a financial benefit, but franchise moves are usually subject to some form of league-level approval. All major sports leagues use a similar type of regular-season schedule with a post-season playoff tournament. In addition to the major league–level organizations, several sports also have professional minor leagues, active in smaller cities across the country. As in Canada and Australia, sports leagues in the United States do not practice promotion and relegation, unlike many sports leagues in Europe. Sports are particularly associated with education in the United States, with most high schools and universities having organized sports, and this is a unique sporting footprint for the U.S. College sports competitions play an important role in the American sporting culture, and college basketball and college football are as popular as professional sports in some parts of the country. The major sanctioning body for college sports is the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). Unlike most other nations, the United States government does not provide funding for sports nor for the United States Olympic Committee. Most sports in the United States evolved out of European practices. However, basketball, volleyball, skateboarding, and snowboarding are American inventions, some of which have become popular in other countries and worldwide. Lacrosse and surfing arose from Native American and Native Hawaiian activities that predate Western contact. In colonial Virginia and Maryland sports occupied a great deal of attention at every social level. In England, hunting was severely restricted to landowners. In America, game was more than plentiful. Everyone—including servants and slaves—could and did hunt, so there was no social distinction to be had. In 1691, Sir Francis Nicholson, the governor of Virginia, organized competitions for the “better sort of Virginians onely who are Batchelors,” and he offered prizes “to be shot for, wrastled, played at backswords, & Run for by Horse and foott.” Horse racing remained the leading sport in the 1780-1860 era, especially in the South. It involved owners, trainers and spectators from all social classes and both races. However, religious evangelists were troubled by the gambling dimension, and democratic elements complained that it was too aristocratic, since only the rich could own very expensive competitive horses. The United States Olympic Committee (USOC) is the National Olympic Committee for the United States. U.S. athletes have won a total of 2,522 medals (1,022 of them being gold) at the Summer Olympic Games and another 305 at the Winter Olympic Games. Most medals have been won in the sport of athletics (track and field) (801, 32%) and swimming (553, 22%). American swimmer Michael Phelps is the most decorated Olympic athlete of all time, with 28 Olympic medals, 23 of them gold. The United States has sent athletes to every celebration of the modern Olympic Games except the 1980 Summer Olympics hosted by the Soviet Union in Moscow, which it boycotted because of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. The United States has won gold at every games in which it has competed, more gold and overall medals than any other country in the Summer Games and also has the second-most gold and overall medals in the Winter Games, trailing only Norway. From the mid-20th century to the late 1980s, the United States mainly competed with the Soviet Union at the Summer Games and with the Soviet Union, Norway, and East Germany at the Winter Games. However, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, it now primarily contends with China and Great Britain at the Summer Games for both the overall medal count and the gold medal count and with Norway and Canada at the Winter Games for the overall medal count. The United States hosted both Summer and Winter Games in 1932, and has hosted more Games than any other country – eight times, four times each for the Summer and Winter Games: the 1904 Summer Olympics in St. Louis, 1932 Summer Olympics and 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles; and the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta;, the 1932 Winter Olympics and 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, New York; the 1960 Winter Olympics in Squaw Valley, California; and the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah. Los Angeles will host the Summer Olympics for a third time in 2028, marking the ninth time the U.S. hosts the Olympic Games. The United States has won the most Gold and overall medals in the Summer Olympic Games, and has won the medal table 17 times. The United States has won the second most Gold and overall medals in the Winter Olympic Games, behind only Norway, and has won the medal table 1 time. If all incarnations of Germany are included, and Russia's totals are added to the Soviet Union, the United States is fourth in the all time Winter Olympic Games table. Motor sports are widely popular in the United States but Americans generally show little interest in the major international competitions, such as the Formula One Grand Prix series and MotoGP, preferring home-grown racing series. However, some Americans have achieved great success in these international series, such as Mario Andretti and Kenny Roberts. Americans, like the rest of the world, initially began using public streets to host automobile races, but these venues were often unsafe to the public as they offered relatively little crowd control. Promoters and drivers in the United States discovered that horse racing tracks could provide better conditions for drivers and spectators than public streets. This, in turn, was succeeded by board track racing (which was short-lived as many of the tracks were highly flammable and difficult to maintain) followed by oval track racing, which remains the dominant form of racing in the United States but is not used in the rest of the world; road racing has generally waned. However, an extensive, albeit illegal street racing culture still persists. Historically, open wheel racing was the most popular form of U.S. motorsport nationwide. However, an infamously acrimonious split (often referred to by many as "The Split") in 1994 between the primary series, CART (later known as Champ Car), and the owner of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway (the site of the Indy 500), Tony George, led to the formation of the Indy Racing League, now known as INDYCAR, which launched the rival IndyCar Series in 1996. From that point on, the popularity of open wheel racing in the U.S. declined dramatically. The feud was settled in 2008 with an agreement to merge the two series under the IndyCar banner, but enormous damage had already been done to the sport. Post-merger, IndyCar continues to run with slight viewership gains per year. However, as a result, the only post-Split IndyCar race that still enjoys widespread popularity among the general public is the Indianapolis 500. The CART-IRL Split coincided with an enormous expansion of stock car racing, governed by NASCAR, from its past as a mostly regional circuit mainly followed in the Southern United States to a truly national sport. NASCAR's audience peaked in the mid 1990's, and has declined quite a bit ever since the implementation of the Chase for the Cup in 2004, though it continues to have around 2–4 million viewers per race. Among NASCAR's popular former drivers are Jeff Gordon, Dale Earnhardt, Matt Kenseth, Tony Stewart, Dale Earnhardt Jr., and Richard Petty. Among NASCAR's popular active drivers are Jimmie Johnson, Kurt Busch, Kyle Busch, Chase Elliott, Ryan Blaney, and Kyle Larson. NASCAR's most popular race is the Daytona 500, the opening race of the season, held each year at Daytona Beach, Florida in February. Among the better known sports car races in the United States are the 24 Hours of Daytona, 12 Hours of Sebring, and Petit Le Mans, which have featured in the World Sportscar Championship, IMSA GT Championship, Intercontinental Le Mans Cup, FIA World Endurance Championship, American Le Mans Series, Rolex Sports Car Series and currently the United SportsCar Championship. Another one of the most popular forms of motorsports in the United States is the indigenous sport of drag racing. The largest drag racing organization is the National Hot Rod Association. Several other motorsports enjoy varying degrees of popularity in the United States: short track motor racing, motocross, monster truck competitions (including the popular Monster Jam circuit), demolition derby, figure 8 racing, mud bogging and tractor pulling. Golf is played in the United States by about 25 million people. The sport's national governing body, the United States Golf Association (USGA), is jointly responsible with The R&A; for setting and administering the rules of golf. The USGA conducts four national championships open to professionals: the U.S. Open, U.S. Women's Open, U.S. Senior Open, and the U.S. Senior Women's Open, with the last of these holding its first edition in 2018. The PGA of America organizes the PGA Championship, Senior PGA Championship and Women's PGA Championship. Three legs of the Grand Slam of Golf are based in the United States: the PGA Championship, U.S. Open and The Masters. (The Open Championship, known in the U.S. as the British Open, is played in the United Kingdom.) The PGA Tour is the main professional golf tour in the United States, and the LPGA Tour is the main women's professional tour. Also of note is PGA Tour Champions, where players 50 and older compete. Golf is aired on several television networks, such as Golf Channel, NBC, ESPN, CBS and Fox. Notable American male golfers include Walter Hagen (11 majors), Ben Hogan, Jack Nicklaus (record 18 major wins), Arnold Palmer, and Tiger Woods (15 major wins). Notable female golfers include Patty Berg (record 15 major wins), Mickey Wright (13 majors), Louise Suggs and Babe Zaharias. Tennis is played in the United States in all five categories (Men's and Ladies' Singles; Men's, Ladies' and Mixed Doubles); however, the most popular are the singles. The pinnacle of the sport in the country is the US Open played in late August at the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center in New York. The Indian Wells Masters, Miami Open and Cincinnati Masters are part of the ATP Tour Masters 1000 and the former WTA Tier I (currently Premier Mandatory and Premier 5). The United States has had considerable success in tennis for many years, with players such as Don Budge, Billie Jean King (12 major singles titles), Chris Evert (18 major singles titles), Jimmy Connors (8 major singles titles), John McEnroe (7 major singles titles), Andre Agassi (8 major singles titles) and Pete Sampras (14 major singles titles), and Ricardo Alonso González (14 major singles titles) dominating their sport in the past. More recently, the Williams sisters, Venus Williams (7 major singles titles) and Serena Williams (23 major singles titles), have been a dominant force in the women's game, and the twin brothers Bob and Mike Bryan have claimed almost all significant career records for men's doubles teams. USA Track & Field is the governing body for track and field in the United States. It organizes the annual USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships and USA Indoor Track and Field Championships. The IAAF Diamond League currently features one round in the United States, the Prefontaine Classic; the series formerly included the Adidas Grand Prix as well. Three of the World Marathon Majors are held in the United States: the Boston Marathon, Chicago Marathon and New York City Marathon. The Freihofer's Run for Women is also an IAAF Road Race Label Event. Amateur organizations such as the National Collegiate Athletic Association and Amateur Athletic Union sanction cross-country running in fall, indoor track and field in winter, and outdoor track and field in spring. Americans have frequently set world standards in various disciplines of track and field for both male and female athletes. Tyson Gay and Michael Johnson hold various sprint records for male athletes, while Florence Griffith Joyner set various world sprint records for female athletes. Mary Slaney set many world records for middle-distance disciplines. A turning point occurred in US track in the running boom of the 1970s. After a series of American successes in various distances from marathoners Frank Shorter and Bill Rodgers as well as middle-distance runners Dave Wottle and Steve Prefontaine, running as an American pastime began to take shape. The U.S. win in the 1976 Olympic men's decathlon, achieved by then-Bruce Jenner, made Jenner a national celebrity. (Many decades later, he transitioned to a woman and changed her a first name of Caitlyn.) High school track in the United States became a unique foundation for creating the United States middle-distance running talent pool, and from 1972 to 1981 an average of 13 high school boys in the United States would run under 4:10 in the mile per year. During this time, several national high school records in the United States were set and remained largely unbroken until the 2000s. The number of high school boys running the mile under 4:10 per year dropped abruptly from 1982, and female participation in many distance events was forbidden by athletic authorities until the 1980s. However a renaissance in high school track developed when Jack Daniels, a former Olympian, published a training manual called "Daniels' Running Formula", which became the most widely used distance training protocol among American coaches along with Arthur Lydiard's high-mileage regimen. Carl Lewis is credited with "normalizing" the practice of having a lengthy track career as opposed to retiring once reaching the age when it is less realistic of gaining a personal best result. The United States is home to school-sponsored track and field, a tradition in which most schools from middle school through college feature a track and field team. Owing to the number of American athletes who satisfy Olympic norm standards, the US holds national trials to select the best of its top-tier athletes for Olympic competition. Boxing in the United States became the center of professional boxing in the early 20th century. The National Boxing Association was founded in 1921 and began to sanction title fights. In the 1960s and 1970s, Muhammad Ali became an iconic figure, transformed the role and image of the African American athlete in America by his embrace of racial pride, and transcended the sport by refusing to serve in the Vietnam War. Mixed martial arts in the United States developed in the 1990s, and has achieved popularity in the early 21st century. Many companies promote MMA cards, with the U.S.-based UFC the most dominant. Traditional wrestling is performed at the scholastic level; high school wrestling is one of the most popular participatory sports for young men in the United States, and college wrestling has a small following. Professional wrestling, which evolved into a mostly scripted (kayfabe) form of sports entertainment over the course of the 20th century, enjoys widespread popularity as a spectator sport. Interest in pro wrestling peaked during the Monday Night Wars of the 1980s and 1990s. This was due to the competition between the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) and WCW, which were the two biggest professional wrestling organizations in the country during the last two decades of the 20th century, both backed by wealthy moguls with national media access, Vince McMahon and Ted Turner respectively. It is also stated that, between the two companies, an estimated 16 million viewers tuned in every week. Following the conclusion of the Wars and WCW's subsumption into WWF to become the modern WWE, professional wrestling's audience has diminished; however, it still pulls in some of cable television's highest weekly ratings. WWE remains the dominant professional wrestling company in the U.S.; it does not hold a monopoly, as numerous smaller federations have existed, three current examples including Impact Wrestling (formerly known as TNA), Ring of Honor (ROH), and All Elite Wrestling (AEW). Judo in the United States is not very popular and is eclipsed by more popular martial arts like karate and taekwondo. Swimming is a major competitive sport at high school and college level, but receives little mainstream media attention outside of the Olympics. Surfing in the United States and watersports are popular in the U.S. in coastal areas. California and Hawaii are the most popular locations for surfing. The Association of Surfing Professionals was founded in 1983. Skateboarding – Skateboarding culture was born in the U.S., which holds many of the top tournaments and produces the majority of professional skateboarders., Hunting and fishing are popular in the U.S., especially in rural areas. Other popular outdoors activities in the country include hiking, mountain climbing, paintball and kayaking. In winter, many Americans head to mountainous areas for skiing and snowboarding., Road bicycle racing has increased in popularity, fueled by the success of cyclists Greg LeMond and the eight consecutive Tours de France won by American contestants (although all eight were discarded in the wake of doping revelations against the two winners, Lance Armstrong and Floyd Landis). Mountain biking is also widely practiced, especially in the Rocky Mountains., Rodeo – The Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association is the main professional rodeo organization in the world. Bull riding, a subset of the rodeo, enjoys popularity as a standalone sport, especially the pro competition, Professional Bull Riders., Horse racing – The Breeders' Cup and the Triple Crown are the two most prominent competitions., Bowling – Bowling is the most popular participation "game" sport in the U.S. with more than 43 million people going bowling at least once a year. Regional variants include candlepin bowling (most popular in New England) and duckpin bowling (most common in Maryland)., Figure skating is a sport in which individuals, duos, or groups perform on figure skates on ice. It was the first winter sport included in the Olympics, in 1908., Cornhole is a recreational sport that gained popularity in the 1970s. The most popular team sports in the United States are American football, baseball/softball, basketball, ice hockey, and soccer. All five of these team sports are popular with fans, are widely watched on television, have a fully professional league, are played by millions of Americans, enjoy varsity status at many Division I colleges, and are played in high schools throughout the country. 1. TV viewing record measures the game with the most TV viewers in the U.S. since 2005 for each sport: 2016 Super Bowl, 2016 NBA Finals Game 7, 2016 World Series Game 7, 2014 FIFA World Cup Final, and 2010 Winter Olympics Gold medal ice hockey game. 2. The column titled "States (HS)" represents the number of states that sponsor the sport at the high school level. For the purpose of this table, Washington, D.C. is counted as a state. Football has the most participants of any sport at both high school and college levels, the vast majority of its participants being male. The NFL is the preeminent professional football league in the United States. The NFL has 32 franchises divided into two conferences. After a 16-game regular season, each conference sends six teams to the NFL Playoffs, which eventually culminate in the league's championship game, the Super Bowl. Nationwide, the NFL obtains the highest television ratings among major sports. Watching NFL games on television on Sunday afternoons has become a common routine for many Americans during the football season. Super Bowl Sunday is the biggest annual sporting event held in the United States. The Super Bowl itself is always among the highest-rated programs of all-time in the Nielsen ratings. Millions watch college football throughout the fall months, and some communities, particularly in rural areas, place great emphasis on their local high school football teams. The popularity of college and high school football in areas such as the Southern United States (Southeastern Conference) and the Great Plains (Big 12 Conference and Big Ten Conference) stems largely from the fact that these areas historically generally did not possess markets large enough for a professional team. Nonetheless, college football has a rich history in the United States, predating the NFL by decades, and fans and alumni are generally very passionate about their teams. During football season in the fall, fans have the opportunity to watch high school games on Fridays and Saturdays, college football on Saturdays, and NFL games on Sundays, the usual playing day of the professional teams. However, some colleges play games on Tuesday and Wednesday nights, while the NFL offers weekly games on Monday (since 1970) and Thursday (since 2006). As recently as 2013, one could find a nationally televised professional or college game on television any night between Labor Day and Thanksgiving weekend. Notable former NFL players include Roger Staubach, Dick Butkus, Joe Greene, Bart Starr, Johnny Unitas, Walter Payton, Joe Montana, Steve Young, Jerry Rice, Brett Favre, Emmitt Smith, Randy Moss, Ray Lewis, and Peyton Manning. Notable current NFL players include Drew Brees, Tom Brady, Cam Newton, J. J. Watt, Russell Wilson, and Aaron Rodgers. Indoor football or arena football, a form of football played in indoor arenas, has several professional and semi-professional leagues. The Arena Football League was active from 1987 to 2008 and folded in 2009, but several teams from the AFL and its former minor league, af2, relaunched the league in 2010. The AFL folded again in 2019. Most extant indoor leagues date to the mid-2000s and are regional in nature. Dedicated women's football is seldom seen. A few amateur and semi-professional leagues exist, of varying degrees of stability and competition. Football is unique among scholastic sports in the U.S. in that no women's division exists for the sport; women who wish to play football in high school or college must compete directly with men. Baseball and a variant, softball, are popular participatory sports in the U.S. The highest level of baseball in the U.S. is Major League Baseball. The World Series of Major League Baseball is the culmination of the sport's postseason each October. It is played between the winner of each of the two leagues, the American League and the National League, and the winner is determined through a best-of-seven playoff. The New York Yankees are noted for having won more titles than any other US major professional sports franchise. The Yankees' chief rivals, the Boston Red Sox, also enjoy a huge following in Boston and throughout New England. The Philadelphia Phillies of the National League are the oldest continuous, one-name, one-city franchise in all of professional American sports, and enjoy a fanbase renowned for their rabid support of their team throughout Philadelphia and the Delaware Valley, and have famously been dubbed as the "Meanest Fans in America". Midwest baseball has also grown exponentially with teams like the Chicago Cubs, St. Louis Cardinals, and Cincinnati Reds. Particularly with Chicago sports fans who avidly follow the Chicago Cubs and the Chicago White Sox despite the comparative lack of success for the teams, with Chicago Cub fans being known throughout the country as one of the best baseball fans in the country, most notably for their passionate loyalty to the team despite their not having won a championship from 1908 to 2016 (108 years) which stands as the longest championship drought in US sports history. The sport has also taken hold of fans on the West Coast, most notably the rivalry between the San Francisco Giants and The Los Angeles Dodgers. Historically, the leagues were much more competitive, and cities such as Boston, Philadelphia and St. Louis had rival teams in both leagues up until the 1950s. Notable American baseball players in history include Babe Ruth (714 career home runs), Ty Cobb (career leader in batting average and batting titles), Cy Young, Honus Wagner, Ted Williams (.344 career batting average), Lou Gehrig, Joe DiMaggio, Mickey Mantle (16-time all star), Stan Musial, Willie Mays, Yogi Berra (18-time All-Star), Hank Aaron (career home run leader from 1974 to 2007), Mike Schmidt (548 career home runs, 10 career Gold Gloves), Nolan Ryan (career strikeouts leader), Roger Clemens (7 Cy Young awards), Derek Jeter and Jackie Robinson, who was instrumental in dissolving the color line and allowing African-Americans into the major leagues. An extensive minor league baseball system covers most mid-sized cities in the United States. Minor league baseball teams are organized in a six-tier hierarchy, in which the highest teams (AAA) are in major cities that do not have a major league team but often have a major team in another sport, and each level occupies progressively smaller cities. The lowest levels of professional baseball serve primarily as development systems for the sport's most inexperienced prospects, with the absolute bottom, the rookie leagues, occupying the major league squads' spring training complexes. Some limited independent professional baseball exists, the most prominent being the Atlantic League, which occupies mostly suburban locales that are not eligible for high level minor league teams of their own because they are too close to other major or minor league teams. Outside the minor leagues are collegiate summer baseball leagues, which occupy towns even smaller than those at the lower end of minor league baseball and typically cannot support professional sports. Summer baseball is an amateur exercise and uses players that choose not to play for payment in order to remain eligible to play college baseball for their respective universities in the spring. At the absolute lowest end of the organized baseball system is senior amateur baseball (also known as Town Team Baseball), which typically plays its games only on weekends and uses rosters composed of local residents. Of those Americans citing their favorite sport, basketball is ranked second (counting amateur levels) behind football. However, in regards to money the NBA is ranked third in popularity. More Americans play basketball than any other team sport, according to the National Sporting Goods Association, with over 26 million Americans playing basketball. Basketball was invented in 1891 by Canadian physical education teacher James Naismith in Springfield, Massachusetts. The National Basketball Association (NBA) is the world's premier men's professional basketball league and one of the major professional sports leagues of North America. It contains 30 teams (29 teams in the U.S. and 1 in Canada) that play an 82-game season from October to June. After the regular season, eight teams from each conference compete in the playoffs for the Larry O'Brien Championship Trophy. Since the 1992 Summer Olympics, NBA players have represented the United States in international competition and won numerous important tournaments. The Dream Team was the unofficial nickname of the United States men's basketball team that won the gold medal at the 1992 Olympics. Basketball at both the college and high school levels is popular throughout the country. Every March, a 68-team, six-round, single-elimination tournament (commonly called March Madness) determines the national champions of NCAA Division I men's college basketball. Most U.S. states also crown state champions among their high schools. Many high school basketball teams have intense local followings, especially in the Midwest and Upper South. Indiana has 10 of the 12 largest high school gyms in the United States, and is famous for its basketball passion, known as Hoosier Hysteria. Notable NBA players in history include Wilt Chamberlain (4 time MVP), Bill Russell (5 time MVP), Bob Pettit (11 time all NBA team), Bob Cousy (12 time all NBA team), Jerry West (12 time all NBA team), Julius Erving (won MVP awards in both the ABA and NBA), Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (6 time MVP), Magic Johnson (3 time MVP), Larry Bird (3 time MVP), Michael Jordan (6 time finals MVP), John Stockton (#1 in career assists and steals), Karl Malone (14 time all NBA team), Kobe Bryant (NBA's third all-time leading scorer), Tim Duncan (15-time NBA all-star), Shaquille O'Neal (3 time finals MVP) and Jason Kidd (#2 in career assists and steals). Notable players in the NBA today include LeBron James (4 MVP awards), Stephen Curry (2 time MVP), Dwyane Wade (10 time all-star), and Kevin Durant (MVP, 4 NBA scoring titles). Ever since the 1990s, an increasing number of players born outside the United States have signed with NBA teams, sparking league interest in different parts of the world. Professional basketball is most followed in cities where there are no other sports teams in the four major professional leagues, such as in the case of the Oklahoma City Thunder, the Sacramento Kings, the San Antonio Spurs, the Memphis Grizzlies, or the Portland Trail Blazers. New York City has also had a long historical connection with college and professional basketball, and many basketball legends initially developed their reputations playing in the many playgrounds throughout the city. Madison Square Garden, the home arena of the New York Knicks, is often referred to as the "Mecca of basketball." Minor league basketball, both official and unofficial, has an extensive presence, given the sport's relative lack of expense to operate a professional team. The NBA has an official minor league, known since 2017 as the NBA G League under a naming rights agreement with Gatorade. The most prominent independent league is BIG3, a three-on-three league featuring former NBA stars that launched in 2017. Several other pro basketball leagues exist but are notorious for their instability and low budget operations. The WNBA is the premier women's basketball league in the United States as well as the most stable and sustained women's professional sports league in the nation. Several of the 12 teams are owned by NBA teams. The women's national team has won eight Olympic gold medals and 10 FIBA World Cups. Ice hockey, usually referred to in the U.S. simply as "hockey", is another popular sport in the United States. In the U.S. the game is most popular in regions of the country with a cold winter climate, namely the northeast and the upper Midwest. However, since the 1990s, hockey has become increasingly popular in the Sun Belt due in large part to the expansion of the National Hockey League to the southern U.S., coupled with the mass relocation of many residents from northern cities with strong hockey support to these Sun Belt locations. The NHL is the major professional hockey league in North America, with 24 U.S.-based teams and 7 Canadian-based teams competing for the Stanley Cup. While NHL stars are still not as readily familiar to the general American public as are stars of the NFL, MLB, and the NBA, average attendance for NHL games in the U.S. has surpassed average NBA attendance in recent seasons, buoyed in part by the NHL Winter Classic being played in large outdoor stadiums. Minor league professional hockey leagues in the U.S. include the American Hockey League and the ECHL. Additionally, nine U.S.-based teams compete in the three member leagues of the Canadian Hockey League, a "junior" league for players aged sixteen to twenty. College hockey has a regional following in the northeastern and upper midwestern United States. It is increasingly being used to develop players for the NHL and other professional leagues (the U.S. has junior leagues, the United States Hockey League and North American Hockey League, but they are more restricted to protect junior players' college eligibility). The Frozen Four is college hockey's national championship. The U.S. now has more youth hockey players than all other countries, excluding Canada, combined. USA Hockey is the official governing body for amateur hockey in the United States. The United States Hockey Hall of Fame is located in Eveleth, Minnesota. Internationally, the United States is counted among the Big Six, the group of nations that have historically dominated international ice hockey competition. (The others include Canada, Finland, Sweden, the Czech Republic, and Russia.) One of the nation's greatest ever sporting moments was the "Miracle on Ice", which came during the 1980 Winter Olympics when the U.S. hockey team beat the Soviet Union 4–3 in the first game of the medal round before going on to beat Finland to claim the gold medal. Historically, the vast majority of NHL players had come from Canada, with a small number of Americans. As late as 1969–70, Canadian players made up 95 percent of the league. During the 1970s and 1980s, European players entered the league, and many players from the former Soviet bloc flocked to the NHL beginning in the 1990s. Today, slightly less than half of NHL players are Canadian, more than 20% are Americans, and virtually all of the remainder are European-trained. (For a more complete discussion, see Origin of NHL players.) Notable NHL players in history include Wayne Gretzky (leading all- time point scorer and 9 time MVP), Mario Lemieux (3 time MVP), Guy Lafleur (2 time MVP), Gordie Howe (6 time MVP), Nicklas Lidström (7 times NHL's top defenseman), Bobby Hull (3 time MVP and 7 time leading goal scorer, Eddie Shore (4 time MVP), Howie Morenz (3 time MVP), Maurice "Rocket" Richard (5 time leading goal scorer), Jean Beliveau (2 time MVP), Bobby Clarke (3 time MVP), and Bobby Orr (8 times NHL's best defenseman). Famous NHL players today include Sidney Crosby and Alexander Ovechkin. The National Women's Hockey League, founded in 2015, is the first women's ice hockey league in the country to pay its players and features five teams in the northeast and upper midwest. Three of the five teams (the Buffalo Beauts, Minnesota Whitecaps and Metropolitan Riveters) are either owned or operated by, or affiliated with, their metro area's NHL franchise (the Buffalo Sabres, Minnesota Wild and New Jersey Devils, respectively). At the international level, the United States women's national ice hockey team is one of the two predominant international women's teams in the world, alongside its longtime rival Team Canada. Soccer has been increasing in popularity in the United States in recent years. Soccer is played by over 13 million people in the U.S., making it the third- most played sport in the U.S., more widely played than ice hockey and football. Most NCAA Division I colleges field both a men's and women's varsity soccer team, and those that field only one team almost invariably field a women's team. The United States men's national team and women's national team, as well as a number of national youth teams, represent the United States in international soccer competitions and are governed by the United States Soccer Federation (U.S. Soccer). The U.S. women's team holds the record for most Women's World Cup championships, and is the only team that has never finished worse than third place in a World Cup. The U.S. women beat the Netherlands 2–0 in the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup final to claim their second consecutive Women's World Cup title, and fourth overall. Major League Soccer is the premier soccer league in the United States. As of its current 2020 season, MLS has 26 clubs (23 from the U.S. and 3 from Canada). The league plans to expand to 28 teams in 2021 with further plans to expand to 30 teams by 2022. The 34-game schedule runs from mid-March to late October, with the playoffs and championship in November. Soccer-specific stadiums continue to be built for MLS teams around the country, both because football stadiums are considered to have excessive capacity, and because teams profit from operating their stadiums. With an average attendance of over 21,000 per game, MLS has the third-highest average attendance of any sports league in the U.S. after the National Football League (NFL) and Major League Baseball (MLB), and is the ninth-highest attended professional soccer league worldwide. Other professional men's soccer leagues in the U.S. include the current second division, the USL Championship (USLC) and the third-level USL League One, which launched in 2019 under the auspices of the USLC's operator, the United Soccer League. Another competition, the second North American Soccer League, had been the second-level league until being demoted in 2018 due to instability, and soon effectively folded. The USL organization now has a formal relationship with MLS, and a number of its teams (both in the Championship and League One) are either owned by or affiliated with MLS sides. Younger generations of Americans have strong fan appreciation for the sport, due to factors such as the U.S. hosting of the 1994 FIFA World Cup and the formation of Major League Soccer, as well as increased U.S. television coverage of soccer competitions. Many immigrants living in the United States continue to follow soccer as their favorite team sport. United States will host the 2026 FIFA World Cup sharing with Canada and Mexico. Women's professional soccer in the United States has not seen sustained success. Following the demise of two professional leagues in the early 21st century, the Women's United Soccer Association (1999–2001) and Women's Professional Soccer (2009–2011), U.S. Soccer established a new National Women's Soccer League in 2013. The NWSL has now survived longer than both of its two professional predecessors combined. Of its current nine teams, six share ownership with professional men's clubs—four are wholly owned by MLS team owners, one is wholly owned by a USLC side, and another is in the process of being purchased by a French Ligue 1 side. A tenth team set to start play in 2021 is also owned by a USLC side. However, at the lower levels of the salary scale, the NWSL is effectively semi-professional. Many notable international soccer players played in the U.S. in the original North American Soccer League, usually at the end of their playing careers—including Pelé, Eusébio, George Best, Franz Beckenbauer, and Johan Cruyff—or in MLS—including Roberto Donadoni, Lothar Matthäus, David Beckham, Thierry Henry, Kaká, David Villa, Wayne Rooney, and Zlatan Ibrahimović. The best American soccer players enter the U.S. Soccer Hall of Fame. The following table shows additional sports that are played by over 500,000 people in the United States. 1. Attendance record measures highest single-game attendances. Attendance records are: Volleyball: 2017 NCAA Division I women's championship final; Ultimate: 2014 Montreal Royal (AUDL); Rugby: 2014 New Zealand vs. Ireland in Chicago; and Lacrosse: 2007 NCAA Division I men's championship semifinals. 2. TV viewership records are: Volleyball: 2010 NCAA women's championship on ESPN2; Rugby: 2018 Rugby World Cup Sevens on NBC; Lacrosse: 2016 NCAA championship on ESPN2; Ultimate: 2017 US Open Mixed final. Lacrosse is a team sport that is believed to have originated with the Iroquois and the Lenape. The sport is most popular in the East Coast area from Maryland to New York. While its roots remain east, lacrosse is currently the fastest growing sport in the nation. The National Lacrosse League is the national box league, while the Premier Lacrosse League is the professional Field Lacrosse league. Major League Lacrosse is a semi-professional Field Lacrosse league also operating nationally. Volleyball is also a notable sport in the United States, especially at the college and university levels. Unlike most Olympic sports which are sponsored widely at the collegiate level for both sexes, the support for college volleyball is dramatically skewed in favor of the women's game. In the 2011–12 school year, over 300 schools in NCAA Division I alone (the highest of three NCAA tiers) sponsored women's volleyball at the varsity level, while fewer than 100 schools in all three NCAA divisions combined sponsored varsity men's volleyball, with only 23 of them in Division I. This is partially due to Title IX; female-oriented sports such as volleyball help balance a college's athletic opportunities for women with those for men. More recently, men's volleyball has experienced explosive growth at the non-scholarship NCAA Division III level; as of 2019, over 100 schools sponsor the sport at that level. The men's national team has won three gold medals at the Olympic Games, one FIVB World Championship, two FIVB Volleyball World Cup, and one FIVB World League. Meanwhile, the women's national team has won the one FIVB World Championship and six editions of the FIVB World Grand Prix. Beach volleyball has increasingly become popular in the United States, in part due to media exposure during the Olympic Games. Rugby union is played professionally, recreationally and in colleges, though it is not governed by the NCAA (see college rugby). An estimated 1.2 million people in the United States play rugby. The U.S. national team has competed at the Rugby World Cup. In rugby sevens, the men's national team is one of 15 "core teams" that participate in every event of the annual World Rugby Sevens Series, and the women's national team is one of 11 core teams in the Women's Sevens Series. The professional domestic club competition PRO Rugby began play in April 2016, but lasted only one season; a second attempt at a professional league, Major League Rugby, launched in 2018. Rugby union participation in the U.S. has grown significantly in recent years, growing by 350% between 2004 and 2011. A 2010 survey by the National Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association ranked rugby union as the fastest-growing sport in the U.S. The sports profile in the U.S. has received a tremendous boost from the IOC's announcement in 2009 that rugby union (in its seven-a-side variant) would return to the Olympics in 2016. Since the Olympic announcement, rugby union events such as the Collegiate Rugby Championship, the USA Sevens, and the Rugby World Cup have been broadcast on network TV. The USA Sevens, held every year in February or March as part of the World Rugby Sevens Series, has regularly drawn more than 60,000 fans to Sam Boyd Stadium in Las Vegas, though the tournament will move to the Los Angeles area for at least its 2020 edition. The U.S. also hosts an event in the Women's Sevens Series. It had been held alongside the USA Sevens in the 2016–17 season, but was not held in 2017–18 (when the Rugby World Cup Sevens for both men and women was held in San Francisco). The USA Women's Sevens returned in 2018, after the World Cup Sevens, but is now a standalone event held in the Denver area that serves as the Women's World Series opener. Rugby football formed the basis of modern American football; the two sports were nearly identical in the late 19th century but diverged into distinct, incompatible codes by the start of the 20th century. In 2006 it was estimated that 30,000 people in the United States play or watch cricket annually. By 2017, this figure had risen to 100,000 people playing cricket in 1,000 teams. Cricket in the United States is not as popular as baseball and is not as popular among as large a fraction of the population as it is within either the Commonwealth nations or the other ICC full member (or Test cricket) nations. There are at least two historical reasons for the relative obscurity of cricket within the United States. One reason was the 19th-century-rise of the summer time bat and ball sport now called baseball, which seems to have displaced cricket as a popular pastime. Another reason was that in 1909 when the ICC was originally organized as the Imperial Cricket Conference it was open only to Commonwealth nations and thereby excluded the US from participating in the sport at the highest level. Nevertheless, in 1965 the US was admitted to the renamed ICC as an associate member and the sport grew in popularity in the second half of the 20th century. An oft mentioned reason for the growing popularity of cricket is the growing population of immigrants to the US who come from cricket playing nations. With the launching of the United States Youth Cricket Association in 2010, a more focused effort to bring the game to American schools was begun, with the intention of broadening cricket's fan base beyond expatriates and their children. ESPN has been stepping up its coverage of cricket in recent years, buying the cricket website Cricinfo in 2007, and broadcasting the final of the 2014 ICC World Twenty20 competition, the 2014 Indian Premier League, English County Championship games, and international Test cricket. Ultimate is a team sport played with a flying disc. The object of the game is to score points by passing the disc to members of your own team until you have completed a pass to a team member in the opposing teams end zone. Over 5.1 million people play some form of organized ultimate in the US. Alternative sports, using the flying disc, began in the mid-sixties, when numbers of young people looked for alternative recreational activities, including throwing a Frisbee. What started with a few players experimenting with a Frisbee later would become known as playing disc freestyle. Organized disc sports in the 1970s began with a few tournaments, and professionals using Frisbee show tours to perform at universities, fairs and sporting events. Disc sports such as disc freestyle, disc dog (with a human handler throwing discs for a dog to catch), double disc court, disc guts, disc ultimate, and disc golf became this sport's first events. More-proprietary disc games include KanJam, akin to quoits, invented in Buffalo, New York in the 1980s. Beginning in 1974, the International Frisbee Disc Association became the regulatory organization for all of these sports. Led from 1975-1982 by Dan "Stork" Roddick, who also served as sports-marketing head for Wham-O, the IFA created an annual tournament at the Rose Bowl called the World Frisbee Championship, which drew over 50,000 fans and live TV coverage. This tournament served as a focal point for the more-developed game of Disc guts, invented in the 1950s, and the emerging popularity freestyle competition (1974) and disc golf (standardized in 1976 by the Professional Disc Golf Association). Around the same time, high school students at Columbia HS in Maplewood NJ invented a disc game in 1968 that they called Ultimate. Among the three credited with its invention was future hollywood producer Joel Silver. Spread to mostly East Coast colleges by Columbia HS graduates in the early 1970s, and developed nearly in parallel in Southern California, the game began to have unofficial championships played in 1975. Loosely organized in its early years, Ultimate developed as an organized sport with the 1979 creation of the Ultimate Players Association. The sport grew rapidly throughout the country, establishing a Women's division in 1981, splitting its College division from the Club (adult) division in 1984, a Mixed Club division in 1997, and Youth championships from 1998. In 2010, the UPA re- branded as USA Ultimate, to be more in-line with other sports governing bodies. As club, college and youth play continued to expand rapidly, more- entrepreneurial enthusiasts looked to turn player interest into spectator dollars. In 2012, the American Ultimate Disc League became the first professional Ultimate league, followed the next year by Major League Ultimate. The two ran in parallel through 2016, when MLU folded; AUDL has sustained play through 2019 and expanded from 8 teams in 2012 to 21 teams in 2019. Although the AUDL's popularity continues to grow, the USA Ultimate Club Division is still viewed as the sport's highest level of play. In 2015, the International Olympic Committee granted full recognition to the World Flying Disc Federation for flying disc sports including Ultimate. The development of snowboarding was inspired by skateboarding, sledding, surfing and skiing. It was developed in the United States in the 1960s, became a Winter Olympic Sport at Nagano in 1998 and first featured in the Winter Paralympics at Sochi in 2014. Australian rules football in the United States was first played in the country in 1996. The United States Australian Football League is the governing body for the sport in the U.S, with various clubs and leagues around the country. The National Championships are held annually. The United States men's national Australian rules football team and the women's national team both regularly play international matches, and play in the Australian Football International Cup, an international tournament. The sport also benefits from an active fan based organization, the Australian Football Association of North America. Bandy is only played in Minnesota. The national team regularly plays in Division A of the Bandy World Championships. In terms of licensed athletes, it is the second biggest winter sport in the world. Cricket in the United States is not a popular sport, but has a niche market with limited inroads, mainly in immigrant communities. The United States of America Cricket Association governs cricket in the United States. Historically, cricket used to be the most popular sport in America during the 18th and early 19th centuries, but declined as baseball overtook cricket. The first intercollegiate tournament in America was the first annual Canada vs. U.S. cricket match, played since 1844, when it was attended by 10,000 spectators in New York., and the annual match is the oldest international sporting event in the modern world. The United States national cricket team plays in World Cricket League Division IV, the ICC Americas Championship and qualified for ICC Intercontinental Cup. Curling is popular in northern states, possibly because of climate, proximity to Canada, or Scandinavian heritage. The national popularity of curling is growing after significant media coverage of the sport in the 2006 and 2010 Winter Olympics. Gaelic football and hurling are governed by North American GAA and New York GAA. They do not have a high profile, but are developing sports, with New York fielding a representative team in the All-Ireland Senior Football Championship. Field hockey is played in the United States predominantly by women. It is played widely at numerous NCAA colleges, where it is used as a sport to offset Title IX regulations assuring equal opportunities for men and women in sports (it thus offsets male-dominated sports such as college football). Handball, a common sport in European countries, is seldom seen in the United States. The sport is mostly played in the country on the amateur level. Handball is played in the Summer Olympics, but is not sanctioned by the NCAA; all college and university teams play as club teams. The sport's governing body is USA Team Handball. Inline hockey was invented by Americans as a way to play the sport in all climates. The PIHA is the league with the largest number of professional teams in the nation. Street hockey is a non-standard version of inline hockey played by amateurs in informal games. Rugby league in the United States is played by the USA Rugby League (USARL) is a 14 team semi-professional rugby league football competition based on the East Coast of the United States. The league was founded in 2011 by clubs that had broken with the established American National Rugby League (AMNRL), plus expansion franchises. The USARL began its inaugural season in 2011. In November 2014, the USARL were granted Affiliate membership of the RLIF and RLEF and are now the official governing body for the sport in the United States. The United States national rugby league team played in their first World Cup in 2013 losing to Australia in the quarter finals 62–0. The United States, along with Canada, will host the 2025 Rugby League World Cup. Water polo does not have a professional competition in the U.S., so the highest level of competitive play is at the college level and in the Olympics. The NCAA sanctions water polo as a varsity sport for both men and women, and is popular in the U.S. along the west coast, and parts of the east coast. However, no team outside of California has ever reached the finals of the NCAA Division I men's water polo championship. Angleball is a sport developed as a way to maintain physical fitness. Angleball is used by colleges, schools, and camps. Angleball gameplay is simple. Two large balls are placed atop standards at opposite sides of a field. Teams pass a smaller ball back and forth, attempting to knock the other team's ball off its perch with the smaller ball. Badminton has also become a popular backyard sport in the United States. Capture the flag is played recreationally by adults and children. Dodgeball is played traditionally by children in school, though adult leagues in urban areas have formed within the past 10 years. A caricatured version was portrayed in the 2004 film comedy . Kickball is also played recreationally by adults and children, especially at the elementary school level. Its rules are largely identical to baseball, except that no bat is used and instead a large rubber ball is rolled along the ground for the "batter" to kick. Roller derby is a contact sport played on roller skates that has had brief surges of popularity throughout the 20th and 21st centuries. Roller Derby was portrayed in the 2009 film Whip It. Since September 2009, there were 350 women's, men's, and junior leagues in the U.S.A. For the most part, unlike sports in Europe and other parts of the world, there is no system of promotion and relegation in American professional sports. Major sports leagues operate as associations of franchises. The same 30–32 teams play in the league each year unless they move to another city or the league chooses to expand with new franchises. All American sports leagues use the same type of schedule. After the regular season, the 10–16 teams with the best records enter a playoff tournament leading to a championship series or game. American sports, except for soccer, have no equivalent to the cup competitions that run concurrently with leagues in European sports. Even in the case of soccer, the cup competition, the Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup, draws considerably less attention than the regular season. Also, the only top-level U.S. professional teams that play teams from other organizations in meaningful games are those in MLS. Since the 2012 season, all U.S.-based MLS teams have automatically qualified for the U.S. Open Cup, in which they compete against teams from lower-level U.S. leagues. In addition, three or four U.S.-based MLS teams (depending on the results of the U.S. Open Cup) qualify to play clubs from countries outside the U.S. and Canada in the CONCACAF Champions League. NBA teams have played European teams in preseason exhibitions on a semi- regular basis, and recent MLS All-Star Games have pitted top players from the league against major European soccer teams, such as members of the Premier League. International competition is not as important in American sports as it is in the sporting culture of most other countries, although Olympic ice hockey and basketball tournaments do generate attention. The first international baseball tournament with top-level players, the World Baseball Classic, also generated some positive reviews after its inaugural tournament in 2006. The major professional sports leagues operate drafts once a year, in which each league's teams selected eligible prospects. Eligibility differs from league to league. Baseball and ice hockey operate minor league systems for players who have finished education but are not ready or good enough for the major leagues. The NBA also has a development league for players who are not ready to play at the top level. The extent to which sports are associated with secondary and tertiary education in the United States is rare among nations. Millions of students participate in athletics programs operated by high schools and colleges. Student-athletes often receive scholarships to colleges in recognition of their athletic potential. Currently, the largest governing body of collegiate sports is the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). Especially in football and basketball, college sports are followed in numbers equaling those of professional sports. College football games can draw over 100,000 spectators. For upper-tier institutions, sports are a significant source of revenue; for less prominent teams, maintaining a high-level team is a major expense. To ensure some semblance of competitive balance, the NCAA divides its institutions into three divisions (four in football), sorted by the number of athletic scholarships each school is willing to offer. The most practiced college sports, measured by NCAA reporting on varsity team participation, are: (1) football (64,000), (2) baseball/softball (47,000), (3) track and field (46,000), (4) soccer (43,000), (5) basketball (32,000), (6) cross-country running (25,000), and (7) swimming/diving (20,000). The most popular sport among female athletes is soccer, followed closely by track and field. Community college athletics are governed separately by the National Junior College Athletic Association (NJCAA). Most public high schools are members of their respective state athletic association, and those associations are members of the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS). Some states have separate associations for public and non-public high schools. The 2018–19 school year was the first in 30 years to see a decrease in high school sports participation. Increases through the previous decades had been largely driven by growth in girls' participation. The high school sports with the highest number of participants for 2018–19 are: Team sports Football – 1,008,417, Basketball – 939,836, Baseball/Softball – 854,859, Soccer – 853,182, Volleyball – 516,371 Individual sports Track & field (outdoor) – 1,093,621, Cross country – 488,640, Tennis – 348,750, Swimming & diving – 309,726, Wrestling – 268,565 Notes Popular high school sports in various regions of the U.S. include the Texas High School football championships, the Indiana basketball championships, and ice hockey in Minnesota. The Minnesota State High School Hockey Tournament is the largest high school sporting event in the country, with average attendance to the top tier, or "AA", games over 18,000. The Amateur Athletic Union claims to have over 670,000 participants and over 100,000 volunteers.. The AAU has existed since 1888, and has been influential in amateur sports for that same time span. In the 1970s, the AAU received growing criticism. Many claimed that its regulatory framework was outdated. Women were banned from participating in certain competitions and some runners were locked out. There were also problems with sporting goods that did not meet the standards of the AAU. During this time, the Amateur Sports Act of 1978 organized the United States Olympic Committee and saw the re- establishment of state-supported independent associations for the Olympic sports, referred to as national governing bodies. As a result, the AAU lost its influence and importance in international sports, and focused on the support and promotion of predominantly youthful athletes, as well as on the organization of national sports events. No American government agency is charged with overseeing sports. However, the President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports advises the President through the Secretary of Health and Human Services about physical activity, fitness, and sports, and recommends programs to promote regular physical activity for the health of all Americans. The U.S. Congress has chartered the United States Olympic Committee to govern American participation in the Olympic Movement and promote Olympic sports. Congress has also involved itself in several aspects of sports, notably gender equity in college athletics, illegal drugs in pro sports, sports broadcasting and the application of antitrust law to sports leagues. Individual states may also have athletic commissions, which primarily govern individual sports such as boxing, kickboxing and mixed martial arts. Notable state athletic commissions are the Nevada Athletic Commission, California State Athletic Commission, New York State Athletic Commission and New Jersey State Athletic Control Board. Although these commissions only have jurisdiction over their own states, the Full Faith and Credit Clause of the U.S. Constitution is often interpreted as forcing all other states to recognize any state athletic commission's rulings regarding an athlete's fitness for participating in a sport. Sports have been a major part of American broadcasting since the early days of radio. Today, television networks and radio networks pay millions (sometimes billions) of dollars for the rights to broadcast sporting events. Contracts between leagues and broadcasters stipulate how often games must be interrupted for commercials. Because of all of the advertisements, broadcasting contracts are very lucrative and account for the biggest chunk of major professional teams' revenues. Broadcasters also covet the television contracts for the major sports leagues (especially in the case of the NFL) in order to amplify their ability to promote their programming to the audience, especially young and middle-aged adult males. The advent of cable and satellite television has greatly expanded sports offerings on American TV. ESPN, the first all-sports cable network in the U.S., went on the air in 1979. It has been followed by several sister networks and competitors. Some sports television networks are national, such as CBS Sports Network, Fox Sports 1 and NBC Sports Network, whereas others are regional, such as NBC Sports Regional Networks, Fox Sports Networks and Spectrum Sports. General entertainment channels like TBS, TNT, and USA Network also air sports events. Some sports leagues have their own sports networks, such as NFL Network, MLB Network, NBA TV, NHL Network, Big Ten Network, Pac-12 Network and SEC Network. Some sports teams run their own television networks as well. Sports are also widely broadcast at the local level, ranging from college and professional sports down to (on some smaller stations) recreational and youth leagues. Internet radio has allowed these broadcasts to reach a worldwide audience. In the broadest definition of sports—physical recreation of all sorts—the four most popular sports among the general population of the United States are exercise walking (90 million), exercising with equipment (53 million), swimming (52 million) and camping (47 million). The most popular competitive sport (and fifth most popular recreational sport) is bowling (43 million). Other most popular sports are fishing (35 million), bicycling (37 million), weightlifting (33 million), aerobics (30 million), and hiking (28 million). According to a January 2018 Poll by Gallup, 37% of Americans consider football their favorite spectator sport, while 11% prefer basketball, 9% baseball, and 7% soccer. There is some variation by viewer demographics. Men, show a stronger preference for football than women, conservatives a stronger preference than liberals, and those over 35 a stronger preference than those under 35. In all groups, however, football is still the most popular. Basketball and soccer are more popular among liberals than conservatives. The following table shows the major professional sports leagues, which average over 15,000 fans per game and that have a national TV contract that pays rights fees. American Ultimate Disc League (AUDL), Association of Volleyball Professionals (AVP), Major Arena Soccer League (MASL), Major League Lacrosse (MLL), Major League Rugby (MLR), National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), National Gay Flag Football League (NGFFL), National Lacrosse League (NLL), National Pro Fastpitch, National Women's Soccer League (NWSL), North American Soccer League (NASL), Professional Inline Hockey Association (PIHA), Premier Lacrosse League (PLL), United States Australian Football League (USAFL), USA Rugby League (USARL), USL Championship (USLC), USL League One (USL 1), Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) Bellator Fighting Championships, IndyCar (was Indy Racing League (IRL), merged with Champ Car), International Motor Sports Association (IMSA, sanctions IMSA SportsCar Championship), Legends Tour, for women's golfers 45 and over, LPGA Tour, National Association of Stock Car Automobile Racing (NASCAR), National Hot Rod Association (NHRA), PBA Tour, Professional Bull Riders (PBR), Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association, PGA Tour, PGA Tour Champions, for men's golfers 50 and over; operated by the PGA Tour, Professional Disc Golf Association (PDGA), Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC), United States Bowling Congress (USBC), World Juggling Federation (WJF) USA Boxing (USAB), USA Basketball (USAB), USA Cycling (USAC), United States of America Cricket Association (USACA), USA Football, USA Baseball, USA Hockey, USA Rugby (USAR), USA Table Tennis (USATT), USA Team Handball, USA Track & Field (USATF), USA Volleyball, United States Aquatic Sports (USAS), United States Bobsled and Skeleton Federation (USBFS), United States Golf Association (USGA), United States Snooker Association (USSA), United States Soccer Federation (USSF), United States Tennis Association (USTA) Sports in the United States by state, Women's sports in the United States, Sports Museum of America, Professional sports in the Western United States, Record attendances in United States club soccer, Homosexuality in sports in the United States Gerdy, John R. Sports: The All-American Addiction (2002) online, Gorn, Elliott J. A Brief History of American Sports (2004), Harris, Othello, George Kirsch, et al. eds. Encyclopedia of Ethnicity and Sports in the United States (2000) excerpts, Jackson III, Harvey H. ed. The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture: Sports & Recreation (2011) online, Jay, Kathryn. More Than Just a Game: Sports in American Life since 1945 (2004). online, Reiss, Steven A. ed. Sports in America from Colonial Times to the Twenty-First Century: An Encyclopedia (3 vol 2011) excerpt The most popular sport in Mexico is association football followed by boxing. However, there are regional variations: for example, baseball is the most popular sport in the northwest and the southeast of the country. Basketball, American football and bull riding (called "Jaripeo") are also popular. Mexico City hosted the 1968 Summer Olympics, the first time that the event was held in Latin America. Since then, the only edition of the Olympic Games held in the region was in 2016, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Mexico first participated at the Olympic Games in 1900 and has sent athletes to compete in every Summer Olympic Games since 1924. Mexico has also participated in several Winter Olympic Games since 1928. Mexico has performed best in athletics, boxing, equestrian, diving, and Swimming events, and more recently taekwondo and football. At the 2012 Summer Olympics, Mexico finished in thirty-ninth place; the Mexico team brought home seven medals, including their first gold medal won in football, and the rest of the medals in archery, diving, and taekwondo. Joaquín Capilla a Mexican diver who won the largest number of Olympic medals among Mexican athletes. Another noted diver is Paola Espinosa. Soraya Jiménez became the first ever female athlete from Mexico to win an Olympic gold medal. Enriqueta Basilio made history by being the first woman to light the Olympic Cauldron at 19th Summer Olympics in Mexico City on 12 October 1968. The Pan American Games competition is held among athletes from nations of the Americas, every four years in the year before the Summer Olympic Games. Mexico Ranks 6th in the top ten nations all time at the Pan American Games (minus medals won at the Winter Pan American Games). Mexico and Canada have hosted three Pan American Games each, more than any other nation. Among cities, only Winnipeg and Mexico City have played host to the Pan American Games more than once, each holding that honor twice. Similar to the Olympic flame, the Pan American Games flame is lit well before the Games are to commence. The flame was lit for the first games in Olympia, Greece. For subsequent games, the torch has been lit by Aztec people. in ancient temples, first in the Cerro de la Estrella and later in the Pyramid of the Sun at the Teotihuacan Pyramids. The only exception was for the São Paulo games in 1963, when the torch was lit in Brasília by the indigenous Guaraní people. An Aztec then lights the torch of the first relay bearer, thus initiating the Pan American Games torch relay that will carry the flame to the host city's main stadium, where it plays an important role in the opening ceremony. The Central American and Caribbean Games a multi-sport regional championship event, held quadrennial (once every four years), typically in the middle (even) year between Summer Olympics. The Games are for countries in Central America, the Caribbean, Mexico, and the South American Caribbean countries of Colombia, Guyana, Suriname, and Venezuela. They are designed to provide a step between sub-CACG-region Games held the first year following a Summer Olympics (e.g. Central American Games) and the Continental Championships, the Pan American Games, held the year before the Summer Olympics. The CACGs are the oldest continuing regional games in the world, and only the Olympics have run longer. Mexico has hosted four times the games Three in Mexico city and on in Veracruz in 2014. Mexico is also one of the three countries present at the first games and the first organizer of the Games. Mexico is the only country that has attended all editions, without a single absence and has the most medals and second most gold medals as of 2019. Charrería is the national sport of Mexico, it dates back to the 16th century and consists of a series of Mexico-developed equestrian events. The most notable event is the charreada; a style of rodeo developed in Mexico in the interest of maintaining the traditions of the charro. A charro is a term referring to a traditional horseman or a cowboy of Mexico, originating in the state of Jalisco. The national horse of Mexico, used in Charreria, is the Azteca. The Federación Mexicana de Charrería (Mexican Federation of Charreria) organizes charrería events. The most popular sport is football. The Spanish colonization of Mexico introduced bullfighting into the country. The sport has been one of the most popular in the country for the last 400 years. One of the most prominent bullfighters of the 20th century in Mexico was Carlos Arruza. He was known as "El Ciclón" ("The Cyclone"). Typically, a bullfight in Mexico includes a variety of rodeo events known as charreadas, and traditional folklorico dances. Thousands of bullfighting events occur in Mexico. In certain areas of the country, bullfighting generates a large amount of revenue from the local population, as well as visiting tourists. As evidence of the popularity of the sport, the largest bullring in the world is the Plaza Mexico, located in Mexico City. The anniversary of the opening of Plaza Mexico is celebrated annually with a special bullfight called the "Corrida de Aniversario". The Plaza México has been host to many of the world's best and most famous bullfighters. Basque pelota is the name for a variety of court sports played with a ball using one's hand, a racket, a wooden bat, or a basket propulsor, against a wall. Since 1952, the International Federation of Basque Pelota has organized the World Championships of Basque pelota every four years. Mexico hosted the world championships in 1982, 1998 and 2006. Mexico gave its best performance at the 2006 games when they led all nations with six gold medals. Frontenis is a variation of the Basque pelota game, itself a derivation of real tennis. It was created in 1916 in Mexico, when the idea of merging tennis and the traditional Basque pilota emerged. It is played in one of the largest courts in racquet sports with a tennis racquet that contains an optional custom double string called "doble encordado" and a tiny frontenis ball. The Pre-Columbian people of Mesoamerica have played the Mesoamerican ball game for over 3,000 years. Archaeologists found the oldest ballcourt yet discovered – dated to approximately 1400 BC – at Paso de la Amada in Mexico. The exact rules of the traditional ballgame remain unknown. Researchers believe that the sport probably resembled racquetball or volleyball, where the object is to keep the ball in play. In their Post-Classical Era (1000–1697 CE), the Maya began placing vertical stone rings on each side of the court, with the object of passing the ball through one. Several of these were placed quite high, as at Chichen Itza, where they stand 6 meters from the ground. Players would strike the ball with their hips or forearms, or employed rackets, bats, or hand-stones. The ball was made of solid rubber and weighed up to 4 kg or more, with sizes that differed greatly over time or according to the version played. Games took place between two individuals and between two teams of players. The ballgame played out within a large masonry structure which contained a long narrow playing alley flanked by walls with both horizontal and sloping (or, more rarely, vertical) surfaces. The walls were often plastered and brightly painted. A version of the game called Ulama is still played in the Mexican state of Sinaloa. Mexico's most popular team sport is association football. Football is widely followed and practiced all over the country and it is considered the most popular sport in most states. It is believed that football was introduced in Mexico by English Cornish miners at the end of the 19th century. By 1902 a five-team league emerged with a strong English influence. Football became a professional sport in 1943. Mexico has hosted two World Cup tournaments (1970 and 1986). Many of the stadiums in use in the league have a World Cup history. Sites such as Estadio Jalisco in Guadalajara, and Estadio Azteca in Mexico City are renowned for their national and international history. The legendary Estadio Azteca, for example, is one of the only two stadiums in the world to have hosted two men's World Cup finals (the other being the Maracana) and is one of the highest capacity stadiums in the world. Mexican's biggest stadiums are Estadio Azteca, Estadio Jalisco, Estadio BBVA Bancomer, Estadio Olímpico Universitario and Estadio Cuauhtémoc. The 1986 FIFA World Cup in Mexico was broadcast to a global audience, and the wave or the Mexican wave was popularized worldwide after featuring during the tournament. The Mexico women's national football team boasts one silver (1971) and one bronze (1970) in the Women's World Cup, though these accomplishments are not officially recognized, as they took place prior to FIFA's recognition of the women's game. Maribel Domínguez was a noted captain and leading scorer of the Mexico women's national football team. She is known internationally as "Marigol" for her record of 46 goals scored in 49 matches for the Mexico women's national team. The Mexico national football team (Spanish: Selección de fútbol de México) represents Mexico in association football and is governed by the Mexican Football Federation (FMF, from the native name of Federación Mexicana de Fútbol Asociación), the governing body for football in Mexico. Mexico's home stadium is the Estadio Azteca and their head coach is Juan Carlos Osorio. The team is currently ranked 21st in the World Football Elo Ratings. Mexico has qualified for fifteen FIFA World Cups and has qualified consecutively since 1994, making it one of six countries to do so. The Mexico national team, along with Brazil and Germany, are the only nations to make it out of the group stage over the last six World Cups. Mexico played France in the very first match of the first World Cup on July 13, 1930. Mexico's best progression was reaching the quarter-finals in the 1970 and 1986 World Cups, both of which were staged on Mexican soil, and will host once again in 2026 sharing with Canada and United States. The Mexico national football team won the 1999 FIFA Confederations Cup and the Gold Medal in London 2012, finished twice as runners-up at the Copa América, won the 2005 FIFA U-17 World Championship, and have reached the quarter finals twice at the World Cup. Recently, some players from Mexico have moved on to European clubs, including Rafael Márquez, Carlos Salcido, Ricardo Osorio, Pável Pardo, Andrés Guardado, Guillermo Franco, Carlos Vela, Giovani dos Santos, Omar Bravo, Aaron Galindo, Héctor Moreno, Francisco Javier Rodríguez and others. Mexico is historically the most successful national team in the CONCACAF region, holding nine CONCACAF championships, including six CONCACAF Gold Cups, one North American Nations Cup and three NAFC Championships. Mexico is the only team from CONCACAF to have won an official FIFA competition, the 1999 FIFA Confederations Cup. Although Mexico is under the jurisdiction of CONCACAF, the national football team has been regularly invited to compete in the Copa América since 1993 finishing as runner-up twice and obtaining the third place medal on three occasions. The first Mexican club, C.F. Pachuca, survives. Since 1996, the country has played two split seasons instead of a traditional long season. There are two separate playoff and league divisions. This system is common throughout Latin America. After many years of calling the regular seasons as "Verano" (Summer) and "Invierno" (Winter); the top-level Liga MX, formerly the Primera División, has changed the names of the competition, and has opted for a traditional name of "Apertura" (opening) and "Clausura" (closing) events. The Apertura division begins in the middle of Mexico's summer and ends before the official start of winter. The Clausura division begins during the New Year, and concludes in the spring season. Mexican football is divided into four divisions, beginning with Liga MX and followed by Ascenso MX, the Liga Premier, and Tercera División. The bottom two leagues translate literally as "Second Division" and "Third Division"; their names reflect their former positions in the league hierarchy before the Segunda División was split into two leagues, with the league now known as Ascenso MX becoming the new second level. The teams are promoted and relegated by the FMF based on percentage calculations. Relegation is a common practice in Mexican football. There is a club exchange of each tier with the adjacent tiers so that a division's least successful team is relegated (transferred) to the next lower tier and the most successful club of the lower tier is promoted to the tier above. By the placement of each, the top tier cannot promote and the bottom tier cannot relegate. The relegation system does not punish clubs for producing a single poor season. Mexican clubs are assessed on their previous five campaigns. Points are accumulated for five seasons, and are divided by the number of matches played. The club with the lowest percentage in the Apertura is relegated to a lower division. Each team must earn their promotions. Since 1943, Mexico's five most successful clubs in Mexican football league system matches have been América (13 championships), Chivas (12), Toluca (10), Cruz Azul (8) and Pumas (7). America is the historical arch-nemesis of Chivas, so a match between the two is the Clásico Nacional derby that the entire country awaits. Another noted derby in Mexico is the Clásico Regiomontano between crosstown rival teams Monterrey and Tigres. Whereas the Clásico Nacional involves two teams from cities in different states the Clásico Regiomontano game involves two neighboring cities. Chivas are renowned for using only Mexican players in their squad. Consequently, they have long fed players to the Mexico national football team. Hugo Sánchez widely regarded as the greatest Mexican footballer of all time, was named best CONCACAF player of the 20th century by IFFHS. No other Mexican footballer has scored as many goals in Europe as Hugo Sánchez. He is the fourth highest scorer in the history of La Liga, the third highest scoring foreign player after Lionel Messi and Cristiano Ronaldo. Rafael Márquez the first Mexican to win the UEFA Champions League is considered by many the best defender in the country's football history. Márquez is Mexico's record World Cup player and one of only three players with appearances in five tournaments. Cuauhtémoc Blanco is the only Mexican football player to be presented with an award (The Silver Ball and Silver Shoe) in a major international FIFA competition (1999 FIFA Confederations Cup). He shares the record as the highest scorer of the tournament with Ronaldinho (nine goals in two editions). He has been awarded the MVP of the México Primera División League five times. Jorge Campos with the national team, appeared in three World Cups, two Confederation Cups, two Gold Cups and three Copas América. Horacio Casarín was sought out by defenders and fouled him mercilessly during a 1939 game between Casarin's Necaxa, and Asturias F.C., Necaxa fans were so angry that they burnt the Parque Asturias stadium. Horacio retired as the all-time Mexican scorer, with 256 goals to his count. Antonio Carbajal was the first player to appear in five World Cups and the only Mexican player that has received the FIFA Order of Merit. Claudio Suárez is the most capped player in the history of Mexico national team with 178 caps. As of 2006, it was estimated that Mexico has over 324,000 registered players and 8,155,000 unregistered players. Beach football is a variant of the sport of association football which was invented in Brazil. It is played on beaches, and emphasizes skill, agility and goal scoring. The FIFA Beach Football World Cup has been held annually since 2005. Mexico finished as runners up to Brazil in its first appearance at the 2007 Beach Football World Cup. Recently indoor association football has become a popular sport in Mexico, being included as part of the Universiada (University National Games) and the "CONADEIP" (Private School Tournament), which match University school teams from all over Mexico. In Mexico, "indoor" football fields are commonly built outdoors, and the sport is known as "fútbol rápido" (fast football). The Mexican team Monterrey La Raza joined the Major Indoor football League in 2007 and finished the season in second place during its inaugural year. A previous version of Monterrey La Raza (1992–2001) won three championships in the now defunct organizations Continental Indoor Football League and World Indoor Football League. Baseball has been traditionally known as the most popular sport in some regions of Mexico, mainly in Sonora and Sinaloa and arguably in Oaxaca, Yucatán, Campeche and Tabasco, where football is also widely followed. Other states where baseball has had some tradition include Baja California, Chihuahua, Durango, Coahuila, Veracruz, Puebla, Nuevo León and Quintana Roo, yet overshadowed by football in popularity. Nevertheless, Mexico has had relative success in the sport, probably just behind boxing and comparable to the success obtained in football. Although there is some dispute about exactly when and where baseball started in Mexico, baseball has a long and colorful history in Mexico, particularly in the north, with historians placing its origin there as early as the 1840s. Today, baseball flourishes in Mexico, where it is played professionally in both summer and winter. Over 100 Mexicans have played in the major leagues in the United States, including Cy Young Award winner Fernando Valenzuela, top 300 home run hitter Vinny Castilla, Gold Glove Award winner Aurelio Rodríguez, and AL batting champion Bobby Ávila. The first Mexican to play in Major League Baseball in the United States was Mel Almada, who participated with the Boston Red Sox in 1933. The Mexican Baseball League ("Liga Mexicana de Béisbol" or "LMB") was founded in 1925, establishing six teams, and playing all their matches in Mexico City. In the 1930s and 1940s, African-Americans from the United States – who were still barred from Major League Baseball until Jackie Robinson broke the color barrier in 1947 – played alongside Mexicans and Cubans in the Mexican League. In 1937, legendary Negro Leagues' stars Satchel Paige and "Cool Papa Bell" left the Pittsburgh Crawfords to play in Latin America. After playing a year in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, Paige and Bell joined the Mexican League. In the 1940s, multi-millionaire Jorge Pasquel attempted to turn the Mexican League into a first-rate rival to the major leagues in the United States. In 1946, Pasquel traveled north of the border to pursue the top players in the Negro and major leagues. Pasquel signed up close to twenty major leaguers, including such well known names as Mickey Owen and Sal Maglie, and a number of Negro league players. Ultimately, Pasquel's dream faded, as financial realities led to decreased salaries and his high-priced foreign stars returned home. Currently, 16 teams divided into North and South Divisions play in the Mexican Baseball League in a summer season, which ends in a 7-game championship series between the winners of the two divisions. Since 1967, the league has been sanctioned as an AAA minor league, though no team has an affiliation with any team in the United States. In the winter, eight teams play in the Mexican Pacific League ("Liga Mexicana del Pacífico" or "LMP"), whose winner advances to the Caribbean Series against other Latin American champions. Although the Mexican League has a longer history, the Mexican Pacific League is the premier baseball league in Mexico today. It is played during the Major League Baseball (MLB) off-season, so many MLB players also compete in the LMP. The Mexican Professional Baseball Hall of Fame has inducted 167 players, consisting of 138 Mexicans, 16 Cubans, 12 from the United States, and one Puerto Rican. Distinguished players include MLB stars Roy Campanella and Monte Irvin, who played in the Mexican League in the 1940s. Nicknamed "El Bambino Mexicano", or the Mexican Babe Ruth, Héctor Espino was inducted in the Mexican Hall of Fame in 1988, after playing with San Luis Potosí, and Tampico from 1962 to 1984. His 453 home runs remained the record until Nelson Barrera surpassed him in 2001. Espino still holds the all-time records in many offensive categories. The Mexico national baseball team represents Mexico in international tournaments, most notably the World Baseball Classic. Basketball is the third most popular team sport in Mexico. Mexico has a few professional basketball leagues, the top professional league is the Liga Nacional de Baloncesto Profesional where the Halcones UV Xalapa are the most successful team of the league, having won the competition four times. The best teams of the LNBP advance to the FIBA Americas League. In the northwestern states is the CIBACOPA competition, with professional basketball players from Mexico and U.S. universities. This regional league have a stake in the rest months of the LNBP. Manuel Raga is the first and only Mexican inducted in the FIBA Hall of Fame. In 1996 Horacio Llamas made history by becoming the first Mexican to participate in an NBA game. Since then, several Mexicans followed, including Eduardo Nájera, Earl Watson, Gustavo Ayón and Jorge Gutiérrez; also, Manuel Raga and Gustavo Ayón had notable triumphs in the European Basket, as the only Mexican champions in the EuroLeague. The best results of the National team is the 1st place in the 2013 Americas Championship, qualified for the 2014 Basketball World Cup where it reached the playoffs and won the Bronze Medal in Berlin 1936. The nation hosted the FIBA AmeriCup in 1989 and 2015. American football (gridiron) has been played in Mexico since the early 1920s, and is a strong minority sport at Mexican colleges and universities, mainly in Monterrey. American football is the fourth most popular team sport in Mexico. The maximum competition is the Liga de Fútbol Americano Profesional (LFA). The Liga de Fútbol Americano Profesional was founded in 2016 with initial 4 teams (Raptors, Eagles, Condors and Mayas), all based in Mexico City. On February 21 it held the first game and the championship game was held on April 10, leaving the Mayas as champions and the Raptors as runners-up. The LFA has since expanded to eight members as of 2019. There are plans to expand the league and increase the number of teams and the number of participating states. Funded in 2018, the Fútbol Americano de México (FAM) is considerad as a rival to the LFA given they compete for television spaces, players, coaches and in general for the same market segment. The team that became champion of the first season are the Pioneros de Querétaro (Pioneers of Querétaro). Before this professional league was founded, the maximum competition of American football in Mexico was at the college level. American football has been played in Mexico since the early 1920s in different colleges and universities, mainly in Mexico City. In 1928 the first college championship was played, organized by Jorge Braniff. Over successive decades, more universities and colleges joined the championship, and four categories, called "Fuerzas", were created. The First Fuerza became the National League in 1970. In 1978, this was reorganized under the name "Organización Nacional Estudiantil de Fútbol Americano" (ONEFA). In 2010 a breakaway league, CONADEIP, was formed by the Monterrey Tech system, UDLAP and additional private universities. The Aztec Bowl is a NCAA sanctioned college division post-season bowl in which American Division III college All- stars face off against a team of Mexican all-stars. The Mexico national American football team has competed in the IFAF World Cup, which has been held every four years since 1999. Mexico participated in 1999 and 2003, finishing second in both competitions. Raul Allegre is a former football placekicker in the National Football League (NFL); he played for the Baltimore Colts, the Indianapolis Colts, the New York Giants, and the New York Jets. Mexico's Estadio Azteca is also notable as being the venue of the NFL-game with the all-time record attendance of 103,467 on October 2, 2005. Rugby in Mexico has a long tradition dating back to the early 1900s when Europeans were migrating to Mexico. Though rugby has been a minor sport in Mexico, the Mexican Rugby Federation was established, and the sport has been steadily increasing in popularity, with around twelve teams competing in the top league. The Mexican national rugby sevens team have achieved some good results in international tournaments, including taking third place at the 2015 NACRA Sevens. Polo was first popularized by the Escandon-Barron family in the late nineteenth century. Three members of the Escandon-Barron family would win a bronze medal at the 1900 Olympics. The Mexican polo team also won an Olympic bronze medal in 1936, the last Olympic Games which featured polo. Mexico hosted the World Polo Championship in 2008. The World Polo Championship has been held every three years by the Federation of International Polo since 1987. Mexico's best finishes have been second place in 1987, and third place in 1995 and 2008. The best Mexican polo player is Carlos Gracida, who is also considered to be one of the best polo players in the sport. He has accumulated more tournament wins than any other athlete in the history of the sport, winning the Abierto Argentino de Palermo tournament five times, the British Open Gold Cup ten times, and the US Open nine times. Carlos' brother, Memo Gracida, is a polo player of international renown as well and a member of the Polo Hall of Fame. The two have teamed together to win numerous tournaments worldwide. Racquetball is a popular sport that is played in Mexico. The Racquetball World Championships were first held in 1981 and have been played every two years since 1984. San Luis Potosí hosted the championships in 1994 and 2000. Álvaro Beltrán was World Champion in 2000, and Mexican men have won the doubles titles four times: in 2000 (Luis Bustillos & Javier Moreno), 2002 (Polo Gutierrez & Gilberto Mejia), 2006 (Moreno & Beltran), and in 2012 (Moreno & Beltran). while the Mexican teams have finished among the top three in men's and top four in women's since 1986. Paola Longoria was the #1 player on the Women's Professional Racquetball Organization tour at the end of its 2008–2009 season, becoming the first woman not from Canada or the US to do so. She also won gold at the 2009 and 2013 World Games, and again is the first non-American woman to do so. Additionally, in 2012, she became the first player to win both the singles and doubles Racquetball World Championship. Racquetball will be included in the 2011 Pan American Games in Guadalajara. Although not a mainstream sport in Mexico, ice hockey is played in larger cities like Monterrey, Guadalajara, Villahermosa, Culiacán, León and Mexico City. The Mexican Elite League is the top level of ice hockey in Mexico. The Mexican Elite League, was inaugurated on 2 October 2010 with the aim to establish Mexico as a high-level international competitor in ice hockey. Currently it has 4 professional teams and 17 associated equipment. The "Federación Deportiva de Mexico de Hockey Sobre Hielo" (Mexico National Ice Hockey Federation) regulates all tournaments in Mexico. The Mexican hockey league includes 7 federation clubs and 8 independent clubs. Mexico is also the only Latin American full member of the International Ice Hockey Federation and competes in international tournaments. Claudia Téllez, at 32 became the first Mexican national to sign for the Canadian Women's Hockey League and Jorge Perez, became the first Mexican-born player at the Junior A level in Canada for Rayside-Balfour. American Auston Matthews, of the Toronto Maple Leafs center and the NHL's No. 1 draft pick in 2016, has Mexican heritage by way of his mother and so due Scott Gomez and Canadian Raffi Torres. Mexican sport is also known for its boxing tradition. Boxing is the most popular individual sport in Mexico. Mexico is also the second in total number of world champions produced, after the United States, and has recently produced more World Champions in the last 30 years. The first boxing champion Mexico produced was Battling Shaw when he became the Light Welterweight Champion by outpointing Johnny Jadick in 1933. Thirteen Olympic boxing medals have been won by Mexico. International Boxing Hall of Fame members include Julio César Chávez, Sr., Salvador Sánchez, Ricardo Lopez, José Nápoles, Rubén Olivares, Baby Arizmendi, Pipino Cuevas, Chiquita González, Sugar Ramos, Daniel Zaragoza, Miguel Canto, Vicente Saldivar, Carlos Palomino, and Carlos Zárate. Other prominent Mexican boxers include World Boxing Hall of Fame members, Kid Azteca, Jesús Pimentel, Lupe Pintor, Juan Zurita, and José Luis Ramírez. More recent champions include Canelo Álvarez, Julio César Chávez Jr., Marco Antonio Barrera, Érik Morales, Juan Manuel Márquez, Rafael Márquez, Israel Vázquez and Juan Francisco Estrada. Mexico's biggest rival in the sport of boxing is Puerto Rico. There have been many classic match ups between the two such as Sánchez–Gómez Gómez–Zárate and many more. Other great match ups are between two Mexican fighters and Mexican vs. Mexican-American. Good examples of fighting between two Mexicans are Barrera vs Morales and Márquez vs Vázquez. A good example of a Mexican vs a Mexican-American are Bazooka Limon vs Chacon, Chiquita González vs Carbajal, Márquez vs Díaz, and Castillo vs Corrales. The Abierto Mexicano Telcel is a tennis tournament held in Acapulco, Mexico. It is an event on both the ATP Tour (International Series Gold event) and the WTA Tour (Tier III). Rafael Osuna is the best tennis player to come out of Mexico. He was ranked number one in 1963 when he won the U.S. Open Championship. Osuna led Mexico to the 1962 Davis Cup, becoming the first team from Latin America to compete for the trophy. Osuna would go on to win a Grandslam singles championship in 1963. He also won the U.S. Open Doubles Championship in 1962, the Wimbledon double's championship in 1960 and 1963, and a doubles tennis Olympic gold medal in 1968. Osuna was killed in a plane crash in 1969 at the age of 30. In 1969, the Intercollegiate Tennis College Association NCAA instituted "The Rafael Osuna Sportsmanship Award" in his honor. Later that year, the Chapultepec Club, renamed its stadium "Rafael Osuna Stadium". He was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1979. Raúl Ramírez was the first player to finish first in both singles and doubles Grand Prix point standings, accomplishing the feat in 1976. Raúl Zurutuza is the director of Mextenis, which organizes Mexico's Acapulco and Los Cabos tennis tourneys. Plaza de Toros México become a tennis court and hosted, as Roger Federer faced Germany’s Alexander Zverev on November 23 2019. A record tennis crowd of more than 42,000 watched, the attendance figure smashed an almost decade-old record of 35,681, set in 2010. The most notable Mexican professional auto racers have been Pedro Rodríguez, who was the winner of the 1968 24 Hours of Le Mans, and his brother Ricardo Rodríguez, who at age 18 finished second at the 1960 24 Hours of Le Mans, becoming the youngest ever to stand on the podium. He was also the youngest F1 driver at that time. They were both considered among the top drivers before their untimely deaths. The Mexico City racetrack Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez ("Rodríguez Brothers Racetrack") was named in their honor. Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez has hosted several racing events including the Formula 1 (1962–1970, 1986–1992, 2015–present), Champ Car World Series (1980–1981 and 2002–2007), World Sportscar Championship, Grand-Am, Trans-Am, IMSA, A1 Grand Prix, NASCAR Nationwide Series, Formula BMW World Finals, Champ Car Atlantic Series, Panam GP Series and NASCAR Mexico Corona Series. More recently Sergio Pérez and Esteban Gutiérrez have re-established a Mexican presence in F1. Before them, Héctor Rebaque competed in the F1 between 1977 and 1981, their best position was 10th in the 1981 season, and Jo Ramírez worked for a number of F1 teams, most notably as team co-ordinator for McLaren in the 1980s and 1990s. The A1 Team Mexico is the Mexican team of A1 Grand Prix, the World Cup of Motorsport; Salvador Durán has earned two victories for the team. Adrián Fernández has become a popular driver in Mexico since the 1990s and reached his climax when he finished in second place during the 2000 CART season. Fernández co-founded the Fernández Racing with which he championed the American Le Mans Series and previously won in Champ Car, the IRL IndyCar Series, and Grand-Am. Carlos Contreras was the first Mexican-born driver racing full-time in any NASCAR national series. Daniel Suárez won the 2016 NASCAR Xfinity Series championship. Since 2004, Rally Mexico is a round of the FIA World Rally Championship, Held in the state of Guanajuato, and over time it has become one of the most popular rounds of the championship. Other auto racing events currently held in Mexico include the Baja 1000, the World's most important off-road race, taking place on Mexico's Baja California Peninsula and with the Mexicans normally winning various categories. Racing events formerly held in Mexico include the Tecate/Telmex Grand Prix of Monterrey and the Carrera Panamericana, which is now held as one of the premiere vintage racing events of the World. Golf is a popular sport in Mexico. There are over 150 golf courses in the country. Lorena Ochoa, who was the number-one-ranked female golf player in the world before abruptly retiring in 2010, has helped increase the popularity of golf in the country. Professional golf tournaments held in Mexico includes, the Corona Championship, MasterCard Classic, Lorena Ochoa Invitational, Mayakoba Golf Classic at Riviera Maya-Cancún, and the Mexican Open. Taekwondo was introduced to Mexico in 1969 by Korean Mexican Dai Won Moon. With over 1.5 million taekwondo practitioners and 3,500 schools throughout the country, taekwondo is one of the most popular sports in the nation. Mexico has also been competitive on the international level in the sport of taekwondo. Over forty Mexican taekwondo practitioners have medaled at the World Taekwondo Championships. Taekwondo made its official debut at the 2000 Summer Olympics and Mexican athletes have medaled in the sport in every Olympics since then. Mexican athletes won a bronze medal in taekwondo at the 2000 Summer Olympics, a silver and bronze medal at the 2004 Summer Olympics, two gold medals at the 2008 Summer Olympics, a bronze medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics and a silver medal at the 2016 Summer Olympics. María Espinoza has medaled at the 2008, 2012 and 2016 Olympics. Mexico currently ranks 4th on the total medal count for taekwondo, its best performance for any Olympic sport. The 400-meter event became popular when Ana Guevara became world champion in 2003. Raúl González set the world record in the 50-kilometres racewalk twice in 1978 (3:45:52 and 3:41:20). As of October 2011, it still was the North American record. Pilar Roldán was the first Mexican woman to win an Olympic medal (a silver in the 1968 Olympic games in Mexico City) and was also part of the first father- daughter team (her father was the famous tennis player Ángel Roldán) in the Pan-American games in 1955. Elsa Ávila was the first Latin American woman to reach the Mount Everest summit in 1999, but she has also been the first to accomplish several other climbs. She specializes in big wall climbs and was the first Latin American woman to climb El Capitán in Yosemite, the Rockies, the Alps, the Andes, the Himalayas, Patagonia and Baffin Island in the Arctic Circle. 1968 Summer Olympics, 1926 Central American and Caribbean Games, 1954 Central American and Caribbean Games, 1990 Central American and Caribbean Games, 2014 Central American and Caribbean Games, 1955 Pan American Games, 1975 Pan American Games, 2011 Pan American Games, 1969 World Judo Championships, 1970 FIFA World Cup, 1986 FIFA World Cup, 1983 FIFA World Youth Championship, 2011 FIFA U-17 World Cup, 1999 FIFA Confederations Cup, 2012 FIFRA Club Championship, 1974 FIVB Men's Volleyball World Championship, 1974 FIVB Women's Volleyball World Championship, 1979 Summer Universiade, 1993 CONCACAF Gold Cup, 2003 CONCACAF Gold Cup, 2007–2008 FIBA Americas League, 2008–2009 FIBA Americas League, 2007 World Chess Championship, 2008 World Polo Championship, 2009 World Baseball Classic (Pool B), 2013 World Taekwondo Championships, 2014 World Cup Taekwondo Team Championships, 2015 World Cup Taekwondo Team Championships, 2026 FIFA World Cup with Canada and United States Italic text indicates upcoming events hosted by Mexico. Mexican professional wrestling, which is known as lucha libre, has been a popular spectacle in Mexico since 1933, when promoter Salvador Lutteroth Gonzales founded Empresa Mexicana de Lucha Libre. Like other forms of professional wrestling, it is not strictly a sport, but rather a form of sports entertainment, as matches usually have predetermined outcomes. Lucha libre is characterized by rapid sequences of holds and moves, as well as spectacular high-flying moves, many of which have been adopted in the United States. The two most popular lucha libre promotions are Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL), and Lucha Libre AAA World Wide (AAA). Notable wrestling stars include El Santo, Blue Demon, and Mil Máscaras. The original "Big Three" of the lucha libre tradition in Mexico. Most recently Perro Aguayo, Rayo de Jalisco, and Huracán Ramírez. Prince Hubertus of Hohenlohe-Langenburg, Inés Sainz, José Ramón Fernández, Marion Reimers, Gilberto Hernández Guerrero, Manuel León Hoyos, Sports marketing in Mexico, List of Mexican records in swimming Complete list of Mexico sports federations, Federación Mexicana de Raquetbol – Women's Mexican Racquetball Federation Soccer in the United States is governed by different organizations. The United States Soccer Federation governs most levels of soccer in the country, including the national teams, professional leagues, and amateur leagues. The NCAA governs colleges and the National Federation of High Schools governs schools. The match regulations are generally the same between the three governing bodies although there are many subtle differences. , over 24.4 million people play soccer in the United States. In 2017, Gallup reported that soccer was the third-most watched team sport in the U.S., behind only basketball and American football. The popularity of the sport in the U.S. has been growing since the 1960s and 1970s and received a significant boost when the United States hosted the 1994 FIFA World Cup and 1999 FIFA Women's World Cup. It is the fourth most popular sport in the United States behind American football, baseball, and basketball, and is the second fastest growing sport in America, surpassed only by lacrosse. The highest-level men's professional soccer league in the U.S. is Major League Soccer. MLS began play in 1996 with 10 teams and has grown to 24 teams (21 in the United States and 3 in Canada), with further expansion planned to 30 teams. MLS is currently the largest first division professional soccer league in the world. The MLS season runs from February to November, with the regular-season winner awarded the Supporters' Shield and the post-season winner awarded the MLS Cup. With an average attendance of over 20,000 per game, MLS has the third highest average attendance of any sports league in the U.S. after the National Football League (NFL) and Major League Baseball (MLB), and is the seventh highest attended professional soccer league worldwide. The first women's professional soccer league in the U.S. formed after the success of the 1999 Women's World Cup. The Women's United Soccer Association (WUSA) ran from 2001–2003 and featured many of the World Cup stars, including Mia Hamm, Michelle Akers and Brandi Chastain. Its successor Women's Professional Soccer (WPS) ran from 2009–2012. Currently, the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) is the top professional league in the country and was formed in 2012. The NWSL season runs from spring to early fall (typically April – October). In 2017, A&E; Networks bought an equity stake in the league and broadcasts a game of the week on Lifetime, and formerly streamed all games online via the go90 platform. During the 2018 season, the NWSL moved some of the games originally scheduled to air on Lifetime to evening slots on ESPNews (both channels being part of the Disney family), and when go90 owner Verizon shut down that platform at the end of July, the NWSL streamed the games that were intended for go90 on its own website. U.S. soccer fans also follow the U.S. national teams in international competition. The 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup Final drew a record 26.7 million viewers, greater than final games of the 2014 World Series or the 2015 NBA Finals, and the 2010 Men's World Cup final drew 26.5 million viewers. The women's national team has won four Women's World Cup titles and four gold medals at the Summer Olympics and the men's national team played in every World Cup from 1990 to 2014. In the United States, the sport of association football is mainly referred to as "soccer", as the term "football" is primarily used to refer to the sport of American football. There has been some debate about the origins of modern soccer in America. It has long been held that the modern game entered the States through Ellis Island in the 1860s. However, 2013 research has shown that soccer entered America through the port of New Orleans, as Irish, English, Scottish, Italian and German immigrants brought the game with them. It was in New Orleans that many of the first games of soccer in America were held. The origins of the game in general trace back to ancient Greece, Rome, Egypt, or China. It is difficult to say for sure which country was the true origin. Oneida Football Club has been named as the first association football club in the United States but there is still discussion on what rules the club used, and it broke up within the space of a few years. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, the club is often credited with inventing the "Boston Game", which allowed players to both kick a round ball along the ground, and to pick it up and run with it. The earliest examples of governance in the sport started in 1884 when the American Football Association (AFA) was incarnated. The AFA sought to standardize rules for the local soccer teams based in the Northeastern United States, particularly in northern New Jersey and southern New York state. By 1886, the AFA had spread in influence into Pennsylvania and Massachusetts. Within a year of its founding, the AFA organized the first non-league cup in American soccer history, known as the American Cup. For the first dozen years, clubs from New Jersey and Massachusetts dominated the competition. It would not be until 1897 that a club from outside those two states won the American Cup. Philadelphia Manz brought the title to Pennsylvania for the first time. Due to conflicts within the AFA, the cup was suspended in 1899, and it was not resumed until 1906. Early soccer leagues in the U.S. mostly used the name "football", for example: the AFA (founded in 1884), the American Amateur Football Association (1893), the American League of Professional Football (1894), the National Association Foot Ball League (1895), and the Southern New England Football League (1914). Common confusion between the terms American football and association football eventually led to a more domestic widespread use of the term soccer with regard to association football. Originally seen as a British slang term for "association", the use of soccer began appearing in the late 1910s and early 1920s. A noticeable example was the American Soccer League (ASL), which formed in 1919. The governing body of the sport in the U.S. did not have the word soccer in its name until 1945 when it became the United States Soccer Football Association. It did not drop the word football from its name until 1974, when it became the United States Soccer Federation, often going simply as U.S. Soccer. In October 1911, a competing body, the American Amateur Football Association (AAFA) was created. The association quickly spread outside of the Northeast and created its own cup in 1912, the American Amateur Football Association Cup. The conflicts within the AFA led to a movement to create a truly national body to oversee American soccer. In 1913, both the AAFA and AFA applied for membership in FIFA, the international governing body for soccer. Drawing on both its position as the oldest soccer organization and the status of the American Cup, the AFA argued that it should be the nationally recognized body. Later that year, the AAFA gained an edge over the AFA when several AFA organizations moved to the AAFA. On April 5, 1913, the AAFA reorganized as the United States Football Association (USFA), presently known as the United States Soccer Federation. FIFA quickly granted a provisional membership and USFA began exerting its influence on the sport. This led to the establishment of the National Challenge Cup, which still exists as the Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup, that fall. The National Challenge Cup quickly grew to overshadow the American Cup. However, both cups were played simultaneously for the next ten years. Declining respect for the AFA led to the withdrawal of several associations from its cup in 1917. Further competition came in 1924 when USFA created the National Amateur Cup. That spelled the death knell for the American Cup. It played its last season in 1924. During the days of the American Soccer League, the league was seen as widely popular, and considered to be the second-most popular sports league in the United States, only behind Major League Baseball. However, the "soccer war" between the USFA and ASL, combined with the onset of the Great Depression in 1929, led to the demise of the ASL in 1933, and the demise of the professional sport in the United States; however, the sport continued in amateur and semi-professional leagues. The national soccer team competed in the first two FIFA World Cups, managing to qualify for the semifinals of the first tournament and qualifying for the following one in Italy, where the U.S. team was knocked out in the first match by would-be world champions Italy. The prominence of college soccer increased with the NCAA sanctioning an annual men's soccer championship, beginning in 1959 with the inaugural championship won by Saint Louis University. Two professional soccer leagues were started in 1967, the United Soccer Association and the National Professional Soccer League, which merged to form the North American Soccer League in 1968. The NASL enjoyed a significant boost in popularity when the New York Cosmos signed Pelé to play for three seasons in 1975–77. The Cosmos drew large throughout the late 1970s. Between 1977 and 1980, the Cosmos drew crowds of more than 60,000 on ten occasions, and over 70,000 on seven occasions (see Record attendances in United States club soccer). The NASL declined during the early 1980s and disbanded in 1984. The popularity of indoor soccer peaked in the 1980s, with both the NASL and the Major Indoor Soccer League operating indoor soccer leagues. The 1970s and 1980s saw increased popularity of the college game. Women's college soccer received a significant boost in 1972 with the passage of Title IX, which mandated equal funding for women's athletic programs, leading to colleges forming NCAA-sanctioned women's varsity teams. A men's match between Saint Louis University and local rival SIU Edwardsville drew a college record 22,512 fans to Busch Stadium on October 30, 1980. By 1984, more colleges played soccer (532) than American football (505). In 1967 there were 100,000 people playing soccer in the US; by 1984, that number had grown to over 4 million. Girls high school soccer experienced tremendous growth in playing numbers throughout the 1970s and 1980s—from 10,000 in 1976 to 41,000 in 1980, to 122,000 in 1990. The soccer matches for the 1984 Summer Olympics were well attended. Five matches drew over 75,000 fans, and two soccer matches at the Rose Bowl stadium in Pasadena, California, drew over 100,000 fans. These high attendance figures were one factor that FIFA took into consideration in 1988 when deciding to award the 1994 World Cup to the United States. Interest in soccer within the United States continued to grow during the 1990s. This growth has been attributed in significant part to the FIFA World Cup being held in the United States for the first time in 1994. This won the sport more attention from both the media and casual sports fans. The tournament was successful, drawing an average attendance of 68,991, a World Cup record that still stands today. The 1994 World Cup drew record TV audiences in the U.S. As part of the United States' bid to host the 1994 World Cup, U.S. Soccer pledged to create a professional outdoor league. Major League Soccer launched in 1996, which helped develop American players in a way that was not possible without a domestic league. Many of these players competed in the 2002 FIFA World Cup, where the United States reached the quarterfinals, its best result in the modern era. The team would qualify for eight consecutive World Cup tournaments between 1990 and 2014 before failing to qualify for the 2018 tournament, which would be the first such occurrence since 1986. The growth of the women's game during the 1990s helped increase overall interest in soccer in the United States. The number of women's college soccer teams increased from 318 in 1991 to 959 in 2009. Both the 1999 and 2003 FIFA Women's World Cups were held in the United States. The crowd of over 90,000 at the Rose Bowl for the 1999 FIFA Women's World Cup Final remains the largest crowd in the world to witness any women's sporting event. , over 24 million Americans play soccer. There are 4.2 million players (2.5 million male and 1.7 million female) registered with U.S. Soccer. , thirty percent of American households contain someone playing soccer, a figure second only to baseball. Increasing numbers of Americans, having played the game in their youth, are now avid spectators. The annual ESPN sports poll has shown soccer as the fourth most popular team sport in the United States every year since overtaking hockey in 2006; as of 2011, 8.2% of Americans rank soccer as their favorite sport (compared to 3.8% for hockey). A 2012 Harris Interactive poll showed soccer to be the fifth favorite team sport, with 2% of Americans ranking soccer as their favorite (compared to 5% for hockey). A 2011 ESPN sports poll ranked soccer as the second most popular sport in the country for 12- to 24-year-olds. In 2013, Lionel Messi became the first soccer player ever to rank among the Top 10 most popular athletes in the U.S. in an ESPN poll, although he was not listed in the Top 10 in a Harris poll. A 2017 poll by Gallup found that soccer is nearly as popular as baseball with 7% of Americans saying it is their favorite sport, as opposed to 9% for baseball. Many soccer matches in the United States draw large crowds, particularly international matches. A 2014 International Champions Cup match between Real Madrid and Manchester United at Michigan Stadium in Ann Arbor, Michigan had an attendance of 109,318, a record crowd for a U.S. soccer match. The 2009 Gold Cup quarterfinal matches drew over 82,000 to Cowboys Stadium (now known as AT&T; Stadium). Between 2008–2011, the U.S. played three times in East Rutherford, New Jersey, drawing over 78,000 fans each game. The United States and Mexico national teams have been playing in front of crowds in excess of 60,000 in the U.S. in recent years. Also in recent years, many top-division European clubs—such as English clubs Manchester United and Chelsea, and Spanish clubs Real Madrid and Barcelona—have spent portions of their pre- season summer schedule playing matches in the United States. These matches have been highly attended events for U.S. stadiums. The 2009 World Football Challenge drew large crowds around the country, and Chelsea's four-game stint in the United States drew record crowds for a visiting foreign team. Nations from other regions have decided to organize tournaments in the U.S., given the growing soccer market in the country. For example, the 2014 Copa Centroamericana, a soccer competition for countries from Central America, was held in the U.S., due to the commercial appeal of the U.S. soccer market. Similarly, the 2016 Copa América was also held in the U.S., marking the first time that tournament took place outside of South America. The U.S. was selected to host for financial reasons, because "the market is in the United States, the stadiums are in the United States ... everything is in the United States." Furthermore, several nations schedule friendly matches to be held in the U.S. against opponents other than the U.S. national team. For example, the Mexico national team usually schedules several friendlies in the U.S. each year against various opponents. The El Salvador national team also regularly plays friendlies in the U.S., often in the Washington, D.C. area, home to a large Salvadoran community. The Brazil, Argentina, and Colombia national teams also play matches in the U.S. This is due to the fact that the U.S. has more adequate venues for competitions. U.S. television coverage and viewership of club and international soccer are at an all-time high. Mainstream sports networks ESPN, Fox Sports, and NBC Sports Network regularly provide coverage of soccer, as do several popular Spanish-language channels such as Telemundo, UniMás, and Galavisión. Additionally, the U.S. has several networks devoted mostly or completely to the sport, including Gol TV and beIN Sport USA. The size of the annual TV market in the U.S. for annual club soccer competitions was $126 million as of 2009. The club soccer competitions that generate the most annual revenue from TV audiences today in the United States are England's Premier League ($167m), Major League Soccer ($90m), the Mexican league ($50m), Spain's La Liga ($16m), and the UEFA Champions League ($10m). The most widely accessed televised soccer league in the United States is Mexico's Liga MX, which has most of its games televised live and free on television channels Azteca, Telemundo, UniMás and Univision. Fox began showing English Premier League matches on network TV in 2011, the first time that Premier League matches aired on U.S. broadcast TV. U.S. TV rights for the English Premier League were sold to NBC Sports in 2012 for $250 million for three years beginning with the 2013–14 season. Viewership for the Premier League's 2013–14 season on NBC Sports was 32 million, more than double the previous season. The Premier League earns higher ratings on NBCSN than the National Hockey League, despite the fact that the Premier League is shown in the morning while NHL games are in primetime. Major League Soccer has received broadcast fees from ESPN since 2008, and MLS signed a three-year deal in 2011 with NBC Sports to nationally televise 40 matches per year from 2012–2014. MLS has since then signed new television agreements with ESPN, FOX Sports, and Univision worth in total $90 million per year from 2015–2022. In addition, the 2010 UEFA Champions League final was broadcast live on the Fox Network, marking the first time that a soccer match between two European club teams was televised in the U.S. on English-language broadcast television. These TV networks also provide coverage of international soccer competitions, including the FIFA World Cup, the FIFA Women's World Cup, the CONCACAF Gold Cup, the UEFA European Championship, the FIFA Confederations Cup, and the U.S. men's national team, and women's national team matches. The Mexico national football team is also a popular team featured on Spanish language television and on ESPN. In addition to the World Cup, other international soccer competitions involving the U.S. team have become more popular among TV viewers. The 2007 CONCACAF Gold Cup attracted record television viewership, with the Univision telecast of the final between the United States and Mexico ranking as the third-most-watched Spanish-language program of all-time in the United States, beaten only by two FIFA World Cup finals matches. The 2009 Confederations Cup Final featuring the United States attracted 6.9 million viewers (including both the English and Spanish broadcasts). The 2013 World Cup qualifier between the U.S. and Mexico drew 7 million viewers, higher than the 5.8 million average viewers of the 2013 NHL Stanley Cup finals. Three 2013 Gold Cup matches were broadcast on the main Fox network channel, the first time since 2002 that a U.S. national team match outside of the World Cup was broadcast on network TV. TV networks in the U.S. have also begun showing international soccer tournaments that do not include the United States. Euro 2008 was shown on ESPN and ABC. Viewership for the Euro 2012 was 51% higher than 2008, with the 2012 final watched by over 4 million viewers. The viewership on ESPN of the group-stage matches of the 2013 Confederations Cup was 26% higher than the 2009 tournament, even though the U.S. did not play in the 2013 tournament. Notes: 1. The rights to the two FIFA World Cups during the 2015–2022 timeframe also include rights to the two Women's World Cups and the two Confederations Cups during those years. 2. The rights to the CONCACAF Gold Cup also include the rights to the CONCACAF Champions League. 3. The rights to the Euro also includes rights for European World Cup qualifiers, as well as the UEFA Nations League , the most popular soccer event on television in the U.S. was the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup Final. It was the most watched soccer match in American history with nearly 26.7 million combined viewers, more than the 2015 NBA Finals and Stanley Cup. It was also the most watched Spanish-language broadcast in tournament history. More than 750 million viewers were reported to have watched the match worldwide. The second highest viewership in the U.S. for a soccer match was 26.5 million combined viewers for Germany vs. Argentina in the 2014 FIFA World Cup Final. Previously, the 1999 FIFA Women's World Cup Final tallied 17.9 million viewers in the U.S. In 2005, the U.S. TV rights for the 2010 and 2014 World Cups were sold to ABC/ESPN and Univision for $425 million in "the biggest TV deal in a single country in FIFA's history." The telecasts of the 2006 FIFA World Cup Final attracted an estimated 17 million American viewers, higher than the 15.8 million average viewership of the 2006 World Series. The total TV viewership in the U.S. for all the matches including the final for the 2010 World Cup was 112 million viewers, a 22% increase over viewing numbers for the 2006 World Cup. The 2010 World Cup final game drew 24.3 million viewers in the United States, higher than the 14.3 million average viewership of the 2010 World Series. Landon Donovan's dramatic game-winning goal against Algeria that advanced the US team to the knockout stage of the 2010 World Cup resulted in jubilant celebrations across the United States. In 2011, the U.S. TV rights for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups were sold to Fox and Telemundo for a record $1.1 billion, more than any other country in the world, and 147 percent higher than the 2010 and 2014 TV rights. By 2014, the World Cup was considered an elite sports property on U.S. television. The USA-Portugal match during the 2014 World Cup registered 24.7 million viewers in the US, with 6.5 million viewers on Univision and 18.2 million viewers on ESPN, making it the most viewed program on ESPN, other than NFL or college football games, and eclipsing viewership numbers of other high- profile sports events such as MLB's World Series, the NBA Finals, and the NHL's Stanley Cup Finals. The 2014 FIFA World Cup also generated strong internet traffic, with the tournament generating more viewers via websites and apps than the 2012 Summer Olympics. World Cup Tournament: cumulative U.S. viewership by year Here are the complete tournament cumulative viewership totals for every World Cup tournament since 1994. These totals account for all matches played throughout the tournament. Since matches take place at different times, individual viewers will be counted multiple times. Only ESPN totals have been accounted for. Please find Spanish viewership as well. For context, the average number of viewers of that year's NFL Super Bowl is also provided. World Cup Final Match: U.S. viewership by year The total number of viewers in the United States who watched the World Cup final match are as follows. English and Spanish channel viewership along with internet viewership are accounted for in these statistics. For context, the average number of viewers of that year's MLB best-of-seven World Series are also provided. Other World Cup matches with most U.S. viewers The following table shows the matches (other than a final match, which is shown in the table above) at the FIFA World Cup that scored the highest TV viewership. English and Spanish channel viewership (and internet viewership, where indicated) are accounted for in these statistics. All of the most-watched matches have taken place since 2010. The highest-rated U.S. World Cup matches have generally involved the U.S. national team. The following table shows the most-viewed international men's team matches other than World Cup matches. Both English and Spanish channel viewership are accounted for in these statistics. FIFA Women's World Cup matches with highest U.S. viewership: Sports television networks like ESPN, Fox Sports, NBC Sports and beIN Sports offer streaming services to cable/satellite television subscribers. Over-the- top streaming services like Sling TV, PlayStation Vue, DirecTV Now and YouTube TV also offer sports channels. In addition, Fox Soccer 2Go and FuboTV are soccer-specific over-the-top streaming services. The largest category of soccer in the United States in terms of participation is boys' and girls' youth soccer. Soccer is one of the most played sports by children in the United States. In 2012, soccer was the #1 most played team sport by high school boys, and soccer overtook softball to become the #3 most played team sport by high school girls. As of 2006, the U.S. was the #1 country in the world for participation in youth soccer, with 3.9 million American youths (2.3 million boys and 1.6 million girls) registered with U.S. Soccer. Among girls, the U.S. has more registered players than all other countries combined. The number of high school soccer players more than doubled from 1990 to 2010, giving soccer the fastest growth rate among all major U.S. sports. In recent decades, more youth sports organizations have turned to soccer as a supplement to American football, and most American high schools offer both boys and girls soccer. Due to the rising number of youths playing, the term "soccer mom" is used in American social and political discourse to describe middle- or upper-middle-class suburban women with school-age children. Americans between the ages of 12 and 24 rank professional soccer as their second favorite sport behind only American football. And in 2011, the FIFA video game ranked as the #2 most popular video game in the country, behind only Madden NFL. Though organized locally by organizations all over the United States, there are three main youth soccer club leagues working nationwide through affiliated local associations. The United States Youth Soccer Association boasts over three million players between the ages of five and 19, while American Youth Soccer Organization has more than 600,000 players between the ages of four and 19. Finally, the USL offers a number of youth leagues, including the Super-20 League and the Super Y-League, which have almost 1,000 teams and tens of thousands of players from the ages of 13 to 20. Also, the National Federation of State High School Associations features 800,000 soccer players. However, NFHS uses rules that are somewhat different from IFAB's laws. Major League Soccer (MLS) is the professional first-division league in the United States. It currently has 24 teams — 21 in the U.S. and 3 in Canada, with further plans to expand to 28 teams by 2022 and 30 teams at a later date. MLS is currently the largest first division professional soccer league in the world. With careful cost controls and the construction of soccer-specific stadiums, some MLS clubs became profitable for the first time in the mid-2000s, and Forbes magazine found that three clubs were already valued at $40 million or more, with the Los Angeles Galaxy worth $100 million. The establishment of the Designated Player Rule in 2007 has led to the signings of international superstars such as David Beckham and Thierry Henry, and Cuauhtémoc Blanco. Major League Soccer has been in an expansion phase, going from 10 teams in 2005 to 24 teams today, with plans to expand to 26 in 2020 and at least 27 in 2021, with further plans to expand to 28 teams by 2022 and 30 teams at a later date. The league's 2007 and 2009 expansion to Toronto and Seattle, respectively, have proven highly successful, with league-leading ticket and merchandise sales, capped by sold-out attendances for friendlies against Real Madrid of Spain and Chelsea of England. In 2013, New York City FC agreed to pay a record $100 million expansion fee for the right to join MLS in 2015. This record was surpassed by the ownership groups of FC Cincinnati and a new Nashville team, which each paid $150 million to join MLS (FC Cincinnati in 2019 and Nashville in 2020). The same amount was paid as an effective entrance fee by a group that bought Columbus Crew SC in 2018, which led to that team's previous operator receiving a new team in Austin, Texas that will join MLS in 2021. The league plans to expand to 27 teams with the addition of Inter Miami CF and Nashville SC in 2020 and Austin FC in 2021, with further plans to expand to 28 teams by 2022 and 30 teams at a later date. MLS has also announced the ownership groups of the 28th and 29th teams, provisionally selected as St. Louis, Missouri and Sacramento, California, will each pay a $200 million entrance fee. MLS average attendance has been steadily growing, from 13,756 in 2000 to 22,113 in 2017. MLS has drawn a higher per-game attendance than NBA basketball and NHL hockey every year since 2011. With an average attendance of over 20,000 per game, MLS has the third highest average attendance of any sports league in the U.S. after the National Football League (NFL) and Major League Baseball (MLB), and is the seventh highest attended professional soccer league worldwide. Professional soccer has been less popular in the United States than most other parts of the world. Although MLS is also much younger than most other countries' first divisions, it is already the twelfth most-attended premier division in the world. MLS has announced its goal of developing into one of the top soccer leagues in the world by 2022. Unlike club football leagues in other countries, Major League Soccer does not have promotion and relegation, and instead utilizes a franchise system similar to other professional sports leagues in the country. In addition, Major League Soccer operates as a single entity, meaning that all clubs are owned by the league, with club investor-operators holding shares in the league itself rather than owning their teams directly, and all players being centrally contracted. Major League Soccer has faced criticisms for this structure, as well as other deviations such as scheduling matches during time periods designated by the FIFA Calendar for international play (which can affect the quality of MLS matches taking place within, although the league had been working to reduce the number of matches during these windows). However, it has also been noted that the league's salary caps have helped to discourage rampant spending, allowing for steadier long-term growth. By 2012 the league had shown a marked improvement in its financial health. In November 2013, Forbes published a report that revealed that ten of the league's nineteen teams earned an operating profit in 2012, while two broke even and seven had a loss. Forbes estimated that the league's collective annual revenues were $494 million, and that the league's collective annual profit was $34 million. Forbes valued the league's franchises to be worth $103 million on average, almost three times as much as the $37 million average valuation in 2008. The Seattle Sounders FC franchise was named the most valuable at $175 million, a 483% gain over the $30 million league entrance fee it paid in 2009. The trend in increased team values has continued with MLS teams seeing a strong 52% increase in franchise values from 2012 to 2014. In August 2015 Forbes updated its MLS franchise values with the most profitable team measuring $245 million and the least $105 million. The average value jumped from $103 to $157 million. As of 2018 Forbes estimates Atlanta United FC are the most valuable MLS team, worth $330 million, while the Colorado Rapids are the lowest value, at $155 million. These valuations do not include the value of stadiums or training facilities owned by the respective clubs. The North American Soccer League (NASL) has repeatedly accused Major League Soccer of having a monopoly position being defended by the United States Soccer Federation, such as accusing the USSF of proposing to change the minimum criteria for a Division I league to include specifications that only MLS could currently meet, such as minimum stadium capacities and requiring at least 75% of teams to be in metropolitan areas with a population of at least 2 million. As of the current 2019 season, the second tier of North American soccer is occupied by the USL Championship, rebranded from the United Soccer League after the 2018 season. This league received provisional sanctioning by U.S. Soccer before the 2018 season. The current iteration of the North American Soccer League had functioned at the second level under provisional status through the 2017 season, but more recent developments have left the league's survival in serious doubt. The new North American Soccer League was formed in late 2009, with plans to launch in the 2010 season, by disgruntled team owners from the USL First Division, after Nike sold its stake in the latter league's parent corporation, then known as the United Soccer Leagues and now as the United Soccer League (USL). U.S. Soccer refused to sanction either the First Division or the new NASL for 2010, and the two groups eventually agreed to unite for 2010 only under the banner of USSF Division 2, run directly by U.S. Soccer and including teams from both leagues. U.S. Soccer initially sanctioned the new NASL in November 2010, revoked its sanctioning in January 2011 due to financial issues surrounding the ownership of several teams, and re-sanctioned it in February 2011. The NASL launched in 2011 with eight teams—five on the U.S. mainland, one in Puerto Rico (a U.S. commonwealth that has its own national federation), and two in Canada. One of the Canadian teams left the NASL after the 2011 season to enter MLS; the league remained at eight teams for 2012 as San Antonio Scorpions FC joined NASL. In 2013, a new version of the New York Cosmos joined the NASL. Ottawa Fury FC and Indy Eleven joined in 2014. Three teams were set to join the league in 2015—Jacksonville Armada FC, Virginia Cavalry FC, and Oklahoma City FC—but only the Jacksonville team actually began play. Virginia Cavalry is no longer listed as a future team on the NASL website; Oklahoma City FC was bought by the owner of Spanish club Rayo Vallecano and rebranded as Rayo OKC, which began play in 2016. Two other teams, Miami FC and Puerto Rico FC, were launched in 2016, with Miami starting play in the league's spring season and Puerto Rico in the fall season. At the same time, the Atlanta Silverbacks self-relegated to the lower-level National Premier Soccer League and the San Antonio Scorpions folded. After the 2016 season, Minnesota United left for MLS, Rayo OKC folded, and Ottawa Fury FC and the Tampa Bay Rowdies left for the USL. Since then, the NASL has experienced even more instability. The San Francisco Deltas joined for the 2017 season but folded after that season despite winning the league's title. During that offseason, after the USSF pulled the NASL's provisional Division II status due to not meeting its criteria, the NASL filed an antitrust lawsuit against the USSF. The NASL accused the USSF of colluding with Major League Soccer to protect its status as the sole top-flight soccer league in the United States, citing a relationship under which MLS clubs are required to maintain affiliations or co-owned reserve teams in the USL. The suit was not supported by all of the league's teams; FC Edmonton was not involved in the action (and would cease professional operations due to the uncertainty stemming from the lawsuit), and North Carolina FC did not support the suit. While the league added two teams for 2018 in California United FC and San Diego 1904 FC, it lost four teams—the aforementioned San Francisco Deltas, FC Edmonton and NCFC, plus Indy Eleven; the last two of these teams moved to the USL. Due to the ongoing litigation, the NASL canceled its 2018 spring season, though choosing to frame it as a change to a fall-to-spring schedule spanning two calendar years. After a federal court denied an injunction that would have maintained the NASL's second-division status, the league announced that it would also not play a 2018 fall season. Following the USL–NASL feud and a subsequent tightening of U.S. Soccer standards for owners of second-division teams, the USL folded its First and Second Divisions into a new third-level league originally known as USL Pro, later as the United Soccer League, and now as the USL Championship. The league launched in 2011 with 15 teams–11 on the U.S. mainland, three in Puerto Rico, and one in Antigua and Barbuda—but due to issues with the health and finances of two of the Puerto Rican owners, the Puerto Rican teams were dropped from the league shortly after the beginning of its first season. One of the U.S.-based teams folded following the 2011 season; two new U.S.-based teams joined the league in 2013. In that same year, MLS and USL Pro entered into a formal agreement that eventually merged the MLS Reserve League into the USL Pro structure. Each MLS team is nominally required to field a reserve team in a USL league, either by operating a standalone team or affiliating with an independently owned team, though this has yet to be strictly enforced. After the 2013 season, the Antigua and Barbuda team folded, as well as one U.S.-based team. In addition, one U.S.-based team left the league but was replaced by a new team in the same area; and three completely new teams entered the league for 2014. One of the new teams was an MLS reserve side. The 2015 season, which coincided with the rebranding of the competition as the United Soccer League, saw a major expansion. Three teams left the league, but 13 new teams entered, bringing its membership to 24. Orlando City moved to MLS, and two other teams, the Charlotte Eagles and Dayton Dutch Lions, relegated themselves to the PDL. Two of the three departing teams were replaced by new franchises; the Eagles' franchise rights were acquired by a local group that launched the Charlotte Independence, and Louisville interests bought Orlando City's USL franchise rights and launched Louisville City FC. Both of these clubs became affiliates of MLS teams, respectively the Colorado Rapids and Orlando City. Seven MLS teams—the Montreal Impact, New York Red Bulls, Portland Timbers, Real Salt Lake, Seattle Sounders, Toronto FC, and Vancouver Whitecaps—began fielding team-operated reserve sides in the USL. The Orlando City–Louisville affiliation was only for the 2015 season, as Orlando City launched Orlando City B, its own USL reserve side, in 2016. The USL expanded to 29 teams in 2016. While Austin Aztex went on hiatus for that season while seeking to build a new stadium, six new teams were launched. Three are operated by MLS teams—Orlando City B, Bethlehem Steel FC (Philadelphia Union), and Swope Park Rangers (Sporting Kansas City). The other three are FC Cincinnati and San Antonio FC, neither of which had an MLS affiliation, and the Rio Grande Valley FC Toros. The Toros are the first USL team with a so-called "hybrid affiliation" with an MLS team; the Houston Dynamo selects players and coaches, while the separate Toros ownership group runs all business affairs. In 2017, the USL expanded to 30 teams. The Aztex ultimately folded without building a new stadium, and two other teams from the 2016 season did not play in 2017. The Wilmington Hammerheads self-relegated to the USL's Premier Development League (PDL), now known as USL League Two, and the Montreal Impact folded FC Montreal in favor of an affiliation with the incoming Ottawa Fury FC. At the same time, three new teams entered the league, with Ottawa Fury FC and the Tampa Bay Rowdies joining from the NASL, and the completely new Reno 1868 FC competing as a hybrid affiliate of the San Jose Earthquakes. U.S. Soccer awarded the USL provisional second-level status for the 2017 season alongside the NASL. Further USL expansion has been announced for 2019 and beyond. With the folding of one team, the departure of two, and the addition of six, the league featured 33 teams in its 2018 season. Permanently departing was Whitecaps FC 2, which was folded by its MLS parent, the Vancouver Whitecaps. Orlando City B and the Rochester Rhinos went on hiatus, but eventually chose not to return to the USL's top flight. Of the six new USL teams for 2018, four were new sides—Atlanta United 2 (owned by Atlanta United FC), Fresno FC (which took over the Whitecaps affiliation), Las Vegas Lights FC, and Nashville SC. The other new USL teams were former NASL sides Indy Eleven and North Carolina FC. The following year saw four teams leave the rebranded USL Championship and seven new teams join. The departing teams were FC Cincinnati, which joined MLS; the Richmond Kickers and Toronto FC II, both of which became founding members of USL League One, a third-level league that began play in 2019; and the Harrisburg, Pennsylvania-based Penn FC, which suspended professional operations for 2019 before resuming play in League One in 2020. In addition, both clubs that had gone on hiatus after the 2017 USL season would later announce moves to League One. Orlando City B resumed play alongside Toronto FC II as an inaugural League One team, while the Rochester Rhinos will not resume professional operations until joining League One in 2020. The teams that began play in the USL Championship in 2019 are Austin Bold FC (replacing the Aztex), Birmingham Legion FC, El Paso Locomotive FC, Hartford Athletic, Loudoun United FC, Memphis 901 FC, and New Mexico United. Of these new sides, one is an MLS reserve team, namely Loudoun United, which replaced the Richmond Kickers as the D.C. United reserve side. Three teams ceased USL operations after the 2019 season—the identity of Nashville SC was assumed by the city's new MLS team, and Fresno FC and Ottawa Fury FC suspended all operations, the latter having being denied sanctioning by U.S. Soccer and CONCACAF. San Diego Loyal SC will join the USL Championship in 2020. Teams in Chicago and California's East Bay were set to launch in 2021, but the Chicago team's launch has been pushed back to an indeterminate future date. In addition to the East Bay team, Queensboro FC, based in the New York City borough of Queens, will start USLC play in 2021. The United Soccer League operates four leagues in all, spanning the lower divisions of men's professional soccer, as well as youth soccer; it has operated women's leagues in the past. The most recent addition to the USL lineup is USL League One, a third-level men's league that began play in 2019. Below the USL Championship and League One is the country's semi-professional fourth-division league, USL League Two (formerly the Premier Development League), which has (as of the 2019 season) 69 teams in the U.S. and five in Canada (the league has also previously had a team in Bermuda). Though League 2 does have some paid players, it also has many teams that are made up entirely or almost entirely of college soccer players who use the league as an opportunity to play competitive soccer in front of professional scouts during the summer, while retaining amateur status and NCAA eligibility. The United States Adult Soccer Association governs amateur soccer competition for adults throughout the United States, which is effectively the amateur fifth division of soccer in the United States. The Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup is a knockout tournament in American soccer. The tournament is the oldest ongoing national soccer competition in the U.S. and was historically open to all United States Soccer Federation affiliated teams, from amateur adult club teams to the professional clubs of Major League Soccer. Since the 2016 edition, professional teams that are majority-owned, or whose playing staff is managed, by a higher-division outdoor professional team have been barred from the competition; all other U.S. Soccer-affiliated teams remain eligible to enter. The Open Cup was first held in 1913–14 when it was called the National Challenge Cup. The overall league structure in the United States is significantly different from that used in almost all the rest of the world, but similar to that used by other American team sports leagues, in that there is no system of promotion and relegation between lower and higher leagues, but rather a minor league system, generally the same as almost all other top-level pro sports leagues in North America. In addition, teams playing in American soccer leagues are not private clubs founded independently of the league that join a league in order to ensure regular fixtures but are instead usually franchises of the league itself. Finally, the soccer leagues in the United States also incorporate features common to other American sports leagues, most notably the determination of champions by playoffs between the top teams after the conclusion of a league season. MLS formerly had a balanced schedule and prior to then used an unbalanced schedule. However, due to MLS's recent expansion, the league has returned to an unbalanced schedule. However, in several ways, American soccer leagues have become more similar to leagues in the rest of the world in recent years. MLS and all USL leagues now allow games to end in ties, which were initially avoided via a penalty shootout if scores were level at the end of play. This was done to avoid alienating mainstream American sports fans, who are not accustomed to tie games, but actually had the unintended consequence of alienating soccer purists who saw the change as an "Americanization" of the sport. MLS began allowing ties in the 2000 season. Additionally, MLS and USL leagues now use upward-counting clocks that do not stop for stoppages in play, and instead add on time before halftime and full- time. A downward-counting clock that stops for dead balls and ends the game when it reaches zero is still in use in American high school and college soccer, as well as most other American sports, but was and is completely foreign to soccer played outside the United States. MLS adopted the international clock in 2000. Finally, until 2007, the front of teams' shirts in MLS and USL leagues did not bear advertisements, as commercial uniform sponsorship is uncommon in American sports. However, starting in the mid-2000s, clubs were allowed to accept corporate sponsorship on the front of their shirts. Women's soccer in the United States has been played at the professional level since 2001. As a result of the U.S. women's national team's (USWNT) first-place showing in the 1999 FIFA Women's World Cup, a seemingly viable market for the sport germinated. Feeding on the momentum of their victory, the eight-team league formed in February 2000, the U.S. Soccer Federation approved membership of the Women's United Soccer Association (WUSA) as a sanctioned Division 1 women's professional soccer league on August 18, 2000, and the league began playing its first season in April 2001. It would be the world's first women's soccer league in which all the players were paid as professionals. The WUSA had previously announced plans to begin to play in 2001 in eight cities across the country, including: Atlanta, the Bay Area, Boston, New York, Orlando, Philadelphia, San Diego and Washington, D.C. The WUSA forged ahead on a cooperation agreement that would see the new league work side-by-side with Major League Soccer to help maximize the market presence and success of both Division I leagues. The eight teams included the Atlanta Beat, Boston Breakers, Carolina Courage, New York Power, Philadelphia Charge, San Diego Spirit, San Jose CyberRays (called Bay Area CyberRays for 2001 season), and the Washington Freedom. The WUSA played for three full seasons. The WUSA suspended operations, however, on September 15, 2003, shortly after the conclusion of the third season, due to financial problems and lack of public interest in the sport. With the WUSA on hiatus, the Women's Premier Soccer League (WPSL) and the W-League regained their status as the premier women's soccer leagues in the United States, and many former WUSA players joined those teams. The Washington Freedom was the only WUSA team to continue operations after the league dissolved (although new versions of the Atlanta Beat and Boston Breakers formed in 2009) and eventually became a part of the W-League in 2006. After the folding of WUSA, WUSA Reorganization Committee was formed in September 2003 that led to the founding of Women's Soccer Initiative, Inc. (WSII), whose stated goal was "promoting and supporting all aspects of women's soccer in the United States", including the founding of a new professional league. Initial plans were to play a scaled-down version of WUSA in 2004. However, these plans fell through and instead, in June 2004, the WUSA held two "WUSA Festivals" in Los Angeles and Blaine, Minnesota, featuring matches between reconstituted WUSA teams in order to maintain the league in the public eye and sustain interest in women's professional soccer. A planned full relaunch in 2005 also fell through. In June 2006, WSII announced the relaunch of the league for the 2008 season. In December 2006, WSII announced that it reached an agreement with six owner-operators for teams based in Chicago, Dallas, Los Angeles, St. Louis, Washington, D.C., and a then-unnamed city. In September 2007, the launch was pushed back from Spring of 2008 to 2009 to avoid clashing with 2007 Women's World Cup and the 2008 Olympic Games and to ensure that all of the teams were fully prepared for long-term operations. The name for the new professional league, along with its logo, was announced on January 17, 2008. The league was to have its inaugural season in 2009, with seven teams, including the Washington Freedom, a former WUSA team. Twenty-one U.S. national team players were allocated to each of the seven teams in September 2008. Also in September, the league held the 2008 WPS International Draft. Unlike WUSA, the WPS took "a local, grassroots approach", and "a slow and steady growth type of approach," In addition, the WPS attempted to have a closer relationship with Major League Soccer in order to cut costs. Most teams considered the first season a moderate success, despite many losing more money than planned. However, most teams began to see problems in 2010. Overall attendance for 2010 was noticeably down from 2009, teams were struggling with financial problems, and the WPS changed leadership by the end of the season. The success of the United States women's national soccer team at the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup resulted in an upsurge in attendance league-wide as well as interest in new teams for the 2012 season. However, several internal organization struggles, including an ongoing legal battle with magicJack-owner Dan Borislow, and lack of resources invested in the league lead to the suspension of 2012, announced in January 2012. On May 18, 2012, the WPS announced that the league had officially ceased operations, having played for only three seasons. By this time, the WPSL and W-League were the two semi-pro leagues in the United States and had sat under WUSA and the WPS until 2012. Upon the disbandment of the WPS, they once again regained their status as the premier women's soccer leagues in the United States. In response to the suspension and eventual end, of the WPS, the Women's Premier Soccer League created the Women's Premier Soccer League Elite (WPSL Elite) to support the sport in the United States. For the 2012 season, the league featured former WPS teams, Boston Breakers, Chicago Red Stars, and Western New York Flash, in addition to many WPSL teams. Six of the eight teams were considered fully professional. Many members of the USWNT remained unattached for the 2012 season while others chose to play in the W-League instead of the WPSL Elite. After the WPS folded in 2012, the United States Soccer Federation (USSF) announced a roundtable for the discussion of the future of women's professional soccer in the United States. The meeting resulted in the planning of a new league set to launch in 2013 with 12–16 teams, taking from the WPS, the W-League, and the WPSL. The league was officially announced by U.S. Soccer on November 21, 2012, with the Canadian Soccer Association (CSA) and Mexican Football Federation (FMF) also participating in the announcement. The league was ultimately called the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL). Teams in the NWSL are privately owned, but national federations are heavily involved in league financing and operations. All three federations initially paid salaries for many of their respective national team members. U.S. Soccer committed to funding up to 24 national team members, with the CSA committing to paying 16 players and FMF pledging support for 12 to 16 (ultimately 16). This freed each of the eight charter teams from having to pay salaries for up to seven players. In addition, U.S. Soccer hosts the new league's front office, and is scheduling matches to avoid conflicts with international tournaments. Today, only U.S. Soccer and the CSA still provide support (including allocating players) to the NWSL; FMF and NWSL ended their relationship (presumably amicably) in 2017, when FMF launched its own national women's league, Liga MX Femenil. Four of the league's charter teams had WPS ties—the Boston Breakers, Chicago Red Stars, a revival of the New Jersey-based Sky Blue FC, and the Western New York Flash. The other four were in Kansas City, Portland, Seattle, and Washington, D.C., with the Portland team being run by the Portland Timbers. The league added its second MLS-linked team in 2014 with the entry of the Houston Dash, run by the Houston Dynamo and playing in the Dynamo's stadium. A third NWSL team, FC Kansas City, announced a partnership with Sporting Kansas City in 2015; although the two clubs continued to be separately owned, FC Kansas City would use Sporting's facilities for practices and home games. Another MLS-linked team joined the league in 2016 with the arrival of the Orlando Pride, operated by Orlando City SC. The 2016–17 offseason saw the league's first major relocation, with the Flash selling their NWSL franchise rights to the owner of North Carolina FC, then playing in the NASL and now in the USL Championship, who moved the NWSL team to the Research Triangle of North Carolina and relaunched it as the North Carolina Courage. The NWSL became the first professional women's league to reach more than eight teams with the addition of the Houston Dash and Orlando Pride (10 teams in the league in 2016 and 2017) and the first to sustain more than three years of operations. In 2017, A&E; Networks bought an equity stake in the league and broadcasts a game of the week on Lifetime and streams all games online via the go90 platform. Following the 2017 season, FC Kansas City folded. Kansas City's place in the NWSL was immediately filled by a new franchise to be operated by another MLS club, Real Salt Lake; the new team was unveiled shortly thereafter as Utah Royals FC. In January 2018, the league dropped to 9 teams with the demise of the Boston Breakers, which had been the only team to have participated in every previous season of U.S. top-flight professional women's soccer. The most recent change to the NWSL membership, announced in October 2019, is the entry of a Louisville team in 2021. The team, later unveiled as Proof Louisville FC, will be owned and operated by USL Championship side Louisville City FC. Originally called the United States Interregional Women's League, the W-League was formed in 1995 to provide a professional outlet for many of the top female soccer players in the country. Starting as the Western Division of the W-League, the Women's Premier Soccer League (WPSL) broke away and formed its own league in 1997 and had its inaugural season in 1998. Both the W-League and the WPSL were considered the premier women's soccer leagues in the United States at the time but eventually fell to a "second-tier" level upon the formation of the Women's United Soccer Association. The W-League grew as large as 41 teams in 2008, but its membership fell rapidly from that point on, and the league folded after its 2015 season. Of the 18 teams that competed in the final season of the W-League, seven joined the WPSL, and eight formed a new second-level league, United Women's Soccer (UWS). This new league ultimately launched in 2016 with 11 teams, including six of the founding members (the other two, both Canadian teams, were denied licenses by the Canadian Soccer Association). UWS expanded to 21 teams, including one new Canadian side, in 2017. The United States men's and women's national soccer teams represent the United States in international competition. The men's national team competes in the FIFA World Cup and the FIFA Confederations Cup, in addition to the CONCACAF Gold Cup and other competitions by invitation. The U.S. national team had some success in early FIFA World Cup tournaments. The U.S. finished third in the World Cup in 1930, and played in the 1934 World Cup. The next World Cup participation came in the 1950 World Cup, where they upset England 1–0 in group play. After 1950, the USA did not return to the World Cup for another 40 years. The fortunes of the U.S. national team changed in the 1990s, with the team participating in every World Cup between 1990 and 2014. The U.S. hosted the 1994 World Cup, beating Colombia to reach the knockout rounds, before losing to Brazil in the round of sixteen. The team reached the quarter-finals of the 2002 World Cup by defeating its rival Mexico. The U.S. team also accomplished another first by winning its group at the 2010 World Cup. The U.S. national team participated in the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup. The U.S. defeated #1 ranked Spain in the semifinals, before losing to Brazil 3–2 in the final. On the regional stage, the national team has also improved, with a record up to 2013 of reaching the final of the biannual CONCACAF Gold Cup nine times since 1989, winning it six times: 1991, 2002, 2005, 2007, 2013, 2017. The women's national soccer team of the 1900s were the first women's national team in the United States. They competed in the FIFA Women's World Cup, the Summer Olympics, and the Algarve Cup, in addition to the CONCACAF Women's Gold Cup and other competitions by invitation. The United States women's team has been one of the best national teams in the history of women's soccer, having won four World Cups (in 1991, 1999, 2015 and 2019). They also won four Olympic gold medals (in 1996, 2004, 2008, and 2012), and 10 Algarve Cups (in 2000, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2010, 2011, 2013, and 2015). Following their 2015 World Cup victory, the USWNT regained the top spot in the FIFA Women's World Rankings from Germany; they have held the top spot for the majority of the time since the rankings began in 2003, and have never been lower than second. There are several factors that may have contributed to the early dominance of the United States women's national soccer team. First is the relative lack of attention afforded the women's game in some traditional soccer-playing countries. According to a 2015 story in the ESPN-owned Web outlet FiveThirtyEight,For as much as the rest of the world loves soccer, it has been much slower to embrace the women's game than the U.S. In England, women playing soccer was effectively banned (at least at venues that hosted men's teams) from 1921 to 1971, and in Germany it was banned from 1955 to 1970. At around the time Title IX was heating up in the United States, women's international soccer basically didn’t exist. According to FIFA, there were only three national teams and two international matches played in 1971. Additionally, in the years following Title IX, American high schools and colleges have been steadily embracing girls' and women's soccer. According to the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS), the U.S. had little more than 10,000 girls playing high school soccer in the late 1970s. This number had increased to 120,000 by 1991 when the USWNT claimed its first World Cup title, and 250,000 by 1999, the year of the second World Cup title. In 2015, there were about 375,000 girls playing high school soccer, making up 47% of all high school soccer players, and soccer has recently surpassed softball as the third-most-played girls' team sport. At the college level, 53% of all NCAA soccer players are women, and this percentage rises to 61% at the highest level, Division I. Another contributing factor is the role of women within American society, which includes relative equality (especially rejecting hardened gender roles) for women in the United States relative to many other countries. This is also reflected in official government policy regarding women in athletics, specifically the landmark Title IX legislation, which broadly requires any educational institution that receives federal government funds to support men's and women's educational programs equally, thus including athletics. America's approach to growing the game among women has served as a model for other countries' development programs for women at all levels. However, the FiveThirtyEight story suggested that the U.S. does not take adult women's soccer as seriously as some other countries, notably Germany. On a per capita basis, the U.S. and Germany have essentially identical participation among girls. However, the two countries differ greatly in the age profile of their registered female players. Nearly 95% of registered female players in the U.S. are youths, as opposed to 31% in Germany. In turn, this leads to Germany having more than six times the number of serious adult female players as the U.S. (about 650,000 to 100,000). In the United States, college soccer is featured in many collegiate athletic associations including the NCAA, the NAIA, the NCCAA, and the USCAA. Many top American college soccer players play for separate teams in USL League Two during the summer. The NCAA Division I Men's Soccer Championship, the semifinals and finals of which are known as the College Cup, is an American intercollegiate college soccer tournament conducted by the NCAA and determines the Division I men's national champion. The tournament has been formally held since 1959, when it crowned Saint Louis University as the inaugural champion. The tournament's current format involves 48 teams, in which every Division I conference tournament champion is allocated a berth. Since its inception, Saint Louis (10 titles), Indiana (8 titles), and Virginia (6 titles) have historically been the most successful Division I schools. Indiana has appeared in more College Cups (18) and has a higher winning percentage in post-season play (.768) than any other school in Division I soccer. United States Soccer Federation National Collegiate Athletic Association, National Federation of State High School Associations, National Intercollegiate Soccer Officials Association, USL League Two, National Premier Soccer League, Women's Premier Soccer League, United Women's Soccer, Major Arena Soccer League, Premier Arena Soccer League, American Soccer League Since the early 1990s, several Americans have found opportunities playing soccer at the highest levels of foreign leagues. Among the first Americans to become regulars in foreign leagues were John Harkes at Sheffield Wednesday and Derby County in England, Eric Wynalda at Saarbrücken in Germany, and Kasey Keller at Millwall in England. Since then, other Americans have played for clubs that have participated in the knockout rounds of the Champions League and Europa League, such as Brad Friedel with Tottenham Hotspur, DaMarcus Beasley with PSV Eindhoven, and Christian Pulisic with Borussia Dortmund and currently with Chelsea. Luis Reyes went abroad to Spain and worked out with Hercules CF. The following national teams of U.S. unincorporated territories compete in their corresponding regions. Their governing bodies are either members or associates in the corresponding regional federations. For all but American Samoa, players for these territories are, like most local residents, U.S. citizens. Natives of American Samoa are U.S. nationals, but not U.S. citizens (unless they have a citizen parent). American Samoa national association football team, Guam national football team, Northern Mariana Islands national football team, Puerto Rico national football team, U.S. Virgin Islands national soccer team United States soccer league system, List of soccer clubs in the United States, Futsal in the United States, Sports in the United States, Women's sports in the United States "American Exceptionalism: Soccer and American Football" by Ivan Waddington and Martin Roderick, September 2, 1996, retrieved December 6, 2005.

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Seventeen countries have been FIFA World Cup hosts in the competition's twenty-one tournaments since the inaugural World Cup in 1930. The organization at first awarded hosting to countries at meetings of FIFA's congress. The choice of location was controversial in the earliest tournaments, given the three-week boat journey between South America and Europe, the two centers of strength in football at the time. The decision to hold the first cup in Uruguay, for example, led to only four European nations competing. The next two World Cups were both held in Europe. The decision to hold the second of these, the 1938 FIFA World Cup, in France was controversial, as the South American countries had been led to understand that the World Cup would rotate between the two continents. Both Argentina and Uruguay thus boycotted the tournament. The first tournament following World War II, held in Brazil in 1950, had three teams withdraw for either financial problems or disagreements with the organization. To avoid any future boycotts or controversy, FIFA began a pattern of alternation between the Americas and Europe, which continued until the 2002 FIFA World Cup in Asia. The system evolved so that the host country is now chosen in a vote by FIFA's Congress. This is done under an exhaustive ballot system. The decision is currently made roughly seven years in advance of the tournament, though the hosts for the 2022 tournament were chosen at the same time as those for the 2018 tournament. Only Mexico, Italy, France, Germany (West Germany until shortly after the 1990 World Cup) and Brazil have hosted the event on two occasions. Mexico City's Estadio Azteca and Rio de Janeiro's Maracanã are the only venues ever to have hosted two FIFA World Cup finals. Only the 2002 FIFA World Cup had more than one host, being split between Japan and South Korea. Uruguay in 1930, Italy in 1934, England in 1966, West Germany in 1974, Argentina in 1978 and France in 1998 are the countries which organized an edition of the World Cup and won it. Upon the selection of Canada–Mexico–United States bid for the 2026 FIFA World Cup, the tournament will be the first to be hosted by more than two countries. Mexico becomes the first country to host three men's World Cups and its Estadio Azteca, should it be selected, will become the first stadium to stage three World Cup tournaments. Bids: Before the FIFA Congress could vote on the first-ever World Cup host, a series of withdrawals led to the election of Uruguay. The Netherlands and Hungary withdrew, followed by Sweden withdrawing in favour of Italy. Then both Italy and Spain withdrew, in favour of the only remaining candidate, Uruguay. The FIFA Congress met in Barcelona, Spain on 18 May 1929 to ratify the decision, and Uruguay was chosen without a vote. Results: 1. withdrew 2. withdrew 3. withdrew 4. withdrew 5. withdrew Notice that the celebration of the first World Cup coincided with the centennial anniversary of the first Constitution of Uruguay. For that reason, the main stadium built in Montevideo for the World Cup was named Estadio Centenario. Bids: Sweden decided to withdraw before the vote, allowing the only remaining candidate Italy to take the hosting job for the 1934 World Cup. The decision was ratified by the FIFA Congress in Stockholm, Sweden and Zürich, Switzerland on 14 May 1932. The Italian Football Federation accepted the hosting duties on 9 October 1932. Results: 1. withdrew Bids: Without any nations withdrawing their bids, the FIFA Congress convened in Berlin, Germany on 13 August 1936 to decide the next host. Electing France took only one ballot, as France had more than half of the votes in the first round. Results: 1. , 19 votes 2. , 3 votes 3. , 1 vote Bids for 1942: Cancelled FIFA election of the host for the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939. Bids for 1946: none Bid: Brazil, Argentina, and Germany had officially bid for the 1942 World Cup, but the Cup was cancelled after the outbreak of World War II. The 1950 World Cup was originally scheduled for 1949, but the day after Brazil was selected by the FIFA Congress on 26 July 1946 in Luxembourg City, Luxembourg, the World Cup was rescheduled for 1950. Result: Bid: The 1954 World Cup hosting duty was decided on 26 July 1946, the same day that Brazil was selected for the 1950 World Cup, in Luxembourg City. On 27 July, the FIFA Congress pushed back the 5th World Cup finals by three years, deciding it should take place in 1954. Result: Bid: Argentina, Chile, Mexico, and Sweden expressed interest in hosting the tournament. Swedish delegates lobbied other countries at the FIFA Congress held in Rio de Janeiro around the opening of the 1950 World Cup finals. Sweden was awarded the 1958 tournament unopposed on 23 June 1950. Result: Bids: West Germany withdrew before the vote, which took place in Lisbon, Portugal on 10 June 1956, leaving two remaining bids. In one round of voting, Chile won over Argentina. Results: 1. , 31 votes 2. , 12 votes 3. withdrew Bids: Spain withdrew from the bidding prior to voting by the FIFA Congress, held in Rome, Italy on 22 August 1960. Again, there was only one round of voting, with England defeating West Germany. Results: 1. , 34 votes 2. , 27 votes 3. withdrew Bids: The FIFA Congress convened in Tokyo, Japan on 8 October 1964. One round of voting saw Mexico win the hosting duties over Argentina. Results: 1. , 56 votes 2. , 32 votes 3. withdrew 4. withdrew 5. withdrew 6. withdrew Three hosts for the 1974, 1978, and 1982 World Cups were chosen in London, England on 6 July 1966 by the FIFA Congress. Spain and West Germany, both facing each other in the running for hosting duties for the 1974 and 1982 World Cups, agreed to give one another a hosting job. Germany withdrew from the 1982 bidding process while Spain withdrew from the 1974 bidding process, essentially guaranteeing each a hosting spot. Mexico, who had won the 1970 hosting bid over Argentina just two years prior, agreed to withdraw and let Argentina take the 1978 hosting position. 1. withdrew in exchange for 1982 hosting duties 2. withdrew 3. withdrew 1. withdrew 2. withdrew, as they had won hosting for 1970 1. withdrew in exchange for 1974 hosting duties 2. withdrew Bid: Host voting, handled by the then-FIFA Executive Committee (or Exco), met in Stockholm, Sweden on 9 June 1974 and ratified the unopposed Colombian bid. Result: However, Colombia withdrew after being selected to host the World Cup for financial problems on 5 November 1982, less than four years before the event was to start. A call for bids was sent out again, and FIFA received intent from three nations: In Zürich on 20 May 1983, Mexico won the bidding unanimously as voted by the Executive Committee, for the first time in FIFA World Cup bidding history (except those nations who bid unopposed). Results: 1. unanimous vote 2. 0 votes 3. 0 votes Bids: Except Italy and the Soviet Union, all nations withdrew before the vote, which was to be conducted by Exco in Zürich on 19 May 1984. Once again, only one round of voting was required, as Italy won more votes than the Soviet Union. Results: 1. , 11 votes 2. , 5 votes 3. withdrew 4. withdrew 5. withdrew 6. withdrew 7. withdrew 8. withdrew 9. withdrew Bids: Despite having three nations bidding, voting only took one round. The vote was held in Zürich (for the third straight time) on 4 July 1988. The United States gained a majority of votes of the Exco members. Results: 1. , 10 votes 2. , 7 votes 3. , 2 votes 4. withdrew Bids: This vote was held in Zürich for the fourth straight time on 1 July 1992. Only one round of voting was required to have France assume the hosting job over Morocco. Result: 1. , 12 votes 2. , 7 votes 3. withdrew 4. withdrew 5. withdrew Bids: On 31 May 1996, the hosting selection meeting was held in Zürich for the fifth straight time. A joint bid was formed between Japan and South Korea, and the bid was "voted by acclamation", an oral vote without ballots. The first joint bid of the World Cup was approved, edging out Mexico. Results: 1. / (joint bid, voted by acclamation) The 2002 FIFA World Cup was co-hosted in Asia for the first time by South Korea and Japan (the final was held in Japan). Initially, the two Asian countries were competitors in the bidding process. But just before the vote, they agreed with FIFA to co-host the event. However, the rivalry and distance between them led to organizational and logistical problems. FIFA has said that co-hosting is not likely to happen again, and in 2004 officially stated that its statutes did not allow co-hosting bids. Bids: On 6 July 2000, the host selection meeting was held for the sixth straight time in Zürich. Brazil withdrew its bid three days before the vote, and the field was narrowed to four. This was the first selection in which more than one vote round was required. Three votes were eventually needed. Germany was at least tied for first in each of the three votes, and ended up defeating South Africa by only one vote after an abstention (see below). The controversy over the decision to award the 2006 FIFA World Cup to Germany led to a further change in practice. The final tally was 12 votes to 11 in favour of Germany over the contenders South Africa, who had been favorites to win. New Zealand FIFA member Charlie Dempsey, who was instructed to vote for South Africa by the Oceania Football Confederation, abstained from voting at the last minute. If he had voted for the South African bid, the tally would have been 12–12, giving the decision to FIFA President Sepp Blatter, who, it was widely believed, would then have voted for South Africa. Dempsey was among eight members of the Executive Committee to receive a fax by editors of the German satirical magazine Titanic on Wednesday, the night before the vote, promising a cuckoo clock and Black Forest ham in exchange for voting for Germany. He argued that the pressure from all sides including "an attempt to bribe" him had become too much for him. On 4 August 2000, consequently, FIFA decided to rotate the hosting of the final tournaments between its constituent confederations. This was until October 2007, during the selection of the host for the 2014 FIFA World Cup, when they announced that they will no longer continue with their continental rotation policy (see below). Bids: The first World Cup bidding process under continental rotation (the process of rotating hosting of the World Cup to each confederation in turn) was the 2010 FIFA World Cup, the first World Cup to be held in Africa. On 7 July 2001, during the FIFA Congress in Buenos Aires, a decision was ratified, which was that the rotation will begin in Africa. On 23 September 2002, FIFA's Executive Committee confirmed that only African member associations, would be invited to submit bids to host the 2010 FIFA World Cup. In January 2003, Nigeria entered the bidding process, but withdrew their bid in September. In March 2003, Sepp Blatter initially said Nigeria's plan to co host the 2010 FIFA World Cup with four African countries would not work. Nigeria had originally hoped to bid jointly with West African neighbours Benin, Ghana, and Togo. After it was confirmed by FIFA that joint bidding would not be allowed in the future, Libya and Tunisia withdrew both of their bids on 8 May 2004. On 15 May 2004 in Zürich (the seventh consecutive time that a host selection has been made there), South Africa, after a narrow loss in the 2006 bidding, defeated perennial candidate Morocco to host, 14 votes to 10. Egypt received no votes. On 28 May 2015, media covering the 2015 FIFA corruption case reported that high-ranking officials from the South African bid committee had secured the right to host the World Cup by paying US$10 million in bribes to then-FIFA Vice President Jack Warner and to other FIFA Executive Committee members. On 4 June 2015, FIFA executive Chuck Blazer, having co-operated with the FBI and the Swiss authorities, confirmed that he and the other members of FIFA's executive committee were bribed in order to promote the South African 1998 and 2010 World Cups. Blazer stated, "I and others on the FIFA executive committee agreed to accept bribes in conjunction with the selection of South Africa as the host nation for the 2010 World Cup." On 6 June 2015, The Daily Telegraph reported that Morocco had received the most votes, but South Africa was awarded the tournament instead. Bids: FIFA continued its continental rotation procedure by earmarking the 2014 World Cup for South America. FIFA initially indicated that it might back out of the rotation concept, but later decided to continue it through the 2014 host decision, after which it was dropped. Colombia had expressed interest in hosting the 2014 World Cup, but withdrew undertaking the 2011 FIFA U-20 World Cup. Brazil also expressed interest in hosting the World Cup. CONMEBOL, the South American Football Federation, indicated their preference for Brazil as a host. Brazil was the only nation to submit a formal bid when the official bidding procedure for CONMEBOL member associations was opened in December 2006, as by that time, Colombia, Chile and Argentina had already withdrawn, and Venezuela was not allowed to bid. Brazil made the first unopposed bid since the initial selection of the 1986 FIFA World Cup (when Colombia was selected as host, but later withdrew for financial problems). The FIFA Executive Committee confirmed it as the host country on 30 October 2007 by a unanimous decision. Result: 2018 Bids: and, and 2022 Bids: FIFA announced on 29 October 2007 that it will no longer continue with its continental rotation policy, implemented after the 2006 World Cup host selection. The newest host selection policy is that any country may bid for a World Cup, provided that their continental confederation has not hosted either of the past two World Cups. For the 2018 World Cup bidding process, this meant that bids from Africa and South America were not allowed. For the 2022 World Cup bidding process, this meant that bids from South America and Europe were not allowed. Also, FIFA formally allowed joint bids once more (after they were banned in 2002), because there was only one organizing committee per joint bid, unlike Korea–Japan, which had two different organizing committees. Countries that announced their interest included Australia, England, Indonesia, Japan, Qatar, Russia, South Korea, United States, the joint bid of Spain and Portugal and the joint bid of Belgium and Netherlands. The hosts for both World Cups were announced by the FIFA Executive Committee on 2 December 2010. Russia was selected to host the 2018 FIFA World Cup, making it the first time that the World Cup will be hosted in Eastern Europe and making it the biggest country geographically to host the World Cup. Qatar was selected to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup, making it the first time a World Cup will be held in the Arab World and the second time in Asia since the 2002 tournament in South Korea and Japan. Also, the decision made it the smallest country geographically to host the World Cup. Bids: , and , and Under FIFA rules as of 2016, the 2026 Cup could not be in either Europe (UEFA) or Asia (AFC), leaving an African (CAF) bid, a North American (CONCACAF) bid, a South American (CONMEBOL) bid or an Oceanian (OFC) bid as other possible options. In March 2017, FIFA's president Gianni Infantino confirmed that "Europe (UEFA) and Asia (AFC) had been excluded from the bidding following the selection of Russia and Qatar in 2018 and 2022 respectively." The bidding process was originally scheduled to start in 2015, with the appointment of hosts scheduled for the FIFA Congress on 10 May 2017 in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. On 10 June 2015, FIFA announced that the bid process for the 2026 FIFA World Cup was postponed. However, following the FIFA Council meeting on 10 May 2016, a new bid schedule was announced for May 2020 as the last in a four-phase process. On 14 October 2016, FIFA said it would accept a tournament-sharing bid by CONCACAF members Canada, Mexico and the United States. On 10 April 2017, Canada, the United States, and Mexico announced their intention to submit a joint bid to co-host, with three-quarters of the games to be played in the U.S., including the final. On 11 August 2017, Morocco officially announced a bid to host. Therefore, the official 2026 FIFA World Cup bids were from two football confederations. The first one was from CONCACAF, which was triple bid by Canada, United States and Mexico, and the second one was from CAF with a bid by Morocco. The host was announced on 13 June 2018 at the 68th FIFA Congress in Moscow, Russia. The United Bid from Canada, Mexico and the United States was selected over the Morocco bid by 134 votes to 65 with 1 selecting neither and 3 abstentions. This will be the first World Cup to be hosted by more than two countries. Mexico becomes the first country to host three men's World Cups and its Estadio Azteca, should selected, will become the first stadium to stage three World Cup tournaments. On the other hand, Canada becomes the fifth country to host both the men's and women's World Cups, after Sweden (Men's: 1958/Women's: 1995), United States (Men's: 1994/Women's: 1999, 2003), Germany (Men's: 1974, 2006/Women's: 2011), and France (Men's: 1934, 1998/Women's: 2019). The United States becomes the first country to host both men's and women's World Cup twice each. The bidding process for this World Cup has yet to start. Some early bids for the 2030 FIFA World Cup - the Centennial World Cup - have however been proposed. The first proposed bid has been a collective bid by the members of the Argentine Football Association and Uruguayan Football Association into a proposed joint bid from Uruguay and Argentina. The second bid has been a proposed bid by The Football Association of England. Under FIFA rules as of 2017, the 2030 World Cup cannot be held in Asia (AFC) because the Asian Football Confederation is excluded from the bidding following the selection of Qatar in 2022. Also in June 2017, UEFA's president Aleksander Čeferin stated that Europe (UEFA) will definitely fight for its right to host the 2030 World Cup. The Uruguay–Argentina proposed bid would not coincide with the centennial anniversary of the first FIFA World Cup final, and the bicentennial of the first Constitution of Uruguay, but if selected the tournament dates would coincide. The Uruguay-Argentina bid was officially confirmed on 29 July 2017. A joint bid was announced by the Argentine Football Association and the Uruguayan Football Association on 29 July 2017. Before Uruguay and Argentina played out a goalless draw in Montevideo, FC Barcelona players Luis Suárez and Lionel Messi promoted the bid with commemorative shirts. On 31 August 2017, it was suggested Paraguay would join as a third host. CONMEBOL, the South American confederation (which can not bid under current FIFA rules), confirmed the joint three-way bid in September 2017. English FA vice chairman David Gill has proposed that his country could bid for 2030, provided the bidding process is made more transparent. "England is one of few countries that could stage even a 48-nation event in its entirety, while Football Association chief executive Martin Glenn made it clear earlier this year bidding for 2030 was an option." In June 2017, UEFA stated that "it would support a pan-British bid for 2030 or even a single bid from England." On 15 July 2018, Deputy Leader of the UK Labour Party, Tom Watson, said in an interview that he and his party backed a 2030 World Cup bid for the UK saying that "I hope it's one of the first things a Labour government does, which is work with our FA to try and put a World Cup bid together." On 16 July 2018, British Prime Minister Theresa May expressed her support of the bid and her openness about discussions with football authorities. Although there had been no prior discussion with the Football Association, the Scottish FA also expressed its interest about joining a Home Nations bid. Former Scottish First Minister Henry McLeish has called the Scottish government and the Scottish Football Association to bid for the 2030 FIFA World Cup with the other British nations. On 17 June 2018, the Royal Moroccan Football Federation announced its co-bidding for the 2030 World Cup. There is a possibility for a joint bid with Tunisia and Algeria. On 17 June 2018, the English Football Association announced that they are in talks with home nations over a UK-wide bid to host the 2030 World Cup. On 1 August 2018, it was reported that the FA was preparing a bid for England to host the World Cup in 2030. A decision is expected to be made in 2019, after the FA has conducted feasibility work on a potential bid. The Scottish Football Association considered the potential British bid as a great opportunity to get funds to renovate and redevelop Hampden Park in Glasgow, the Scotland national football team's home stadium. On 4 September 2018, it was announced that the Republic of Ireland was in talks exploring the possibility to join 2030 World Cup bid. On 10 July 2018, Egypt's Sports Minister expressed interest in bidding. Cameroonian presidential candidate Joshua Osih’s political program includes nominating his country along with two sub-Saharan African countries to host the 2030 World Cup, according to Cameroonian channel CRTV. On 12 September 2018, Prime Minister of Spain Pedro Sánchez discussed the possibility for Spain to bid with FIFA President Gianni Infantino and Royal Spanish Football Federation President Luis Rubiales. On 8 June 2019, Spain and Portugal expressed interest in co-hosting the 2030 FIFA World Cup. On 2 November 2018, Prime Minister of Bulgaria Boyko Borisov stated that his Greek counterpart Alexis Tsipras had proposed a joint bid by Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia and Greece during the Balkan Four meeting in Varna. At the meeting of the Ministers of Youth and Sports of Serbia, Vanja Udovičić, Bulgaria's Krasen Kralev, Romania's Constantin Bogdan Matei and Deputy Minister of Culture and Sports of Greece, Giorgos Vasileiadis, it was officially confirmed that these four countries would submit a joint candidacy for the organization of the 2028 UEFA European Football Championship and the 2030 World Cup. On 15 January 2019 FIFA president Gianni Infantino supported the Morocco, Portugal and Spain bid to host the 2030 World Cup, dealing a blow for England, Ireland, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales' hope, though it was still "very early" to speak of it. Chile confirmed their bid to host with the group on 14 February 2019 as a joint communique from the confirmed nations joining Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay. Confirmed plan to bid: CONMEBOL:, / / / : Uruguay–Argentina–Paraguay 2030 FIFA World Cup bid, CAF:, (pending on Algeria and Tunisia): Morocco 2030 FIFA World Cup bid, UEFA:, / / / : Bulgaria–Greece–Romania–Serbia 2030 FIFA World Cup bid Potential bid: UEFA:, (///) and Expressed interest in bidding: CAF: The bidding process for this World Cup has yet to start. Some early bids for the 2034 FIFA World Cup have however been proposed. The first bid for the 2034 FIFA World Cup has been proposed as a collective bid by the members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. The idea of a combined ASEAN bid had been mooted as early as January 2011, when the former Football Association of Singapore President, Zainudin Nordin, said in a statement that the proposal had been made at an ASEAN Foreign Ministers meeting, despite the fact that countries cannot bid (as that's up to national associations). In 2013, Nordin and Special Olympics Malaysia President, Datuk Mohamed Feisol Hassan, recalled the idea for ASEAN to jointly host a World Cup. Under FIFA rules as of 2017, the 2030 World Cup cannot be held in Asia (AFC) as Asian Football Confederation members are excluded from the bidding following the selection of Qatar in 2022. Therefore, the earliest bid by an AFC member could be made for 2034. Later, Malaysia withdrew from involvement but Singapore and other ASEAN countries continued the campaign to submit a joint bid for the World Cup in 2034. In February 2017, ASEAN held talks on launching a joint bid during a visit by FIFA President Gianni Infantino to Yangon, Myanmar. On 1 July 2017, Vice General Chairman of the Football Association of Indonesia Joko Driyono said that Indonesia and Thailand were set to lead a consortium of Southeast Asian nations in the bid. Driyono added that due to geographic and infrastructure considerations and the expanded format (48 teams), at least 2 or 3 ASEAN countries combined would be in a position necessary to host matches. In September 2017, the Thai League 1 Deputy CEO Benjamin Tan, at the ASEAN Football Federation (AFF) Council meeting, confirmed that his Association has "put in their interest to bid and co-host" the 2034 World Cup with Indonesia. On the same occasion, the General Secretary of the AFF, Dato Sri Azzuddin Ahmad, confirmed that Indonesia and Thailand will submit a joint bid. Indonesia is the only Southeast Asian country to have participated in the World Cup, when the territory was known as the Dutch East Indies. However in June 2018, FIFA executive committee member and crown prince and regent of Pahang, Tengku Abdullah who is also the former President of the Football Association of Malaysia (FAM) expressed interest in joining the three countries in hosting the World Cup together. The four countries have jointly hosted a football event before during the 2007 AFC Asian Cup. If the FAM agrees to rejoin the project, they would be the first to submit a four-country joint bid in the FIFA World Cup history. The second bid is from Egypt. Its Sports and Youth Minister Ashraf Sobhy said that Egypt has considered a bid to host the 2034 FIFA World Cup. Such a bid should be prepared by the national football association rather than the country. AFC:, , , , , , , , , and, , , and AFC–OFC:, , and After its failed bid to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup, Australia has considered a joint bid with neighbouring New Zealand, an OFC member. CAF: World Cup-winning bids are bolded. Withdrawn bids are italicized. Rejected bids, as well as planned but not-yet-official bids for 2030 and beyond, are not included. Except in 1934, when Italy had to qualify for the main tournament, host nations have always been granted automatic spots in the World Cup. It is widely considered that home advantage is common in the World Cup, with the host team usually performing above average. Of the eight countries that have won the tournament, all except Brazil and Spain have been champions while hosting, with England winning their only title as hosts. Further, Sweden got to its only final on home soil. The host country reached the semi-finals thirteen times in twenty-one tournaments, and both Chile and South Korea had their only finishes on the top four at home. South Africa is the only host to not go past the first round. FIFA World Cup Host Announcement Decision (PDF) The United States women's national soccer team (USWNT) represents the United States in international women's soccer. The team is the most successful in international women's soccer, winning four Women's World Cup titles (including the first Women's World Cup in 1991), four Olympic gold medals (including the first Olympic women's soccer tournament in 1996), and eight CONCACAF Gold Cups. It medaled in every World Cup and Olympic tournament in women's soccer history from 1991 to 2015, before being knocked out in the quarterfinal of the 2016 Summer Olympics. The team is governed by United States Soccer Federation and competes in CONCACAF (the Confederation of North, Central American, and Caribbean Association Football). After being ranked No. 2 on average from 2003 to 2008 in the FIFA Women's World Rankings, the team was ranked No. 1 continuously from March 2008 to November 2014, falling back behind Germany, the only other team to occupy the No. 1 position in the ranking's history. The team dropped to 2nd on March 24, 2017, due to its last-place finish in the 2017 SheBelieves Cup, then returned to 1st on June 23, 2017, after victories in friendlies against Russia, Sweden, and Norway. The team was selected as the U.S. Olympic Committee's Team of the Year in 1997 and 1999, and Sports Illustrated chose the entire team as 1999 Sportswomen of the Year for its usual Sportsman of the Year honor. On April 5, 2017, U.S. Women's Soccer and U.S. Soccer reached a deal on a new collective bargaining agreement that would, among other things, lead to a pay increase. The passing of Title IX in 1972, which outlawed gender-based discrimination for federally-funded education programs, spurred the creation of college soccer teams across the United States at a time when women's soccer was rising in popularity internationally. The U.S. Soccer Federation tasked coach Mike Ryan to select a roster of college players to participate in the 1985 Mundialito tournament in Italy, its first foray into women's international soccer. The team played its first match on August 18, 1985, losing 1–0 to Italy, and finished the tournament in fourth place after failing to win its remaining matches against Denmark and England. University of North Carolina coach Anson Dorrance was hired as the team's first full-time manager in 1986 with the goal of fielding a competitive women's team at the next Mundialito and at future tournaments. In their first Mundialito under Dorrance, the United States defeated China, Brazil, and Japan before finishing as runners-up to Italy. Dorrance gave national team appearances to teenage players, including future stars Mia Hamm, Julie Foudy, and Kristine Lilly, instead of the college players preferred by the federation. The United States played in the 1988 FIFA Women's Invitation Tournament in China, a FIFA-sanctioned competition to test the feasibility of a regular women's championship, and lost in the quarterfinals to eventual champions Norway. Following the 1988 tournament, FIFA announced plans for a new women's tournament, named the 1st FIFA World Championship for Women's Football for the M&M;'s Cup until it was retroactively given the "World Cup" name. The United States qualified for the tournament by winning the inaugural CONCACAF Women's Championship, hosted by Haiti in April 1991, outscoring their opponents 49–0 for the sole CONCACAF berth in the tournament. The team played several exhibition matches abroad against European opponents to prepare for the world championship, while its players quit their regular jobs to train full-time with meager compensation. Dorrance utilized a 4–3–3 formation that was spearheaded by the "Triple-Edged Sword" of forward Michelle Akers-Stahl and wingers Carin Jennings and April Heinrichs. At the Women's World Cup, the United States won all three of its group stage matches and outscored its opponents 11–2. In the opening match against Sweden, the U.S. took a 3–0 lead early in the second half, but conceded two goals to end the match with a narrower 3–2 victory. The U.S. proceeded to win 5–0 in its second match against Brazil and 3–0 in its third match against Japan in the following days, clinching first place in the group and a quarterfinal berth. The United States proceeded with a 7–0 victory in the quarterfinals over Chinese Taipei, fueled by a five-goal performance by Akers-Stahl in the first fifty minutes of the match. In the semifinals against Germany, Carin Jennings scored a hat-trick in the first half as the team clinched a place in the final with a 5–2 victory. The team's lopsided victories in the earlier rounds had brought attention from American media outlets, but the final match was not televised live in the U.S. The United States won the inaugural Women's World Cup title by defeating Norway 2–1 in the final, played in front of 65,000 spectators at Tianhe Stadium in Guangzhou, as Akers-Stahl scored twice to create and restore a lead for the Americans. Akers-Stahl finished as the top goalscorer at the tournament, with ten goals, and Carin Jennings was awarded the Golden Ball as the tournament's best player. Despite their Women's World Cup victory, the U.S. team remained in relative obscurity and received a small welcome from several U.S. Soccer Federation officials upon arrival at John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York City. The team were given fewer resources and little attention from the federation as they focused on improving the men's national team in preparation for the 1994 men's World Cup that would be hosted in the United States. The women's team was placed on hiatus after the tournament, only playing twice in 1992, but returned the following year to play in several tournaments hosted in Cyprus, Canada, and the United States, including a second CONCACAF Championship title. The program was still supported better than those of the former Soviet Union, where football was considered a "men's game". The United States played in several friendly tournaments to prepare for the 1995 FIFA Women's World Cup and its qualification campaign. The first was the inaugural staging of the Algarve Cup in Portugal, which saw the team win its two group stage matches but lose 1–0 to Norway in the final. It followed by a victory in the Chiquita Cup, an exhibition tournament hosted in August on the U.S. East Coast against Germany, China, and Norway. Dorrance resigned from his position as head coach in early August and was replaced by his assistant, Tony DiCicco, a former professional goalkeeper who played in the American Soccer League. DiCicco led the United States to a berth in the Women's World Cup by winning the 1994 CONCACAF Championship, where the team scored 36 goals and conceded only one. In February 1995, the U.S. women's program opened a permanent training and treatment facility in Sanford, Florida, and began a series of warm-up friendlies that were paid for by American company Nike. The team topped their group in the Women's World Cup, despite a 3–3 tie with China in the opening match and losing goalkeeper Brianna Scurry to a red card in their second match. The United States proceeded to beat Japan 4–0 in the quarterfinals, but lost 1–0 to eventual champions Norway in the semifinals. The team finished in third place, winning 2–0 in its consolation match against China. The team won the gold medal in the inaugural Olympic women's soccer tournament in the 1996 Summer Olympics, defeating China 2–1 in the final before a crowd of 76,481 fans. Julie Foudy, Kristine Lilly, and the rest of the 1999 team started a revolution towards women's team sports in America. An influential victory came in the 1999 World Cup, when they defeated China 5–4 in a penalty shoot-out following a 0–0 draw after extended time. With this win they emerged onto the world stage and brought significant media attention to women's soccer and athletics. On July 10, 1999, over 90,000 people (the largest ever for a women's sporting event and one of the largest attendances in the world for a tournament game final) filled the Rose Bowl to watch the United States play China in the Final. After a back and forth game, the score was tied 0–0 at full-time, and remained so after extra time, leading to a penalty kick shootout. With Briana Scurry's save of China's third kick, the score was 4–4 with only Brandi Chastain left to shoot. She scored and won the game for the United States. Chastain dropped to her knees and whipped off her shirt, celebrating in her sports bra, which later made the cover of Sports Illustrated and the front pages of newspapers around the country and world. This win influenced many girls to want to play on a soccer team. In the 2003 FIFA Women's World Cup, the U.S. defeated Norway 1–0 in the quarterfinals but lost 0–3 to Germany in the semifinals. The team then defeated Canada 3–1 to claim third place. Abby Wambach was the team's top scorer with three goals, while Joy Fawcett and Shannon Boxx made the tournament's all-star team. At the 2007 FIFA Women's World Cup, the U.S. defeated England 3–0 in the quarterfinals but then suffered its most lopsided loss in team history when it lost to Brazil 0–4 in the semifinals. The U.S. recovered to defeat Norway to take third place. Abby Wambach was the team's leading scorer with 6 goals, and Kristine Lilly was the only American named to the tournament's all-star team. The team earned gold medals in both the 2004 and 2008 Olympics, but interest in the Women's National Team had diminished since their performance in the '99 World Cup. However, the second women's professional league was created in March 2009, Women's Professional Soccer. In the quarterfinal of the 2011 Women's World Cup in Germany, the U.S. defeated Brazil 5–3 on penalty kicks. Abby Wambach's goal in the 122nd minute to tie the game 2–2 has been voted the greatest goal in U.S. soccer history and the greatest goal in Women's World Cup history. The U.S. then beat France 3–1 in the semifinal, but lost to Japan 3–1 on penalty kicks in the Final after drawing 1–1 in regulation and 2–2 in overtime. Hope Solo was named the tournament's best goalkeeper and Abby Wambach won the silver ball as the tournament's second best player. In the 2012 Summer Olympics, the U.S. won the gold medal for the fourth time in five Olympics by defeating Japan 2–1 in front of 80,203 fans at Wembley Stadium, a record for a women's soccer game at the Olympics. The United States advanced to face Japan for the gold medal by winning the semifinal against Canada, a 4–3 victory at the end of extra time. The 2012 London Olympics marked the first time the USWNT won every game en route to the gold medal and set an Olympic women's team record of 16 goals scored. The National Women's Soccer League started in 2013, and provided competitive games as well as opportunities to players on the fringes of the squad. The U.S. had a 43-game unbeaten streak that spanned two yearsthe streak began with a 4–0 win over Sweden in the 2012 Algarve Cup, and came to an end after a 1–0 loss against Sweden in the 2014 Algarve Cup. The USA defeated Japan 5–2 in the final of the 2015 World Cup, becoming the first team in history to win three Women's World Cup titles. In the 16th minute, Carli Lloyd achieved the fastest hat-trick from kick-off in World Cup history, and Abby Wambach was greeted with a standing ovation for her last World Cup match. Following their 2015 World Cup win, the team was honored with a ticker tape parade in New York City, the first for a women's sports team, and honored by President Barack Obama at the White House. On December 16, 2015, however, a 0–1 loss to China in Wambach's last game meant the team's first home loss since 2004, ending their 104-game home unbeaten streak. In the 2016 Summer Olympics, the U.S. drew against Sweden in the quarterfinal; in the following penalty kick phase, Sweden won the game 4–3. The loss marked the first time that the USWNT did not advance to the gold medal game of the Olympics, and the first time that the USWNT failed to advance to the semifinal round of a major tournament. After the defeat in the 2016 Olympics, the USWNT underwent a year of experimentation which saw them losing 3 home games. If not for a comeback win against Brazil, the USWNT was on the brink of losing 4 home games in one year, a low never before seen by the USWNT. 2017 saw the USWNT play 12 games against teams ranked in the top-15 in the world. Throughout 2018, the U.S. would pick up two major tournament wins, winning both the SheBelieves Cup and the Tournament of Nations. The team would enter qualifying for the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup on a 21-game unbeaten streak and dominated the competition, winning all five of its games and the tournament whilst qualifying for the World Cup as well as scoring 18 goals and conceding none. On November 8, 2018, the U.S. earned their 500th victory in team history after a 1–0 victory over Portugal. The start of 2019 saw the U.S. lose an away game to France, 3–1, marking the end of a 28-game unbeaten streak and their first loss since a 1–0 defeat to Australia in July 2017. The USWNT started off their 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup campaign with a 13–0 victory against Thailand, setting a new Women's World Cup record. Alex Morgan equaled Michelle Akers' record of scoring five goals in a single World Cup match, while four of her teammates scored their first World Cup goals in their debut at the tournament. The U.S. would win its next match against Chile 3–0 before concluding the group stage with a win of 2–0 over Sweden. The team emerged as the winners of Group F and would go on to face Spain in the Round of 16, whom they would defeat 2–1 thanks to a pair of Megan Rapinoe penalties. The team would achieve identical results in their next two games. With 2–1 victories over France and then England seeing them advance to a record third straight World Cup final, they played against the Netherlands for the title. They beat the Netherlands 2-0 in the final on July 7, 2019, becoming the first team in history to win four Women's World Cup titles. On July 30, 2019, Jill Ellis announced that she would step down as head coach following the conclusion of the team's post- World Cup victory tour on October 6, 2019. Vlatko Andonovski was hired as head coach in October 2019 to replace Ellis. U.S. TV coverage for the five Women's World Cups from 1995 to 2011 was provided by ESPN/ABC and Univision, while coverage rights for the three Women's World Cups from 2015 to 2023 were awarded to Fox Sports and Telemundo. In May 2014 a deal was signed to split TV coverage of other USWNT games between ESPN, Fox Sports, and Univision through the end of 2022. The USWNT games in the 2014 CONCACAF Women's Championship and the 2015 Algarve Cup were broadcast by Fox Sports. NBC will broadcast the Olympic tournament through 2032. The 1999 World Cup final set the original record for largest US television audience for a women's soccer match with 18 million viewers on average and was the most viewed English-language US broadcast of any soccer match until the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup Final between the United States and Japan. The 2015 Women's World Cup Final between the US and Japan was the most watched soccer match – men's or women's – in American broadcast history. It averaged 23 million viewers and higher ratings than the NBA finals and the Stanley Cup finals. The final was also the most watched US-Spanish language broadcast of a FIFA Women's World Cup match in history. Overall, there were over 750 million viewers for the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup, making it the most watched Women's World Cup in history. The FIFA Women's World Cup is now the second most watched FIFA tournament, with only the men's FIFA World Cup attracting more viewership. The 1999 World Cup final, in which the USA defeated China, set a world attendance record for a women's sporting event of 90,185 in a sellout at the Rose Bowl in Southern California. The record for Olympic women's soccer attendance was set by the 2012 Olympic final between the USWNT and Japan, with 80,023 spectators at Wembley Stadium. In recent years, the players of the USWNT have waged an escalating legal fight with the United States Soccer Federation over gender discrimination. Central to their demands is equal pay. The players point to their lower paychecks as compared to the U.S. men's national team, despite their higher record of success in recent years. In April 2016, five players filed a wage- discrimination action against the U.S. Soccer Federation with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. The group consisted of Hope Solo, Carli Lloyd, Alex Morgan, Megan Rapinoe, and Becky Sauerbrunn. One year later, in April 2017, it was announced that a new collective bargaining agreement, or CBA, with U.S soccer had been made. The agreement stated that the players would have an increased base pay and improved match bonuses. These changes could increase their previous pay from $200,000 to $300,000. This 2017 CBA, however, does not guarantee the U.S national women's team equal pay with the men's national team. The CBA's five-year term, through 2021, ensured that the next negotiation would not become an issue for the team in its next major competitions. On top of this CBA, U.S Soccer had agreed to pay the players for two years' worth of unequal per-diem payments. On March 8, 2019, all 28 members of the U.S. team filed a gender discrimination lawsuit against the United States Soccer Federation. The lawsuit, filed in the United States District Court in Los Angeles, accused the Federation of "institutional gender discrimination." The lawsuit claims that the discrimination affects not only the amount the players are paid but also their playing, training, and travel conditions. Coaching staff Technical staff The following 20 players were named to the squad for the 2020 CONCACAF Women's Olympic Qualifying Championship. Caps and goals are current as of November 10, 2019, after match against . The following players were also named to a squad in the last 12 months. Notes: : Preliminary squad, : Provisional roster The following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled. US Football Schedule, US Football Results, USA: Fixtures and Results – FIFA.com The two highest-profile tournaments the U.S. team participates in are the quadrennial FIFA Women's World Cup and the quadrennial Olympic Games. The team has participated in every World Cup through 2019 and won a medal in each. The team has participated in every Olympic tournament through 2016 and reached the gold medal game in each until 2016, when they were eliminated in the quarterfinals on a penalty shootout loss to Sweden. The US team directly qualified for the 1999 FIFA Women's World Cup as hosts of the event. Because of this, they did not participate in the 1998 CONCACAF Championship, which was the qualification tournament for the World Cup. The Algarve Cup is a global invitational tournament for national teams in women's football hosted by the Portuguese Football Federation (FPF). Held annually in the Algarve region of Portugal since 1994, it has been one of the more prestigious women's football events other than the Women's World Cup and Women's Olympic Football. Since 2016, the SheBelieves Cup replaced it on the US team's schedule. The SheBelieves Cup is a global invitational tournament for national teams in women's football hosted in the United States. The Tournament of Nations is a global invitational tournament for national teams in women's football hosted in the United States in non-World Cup and non-Olympic years. . Active players are shown in Bold. The women's national team boasts the first six players in the history of the game to have earned 200 caps. These players have since been joined in the 200-cap club by several players from other national teams, as well as by five more Americans: Kate Markgraf, Abby Wambach, Heather O'Reilly, Carli Lloyd and Hope Solo. Kristine Lilly and Christie Rampone are the only players to earn more than 300 caps. In March 2004, Mia Hamm and Michelle Akers were the only two women and the only two Americans named to the FIFA 100, a list of the 125 greatest living football players chosen by Pelé as part of FIFA's centenary observances. The USWNT All- Time Best XI was chosen In December 2013 by the United States Soccer Federation: Goalkeeper: Briana Scurry, Defenders: Brandi Chastain, Carla Overbeck, Christie Rampone, Joy Fawcett, Midfielders: Kristine Lilly, Michelle Akers, Julie Foudy, Forwards: Mia Hamm, Abby Wambach, Alex Morgan Source Source Source The goal record is five for most scored in a match by a member of the USWNT, which has been accomplished by eight players. Source World Cup Olympic Games CONCACAF Championship and Gold Cup CONCACAF Women's Olympic Qualifying Tournament Algarve Cup U.S. Cup Four Nations Tournament Peace Queen Cup Albena Cup SheBelieves Cup Tournament of Nations DFB Centenary Tournament Pacific Cup Brazil Cup North America Cup Canada Cup Australia Cup Tournoi International Chiquita Cup Tri-Nations Tournament Goodwill Games Columbus Cup USWNT All-Time Best XI, – 2005 HBO documentary, List of United States women's national soccer team hat-tricks, List of women's national football teams, Women's association football around the world, United States U-17 women's national soccer team, United States U-20 women's national soccer team, United States U-23 women's national soccer team, Women's United Soccer Association (WUSA), 2001–03, Women's Professional Soccer (WPS), 2009–11, National Women's Soccer League (NWSL), 2013–present, Soccer in the United States, United States men's national soccer team, NWSL Player Allocation, Women's sports FIFA profile, Scorum The FIFA Women's World Cup is an international association football competition established in 1991. It is contested by the women's national teams of the members of Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), the sport's global governing body. The tournament has taken place every four years. The most recent World Cup, hosted by France in 2019, was won by the United States, who beat the Netherlands 2–0 to win their second consecutive and fourth overall title. Just like the men's tournament the World Cup final match is the last of the competition, and the result determines which country is declared world champions. If after 90 minutes of regular play the score is a draw, an additional 30-minute period of play, called extra time, is added. If such a game is still tied after extra time it is decided by kicks from the penalty shoot-out. The winning penalty shoot-out area team are then declared champions. The tournament has been decided by a one-off match on every occasion. The "Year" column refers to the year the World Cup was held, and s to the article about that tournament. The wikilinks in the "Final score" column point to the article about that tournament's final game. Links in the "Winners" and "Runners-up" columns point to the articles for the national football teams of the countries, not the articles for the countries. FIFA official site

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The red panda (Ailurus fulgens) is a mammal native to the eastern Himalayas and southwestern China. It is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List because the wild population is estimated at fewer than 10,000 mature individuals and continues to decline due to habitat loss and fragmentation, poaching, and inbreeding depression. The red panda has reddish-brown fur, a long, shaggy tail, and a waddling gait due to its shorter front legs; it is roughly the size of a domestic cat, though with a longer body, and is somewhat heavier. It is arboreal and feeds mainly on bamboo, but also eats eggs, birds, and insects. It is a solitary animal, mainly active from dusk to dawn, and is largely sedentary during the day. It is also called the lesser panda, the red bear-cat, and the red cat-bear. The red panda is the only living species of the genus Ailurus and the family Ailuridae. It has been previously placed in the raccoon and bear families, but the results of phylogenetic analysis provide strong support for its taxonomic classification in its own family, Ailuridae, which is part of the superfamily Musteloidea, along with the weasel, raccoon and skunk families. Two subspecies are recognized. It is not closely related to the giant panda, which is a basal ursid. The head and body length of a red panda measures , and its tail is . Males weigh and females . They have long, soft, reddish-brown fur on the upper parts, blackish fur on the lower parts, and a light face with tear markings and robust cranio-dental features. The light face has white badges similar to those of a raccoon, but each individual can have distinctive markings. Their roundish heads have medium-sized upright ears, black noses, and blackish eyes. Their long, bushy tails with six alternating transverse ochre rings provide balance and excellent camouflage against their habitat of moss- and lichen- covered trees. The legs are black and short with thick fur on the soles of the paws. This fur serves as thermal insulation on snow-covered or icy surfaces and conceals scent glands, which are also present on the anus. The red panda is specialized as a bamboo feeder with strong, curved and sharp semi- retractile claws standing inward for grasping narrow tree branches, leaves, and fruit. Like the giant panda, it has a "false thumb", which is an extension of the wrist bone. When descending a tree head-first, the red panda rotates its ankle to control its descent, one of the few climbing species to do so. The red panda is endemic to the temperate forests of the Himalayas, and ranges from the foothills of western Nepal to China in the east. Its easternmost limit is the Qinling Mountains of the Shaanxi Province in China. Its range includes southern Tibet, Sikkim and Assam in India, Bhutan, the northern mountains of Burma, and in south-western China, in the Hengduan Mountains of Sichuan and the Gongshan Mountains in Yunnan. It may also live in south-west Tibet and northern Arunachal Pradesh, but this has not been documented. Locations with the highest density of red pandas include an area in the Himalayas that has been proposed as having been a refuge for a variety of endemic species in the Pleistocene. The distribution range of the red panda should be considered disjunct, rather than continuous. A disjunct population inhabits the Meghalaya Plateau of north-eastern India. The red panda lives between altitude, inhabiting areas of moderate temperature between with little annual change. It prefers mountainous mixed deciduous and conifer forests, especially with old trees and dense understories of bamboo. During a survey in the 1970s, signs of red pandas were found in Nepal's Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve. Their presence was confirmed in spring 2007 when four red pandas were sighted at elevations ranging from . Its westernmost distribution is in Rara National Park. In 2018, red pandas were sighted at elevations of in Nepal's Lamjung District. The red panda population in Sichuan Province is larger and more stable than the Yunnan population, suggesting a southward expansion from Sichuan into Yunnan in the Holocene. The red panda has become extirpated from the Chinese provinces of Guizhou, Gansu, Shaanxi, and Qinghai. The red panda is territorial; it is solitary except during mating season. The species is generally quiet except for some twittering, tweeting, and whistling communication sounds. It has been reported to be both nocturnal and crepuscular, sleeping on tree branches or in tree hollows during the day and increasing its activity in the late afternoon and early evening hours. It sleeps stretched out on a branch with legs dangling when it is hot, and curled up with its tail over the face when it is cold. This animal is very heat- sensitive, with an optimal "well-being" temperature between . Shortly after waking, red pandas clean their fur somewhat like a cat would, licking their front paws and then rubbing their backs, torsos, and sides. They also rub their backs and bellies along the sides of trees or rocks. Then they patrol their territories, marking with urine and a weak musk-smelling secretion from their anal glands. They search for food running along the ground or through the trees. Red pandas may use their forepaws alternately to bring food to their mouths or place food directly into their mouths. Predators of the red panda include the snow leopard, mustelids, and humans. If they feel threatened or sense danger, they may try to escape by climbing a rock column or tree. If they can no longer flee, they stand on their hind legs to make themselves appear larger and use the sharp claws on their front paws to defend themselves. A red panda, Futa, became a visitor attraction in Japan for his ability to stand upright for ten seconds at a time. (See also: facultative biped) Red pandas are excellent climbers, and forage largely in trees. They eat mostly bamboo, and may eat small mammals, birds, eggs, flowers, and berries. In captivity, they were observed to eat birds, flowers, maple and mulberry leaves, and bark and fruits of maple, beech, and mulberry. Like the giant panda, they cannot digest cellulose, so they must consume a large volume of bamboo to survive. Their diets consist of about two-thirds bamboo, but they also eat mushrooms, roots, acorns, lichens, and grasses. Occasionally, they supplement their diets with fish and insects. They do little more than eat and sleep due to their low-calorie diets. Bamboo shoots are more easily digested than leaves, exhibiting the highest digestibility in summer and autumn, intermediate digestibility in the spring, and lowest digestibility in the winter. These variations correlate with the nutrient contents in the bamboo. Red pandas process bamboo poorly, especially the cellulose and cell wall components. This implies microbial digestion plays only a minor role in their digestive strategy. To survive on this poor-quality diet, they have to eat the high-quality sections of the bamboo plant, such as the tender leaves and shoots, in large quantities, over of fresh leaves and of fresh shoots daily. This food passes through the digestive tract fairly rapidly (about 2–4 hr) so as to maximize daily nutrient intake. Red pandas can taste artificial sweeteners, such as aspartame, and are the only nonprimates known to be able to do so. Red pandas are able to reproduce at around 18 months of age, and are fully mature at two to three years. Adults rarely interact in the wild except to mate. Both sexes may mate with more than one partner during the mating season from mid-January to early March. A few days before birth, females begin to collect material, such as brushwood, grass, and leaves, to build a nest, which is normally located in a hollow tree or a rock crevice. After a gestation period of 112 to 158 days, the female gives birth in mid-June to late July to one to four (usually 1–2) blind and deaf cubs weighing each. After birth, the mother cleans the cubs, and can then recognize each by its smell. At first, she spends 60% to 90% of her time with the cubs. After the first week, the mother starts spending more time outside the nest, returning every few hours to nurse and groom the cubs. She moves the young frequently among several nests, all of which she keeps clean. The cubs start to open their eyes at about 18 days of age. By about 90 days, they achieve full adult fur and coloring, and begin to venture out of the nest. They also start eating solid foods at this point, weaning at around six to eight months of age. The cubs stay with their mother until the next litter is born in the following summer. Males rarely help raise the young, and only if they live in pairs or in small groups. A red panda's average lifespan is between eight and 10 years, but individuals have been known to reach 15 years. The primary threats to red pandas are direct harvest from the wild, live or dead, competition with domestic livestock resulting in habitat degradation, and deforestation resulting in habitat loss or fragmentation. The relative importance of these factors is different in each region, and is not well understood. For instance, in India, the biggest threat seems to be habitat loss followed by poaching, while in China, the biggest threat seems to be hunting and poaching. A 40% decrease in red panda populations has been reported in China over the last 50 years, and populations in western Himalayan areas are considered to be lower. Deforestation can inhibit the spread of red pandas and exacerbate the natural population subdivision by topography and ecology, leading to severe fragmentation of the remaining wild population. Fewer than 40 animals in four separate groups share resources with humans in Nepal's Langtang National Park, where only 6% of is preferred red panda habitat. Although direct competition for food with domestic livestock is not significant, livestock can depress bamboo growth by trampling. Small groups of animals with little opportunity for exchange between them face the risk of inbreeding, decreased genetic diversity, and even extinction. In addition, clearcutting for firewood or agriculture, including hillside terracing, removes old trees that provide maternal dens and decreases the ability of some species of bamboo to regenerate. In south-west China, red pandas are hunted for their fur, especially for the highly valued bushy tails, from which hats are produced. In these areas, the fur is often used for local cultural ceremonies. In weddings, the bridegroom traditionally carries the hide. The "good-luck charm" red panda-tail hats are also used by local newly-weds. This practice may be quite old, as the red panda seems to be depicted in a 13th- century Chinese pen-and-ink scroll showing a hunting scene. Little or no mention of the red panda is made in the culture and folklore of Nepal. In the past, red pandas were captured and sold to zoos. In an article appearing in the International Zoo News in 1969, one reported he personally had handled 350 red pandas in 17 years. Due to CITES, this zoo harvest has decreased substantially in recent years, but poaching continues, and red pandas are often sold to private collectors at exorbitant prices. In some parts of Nepal and India, red pandas are kept as pets. The red panda has a naturally low birth rate (usually one single or twin birth per year), and a high death rate in the wild. The red panda is listed as endangered on the IUCN Red List since 2008 because the global population is estimated at about 10,000 individuals, with a decreasing population trend; only about half of the total area of potential habitat of is actually being used by the species. Due to its shy and secretive nature, and its largely nocturnal habits, observation of red pandas is difficult. Therefore, population figures in the wild are determined by population density estimates and not direct counts. It is protected in all range countries, and hunting is illegal. It is listed in CITES Appendix I. Worldwide population estimates range from fewer than 2,500 to between 16,000 and 20,000 individuals. In 1999, the total population in China was estimated at between 3,000 and 7,000 individuals. In 2001, the wild population in India was estimated at between 5,000 and 6,000 individuals. Estimates for Nepal indicate only a few hundred individuals. Reliable population numbers are hard to find, partly because other animals have been mistaken for the red panda. For instance, one report from Myanmar stated that red pandas were still fairly common in some areas; however, the accompanying photographic proof of the "red panda" was in fact a viverrid species. Conservation efforts are highly variable between countries: China has 35 protected areas, covering about 42.4% of red panda habitat., India has 20 protected areas with known or possible red panda populations in Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and West Bengal such as Khangchendzonga, Namdapha and Singalila National Parks, and a coordinated conservation policy for the red panda., In Nepal, known populations occur in Langtang, Sagarmatha, Makalu Barun and Rara National Parks, Annapurna Conservation Area, Kanchenjunga Conservation Area, and Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve., Five protected areas in Bhutan support red panda populations., Myanmar has 26 protected areas, of which at least one hosts red panda populations. A community-managed forest in Ilam District of eastern Nepal is home to 15 red pandas which generate household income through tourism activities, including homestays. Villagers in the high-altitude areas of Arunachal Pradesh have formed the Pangchen Red Panda Conservation Alliance comprising five villages with a community-conserved forest area of at an altitude of to over . The international red panda studbook is currently managed at Rotterdam Zoo in the Netherlands. In cooperation with the International Red Panda Management Group, they coordinate the Species Survival Plan in North America, the European Endangered Species Programme in Europe, and other captive-breeding programs in Australia, India, Japan, and China. As of 2006, more than 800 individuals were kept in zoos and parks around the world. Of these, 511 individuals of the Himalayan red panda were kept in 173 institutions and 306 individuals of Styan's red panda were kept in 81 institutions. Since 2009, the North American Red Panda Species Survival Plan is coordinated at the Knoxville Zoo, which by 2011 had 101 red panda births. Only the Rotterdam Zoo has had more captive births worldwide. The Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park in Darjeeling successfully released four captive-bred red pandas to the wild in August and November 2003. The most often cited example of keeping red pandas as pets is the case of former Indian prime minister Indira Gandhi. Pandas were presented to her family as a gift, and they were then housed in "a special tree house". Ailurus fulgens was the scientific name proposed by Frédéric Cuvier in 1825 who described a zoological specimen sent by Alfred Duvaucel "from the mountains north of India". He was the first to also use the vernacular name panda. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the following specimens were described: by Thomas Hardwicke in 1827 from the Himalayas who explained: "It is frequently discovered by its loud cry or call, resembling the word ‘Wha’, often repeating the same: hence is derived one of the local names by which it is known. It is also called Chitwa. Hardwicke's originally proposed taxonomic name was removed from the publication with his permission., Ailurus ochraceus proposed by Brian Houghton Hodgson in 1847 was a red panda from the Himalayas.Reginald Innes Pocock concluded it represents the same type species as Ailurus fulgens, since the description of the two agree very closely. He subordinated both types to the Himalayan red panda Ailurus fulgens fulgens., Ailurus fulgens Styani described by Oldfield Thomas in 1902 was based on one skull from a male specimen collected in Sichuan. Pocock distinguished A. f. styani from A. f. fulgens by its longer winter coat and greater blackness of the pelage, bigger skull, more strongly curved forehead, and more robust teeth. His description is based on skulls and skins collected in Sichuan, Myitkyina District close to the border of Yunnan, and Upper Burma. Styan's red panda is supposedly larger and darker in color than the Himalayan red panda, but with considerable variation in both subspecies, and some individuals may be brown or yellowish brown rather than red. Two subspecies are considered valid: Western red panda A. f. fulgens lives in the western part of its range, in Nepal, Assam, Sikkim, and Bhutan., Styan's red panda A. f. styani lives in the east-north-eastern part of its range, in southern China and northern Burma. The Brahmaputra River is often considered the natural division between the two subspecies, where it makes a curve around the eastern end of the Himalayas, although some authors suggest A. f. fulgens extends farther eastward into China. The name Ailurus fulgens refulgens is sometimes incorrectly used for A. f. styani. This stems from a lapsus made by Henri Milne-Edwards in 1874. making A. f. refulgens a nomen nudum. This has been corrected in more recent publications. At various times, the red panda was placed in the Procyonidae, Ursidae, with Ailuropoda (giant panda) in the Ailuropodinae (until this family was moved into the Ursidae), and into its own family, the Ailuridae. This uncertainty comes from difficulty in determining whether certain characteristics of Ailurus are phylogenetically conservative or are derived and convergent with species of similar ecological habits. Evidence based on the fossil record, serology, karyology, behavior, anatomy, and reproduction reflect closer affinities with Procyonidae than Ursidae. However, ecological and foraging specializations and distinct geographical distribution in relation to modern procyonids support classification in the separate family Ailuridae. Recent molecular systematic DNA research also places the red panda into its own family, Ailuridae, a part of the broad superfamily Musteloidea that also includes the mephitids (skunks), procyonids (raccoons), and mustelids (weasels). According to the most recent phylogenetic studies, the red panda's closest relatives within the Musteloidea superfamily are the procyonids and mustelids. The red panda is considered a living fossil and only distantly related to the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), as it is naturally more closely related to the other members of the superfamily Musteloidea to which it belongs. The common ancestor of both pandas (which also was an ancestor for all living bears; pinnipeds like seals and walruses; and members of the family Musteloidea like weasels and otters) can be traced back to the Paleogene period tens of millions of years ago, with a wide distribution across Eurasia. Fossils of the extinct red panda Parailurus anglicus were excavated in China in the east to Britain in the west. In 1977, a single tooth of Parailurus was discovered in the Pliocene Ringold Formation of Washington. This first North American record is almost identical to European specimens and indicates the immigration of this species from Asia. In 2004, a tooth from a red panda species never before recorded in North America was discovered at the Gray Fossil Site in Tennessee. The tooth dates from 4.5–7 million years ago. This species, described as Pristinailurus bristoli, indicates that a second, more primitive ailurine lineage inhabited North America during the Miocene. Cladistic analysis suggests that Parailurus and Ailurus are sister taxa. Additional fossils of Pristinailurus bristoli were discovered at the Gray Fossil Site in 2010 and in 2012. The discovery in Spain of the postcranial remains of Simocyon batalleri, a Miocene relative to the red panda, supports a sister-group relationship between red pandas and bears. The discovery suggests the red panda's "false thumb" was an adaptation to arboreal locomotion — independent of the giant panda's adaptation to manipulate bamboo — one of the most dramatic cases of convergent evolution among vertebrates. Ailurus is adopted from the ancient Greek word (), meaning "cat". The specific epithet fulgens is Latin for "shining, bright". Panda is a Roman goddess of peace and travellers, who was called upon before starting a difficult journey. The Lepcha call it sak nam. In Nepal, it is called bhalu biralo (bear-cat) and habre. The Sherpa people of Nepal and Sikkim call it ye niglva ponva and wah donka. The word wậː is Sunuwari meaning bear; in Tamang language, a small, red bear is called tāwām. In the Kanchenjunga region of eastern Nepal, the Limbu people know red pandas as kaala (literally "dark") because of their underside pelage; villagers of Tibetan origin call them hoptongar. Additionally, Pocock lists the vernacular names ye and ' (Nepal); thokya and thongwa (Limbu); oakdonga or wakdonka and woker (Bhotia); saknam sunam (Lepcha). ' may originate from the Nepali word ' or ', a small bamboo, Arundinaria intermedia, but also refers to a kind of small leopard, or cat-bear. The word ' may originate from the Nepali ' ("claw") or ("paw"). 'Poonya' also means "eater of bamboo". The name panda could originate from panjā. In modern Chinese, the red panda is called xiăoxióngmāo ( and , lesser or small panda), or / (hóngxióngmāo, red panda). In English, the red panda is also called "lesser panda", "true panda" and "common panda". The first known written record of the red panda occurs in a 13th-century Chinese scroll depicting a hunting scene between hunters and the red panda. The red panda was recognized as the state animal of Sikkim in the early 1990s, and was the mascot of the Darjeeling Tea Festival. In 2005, Babu, a male red panda at Birmingham Nature Centre in Birmingham, England, escaped and briefly became a media celebrity, before being recaptured. He was subsequently voted "Brummie of the Year", the first animal to receive this honor. Rusty, a male red panda at the National Zoo in Washington, DC, similarly attracted media attention when he briefly escaped in 2013. The name of the open-source Firefox web browser is said to have been derived from a nickname of the red panda: "fire fox". An anthropomorphic red panda was featured as Master Shifu, the kung fu teacher, in the 2008 film Kung Fu Panda, and its sequels Kung Fu Panda 2 in 2011 and Kung Fu Panda 3 in 2016. The red panda Futa inspired the character of Pabu, the so-called "fire ferret" animal companion (primarily of Bolin), in the U.S. animated TV series The Legend of Korra. Jetstar Japan uses a red panda mascot character named "Jetta" (ジェッ太). An anthropomorphic red panda, Retsuko, is the main character of the TV anime and Netflix original series Aggretsuko. Mace, G.M. and Balmford, A. (2000). “Patterns and processes in contemporary mammalian extinction.” In Priorities for the Conservation of Mammalian Diversity. Has the Panda had its day?, A. Entwhistle and N. Dunstone (eds). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. pp. 27–52. Panda diplomacy is China's use of giant pandas as diplomatic gifts to other countries. The practice existed as far back as the Tang dynasty, when Empress Wu Zetian sent a pair of pandas to Emperor Tenmu of Japan in 685. The term "Panda Diplomacy" was first used in the Cold War. The People's Republic of China used panda diplomacy in the 1950s and has become known in recent decades for this practice. Between the years of 1957 and 1983, 24 pandas were gifted to nine nations to make friends. This is considered "gifting" as there was no price tag attached to these 24 pandas. These nine nations included the Soviet Union, Democratic People's Republic of Korea (what would later be known as North Korea), the United States of America (due to President Nixon's visit), and the United Kingdom (due to Premier Edward Heath's visit). This was when Mao Zedong was the Chinese communist chairman. President Nixon went to China for a visit and Mao Zedong stated that they would send two pandas to a zoo found in America. In exchange for these pandas received by the Chinese, President Nixon returned the gift by gifting two musk oxen to the Chinese. This gift between China and the United States show a strong diplomatic relationship of each other. The female panda, Ling- Ling and the male panda, Hsing-Hsing were given on 1972. Although there is a long history behind panda diplomacy, before these two pandas were gifted, for over twenty-years, there has not been a panda in the U.S. Upon the pandas' arrival in April 1972, First Lady Pat Nixon donated the pandas to the National Zoo in Washington, D.C., where she welcomed them in an official ceremony. Over twenty thousand people visited the pandas the first day they were on display, and an estimated 1.1 million visitors came to see them the first year they were in the United States. The pandas were wildly popular and China's gift was seen as an enormous diplomatic success, evidence of China's eagerness to establish official relations with the U.S. It was so successful that British Prime Minister Edward Heath asked for pandas for the United Kingdom during a visit to China in 1974. Chia-Chia and Ching-Ching therefore arrived at the London Zoo a few weeks later. The panda gifted to the UK would later be the logo's inspiration for the World Wildlife Fund. Chiang Mai Zoo is a zoo and aquarium that opened in 1977 in Thailand. It is located on Huay Kaew Road and is west of Chiang Mai University. Before it opened up as an official zoo for the public in 1977, it was an area where Harold Mason Young took care of injured animals. He kept the area open to the public so the community could see what he did to take care of the many animals. When the zoo opened up, it was the first commercial zoo in Thailand. Deng Xiaoping started the process of gift-loaning pandas in 1984, starting with China presenting two pandas to Los Angeles during the 1984 Olympic Games for $50,000 per month per panda. This practice ended in 1991 in the popular favor of long-term loans. Instead, China began to offer pandas to other nations only on ten-year loans. The standard loan terms include a fee of up to US$1,000,000 per year and a provision that any cubs born during the loan be the property of the People's Republic of China. Since 1998, because of a World Wildlife Fund lawsuit, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service allows a U.S. zoo to import a panda only if the zoo can ensure that China will channel more than half of its loan fee into conservation efforts for wild pandas and their habitat. The gifting of two pandas to Hong Kong in 2007 was seen as outside of the spectrum of panda diplomacy. After the 2008 earthquake that made many facilities no longer functional, 60 panda required new housing, and most of them were given to nations that either have trade agreements with China since 2009 or nations that supplied China with necessary resources. There is a strong connection of panda loans and countries supplying China with uranium. Pandas have become important diplomatic symbols, not only to China. In a visit by Hu Jintao to Japan in May 2008, China announced the loan of two pandas to Japan. The President was quoted as saying "Giant pandas are very popular among the Japanese, and they are a symbol of the friendly ties between Japan and China." Actions that other countries take with pandas are often seen as laden with meaning. For example, British diplomats worried that a 1964 transfer of a panda from a London zoo to Moscow would worsen Sino-Soviet relations. In January 2006, U.S. Deputy Secretary of State Robert Zoellick was photographed hugging a 5-month-old panda cub during his visit to Sichuan province. The image was widely broadcast by the Chinese media and was purportedly interpreted as a sign that Zoellick supported better relations between China and the United States. On 16 April 2014, China had planned to send a pair of pandas named Fu Wa and Feng Yi to Malaysia to mark their 40-year diplomatic ties but were postponed following the MH370 tragedy. The two pandas later arrived in Kuala Lumpur International Airport on 21 May 2014 and placed at the National Zoo of Malaysia. Recently, Finland agreed to care for two giant pandas. During the same visit, as per normal practise during state visits, Finland confirmed that it will abide by the One-China policy. Two pandas Cai Tao and Hu Chun arrived in Jakarta in 2017 to be placed in Taman Safari in Bogor as part of the 60th anniversary celebrations of China–Indonesia relations. The most recent panda loan was on June 5, 2019 when Chinese President Xi Jinping gifted two giant pandas to Russia's Moscow Zoo on an official state visit as a "sign of respect and trust." The pandas, two-year old male Ru Yi and one-year old female Ding Ding, will reside in a newly-built pavilion and be on loan to the zoo for 15 years. In 2003, China sent Thailand two very popular pandas, Chuang Chuang and Lin Hui to the Chiang Mai Zoo. They have been living in Chiang Mai Zoo since then but in 2007 Chuang Chuang was put on a diet due to becoming obese. In September 2019, Chuang Chuang suddenly died which caused a lot of outrage. The public started to blame this incident on China's panda diplomacy. They thought sending giant animals abroad to other countries was no longer a good idea and was bad for the animals health. It could also make the population of the endangered animals they were sending decrease at a faster rate. Keeping pandas is very expensive. Beside the cost of the "rent" from China, obtaining enough bamboo is very expensive. The Edinburgh zoo spends $107,000 per year to feed its two pandas. This caused the zoo to ask for bamboo donations, as well as for local gardeners to start growing bamboo in 2011. Copenhagen Zoo opened a panda enclosure in 2019 for two pandas on lease from China for 15 years with the price tag of $1 million annually. The enclosure itself cost $24 million, though it was privately funded. Eva Flyvholm, a member of Denmark's parliament for the Unity party, said in a statement that, "Denmark gets the pandas because we have dropped our criticism of the Chinese repression of Tibet, and because Chinese human rights violations aren’t being criticized so much." 40 new trade agreements with China were signed with the panda loan agreement in 2019. In 2005, Lien Chan, chairman of the Kuomintang, the then-opposition party in Taiwan, visited mainland China. As part of the talks between Lien Chan and the Communist Party of China (CPC), two pandas (later named Tuan Tuan and Yuan Yuan, meaning "reunion" in Mandarin) were offered as a gift to the people of Taiwan. While the idea was popular with the Taiwanese public, it proved difficult with the Republic of China (ROC) government of Taiwan, then led by the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP). The DPP supports Taiwanese independence and opposes unification with the People's Republic of China, and saw the gift of pandas as an attempt by the CPC to draw the ROC government into its "united front". While several zoos in Taiwan made bids to host the pandas, the ROC government raised objections, ostensibly on the grounds that pandas were not suited to the Taiwanese climate and that Taiwan did not have the expertise to rear pandas successfully. It was widely understood, however, that these were underlain by political considerations by the DPP-led government to maintain its distance from the PRC government. Another technical issue is a dispute over the applicability of the Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES). In 1998, China offered the Republic of China two giant pandas in exchange for wartime peace. The PRC insisted that a transfer from mainland China to Taiwan was a domestic transfer, not subject to CITES, while the ROC government disputed this and would not accept the pandas without CITES procedures. On March 11, 2006, the ROC formally rejected the offer, with President Chen Shui-bian explaining in his weekly newsletter, "A-bian (Chen's nickname) sincerely urges the Chinese leaders to leave the giant pandas in their natural habitat, because pandas brought up in cages or given as gifts will not be happy". Following a change of government in Taiwan, in July 2008, the ROC government led by the Kuomintang stated that it would accept the gift of two four-year-old giant pandas. In December 2008, the government approved the import of pandas under the terms of "species of traditional herbal medicine". Tuan Tuan and Yuan Yuan arrived at the Taipei Zoo later in the same month, making international news. In response to the transfer, the CITES secretariat stated that the transfer of the two pandas was a matter of "internal or domestic trade", and so was not required to be reported to CITES. The ROC quickly issued a rebuttal to the CITES statement and clarified that the procedures for the transfer followed closely a country-to-country transfer. The ROC also noted that such procedures would not be needed if it were an internal/domestic transfer. The ROC further noted that Taiwan is not a CITES signatory and is therefore not obligated to report to the CITES Secretariat its acceptance of the two pandas. Internationally, other rare animals appear as diplomatic/political gifts as well. For example, in the run-up to the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, five Chinese sturgeons, symbolising the five Olympic rings, were given by China's Central Government to Hong Kong. In 2009, the government of the Seychelles Islands announced its gift of a pair of Aldabra giant tortoises to the 2010 World Expo in Shanghai in celebration of the 60th anniversary of the founding of the People's Republic of China, and in appreciation of China's assisting the small insular nation with the expenses of participating in the Expo. The two tortoises will be actually kept in the Shanghai Zoo. The government of Mongolia has been gifting horses to visiting dignitaries. Those who have received Mongolia's horses as a gift from its government include the President of South Korea Park Geun-hye, Vice President of India Mohammad Hamid Ansari, Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi, and the United States Secretary of Defense Chuck Hagel. The Philippines plans to loan a pair of Philippine eagles to Singapore in 2019 for ten years as an effort to boost ties between the two countries. The Philippine government also considers the move as an "insurance policy" in a bid to protect the endangered species' population in an event an avian outbreak wipes out the indigenous population in the Philippines. Presenting animals as gifts to dignitaries is an ongoing ritual that dates back centuries. The Song of Roland demonstrates how common this practice was in that even this poem, so focused on scenes of battle, bravery, and chivalry made space to describe the allure and temptation of owning exotic animals. Ping-pong diplomacy, Foreign policy of China, Ocean Park Hong Kong, Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to China, Animal rights, Mao Zedong, World Wide Fund for Nature Balpakram National Park is a national park in the south of Garo Hills in Meghalaya, India, located at an altitude of about close to the international border with Bangladesh. It was inaugurated in December 1987 and provides habitat for barking deer, Asian golden cat, Bengal tiger, marbled cat, wild water buffalo, red panda and Indian elephant. Balpakram means 'land of the eternal wind' according to the myth of the Garo people. The Central government of India has nominated the Garo Hills Conservation Area (GHCA), straddling South and West Garo Hills district in Meghalaya, for a World Heritage Site, which includes Balpakram National Park. It has been listed in UNESCO World Heritage tentative list. Balpakram National Park is home to wide species of plants and animals. Its vegetation consists of subtropical, tropical deciduous trees and pitcher plant. Species recorded include Asian elephant, deer , wild water buffalo, red panda, tiger and marbled cat. The rivers and lakes in the wildlife reserve are home to various species of birds . Balpakram has many mysterious and unnatural phenomena that cannot be satisfactorily explained by modern science and logic. A Schima wallichii tree has a depression on its trunk. Local people believe that it was caused by spirits that take rest here on their way to their abode of the dead and tether animals killed on their funeral. Surprisingly a few years ago, when one tree fell due to strong winds, another tree close to it started getting the same symptoms. The best time to come to Balpakram National Park is from November to May when the weather is pleasant without rainfall. The park can be reached from Shillong by road from Guwahati airport to Tura and Baghmara. Entry fees will have to be paid at the parks's gate. Balpakram National Park

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Brazilian nationality law is based on both the principles of jus soli and of jus sanguinis. As a general rule, any person born in Brazil acquires Brazilian nationality at birth, irrespective of status of parents. Nationality law is regulated by Article 12 of the Brazilian Federal Constitution. A person born in Brazil acquires Brazilian nationality at birth. The only exception applies to children of persons in the service of a foreign government (such as a foreign diplomats). This means that parents and siblings of the Brazilian child are eligible to apply for permanent residency in Brazil, regardless of their nationality or where subsequent siblings were/are born. Brazilian law considers as Brazilian citizens people born abroad in two cases: a person born outside Brazil of a Brazilian parent who is in the service of the Brazilian government; or, a person born outside Brazil of a Brazilian parent, provided that that person either be registered with a Brazilian consular office or later move to Brazil and confirm one's nationality before a federal judge. Between 1994 and 2007, registration with a Brazilian consular office did not confer Brazilian nationality. In September 2007, a constitutional amendment reinstituted consular registration as a means of acquiring Brazilian nationality. Foreigners may apply for Brazilian nationality if they meet the following criteria: four years of permanent residency in Brazil, adequate ability to communicate in Portuguese, attested by one of various exams or education certificates, no prior criminal conviction, in Brazil or in the country of origin The residency requirement may be reduced in certain circumstances: only two years of residency are required for those who have provided "relevant services" to the country, for those with notable "professional, scientific or artistic ability", or for stateless people, only one year of residency is required for those who have a Brazilian spouse or child, or for nationals of Portuguese-speaking countries, no residency period is required for those married to a Brazilian diplomat for more than five years, or for those who worked for more than 10 years in a Brazilian diplomatic mission Those who have lived in Brazil for more than 15 years and have no criminal conviction do not have to satisfy any other condition for naturalization. There are also lower requirements for those who moved to Brazil as minors. Since 10 May 2016, Brazil does not require naturalized citizens to renounce their previous nationality. According to the Brazilian constitution, Brazilian citizens who acquire another nationality may lose Brazilian nationality. However, since 1994 a constitutional amendment allows two exceptions where Brazilians may maintain Brazilian nationality while acquiring another one. The first exception is in the case of recognition of "originary nationality" by foreign law. Contrary to a popular misconception, this term does not refer to recognition of original Brazilian nationality by the other country, but to cases where the other nationality is acquired by origin (by birth or descent, as opposed to naturalization). Whether the other country recognizes dual nationality is irrelevant. The second exception is in case the other country requires naturalization for the person to remain residing or to exercise civil rights there. Although the government has the power to revoke Brazilian nationality of those who voluntarily naturalized in another country and did not satisfy one of the exceptions, it tends to apply these exceptions very broadly, and in practice it only revokes Brazilian nationality if the person formally requests so, or very rarely in exceptional circumstances. For example, in 2013 the Brazilian government revoked the nationality of a Brazilian citizen who had naturalized in the United States, to extradite her to that country (the Brazilian constitution does not allow extradition of its own citizens). The decision was confirmed by the Supreme Federal Court in 2017, and she was extradited in 2018. Those who lost Brazilian nationality due to naturalization in another country may apply for its reacquisition on the condition that they will renounce the other nationality. After Brazilian nationality is reacquired, the applicants have 18 months to show proof of renunciation of the other nationality. The process is done in this order to prevent statelessness. Naturalized Brazilians are allowed to also keep their previous nationality. They may lose Brazilian nationality if convicted of activity considered "harmful to the national interest". Brazilian citizens who also have another nationality are allowed to enter and leave Brazil with the passport of the other country in combination with any document attesting Brazilian nationality such as a Brazilian identity card or an expired Brazilian passport. If they do not provide such document, they may still enter Brazil as foreigners, subject to the regular requirements and limitations as such. However, usually this case is only possible if Brazil does not require a visa from the other nationality. Brazil only issues visas to dual citizens in exceptional circumstances, such as for those who work in foreign government jobs that prohibit the use of a Brazilian passport. Visa requirements for Brazilian citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Brazil. As of 7 January 2019, Brazilian citizens had visa-free or visa on arrival access to 171 countries and territories, ranking the Brazilian passport 17th in terms of travel freedom according to the Henley visa restrictions index. Male Brazilian citizens have a 12-month military service obligation, unless the citizen has a disqualifying physical or psychological condition, or if the citizen does not wish to serve and the military finds enough volunteers to support its needs. Therefore, although registering for the military is mandatory, about 95% of those who register receive an exemption. Male citizens between 18 and 45 years of age are required to present a military registration certificate when applying for a Brazilian passport. Voting in Brazil is mandatory for citizens between 18 and 70 years of age. Those who do not vote in an election and do not later present an acceptable justification (such as being away from their voting location at the time) must pay a fine of 3.51 BRL. Citizens between 18 and 70 years of age are required to present proof of voting compliance (by having voted, justified absence or paid the fine) when applying for a Brazilian passport. Brazilian identity card, Brazilian passport, Cadastro de Pessoas Físicas, History of Brazilian nationality, Visa policy of Brazil, Equality Statute between Brazil and Portugal The president of Brazil (), officially the president of the Federative Republic of Brazil () or simply the President of the Republic, is both the head of state and the head of government of Brazil. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the Brazilian Armed Forces. The presidential system was established in 1889, upon the proclamation of the republic in a military coup d'état against Emperor Pedro II. Since then, Brazil has had six constitutions, three dictatorships, and three democratic periods. During the democratic periods, voting has always been compulsory. The Constitution of Brazil, along with several constitutional amendments, establishes the requirements, powers, and responsibilities of the president, their term of office and the method of election. Jair Bolsonaro is the 38th and current president. He was sworn in on 1 January 2019 following the 2018 presidential election. As a republic with a presidential executive, Brazil grants significant powers to the president, who effectively controls the executive branch, represents the country abroad, and appoints the cabinet and, with the approval of the Senate, the judges for the Supreme Federal Court. The president is also the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Presidents in Brazil have significant lawmaking powers, exercised either by proposing laws to the National Congress or by using (provisional measures), an instrument with the force of law that the president can enact in cases of urgency and necessity except to make changes to some areas of law (provisional measures cannot be used to change criminal law or electoral law). A provisional measure comes into effect immediately, before Congress votes on it, and remains in force for up to 60 days unless Congress votes to rescind it. The 60-day period can be extended once, up to 120 days. If Congress, on the other hand, votes to approve the provisional measure, it becomes an actual law, with changes decided by the legislative branch. The provisional measure expires at the end of the 60-day period (or the 120-day, in the case of extension), or sooner, if rejected by one of the Houses of Congress. Article 84 of the current Federal Constitution, determines that the president has the power to 1. appoint and dismiss the ministers of state; 2. exercise, with the assistance of the ministers of state, the higher management of the federal administration 3. start the legislative procedure, in the manner and in the cases set forth in the constitution; 4. sanction, promulgate and order the publication of laws, and issue decrees and regulations for the true enforcement thereof; 5. veto bills, wholly or in part; 6. provide, by means of decree, on organization and structure of federal administration if there is neither increase of expenses nor creation or extinction of public agencies; and extinction of offices or positions, when vacant; 7. maintain relations with foreign States and to accredit their diplomatic representatives; 8. conclude international treaties, conventions and acts, subject to the ratification of the National Congress of Brazil; 9. decree the state of defense and the state of siege, in accordance with the constitutional procedures that precede and authorize those emergency decrees; 10. decree and enforce federal intervention, in accordance with the constitutional procedures that precede and authorize such exceptional action; 11. upon the opening of the legislative session, send a government message and plan to the National Congress, describing the state of the nation and requesting the actions he deems necessary; 12. grant pardons and reduce sentences, after hearing the entities instituted by law, if necessary; 13. exercise the supreme command of the armed forces, appoint the commanders of navy, army and air force, promote general officers and to appoint them to the offices held exclusively by them; 14. appoint, after approval by the Federal Senate, the Justices of the Supreme Federal Court and those of the superior courts, the Governors of the territories, the Prosecutor General of the Republic, the president and the directors of the Central Bank and other civil servants, when established by law; 15. appoint, with due regard for the provisions of Article 73, the Justices of the Court of Accounts of the Union; 16. appoint judges in the events established by this constitution and the Attorney General of the Union; 17. appoint members of the Council of the Republic, in accordance with article 89, VII; 18. summon and preside over the Council of the Republic and the National Defense Council; 19. declare war, in the event of foreign aggression, authorized by the National Congress or confirmed by it, whenever it occurs between legislative sessions and, under the same conditions, to decree full or partial national mobilization; 20. make peace, authorized or confirmed by the National Congress; 21. award decorations and honorary distinctions; 22. permit, in the cases set forth by supplementary law, foreign forces to pass through the national territory, or to remain temporarily therein; 23. submit to the National Congress the pluriannual plan, the bill of budgetary directives and the budget proposals set forth in this constitution; 24. render, each year, accounts to the National Congress concerning the previous fiscal year, within sixty days of the opening of the legislative session; 25. fill and abolish federal government positions, as set forth by law; 26. issue provisional measures, with force of law, according to Article 62; 27. perform other duties set forth in the constitution. The Constitution of Brazil requires that a president be a native-born citizen of Brazil, at least 35 years of age, a resident of Brazil, in full exercise of their electoral rights, a registered voter, and a member of a political party (write-in or independent candidates are prohibited). The president of Brazil serves for a term of four years, and may be re-elected for a single consecutive term. This two-term limit, however, is not for life—a former president who has served for two consecutive terms may, at a later time, run again for office, as long as at least one term has elapsed. A vice president or other officer who succeeds to the presidency or who serves, albeit briefly, as acting president during a certain presidential term may subsequently be elected or reelected to the presidency only once, as the consecutive term limit already applies. In practice, Brazilian vice-presidents almost always serve as acting president at some point during a presidential term, given that, according to the Constitution, the vice-president becomes acting president during the president's travels abroad. A sitting president (or governor or mayor) who wishes to run for a different office, regardless of the intended jurisdiction or branch of government, must resign from office at least six months before election day. The current term of four years was established by the 5th Amendment to the Constitution, in 1994, and the possibility of reelection by the 16th Amendment, in 1997. Before that, presidents had been barred from immediate reelection for all of Brazil's republican history, with the single exception of the latter half of the Vargas Era, from 1937 to 1945. The office was limited to men until the 1937 Constitution. As of 2015, the president receives a monthly salary of R$30,934.70, along with an undisclosed expense account to cover travel, goods and services while in office. Given that in Brazil all private and public sector employees and civil servants receive an additional compensation equivalent to one monthly salary after a year of work (this compensation is known as the thirteenth salary), the president receives 13 payments per year, resulting in an annual salary of R$402,151.10. The Palácio do Planalto in Brasília is the official workplace of the president and the Palácio da Alvorada their official residence; he or she is entitled to use its staff and facilities. The Residência Oficial do Torto, popularly known as Granja do Torto, is a ranch located on the outskirts of the capital and is used as a country retreat by the president. The Palácio Rio Negro in Petrópolis, Rio de Janeiro, is a summer retreat of the president, although used rarely. In addition, the presidency of the republic also maintains the Jaburu Palace in Brasília for use by the vice president of the Republic as his or her official residence. In the 2000s, the federal government decided to establish Regional Offices of the Presidency of the Republic in certain key Brazilian cities. Those regional offices are not presidential residences, but they are fully staffed offices ready to receive the president and his ministers at any time, and they function as a presidential workplace when the president is in those cities. The first regional office of the presidency was established in the city of São Paulo, and is located at the Banco do Brasil building at the Paulista Avenue; the building also houses Banco do Brasil's regional headquarters in São Paulo. The presidency of the republic also maintains regional offices in Porto Alegre and in Belo Horizonte. For ground travel, the president uses the presidential state car, which is an armored version of the 2019 Ford Fusion Hybrid built on a Ford CD3 platform. A 1952 Rolls Royce Silver Wraith is used by the president on ceremonial occasions, such as Independence Day commemorations, state visits and the inauguration of the president-elect. A modified version of the Airbus A319, air force designation VC-1A, is used to transport the president on all medium and long-range international flights. Two modified Embraer 190 jets, air force designation VC-2, are used for short and medium range presidential travel. When the president is on board, the aircraft receive the call sign "Brazilian Air Force One". Two modified military versions of the Eurocopter Super Puma, air force designation VH-34, are currently used as the main presidential helicopters. The president may be removed from office using one of two procedures. In either case, two-thirds of the Chamber of Deputies must accept charges against the officeholder (impeachment); and if the Senate accepts the investigation, the president is suspended from exercising the functions of office for up to 180 days. In the case of "common criminal offenses", a trial then takes place at the Supreme Federal Court. In the case of "crimes of malversation", which must fall into one of seven broad areas and which is defined in more detail in law, a trial takes place at the Federal Senate. During the trial, the vice president exercises executive power. If the trial does not result in a conviction within 180 days, the president resumes office; a conviction results in removal from office and succession by the vice president. The seven areas are: 1. The existence of the Union 2. The free exercise of the Legislative Power, the Judicial Power, the Public Prosecution and the constitutional Powers of the units of the Federation 3. The exercise of political, individual and social rights 4. The internal security of the country 5. Probity in the administration 6. The budgetary law 7. Compliance with the laws and with court decisions The following privileges are guaranteed to former presidents by law: Permanent security protection (by the presidential guard – Batalhão da Guarda Presidencial), The use of two official vehicles (for life), Repository funding for a presidential library, Lifelong monthly pension for their widows and unmarried daughters, Pension for sons of deceased ex-presidents until they come of age As of , there are six living former presidents and one incumbent president. The most recent death of a former president was that of Itamar Franco (1992–95), on 2 July 2011. All presidents of Brazil bore the title President of the Republic. That title has been used by all the constitutions of Brazil since the proclamation of the Republic to refer to the head of the Executive Branch. However, from the proclamation of the Republic in 1889 until 1937 the country was officially styled Republic of the United States of Brazil, and from 1937 to 1967 the country was styled simply The United States of Brazil, and thus the full title of the presidents of the Republic from 1891 until 1967—that is, from Deodoro da Fonseca's inauguration as President (between 1889 and 1891 he served as Head of the Provisional Government) until the end of Humberto Castello Branco's term in 1967—was President of the Republic of the United States of Brazil. On 15 March 1967, the country's official name was changed to Federative Republic of Brazil. On that same date, Arthur da Costa e Silva was sworn in as President succeeding Castello Branco. Since Costa e Silva, therefore, all presidents of Brazil have borne the full title of President of the Federative Republic of Brazil. List of Presidents of Brazil, List of Presidents of Brazil by longevity, Brazilian presidential inauguration, Politics of Brazil, Cabinet of Brazil, Vice President of Brazil, Brazilian Air Force One, Presidential Guard Battalion (Brazil) Official website of the Presidency of the Republic Immigration to Brazil is the movement to Brazil of foreign peoples to reside permanently. It shouldn't be confused with the colonisation of the country by the Portuguese, or with the forcible bringing of people from Africa as slaves. Throughout its history, Brazil has always been a recipient of immigrants, but this began to gain importance in the late 19th century and throughout the 20th century when the country received massive immigration from Europe, the Middle East and East Asia, which left lasting marks on demography, culture, language and the economy of Brazil. In general, it is considered that people who entered Brazil up to 1822, the year of independence, were colonizers. Since then, those who entered the independent nation were immigrants. Before 1871, the number of immigrants rarely exceeded two or three thousand people a year. Immigration increased pressure from the first end of the international slave trade to Brazil, after the expansion of the economy, especially in the period of large coffee plantations in the state of São Paulo. Immigration has been a very important demographic factor in the composition, structure and history of human population in Brazil, with all its attending factors and consequences in culture, economy, education, racial issues. Brazil has received one of the largest numbers of immigrants in the Western Hemisphere, along with the United States, Argentina and Canada. Counting from 1872 (year of the first census) by the year 2000, Brazil received about 6 million immigrants. Maria Stella Ferreira Levy suggests the following periodisation of the process of immigration to Brazil: 1. 1820–1876: small number of immigrants (about 6,000 per year), predominance of Portuguese (45.73%), with significant numbers of Germans (12.97%); 2. 1877–1903: large number of immigrants (about 71,000 per year), predominance of Italians (58.49%); 3. 1904–1930: large number of immigrants (about 79,000 per year), predominance of the Portuguese (36.97%); 4. 1931–1963: declining number of immigrants (about 33,500 per year), predominance of the Portuguese (38.45%). When Brazil was settled as a new land in the New World by the Portuguese in 1500, its native population was composed of about 2.4 million Amerindians whose ancestors had been living there for the last 15,000 to 20,000 years. During the three decades afterwards, the country remained sparsely inhabited by Europeans. Among those few, mainly Portuguese, most were renegades, criminals banished from Portugal, shipwreck survivors, or mutinous sailors. They integrated into the local tribes, using their superior technology to attain privileged positions among them. After 1530, the Portuguese started to settle in Brazil in significant numbers. However, Portugal had a small population to develop the exploitation of Brazil. By 1550, the colonists started to bring African slaves. From 1500, when the Portuguese reached Brazil, until its independence in 1822, from 500,000 to 700,000 Portuguese settled in Brazil, 600,000 of whom arrived in the 18th century alone. The Portuguese settled in the whole territory, initially remaining near the coast, except in the region of São Paulo, from where the bandeirantes would spread into the hinterland. In the 18th century, large waves of Portuguese settled the country, in the wake of the discovery of gold in the region of Minas Gerais, but the number of Portuguese who settled in Brazil in its colonial era was far lower than of African slaves: from 1550 to 1850, some 4 million slaves were brought to Brazil. This should not be taken as meaning that the population of Brazil before independence was mainly Black: the average survival of an African slave in Brazil was of merely seven years after arrival, implying extremely high mortality rates. Although children born to slave women inherited the slave condition, the Portuguese always relied on slaves purchased from slave traders to replace and increase the work force; the natural growth of the slave population was always very small. In the early 19th century, Brazil was mainly composed of people of three different origins: the indigenous inhabitants, the Portuguese and their descendants, the Africans and descendants, and, naturally, people of varying degrees of "racial" mixture. In 1872, after the arrival of about 350,000 mostly European immigrants and about 1,150,000 Africans forcibly brought to Brazil as slaves, the first Brazilian Census counted 9,930,478 people in Brazil, of which 3,787,289 (38.14%) Whites, 3,380,172 (34.04%) "pardos", 1.954.452 (19.68%) Blacks, and 386,955 (3.90%) "caboclos". Immigration properly started with the opening of the Brazilian ports, in 1808. The government began to stimulate the arrival of Europeans to occupy plots of land and become small farmers. In 1812, settlers from the Azores were brought to Espírito Santo and in 1819, Swiss to Nova Friburgo, Rio de Janeiro. After independence from Portugal, the Brazilian Empire focused on the occupation of the provinces of Southern Brazil. It was mainly because Southern Brazil had a small population, vulnerable to attacks by Argentina and the Kaingang Indians. From 1824, immigrants from Central Europe started to populate what is nowadays the region of São Leopoldo, in the province of Rio Grande do Sul. According to Leo Waibel, these German immigrants were mainly "oppressed peasants and former soldiers of the army of Napoleon". In 1830 a bill was passed forbidding the Imperial government from spending money with the settlement of immigrants, which stalled immigration until 1834, when the provincial governments were charged with promoting immigration. In 1859, Prussia prohibited emigration to Brazil. This was mainly because of complaints that Germans were being exploited in the coffee plantations of São Paulo. Still, between 1820 and 1876, 350,117 immigrants entered Brazil. Of these, 45.73% were Portuguese, 35.74% of "other nationalities", 12.97% Germans, while Italians and Spanish together did not reach 6%. The total number of immigrants per year averaged 6,000. Many immigrants, particularly the Germans, were brought to settle in rural communities as small landowners. They received land, seed, livestock and other items to develop. In the last quarter of the 19th century, the entry of immigrants in Brazil grew strongly. On one hand, Europe underwent a serious demographic crisis, which resulted in increased emigration; on the other hand, the final crisis of Brazilian slavery prompted Brazilian authorities to find solutions for the problem of work force. Consequently, while immigration until 1871 was focused on establishing communities of landowners, during this period, while this older process continued, immigrants were more and more attracted to the coffee plantations of São Paulo, where they became employees or were allowed to cultivate small tracts of land in exchange for their work in the coffee crop. This also coincided with the decreasing availability of better land in southern Brazil—while the German immigrants arriving in the previous period occupied the valleys of the rivers, the Italians arriving in the last quarter of the century settled the mountainous regions of the state. During this period, immigration was much more intense: large numbers of Europeans, especially Italians, started to be brought to the country to work in the harvest of coffee. From 1877 to 1903, almost two million immigrants arrived, at a rate of 71,000 per year Brazil's receiving structure, legislation and settlement policies for immigrants were much less organized than in Canada and the United States at the time. Nevertheless, an Immigrant's Hostel (Hospedaria dos Imigrantes) was built in 1886 in São Paulo, and quick admittance and recording routines for the throngs of immigrants arriving by ship at the seaports of Vitória, Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Paranaguá, Florianópolis and Porto Alegre were established. The São Paulo site alone processed more than 2.5 million immigrants in its almost 100 years of continuous operation. People of more than 70 different nationalities were recorded. In 1850, Brazil declared the end of the slave trade. This had different impacts on the different regions of Brazil. At the time, the region of São Paulo was undergoing a process of economic boom, linked to the expansion of the cultivation of coffee, and consequently needed increased amounts of labour. Other regions, notedly the Northeast, on the contrary, faced economic retraction, and were, consequently, able to dispense workforce. This entailed the replacement of the international slave trade by an internal or interprovincial slave trade, in which Northeastern slaves were sold in large numbers to the Southeast. This temporarily solved the workforce problem in São Paulo and other coffee plantation areas. However, by 1870 the paulista elite came to realise that the Northeastern slaveholders were in fact being able to obtain financial compensation for their slaves, or, in practice, an abolition with compensation. Fears of a situation comparable to the United States, with the division of the country into free provinces and slave provinces arose. Consequently, paulista politicians began to seek measures against the interprovincial traffic, at a time when, anyway, the price of Northeastern slaves was getting higher and higher, due to their increasing scarcity. By the beginning of the 1870s, the alternative of the interprovincial trade was exhausted, while the demand for workforce in the coffee plantations continued to expand. Thus the paulista oligarchy sought to attract new workers from abroad, by passing provincial legislation and pressing the Imperial government to organise immigration. From 1904 to 1930, 2,142,781 immigrants came to Brazil—making an annual average of 79,000 people. In consequence of the Prinetti Decree of 1902, that forbade subsidised emigration to Brazil, Italian immigration had, at this stage, a drastic reduction: their average annual entries from 1887 to 1903 was 58,000. In this period they were only 19,000 annually. The Portuguese constituted 38% of entries, followed by Spaniards with 22%. From 1914 to 1918, due to World War I, the entry of immigrants of all nationalities decreased. After the War, the immigration of people of "other nationalities" redressed faster than that of Portuguese, Spaniards, and Italians. Part of this category was composed of immigrants from Poland, Russia and Romania, who immigrated probably by political issues, and part by Syrian and Lebanese peoples. Both subgroups included a number of Jewish immigrants, who arrived in the 1920s. From 1931 to 1963, 1,106,404 immigrants entered Brazil. The participation of the Japanese increased. From 1932 to 1935 immigrants from Japan constituted 30% of total admissions. Prior to this yearly Japanese immigrants were numerically limited to no more than 5% of the current Japanese population. With the radicalisation of the political situation in Europe, the end of the demographic crisis, the decadence of coffee culture, the Revolution of 1930 and the consequent rise of a nationalist government, immigration to Brazil was significantly reduced. The focus shifted to culturally assimilating immigrants and "whitening" the population. From 1931 to 1963, 1,106,404 immigrants entered Brazil. The annual arrival of immigrants fell to 33,500. The Portuguese remained the most significant group, with 39.35%, The participation of the Japanese increased, becoming the second most important group, with 12.79%. Particularly from 1932 to 1935 immigrants from Japan constituted 30% of total admissions. Immigration also became a more urban phenomenon; most immigrants came for the cities, and even the descendants of the immigrants of the previous periods were moving intensely from the countryside. In the 1950s, Brazil started a program of immigration to provide workers for Brazilian industries. In São Paulo, for example, between 1957 and 1961, more than 30% of the Spanish, over 50% of the Italian and 70% of the Greek immigrants were brought to work in factories. During the 1970s Brazil received about 32,000 Lebanese immigrants escaping the civil war, as well as smaller numbers of Palestinians and Syrians. Between 1974 and 1980 Brazil also received almost 400 Portuguese settler families fleeing Angola or Mozambique as well as some 1,000 exiles from Portugal proper, many of them serving officers of the Portuguese Military or Police, fleeing post-Carnation Revolution Portugal because of their association with the former regime During the 1990s Brazil received small numbers of immigrants from the former republics of Yugoslavia, from Afghanistan and West Africa (mostly Angolans). Recent immigration is mainly constituted by Chinese and Koreans and, in a smaller degree, by Argentines and other Latin American immigrants. The increase in Bolivian immigrants in Brazil is one of the social consequences of the political crisis affecting that country. The majority of the Bolivians come from cities such as La Paz, Sucre, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, and Cochabamba. Usually they enter Brazil through Cuiabá, in Mato Grosso, or San Mathias, in Bolivia, which borders Caceres, Mato Grosso and Corumbá, in Mato Grosso do Sul. Between 1,200 and 1,500 Bolivian immigrants come to Brazil every month looking for a job. Most of them work in the illegal textile industry in the Greater São Paulo. There are an estimated 200,000 Bolivians living in the Greater São Paulo, majority is of undocumented immigrants. In 2009, the country was home to 3,982,000 foreign born people, that represents 2.36% of the Brazilian population. The major work visas concessions were granted for citizens of the United States and the United Kingdom. In 2010, Brazil is home to 4,251 refugees from 76 different nationalities. The largest refugee ancestries were Angolan (1,688), Colombian (583), Congolese (402), Liberian (259), and Iraqi (197). Due to the Venezuelan refugee crisis, in 2017 22,000 new Venezuelan refugees sought shelter in Brazil. By mid-2019, over 168,000 Venezuelans were living in Brazil. The data are from the months of January to April of the same year. Permanent visas may be granted to individuals intending to establish residence in Brazil. Permanent Visas apply to: Technicians or professionals with a work contract pre-approved by the Brazilian Ministry of Labor, National Department of Employment. This visa must be applied for in Brazil., Professors, technicians and high-level researchers who wish to immigrate to Brazil to undertake research work in an institution of higher learning or of research in science and technology. This visa must be applied for in Brazil., Foreign investors with initial transfer of foreign capital equivalent to no less than US$50,000 and an investment plan pre-approved by the Brazilian National Council on Immigration (CNIG). This visa must be applied for in Brazil., Administrators, managers or directors hired by a commercial enterprise or civil organization resulting from foreign investment described in item 3 above, with a work contract pre-approved by the Brazilian Ministry of Labor, National Department of Employment. This visa must be applied for in Brazil., A retired person, 60 years of age or older, accompanied by up to two dependents, and able to transfer monthly, in accordance with the laws of the country of origin, the amount equivalent to US$2,000. In the case of more than two dependents, the applicant must transfer the amount equivalent to US$1,000 for each additional dependent., Spouse, partners in a common law union regardless of gender, or minor dependent of Brazilian citizen or of a permanent resident of Brazil;, Ancestors of a Brazilian national or of a permanent resident of Brazil;, Siblings of a Brazilian citizen or of a permanent resident of Brazil, if orphan, single and under 18 years of age;, Minor children, grandchildren or great-grandchildren of a Brazilian citizen or of a permanent resident of Brazil. Formed by a Brazilian and other people from other country: Article 12. The following are Brazilians: II - naturalized: a) those who, as set forth by law, acquire Brazilian nationality, it being the only requirement for persons originating from Portuguese-speaking countries the residence for 1 (one) uninterrupted year and good moral repute; b) foreigners of any nationality, resident in the Federative Republic of Brazil for over 15 (fifteen) uninterrupted years and without criminal conviction, provided that they apply for the Brazilian nationality. Paragraph 1. The rights inherent to Brazilians shall be attributed to Portuguese citizens with permanent residence in Brazil, if there is reciprocity in favour of Brazilians, except in the cases stated in this Constitution. Paragraph 2. The law may not establish any distinction between born and naturalized Brazilians, except in the cases stated in this Constitution. Article 112. Are conditions for the granting of naturalization: I - civilian capacity, according to Brazilian law; II - to be registered as permanent resident in Brazil; III - continuous residence in the territory for a minimum period of 4 (four) years immediately preceding the application for naturalization; IV - read and write the Portuguese language, considering the conditions of naturalizing; V - exercise of occupation or possession of sufficient assets to maintain itself and the family; VI - proper procedure; VII - no complaint, indictment in Brazil or abroad for a felony that is threatened in minimum sentence of imprisonment, abstractly considered, more than 1 (one) year. VIII - good health. Article 113.The period of residence prescribed in Article 112, item III, may be reduced if the naturalizing fill any of the following conditions: I - have a child or spouse of Brazil; II - be son of a Brazilian; III - have provided or can provide relevant services to Brazil, in the opinion of the Minister of Justice of Brazil; IV - commend themselves by their professional, scientific or artistic; or V - to be owner in Brazil, real estate, whose value is equal to at least a thousand times the greatest value of reference, or be provided with industrial funds of equal value, or hold quota shares or amount of paid-in least identical in commercial or civil society, aimed principally and permanently, the operation of industrial or agricultural activities. Sole Paragraph. The residence will be at least 1 (one) year, in cases of items I, II, and III; 2 (two) years in Item IV; and 3 (three) years in Item V. Since the 1980s, the Brazilian government has offered amnesty to foreigners in irregular situation in four different campaigns, benefiting tens of thousands of foreigners living in Brazil. The latest campaign began in July 2009 by presidential decree, and though it officially ended at the close of 2009, some cases are still pending. Until now, 41,816 foreigners received amnesty through the 2009 amnesty program, though there are another 2,000 cases expected to be finished in early 2010. Though the large majority of immigrants live in São Paulo, other cases were based largely in Rio de Janeiro and Paraná. The breakdown by country/continent is the following: 16,881 Bolivians, 5,492 Chinese, 4,642 Peruvians, 4,135 Paraguayans, 2,700 Africans (including North Africa), 2,390 Europeans, 1,129 Koreans, 469 Argentines, 274 U.S. citizens, 186 Cubans. While foreigners who received amnesty obtained the right to work and access health and education services, they are unable to vote or run for public office. They may opt to apply for citizenship after a probation period of residency in order to obtain these rights. Officially, amnesty intends to cut down on illegal activity and human rights violations, particularly with Bolivians in São Paulo. But it seems to fit in with the Lula administration's international policies, including ramped up diplomacy and establishing ties with other nations, but also establishing itself as a competitor with developed countries. By showing that it is a center for immigrants in the Western Hemisphere, particularly in South America, and more importantly, that it is supposedly a benevolent and welcoming country for immigrants, it helps Brazil's international public image. Those who would benefit from the amnesty, following publication of the law in the Brazilian Official Gazette in July 2009, have up to 180 days after the time of their temporary residence permit (valid for 2 years) to apply. They must also aver their clean criminal record or submit a recent, official document of good conduct from the originating country. During these two years, they must not exceed 90 consecutive days spent abroad. Ninety days prior to the expiration of the temporary residence permit, they must aver their self-sufficiency in Brazil. If they can prove they are eligible for a permanent residence permit. Only ten years after receiving a permanent residence permit may be eligible for naturalization to be Brazilian. Immigration has been a very important demographic factor in the formation, structure and history of the population in Brazil, influencing culture, economy, education, racial issues, etc. Brazil has received the third largest number of immigrants in the Western Hemisphere, after only Argentina, Canada and The United States. In the 100 years from 1872–1972 at least 5.35 million immigrants came to Brazil, of whom 31% were Portuguese, 30% Italian, 13% Spanish, 5% Japanese, 4% German and 16% of other unspecified nationalities. In 1897, São Paulo had twice as many Italians as Brazilians in the city. In 1893, 55% of the city's population was composed by immigrants and in 1901 more than 80% of the children were born to a foreign-born parents. According to the 1920 census, 35% of São Paulo city's inhabitants were foreign born, compared to 36% in New York City. São Paulo's multicultural population could be compared to any major American, Canadian or Australian city. About 75% of the immigrants were Latin Europeans, particularly from three major sources: Italy, Portugal and Spain. The rest came from different parts of Europe, the Middle East and Japan. Some areas of the city remained almost exclusively settled by Italians until the arrival of waves of migrants from other parts of Brazil, particularly from the Northeast, starting in the late 1920s. According to historian Samuel H. Lowrie, in the early 20th century the society of São Paulo was divided in three classes: The high group: composed of graduated people, mainly by Brazilians born to Brazilian parents, who were related to the high-class farmers or other people with privileges., The working class: composed of immigrants and their second and third generations descendants. They were the most numerous group, mainly factory workers or traders., The semi-dependent group: composed of former slaves and low-class workers of the Empire. According to Lowrie, the fact that Brazil already had a long history of racial mixture and that most of the immigrants in São Paulo came from Latin European countries, reduced the cases of racism and mutual intolerance. However, the Brazilian high class was more intolerant, with most of them marrying other members of the elite. In some cases, to marry an immigrant was accepted if the person had achieved fortune or had some prestige. Lowrie reports that as much as 40% of the São Paulo high-class society mixed with an immigrant within the next three generations. While in São Paulo the Italians predominated, in the city of Rio de Janeiro the Portuguese remained as the main group. In 1929, as many as 272,338 Portuguese immigrants were recorded in the Federal District of Brazil (nowadays the city of Rio de Janeiro), more Portuguese born people than any other city in the world, except for Lisbon (which had 591,939 inhabitants in 1930). In the South of Brazil, there were three main groups of immigrants: Germans, Italians and Slavs (mainly Poles and Ukrainians). The Germans had been settling Rio Grande do Sul since 1824. The first settlers came from Holstein, Hamburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern and Hannover. Later, people from Hunsrück and Rhineland-Palatinate predominated. There were also people from Pomerania, Westphalia and Württemberg. These immigrants were attracted to work as small farmers in the region of São Leopoldo. As a result of the great internal migration of people in Rio Grande do Sul, Germans and second generation descendants started to move to other areas of the Province. A similar process has occurred in Santa Catarina, with initially two main destinations for German immigrants (Blumenau, created in 1850, and Joinville in 1851) and then the immigrants or their descendants moved to other areas. Arriving in larger numbers than Germans, in the 1870s, groups of Italians started settling northeast Rio Grande do Sul. Similar to Germans, they were also attracted to develop small familiar farming production. In Paraná, on the other hand, the main group of immigrants was composed of Eastern Europeans, particularly Poles. In southern Brazil, the immigrants settled in colônias (colonies), which were rural areas, composed of many small farms, settled by the families. Some of these colonies had a great development and gave birth to major Brazilian cities, such as the former German community of Joinville (500,000 inhabitants—the largest city of the state of Santa Catarina) or the former Italian community of Caxias do Sul (405,858 inhabitants). Other colonies did not have a great development and remained small and agrarian. In these places, it is possible to feel more intensely the impact of the immigration, as many of these towns are still predominantly settled by a single ethnic group. Most of the Poles immigrated to Brazil with German, Russian or Austro-Hungarian/Austrian passports, the Ukrainians with Austrian passports and the Hungarians with Romanian passports. Brazilian demographers have long discussed the demographical impact of the wave of emigration in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. According to Judicael Clevelário, most studies about the impact of immigration have followed Giorgio Mortara's conclusions in the 1940s and 1950s. Mortara concluded that only about 15% of the demographic growth of Brazil, from 1840 and 1940 was due to immigration, and that the population of immigrant origin was of 16% of the total population of Brazil. However, according to Clevelário, Mortara failed to properly take into account the full endogenous growth of the population of immigrant origin, due to the predominantly rural settlement of the immigrants (rural regions tend to have higher natal rates than cities). Clevelário, then, besides extending the calculations up to 1980, remade them, reaching somewhat different conclusions. One of the problems of calculating the impact of immigration in Brazilian demography is that the return rates of immigrants are unknown. Clevelário, thence, supposed four different hypothesis concerning the return rates. The first, that he deems unrealistic high, is that 50% of the immigrants to Brazil returned to their countries of origin. The second is based on the work of Arthur Neiva, who supposes the return rate for Brazil was higher than that of the United States (30%) but lower than that of Argentina (47%). The third hypothesis is taken from Mortara, who postulates a rate of 20% for the 19th century, 35% for the first two decades of the 20th century, and 25% for 1920 on. Although Mortara himself considered this hypothesis underestimated, Clevelário thinks it is closest to reality. The last hypothesis, also admittedly unrealistic is that of a 0% rate of return, which is known to be false. Clevelário's conclusions are as following: considering hypothesis 1 (unrealistically low), the Population of Immigrant Origin in 1980 would be of 14,730,710 people, or 12.38% of the total population. Considering hypothesis 2 (based on Neiva), it would be of 17,609,052 people, or 14.60% of the total population. Considering hypothesis 3 (based on Mortara, and considered most realistic), it would be of 22,088,829 people, or 18.56% of the total population. Considering hypothesis 4 (no return at all), the Population of Immigrant origin would be of 29,348,423 people, or 24.66% of the total population. Clevelário believes the most probable number to be close to 18%, higher than Mortara's previous estimate of 1947. According to the Census of 1872, there were 9,930,478 people in Brazil, of which 3,787,289 (38.14%) Whites, 3,380,172 (34.04%) Pardos, 1.954.452 (19.68%) Blacks, and 386,955 (3.90%) Caboclos. The White population grew faster than the non-White population due to the subsidized immigration of Europeans in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. By 1890, the non-White population was reduced to 47% and the Amerindian to 9%. During this period, most immigrants came from Italy (58.49%) followed by Portugal with 20%. The disproportionally fast growth of the White population, due to mass immigration, lasted up to 1940, when its proportion in the Brazilian population peaked at 63.5%. During the 1900–1940 period, Italian immigration was greatly reduced, due to the Prinetti decree, forbidding subsidized emigration to Brazil in 1902, then to the Italian war effort of 1915–1918. Thence, for the period of 1904–1940, Portuguese immigration became the main drive of immigration to Brazil, with 36.52% of the arrivals, compared to 14.99% of Italians. The Brazilian Censuses do not ask questions about "ethnic origin", so there are no systematically comparable data about the impact of immigration. Varied entities, mainly embassies of foreign countries in Brazil and commercial associations that promote bilateral commerce between Brazil and other countries, make claims about the figures of "descendants of immigrants" in Brazil, but none links to any actual survey. Also, if they are extrapolations of actual data on the number of immigrants, the calculations are not explained anywhere. On the other hand, in 1998, the IBGE, within its preparation for the 2000 Census, experimentally introduced a question about "origem" (origin/ancestry) in its "Pesquisa Mensal de Emprego" (Monthly Employment Research), in order to test the viability of introducing that variable in the Census (the IBGE ended by deciding against the inclusion of questions about it in the Census). This research interviewed about 90,000 people in six metropolitan regions (São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Porto Alegre, Belo Horizonte, Salvador, and Recife). To this day, it remains the only actual published survey about the immigrant origin of Brazilians. Here are its results: Notice that the total is higher than 100% because of multiple answers. It is easy to see that the results of this research are widely incompatible with the claims made by embassies and commercial associations: The embassy figures are also hardly compatible with the known data for immigration. Here is how they compare: The embassy figures for "Arab Brazilians" imply an impossible rate of childbirth. The process of inflation of the "Arab Brazilian" population is described by John Tofik Karam: Maintaining a privileged presence in business and political circles, Middle Easterners have overestimated themselves as a way to strengthen their place in the Brazilian nation. Among the groups listed in the table, German immigrants arrived quite early in Brazil, starting in the 1820s. By 1883, 23.86% of them had already arrived. Italian immigrants only started to arrive in the 1870s, coming in enormous numbers until 1902, when Italian immigration declined sharply. By 1903, 70.33% of them had already arrived. Spaniards started arriving about the same time as the Italians, but came in more steady pace, which means that, in average, they represent a more recent immigration. Arabs only started to arrive in considerable numbers about 1890, making them the second most recent immigration, after the Japanese, who started to arrive in 1908. Evidently, the older the immigration, higher should be the descendant/immigrant relation—but, as the table shows, the embassy figures would place the Arab descendant/immigrant relation first—and, in fact, more than three times higher than that of the Germans. When the number of immigrants is compared to the findings of the July 1998 PME, the results are different: Here the correct order is reestablished, except for the Arabs appearing with a lower descendant/immigrant rate than the Japanese. This, however, is probably due to the concentration of Nikkeis in São Paulo, as opposed to a less concentrated distribution of "Arab Brazilians", who are present in considerable numbers in regions not counted by the PMEs—notably the Northern Region, the West of Paraná State, and Southern Rio Grande do Sul. As happened with several other countries in the Americas, such as the United States, which received immigration from many countries, Brazil quickly became a melting pot of races and nationalities, but being peculiar in the sense of having the highest degree of intermarriage in the world. Nowadays, it's possible to find millions of descendants of Italians, from the southeastern state of Minas Gerais to the southernmost state of Rio Grande do Sul, with the majority living in the state of São Paulo (15.9 million) and the highest percentage in the southeastern state of Espírito Santo (60–75%). Small southern Brazilian towns, such as Nova Veneza, have as much as 95% of their population of Italian descent. Thousands of White Americans from the Southern United States (including relatives of former president Jimmy Carter), known as Confederados, fled to Brazil after the American Civil War, where they founded two cities, Americana and Santa Bárbara d'Oeste. In this century has grown a recent trend of co-official languages in cities populated by immigrants (such as Italian and German) or indigenous in the north, both with support from the Ministry of Tourism, as was recently established in Santa Maria de Jetibá, Pomerode and Vila Pavão, where German also has co-official status. The first municipality to adopt a co-official language in Brazil was São Gabriel da Cachoeira, in 2002. Since then, other municipalities attempt to co-officialese other languages. The states of Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul have Talian officially approved as a heritage language in these states, and Espírito Santo has the East Pomeranian dialect, along with the German language, such as cultural heritage state. Also in production is the documentary video Brasil Talian, with directed and written by André Costantin and executive producer of the historian Fernando Roveda. The pre-launch occurred on November 18, 2011, the date that marked the start of production of the documentary. Espírito Santo (Pomeranian and German), Rio Grande do Sul (Talian and Riograndenser Hunsrückisch German), Santa Catarina (Talian) São Gabriel da Cachoeira (Nheengatu, Tukano and Baniwa) Tacuru (Guarani), Paranhos (Guarani, under approval) Bonfim (macushi) and (wapishana) Tocantínia (Akwê Xerente) Serafina Corrêa Domingos Martins, Itarana, Laranja da Terra, Pancas, Santa Maria de Jetibá, Vila Pavão Itueta (only in the district of Vila Nietzel) Pomerode Canguçu (under approval) Espigão d'Oeste (under approval) Antônio Carlos, Treze Tílias (language teaching is compulsory in schools, standing on stage in public official of the municipality) Santa Maria do Herval Nova Petrópolis Venda Nova do Imigrante Francisco Beltrão Antônio Prado Brusque, Criciúma Afro-Brazilians, Americans in Brazils, Argentine Brazilians, Armenian Brazilians, Asian Brazilians, Bolivians in Brazil, Brazilian diaspora, Bulgarians in South America, Croatian Brazilians, Chinese Brazilians, Cuban Brazilians, Czech Brazilians, Dutch Brazilians, English Brazilians, Finnish Brazilians, French Brazilians, German Brazilians, Greek Brazilians, Haitian Brazilian, History of the Jews in Brazil, Hungarian Brazilians, Italian Brazilians, Japanese Brazilians, Korean Brazilians, Latvian Brazilians, Lithuanians in Brazil, Luxembourg Brazilians, Palestinian Brazilians, Paraguayan Brazilians, Polish Brazilians, Portuguese Brazilians, Russians in Brazil, Scandinavian Brazilians, Spanish immigration to Brazil, Swiss Brazilians, Turkish Brazilians, Uruguayan Brazilians, Ukrainian Brazilians, Venezuelan Brazilians

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South Pacific is a musical composed by Richard Rodgers, with lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II and book by Hammerstein and Joshua Logan. The work premiered in 1949 on Broadway and was an immediate hit, running for 1,925 performances. The plot is based on James A. Michener's Pulitzer Prize-winning 1947 book Tales of the South Pacific and combines elements of several of those stories. Rodgers and Hammerstein believed they could write a musical based on Michener's work that would be financially successful and, at the same time, send a strong progressive message on racism. The plot centers on an American nurse stationed on a South Pacific island during World War II, who falls in love with a middle-aged expatriate French plantation owner but struggles to accept his mixed-race children. A secondary romance, between a U.S. lieutenant and a young Tonkinese woman, explores his fears of the social consequences should he marry his Asian sweetheart. The issue of racial prejudice is candidly explored throughout the musical, most controversially in the lieutenant's song, "You've Got to Be Carefully Taught". Supporting characters, including a comic petty officer and the Tonkinese girl's mother, help to tie the stories together. Because he lacked military knowledge, Hammerstein had difficulty writing that part of the script; the director of the original production, Logan, assisted him and received credit as co-writer of the book. The original Broadway production enjoyed immense critical and box-office success, became the second- longest running Broadway musical to that point (behind Rodgers and Hammerstein's earlier Oklahoma! (1943)), and has remained popular ever since. After they signed Ezio Pinza and Mary Martin as the leads, Rodgers and Hammerstein wrote several of the songs with the particular talents of their stars in mind. The piece won the Pulitzer Prize for Drama in 1950. Especially in the Southern U.S., its racial theme provoked controversy, for which its authors were unapologetic. Several of its songs, including "Bali Ha'i", "I'm Gonna Wash That Man Right Outa My Hair", "Some Enchanted Evening", "There Is Nothing Like a Dame", "Happy Talk", "Younger Than Springtime", and "I'm in Love with a Wonderful Guy", have become popular standards. The production won ten Tony Awards, including Best Musical, Best Score, and Best Libretto, and it is the only musical production to win Tony Awards in all four acting categories. Its original cast album was the bestselling record of the 1940s, and other recordings of the show have also been popular. The show has enjoyed many successful revivals and tours, spawning a 1958 film and television adaptations. The 2008 Broadway revival, a critical success, ran for 996 performances and won seven Tonys, including Best Musical Revival. Although book editor and university instructor James Michener could have avoided military service in World War II as a birthright Quaker, he enlisted in the U.S. Navy in October 1942. He was not sent to the South Pacific theater until April 1944, when he was assigned to write a history of the Navy in the Pacific and was allowed to travel widely. He survived a plane crash in New Caledonia; the near-death experience motivated him to write fiction, and he began listening to the stories told by soldiers. One journey took him to the Treasury Islands, where he discovered an unpleasant village, called Bali-ha'i, populated by "scrawny residents and only one pig". Struck by the name, Michener wrote it down and soon began to record, on a battered typewriter, his version of the tales. On a plantation on the island of Espiritu Santo, he met a woman named Bloody Mary; she was small, almost toothless, her face stained with red betel juice. Punctuated with profanity learned from GIs, she complained endlessly to Michener about the French colonial government, which refused to allow her and other Tonkinese to return to their native Vietnam, lest the plantations be depopulated. She told him also of her plans to oppose colonialism in French Indochina. These stories, collected into Tales of the South Pacific, won Michener the 1948 Pulitzer Prize for fiction. Tales of the South Pacific comprises nineteen stories. Each stands independently but revolves around the preparation for an American military operation to dislodge the Japanese from a nearby island. This operation, dubbed Alligator, occurs in the penultimate story, "The Landing at Kuralei". Many of the characters die in that battle, and the last story is titled "The Cemetery at Huga Point". The stories are thematically linked in pairs: the first and final stories are reflective, the second and eighteenth involve battle, the third and seventeenth involve preparation for battle, and so on. The tenth story, at the center, however, is not paired with any other. This story, "Fo' Dolla' ", was one of only four of his many works that Michener later admitted to holding in high regard. It was the one that attracted Rodgers and Hammerstein's attention for its potential to be converted into a stage work. "Fo' Dolla' ", set in part on the island of Bali-ha'i, focuses on the romance between a young Tonkinese woman, Liat, and one of the Americans, Marine Lieutenant Joe Cable, a Princeton graduate and scion of a wealthy Main Line family. Pressed to marry Liat by her mother, Bloody Mary, Cable reluctantly declines, realizing that the Asian girl would never be accepted by his family or Philadelphia society. He leaves for battle (where he will die) as Bloody Mary proceeds with her backup plan, to affiance Liat to a wealthy French planter on the islands. Cable struggles, during the story, with his own racism: he is able to overcome it sufficiently to love Liat, but not enough to take her home. Another source of the musical is the eighth story, "Our Heroine", which is thematically paired with the 12th, "A Boar's Tooth", as both involve American encounters with local cultures. "Our Heroine" tells of the romance between Navy nurse Nellie Forbush, from rural Arkansas, and a wealthy, sophisticated planter, Frenchman Emile De Becque. After falling in love with Emile, Nellie (who is introduced briefly in story No. 4, "An Officer and a Gentleman") learns that Emile has eight daughters, out of wedlock, with several local women. Michener tells us that "any person ... who was not white or yellow was a nigger" to Nellie, and while she is willing to accept two of the children (of French- Asian descent) who remain in Emile's household, she is taken aback by the other two girls who live there, evidence that the planter had cohabited with a darker Polynesian woman. To her great relief, she learns that this woman is dead, but Nellie endangers her relationship with Emile when she is initially unable to accept Emile's "nigger children." Nellie overcomes her feelings and returns to spend her life with her plantation owner. Additional elements of South Pacific had their genesis in others of Michener's 19 tales. One introduces the character of Bloody Mary; another tells of a British spy hidden on the Japanese-controlled island who relays information about Japanese movements to Allied forces by radio. Michener based the spy, dubbed "the Remittance Man", on Captain Martin Clemens, a Scot, who unlike his fictional counterpart, survived the war. The stories also tell of the seemingly endless waiting that precedes battle, and the efforts of the Americans to repel boredom, which would inspire the song "There Is Nothing Like a Dame". Several of the stories involve the Seabee, Luther Billis, who in the musical would be used both for comic relief and to tie together episodes involving otherwise unconnected characters. A 2001 article in Islands Magazine states that Michener renamed Aoba Island Bali-ha'i. The author interviewed the proprietor of a resort on Espiritu Santo, who claimed that Emile was modeled on his father and that the "real Bloody Mary" lived on Espiritu Santo for many years after the war and lived to the age of 102. In the early 1940s, composer Richard Rodgers and lyricist Oscar Hammerstein II, each a longtime Broadway veteran, joined forces and began their collaboration by writing two musicals that became massive hits, Oklahoma! (1943) and Carousel (1945). An innovation for its time in integrating song, dialogue and dance, Oklahoma! would serve as "the model for Broadway shows for decades". In 1999, Time magazine named Carousel the best musical of the century, writing that Rodgers and Hammerstein "set the standards for the 20th century musical". Their next effort, Allegro (1947), was a comparative disappointment, running for less than a year, although it turned a small profit. After this, the two were determined to achieve another hit. According to director Joshua Logan, a friend of both theatre men, he and Leland Hayward mentioned Michener's best-selling book to Rodgers as a possible basis for the duo's next play, but the composer took no action. Logan recalled that he then pointed it out to Hammerstein, who read Michener's book and spoke to Rodgers; the two agreed to do the project so long as they had majority control, to which Hayward grudgingly agreed. Michener, in his 1992 memoirs, however, wrote that the stories were first pitched as a movie concept to MGM by Kenneth MacKenna, head of the studio's literary department. MacKenna's half brother was Jo Mielziner, who had designed the sets for Carousel and Allegro. Michener states that Mielziner learned of the work from MacKenna and brought it to the attention of Hammerstein and Rodgers, pledging to create the sets if they took on the project. Hayward attempted to buy the rights from Michener outright, offering $500; Michener declined. Although playwright Lynn Riggs had received 1.5% of the box office grosses for the right to adapt Green Grow the Lilacs into Oklahoma!, Michener never regretted accepting one percent of the gross receipts from South Pacific. As Rodgers and Hammerstein began their work on the adaptation, Michener worked mostly with the lyricist, but Rodgers was concerned about the implications of the setting, fearing that he would have to include ukuleles and guitars, which he disliked. Michener assured him that the only instrument he had ever heard the natives play was an emptied barrel of gasoline, drummed upon with clubs. Soon after their purchase of the rights, Rodgers and Hammerstein decided not to include a ballet, as in their earlier works, feeling that the realism of the setting would not support one. Concerned that an adaptation too focused on "Fo' Dolla' ", the story of the encounter between Cable and Liat, would be too similar to Madama Butterfly, Hammerstein spent months studying the other stories and focused his attention on "Our Heroine", the tale of the romance between Nellie and Emile. The team decided to include both romances in the musical play. It was conventional at the time that if one love story in a musical was serious, the other would be more comedic, but in this case both were serious and focused on racial prejudice. They decided to increase the role played by Luther Billis in the stories, merging experiences and elements of several other characters into him. Billis's wheeling and dealing would provide comic relief. They also shortened the title to South Pacific – Rodgers related that the producers tired of people making risqué puns on the word "tales". In early drafts of the musical, Hammerstein gave significant parts to two characters who eventually came to have only minor roles, Bill Harbison and Dinah Culbert. Harbison is one of the major characters in Tales of the South Pacific; a model officer at the start, he gradually degenerates to the point where, with battle imminent, he requests his influential father-in-law to procure for him a transfer to a post in the United States. Hammerstein conceived of him as a rival to Emile for Nellie's affections, and gave him a song, "The Bright Young Executive of Today". As redrafts focused the play on the two couples, Harbison became less essential, and he was relegated to a small role as the executive officer to the commander of the island, Captain Brackett. Dinah, a nurse and friend of Nellie, is also a major character in Michener's work, and was seen as a possible love interest for Billis, though any actual romance was limited by Navy regulations forbidding fraternization between officers (all American nurses in World War II were commissioned officers) and enlisted men. "I'm Gonna Wash That Man Right Outa My Hair" originated as a duet for Dinah and Nellie, with Dinah beginning the song and developing its theme. According to Lovensheimer, Nellie's and Dinah's "friendship became increasingly incidental to the plot as the writing continued. Hammerstein eventually realized that the decision to wash Emile out of her hair had to be Nellie's. Only then did the scene have the dramatic potential for Nellie's emotional transition" as she realizes her love for Emile. In the final version, Dinah retains one solo line in the song. Joshua Logan, in his memoirs, stated that after months of effort in the first half of 1948, Hammerstein had written only the first scene, an outline, and some lyrics. Hammerstein was having trouble due to lack of knowledge of the military, a matter with which Logan, a veteran of the armed forces, was able to help. The dialogue was written in consultation between the two of them, and eventually Logan asked to be credited for his work. Rodgers and Hammerstein decided that while Logan would receive co-writing credit on the book, he would receive no author's royalties. Logan stated that a contract putting these changes into force was sent over to his lawyer with instructions that unless it was signed within two hours, Logan need not show up for rehearsals as director. Logan signed, although his lawyer did not then tell him about the ultimatum. Through the decades that followed, Logan brought the matter up from time to time, demanding compensation, but when he included his version of the events in his 1976 memoirs, it was disputed by Rodgers (Hammerstein had died in 1960). Rodgers biographer Meryle Secrest suggests that Logan was compensated when South Pacific was filmed in 1958, as Logan received a substantial share of the profits as director. According to Michener biographer Stephen J. May, "it is difficult to assess just how much of the final book Josh Logan was responsible for. Some estimates say 30 to 40 percent. But that percentage is not as critical perhaps as his knowledge of military lore and directing for the theatre, without which the creation of South Pacific would have collapsed during that summer of 1948." Rodgers composed the music once he received the lyrics from Hammerstein. A number of stories are told of the speed with which he wrote the music for South Pacific 's numbers. "Happy Talk" was said to have been composed in about twenty minutes; when Hammerstein, who had sent the lyrics by messenger, called to check whether Rodgers had received them, his partner informed him that he had both lyrics and music. Legend has it he composed "Bali Ha'i" in ten minutes over coffee in Logan's apartment; what he did create in that time frame was the three-note motif which begins both song and musical. Hammerstein's lyrics for "Bali Ha'i" were inspired by the stage backdrop which designer Jo Mielziner had painted. Feeling that the island of Bali Ha'i did not appear mysterious enough, Mielziner painted some mist near the summit of its volcano. When Hammerstein saw this he immediately thought of the lyric, "my head sticking up from a low-flying cloud" and the rest of the song followed easily from that. In May 1948, Rodgers received a telephone call from Edwin Lester of the Los Angeles Civic Light Opera. Lester had signed former Metropolitan Opera star Ezio Pinza for $25,000 to star in a new show, Mr. Ambassador. The show had not been written, and it never would be. Lester hoped that Rodgers would take over Pinza's contract. Pinza had become bored as the Met's leading lyric bass, and having played the great opera houses, sought other worlds to conquer. Rodgers immediately saw Pinza as perfect for the role of Emile. Lester carefully broached the subject to Pinza and his wife/business manager and provided them with a copy of Tales of the South Pacific. When Pinza read the book, he told Lester, "Sell me right away!" Pinza's contract for South Pacific included a clause limiting his singing to 15 minutes per performance. With Pinza's signing, Rodgers and Hammerstein decided to make his the lead male role, subordinating the story of the pair of young lovers. It was unusual on Broadway for the romantic lead to be an older male. For the role of Nellie, Rodgers sought Mary Martin, who had nearly been cast to originate the role of Laurey in Oklahoma! Martin was playing the title role in the touring company of Annie Get Your Gun. After Hammerstein and Rodgers saw her play in Los Angeles in mid-1948, they asked her to consider the part. Martin was reluctant to sing opposite Pinza's powerful voice; Rodgers assured her he would see to it the two never sang at the same time, a promise he mostly kept. Rodgers and Martin lived near each other in Connecticut, and after her tour Rodgers invited Martin and her husband, Richard Halliday, to his home to hear the three songs for the musical that he had completed, none of them for Nellie. "Some Enchanted Evening" especially struck Martin, and although disappointed the song was not for her, she agreed to do the part. Although Nellie and Emile were already fully developed characters in Michener's stories, during the creation of South Pacific, Rodgers, Hammerstein and Logan began to adapt the roles specifically to the talents of Martin and Pinza and to tailor the music for their voices. Martin influenced several of her songs. While showering one day during rehearsals, she came up with the idea for a scene in which she would shampoo her hair onstage. This gave rise to "I'm Gonna Wash That Man Right Outa My Hair". Built around a primitive shower that Logan remembered from his time in the military, the song became one of the most talked-about in South Pacific. To introduce another of Martin's numbers to her, Rodgers called her over to his apartment, where he and Hammerstein played "I'm in Love with a Wonderful Guy" for her. When Martin essayed it for herself, she sang the final 26 words, as intended, with a single breath, and fell off her piano bench. Rodgers gazed down at her, "That's exactly what I want. Never do it differently. We must feel you couldn't squeeze out another sound." The producers held extensive auditions to fill the other roles. Myron McCormick was cast as Billis; according to Logan, no one else was seriously considered. The two roles which gave the most trouble were those of Cable and Bloody Mary. They tried to get Harold Keel for the role of Cable (he had played Curly in the West End production of Oklahoma!) only to find that he had signed a contract with MGM under the name Howard Keel. William Tabbert was eventually cast as Cable, though Logan instructed him to lose . African-American singer Juanita Hall was cast as Bloody Mary; Logan recalled that at her audition, she took a squatting pose which proclaimed, "I am Bloody Mary and don't you dare cast anyone else!" Betta St. John, who under the name Betty Striegler had replaced Bambi Linn as Louise in Carousel, took the role of Liat. Logan directed (he and Hayward co-produced with Rodgers and Hammerstein), Mielziner did the stage design, Trude Rittmann and Robert Russell Bennett prepared the orchestration, and Elizabeth Montgomery of Motley Theatre Design Group designed the costumes. Salvatore Dell'Isola served as music director. Rehearsals began at Broadway's Belasco Theatre on February 2, 1949. There was no formal chorus; each of the nurses and Seabees was given a name, and, in the case of the men, $50 to equip themselves with what clothing they felt their characters would wear from the military surplus shops which lined West 42nd Street. Don Fellows, the first Lt. Buzz Adams, drew on his wartime experience as a Marine to purchase a non-regulation baseball cap and black ankle boots. Martin and Pinza had not known each other, but they soon formed a strong friendship. Of the mood backstage, "everyone agreed: throughout the rehearsals Logan was fiery, demanding, and brilliantly inventive." He implemented lap changes (pioneered by Rodgers and Hammerstein in Allegro), whereby the actors coming on next would already be on a darkened part of the stage as one scene concluded. This allowed the musical to continue without interruption by scene changes, making the action almost seamless. He soon had the Seabees pacing back and forth like caged animals during "There Is Nothing Like a Dame", a staging so effective it was never changed during the run of the show. One Logan innovation that Rodgers and Hammerstein reluctantly accepted was to have Cable remove his shirt during the blackout after he and Liat passionately embrace on first meeting, his partial nakedness symbolizing their lovemaking. As originally planned, Martin was supposed to conclude "I'm in Love with a Wonderful Guy" with an exuberant cartwheel across the stage. This was eliminated after she vaulted into the orchestra pit, knocking out Rittman. There were no major difficulties during the four weeks of rehearsal in New York; Martin later remembered that the "gypsy run-through" for friends and professional associates on a bare stage was met with some of the most enthusiastic applause she could remember. One of the few people having trouble was Pinza, who had difficulty adjusting to the constant alterations in the show – he was used to the operatic world, where a role rarely changed once learned. Pinza's mispronunciations of English exasperated Logan, and driving to New Haven, Connecticut for the first week of previews, Pinza discussed with his wife the possibility of a return to the Met, where he knew audiences would welcome him. She told him to let South Pacific 's attendees decide for themselves. When the tryouts began in New Haven on March 7, the play was an immediate hit; the New Haven Register wrote, "South Pacific should make history". Nevertheless, a number of changes were made in New Haven and in the subsequent two weeks of previews in Boston. The show was running long; Logan persuaded his friend, playwright Emlyn Williams, to go over the script and cut extraneous dialogue. There were wide expectations of a hit; producer Mike Todd came backstage and advised that the show not be taken to New York "because it's too damned good for them". The show moved to Boston, where it was so successful that playwright George S. Kaufman joked that people lining up there at the Shubert Theatre "don't actually want anything ... They just want to push money under the doors." South Pacific opened on Broadway on April 7, 1949, at the Majestic Theatre. The advance sale was $400,000, and an additional $700,000 in sales was made soon after the opening. The first night audience was packed with important Broadway, business, and arts leaders. The audience repeatedly stopped the show with extended applause, which was sustained at length at the final curtain. Rodgers and Hammerstein had preferred, in the past, not to sponsor an afterparty, but they rented the St. Regis Hotel's roof and ordered 200 copies of The New York Times in the anticipation of a hit. Times critic Brooks Atkinson gave the show a rave review. Three days after the opening, Pinza signed a contract with MGM to star in films once his obligation to appear in the show expired. He left the show June 1, 1950, replaced by Ray Middleton, though Pinza missed a number of shows due to illness before that. Martin recalled that, unused to performing eight shows a week, the former opera star would sing full out early in the week, leaving himself little voice towards the end, and would have his understudy go on. Nevertheless, during the year he was in the show, and although aged 58, he was acclaimed as a sex symbol; George Jean Nathan wrote that "Pinza has taken the place of Hot Springs, Saratoga, and hormone injections for all the other old boys". A national tour began in Cleveland, Ohio, in April 1950; it ran for five years and starred Richard Eastham as Emile, Janet Blair as Nellie and Ray Walston as Billis, a role Walston would reprise in London and in the 1958 film. For the 48,000 tickets available in Cleveland, 250,000 requests were submitted, causing the box office to close for three weeks to process them. Jeanne Bal and Iva Withers were later Nellies on this tour. A scaled-down version toured military bases in Korea in 1951; by the request of Hammerstein and Rodgers, officers and enlisted soldiers sat together to view it. Martin left the Broadway production in 1951 to appear in the original London West End production; Martha Wright replaced her. Despite the departure of both original stars, the show remained a huge attraction in New York. Cloris Leachman also played Nellie during the New York run; George Britton was among the later Emiles. The London production ran from November 1, 1951 for 802 performances at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane. Logan directed; Martin and Wilbur Evans starred, with Walston as Billis, Muriel Smith as Bloody Mary and Ivor Emmanuel in the small role of Sgt. Johnson. Sean Connery and Martin's son Larry Hagman, both at the start of their careers, played Seabees in the London production; Julie Wilson eventually replaced Martin. On January 31, 1952, King George VI attended the production with his daughter Princess Elizabeth and other members of the Royal Family. He died less than a week later. The Broadway production transferred to the Broadway Theatre in June 1953 to accommodate Rodgers and Hammerstein's new show, Me and Juliet, although South Pacific had to be moved to Boston for five weeks because of schedule conflicts. When it closed on January 16, 1954, after 1,925 performances, it was the second-longest-running musical in Broadway history, after Oklahoma!. At the final performance, Myron McCormick, the only cast member remaining from the opening, led the performers and audience in "Auld Lang Syne"; the curtain did not fall but remained raised as the audience left the theatre. On a South Pacific island during World War II, two half-Polynesian children, Ngana and Jerome, happily sing as they play together ("Dites-Moi"). Ensign Nellie Forbush, a naïve U.S. Navy nurse from Little Rock, Arkansas, has fallen in love with Emile de Becque, a middle-aged French plantation owner, though she has known him only briefly. Even though everyone else is worried about the outcome of the war, Nellie tells Emile that she is sure everything will turn out all right ("A Cockeyed Optimist"). Emile also loves Nellie, and each wonders if the other reciprocates those feelings ("Twin Soliloquies"). Emile expresses his love for Nellie, recalling how they met at the officers' club dance and instantly were attracted to each other ("Some Enchanted Evening"). Nellie, promising to think about their relationship, returns to the hospital. Emile calls Ngana and Jerome to him, revealing to the audience that they are his children, unbeknownst to Nellie. Meanwhile, the restless American Seabees, led by crafty Luther Billis, lament the absence of available women – Navy nurses are commissioned officers and off-limits to enlisted men. There is one civilian woman on the island, nicknamed "Bloody Mary", a sassy middle-aged Tonkinese vendor of grass skirts, who engages the sailors in sarcastic, flirtatious banter as she tries to sell them her wares ("Bloody Mary"). Billis yearns to visit the nearby island of Bali Ha'i – which is off-limits to all but officers – supposedly to witness a Boar's Tooth Ceremony (at which he can get an unusual native artifact); the other sailors josh him, saying that his real motivation is to see the young French women there. Billis and the sailors further lament their lack of feminine companionship ("There Is Nothing Like a Dame"). U.S. Marine Lieutenant Cable arrives on the island from Guadalcanal, having been sent to take part in a dangerous spy mission whose success could turn the tide of the war against Japan. Bloody Mary tries to persuade Cable to visit "Bali Ha'i", mysteriously telling him that it is his special island. Billis, seeing an opportunity, urges Cable to go. Cable meets with his commanding officers, Captain George Brackett and Commander William Harbison, who plan to ask Emile to help with the mission because he used to live on the island where the mission will take place. They ask Nellie to help them find out more about Emile's background, for example, his politics and why he left France. They have heard, for instance, that Emile committed a murder, and this might make him less than desirable for such a mission. After thinking a bit more about Emile and deciding she has become attracted on the basis of little knowledge of him, Nellie tells the other nurses that she intends to end her relationship with him ("I'm Gonna Wash That Man Right Outa My Hair"). But when he arrives unexpectedly and invites Nellie to a party where he will introduce her to his friends, she accepts. Emile declares his love for Nellie and asks her to marry him. When she mentions politics, he speaks of universal freedom, and describes fleeing France after standing up against a bully, who died accidentally as the two fought. After hearing this, Nellie agrees to marry Emile. After he exits, Nellie joyously gives voice to her feelings ("I'm in Love with a Wonderful Guy"). Cable's mission is to land on a Japanese-held island and report on Japanese ship movements. The Navy officers ask Emile to be Cable's guide, but he refuses their request because of his hopes for a new life with Nellie. Commander Harbison, the executive officer, tells Cable to go on leave until the mission can take place, and Billis obtains a boat and takes Cable to Bali Ha'i. There, Billis participates in the native ceremony, while Bloody Mary introduces Cable to her beautiful daughter, Liat, with whom he must communicate haltingly in French. Believing that Liat's only chance at a better life is to marry an American officer, Mary leaves Liat alone with Cable. The two are instantly attracted to each other and make love ("Younger Than Springtime"). Billis and the rest of the crew are ready to leave the island, yet must wait for Cable who, unbeknownst to them, is with Liat ("Bali Ha'i" (reprise)). Bloody Mary proudly tells Billis that Cable is going to be her son-in-law. Meanwhile, after Emile's party, Nellie and he reflect on how happy they are to be in love (Reprises of "I'm in Love with a Wonderful Guy", "Twin Soliloquies", "Cockeyed Optimist" and "I'm Gonna Wash That Man Right Outa My Hair"). Emile introduces Nellie to Jerome and Ngana. Though she finds them charming, she is shocked when Emile reveals that they are his children by his first wife, a dark-skinned Polynesian woman, now deceased. Nellie is unable to overcome her deep-seated racial prejudices and tearfully leaves Emile, after which he reflects sadly on what might have been ("Some Enchanted Evening" (reprise)). It is Thanksgiving Day. The GIs and nurses dance in a holiday revue titled "Thanksgiving Follies". In the past week, an epidemic of malaria has hit the island of Bali Ha'i. Having visited Bali Ha'i often to be with Liat, Cable is also ill, but escapes from the hospital to be with Liat. As Liat and Cable spend more time together, Bloody Mary is delighted. She encourages them to continue their carefree life on the island ("Happy Talk") and urges them to marry. Cable, aware of his family's prejudices, says he cannot marry a Tonkinese girl. Bloody Mary furiously drags her distraught daughter away, telling Cable that Liat must now marry a much older French plantation owner instead. Cable laments his loss. ("Younger Than Springtime" (reprise)). For the final number of the Thanksgiving Follies, Nellie performs a comedy burlesque dressed as a sailor singing the praises of "his" sweetheart ("Honey Bun"). Billis plays Honey Bun, dressed in a blond wig, grass skirt and coconut-shell bra. After the show, Emile asks Nellie to reconsider. She insists that she cannot feel the same way about him since she knows about his children's Polynesian mother. Frustrated and uncomprehending, Emile asks Cable why he and Nellie have such prejudices. Cable, filled with self-loathing, replies that "it's not something you're born with", yet it is an ingrained part of their upbringing ("You've Got to Be Carefully Taught"). He also vows that if he gets out of the war alive, he won't go home to the United States; everything he wants is on these islands. Emile imagines what might have been ("This Nearly Was Mine"). Dejected and feeling that he has nothing to lose, he agrees to join Cable on his dangerous mission. The mission begins with plenty of air support. Offstage, Billis stows away on the plane, falls out when the plane is hit by anti-aircraft fire, and ends up in the ocean waiting to be rescued; the massive rescue operation inadvertently becomes a diversion that allows Emile and Cable to land on the other side of the island undetected. The two send back reports on Japanese ships' movements in the "Slot", a strategic strait; American aircraft intercept and destroy the Japanese ships. When the Japanese Zeros strafe the Americans' position, Emile narrowly escapes, but Cable is killed. Nellie learns of Cable's death and that Emile is missing. She realizes that she was foolish to reject Emile because of the race of his children's mother. Bloody Mary and Liat come to Nellie asking where Cable is; Mary explains that Liat refuses to marry anyone but him. Nellie comforts Liat. Cable and Emile's espionage work has made it possible for a major offensive, Operation Alligator, to begin. The previously idle fighting men, including Billis, go off to battle. Nellie spends time with Jerome and Ngana and soon comes to love them. While the children are teaching her to sing "Dites-Moi," suddenly Emile's voice joins them. Emile has returned to discover that Nellie has overcome her prejudices and has fallen in love with his children. Emile, Nellie and the children rejoice ("Dites-Moi" (reprise)). Act I Overture – Orchestra, "Dites-Moi" – Ngana and Jerome, "A Cockeyed Optimist" – Nellie, "Twin Soliloquies" – Nellie and Emile, "Some Enchanted Evening" – Emile, "Bloody Mary" – Sailors, Seabees and Marines, "There Is Nothing Like a Dame" – Sailors, Seabees and Marines, "Bali Ha'i" – Bloody Mary, Billis and Cable, "I'm Gonna Wash That Man Right Outa My Hair" – Nellie and Nurses, "I'm in Love with a Wonderful Guy" – Nellie and Nurses, "Younger Than Springtime" – Cable, Finale: Act I ("Some Enchanted Evening") – Emile Act II Entr'acte – Orchestra, Soft Shoe Dance – Nurses and Seabees, "Happy Talk" – Bloody Mary, "Honey Bun" – Nellie and Girls, "You've Got to Be Carefully Taught" – Cable, "Honey Bun" (reprise) – Billis, "This Nearly Was Mine" – Emile, "Some Enchanted Evening" (reprise) – Nellie, Finale ("Dites-Moi") – Nellie, Ngana, Jerome and Emile A number of songs were extensively modified or omitted in the weeks leading up to the initial Broadway opening. They are listed in the order of their one- time placement within the show: "Bright Canary Yellow", a short song for Nellie and Emile, was placed just before "A Cockeyed Optimist", of which the opening line, "When the sky is a bright canary yellow" was intended to play off of the earlier song., "Now Is the Time" (Emile) was placed in the beach scene (Act I, Scene 7) just after Emile tells Nellie why he killed the man in France. It was to be reprised after "You've Got to Be Carefully Taught", but it was felt that for Emile to remain on stage while singing of immediate action was self-contradictory. It was replaced in Act I by a reprise of "Some Enchanted Evening"; in Act II it was initially replaced by "Will You Marry Me?" (later repurposed for Pipe Dream) on March 24, 1949, and then by "This Nearly Was Mine" on March 29, just over a week before the Broadway opening on April 7., "Loneliness of Evening" (Emile) was cut before the Broadway opening. It was to occur in the first backstage scene (Act II, Scene 2) prior to "Happy Talk" and was sung to the same melody as "Bright Canary Yellow". Its melody can be heard in the 1958 film as Emile reads aloud the card with the flowers he has brought backstage for Nellie to the Thanksgiving show; the second stanza was repurposed and sung by the Prince in the 1965 TV production of Cinderella., A reprise of "Younger Than Springtime" that follows Cable's rejection of Liat, was added after January 1949. It followed two separate attempts at songs for Cable. One song, designated as "My Friend" was a duet for Cable and Liat, included such lyrics as "My friend, my friend, is coming around the bend" and was rejected by Logan as one of the worst he'd ever heard. Rodgers and Hammerstein's second attempt to place a song there, "Suddenly Lovely", was considered by Logan too lightweight and was later repurposed for The King and I as "Getting to Know You". The melody for "Younger than Springtime" was from a song, "My Wife", intended for Allegro but not used., "Honey Bun" was not included in the January 1949 libretto (a note marks that the lyrics will be supplied later)., "My Girl Back Home" (Cable) preceded "You've Got to be Carefully Taught" in the original score but was cut before the first Broadway production. It appears in the movie version as a duet for Nellie and Cable. It was reinstated for the 2002 London revival, for Cable., "You've Got to be Carefully Taught" originally had several singing lines for Emile following the conclusion of the lyrics for Cable. The first Australian production opened in September 1952 at His Majesty's Theatre in Melbourne, playing for 10 months and 333 performances. It then played seasons in Sydney, Brisbane and Adelaide until late 1954, before returning to Melbourne for a further season. A limited run of South Pacific by the New York City Center Light Opera Company opened at New York City Center on May 4, 1955, closing on May 15, 1955. It was directed by Charles Atkin, and had costumes by Motley and sets by Mielziner. The cast included Richard Collett as Emile, Sandra Deel as Nellie, Carol Lawrence as Liat, Sylvia Syms as Bloody Mary and Gene Saks as the Professor. A second limited run of the same production with a different cast opened at City Center on April 24, 1957, closing on May 12, 1957. It was directed by Jean Dalrymple, and the cast included Robert Wright as Emile, Mindy Carson as Nellie and Hall reprising the role of Bloody Mary. That production was given again in 1961, this time with Ann McLerie and William Chapman in the lead roles. There have been many stock or summer revivals of South Pacific. One, in 1957 at Long Island's Westbury Music Fair, occurred at the same time that Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus was resisting the integration of Central High School by the Little Rock Nine. Nellie's pronouncement that she was from Little Rock was initially met with boos. Logan refused to allow Nellie's hometown to be changed, so a speech was made before each performance asking for the audience's forbearance, which was forthcoming. There were two revivals at Lincoln Center. Richard Rodgers produced the 1967 revival, which starred Florence Henderson and Giorgio Tozzi, who had been Rossano Brazzi's singing voice in the 1958 film. Joe Layton was the director; Eleanor Calbes's casting as Liat led to the addition of a reprise of "Bali Ha'i" for her. The cast album was issued on LP and later on CD. The musical toured North America from 1986 to 1988, headlined by Robert Goulet and Barbara Eden, with David Carroll as Cable, Armelia McQueen as Bloody Mary and Lia Chang as Liat, first directed by Geraldine Fitzgerald and then Ron Field. A New York City Opera production in 1987 featured alternating performers Justino Díaz and Stanley Wexler as Emile, and Susan Bigelow and Marcia Mitzman as Nellie. A 1988 West End revival starred Gemma Craven and Emile Belcourt, supported by Bertice Reading, among others, and was directed by Roger Redfern. It ran at the Prince of Wales Theatre from January 20, 1988 to January 14, 1989. A new production with slight revisions to the book and score was produced by the Royal National Theatre at the company's Olivier Theatre in London for a limited run from December 2001 through April 2002, timed to celebrate the centenary of Richard Rodgers' birth. Trevor Nunn directed, with musical staging by Matthew Bourne and designs by John Napier. Lauren Kennedy was Nellie, and Australian actor Philip Quast played Emile, Borrowing from the 1958 film, this production placed the first Emile-Nellie scene after the introduction of Cable, Billis and Bloody Mary. A British touring production of South Pacific opened at the Blackpool Grand Theatre on August 28, 2007. The tour ended at the Cardiff New Theatre on July 19, 2008. It starred Helena Blackman as Nellie and Dave Willetts as Emile. Julian Woolford directed, with choreography by Chris Hocking. This production was most noted for its staging of the overture, which charted Nellie's journey from Little Rock, Arkansas, to the South Pacific. On entering the theatre, the audience first saw a map of the U.S., not the theater of war. A Broadway revival of South Pacific opened on April 3, 2008 at Lincoln Center's Vivian Beaumont Theater. Bartlett Sher directed, with musical staging by Christopher Gattelli and associate choreographer Joe Langworth. The opening cast starred Kelli O'Hara as Nellie, Paulo Szot as Emile and Matthew Morrison as Lt. Cable, with Danny Burstein as Billis and Loretta Ables Sayre as Bloody Mary. Laura Osnes replaced O'Hara during her seven-month maternity leave, beginning in March 2009, and also between January and August 2010. Szot alternated with David Pittsinger as Emile. The production closed on August 22, 2010, after 37 previews and 996 regular performances. With a few exceptions, the production received rave reviews. Ben Brantley wrote in The New York Times: The production, with most of the original principals, was taped and broadcast live in HD on August 18, 2010 on the PBS television show Live from Lincoln Center. A production based on the 2008 Broadway revival opened at the Barbican Theatre in London on August 15, 2011 and closed on October 1, 2011. Sher again directed, with the same creative team from the Broadway revival. Szot and Welsh National Opera singer Jason Howard alternated in the role of Emile, with Samantha Womack as Nellie, Ables Sayre as Bloody Mary and Alex Ferns as Billis. The production received mostly positive reviews. A U.K tour followed, with Womack, Ables Sayre and Ferns. A U.S. national tour based on the 2008 revival began in San Francisco at the Golden Gate Theatre on September 18, 2009. Sher directed, and the cast starred Rod Gilfry (Emile) and Carmen Cusack (Nellie). The Sher production was also produced by Opera Australia at the Sydney Opera House from August to September 2012 and then at Princess Theatre, Melbourne through October 2012. It starred Teddy Tahu Rhodes as Emile, Lisa McCune as Nellie, Kate Ceberano as Bloody Mary and Eddie Perfect as Billis. The production then played in Brisbane for the 2012 holiday season, with Christine Anu as Bloody Mary, and resumed touring in Australia in September 2013. Reviewers gave the original production uniformly glowing reviews; one critic called it "South Terrific". The New York Herald Tribune wrote: The New York Daily Mirror critic wrote, "Programmed as a musical play, South Pacific is just that. It boasts no ballets and no hot hoofing. It has no chorus in the conventional sense. Every one in it plays a part. It is likely to establish a new trend in musicals." The review continued: "Every number is so outstanding that it is difficult to decide which will be the most popular." The review in New York World-Telegram found the show to be "the ultimate modern blending of music and popular theatre to date, with the finest kind of balance between story and song, and hilarity and heartbreak." Brooks Atkinson of The New York Times especially praised Pinza's performance: "Mr. Pinza's bass voice is the most beautiful that has been heard on a Broadway stage for an eon or two. He sings ... with infinite delicacy of feeling and loveliness of tone." He declared that "Some Enchanted Evening", sung by Pinza, "ought to become reasonably immortal." Richard Watts, Jr. of the New York Post focused on Mary Martin's performance, writing, "nothing I have ever seen her do prepared me for the loveliness, humor, gift for joyous characterization, and sheer lovableness of her portrayal of Nellie Forbush ... who is so shocked to find her early racial prejudices cropping up. Hers is a completely irresistible performance." When South Pacific opened in London in November 1951, the reviews were mixed. London's Daily Express praised the music but disliked other elements of that show, writing, "We got a 42nd Street Madame Butterfly, the weakest of all the Hammerstein-Rodgers musicals. The Daily Mail suggested, "The play moved so slowly between its songs that it seemed more like South Soporific." The Times applauded the songs but indicated that "before the end the singing and the dancing have dwindled to almost nothing, while the rather sad little tale is slowly and conventionally wound up." The Manchester Guardian, however, noted the anticipation in advance of the opening and concluded that "there was no disappointment ... the show bounces the audience and well deserves the cheers." Drama critic Kenneth Tynan of The Spectator wrote that South Pacific was "the first musical romance which was seriously involved in an adult subject ... I have nothing to do but thank Logan, Rodgers and Hammerstein and climb up from my knees, a little cramped from the effort of typing in such an unusual position." A 2006 review asserted: "Many are the knowledgeable and discriminating people for whom Rodgers and Hammerstein's South Pacific, brilliantly co-written and staged by Joshua Logan, was the greatest musical of all." In 1987, however, John Rockwell of The New York Times reviewed the City Opera production, commenting that while South Pacific had been innovative for 1949, "Sondheim has long since transcended its formal innovations, and the constant reprises of the big tunes sound mechanical. In 1949, South Pacific epitomized the concerns of the day – America's responsibilities in the world and the dangers of racism. ... At its 1967 State Theater revival, the show struck many as dated. It still seems that way, with M*A*S*H having contemporized this same setting". A 2008 Huffington Post review criticized the play as having an Orientalist and Western-centric storyline in which stereotypical natives take on "exotic background roles" in relation to Americans, and it characterized the relationship between Cable and Liat as underage prostitution, charging that she "speaks not a word in the whole musical, only smiles and takes the Yankee to bed." South Pacific is the only major American musical set in World War II, but former Marine Robert Leckie wrote his memoir of that conflict, Helmet for My Pillow, after he walked out of a performance: "I have to tell the story of how it really was. I have to let people know the war wasn't a musical." South Pacific opened on Broadway with $400,000 in advance sales. People were so eager to obtain tickets that the press wrote about the lengths people had gone to in getting them. Because "house seats" were being sold by scalpers for $200 or more, the attorney general's office threatened to close the show. The parties who provided the scalpers with the tickets were never identified, and the show ran without interference. The production had a $50,600 weekly gross, and ran for 1,925 performances. The national tour began in 1950 and grossed $3,000,000 in the first year, making $1,500,000 in profit. The original cast album, priced at $4.85, sold more than a million copies. The original production of South Pacific won ten Tony Awards, including Best Musical, Best Male Performer (Pinza), Best Female Performer (Martin), Best Supporting Male Performer (McCormick), Best Supporting Female Performer (Hall), Best Director (Logan), Best Book and Best Score. As of 2016, it is the only show to win Tonys in all four acting categories. In 1950, the musical won the Pulitzer Prize for Drama, the second musical to do so after Of Thee I Sing, which won in 1932. Rodgers became the first composer of musical comedy to win the Pulitzer, as composer George Gershwin had not been recognized for Of Thee I Sing. The Pulitzer Prize was initially given only to Rodgers and Hammerstein; Logan was later recognized in an amended announcement, much to his annoyance. The 2001 London revival garnered a Laurence Olivier Award for Philip Quast (Emile). The 2008 revival won seven Tony Awards, including Best Revival (Sher and Szot also won, and the show won in all four design categories), and five Drama Desk Awards, including Outstanding Musical Revival. The late Robert Russell Bennett was also honored that season for "his historic contribution to American musical theatre in the field of orchestrations, as represented on Broadway this season by Rodgers and Hammerstein's South Pacific." As of 2016, this was the musical revival with the most Tony Awards. The 2011 London production received three Olivier Award nominations, including Best Musical Revival, but won none. Part of the reason why South Pacific is considered a classic is its confrontation of racism. According to professor Philip Beidler, "Rodgers and Hammerstein's attempt to use the Broadway theater to make a courageous statement against racial bigotry in general and institutional racism in the postwar United States in particular" forms part of South Pacific 's legend. Although Tales of the South Pacific treats the question of racism, it does not give it the central place that it takes in the musical. Andrea Most, writing on the "politics of race" in South Pacific, suggests that in the late 1940s, American liberals, such as Rodgers and Hammerstein, turned to the fight for racial equality as a practical means of advancing their progressive views without risking being deemed communists. Trevor Nunn, director of the 2001 West End production, notes the importance of the fact that Nellie, a southerner, ends the play about to be the mother in an interracial family: "It's being performed in America in 1949. That's the resonance." From the early drafts, Hammerstein and Logan made the issue of racial prejudice central to the story. Hammerstein repeatedly rewrote the Act II backstage scene where Emile, Nellie and Cable confront the question of the Americans' racism. As critic Robert Butler pointed out in his educational companion to the 2001 London production, "if one young person has a prejudice, it might be a character flaw; if two young people share a prejudice, it tells us something about the society in which they grew up". In one draft, Emile advises that the Americans are no better than the Axis Powers, in their prejudice, and suggests they go home to sing songs about how all are created free and equal. Lovensheimer states that a postwar American audience would have found such onstage sentiments to be offensive. In the staged version, Emile's expressions are limited to two lines arguing that prejudice is not inborn. At the heart of this scene is Cable's song "You've Got to Be Carefully Taught", in which Cable realizes the sources of his own racism. Its frank lyrics made it perhaps the most controversial element of the show. Michener recalled in his memoirs that a delegation of New Englanders had approached him after a New Haven tryout and urged him to recommend the song's removal to Rodgers and Hammerstein. When Michener told Hammerstein, he laughed and replied, "That's what the show is about!" Boston drama critic Elliot Norton, after seeing the show in tryouts, strongly recommended its removal, or at least that Cable sing it less "briskly", as there was much bigotry in Boston; Logan replied that that was all the more reason for leaving it unaltered. Several New York reviewers expressed discomfort with the song; Wolcott Gibbs wrote of "something called 'You've Got to Be Taught', a poem in praise of tolerance that somehow I found a little embarrassing" while John Mason Brown opined that he was "somewhat distressed by the dragged-in didacticism of such a plea for tolerance as 'You've Got to Be Taught'". After the Broadway opening, Hammerstein received a large number of letters concerning "You've Got to Be Carefully Taught". Judging by the letters that remain among his papers in the Library of Congress, the reaction was mixed. One correspondent wrote "What can I say to a man who writes, 'You've got to be taught to hate and fear?' ... Now that I know you, I feel that my informants didn't praise you enough." Nevertheless, another wrote, "I feel the inclusion of the song particularly in the album and to some extent in the show itself is not helpful to the cause of brotherhood, your intent to the contrary notwithstanding". When the tour of the show reached a racially segregated theatre in Wilmington, Delaware, Rodgers and Hammerstein threatened to cancel the performances there unless seating was integrated, which it was. In 1953, with the tour in Atlanta, there was controversy over "You've Got to Be Carefully Taught". Two Georgia state legislators, Senator John D. Shepard and Representative David C. Jones, objected to the song, stating that though South Pacific was a fine piece of entertainment, that song "contained an underlying philosophy inspired by Moscow", and explained, "Intermarriage produces half-breeds. And half-breeds are not conducive to the higher type of society. ... In the South, we have pure blood lines and we intend to keep it that way." They stated that they planned to introduce legislation to outlaw such communist-inspired works. The Northern press had a field day; Hammerstein, when asked for comment, responded that he did not think the legislators were representing their constituents very well, and that he was surprised at the suggestion that anything kind and decent must necessarily originate in Moscow. In part because of the song, touring companies of South Pacific had difficulty getting bookings in the Deep South. In the final scene of Act I, Nellie rejects Emile because of his part- Polynesian children. In so doing, Nellie fails to live up to the American ideal that "all men are created equal", which Emile had earlier affirmed. This scene was also toned down by Hammerstein; in early drafts, Nellie, initially unable to force out a word to describe Emile's first wife, after he supplies the word "Polynesian", responds with "colored". This pronouncement, which makes Nellie less sympathetic as a character, was restored for the 2008 Lincoln Center production. As Frank Rich of The New York Times commented, "it's upsetting because Nellie isn't some cracker stereotype – she's lovable ... But how can we love a racist?" Most argues that even Emile is tainted by racism, as his lifestyle is dependent on the maintenance of a system whereby he benefits from underpaid native labor – Bloody Mary is able to attract workers to make grass skirts for sale to GIs because, as she puts it, "French planters stingy bastards!" Nellie Forbush, in her journey from Little Rock, Arkansas, to serving as a Navy nurse and on to the domesticity of the final scene of South Pacific, parallels the experience of many American women of the period. They entered the workforce during the war, only to find afterwards a societal expectation that they give up their jobs to men, with their best route to financial security being marriage and becoming a housewife. One means of securing audience acceptance of Nellie's choices was the sanitization of her sexual past from her counterpart in the Michener work – that character had a 4-F boyfriend back in Arkansas and a liaison with Bill Harbison while on the island. The male characters in South Pacific are intended to appear conventionally masculine. In the aftermath of World War II, the masculinity of the American soldier was beyond public question. Cable's virility with Liat is made evident to the audience. Although Billis operates a laundry – Nellie particularly praises his pleats – and appears in a grass skirt in the "Thanksgiving Follies", these acts are consistent with his desire for money and are clearly intended to be comic. His interest in the young women on Bali H'ai establishes his masculinity. Lovensheimer writes that Billis is more defined by class than by sexuality, evidenced by the Seabee's assumption, on learning that Cable went to college in New Jersey, that it was Rutgers (the state's flagship public university), rather than Ivy League Princeton, and by his delight on learning that the rescue operation for him had cost $600,000 when his uncle had told him he would never be worth a dime. Meryle Secrest, in her biography of Rodgers, theorizes that South Pacific marks a transition for the pair "between heroes and heroines who are more or less evenly matched in age and stories about powerful older men and the younger women who are attracted to them". Lovensheimer, however, points out that this pattern really only holds for two of their five subsequent musicals, The King and I and The Sound of Music, and in the former, the love between Anna and the King is not expressed in words. He believes a different transition took place: that their plots, beginning with South Pacific, involve a woman needing to enter and accept her love interest's world to be successful and accepted herself. He notes that both Oklahoma! and Carousel involve a man entering his wife's world, Curly in Oklahoma! about to become a farmer with expectations of success, whereas Billy Bigelow in Carousel fails to find work after leaving his place as a barker. Lovensheimer deems Allegro to be a transition, where the attempts of the lead female character to alter her husband Joe's world to suit her ambition lead to the breakup of their marriage. He argues that the nurse Emily, who goes with Joe in his return to the small town where he was happy, is a forerunner of Nellie, uprooting her life in Chicago for Joe. Secrest notes that much is overlooked in the rush to have love conquer all in South Pacific, "questions of the long-term survival of a marriage between a sophisticate who read Proust at bedtime and a girl who liked Dinah Shore and did not read anything were raised by Nellie Forbush only to be brushed aside. As for the interracial complexities of raising two Polynesian children, all such issues were subsumed in the general euphoria of true love." Lovensheimer too wonders how Nellie will fare as the second Madame de Becque, "little Nellie Forbush from Arkansas ends up in a tropical paradise, far from her previous world, with a husband, a servant, and two children who speak a language she does not understand". A mammoth hit, South Pacific sparked huge media and public attention. South Pacific was one of the first shows for which a variety of souvenirs were available: fans could buy South Pacific neckties, or for women, lipstick and scarves. Fake ticket stubs could be purchased for use as status symbols. There were South Pacific music boxes, dolls, fashion accessories, and even hairbrushes for use after washing men from hair. Martin's on-stage shower prompted an immediate fashion craze for short hair that could be managed through once-a-day washing at home, rather than in a beauty salon, and for the products which would allow for such care. The songs of South Pacific could be heard on the radio, and they were popular among dance bands and in piano lounges. Mordden comments that South Pacific contained nothing but hit songs; Rodgers and Hammerstein's other successful works always included at least one song which did not become popular. The cast album, recorded ten days after the show's opening, was an immediate hit. Released by Columbia Records, it spent 69 weeks at No. 1 on Billboard and a total of 400 weeks on the charts, becoming the best-selling record of the 1940s. It was one of the early LP records, with a turntable speed of 33 rpm, and helped to popularize that technology – previously, show albums and operas had been issued on sets of 78 rpm records, with high prices and much less music on a single disc. In the years to come, the LP would become the medium of choice for the "longhair" music niche of show, opera and classical performances. An indirect effect of the success of the show was the career of James Michener. His one percent of the show as author of the source material, plus the income from a share which the duo allowed him to buy on credit, made him financially independent and allowed him to quit his job as an editor at Macmillan and to become a full- time writer. Over the next five decades, his lengthy, detailed novels centering on different places would dominate the bestseller lists. The role of Nellie Forbush was the first time with Hammerstein that Rodgers made the leading female role a belter, rather than a lyric soprano like Laurey in Oklahoma! and Julie in Carousel. According to Mordden, "Nellie was something new in R&H;, carrying a goodly share of the score on a 'Broadway' voice". Nellie does not sing together with Emile, because Rodgers promised Martin that she would not have to compete vocally with Pinza, but the composer sought to unite them in the underlying music. A tetrachord, heard before we see either lead, is played during the instrumental introduction to "Dites-Moi ", the show's first song. Considered as pitch classes, that is, as pitches without characterization by octave or register, the motif is C-B-A-G. It will be heard repeatedly in Nellie's music, or in the music (such as "Twin Soliloquies") that she shares with Emile, and even in the bridge of "Some Enchanted Evening". Lovensheimer argues that this symbolizes what Nellie is trying to say with her Act II line "We're the same sort of people fundamentally – you and me". Originally, "Twin Soliloquies" came to an end shortly after the vocal part finishes. Logan found this unsatisfying and worked with Trude Rittmann to find a better ending to the song. This piece of music, dubbed "Unspoken Thoughts", continues the music as Nellie and Emile sip brandy together, and is called by Lovensheimer "the one truly operatic moment of the score". "This Nearly Was Mine" is a big bass solo for Emile in waltz time, deemed by Rodgers biographer William G. Hyland as "one of his finest efforts". Only five notes are used in the first four bars, a phrase which is then repeated with a slight variation in the following four bars. The song ends an octave higher than where it began, making it perfect for Pinza's voice. Two songs, "I'm Gonna Wash That Man Right Outa My Hair" and "Honey Bun" are intended to imitate American popular songs of the 1940s. In the former, the triple recitation of the song title at intervals suggests a big band arrangement of the wartime era, while in the bridge, the final eight bars (repeating the lyrics from the bridge's first eight bars) gives a suggestion of swing. The sections beginning "If the man don't understand you" and "If you laugh at different comics" have a blues style. Lovensheimer deems the song "Nellie's spontaneous and improvisatory expression of her feelings through the vocabulary of popular song". Mordden suggests that "I'm in Love with a Wonderful Guy" with its "take no prisoners bounce", might well be the center of the score, with the typical American girl defending her love by spouting clichés, many of which, such as "corny as Kansas in August" Hammerstein made up, and "sure enough, over the years they have become clichés". Columbia Records recorded the overture and most of the songs from the original production in 1949, using members of the cast including Ezio Pinza and Mary Martin. Drawing from the original lacquer disc masters, Columbia released the album in both the new LP format and on 78-rpm discs. Soon after Sony acquired Columbia in 1988, a CD was released from the previously unused magnetic tape recording from the same 1949 sessions in New York City. The CD includes the bonus tracks "Loneliness of Evening" (recorded in 1949 by Mary Martin), "My Girl Back Home" (Martin), "Bali Ha'i" (Pinza) and Symphonic Scenario for Concert Orchestra (original orchestrations by Robert Russell Bennett). According to critic John Kenrick, the original cast recording "is the rare stuff that lasting legends are made of", an essential classic. The original cast album was added to the National Recording Registry in the Library of Congress on March 21, 2013 for long-term preservation. The film soundtrack was released on the RCA Victor label in March 1958. Kenrick calls the recording "mixed up" and does not recommend it. Masterworks Broadway released a recording of the 1967 Lincoln Center production starring Florence Henderson as Nellie, Giorgio Tozzi as Emile, Justin McDonough as Cable and Irene Byatt as Bloody Mary. The recording includes a version of "Bali Ha'i", sung in French by Eleanor Calbes, the Liat. According to Kenrick, "Every track of this 1967 Lincoln Center cast recording is such a winner that you can't help wondering why it took so long for this winner to make its way to CD." Kenrick notes that the album is a more complete alternative to the original cast album. In 1986 José Carreras and Kiri Te Kanawa made a studio recording of South Pacific, the sessions of which were filmed as a documentary, similar in style to Leonard Bernstein's successful West Side Story documentary a year earlier that featured the same stars. Emile's music was transposed to fit Carreras's tenor voice. The recording also featured Sarah Vaughan as Bloody Mary and Mandy Patinkin as Cable. Stephen Holden reviewed the album in The New York Times, "the star of this South Pacific isn't any individual, but rather the score itself". Kenrick calls the recording badly miscast "pretentious trash." Kenrick gives mixed praise to the 1988 London revival cast album. The 2001 Royal National Theatre's revival cast album was recorded in 2002 on First Night Records with Philip Quast as Emile, Lauren Kennedy as Nellie, Edward Baker-Duly as Cable, Sheila Francisco as Bloody Mary and Nick Holder as Billis. The album includes the cut song, "Now Is the Time". While Kenrick allows that most critics like the recording, he finds it a waste of money. The 2005 Carnegie Hall concert version was released on April 18, 2006 by Decca Broadway with Reba McEntire as Nellie, Brian Stokes Mitchell as Emile, Lillias White as Bloody Mary, Jason Danieley as Cable and Alec Baldwin as Billis. Kenrick describes this recording as "one of the most ravishing that this glorious Rodgers & Hammerstein classic has ever received" and "a show tune lover's dream come true." The 2008 Broadway revival cast album was released on May 27, 2008 by Masterworks Broadway. Kenrick finds it "very satisfying". South Pacific was made into a film of the same name in 1958, and it topped the box office that year. Joshua Logan directed the film, which starred Rossano Brazzi, Mitzi Gaynor, John Kerr, Ray Walston and Juanita Hall; all of their singing voices except Gaynor's and Walston's were dubbed. Thurl Ravenscroft, later television's Tony the Tiger, sang the basso profundo notes in "There Is Nothing Like a Dame". The film opened with Cable's flight to the island in a PBY, followed by the Seabees' beach scene, and added Billis' rescue and scenes from the mission to spy on the Japanese. The film won the Academy Award for Best Sound. It was also nominated for the Oscar for Best Scoring of a Musical Picture (Alfred Newman and Ken Darby), and the 65 mm Todd-AO cinematography by Leon Shamroy was also nominated. The film was widely criticized for its use of color to indicate mood, with actors changing color as they began to sing. The film includes the song "My Girl Back Home", sung by Cable, which was cut from the stage musical. The movie was the third-highest-grossing film in the U.S. of the 1950s; its UK revenues were the highest ever, a record it kept until Goldfinger in 1963. Although reviewers have criticized the film – Time magazine stated that it was "almost impossible to make a bad movie out of it – but the moviemakers appear to have tried" – it has added success on television, videotape and DVD to its box office laurels. A made-for-television film, directed by Richard Pearce, was produced and televised in 2001, starring Glenn Close as Nellie, Harry Connick, Jr. as Cable and Rade Sherbedgia as Emile. This version changed the order of the musical's songs (the film opens with "There Is Nothing Like a Dame") and omits "Happy Talk". "My Girl Back Home" was filmed but not included in the broadcast due to time constraints; it was restored for the DVD, issued in 2001. The last half-hour of the film features scenes of war, including shots of segregated troops. Lovensheimer states that the film returned to the Michener original in one particular: "Harry Connick Jr.'s Joe Cable is a fascinating combination of sensitive leading man and believable Leatherneck". The movie and Close were praised by The New York Times: "Ms. Close, lean and more mature, hints that a touch of desperation lies in Nellie's cockeyed optimism." The review also commented that the movie "is beautifully produced, better than the stagy 1958 film" and praised the singing. Kenrick, however, dislikes the adaptation: "You certainly won't ever want to put this disaster in your player, unless you want to hear the sound of Rodgers and Hammerstein whirling in their graves. Glenn Close is up to the material, but her supporting cast is uniformly disastrous. A pointless and offensive waste of money, time and talent." A 2005 concert version of the musical, edited down to two hours, but including all of the songs and the full musical score, was presented at Carnegie Hall. It starred Reba McEntire as Nellie, Brian Stokes Mitchell as Emile, Alec Baldwin as Billis and Lillias White as Bloody Mary. The production used Robert Russell Bennett's original orchestrations and the Orchestra of St. Luke's directed by Paul Gemignani. It was taped and telecast by PBS in 2006 and released the same year on DVD. The New York Times critic Ben Brantley wrote, "Open-voiced and open-faced, Reba McEntire was born to play Nellie"; the production was received "in a state of nearly unconditional rapture. It was one of those nights when cynicism didn't stand a chance." Kenrick especially likes Mitchell's "This Nearly Was Mine", and praises the concert generally: "this excellent performance helped restore the reputation of this classic". Notes References Beidler, Philip D. "South Pacific and American remembering: Or, 'Josh, we're going to buy this son of a bitch' ". Journal of American Studies, Vol. 27, Number 2 (August, 1993), pp. 207–222. JSTOR 40467260., Block, Geoffrey (ed.) The Richard Rodgers Reader. New York: Oxford University Press (US), 2006. ., Butler, Robert. NT Education Workpack: South Pacific. London: Royal National Theatre, 2001., Davis, Ronald L. Mary Martin: Broadway Legend. Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 2008. ., Fordin, Hugh. Getting to Know Him: A Biography of Oscar Hammerstein II. Jefferson, N.C.: Da Capo Press, 1995 reprint of 1986 edition. ., Green, Stanley. Encyclopedia of the Musical Theatre. Jefferson, N.C.: Da Capo Press, 1980. ., Hischak, Thomas S. The Rodgers and Hammerstein Encyclopedia. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007. ., Hyland, William G. Richard Rodgers. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1998. ., Logan, Joshua. Josh: My Up and Down, In and Out Life. New York: Delacorte Press, 1976. ., Lovensheimer, Jim. South Pacific: Paradise Rewritten. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. ., Maslon, Laurence. The South Pacific Companion. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2008. ., May, Stephen J. Michener's South Pacific. Gainesville, Fla.: University Press of Florida, 2011. ., Michener, James A. Tales of the South Pacific. New York: Bantam Books, 1967 paperback edition of 1947 publication. ., Michener, James A. The World is My Home: A Memoir. New York: Random House, 1992. ., Mordden, Ethan. Rodgers & Hammerstein. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1992. ., Mordden, Ethan. Beautiful Mornin': The Broadway Musical in the 1940s. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. ., Most, Andrea. " 'You've Got to Be Carefully Taught': The politics of race in Rodgers and Hammerstein's South Pacific". Theatre Journal, Vol. 52, Number 3 (October, 2000), pp. 307–337. JSTOR 25068808., Nolan, Frederick. The Sound of Their Music: The Story of Rodgers and Hammerstein. Cambridge, Mass.: Applause Theatre and Cinema Books, 2002. ., Rodgers, Richard and Hammerstein, Oscar. Six Plays by Rodgers and Hammerstein. New York: Random House, undated., Secrest, Meryle. Somewhere for Me: A Biography of Richard Rodgers. Cambridge, Mass.: Applause Theatre and Cinema Books, 2001. . Bauch, Marc (2001) Themes and Topics of the American Musical after World War II, Tectum Verlag, Marburg, Germany,, Bauch, Marc (2003) The American Musical, Tectum Verlag, Marburg, Germany,, Bloom, Ken and Vlastnik, Frank. Broadway Musicals: The 101 Greatest Shows of All Time. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, 2004. ., Ewen, David. With a Song in His Heart (Richard Rodgers). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1963., Green, Stanley. The Rodgers and Hammerstein Fact Book. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard, 1980., Martin, Mary. My Hearts Belongs (Autobiography). New York: William Morrow & Co., Inc., 1976. South Pacific at the Rodgers and Hammerstein Organization, South Pacific at the Guide to Musical Theatre, South Pacific at StageAgent.com "Sheela-Na-Gig" is a song by English alternative rock singer-songwriter PJ Harvey, written solely by Harvey. The song was released as the second single from her debut studio album, Dry, in February 1992. The single was the second, and final, single from Dry and only single from the album to enter the charts in both the United Kingdom and United States. An accompanying music video, directed by Maria Mochnacz, was released alongside the single. "Sheela-Na-Gig" was written in 1990. The song's title is a reference to the eponymous Sheela na gig statues; figurative carvings of naked women displaying an exaggerated vulva found throughout Britain and Ireland. The album version of the song, as featured on Dry, was recorded at Yeovil's Icehouse Studio—a local studio also used by Jay Diggins and Automatic Dlamini, a band she was previously in with John Parish—as part of the album's recording sessions. This version was engineered by Head, produced by Head, Rob Ellis & PJ Harvey. A version, recorded for John Peel and produced and engineered by Mike Robinson and James Birwistle, was included on the compilation album The Peel Sessions 1991-2004, released in 2006. The song's title is a reference to the eponymous sheela na gig statues. The lyrics to "Sheela-Na-Gig" make several allusions to the statues in lyrics such as "look at these, my child-bearing hips," "you exhibitionist," and "put money in your idle hole." However, the lyrics narrate "imperious male demands and female self-loathing" and "a leather jacket-wearing rocker, black-humouring the boys with her twangy moan." The male character conveyed in the lyrics is uninterested in the female due to her exhibitionism and him not wanting to be "unclean." The lyric "dirty pillows" is a reference to the Stephen King novel Carrie, in which Margaret White uses the term to describe breasts. The repeated lyric, "I'm gonna wash that man right outa my hair" is the title of a song from the 1949 musical, South Pacific. Musically, the song was composed in standard tuning. A capo is present on the first fret of Harvey's guitar in all versions of the song. The opening consists of four notes alternately played. The verse and the chorus feature the same two chords (Emaj-Gmaj) throughout, simplifying the structure. The change in structure is during the bridge ("put money in your idle hole") when the chords change (A5-F#5-A5-B5). The use of power chords is consistent with the alternative rock scene of the 1990s when other bands, such as Nirvana, were known for their use of power chords. Three versions of the "Sheela-Na-Gig" single were released. The single was released in February 1992, four months prior to the release of its parent album, Dry, on Too Pure Records. The single was pressed on CD, 7" vinyl, and 12" vinyl with the CD and 12" vinyl singles featuring two Dry songs, "Hair" and "Joe", as b-sides. The 7" vinyl version omitted "Hair" and only 400 copies of it were pressed. The single was extremely successful in the United States, where it entered and peaked Billboard"s Alternative Songs at number 9, however, was less successful in the United Kingdom, where it managed to enter the UK Singles Chart at number 69, leaving the charts the following week. The song, like the Dry album, generated an overwhelmingly strong critical response. Z Magazine referred to the song as "most electrifying" and "constructs a sarcastic, aggressive sexual advance." In Entertainment Weekly, a review said that the song "redeems [Harvey's] disturbing subject matter with cathartic vocals and her own caustic guitar." Allmusic has praised the song highly, describing the dynamics of the song-writing as "outstanding, veering from a tensely whispered verse to a full-throttle chorus topped by a middle eight that explodes (twice) in righteous fury." The lyrical content of the song was also praised, describing them as "still startling; in the guise of a Celtic fertility symbol, Harvey recounts presenting her nude self to a potential lover only to be rebuffed in a brutally cruel manner" and referred to the final verse "as if a careless razor cut ended the song prematurely", summarizing that "Sheela-Na-Gig" is "a stunning three minutes, probably still her finest performance." In the September 1999 issue of Spin, it was listed at number two on The Top 20 Singles of the 1990s list. The music video for "Sheela-Na-Gig" was directed by Maria Mochnacz and T. Farthling in early 1992. The video opens with images of a handbag and women's shoes revolving in an orange-glowing picture frame. These images are repeated twice throughout the video; once during the middle, and again towards the end. The following scene uses religious imagery with a statue of Jesus Christ being shown alongside polaroid prints. Abstract-shot footage of Harvey and her band performing the song live also incorporate large segments of the video, one video is shot in colour, the other in black and white. The live footage, at times, is overlaid with vivid images of lights and more polaroids. Various other footage of close-up faces and sheela-na-gig's vulva are also shown. All songs written by PJ Harvey unless otherwise noted. CD single and 12" vinyl "Sheela-Na-Gig" - 3:13, "Hair" - 3:38, "Joe" (Harvey, Rob Ellis) - 3:19 7" vinyl "Sheela-Na-Gig" - 3:13, "Joe" (Harvey, Ellis) - 3:19 "I'm Gonna Wash That Man Right Outa My Hair" is a song from the musical South Pacific, sung by Nellie Forbush, the female lead, originally played by Mary Martin in the 1949 Broadway production. Her character, fed up with a man (Emile De Becque) and singing energetically in the shower, claims that she will forget about him. The song was written by Rodgers and Hammerstein in response to Martin's request. She had starred on Broadway for years and Martin suggested that she wash her hair on stage during the performance. "I'm Gonna Wash That Man Right Outa My Hair" was adapted for a commercial jingle for Clairol hair coloring in the 1970s. PJ Harvey referenced the song in her 1992 single "Sheela-Na-Gig" with the repeated lyric "gonna wash that man right outa my hair". 50 Foot Wave's song "Bone China" also references this song in the lyric, "Gonna wash that man right out of my head / and soap him into my eyes". The song was used in a 1996 UK TV advert for Guinness entitled Fish on a Bicycle. The song was covered in the 2004 film Connie and Carla by the title characters (portrayed by Nia Vardalos & Toni Collette) and performed memorably by Reba McEntire in the 2005 Carnegie Hall concert version of South Pacific . Diana Miller, Arne Domnérus and his orchestra. Recorded in Stockholm on September 22, 1952. It was released on the 78rpm record His Master's Voice X 7829.

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The 2001 NBA Finals was the championship round of the National Basketball Association (NBA)'s 2000–01 season. The Western Conference champion Los Angeles Lakers took on the Eastern Conference champion Philadelphia 76ers for the championship, with the Lakers holding home-court advantage in a best-of- seven format. The Lakers won the series 4 games to 1. Lakers center Shaquille O'Neal was named the Most Valuable Player of the series. Allen Iverson scored 48 points in his only NBA Finals victory, as the 76ers took Game 1 107–101 in overtime, handing the Lakers their only loss of the playoffs. However, the Lakers went on to win the next four games, despite being out-shot and out- rebounded in the series. Los Angeles punished Philadelphia with their three- point shooting, which was the key to this series. In Game 3 Robert Horry hit a three-point shot in the last minute, and in the next two games the Lakers used hot 3-point shooting to build big leads and hold off late 76ers comeback attempts in games 4 and 5, pulling away for double-digit wins to win the title. The Los Angeles Lakers entered the 2000–01 NBA season as the defending NBA champions. The club lost a few players to free agency, but they signed veteran players like Isaiah Rider and Horace Grant. The Lakers began the season struggling on and off the court, as they were losing games at the beginning with the Shaq–Kobe feud. Injuries also riddled the team as they struggled through the season. But by April 1, 2001, the Lakers last loss was to the New York Knicks and they never looked back as the team closed out the season on an eight-game winning streak, thus finishing the season 56-26 and closing out as the number 2 seed in the West behind the San Antonio Spurs. The Lakers began the 2001 NBA Playoffs versus the team against whom they played the previous year in the Western Conference finals, the Portland Trail Blazers. The Trail Blazers were a team that struggled throughout the season but battled back to claim the 7th seed. The series wasn't close, as the Lakers swept the Trail Blazers by double digits in all three games. In the semifinals the Lakers took on the Sacramento Kings, a team who had also given the Lakers a tough series the previous season, but the Lakers took two close games at home and went to Sacramento to finish the Kings off with a 4–0 sweep as well. In the conference finals the Lakers went up against the number 1 seed San Antonio Spurs, who were expected to be more competitive than the Lakers' previous opponents. But the Lakers took games 1 and 2 in San Antonio, and then blew them out in games 3 and 4 in Los Angeles in another complete sweep as they became the second team in NBA history to sweep the conference playoffs at 11–0, the 1988-1989 Los Angeles Lakers being the first. But the Lakers met a snag on their quest to the first NBA sweep in playoff history as they went up against Allen Iverson and the Philadelphia 76ers. The 76ers, seeded number 1 in the Eastern Conference, had just come out of two straight seven-game series against the Toronto Raptors and Milwaukee Bucks. During the first game, the trio of Iverson, Dikembe Mutombo and Eric Snow, coming hot off a long Eastern Conference championship road, beat the Lakers in overtime, showcasing their endurance. The Lakers then took Game 2. Afterwards, Kobe Bryant ball quoted as saying he was coming to Philadelphia to cut their hearts out. The Sixers dropped all three games in Philadelphia, giving the Lakers their second straight championship. Both teams split the two meetings, each won by the home team: The Lakers dominated early, in what looked like to be their fourth series sweep. Scoring 16 straight points, the Lakers took a 21–9 lead over the Allen Iverson-led 76ers. Despite this major lead, Allen Iverson began dominating at the half of the 2nd quarter scoring 30 first half points. The 76ers turned the game around and even went up by 15 points during the third quarter before the Lakers started a comeback. Shaquille O'Neal was a major factor in the comeback, scoring 18 points in the quarter. The Lakers played fantastically during the 4th quarter, and Tyronn Lue came off the bench and limited Allen Iverson to merely 3 points and had 3 assists and 2 steals of his own. The game was eventually tied at 94, and when Dikembe Mutombo missed two free throws and Eric Snow's desperation three-pointer at the buzzer bounced off the rim, the game went to overtime. The Lakers dominated for the first half of the overtime, scoring 5 points, Raja Bell then hit a tough layup to answer followed by Allen Iverson scoring 7 straight points, including a three pointer to give them the lead followed by and step back 2-pointer over Tyronn Lue which is famously known as he stepped over Lue after hitting the shot. The 76ers finished up with a 6 point win to take the first game of the series. Kobe Bryant started off the game with 12 points in the first quarter, while Shaq scored 12 points in the second quarter. Despite their points, the 76ers kept a close lead as Larry Brown ran over 10 plays searching for the right quartet, and the fact that all the Lakers besides Bryant and O'Neal were shooting only at 27%. The Sixers were down by 13 in the fourth quarter, and were making a comeback due to Shaq sitting out with 5 fouls, which helped the 76ers to score 7 straight. Even though the 76ers were within 3 points of the Lakers, the 6 of 16 foul shooting in the fourth quarter put them behind permanently. O'Neal finished with 28 points, 20 rebounds, nine assists, and eight blocks, coming close to a quadruple double. Before the game, Lakers coach Phil Jackson had growled at O'Neal, "Don't be afraid to block a shot!" after O'Neal failed to block a shot in Game 1. Los Angeles Lakers | align="left" | || 5 || 5 || 46.8 || .415 || .333 || .842 || 7.8 || 5.8 || 1.4 || 1.4 || 24.6 Philadelphia 76ers | align="left" | || 5 || 0 || 15.8 || .308 || .000 || .500 || 1.8 || 0.8 || 2.0 || 0.0 || 2.6 The Lakers won their third straight championship in a four-game sweep of the New Jersey Nets the following year. The Lakers won 58 games in the season, then defeated the Portland Trail Blazers in three games, the San Antonio Spurs in five games, and the Sacramento Kings in seven games before sweeping the Nets in the Finals. , the series remains the 76ers’ last NBA Finals appearance. The Sixers would win only 43 games in the 2001-02 NBA season, as injuries were the story of their season. Nevertheless, they made the playoffs as the sixth seed, but were defeated by the Boston Celtics in five games. The Celtics themselves came within two games of returning to the NBA Finals for the first time since , but were ousted by the upstart Nets, who made the NBA Finals for the first time, denying a possible Celtics-Lakers final. As for the Sixers, they would never challenge for the title again in the Allen Iverson era, with the team reaching the playoffs only twice for the next four years, winning only one series. Larry Brown later coached the Detroit Pistons to their third championship in the 2004 NBA Finals, defeating the Lakers 4–1. entry about Finals at NBA Encyclopedia, 2001 NBA Finals at basketball-reference.com The Philadelphia 76ers (also commonly known as the Sixers) are an American professional basketball team based in the Philadelphia metropolitan area. The 76ers compete in the National Basketball Association (NBA) as a member of the league's Eastern Conference Atlantic Division and play at Wells Fargo Center. Founded in 1946 and originally known as the Syracuse Nationals, they are one of the oldest franchises in the NBA, and one of only eight (out of 23) to survive the league's first decade. The 76ers have had a prominent history, with many of the greatest players in NBA history having played for the organization, including Wilt Chamberlain, Hal Greer, Billy Cunningham, Julius Erving, Andrew Toney, Moses Malone, Charles Barkley, and Allen Iverson. They have won three NBA championships, with their first coming as the Syracuse Nationals in 1955. The second title came in 1967, a team which was led by Chamberlain. The third title came in 1983, won by a team led by Erving and Malone. The 76ers have only been back to the NBA Finals once since then: in 2001, where they were led by Iverson and lost to the Los Angeles Lakers in five games. In 1946, Italian immigrant Daniel Biasone sent a $5,000 check to the National Basketball League offices in Chicago, and the Syracuse Nationals became the largely Midwest-based league's easternmost team, based in the Upstate New York city of Syracuse. The Syracuse Nationals began play in the NBL in the same year professional basketball was finally gaining some legitimacy with the rival Basketball Association of America that was based in large cities like New York and Philadelphia. While in the NBL with teams largely consisting of small Midwestern towns, the Nationals put together a 21–23 record, finishing in fourth place. In the playoffs, the Nationals would be beaten by the fellow upstate neighbor Rochester Royals in four games. In their second season, 1947–48, the Nationals struggled, finishing in fifth place with a 24–36 record. Despite their record they made the playoffs, and were swept by the Anderson Duffey Packers in 3 straight games. Several teams began to leave the NBL for the BAA as the foundation for an absorption was laid. The Nationals "recipe for success" began by recruiting Leo Ferris. Staying in the NBL, Ferris signed Al Cervi to be player coach and outbid the New York Knicks for the services of Dolph Schayes who made his professional debut, leading the Nationals to a winning record for the first time with a record of 40–23. In the playoffs the Nationals would make quick work of the Hammond Calumet Buccaneers, winning the series in 2 straight games. However, in the semifinals the Nationals would fall to the Anderson Duffey Packers for the second straight season in four games. In 1949, the Nationals were one of seven NBL teams that were absorbed by the Basketball Association of America to form the NBA. The Nationals were an instant success in the NBA, winning the Eastern Division in the 1949–50 season, with a league best record of 51–13. In the playoffs the Nationals continued to play solid basketball, beating the Philadelphia Warriors in 2 straight. Moving on to the Eastern Finals, the Nationals battled the New York Knickerbockers, beating their big city rivals in a 3-game series. In the NBA Finals, the Nationals faced fellow NBL alums the Minneapolis Lakers. In Game 1 of the Finals the Nationals lost just their second home game of the season 68–66. The Nationals did not recover, as they fell behind 3–1 before falling in six games. Despite several teams leaving the NBA for the National Professional Basketball League before the 1950–51 season, the Nationals decided to stay put. In their second NBA season, 1950–51, the Nationals played mediocre basketball all season, finishing in fourth place with a record of 32–34. However, in the playoffs the Nationals played their best basketball of the season as they stunned the first place Warriors in two straight, taking Game 1 on the road in overtime 91–89. In the Eastern Finals the Nationals were beaten by the New York Knickerbockers in a hard-fought 5-game series, losing the finale by just 2 points. Cervi, playing less and coaching more, emphasized a patient offense and a scrappy defense, which led the league in the 1951–52 season by yielding a stingy 79.5 points per game as the Nationals won the Eastern Division with a solid 40–26 record. In the playoffs the Nationals knocked off the Warriors again in a 3-game series. However, in the Eastern Finals the Nationals fell to the Knickerbockers again, dropping the series in four games. The Nationals would finish in second place in a hard-fought 3-way battle for first place in the Eastern Division for the 1952–53 season, with a record of 47–24. In the playoffs the Nationals would face the Boston Celtics dropping Game 1 at home 87–81. Needing a win in Boston to keep their hopes alive, the Nationals would take the Celtics deep into overtime before losing in quadruple OT 111–105, in what remains the longest playoff game in NBA history. The Nationals acquired Alex Groza, and Ralph Beard as the Indianapolis Olympians folded leaving the NBA with just 9 teams for the 1953–54 season. Once again the Nationals would battle for the Division title falling two games short with a 42–30 record. In the playoffs the Nationals would win all four games of a round robin tournament involving the three playoff teams from the East. In the Eastern Finals the Nationals would stay hot beating the Celtics in 2 straight games. However, in the NBA Finals the Nationals would lose to the Lakers in a hard-fought 7-game series where the 2 teams alternated wins throughout. With the NBA struggling financially and down to just 8 teams Nationals owner during the 1954–55 season, Biasone suggested the league limit the amount of time taken for a shot thus speeding up a game that often ended with long periods of teams just holding the ball and playing keep away. Biasone and Nationals' general manager Ferris calculated a 24-second shot clock would allow at least 30 shots per quarter speeding up the game and increasing scoring. The Shot Clock was an instant success as scoring was up 14 points per game league wide. In the first season of the shot clock the Nationals would take first place in the East with a 43–29 record. After a first round bye the Nationals would beat the Celtics in four games to reach the NBA Finals for the second straight season. In the finals the Nationals would get off to a fast start, led by forward Schayes, taking the first two games at home against the Fort Wayne Pistons. However, as the series moved to Fort Wayne the Pistons would spark back to life taking all three games to take a 3–2 series lead. Back in Syracuse for Game 6 on the Nationals kept Championship hopes alive by beating the Pistons 109–104 to force a seventh game at home. Game 7 would be as tight as the series as George King sank a free throw to give the Nationals a 92–91 lead in the final seconds. King would then steal the inbound pass to clinch the NBA Championship for the Nationals. Coming off their NBA Championship the Nationals struggled during the 1955–56 season, needing a tiebreaker over the Knickerbockers to avoid finishing in last place and make the playoffs with a 35–37 record. However, in the playoffs the Nationals would stun the Celtics winning the first round series in three games by taking the final two games. In the Eastern Finals the Nationals played solid basketball again as they pushed the Warriors to a decisive fifth game. However, the Nationals' reign as defending champions would end with a 109–104 loss in Philadelphia. The Nationals would get off to a slow start as coach Cervi was fired and replaced by Paul Seymour. Under Seymour the Nationals would rebound and finish the 1956–57 season in second place with a record of 38–34. In the playoffs the Nationals would have trouble knocking off the defending champion Warriors advancing to the Eastern Finals with 2 straight wins. However, the Nationals would be swept in 3 straight games by the eventual champions, the Celtics. Fort Wayne and Rochester had moved on to Detroit and Cincinnati for the 1957–58 season, leaving the Syracuse Nationals as the last small town team in the big city NBA. That would not matter on the court as the Nationals held their own finishing in second place with a 41–31 record. However, in the playoffs the Nationals would fall in the first round as they lost a 3-game series to the Philadelphia Warriors. Despite a mediocre 35–37 record for the 1958–59 season the Nationals would make the playoffs again by finishing in third place. In the playoffs the Nationals would once again rise to the occasion sweeping the Knickerbockers in 2 straight to reach the Eastern Finals, where they gave the eventual champion Celtics all they could handle, alternating wins before falling by 5 points in Game 7. Playing in a league now dominated by superstars like Bill Russell of the Celtics, Wilt Chamberlain of the Warriors, Bob Pettit of the St. Louis Hawks and Elgin Baylor of the Lakers, the Nationals held their own posting a solid 45–30 record, while finishing in third place after the 1959–60 regular season. However, in the playoffs the Nationals would lose a 3-game series to Chamberlain and the Warriors. With the Lakers relocating from Minneapolis to Los Angeles before the 1960–61 season, the Syracuse Nationals became the last old NBL team to still be playing in their original city in the NBA. The Nationals would go on to make the playoffs again by finishing in third place with a 38–41 record. The Nationals would prove to be dangerous in the playoffs as they stunned the Warriors in 3 straight games. However, in the Eastern Finals the Nationals would be knocked off once again by the eventual champion Celtics in five games. Schayes missed 24 games during the 1961–62 season and failed to lead the team in scoring for the first time in 14 years, as Hal Greer led the way with 22.8 points per game. The Nationals would go on to finish in third place again with a 41–39 record. In the playoffs the Nationals would drop their first two games to the Warriors on the road. Facing elimination the Nationals would win the next two games to force a fifth game in Philadelphia. However, in Game 5 the Warriors would prove to be too strong as they ended the Nationals' season with a 121–104 victory. With an aging team the Nationals were expected to fade; however, with the scrappy play of Johnny Kerr, the Nationals remained a strong contender, finishing in second place for the 1962–63 season, with a record of 48–32. In the playoffs the Nationals would face the Cincinnati Royals, getting off to a 2–1 series lead. However, needing a win to advance to the Eastern Finals again the Nationals would lose 2 straight dropping the decisive fifth game at home in overtime 131–127. The playoff overtime loss on March 26, 1963, would prove to be the last game for the Syracuse Nationals, as investors Irv Kosloff and Ike Richman purchased the team from Danny Biasone and moved the team to Philadelphia, filling the void left by the Warriors. Syracuse was the last of the medium-sized cities housing an NBA team, but by then it was apparent that central New York was no longer large enough to support it. The NBA thus returned to Philadelphia one year after the Warriors had left for San Francisco. A contest was held to decide on a new name for the team. The winning name, chosen by Walter Stalberg, was the "76ers". The name comes from the signing of the United States Declaration of Independence in Philadelphia in 1776. Newspaper writers liked the name because it was easily shortened to "Sixers" in headlines. The shorter name was quickly accepted by the team for marketing purposes, and for most of the last half-century "76ers" and "Sixers" have been officially interchangeable. For their first four years in Philadelphia, the 76ers played mostly at the Philadelphia Arena and Civic Center-Convention Hall, with an occasional game at The Palestra at the University of Pennsylvania. Schayes was named head coach, a post he held for four years (the first as player-coach). In the 1964–65 season, the 76ers acquired the legendary Wilt Chamberlain from the Warriors; Chamberlain had been a high school legend at Overbrook High School in Philadelphia and began his career with the Warriors while they still played in Philadelphia. The 76ers would push the Celtics to seven games in the semifinals, with the 76ers trailing 110–109 in Game 7. After Hal Greer's pass was stolen by John Havlicek, the Celtics went on to beat the Los Angeles Lakers and win the NBA Championship. On December 3, 1965, in the midst of a game at the Boston Garden, co-owner Richman suffered a heart attack and died courtside. Led by head coach Alex Hannum, the 76ers had a dream season as they started 46–4, en route to a record of 68–13, the best record in league history at the time. Chamberlain, Billy Cunningham, and Greer, along with all-stars Chet Walker, Lucious Jackson and Wali Jones led the team to the semifinals. This time the 76ers beat the Celtics in five games. In Game Five of that series, as the 76ers went to victory and the NBA Finals, Philadelphia fans chanted "Boston is dead!"—a symbol that the Celts' eight-year reign as NBA champion had ended. The Finals were almost anticlimactic, with the Sixers ousting the Warriors in six games to give them their second NBA Championship. The 1966–67 Sixers were voted the best team in league history during the NBA's 35th anniversary celebration. In the 1967–68 season, with a new home court in the form of The Spectrum to defend their championship, once again the 76ers made it back to the NBA Playoffs and in the rematch of the previous year's semifinals, the 76ers held a 3–1 series lead over the Celtics, before the Celtics staged a dramatic comeback to beat the Sixers in seven games. At the end of the season, the 76ers dealt Chamberlain to the Los Angeles Lakers for Archie Clark, Darrall Imhoff and Jerry Chambers. At the time, the trade appeared to make some sense from the 76ers' perspective. Chamberlain was making noises about jumping to the American Basketball Association, and general manager Jack Ramsay did not want to risk letting Chamberlain walk away for nothing. Nonetheless, the Sixers did not get nearly enough in return. The man who was in position to take over as the center, Lucious Jackson, suffered a severe injury in 1969 and was never the same player after that. The Chamberlain trade sent the Sixers into a freefall, which Ramsay accelerated by subsequent divestiture of All Star forward Chet Walker to the Chicago Bulls. While the rapidly declining 76ers continued to contend for the next three seasons, they never got past the second round. In 1971–72, only five years after winning the title, the 76ers finished 30–52 and missed postseason play for the first time in franchise history. The bottom fell out in the 1972–73 season. For all intents and purposes, the season ended when Cunningham bolted to the ABA, leaving the Sixers with a roster of Greer and little else. The 76ers lost their first 15 games of the season, and a few months later set a then-record 20-game losing streak in a single season. Their record following the 20-game losing streak was 4–58, and the team at that point had just lost 34 of 35 games. The 76ers finished the season with a 9–73 record, leading the skeptical Philadelphia press to call them the "Nine and 73-ers". Under coach Roy Rubin the 76ers went 4–47. It was his first and, as it turned out, his last NBA coaching job. He was succeeded by player-coach Kevin Loughery, who went 5–26 the rest of the way. The 76ers finished an NBA-record 59 games behind the Atlantic Division champion Boston Celtics. The nine wins by the 1972–73 squad is the fourth fewest in NBA history, and remains the fewest for a full 82-game season. The 73 losses, although threatened several times, remains the all-time low-water mark for any NBA franchise. The 76ers’ 0.110 winning percentage was a record worst at the time, and is still the second lowest in NBA history, broken only by the 2011–12 Charlotte Bobcats, who finished 7–59 for a .106 winning percentage in a season shortened due to a lockout. Only six seasons earlier, the 76ers had set the NBA record for most wins in a season. The 76ers of 1972–73 are generally considered to be the worst team an NBA franchise has ever put on the court – although NBA historian Kyle Wright argued in a 2007 study that owing to weaker schedules the 1992–93 Mavericks and 1997–98 Nuggets, both of whom won eleven games, plus the inaugural Cleveland Cavaliers who played an extremely weak schedule, were actually poorer teams. The next year, the 76ers would hire Gene Shue as their head coach and they slowly came back. In the 1975–76 season, the 76ers acquired George McGinnis from the Indiana Pacers of the ABA (after the Knicks tried to sign him, not knowing that the 76ers owned his rights). With him, the 76ers were back in the playoffs after a five-year absence, and even though they lost to the Buffalo Braves in three games, a "Doctor" would come along and get the team healthy enough to stay in perennial contention. During this period, however, one last personnel misjudgment had effects when the team used the fifth pick overall in the 1975 draft to select Darryl Dawkins directly from high school. The immensely talented and physically imposing Dawkins seldom, if ever, lived up to his great potential in part because of a perpetual adolescence. The Sixers finally came all the way back in 1976–77, in large part due to a byproduct of the ABA–NBA merger. The ABA's last champions, the New York Nets, were facing having to pay almost $5 million to the Knicks for "invading" the New York area on top of the $3.2 million expansion fee for joining the NBA. When the Sixers offered to buy the contract of the Nets' franchise player, Julius Erving, for $3 million—roughly the cost of NBA membership—the Nets had little choice but to accept. A few months before that trade, Kosloff had sold the Sixers to local philanthropist Fitz Eugene Dixon Jr., grandson of George Dunton Widener and heir to the Widener fortune. Led by Erving, the 76ers began an exciting ride for the fans of Philadelphia, beating their long-time rival from Boston in a seven-game playoff series to advance to the Eastern Conference Finals. There, they defeated the Houston Rockets, led by future 76er Moses Malone, in six games to advance to the NBA Finals. In the Finals, they sprinted to a 2–0 series lead over the Bill Walton-led Portland Trail Blazers—who were coached by former 76ers' coach/general manager Jack Ramsay—only to drop the next four games in a row to give the Blazers the title. That led to the 1977–78 motto of "We owe you one", which would ultimately backfire when they lost in the conference finals that season to the Washington Bullets, who went on to win the NBA championship. In the next four seasons, the 76ers would fall short of the NBA Championship, even after Shue handed the coaching reins to former great Billy Cunningham. In the 1980 NBA Finals against the Los Angeles Lakers, they lost 4–2. In Game Six, rookie Magic Johnson played center for the Lakers in place of Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (who was out because of a sprained ankle sustained in Game Five) and scored 42 points. In the 1981 Eastern Conference Finals, the 76ers opened a 3–1 series lead over the Celtics only to see Boston come back and win the series in seven games. The following season, the 76ers again faced the Celtics in the Eastern Conference Finals, and again jumped to a 3–1 series lead only to see Boston forge a 3–3 series tie. The 76ers were given little chance of winning as they faced the Celtics in Game Seven at Boston Garden. This time, they played angry but inspired basketball, pulling away to a 120–106 victory and becoming the third NBA road team to win Game 7 after leading the series 3–1. In the game's closing moments, the Boston Garden fans began chanting "Beat L.A., Beat L.A.", as they realized their team would lose the playoff series to a hated opponent (Philadelphia 76ers), but nonetheless openly wished that opponent good luck in the next round against a more hated opponent (the Los Angeles Lakers). The team lost the 1982 Finals in six games against the Los Angeles Lakers. Harold Katz bought the 76ers from Dixon in 1981. On his watch, the final piece of the championship puzzle was completed before the 1982–83 season when they acquired center Moses Malone from the Houston Rockets. Led by Hall of Famers Julius Erving, Maurice Cheeks, and All-Stars Andrew Toney and Bobby Jones, they dominated the regular season, winning 65 games in what is still the second most winning year in franchise history. Malone was named League MVP, and when reporters asked how the playoffs would run, he answered, "four, four, four"—in other words, saying that the 76ers needed to win four games in each of the 3 rounds. The media misinterpreted this and assumed Moses was predicting that the 76ers would sweep all three rounds to win the title, with the minimum 12 games. Malone's accent made his boast sound like "fo', fo', fo'." However, the 76ers backed up Malone's boast. They made a mockery of the Eastern Conference playoffs, first sweeping the New York Knicks and then beating the Milwaukee Bucks in five games. The 76ers went on to win their third NBA championship (and second in Philadelphia) with a four-game sweep of the Los Angeles Lakers, who had defeated them the season before. Malone was named the playoffs' MVP. The 76ers did not quite fulfill Malone's prediction, as their run was actually "fo', fi', fo" ("four, five, four") – a loss to the Bucks in game four of the Eastern finals being the only blemish on their playoff run. Nonetheless, their 12–1 playoff record is tied for the fewest losses in league history with the 2000–01 Lakers, who went 15–1 en route to the NBA title, coincidentally beating the 76ers in the Finals (after suffering their only defeat that postseason in Game 1), and also with the 2016-2017 Golden State Warriors, who won the title with a 16–1 playoff record. The Philadelphia-based group Pieces Of A Dream had a minor hit in 1983 with the R&B; song "Fo-Fi-Fo", which title was prompted by Malone's quip. This also marked the last championship in Philadelphia until the Phillies won the 2008 World Series. After a disappointing 1983–84 season, which ended with a five-game loss to the upstart New Jersey Nets in the first round of the playoffs, Charles Barkley arrived in Philadelphia for the 1984–85 season. For the next eight seasons, Barkley brought delight to the Philadelphia fans thanks to his humorous and sometimes controversial ways. The Sixers returned to the Eastern Conference Finals in Barkley's rookie season, but lost to the Boston Celtics in five games. As it turned out, they would never again advance as far during Barkley's tenure in Philadelphia. Following the 1984–85 season, Matt Guokas replaced Billy Cunningham as head coach. Guokas led the 76ers to a 54–28 record and the second round of the 1986 playoffs, where they were defeated by the Milwaukee Bucks in seven games. On June 16, 1986, Katz made two of the most controversial and highly criticized personnel moves in franchise history, trading Moses Malone to Washington and the first overall pick in the 1986 NBA draft (which had been obtained from the San Diego Clippers in a 1979 trade for Joe Bryant) to the Cleveland Cavaliers. In return, the 76ers received Roy Hinson, Jeff Ruland, and Cliff Robinson, none of whom played more than three seasons with the team. Cleveland, meanwhile, turned their acquired pick into future All-Star Brad Daugherty. On the night of the 1986–87 season opener, Julius Erving announced he would retire after the season, which was subsequently filled with tributes in each arena the Sixers visited. On the court, the team suffered through an injury-plagued campaign, but still managed to make the playoffs with a 45–37 record. Their season would end at the hands of the Bucks again, this time in a best-of-five first round series that went the distance. In 1987–88, with the team's record at 20–23, Guokas was fired and replaced by assistant coach Jim Lynam. Lynam finished the season 16–23, to bring Philadelphia's overall mark to 36–46. For the first time since the 1974–75 season, the Sixers failed to reach the playoffs. Philadelphia selected Charles Smith with its first pick (third overall) in the 1988 NBA draft, then traded his rights to the Los Angeles Clippers for their first pick (sixth overall), and Hersey Hawkins. In five seasons with the 76ers, Hawkins would average 19 points per game, and was the team's all-time leader in three-point field goals attempted and made when he was traded to the Charlotte Hornets for Dana Barros, Sidney Green and draft picks in 199 In 1988–89, Philadelphia returned to the playoffs after a one-year absence, but was swept in the first round by the New York Knicks. In 1989–90, Barkley finished second in the league's MVP voting, as the Sixers won the Atlantic Division title with a 53–29 record. After defeating Cleveland in the first round of the playoffs, Philadelphia faced Michael Jordan and the Chicago Bulls in the second round. The 76ers fell to the Chicago Bulls in five games, and would do the same in 1991 after sweeping the Bucks in the first round. In the 1991–92 season, the 76ers went 35–47 and missed the playoffs for the just the second time during Barkley's eight seasons in Philadelphia. On June 17, 1992, Barkley was traded to the Phoenix Suns for Jeff Hornacek, Tim Perry, and Andrew Lang, a deal that was met with harsh criticism. Lynam relinquished his head coaching position to become general manager following the 1991–92 season, and hired Doug Moe to fill the vacancy. Moe's tenure lasted just 56 games, with the Sixers posting a 19–37 record. Popular former player and longtime assistant coach Fred Carter succeeded Moe as head coach in March 1993, but could only manage a 32–76 record at the helm. Following the 1993–94 season, the 76ers hired John Lucas in the dual role of head coach and general manager. The enthusiastic Lucas had been successful as a head coach for the San Antonio Spurs, and Philadelphia hoped he could breathe new life into the 76ers. It proved disastrous, as the team went 42–122 in its two seasons under Lucas. The acquisition of unproductive free agents such as Scott Williams and Charles Shackleford, players at the end of their careers such as LaSalle Thompson, Orlando Woolridge, and Scott Skiles along with stunningly unwise high draft picks such as Shawn Bradley and Sharone Wright were also factors in the team's decline. In fact, Wright would only play four seasons in the NBA while Temple product Eddie Jones—drafted 4 slots below Wright in 1994 by the L.A. Lakers—had 16 productive seasons as an NBA player. Starting with the 1990–91 season, and ending with the 1995–96 season, the 76ers had the dubious distinction of seeing their win total decrease each year. The nadir was the 1995–96 season, when they finished with an 18–64 record, the second-worst in franchise history at the time. It was also the second-worst record in the league that year, ahead of only the expansion Vancouver Grizzlies but behind the Toronto Raptors, who were also in their inaugural season. That season would turn out to be their last in The Spectrum. Katz, unpopular among fans since the 1986 trades, sold the team to Comcast Spectacor, a consortium of Philadelphia Flyers owner Ed Snider and Comcast Corporation, at the end of the 1995–96 season. Snider had been the 76ers' landlord since gaining control of the Spectrum in 1971. Pat Croce, a former trainer for the Flyers and Sixers, took over as president. Many 76ers fans call these years "The Dark Ages". However, after many years of misfortune, there was a bright spot. The team won the lottery for the top pick in the 1996 NBA draft. Questions remained, but with the first pick, the Sixers found their "Answer": Allen Iverson. With new ownership, Iverson in place, and the 76ers moving into the CoreStates Center, things seemed to finally be heading in a positive direction. Croce fired Lucas as both coach and general manager. Johnny Davis was named head coach, while Brad Greenberg took over as general manager. Iverson was named Rookie of the Year, but Philadelphia's overall improvement was minimal, as they finished with a 22–60 record. Changes had to be made, and after the 1996–97 season, Davis and Greenberg were both fired and the unveiling of a new 76ers team logo and jerseys marked a new era. To replace Davis, Larry Brown was hired as head coach. Known for a defense-first approach and transforming unsuccessful teams into winners by "playing the right way", Brown faced perhaps his toughest coaching challenge. He often clashed with Iverson, but the 76ers improved to 31 wins in 1997–98. Early in the 1997–98 season, the Sixers traded Jerry Stackhouse, who had been the third overall pick in the 1995 NBA draft, to the Detroit Pistons. In exchange, Philadelphia received Aaron McKie and Theo Ratliff, defensive standouts who would have an impact in the team's resurgence. Another key figure in the team's rise, Eric Snow, was added in a trade with the Seattle SuperSonics in January 1998. Prior to the 1998–99 season, the 76ers signed George Lynch and Matt Geiger, but a lockout delayed the start of the season, which was shortened to 50 games. During the season, Philadelphia acquired Tyrone Hill in a trade with Milwaukee. The team began its resurgence during this lockout-shortened season, finishing with a 28–22 record and the sixth seed in the Eastern Conference playoffs, marking the first time since 1991 the team reached the postseason. In the first round, Philadelphia upset the Orlando Magic 3–1, before being swept by the Indiana Pacers. The following season, the Sixers improved to 49–33, fifth in the Eastern Conference. Again, the Sixers won their first round series in four games, this time defeating the Charlotte Hornets. For the second straight year, they were defeated by Indiana in the second round, this time in six games. Though the team was moving in a positive direction, Iverson and Brown continued to clash, and their relationship deteriorated to the point where it seemed certain Iverson would be traded. A rumored trade to the Los Angeles Clippers fell through, but a complicated four-team deal that would've seen Iverson sent to Detroit was agreed upon, only to see it dissolve due to salary cap problems. When it became clear Iverson was staying in Philadelphia, he and Brown worked to patch things up, and the team would reap the benefits in 2000–01. During the 2000–01 season, the 76ers got off to a hot start by winning their first ten games and were never seriously challenged in the Atlantic Division. Larry Brown coached the Eastern Conference All-Stars, and Allen Iverson was named MVP of the All-Star Game. Shortly before the All-Star break, Theo Ratliff was lost for the season with a wrist injury, one that would later prove to be devastating to his future career. Despite holding a 41–14 record and a comfortable lead atop both the Atlantic Division and Eastern Conference standings at the time of the February 22 trade deadline, management felt the team needed an established center to advance deep into the playoffs. On that day, Philadelphia acquired Dikembe Mutombo from the Atlanta Hawks in a deal that sent the injured Ratliff along with Nazr Mohammed, Toni Kukoč, and Pepe Sánchez to Atlanta (Sánchez was reacquired later in the season after the Hawks waived him). The 76ers went on to finish 56–26, good enough for their first Atlantic Division title since 1989–90 and top seed in the Eastern Conference Playoffs. In the first round of the playoffs, Philadelphia faced Indiana yet again. In Game One, the 76ers wasted an 18-point lead and lost, 79–78, when Reggie Miller hit a three-pointer in the closing seconds. Philadelphia fought back, however, and took the next three games to win the series. In the Eastern Conference Semifinals, the Sixers squared off against the Toronto Raptors and their superstar, Vince Carter. The teams alternated wins in the first four games, with Iverson scoring 54 points in Philadelphia's Game Two victory. A Game Five win (with Iverson scoring 52 in a 121–88 rout) and Game Six loss set up a decisive Game Seven, which the 76ers survived as Carter missed a long jump shot at the buzzer for an 88–87 victory that sent the Sixers to the Eastern Conference Finals against the Milwaukee Bucks. After the teams split the first two games of the series in Philadelphia, it was learned Iverson would miss Game Three due to various nagging injuries that had plagued him late in the season. Though most predicted a Milwaukee cakewalk, the 76ers kept the game close before falling, 80–74. Philadelphia seemed to gain momentum despite the loss, and they would win Games Four and Five. Milwaukee put any Sixer celebration plans on hold by building up a 33-point lead in the third quarter of Game Six, but the 76ers would make a furious fourth-quarter rally before falling 110–100. Struggling in the series up to that point, Iverson scored 26 points in the final quarter to finish with 46 on the night and appeared to have gotten a second wind. In Game Seven, the Bucks jumped out to a 34–25 second quarter advantage before seldom-used reserve Raja Bell scored 10 points to spark a 23–4 run that gave Philadelphia the lead for good. Iverson scored 44 points and the 76ers pulled away in the second half, winning by a 108–91 score to put them in the NBA Finals for the first time since 1983. As had been the case in their three previous Finals appearances, their opponent would be the Los Angeles Lakers, who had run up an 11–0 record in the first three rounds of the playoffs and were expected by many to make quick work of a worn-down 76ers squad. Because of a seemingly meaningless loss to the lowly Chicago Bulls in the regular season finale (both the Sixers and the Lakers finished with identical 56–26 records, but Los Angeles was awarded a higher seed based on tiebreakers), the NBA Finals marked the first time in the 2001 playoffs in which the 76ers had to start a series on the road. In Game One, the Lakers jumped out to an 18–5 lead, but the 76ers stormed back to take a 15-point lead in the second half. Los Angeles rallied to force a 94–94 tie at the end of regulation before scoring the first five points of the overtime period, but the 76ers closed the game on a 13–2 run for a 107–101 triumph. Iverson hit a go-ahead three-pointer with 1:19 to go in the extra period, and followed that with a jump shot after which he infamously stepped over Tyronn Lue after making the basket. Eric Snow hit a running jump shot in the waning seconds with the shot clock expiring to clinch the stunning victory. The series would come back to Philadelphia even as Los Angeles took Game Two, 98–89. In Game Three, Shaquille O'Neal fouled out late in the fourth quarter, and the Sixers pulled to within a point with less than a minute to play after trailing by 12 earlier in the second half. Robert Horry, however, hit a clutch three-pointer in that final minute, and the Lakers prevailed, 96–91. Los Angeles wrapped up the second of what would be three consecutive NBA titles with a 100–86 win in Game Four and a 108–96 victory in Game Five. In addition to their Atlantic Division and Eastern Conference titles, the 2000–01 76ers featured the NBA's MVP (Iverson), Coach of the Year (Brown), Defensive Player of the Year (Mutombo), and Sixth Man of the Year (Aaron McKie). The 76ers went into the 2001–02 season with high expectations, but were able to produce only a 43–39 record, sixth in the Eastern Conference. In the first round of the playoffs, Philadelphia was defeated 3–2 by the Boston Celtics. In the 2002–03 season, the 76ers sprinted to a 15–4 start, but a 10–20 swoon left them 25–24 at the All-Star break. After the break, the 76ers caught fire, winning nine in a row at one point, and 23 of their last 33 to finish at 48–34, earning the fourth seed in the Eastern Conference playoffs. Iverson scored 55 points in the playoff opener against the New Orleans Hornets and the Sixers went on to win the series in six games. In the second round, the Detroit Pistons ended Philadelphia's playoff run in a frustrating six-game series that saw the 76ers lose twice in overtime, and once on a last-second shot in regulation. It would be nine years before the Sixers won another playoff series. On Memorial Day, 2003, Brown abruptly resigned as head coach, taking over the reins in Detroit a few days later. Brown's Pistons would win the 2004 NBA Championship over the Los Angeles Lakers, in some ways avenging his loss to them in 2001. After being turned down by Jeff Van Gundy and Eddie Jordan, the 76ers hired Randy Ayers, an assistant coach under Brown, as their new head coach. Ayers lasted only 52 games and was fired with the team's record at 21–31. Chris Ford took over, but the 76ers finished the 2003–04 season at 33–49, missing the playoffs for the first time in six years. Iverson, who was at odds with Ford throughout the interim coach's tenure, played only 48 games in a stormy, injury-plagued season. For the 2004–05 season, Philadelphia native Jim O'Brien was named head coach. Iverson was moved back to point guard and flourished, having arguably his finest season. He also impressed many with his willingness to get other players involved in the offense. During this season, Philadelphia acquired Chris Webber in a trade with the Sacramento Kings, with the hopes that the team had at long last found a consistent second scoring option to complement Iverson. Andre Iguodala, Philadelphia's first-round pick in the 2004 NBA draft, was named to the All-Rookie First Team, and the 76ers returned to the postseason with a 43–39 record. In the first round, they were defeated in five games by the defending NBA Champion Pistons, coached by Larry Brown. Though in the 2004–05 season the 76ers exceeded many on-court expectations, there was a great deal of behind-the-scenes tension between O'Brien, his players, and the front office. Shortly after the season ended, O'Brien was fired and replaced by the popular Maurice Cheeks, who played for the team from 1978 to 1989, and was the starting point guard for the 1983 NBA Champions. However, the coaching change did not help team's fortunes for the 2005–06 season. A 2–10 stretch in March doomed them to missing the playoffs for the second time in three years with a 38–44 record. With the opening of the 2006–07 season, the 76ers started out hot, going 3–0 for the first time since making it to the Finals five years previously. However, they stumbled through the first half of the season and could not quite recover, finishing 35–47, good for third in the Atlantic Division, and ninth in the Eastern Conference (tied with Indiana). On December 5, 2006, disappointed with the direction the team was headed, Allen Iverson gave the 76ers management an ultimatum: find players who will help support me or trade me. This was confirmed via an in-game interview with team owner, Ed Snider. On December 19, 2006, Allen Iverson, along with Ivan McFarlin, were sent to the Denver Nuggets in exchange for guard Andre Miller, forward Joe Smith, and two first-round draft picks. Then, on January 11, the 76ers' general manager Billy King announced that the Sixers and aging forward Chris Webber had agreed to a buyout of the remainder of his contract. The Sixers would pay Webber $36 million over the next 1½ seasons, which is $7 million less than he would have been paid to play. After the buyout, the Sixers waived Webber, making him a free agent. Webber signed with the Detroit Pistons shortly thereafter. The moves allowed the 76ers to make Iguodala the unquestioned leader of the team, and evaluate whether they saw him as a franchise player. The Sixers had started the year 3–0, then went 5–10 before Iverson left the team. They would stumble out to an eight-game losing streak with Iverson deactivated; however, they were able to finish the season on a high note, going 30–29 for the remainder of the season. They finished the year 35–47. The Sixers drafted Georgia Tech small forward Thaddeus Young with the 12th pick, traded with the Miami Heat for 21st pick Colorado State power forward Jason Smith, traded with the Portland Trail Blazers for 42nd pick Vanderbilt guard-forward Derrick Byars, and then finally traded with the Utah Jazz for Providence power forward Herbert Hill. On December 4, 2007, the Sixers fired King and replaced him with Nets' general manager Ed Stefanski. With Iguodala, the Sixers clinched a playoff berth with a win over the Atlanta Hawks on April 4, 2008. It was their first postseason appearance since 2005, as well as the first in the post- Iverson era. However, they were eliminated by the Pistons in six games, with Detroit winning the series 4–2. Even with this elimination, many fans considered this to be a successful season, considering that the Sixers were 12 games under .500 in early February and went on to have a run that led them to the playoffs and a 40–42 record. On July 9, 2008, the 76ers signed power forward Elton Brand to a five-year, $79.795 million contract, after trading Rodney Carney and renouncing their rights to all their unrestricted free agents. Brand had originally opted out of his contract with the Los Angeles Clippers, looking to re-sign with them. But the 76ers offered him more money (he regarded their offer as the "Philly-Max") and a better chance at winning an NBA championship by playing in the Eastern Conference. This move has been the subject of controversy since there were rumors that he and Baron Davis had made a friendly agreement to play together for the Clippers. The team later signed free agent point guard Royal Ivey of the Milwaukee Bucks, Kareem Rush from the Indiana Pacers, and then signed former Sixer Theo Ratliff after Jason Smith's injury. Donyell Marshall was signed on September 2, 2008, after he stated to his agent that he wanted to go back home and end his career in Philadelphia. Rush, Ivey, Ratliff and Marshall were all paid the veteran's minimum salary, but they were to be contributors to a team on the rise. During the off-season, they also re-signed restricted free agents Lou Williams and Andre Iguodala for five years/$25 million and six years/$80 million, respectively. However, the Sixers could not find the form that pushed them to the playoffs last year. The Sixers started the year with a 9–14 record before firing head coach Maurice Cheeks on December 13. Assistant general manager Tony DiLeo took over and the Sixers gradually improved. They finished the season with a 41–41 record, with a 32–27 record under DiLeo. Brand's first season with the Sixers ended early with a right shoulder injury that required surgery. Despite the loss of Brand, the Sixers earned a playoff berth with a 95–90 win against the Detroit Pistons on April 4, 2009, at home. In the first round, they faced the Orlando Magic. Three of the first four games of the series provided late-game heroics. Iguodala and Young made game-winning shots in Games 1 and 3, respectively, while Orlando's Hedo Türkoğlu provided the game-winner in Game 4. Just like in the previous year's playoffs, the Sixers led 2–1 after three games, but the Magic won three straight to eliminate the Sixers from the playoffs. It was also during the season that the Sixers played one home game at their old home, the Wachovia Spectrum. The Sixers won 104–101 over the Chicago Bulls on March 13, 2009. The game was played to provide the final curtain call on the Spectrum, which was scheduled to be imploded on New Year's Eve 2009. Following the playoff loss, Tony DiLeo returned to his front office job, creating a head coaching vacancy. Former Washington Wizards coach Eddie Jordan was introduced as the 76ers' new coach on June 1, 2009. In the 2009 off-season, the Sixers drafted UCLA point guard Jrue Holiday with the 17th pick. The Sixers also traded power forward Reggie Evans to the Toronto Raptors for a three-point specialist, small forward Jason Kapono, who had won back-to-back three-point shootouts in 2007 and 2008. The off-season also marked the return of the 1977–97 76ers logo, along with a redesigned court and new uniforms updating the 1980s ones. On December 2, 2009, the Philadelphia 76ers announced that they had signed Iverson to a one-year prorated $1.3 million non-guaranteed contract. The 76ers were 5–13 at the time and had lost Williams for at least 30 games to injury. Iverson made his "re-debut" for the 76ers against the team he was traded to, the Denver Nuggets, to a thunderous ovation from the sell-out crowd, scoring 11 points, with six assists and five rebounds. However, the euphoria that greeted Iverson's return to the 76ers faded quickly. On February 22, Iverson announced he was leaving the 76ers indefinitely to attend to his daughter's illness, and a few weeks later the 76ers announced that Iverson would not be returning for the rest of the season. The 76ers finished the season with a record of 27–55, their first 50-loss season since 1998. Most cited the reason behind this as the players' inability to play within Eddie Jordan's Princeton offense, with several players unhappy with his system. Hours after the 76ers' last game at Orlando on April 14, the team fired Jordan after one season. He was the fourth coach to be fired after one season or less since Larry Brown left the team in 2003. On May 20, 2010, TNT analyst Doug Collins was named head coach of the 76ers. Collins played for the Sixers for his entire NBA career after being the first overall pick in the 1973 draft, and had previously coached the Chicago Bulls, Detroit Pistons, and the Washington Wizards. The 76ers had the sixth-best odds at receiving the top pick in the 2010 draft, and they managed to land the second overall pick, beating out the Warriors, Kings, Timberwolves, and Nets, who all had better odds. They used that draft pick to select Ohio State University's Evan Turner. The Sixers started the season with an uninspiring 3–13 mark, but started turning things around, to finish with a 41–41 record. They clinched a playoff berth on April 1, 2011, their third in the last four years. The 76ers faced the heavily favored Heat in the first round, and ultimately fell to them in five games. Although they lost the series, Collins was praised for turning around a lottery team in his first season, as well as winning a playoff game when many pundits predicted that the Sixers would be swept. Collins also finished second in Coach of the Year voting. On July 13, 2011, Comcast-Spectacor reached an agreement to sell the 76ers to an investment group led by Apollo Global Management co-founder Joshua Harris. Harris' group paid $280 million for the franchise. The sale did not include any ownership stake in the Flyers or in Comcast Sportsnet. The Sixers will continue to play their home games at the Wells Fargo Center for the foreseeable future. Actor Will Smith (a Philadelphia native) and his wife Jada Pinkett Smith are notable minority owners. The new ownership group decided to retain head coach Doug Collins and president of basketball operations Rod Thorn. Ed Stefanski, who served as the team's general manager since 2007, was relieved of his duties. The 2011–12 season was delayed into December due to the lockout. The Sixers did not play their home opener until January 6, 2012. The home opener marked the debut of an improved in-game presentation at the Wells Fargo Center. The Sixers had their best start since the 2000–01 season with a 20–9 record, battling for the Eastern Conference's best record and taking a firm division lead. However, they finished the rest of the season 15–22, giving them a 35–31 record. Attributed to their lack of a true go-to scorer, the 76ers lost hold of the top-three seed and division championship that they held for most of the season, by going on the losing streak. Nevertheless, they clinched their fourth playoff berth in the last five years on the penultimate play date of the season. Philadelphia earned the eighth seed in the 2012 NBA playoffs, facing the first-seeded Bulls. Philadelphia improved from their struggles in the second half of the regular season, beating Chicago 4–2 to win their first series since 2003. This was the fifth time in NBA history that an eight seed has beaten a one seed. They then faced their rival, the Boston Celtics, in the second round, and were eliminated 4–3. The Sixers once again faced criticism for their lack of a true scorer, as they were not able to keep pace with the Celtics' scoring. They were, however, given credit for winning the regular-season series against Boston and forcing the playoff series to seven games against the Celtics, who had won the last four division championships. In an effort to re-tool for the upcoming season, The 76ers selected Maurice Harkless, and Arnett Moultrie (via trade with Miami) in the 2012 NBA draft. The Sixers then used their amnesty clause on Brand, traded for Dorell Wright, signed Nick Young, Kwame Brown, and Ivey, and re-signed Spencer Hawes, while Lavoy Allen, Williams, and Jodie Meeks left through free agency. On August 9, 2012, the 76ers agreed to a four-team trade with the Los Angeles Lakers, the Magic, and the Nuggets. In the trade that sent six-time All-Star Dwight Howard to the Lakers, Philadelphia agreed to send 2011 first-round pick Nikola Vučević, 2012 first-round draft pick Harkless, and a future first-round draft pick to Orlando, as well as All-Star swingman Iguodala to Denver. In exchange, they received Jason Richardson from the Magic and All-Star center Andrew Bynum from the Los Angeles Lakers. The Sixers started the 2012–13 season with high expectations with the help of Bynum and the growth of the young Sixers. However, Bynum's debut with the 76ers took a hit when he was sidelined for precautionary reasons, in relation to the Orthokine knee procedure he received during the off-season. At first it looked like Bynum would be out only shortly, but little success in healing and setbacks pushed Bynum's return date further and further. As a result of many setbacks, on March 19, the Sixers announced that Bynum would have season- ending surgery on both knees. Bynum was not the only Sixer to suffer through injuries. On February 8, Richardson also went through a season-ending knee surgery. Holiday, Thaddeus Young, Nick Young, and Ivey also had injuries that sidelined them for weeks. By the end of the season, Turner and Hawes were the only Sixers to play in every game during the season. The Sixers started the season 12–9 but stumbled through a tough stretch and could not recover. The Sixers finished the season 34–48, missing the playoffs for the first time since Collins had taken over as head coach. On April 18, Collins resigned as 76ers coach, citing his declining health and need to spend time with his grandchildren. He stayed with the team as an adviser. Soon after, general manager DiLeo had "cut ties" with the team. On May 11, it was announced that Sam Hinkie, who had previously worked for the Houston Rockets, would replace DiLeo as general manager. On July 8, it was announced that Adam Aron had stepped down as CEO, and was being replaced by Scott O'Neil. Aron maintained his position as co-owner of the team. Following the 2012–13 season, the Sixers, led by Hinkie, chose to shift in the direction of rebuilding the franchise. In an interview, Sixers guard Tony Wroten would refer to the major rebuilding culture surrounding Philadelphia as "The Process". The first move of this new plan was executed during the 2013 draft, when the Sixers agreed in principle to trade Jrue Holiday and the 42nd pick in the draft, Pierre Jackson, to the New Orleans Pelicans for Nerlens Noel and the Pelicans' 2014 first-round pick. The trade was later made official on July 12. The trade was seen by some as somewhat surprising, as Holiday had been the team's marquee player and was coming off a season that saw him make his first NBA All-Star Game. Additionally, Noel was recovering from an anterior cruciate ligament injury suffered while in college, strongly indicating that he would not be able to make an immediate impact for the Sixers as he would be inactive to start the season. The Sixers used the 11th pick in the draft to select Michael Carter-Williams as Holiday's replacement as the starting point guard. The Sixers chose Arsalan Kazemi with the 54th overall pick, making Kazemi the first Iranian chosen in the NBA draft. Following the Holiday trade, many of the team's returning players were either waived or left the team in free agency, most notably Andrew Bynum; of the 15 players on the team's roster during their final game of the 2012–13 season, only six remained with the team by January 1, 2014. In their place were a number of young prospects, many coming from the NBA Development League or signing with the Sixers after playing limited roles on other teams. Further moves at the trade deadline on February 20, 2014, saw the exits of veterans Spencer Hawes, Evan Turner, and Lavoy Allen, all of whom were key rotational players. The 76ers, predicted by many to finish with the worst record in the league, had a 3–0 start that included wins over the two-time defending champion Miami Heat and a Chicago Bulls team with high expectations. However, the Sixers struggled heavily after that, at one point posting a 26-game losing streak which set a franchise record, and tied the all-time NBA record for most consecutive losses in a single-season. The Sixers finished the season with a 19–63 record, the third-worst in franchise history. Despite that, the Sixers did not have the worst win/loss record in the overall NBA standings: the Milwaukee Bucks finished worse with a 15–67 record. Carter-Williams led all rookies in points, rebounds, assists, and steals, joining Magic Johnson and Oscar Robertson as the only rookies to do such a feat. He also won the player of the week award in his first week, being the second rookie after Shaquille O'Neal to accomplish that. He went on to win the Rookie of the Year award, becoming the first rookie drafted 10th or later to win the award since Mark Jackson in 1987 for the New York Knicks. In the 2014 NBA draft, the Sixers selected Joel Embiid with the third overall pick, and traded with the Orlando Magic for Croatian prospect Dario Šarić, the twelfth pick of the draft. Neither prospect was expected to make an immediate impact for the Sixers, as Embiid was recovering from a stress fracture in the navicular bone, while Šarić will likely spend one or more years playing in the Turkish Basketball League. In the second round, the Sixers selected K. J. McDaniels, Jerami Grant, Jordan McRae, and Serbian prospect Vasilije Micić. The Sixers also traded a second-round pick to re-acquire Jackson from the Pelicans. In the 2014 off-season, the Sixers traded Thaddeus Young to Minnesota in the Kevin Love to Cleveland trade, and received the Heat's 2015 first-round draft pick, Luc Mbah a Moute and Alexey Shved, leaving only two players with three years of experience on the Sixers remaining. In June 2014 the it was announced that the team would move their practice facility and home offices to the Camden Waterfront, across the Delaware River from Philadelphia in Camden, New Jersey. On November 29, 2014, the 76ers lost to the Dallas Mavericks 103–110 and set a franchise record for losses to start the season, as they fell to a record of 0–16. After losing their next game against the San Antonio Spurs to make it 0–17, the 76ers were on the verge of tying the NBA record of 18 straight losses to start a season if they lost to the Minnesota Timberwolves on December 3, but they broke their losing streak and won their first game of the 2014–15 season with an 85–77 victory at Minnesota. In three deals at the 2015 NBA trade deadline, the 76ers traded Carter-Williams and McDaniels for JaVale McGee, Isaiah Canaan, and three draft picks, including a protected 2015 first round pick originally owned by the Los Angeles Lakers. The Sixers finished the season with an 18–64 record, tied with the second-worst in franchise history since 1995–96. Despite that, the Sixers did not have the worst win/loss record in the overall NBA standings: the Timberwolves fared worse with a 16–66 record and Knicks fared second with 17–65 record. On May 19, the 76ers were awarded the third overall pick in the 2015 NBA draft, where they selected Duke center Jahlil Okafor with the third overall pick. The 76ers also signed JP Tokoto with the 58th overall pick. On November 27, the 76ers lost to the Houston Rockets 116–114, giving them a 27-game losing streak dating back to the previous season, which became the longest losing streak in professional sports. During the same game the Sixers set a franchise record of 16 three pointers made during the losing effort. On December 1, the 76ers beat the Lakers at home by a score of 103–91, but not before setting a league record 28 consecutive losses dating to the 2014–15 season. In doing so, the 76ers also managed to avoid setting a new NBA record of most losses to begin a season. They instead tied the old record of 18 losses set by the then-New Jersey Nets in the 2009–10 season. On December 8, the 76ers announced that they would hire Jerry Colangelo, Chairman of the Board of Directors for USA Basketball, as the Special Advisor to the Managing General Partner and Chairman of Basketball Operations. In the first move the team made after hiring Colangelo, they traded two second-round draft picks to the Pelicans in return for point guard Ish Smith. After starting 1–30, the 76ers went 7–25 following the trade. On March 1, 2016, the 76ers, at the time with a record of 8–51, missed the playoffs for the fourth straight season. The 76ers finished the season 10–72. On April 6, 2016, Sam Hinkie resigned by way of a 7,000 word letter of resignation. On April 10, 2016, Bryan Colangelo, the son of Jerry Colangelo, was named president of basketball operations. In the NBA Draft Lottery, the Philadelphia 76ers earned the first pick in the draft, after they had a 25% chance of earning the spot. On June 23, 2016, following the 2015–16 season, and after the 76ers were awarded the first overall pick in the 2016 draft, the team selected LSU Point Forward Ben Simmons first overall. The Sixers also selected French basketball player Timothé Luwawu-Cabarrot and Turkish basketball player Furkan Korkmaz with the 24th and 26th picks in the 2016 NBA draft respectively. Many consider the 2016 NBA Draft a turning point for the 76ers after their three seasons of not being competitive resulted in the franchise garnering the first overall pick, the first time the team owned the first since 1996 when the 76ers selected point guard Allen Iverson first overall. The Sixers subsequently traded for another number one pick in the 2017 NBA draft, choosing Markelle Fultz. The 2017–18 season was the most successful season since the 2011–12 season as the team finished the regular season in third place in the Eastern Conference with a 52–30 winning record and clinched a playoff spot. The season also saw the 76ers reaching a franchise record 16-game winning streak. In the First Round of the playoffs, the Sixers defeated the Heat in five games, to win their first playoff series since the 2011–12 season. Following a controversy involving fake Twitter accounts, the 76ers parted ways with general manager Bryan Colangelo on June 7, 2018. The team promoted Elton Brand from executive vice president of basketball operations to fill the vacant general manager role on September 18, 2018. On November 12, 2018, the 76ers traded Šarić, Robert Covington, Jerryd Bayless and a 2022 second-round draft pick to the Minnesota Timberwolves in exchange for Jimmy Butler and Justin Patton. On February 6, 2019, the 76ers acquired forward Tobias Harris, as well as Boban Marjanović and Mike Scott, in a trade with the Los Angeles Clippers, sending Wilson Chandler, Mike Muscala, Landry Shamet, a protected 2020 first-round pick, Miami's unprotected 2021 first-round pick and Detroit's 2021 and 2023 second-round picks to the Clippers. On November 25, 2019, the 76ers made history by signing a sports betting partnership with Fox Bet, the joint venture of online gambling operator The Stars Group and broadcaster Fox Sports. While the NBA has struck a number of partnerships with betting operators following the 2018 US Supreme Court ruling that struck down the federal betting ban, the Fox Bet deal marked the first partnership between a betting operator and an individual NBA team. While team colors have changed somewhat over the years, with emphasis alternating between blue, white, red, and even black and gold, the 76ers have always been closely identified with the logo featuring the number 76 with 13 stars arranged in a circle above the number 7 to represent the original 13 American colonies. The logo portrays the patriotic nature of the United States, prominently featuring the colors red, blue and white, and Philadelphia's reputation as the birthplace of American independence. The logo was used from 1963 to 1977, after which it was slightly modified to feature the full team nickname and a basketball adorning the logo. This iteration was used from 1977 to 1997. The 76ers also had an alternate logo with the '76' wordmark inside the silhouette of the Liberty Bell with 'Philadelphia' on top. Uniforms during this era varied between blue and red. During much of the 1960s, the abbreviated city name 'PHILA' adorned the uniforms, ranging from fancy and contemporary two-tone script to classic block lettering, the latter of which was used during their 1967 title run. Blue was the primary road color for most of the 1960s (except the 1965–66 season), but for the 1968–69 season, red became the primary away color, with the away uniform featuring 'PHILA' and the block numbers in white with blue trim (later switching color designations in the 1970–71 season). Player names were also added as part of the NBA mandate. A uniquely designed home uniform was used in the second half of the 1970–71 season, featuring a script 'Seventy 76ers' wordmark in red with blue trim, the only time the full team name was used on the uniform. From 1971 to 1978 they returned to blue as the primary road color, with the more popular moniker 'SIXERS' written in Art Deco lettering. With various adjustments from block lettering to Bookman Old Style font, this version with stars in side stripes stayed until 1978. The uniforms from 1978 to 1991 were a classic nod to their 1967 uniforms, except that the road color was red and the home lettering was blue with red trim. The name 'SIXERS' was featured in block lettering. This uniform was used in their 1983 title run. From 1991 to 1994, the Sixers followed other teams in designing more graphic-laden uniforms by featuring a streaking blue splash with tricolored stars heading up to the word 'SIXERS' in Helvetica and in either red (home) or white (away). In addition, the word 'PHILADELPHIA' was added atop the team name. From 1994 to 1997, the Sixers return to a more basic uniform design, featuring a more ornate lettering. The team name was in red (home) and white (away), with numbers in blue. In the 1997–98 season, the Sixers drastically changed their logo and colors in an effort to appeal to a more youthful, hip-hop oriented culture. The iconic 76 logo was dropped, and a new logo was introduced, featuring a bigger 76ers script, with a single star behind the number 7 and a streaking basketball below. More controversially, gold and black were introduced to the color scheme, in addition to the traditional red, white and blue. Uniforms were primarily white (home), and black (away), with slight adjustments in the home logo lettering (gold from 1997–2000, black from 2000–09), trim and piping. Until the 2006–07 season, player names featured a red trim, before dropping it altogether and shrunk the font size in the 2007–08 season; the alternates adopted this design that season, with the regular uniforms following suit that same season. A blue alternate uniform was worn from 1999–2006, while a red alternate uniform, featuring a return to the 'PHILA' script in then-current lettering, was worn from 2006–09. This logo, black and gold were used until the 2008–09 season. During the 2008–09 season, while the previous logo was still in use, the original 'Stars and Stripes' 76 logo was revived to coincide with the team's 60th anniversary (counting the Syracuse years). The previous 1977–97 logo was reintroduced, with the addition of a red square and 'Philadelphia' inside a blue rectangle below it, although the partial logo without the square, city name and rectangles was also used. Uniform colors for this anniversary edition were white only, using the 1978–91 design. The anniversary uniforms proved so popular that they inspired the team to return to the old logo full-time and drop black and gold altogether for the 2009–10 season, with red away uniforms completing the ensemble. This variation featured different striping patterns, team name in blue and numbers in red on the home uniforms, and monotone script. This combination continues to represent the 76ers to this day. A blue alternate uniform, which mirrors that of the red away uniform, was unveiled before the 2012–13 season. For the 2013–14 season, the blue uniforms became the primary while the red uniforms became the alternate, marking the first season since the 1977–78 season that the 76ers wore blue as a primary away uniform. The red uniform was retired prior to the 2014–15 season. A new version of the classic 76ers logo was unveiled for the 2015–16 season, featuring a slight tilt to the white basketball and a roundel featuring the city name and six stars. A secondary "Dribbling Ben Franklin" logo was also introduced. The home white, away blue and red alternate uniforms featured a mix of classic styles used in previous uniforms. The home white and away blue uniforms featured the 'PHILA' wordmark as homage to the late 1960s uniforms, while the red alternates featured the 'SIXERS' wordmark in tribute to the 1980s uniforms. Side stripes featuring seven stars on one side and six on the other pay homage to the 1970s uniforms, while the shoulder piping was a callback to the 1980s uniforms. The inscription 'PHILA TOUGH' is sewed on the bottom of all uniforms. The switch to Nike in 2017 saw the Sixers make some slight tweaks to their uniform set. The blue "Icon" uniform and the white "Association" uniform now feature a red drop shadow on the lettering, and the inscription 'Brotherly Love' replaced 'PHILA TOUGH' near the manufacturer's tag. The Sixers also released their new red "Statement" uniform, featuring a script "Sixers" wordmark, off-centered numbers and blue drop shadows. Prior to the 2019–20 season the red uniforms were tweaked to feature a script "Phila" wordmark. The team's first annual "City" uniform features an ornate "Phila" lettering, blue numbers with red drop shadows, and other elements inspired from the American Declaration of Independence in 1776. Their second "City" uniform, inspired by the 1976 film Rocky, shows thirteen stars to represent the thirteen colonies. By virtue of qualifying for the 2018 playoffs, the Sixers were also given an "Earned" uniform in the 2018–19 season. The Sixers' "Earned" uniforms were similar to the Rocky "City" uniforms, except that the base was white and the lettering and stars were in blue. The Sixers' "City" uniform for the 2019–20 season paid homage to the Liberty Bell, featuring an ornate "Philadelphia" wordmark and red serifed numbers. The gold bell silhouette is prominently featured on the beltline. On February 10, 2015, Franklin the Dog was introduced as the new Philadelphia 76ers mascot to 400 fans and media at The Franklin Institute. After spending the weekend in New York City for the 2015 NBA All-Star Game as the newest NBA mascot, he then was introduced at the Wells Fargo Center in his first game on February 19, 2015. The rivalry between the 76ers and Boston Celtics is the earliest dated rivalry in the NBA. The two teams have the most meetings in the NBA Playoffs, playing each other in nineteen series, of which the Celtics have won twelve. It is considered to be the second-greatest rivalry in the NBA, next to the Celtics–Lakers rivalry. The rivalry first peaked when Wilt Chamberlain and Bill Russell of the Celtics played each other from 1965 to 1968. The 1966–67 Sixers, voted the best team in league history during the NBA's 35th anniversary, set a then-record by winning 68 games in the 81-game season (a record since broken by the Lakers, Bulls and Warriors) and ending Boston's eight-year title reign which led to the infamous "Boston's Dead!" chants. The 76ers went through a rebuilding period through the early 1970s, and came back to relevance during the 1976–77 season, in which they defeated the Celtics en route to a Finals appearance. Both teams would peak in the 1980s, with every single Eastern Conference Championship between 1980 and 1987 belonging to either the 76ers or Celtics. The Larry Bird-led Celtics won five of them, while the Julius Erving-led 76ers won the other three. The Charles Barkley-led Sixers of the later 1980s took the fight to the Celtics; however, neither team experienced much playoff success in the late 1980s, and both took steep nosedives in the Eastern Conference rankings throughout the 1990s. The rivalry was reborn in the new millennium. The first time, the Allen Iverson-led defending-Eastern Conference champions 76ers were defeated in the first round of the 2002 playoffs by the Paul Pierce-led Celtics 3–2. The second time, exactly ten years later, the Big Three Celtics (Kevin Garnett, Paul Pierce and Ray Allen) defeated the valiant eight seed 76ers team 4–3. In the ten years in between, the Sixers would experience limited success whereas the Celtics won a championship and contended for most of that span. In a memorable 2006 regular- season meeting between the two, the 76ers defeated the Celtics 125–124 in triple overtime, with Iverson leading the way with 33 points and 10 assists. Convention Hall and Philadelphia Arena (1963–1967), The Spectrum (1967–1996), Wells Fargo Center (1996–present) The 76ers' training facility and headquarters for basketball operations are located at the Philadelphia 76ers Training Complex in Camden, New Jersey. In 2014, the 76ers announced their plans to construct a new training complex, which was officially opened on September 23, 2016. The team previously practiced at the campus of the Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine. The 76ers hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed by the team that drafted him, is allowed to sign with any non-NBA teams. In this case, the team retains the player's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player's contract with the non-NBA team ends. This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams. All of the 76ers' retired numbers are hanging on the rafters in the Wells Fargo Center Notes: Also served as player-coach (1963–1966)., Also served as head coach (2005–2008)., Also Philadelphia native, and Philadelphia Warriors, 1959–1962., 1958–1963 in Syracuse, Also served as head coach (1977–1985)., Also Philadelphia Warriors, (1946–1962)., "Nerlens Noel wore the number at the time of the announcement (2013–2017) Notes: He also coached the team in 1963–1966., He also coached the team in 1948–1958., He also coached the team in 1977–1985., In total, Barkley was inducted into the Hall of Fame twice – as player and as a member of the 1992 Olympic team., Also served as assistant coach (1994–2001) and head coach (2005–2008)., He also played for the team in 1949–1951., Inducted posthumously., Lloyd was inducted as a contributor as the first African American player and bench coach in the NBA. In September 2016, the 76ers acquired both Team Dignitas and Apex Gaming and merged them under the Dignitas brand, becoming the first North American professional sports team to own an eSports team. South Philadelphia Sports Complex, Sports in Philadelphia Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, has been home to many teams and events in professional, semi-professional, amateur, college, and high-school sports. Sports are a huge part of the culture of the city and the Greater Philadelphia area. Philadelphia sports fans are considered to be some of the most knowledgeable fans in sports, and are known for their extreme passion for all of their teams. Philadelphia fans, particularly Phillies and Eagles fans, are also known for their reputation of being the "Meanest Fans in America". Philadelphia is one of twelve cities that hosts teams in the "Big Four" major sports leagues in North America, and Philadelphia is one of just three cities in which one team from every league plays within city limits. These major sports teams are the Philadelphia Phillies of Major League Baseball, the Philadelphia Eagles of the National Football League, the Philadelphia 76ers of the National Basketball Association and the Philadelphia Flyers of the National Hockey League. Each team has played in Philadelphia since at least the 1960s, and each team has won at least two championships. Since 2010, the Greater Philadelphia area has been the home of the Philadelphia Union of Major League Soccer, making the Philadelphia market one of nine cities that hosts a team in the five major sports leagues. Prior to the 1970s, Philadelphia was home to several other notable professional franchises, including the Philadelphia Athletics, the Frankford Yellow Jackets, the Philadelphia Warriors, the Philadelphia Quakers, and the Philadelphia Field Club. The Greater Philadelphia area hosts several college sports teams. The Philadelphia Big 5 is an informal association of basketball schools consisting of La Salle University, the University of Pennsylvania, Saint Joseph's University, Temple University, and Villanova University. Those five schools, along with Drexel University, Delaware State University, and the University of Delaware, all represent the Greater Philadelphia area in NCAA Division I, while several other area schools field teams in other divisions of the NCAA. Temple fields the lone Division I FBS football team in the region, though many Philadelphia fans root for other programs, such as the Pennsylvania State University Nittany Lions. In addition to the major professional and college sports, numerous semi-pro, amateur, community, and high school teams play in Philadelphia. The city hosts numerous sporting events, such as the Penn Relays and the Collegiate Rugby Championship, and Philadelphia has been the most frequent host of the annual Army-Navy football game. Philadelphia has also been the home of several renowned athletes and sports figures. Philly furthermore has played a historically significant role in the development of cricket and extreme wrestling in the United States. Philadelphia has a long history of professional sports teams. Philadelphia is one of six cities that has won at least one championship in the NHL, NFL, MLB, and NBA. Philadelphia's combined total of sixteen championships in these leagues ranks sixth among North American cities. The Eagles, Phillies, Flyers, and 76ers (aka the “Sixers”) all play their home games in the South Philadelphia Sports Complex section of the city. The Eagles currently play at Lincoln Financial Field (commonly referred to as "The Linc"), built in 2003. The Phillies play at Citizens Bank Park, which opened in 2004. The Flyers and 76ers share the Wells Fargo Center, opened in 1996. All three venues are within walking distance of NRG Station on SEPTA's Broad Street Line. The Philadelphia Union of Major League Soccer plays its home games at Talen Energy Stadium in the satellite city of Chester, about southwest of Philadelphia. Philadelphia has also been home to relocated and defunct franchises. The Philadelphia Athletics (now the Oakland Athletics) of the MLB, the Philadelphia Warriors (now the Golden State Warriors) of the NBA, and the Frankford Yellow Jackets of the NFL each played in Philadelphia for over a decade. Other former Philadelphia teams, such as the Philadelphia Quakers of the NHL, have been more short-lived. Both of the major league teams that relocated (the Warriors and the Athletics) currently play in the San Francisco Bay Area. In 1980, Philadelphia became the only North American city in which all four major sports teams played for their respective championships in one year (although the Phillies were the only team to win the championship). The Flyers' run to the 2010 Stanley Cup Finals made the city of Philadelphia the first North American city to have all four of its major professional sports league teams play in the league championship finals at least once since 2000, although the Phillies and the Eagles are the only teams to have won a championship since 2000. Philadelphia has had an odd trend of losing championship games during presidential inauguration years; the Sixers, Eagles, Phillies, and Flyers collectively have an 0-8 record in such games since 1977. In 2011, the Phillies became the first team in the city's major professional sports history to finish the regular season in first place in five consecutive seasons. Two other teams finished first during four consecutive seasons: the 1973–77 Flyers and the 2001–04 Eagles. Five other teams finished first for three seasons in a row: the 1929–31 Athletics, 1947–49 Eagles, 1965–68 Sixers, 1976–78 Phillies, and 1984–87 Flyers. The city's sole existing Major League Baseball team is the Philadelphia Phillies. Founded in 1883, the team is the oldest continuous, one-name, one- city franchise in all of professional American sports. The Phillies compete in the National League East and have won the World Series twice, in and . The Phillies have won seven National League pennants and eleven NL East division titles. In 2007, the Phillies lost a game for the 10,000th time in franchise history; according to the Elias Sports Bureau, no professional sports franchise in any sport has lost more games. For its first thirty years, the franchise often finished in the middle of the National League. Led by pitcher Grover Cleveland Alexander, the franchise appeared in the 1915 World Series and made strong finishes in 1916 and 1917. After trading Alexander in 1917, the franchise had one of the worst stretches in professional sports history, as it managed just one winning season between 1918 and 1948. The "Whiz Kid" Phillies, led by pitcher Robin Roberts, reached the 1950 World Series, but the team was swept by the New York Yankees. The team finished towards the middle of the pack for much of the 1950s and 1960s. After a down period in the early 1970s, third baseman Mike Schmidt and pitcher Steve Carlton led the Phillies to six playoff appearances in eight years. The Phillies won their first World Series in 1980, defeating the Kansas City Royals in six games. The Phillies also appeared in the 1983 World Series, but lost to the Baltimore Orioles. The franchise had just one winning season between 1987 and 2000, although the 1993 Phillies appeared in the 1993 World Series, losing to the Toronto Blue Jays. The franchise experienced a resurgence starting in 2001, though it did not make the playoffs until 2007. From 2007 to 2011, the Phillies made the playoffs for five straight seasons, winning the 2008 World Series over the Tampa Bay Rays and also appearing in the 2009 World Series. Since 2013, the team has finished below .500 for six straight seasons. For the first half of the 20th century, Philadelphia had two Major League Baseball franchises. The Philadelphia Athletics were founded in 1901 as one of the eight charter franchises of the American League. The Philadelphia Athletics won the World Series in , , , , and . The team won the American League pennant nine times while in Philadelphia, including a 1902 pennant victory that occurred before the start of the modern World Series. The Athletics declined after their victory in the 1930 World Series, and usually finished below .500 in the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s. The Athletics were one of several MLB teams that relocated in the 1950s and 1960s, moving to Kansas City after the 1954 season. Having played 53 seasons in Philadelphia, the Athletics are the sixth-longest tenured team in major North American professional sports to relocate, behind four other baseball teams (the Braves, Giants, Dodgers, and Senators) and one football team (the Chargers). The Athletics would later relocate to Oakland after the 1967 season, becoming the Oakland Athletics. Philadelphia Athletics players such as Lefty Grove, Jimmie Foxx, and Al Simmons have been inducted into the Philadelphia Sports Hall of Fame, as has long-time manager and owner Connie Mack, who holds the record for most games managed, won, and lost. While the Athletics played in Philadelphia, they frequently played the Phillies in exhibition games known as the City Series. However, the teams never met in the World Series, and did not play each other in the regular season until 2003 (after the introduction of interleague play). The first game in the history of Major League Baseball was played in Philadelphia, on Saturday, April 22, 1876, at the Jefferson Street Grounds. The Boston Red Caps defeated the Philadelphia Athletics (NL), 6–5, in the inaugural game of the National League. These Athletics (also known as Athletic of Philadelphia) were formed in 1860, and played in the National Association of Base Ball Players (NABBP), then the National Association (NA), and finally the National League (NL; for only one year). The Athletics won the inaugural National Association title, making the franchise the winner of arguably the first title in major league history. After the end of the 1876 season, the franchise folded, having been expelled from the National League for refusing to make a late-season road trip. Three other franchises would later use the name "Athletics", including the now–Oakland Athletics. Though the 1860–76 Athletics were the first prominent Philadelphia baseball club, the history of baseball in Philadelphia extends to even before the Athletics, as Philadelphians were playing town ball by the 1820s. The Philadelphia Eagles, founded in 1933, are members of the East Division of the National Football Conference (NFC) in the National Football League. They have operated continuously since then, with the partial exception of the 1943 season, when the Eagles temporarily merged with the Pittsburgh Steelers to become the Steagles. The Eagles have won three NFL titles (1948, 1949, 1960), four conference championships, and thirteen division championships. They have made three Super Bowl appearances, losing in Super Bowl XV and Super Bowl XXXIX, and winning Super Bowl LII. The franchise frequently finished at the bottom of the standings in the 1930s, but improved in the 1940s, and became the only NFL team to win back to back championships by shutout (in 1948 and 1949). Though the franchise was average for much of the 1950s, the 1960 championship-winning Eagles were the only team to defeat the Vince Lombardi- coached Packers in a playoff game. The Eagles did not experience much success in the 1960s and early 1970s, but the franchise made four straight playoff appearances starting in 1978, including a Super Bowl appearance in 1980. After another down period, the franchise made the playoffs in six of nine seasons between 1988 and 1996. Andy Reid was hired as head coach in 1999, and across fourteen seasons he led the franchise to nine playoff appearances and a run to Super Bowl XXXIX. After Chip Kelly's three-year tenure as head coach, the Eagles hired Doug Pederson, a former offensive coordinator under Reid. The Eagles defeated the New England Patriots in Super Bowl LII. In 1994, defensive end Reggie White, running back Steve Van Buren, and two-way players Chuck Bednarik and Pete Pihos were named to the National Football League 75th Anniversary All-Time Team. The city's first NFL team was the Frankford Yellow Jackets. Originally a community athletic-association team in the Frankford neighborhood of Northeast Philadelphia dating back to 1899, the club became one of the early NFL clubs in 1924. The Yellow Jackets won the NFL championship in 1926. Its home field was Frankford Stadium (also called Yellow Jacket Field). Financial troubles brought on by the Great Depression and a fire at Frankford Stadium led to the club disbanding after the 1931 season. Pro Football Hall of Famers Guy Chamberlin and William R. Lyman both played for the Yellow Jackets. The greater Philadelphia area has had four other football teams that played in the NFL or in leagues that attempted to compete with the NFL. The Pottsville Maroons, a member of the National Football League, played in nearby Pottsville, Pennsylvania during the 1920s. In 1925, the Maroons were briefly suspended from the NFL for playing an unauthorized exhibition game at Philadelphia's Shibe Park. The team moved to Boston in 1929, but folded at the end of the season. The Philadelphia Quakers played one season in Philadelphia as part of the American Football League, a fledgling league intent on challenging the NFL as the premier football league in the country. The team took its name from the Union Quakers of Philadelphia, a local club which had been denied entry into the American Professional Football Association (as the NFL was known before 1922). The AFL Quakers won the league championship in 1926, giving Philadelphia two football championships in one year, as the Frankford Yellow Jackets won the 1926 NFL title. However, both the AFL and the Quakers folded after just one season of existence. The Philadelphia Bell was a franchise of the World Football League, which operated from 1974 to 1975 and attempted to challenge the NFL's dominance. The league was founded by Gary Davidson, who had also led the founding of World Hockey Association and the American Basketball Association, but the WFL folded after only two years and no teams were absorbed into the NFL. The Bell played its home games in JFK Stadium, and they employed the first African-American head coach in modern professional football history (retired Hall of Fame safety Willie Wood). The Philadelphia Stars were a football team in the USFL, a league that attempted to compete with the NFL for three seasons in the 1980s. The Stars won the league championship in their second season in Philadelphia in 1983−84, but the franchise moved to Baltimore for the league's final season. The team was coached by Jim Mora, who went on to a successful coaching career in the NFL, and among its players were future NFL Pro Bowlers Sam Mills and Sean Landeta (who later played for the Philadelphia Eagles). Unlike the NFL, the league played in the spring and summer, but it folded after a failed antitrust lawsuit and an aborted attempt to directly compete with the NFL in the fall. The Philadelphia 76ers (commonly referred to as the Sixers) represent Philadelphia in the NBA. The franchise, which plays in the Atlantic Division, has won three NBA championships, nine conference titles, and five division titles. As of 2014, the Sixers have the third most wins in NBA history. The franchise began in 1946, as the Syracuse Nationals in the National Basketball League (NBL). In 1949, the Nationals were one of seven NBL teams that merged with the BAA to form the NBA. The franchise won its first championship in 1955, as the Nationals. After moving to Philadelphia in 1963 and being renamed the 76ers, the franchise acquired Wilt Chamberlain and experienced a great period of success. The team won a then-record 68 games and the championship in the 1966-1967 season, making it the only team besides the Boston Celtics to win an NBA championship in the 1960s. The franchise missed the playoffs for four consecutive seasons in the early 1970s, and the 1972–1973 Sixers hold the NBA record for most losses in one season, with 73. However, the team quickly bounced back after it acquired Julius Erving, and Erving and Moses Malone led the Sixers to a championship in 1983. The franchise continued to experience success until the early 1990s, when it traded Charles Barkley. The Sixers missed the playoffs for seven straight seasons until the emergence of Allen Iverson, who led the team to the 2001 finals. The team hovered around .500 for most of the 2000s decade, and missed the playoffs from 2013 to 2017. In 1996, the NBA named the 1967 and 1983 championship-winning teams two of the ten greatest teams in NBA history. The Philadelphia Warriors played in Philadelphia from 1946 to 1962 before moving to San Francisco and becoming the Golden State Warriors. The Philadelphia Warriors won two championships and three conference titles during that time. The team won its first championship in 1946–47, the inaugural season of the Basketball Association of America (BAA). Following the merger between the BAA and the National Basketball League that formed the NBA, the Philadelphia Warriors won their second title in 1956. While a member of the Philadelphia Warriors, Wilt Chamberlain set several NBA records; scoring 100 points in a game against the New York Knicks is perhaps his most well-known achievement. The Philadelphia Sports Hall of Fame has inducted Paul Arizin, Neil Johnston, Joe Fulks, and other people associated with the Philadelphia Warriors. The Warriors franchise moved to San Francisco in 1962 and became the Golden State Warriors. The Warriors and Sixers/Nationals have met in the playoffs ten times, most recently in the 1967 NBA Finals. Philadelphia went one season without an NBA franchise before the Syracuse Nationals moved to Philadelphia and became the Philadelphia 76ers. In the lone season that Philadelphia lacked an NBA franchise, the American Basketball League, which had been started in 1961 by Abe Saperstein as an attempt to compete with the NBA, moved a franchise to region. Both the team (the Philadelphia Tapers) and the league folded in December 1962. The Philadelphia Flyers were one of six teams that the NHL added as part of the 1967 NHL expansion, which ended the Original Six era. The Flyers play in the Metropolitan Division, and have won two championships, the 1973-74 and 1974-75 Stanley Cups. The Flyers were the first non-Original Six team to win the Stanley Cup since the Montreal Maroons won the cup in 1935. The Flyers have won eight conference championships and sixteen division championships. The Flyers were particularly successful in the 1970s: the team won back-to- back Stanley Cups, appeared in a third consecutive Stanley Cup Finals in 1975-76, defeated HC CSKA Moscow (the Soviet "Red Army team") in a famous exhibition game, and, in the 1979–80 season, set the record for the longest unbeaten streak in NHL history. The franchise experienced success even after the retirement of Hall of Famer Bobby Clarke, making Stanley Cup appearances in 1984-85 and 1986-87. After a down period in the early 1990s, Hart Trophy- winner Eric Lindros helped lead the team to the 1997 Stanley Cup Finals and a string of playoff appearances. The team made another Finals appearance in 2010, but lost in six games to the Chicago Blackhawks. As of 2016, the Flyers have accrued the second-highest points percentage of all NHL franchises, behind only the Montreal Canadiens. The 1970s Flyers earned the nickname "Broad Street Bullies" for their aggressive style of play, and the nickname is still applied to the franchise. Flyers enforcer Dave Schultz holds the record for most penalty minutes in a season, with 472. Philadelphia has had only brief experiences with top-level hockey aside from the Flyers. The Philadelphia Quakers were a National Hockey League team that played only one full season, 1930–31, at the Philadelphia Arena. The franchise, which had moved from Pittsburgh, folded after its only season in Philadelphia, during which the club set a record for the lowest winning percentage and the longest losing streak in league history—records which stood for over forty years. The Quakers were one of several NHL teams that folded in the 1930s, leaving the NHL with just six teams between 1942 and the 1967 expansion that brought the NHL to Philadelphia and five other American cities. Len Peto attempted to bring the Montreal Maroons to Philadelphia in the 1940s, but the lack of both league support and a suitable arena prevented the Maroons from playing in Philadelphia. The Philadelphia Blazers played for one season in the World Hockey Association, a league that attempted to challenge the NHL's supremacy, using a rink constructed in Convention Hall at the Civic Center (later used by the Philadelphia Firebirds of the North American Hockey League and the American Hockey League). After the 1972–1973 season, the Blazers moved to Vancouver and then Calgary, but the franchise folded in 1977. Another World Hockey Association franchise, the Jersey Knights, moved in November 1973 to the Cherry Hill Arena in Cherry Hill, New Jersey and then relocated to San Diego before the start of the 1974-75 season. The Philadelphia Union is a Major League Soccer team that plays in the Eastern Conference. The franchise began play in 2010. The Union play at Talen Energy Stadium, a soccer-specific stadium located in Chester, Pennsylvania. The Sons of Ben is an independent supporters group that helped bring the Union to the Philadelphia area, and which continues to support the Union. The Union's top affiliate is Bethlehem Steel FC, named in tribute to the early 20th century soccer powerhouse. Bethlehem Steel began play in 2015 in the second-level United Soccer League, now known as the USL Championship. Steel FC played its first four seasons at Goodman Stadium in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, but moved to Talen Energy Stadium for at least the 2019 season because Goodman Stadium no longer meets league stadium requirements. The Union has made the playoffs only twice, in 2011 and in 2016. However, it has also reached the U.S. Open Cup final three times, in 2014, 2015, and 2018, losing two games at home (in extra time in 2014 to Seattle and after penalty kicks in 2015 to Kansas City) and once on the road (away to Houston Dynamo). The original Bethlehem Steel F.C. was one of the most successful early American soccer clubs; the club was sponsored by the Bethlehem Steel Corporation and played from 1907–1930. The club won league championships in two semi-professional leagues, the AAFBA and the NAFBL. For the inaugural 1921-1922 season of the professional American Soccer League, Bethlehem Steel F.C. moved to Philadelphia and competed as the Philadelphia Field Club. The team won the first American Soccer League championship, but moved back to Bethlehem and reverted to its original name. Three other franchises also competed as the Philadelphia Field Club, giving Philadelphia continuous representation in the ASL between 1921 and 1929 (although the second incarnation of Philadelphia Field Club changed its name to the Philadelphia Celtic for one season). During the 1924-1925 season, Fleisher Yarn joined the ASL, giving Philadelphia two teams. Excluding the first incarnation of the Philadelphia Field Club, the Philadelphia ASL teams experienced little success. The ASL was one of the most popular sports leagues in the country before it dissolved due to the onset of the Great Depression and disagreements with the United States Football Association and FIFA. After returning to Bethlehem, Bethlehem Steel F.C. won a second ASL championship in 1927, and then played in the Eastern Professional Soccer League from 1928 to 1929, winning the league championship in both seasons. The EPSL and ASL merged after the 1929 season, but Bethlehem Steel FC folded in 1930 and the ASL collapsed in 1933. Bethlehem Steel F.C. won the US Open Cup five times, which remains a record (shared with Maccabi Los Angeles). The club also won the American Cup six times. Hall of Fame Bethlehem Steel players include Jock Ferguson, Robert Millar, Harry Ratican, Tommy Fleming, and Archie Stark, whose international record of 70 goals in one season stood for 87 years before it was broken by Lionel Messi in 2012. In 2013, the Philadelphia Union unveiled a third uniform that pays homage to Bethlehem Steel F.C. Following the collapse of the ASL, soccer in the United States declined in popularity and the country lacked a major professional soccer league. In 1967, two major soccer leagues, the National Professional Soccer League and the United Soccer Association, both began play. The Philadelphia Spartans, owned by Pittsburgh Steelers owner Art Rooney, played at Temple Stadium for the NPSL's lone season. After one season, the NPSL merged with the USA to form the FIFA-backed North American Soccer League; the Spartans did not make the jump to the NASL, but two different franchises later represented Philadelphia. The Philadelphia Atoms played from 1973 to 1976, winning the championship in their inaugural season. The Atoms folded after the 1976 season, having been bought by Mexican owners whose plans to move the team to San Antonio were not approved by the league. The Philadelphia Fury played from 1978 to 1980, but were bought by Molson Brewery and moved to Montreal to become the Manic. The Atoms and the Fury both played at Veterans Stadium, though the Atoms played their final season in Philadelphia at Franklin Field. The NASL folded in 1984, leaving the United States without a top-level soccer league until Major League Soccer began play in 1996. The timeline includes Philadelphia franchises that played in major professional sports leagues after 1900. Note that the Philadelphia Field Club was actually four different franchises. Championships won by Philadelphia teams in the five major leagues (MLB, NFL, NBA, NHL, MLS): The following Philadelphia players won the regular season most valuable player award of the NFL (AP), MLB, NHL, NBA, or MLS. Note that MLB confers an MVP award to one player in the American League and one player in the National League. Eddie Collins, AL, 1914, Mickey Cochrane, AL, 1928, Lefty Grove, AL, 1931, Chuck Klein, NL, 1932, Jimmie Foxx, AL, 1932, Jimmie Foxx, AL, 1933, Jim Konstanty, NL, 1950 Bobby Shantz, AL, 1952, Norm Van Brocklin, NFL, 1960, Wilt Chamberlain, NBA, 1960, Wilt Chamberlain, NBA, 1966, Wilt Chamberlain, NBA, 1967, Wilt Chamberlain, NBA, 1968, Bobby Clarke, NHL, 1973 Bobby Clarke, NHL, 1975, Bobby Clarke, NHL, 1976, Mike Schmidt, NL, 1980, Mike Schmidt, NL, 1981, Julius Erving, NBA, 1981, Moses Malone, NBA, 1983, Mike Schmidt, NL, 1986 Eric Lindros, NHL, 1995, Allen Iverson, NBA, 2001, Ryan Howard, NL, 2006, Jimmy Rollins, NL, 2007 Philadelphia has hosted the following all-star games and drafts, including the first NFL Draft: Philadelphia has rivalries with three of the four other major cities in the "Northeast megalopolis", particularly New York City, as well as a long history with an instate rival, Pittsburgh. Philadelphia teams also compete with teams from New York City and Pittsburgh for fans in New Jersey and Pennsylvania. In addition to regional rivalries, teams from Philadelphia have a number of other rivalries with teams from other cities. As the two largest cities in the United States for much of the nation's history, New York and Philadelphia have a historical rivalry that has continued in the world of sports. There are intra-division rivalries among teams from New York City and Philadelphia in each of the five major leagues, as seen in the rivalries between the New York Mets and the Philadelphia Phillies in the National League East, the New York Giants and the Philadelphia Eagles in the NFC East, the New York Knicks and the Philadelphia 76ers in the NBA's Atlantic Division, the New York Rangers and the Philadelphia Flyers in the National Hockey League's Metropolitan Division, and the Philadelphia Union and the New York Red Bulls in Major League Soccer's Eastern Conference. The Flyers also have an intense rivalry with the New Jersey Devils (who play in the New York metropolitan area) and were major rivals with the New York Islanders in the 1970s and 1980s. The Brooklyn Nets and the 76ers are also divisional rivals, as both teams play in the Atlantic Division. The Phillies and Yankees play each other very rarely, but the teams met in the 1950 World Series and the 2009 World Series. The New York Jets and the Eagles have only played each other nine times, with the Eagles winning every game. Philadelphia and Pittsburgh are the two major cities of Pennsylvania and the only two cities in the state with major professional sports franchises, and the teams of the two cities have had strong rivalries in the NHL, MLB, and NFL. Perhaps the strongest current rivalry is between the Philadelphia Flyers and the Pittsburgh Penguins, both of which play in the Metropolitan Division of the NHL. The rivalry is generally considered to be one of the fiercest in the NHL. Although not major rivals since the 1994 MLB divisional realignment, the Pittsburgh Pirates and Phillies had historically been heated rivals in the National League, and frequently competed for the National League East division title. The Phillies and Pirates still play regularly, but are no longer in the same division. The Pirates earned their name from a 19th-century incident with the Philadelphia Athletics; after the Pirates signed second baseman Lou Bierbauer, the Athletics protested that Pittsburgh's actions were "piratical." The Pittsburgh Steelers and the Eagles both came into the NFL during the 1933 season. Between 1945 and 1970, the Eagles and Steelers played each other every year, and the two teams met in a one-game playoff in 1947. However, the Steelers moved to the American Football Conference as part of the 1970 AFL-NFL Merger, and the Eagles and Steelers only play each other every four years. There is also a spirited rivalry between Pittsburgh and Philadelphia at both the University of Pittsburgh and Penn State University, as there are many students from both cities at both state-related schools. Philadelphia and Boston have historically had strong rivalries in the NBA and NHL. The 76ers have a long rivalry with the Boston Celtics and both currently compete in the Atlantic Division. The two franchises have met each other in the NBA playoffs more than any other pair of franchises. Sixers guard Andrew Toney earned the appellation "The Boston Strangler" for his clutch play against the Boston Celtics in the 1980s. The Flyers have met the Boston Bruins seven times in the NHL playoffs, including a stretch where they met four out of five years, one of those meetings being the 1974 Stanley Cup Finals. The Philadelphia Phillies and the Boston Red Sox are interleague rivals, and the two franchises met in the 1915 World Series. The Eagles and the New England Patriots rarely play, but the teams met in both Super Bowl XXXIX and Super Bowl LII. The Union and the New England Revolution both play in the MLS's Eastern Conference. Philadelphia and Washington, D.C. have teams in the same division in the NFL, NHL, MLB, and MLS. The Eagles and the Washington Redskins have a long history, having (almost always) competed in the same division since 1933. The Flyers and the Washington Capitals both play in the Metropolitan Division; the rivals have met four times in the NHL playoffs. The Washington Nationals franchise (including their predecessor, the Montreal Expos) and the Phillies have competed in the NL East since 1969. The Union have developed an intraconference rivalry with D.C. United. The Washington Wizards and the 76ers also both play in the NBA's Eastern Conference, and the two teams met in the NBA playoffs four times, most recently in the 1970s and 1980s. Philadelphia teams have rivalries with teams from outside of the Northeast. There is a passionate NFC East rivalry between the Eagles and the Cowboys, with a number of stories and memorable events surrounding the rivalry. The 76ers enjoy an interconference rivalry with the Los Angeles Lakers. The two teams met in the NBA Finals in 1980, 1982, 1983, and 2001. The Phillies have developed a rivalry with the Atlanta Braves. The teams met in the 1993 NLCS, and the two franchises are the most frequent winners of the NL East. The Philadelphia Soul were an Arena Football League franchise founded in 2004. The team played in the Wells Fargo Center. The Philadelphia Soul won ArenaBowl XXII in 2008 before the league formally disbanded in 2009. The Soul returned in 2010 after the Arena Football League restarted its operations as a new entity. The Soul won four conference championships and four division championships. The Soul won back-to-back championships in 2017 (Arena Bowl XXIX) and 2018 (Arena Bowl XXX), making it a total of three Arena Bowl (League) Championships. Philadelphia hosts some women's football teams as well. The city's first women's tackle football team was the Philadelphia Liberty Belles, which played in the National Women's Football Association and the Independent Women's Football League from 2001–2004. A second incarnation of the Liberty Belles was founded in 2009, and plays in the Women's Football Alliance. The Philadelphia Firebirds, established in 2003, play in the Independent Women's Football League. The Philadelphia Passion play in the Legends Football League. Other football teams in the city have folded. In 1902 the owners of the three MLB teams in Pennsylvania founded the National Football League (a league unrelated to the modern NFL). The league consisted of the Phillies, Athletics, and the Pittsburgh Stars, and lasted only one year. Many of the players from the Philadelphia teams played for the "New York Philadelphians" during the 1902 World Series of Football. Other early football clubs include the Union Club of Phoenixville, Conshohocken Athletic Club, Union Quakers of Philadelphia, and Holmesburg Athletic Club. The Clifton Heights Orange & Black competed from 1921–1932, and played in the short-lived Eastern League of Professional Football. The Philadelphia Bulldogs played in the Continental Football League from 1965−1966. They won the 1966 championship. The Pottstown Firebirds competed in the Atlantic Coast Football League from 1968–1970; the franchise was an affiliate of the Philadelphia Eagles. Although the Phillies are the only active major league professional baseball team in Philadelphia, other professional baseball teams play in the Delaware Valley. The Reading Fightin Phils are the Double-A affiliate of the Philadelphia Phillies. The club was established in 1967, and plays in the Eastern League. Notable alumni of the Fightin Phils include Mike Schmidt, Ryne Sandberg, and Jimmy Rollins. The Wilmington Blue Rocks are a Kansas City Royals affiliate that play in Wilmington, Delaware. Three other Phillies affiliates play in Pennsylvania or New Jersey: the Triple-A Lehigh Valley IronPigs play in Allentown, Pennsylvania, the Class A Lakewood BlueClaws play in Lakewood Township, New Jersey, and the Class A Williamsport Crosscutters play in Williamsport, Pennsylvania. Another minor league team, the Trenton Thunder, have played in Trenton, New Jersey since 1994; the team is currently the Double-A affiliate of the Yankees. During the 19th century, Philadelphia was home to numerous franchises that played in various leagues that did not last into the 20th century. Many of these leagues are considered to be "major leagues" by baseball historians and record keepers. Three different franchises, none directly related to each other or the current Oakland Athletics franchise, played in Philadelphia during the 19th century. The original Philadelphia Athletics (also known as Athletic of Philadelphia) were formed in 1860, and played in the National Association and the National League. Another Athletics franchise played in the American Association from 1882–1890, while a third Athletics franchise (also known as the Quakers) played one season in the Players' League and one season in the American Association. The Philadelphia White Stockings and the Philadelphia Centennials played in the National Association during the 1870s. Joe Borden of the White Stockings pitched the first no-hitter in professional history. The Philadelphia Keystones and the Wilmington Quicksteps both played parts of the Union Association's lone season in 1884. Before the integration of Major League Baseball following World War II, Philadelphia was the home of numerous Negro League teams. The Philadelphia Pythians played from 1867–1887, and were one of the top early black baseball clubs. Shortly after the end of the Civil War, the Pythians tried to join the National League but were denied membership. The Philadelphia Giants were a Negro League team that played from 1902–1911. The Hilldale Club played as an independent and in several leagues from 1910–1932. Hilldale won the Negro World Series in 1925. The Philadelphia Tigers played in the Eastern Colored League in 1928. Two franchises played in the second incarnation of the Negro National League: the Philadelphia Stars played from 1934 to 1948, while the Bacharach Giants played in the league in 1934. The Stars won the Negro League National Championship in 1934. Both of the Flyers's minor league affiliates play in Eastern Pennsylvania. The Lehigh Valley Phantoms are the top minor league affiliate of the Flyers. The Phantoms have played in Allentown, Pennsylvania since 2014. From 1996 to 2009, the Phantoms played in the Spectrum and were known as the Philadelphia Phantoms. The franchise won the Calder Cup in 1998 and 2005. The Reading Royals are the ECHL affiliate of the Philadelphia Flyers. The franchise was founded in 1991 as the Columbus Chill, but moved to Reading in 2001. The Royals won the league championship for the first time in 2013. The Flyers have had other affiliates in Eastern Pennsylvania and New Jersey. The Trenton Titans of Trenton, New Jersey played in the ECHL from 1999–2013, and served as the affiliate of the Flyers before they were bought by the New Jersey Devils. The Hershey Bears of Hershey, Pennsylvania are the oldest continuously- operating professional hockey franchise outside of the NHL's Original Six. The Bears served as the AHL affiliate of the Flyers for parts of the 1980s and 1990s. Philadelphia has had several minor league hockey teams play in the city and the surrounding area. The Philadelphia Arrows were the first hockey franchise in city history, playing in the Canadian-American Hockey League from 1927–1935. The franchise changed its name to the Philadelphia Ramblers before the 1935–36 season and joined the American Hockey League, where it won the 1936 league championship (the year before the league introduced the Calder Cup). The team acted as the primary affiliate of the New York Rangers from 1935–1941. The Philadelphia Falcons played in the Eastern Hockey League from 1942–1946, before jumping to the American Hockey League and playing as the Philadelphia Rockets from 1946–1949. Another franchise named the Ramblers played in the EHL from 1955–1964; the Ramblers moved to Cherry Hill, New Jersey and played as the Jersey Devils from 1964–1973. A previous EHL Cherry Hill team named the Jersey Larks had played one season in 1960–1961. The Philadelphia Firebirds were a minor-league hockey team that played in the Philadelphia Civic Center from 1974–1979. They played in the North American Hockey League from 1974–1977, winning the league championship in 1976. When the NAHL folded in 1977, they joined the American Hockey League. The team moved to Syracuse in 1979, but folded in 1980. Another short-lived team which played in the Centrum (the renamed Cherry Hill Arena) was the Jersey Aces, which started the 1979-80 Northeastern Hockey League season in Cherry Hill but moved mid-season, playing the final 18 games of its season in Hampton, VA where it continued operating until 1981. The Delaware Blue Coats are the NBA G League affiliate of the Philadelphia 76ers. Since the 2018–19 season, the franchise has played at the 76ers Fieldhouse in Wilmington, Delaware. The Blue Coats franchise is named in honor of the 198th Signal Battalion, which fought in the American Revolutionary War. The Blue Coats were founded as the Utah Flash in 2007, but the Flash suspended operations in 2011. The Sixers acquired the franchise in 2013 and renamed it as the Delaware 87ers; the team assumed its current name upon its move to Wilmington. Between 2013 and 2018, the 87ers played in Newark, Delaware. NBA players such as Kendall Marshall, Sean Kilpatrick, and Jordan McRae have played for the Blue Coats or the 87ers. The Philadelphia area had three teams that played in the American Basketball League; the league was the product of an early attempt at forming a top-level national professional basketball league. The Philadelphia Warriors played in the ABL in the 1920s. The Philadelphia Sphas played from 1917–1949, winning seven ABL championships. With the rise of the NBA, the ABL ceased to be a major league, and the Sphas became the touring opponent of the Harlem Globetrotters. The Sphas were renamed the Washington Generals in 1952. Wilmington also had a team in the ABL: the Wilmington Bombers played in the league in the 1940s. The Philadelphia area has hosted numerous other defunct basketball teams. Two franchises named the Bullets played in Camden and Cherry Hill in the 1960s and 1970s. The Philadelphia Kings played in the Continental Basketball Association in the league's 1980–1981 season. The Philadelphia Aces played in the United States Basketball League from 1987–1990. The Philadelphia Spirit played in the United States Basketball League from 1991–1992. The Philadelphia Rage moved from Richmond, Virginia in 1997 and played a year and a half in the American Basketball League before the league folded during the 1998 season. The Philadelphia Fusion, formerly the Jersey Squires, was an American Basketball Association team that folded in February 2005. Philadelphia has been the home of numerous defunct professional soccer teams. The Philadelphia Phillies and other baseball clubs established the American League of Professional Football, the first professional soccer league in the United States. The league only played for one season in 1894. Arthur Irwin, the manager of the Phillies baseball team, served as the league president. Other early Philadelphia-area soccer clubs include Philadelphia Hibernian, Centennial F.C., Philadelphia Merchant Ship, Disston A.A., Victor F.C.. Numerous teams competed in the defunct second American Soccer League, including the Philadelphia Ukrainians, Uhrik Truckers, Philadelphia Nationals and the Philadelphia Spartans. The Philadelphia Ukrainians won the US Open Cup four times, while the Uhrik Truckers won the trophy once. Walter Bahr, a Philadelphia native and the captain of the 1950 U.S. national team that defeated England, played for the Ukrainians and the Nationals. The Philadelphia Fever were an indoor team that played in the original Major Indoor Soccer League from 1978 to 1982. The Philadelphia KiXX were an indoor team that played from 1995–2010 in the National Indoor Soccer League and the Major Indoor Soccer League. The KiXX won the championship in 2002 and 2007, but disbanded in 2010. Philadelphia has also been home to defunct women's soccer teams. Philadelphia has had two defunct women's teams that played at the top level of the United States soccer pyramid. The Philadelphia Charge played in the Women's United Soccer Association from 2000–2003, while the Philadelphia Independence played the 2010 and 2011 seasons in Women's Professional Soccer, reaching (and losing in) the championship game each year before the league folded in 2012. Philadelphia has not yet had a team play in the National Women's Soccer League, which is currently the top women's league in the United States. Philadelphia hosts a professional National Lacrosse League (NLL) franchise, the Philadelphia Wings. The Wings take their name from another NLL franchise that previously played in the area. The Wings will play at the Wells Fargo Center. The original Philadelphia Wings won the NLL title six times, in 1989, 1990, 1994, 1995, 1998, and 2001. They were the longest-tenured team in one location in the NLL, but relocated after the 2014 season to become the New England Black Wolves. Another lacrosse franchise, the Philadelphia Barrage, played in the Major League Lacrosse from 2004–2008. The team won the league championship in three out of the five years they played in Philadelphia, but the franchise folded after the 2008 season. In 2017, Blizzard Entertainment announced their professional eSports league for their game Overwatch, the Overwatch League (OWL). Philadelphia is home to one of the league's teams, the Philadelphia Fusion. The Overwatch League differs from traditional eSports, with a set of permanent teams and regular season play, compared to the use of promotion and relegation commonly used in other eSports leagues. The city of Philadelphia is the home of nine NCAA schools. Drexel University, La Salle University, the University of Pennsylvania, Saint Joseph's University, and Temple University are NCAA Division I schools. Four schools, Chestnut Hill College, Holy Family University, Jefferson, and the University of the Sciences in Philadelphia, compete in NCAA Division II. Other schools in the Delaware Valley CSA are also NCAA members, including Division I schools Villanova University, Delaware State University, and the University of Delaware. The following table shows all NCAA Division I schools in the Delaware Valley and all NCAA schools in Philadelphia. The Army-Navy football game — an annual college football game between the rival service academies, the United States Military Academy (West Point) and the United States Naval Academy (Annapolis) — has been held more often in Philadelphia (which is located approximately midway between the two schools) than in all other locations put together. Eleven of the past fifteen Army–Navy Games have been held in Philadelphia. Temple University, which began playing football in 1894, fields the only Division I FBS football team in the Delaware Valley. Temple, one of many schools that switched conferences in the early 2010s, joined the Big East Conference in 2012; when the Big East split a year later, Temple moved its entire athletic program to the Big East's football- sponsoring successor, the American Athletic Conference. Although Temple is the lone FBS school in the region, the Pennsylvania State University Nittany Lions are the most popular college football team in Philadelphia and the Delaware Valley. Penn State is a member of the Big Ten, one of the "Power Five conferences" in college football. The school began playing football in 1887, and has won two consensus national championships. Many fans in the Philadelphia area also root for the Atlantic Coast Conference-affiliated University of Notre Dame Fighting Irish or the Big Ten-affiliated Rutgers Scarlet Knights. The University of Pennsylvania, Delaware State University, Villanova University, and the University of Delaware all field Division I FCS football teams; Penn plays in the Ivy League, Delaware State plays in the Mid- Eastern Athletic Conference, and Delaware and Villanova (for football only) are members of the Colonial Athletic Association. The Penn Quakers first played in 1876, and share a claim to six national championships. Villanova, which began playing football in 1894, won the 2009 FCS national championship. Delaware's football team began playing in 1889; the school won the 2003 FCS championship. Delaware State began playing football in 1924, and the school lays claim to the 2007 black college football national championship. Delaware and Villanova have played each other every year since 1988 in the Battle of the Blue, while Delaware and Delaware State have played every year since 2011 in the Route 1 Rivalry. St. Joseph's, Drexel, and most recently La Salle have all discontinued their football programs. Philadelphia also formerly had a bowl game: from 1959–1963, the city hosted the Liberty Bowl, the only cold- weather bowl game of its time. The bowl game moved to Memphis, Tennessee in 1965. Philadelphia enjoys a unique basketball rivalry among the Big 5, a group of five local Division I universities: Temple, Saint Joseph's, Penn, Villanova, and La Salle. The Big 5 teams have played many of their games at the Palestra, Penn's venerable gymnasium. The Big 5 rivalry is unique because each of the schools has a rich basketball history and each school is located within a fifteen-mile radius of all of the others. Each of the Big 5 schools has made at least one appearance in the NCAA Final Four, and two have won national titles—La Salle in 1954 and Villanova in 1985, 2016, and 2018. Villanova's victory over Georgetown in the 1985 championship game is widely considered one of the greatest upsets in NCAA basketball history. Temple, Penn, Villanova, and Saint Joseph's all rank among the top 50 Division I teams in number of games won. Three Big 5 players have won the Naismith College Player of the Year award: Lionel Simmons of La Salle in 1990, Jameer Nelson of St. Joseph's in 2004, and Jalen Brunson of Villanova in 2018. Saint Joseph's and La Salle compete in the Atlantic 10, while Penn and Villanova are perennial powers in the Ivy League and the Big East. Temple joined the American Athletic Conference in all sports when the original Big East split into two leagues in 2013 (it had joined Big East football a year earlier). Prior to the Big East split, Temple had been a member of the Atlantic 10, and it still holds the most A-10 Basketball Tournament championships. Drexel joined Division I in 1973 and makes up the City 6 in extramurals with the Big 5, and has its own basketball rivalry with Penn, known as the Battle of 33rd Street. The Drexel–Penn rivalry is geographically the closest in NCAA Division I; the two schools' campuses adjoin one another, and their basketball arenas are three blocks apart. Drexel has never made the Final Four, but did reach the second round of the 1996 tournament. Delaware has made five NCAA tournament appearances, reaching the second round in 2014. Delaware State has reached the NCAA tournament once, losing in the first round in 2005. Delaware and Drexel both play in the CAA, while Delaware State plays in the MEAC. Four Philadelphia schools field Division II teams: Chestnut Hill College, Holy Family University, Jefferson (Philadelphia University + Thomas Jefferson University), and the University of the Sciences. In 1939, Philadelphia hosted the first game of the first NCAA tournament. Philadelphia also hosted the Final Four in 1976 and 1981. Women's basketball is another popular college sport in Philadelphia. St. Joseph's, Villanova, and Temple have all appeared at least ten times in the NCAA Women's Division I Basketball Championship tournament, while La Salle, Penn, Drexel, Delaware, and Delaware State have all appeared in at least one tournament. Villanova has advanced further than any other area school, making the Elite Eight in 2003. Immaculata University, a small Catholic school in the Philadelphia suburbs, won the first three AIAW Women's Basketball Tournaments. The three championship teams were collectively inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame in 2014. One of the players on the Immaculata team, Theresa Grentz, served as head coach of the United States women's national basketball team. Philadelphia has several rugby teams in professional leagues. The Philadelphia Whitemarsh RFC, a rugby union team, was founded in 1985, the Philadelphia Fight, a semi-professional rugby league football team, was founded in 1998, and the Northeast Philadelphia Irish, a team within the Eastern Pennsylvania Rugby Union, was founded in 2011 and has both men and women clubs. Numerous colleges in the area also offer club rugby teams, with most area teams competing as part of the Eastern Pennsylvania Rugby Union. The Collegiate Rugby Championship (CRC), is a college rugby sevens tournament held every June at Talen Energy Stadium near Philadelphia. The CRC is the highest profile college rugby competition in the United States, with the tournament broadcast live on NBC every year. The Collegiate Rugby Championship has succeeded in drawing media attention, corporate sponsorships and attendance. Rowing has been popular in Philadelphia since the 18th century. Boathouse Row is a symbol of Philadelphia's rich rowing history, and each Big Five member has its own boathouse. Philadelphia hosts numerous local and collegiate rowing clubs and competitions, including the annual Dad Vail Regatta, the largest intercollegiate rowing event in the U.S., the Stotesbury Cup Regatta, and the Head of the Schuylkill Regatta, all of which are held on the Schuylkill River. The regattas are hosted and organized by the Schuylkill Navy, an association of area rowing clubs that has produced numerous Olympic rowers. In addition to basketball, football, and rowing, schools in the Philadelphia area offer other varsity sports. Temple, for example, fields varsity teams in lacrosse, soccer, volleyball, and several other sports. In 1905, Haverford College played in the first modern intercollegiate soccer match. Penn's fencing team has won three national championships. The schools also offer intramural sports. Rugby league is an increasingly popular sport in the Philadelphia area. The Philadelphia Fight play in the USA Rugby League. The club has won three USARL championships. The Aston Bulls, Bucks County Sharks, and Delaware Valley Mantarays played in the AMNRL before the league folded in 2013. The Sharks joined the Fight in USARL upon the folding of AMNRL. In 2015, Delaware Black Foxes joined USARL as an expansion team. Aston, Pennsylvania is considered as the birthplace of rugby league in America. Rugby union is also an increasingly popular sport in the Philadelphia area. Schuylkill River Exiles Rugby Football Club are a Division 1 men's rugby club based in Philadelphia. The team plays matches on public fields in Fairmount Park, and are members of USA Rugby and the Mid-Atlantic Rugby Football Union. The club was founded in 1995. Media Rugby Football Club is a Division 1 rugby club that was founded in 1978. Media Rugby is a member of USA Rugby and the Mid-Atlantic Rugby Football Union. The Philadelphia Whitemarsh RFC is a division 3 rugby union team in Philadelphia. The team was formed in 1985 after the merging of the Philadelphia and Whitemarsh clubs. The Hibernian RFC formed in 1976 by former Blackthorn RFC players right outside of Philadelphia, in Bucks County. The Northeast Philadelphia Rugby team, also known as the Irish, is a division 3 team in Philadelphia that was formed in 2011. There are several women's rugby union teams in Philadelphia and the surrounding suburbs. Philadelphia Women's Rugby and Keystone Women's Rugby (in King of Prussia) compete in USA Rugby Division I. Brandywine Women's Rugby (in West Chester) and Doylestown Women's Rugby compete in Division II. Northeast Philadelphia Women's Rugby, associated with the Fish, joined the EPRU in 2011. Cricket has a long history of play in Philadelphia, and Philadelphia was one of the last bastions of cricket in the United States. Philadelphia was the center of the "golden age" of American cricket in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The Philadelphian cricket team represented Philadelphia in first class cricket from 1878–1913, and played against some of the top teams in the world. Players on the team include George Patterson, John Lester, and Bart King, perhaps the greatest American cricket player. The Philadelphia Cricket Club was founded in 1854. Greats such as Bart King, Percy Clark, and Christie Morris played for the team in its prime. Though it was disbanded in 1924, it was revived in 1998. Other cricket clubs in Germantown, Merion, Belmont flourished during the late 19th and early 20th century. Since 1993, the city has been home to the annual Philadelphia International Cricket Festival, held during the first weekend in May, benefiting the Inglis Foundation. Each year, twelve teams, including five from the area and seven from across the United States or guest international sides, are invited to participate in the festival. The Philadelphia area has a long history of successful amateur soccer teams. The National Amateur Cup has been won several times by Philadelphia teams; winners include Fleisher Yarn, Philadelphia German-Americans, Philadelphia Inter, and Philadelphia United German-Hungarians. The latter club helped found the United Soccer League of Pennsylvania. The Lighthouse Boys Club is a successful club whose history stretches back to the 19th century. Junior Lone Star FC is an amateur soccer team that plays in the National Premier Soccer League. The club is based in Southwest Philadelphia, and was founded in 2001 by West African immigrants, mainly from Liberia. Buxmont Torch FC of Perkasie, Pennsylvania also plays in the NPSL. Reading United A.C., founded in 1996, plays in the Premier Development League. The club has served as an affiliate of the Union since 2009. The Ocean City Nor'easters, founded in 1996, also play in the Premier Development League. The Philadelphia Fever and Philadelphia Liberty FC play in the Women's Premier Soccer League. There are a number of Junior hockey teams in the area. The Flyers sponsor three teams: the Philadelphia Flyers Junior Hockey Club, Philadelphia Little Flyers, and Philadelphia Junior Flyers. The Philadelphia Revolution also play in the area. The Philadelphia Flyers Junior Hockey Club plays in the USPHL, while the other teams play in the EHL. Penn Jersey Roller Derby is a Philadelphia-based co-ed roller derby league, founded in 2005. They were one of the founding leagues of the Old School Derby Association. The Philly Rollergirls are another Philadelphia-based women's roller derby league, founded in 2005. The Philly Rollergirls are a member of the Women's Flat Track Derby Association, and have been host to the WFTDA East Coast Derby Extravaganza tournament since 2007. The Diamond State Roller Girls is a roller derby league based in Wilmington, Delaware. The Professional Inline Hockey Association has had several franchises in Philadelphia and the surrounding area, including the Philadelphia Growl. The Philadelphia Phoenix play ultimate in the American Ultimate Disc League, while the Philadelphia Spinners are a Major League Ultimate franchise. The Philadelphia Justice are a professional dodgeball team that has played in the National Dodgeball League since 2011. The United States Australian Football League is represented by the Philadelphia Hawks, since 1998. Due to a long history of Irish immigration, the Philadelphia area has hosted Gaelic games for over a hundred years. The Philadelphia Division GAA Board is the governing body of Gaelic games in Philadelphia. Eddie Alvarez is the former Lightweight Champion of both the UFC and Bellator MMA. Philadelphia's Franklin Field hosts the annual Penn Relays, the largest early- season track and field meet in the United States. One of the busiest streets in the city, Broad Street, is closed to traffic for the annual Broad Street Run, a 10-mile race contested since 1980. The Philadelphia Marathon, founded in 1954, is an annual marathon held on the third Sunday of November. The city also hosts the Philadelphia Distance Run. Philadelphia has also hosted several one-off events or events without a fixed venue, including UFC 101 and UFC 133. The Wells Fargo Center, Liacouras Center, The Borgata, and other venues in the area host various events. 2300 Arena hosts boxing, mixed martial arts, and professional wrestling events. Philadelphia has a rich history in boxing, with the sport having gained popularity in the 1850s. The 2300 Arena is a prominent venue, and was named 2006 Venue of the Year by ESPN2 boxing program Wednesday Night Fights. The Blue Horizon was also a popular venue before it closed in 2010. Philadelphia has been the home of several prominent boxers. Though born in Beaufort, South Carolina, former world heavyweight champion and Olympic gold medalist Joe Frazier lived in Philadelphia. Frazier owned and managed a Philadelphia boxing gym before his death in 2011. Philadelphia native Bernard Hopkins is a former world middleweight and light-heavyweight champion. Hopkins is perhaps best known for his incredible longevity, as he has remained active in the light heavyweight division well past his 40th birthday. Other prominent boxers from the Philadelphia area include Danny García, Bryant Jennings, Jesse Hart, Tyrell Biggs, Tommy Loughran, Jimmy Young, Randall "Tex" Cobb, Meldrick Taylor, Tyrone Crawley, Steve Cunningham, Buster Drayton, Joey Giardello, Eric Harding, Matthew Saad Muhammad, Harold Johnson, and David Reid. Muhammad Ali and Sonny Liston also lived in Philadelphia during their boxing careers. Philadelphia does not currently host any professional automobile racing, but Philadelphia is in close proximity to Dover International Speedway and Pocono Raceway. Defunct racing facilities in the area include Trenton Speedway, Langhorne Speedway, Nazareth Speedway, and Flemington Speedway. Midget car racing was popular during the 1930s and 1940s; the two major tracks were Yellow Jacket Speedway, which closed in 1950, and National Speedway, which closed during World War II as a result of fuel rationing. Races were sanctioned by the American Automobile Association. In 2005, the Champ Car World Series negotiated with the city to organize a race, but no agreement was reached. Philadelphia has produced multiple winners of the Indianapolis 500, including Pete DePaolo, Kelly Petillo, and Bill Holland. Other notable drivers from Philadelphia include Skip Barber, Al Holbert, Spencer Wishart, and Kirk Shelmerdine. Mario Andretti and other members of the Andretti family live in nearby Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. Horse racing became popular in Philadelphia in the mid-1700s, and successful horses continue to be bred in the Philadelphia area. William Penn, the founder of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania, reportedly raced his horses down the streets of Philadelphia. Man o' War, owned by Philadelphia-area businessman Samuel D. Riddle was named the horse of the century by The Blood-Horse magazine. Riddle also owned Triple Crown-winning horse War Admiral. In 2004, Smarty Jones, who was bred in the Philadelphia area, won the Kentucky Derby and the Preakness Stakes. Other horses with ties to the area include Afleet Alex, Barbaro, Hard Spun, and Lil E. Tee. Parx Casino and Racing hosts numerous horse races, including the Pennsylvania Derby, the Cotillion Handicap, and the Greenwood Cup Stakes. The Atlantic City Race Course also hosts horse racing. The Manayunk area of the city is home to the annual Philadelphia International Championship bike race. The main feature of the race is the "Manayunk Wall", an inclined street including all of Levering Avenue and a few blocks of Lyceum Avenue. The race may have helped promote a local economic revival, and cycling is a prominent theme of many of the shops and restaurants in the area. The women's Liberty Classic is held at the same time and over the same course. Golf has a long history in Philadelphia; the Golf Association of Philadelphia is the oldest regional golf association in the United States. Aronimink Golf Club in Newtown Square, Pennsylvania has hosted several PGA and USGA events, including the 1962 PGA Championship and the 2010 and 2011 AT&T; National. Merion Golf Club has hosted five U.S. Opens, most recently in 2013. The Philadelphia PGA Championship and the Philadelphia Open Championship are both hosted in the Philadelphia area. Golfers from the Philadelphia area include Jim Furyk, Dorothy Germain Porter, Jay Sigel, and John McDermott. Tennis is also a popular sport in Philadelphia. The Philadelphia Freedoms have been a member of World TeamTennis since 2001. The Advanta Championships of Philadelphia were held in Philadelphia from 1971–2005, while the Pennsylvania Lawn Tennis Championship was held in Haverford from 1894–1974; it was briefly part of the Grand Prix tennis circuit. Tennis players from the Philadelphia area include Dick Williams, Bill Tilden, Ora Washington, and Vic Seixas. Tilden was the first American to win The Championships, Wimbledon and was one of the most prominent sports figures of the first half of the 20th century. Willie Mosconi, a Philadelphia native, won the World Straight Pool Championship fifteen consecutive times. Mosconi is considered one of the greatest pool players in the history of the game. The Philadelphia Skating Club and Humane Society is the oldest figure skating club in the United States, and was one of the clubs that founded U.S. Figure Skating. Philadelphia bid to host the 1920, 1948, 1952 and 1956 Summer Olympics but lost to Antwerp, London, Helsinki, and Melbourne respectively. As part of the 1980 Summer Olympics boycott, Philadelphia hosted the Liberty Bell Classic. Philadelphia has expressed interest in hosting other Olympic Games, including the 2024 Summer Olympics. Many Philadelphians have competed in the Olympics. Many high school teams play in the Inter-Academic League, the Philadelphia Catholic League, and the Philadelphia Public League. In 2005, the Philadelphia Public League joined the Pennsylvania Interscholastic Athletic Association. In 2014, Mo'ne Davis was named the Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year for her performance in the 2014 Little League World Series as a member of the Taney Dragons. Numerous notable athletes were born, raised, or attended college in Philadelphia and the Delaware Valley. Basketball players from Philadelphia and the surrounding area include Dawn Staley, Debbie Black, Geoff Petrie, Kobe Bryant, Earl Monroe, Rasheed Wallace, Richard Hamilton, Kyle Lowry, and Elena Delle Donne. Football players from Philadelphia include Herb Adderley, Emlen Tunnell, John Cappelletti, Leroy Kelly, Marvin Harrison, Joe Klecko, Joe Flacco, Matt Ryan, Rich Gannon, and Eddie George. Baseball players from Philadelphia include Mike Trout, Goose Goslin, Roy Campanella, Mickey Vernon, Reggie Jackson, Fred Dunlap, Gertrude Dunn, and Mike Piazza. Hockey players from Philadelphia include Hobey Baker and Mike Richter. Soccer players from Philadelphia include Carli Lloyd, Bobby Convey, and Walter Bahr. Athletes from Philadelphia who played for professional Philadelphia teams include Wilt Chamberlain, Paul Arizin, Tom Gola, Guy Rodgers, Del Ennis, Bucko Kilroy, Johnny Callison, Herb Pennock, and Bucky Walters. Notable coaches from Philadelphia include Dodgers manager Tommy Lasorda, Yankees manager Joe McCarthy, long-time NBA coach Jack Ramsay, Connecticut women's basketball coach Geno Auriemma, Jefferson basketball coach Herb Magee, Mount St. Mary's coach Jim Phelan, La Salle basketball coach Speedy Morris, Wisconsin basketball coach Bo Ryan, and Temple basketball coach John Chaney. Olympians from the Philadelphia area include gymnast Mohini Bhardwaj, swimmers Maddy Crippen, Brendan Hansen, David Berkoff, Joe Verdeur, Carl Robie, Ellie Daniel, and John Macionis, track and field athletes Carl Lewis, John Taylor, Jean Shiley, Barney Berlinger, Mel Sheppard, Ted Meredith, Horace Ashenfelter, Leroy Burrell, Kim Gallagher, Bill Toomey, Jon Drummond, Ira Davis, Alvin Kraenzlein, and Mike Powell, rowers Paul Costello, John B. Kelly Sr., and John B. Kelly Jr., figure skater Tara Lipinski, diver Elizabeth Becker-Pinkston, and sailor Don Cohan. Other prominent Philadelphia sports figures include Flyers owner Ed Snider, Philadelphia Warriors owner Eddie Gottlieb, Sixers director of statistical information Harvey Pollack, Philadelphia Athletics owner Connie Mack, former NFL commissioner Bert Bell, former Phillies general manager Pat Gillick, former Phillies managers Larry Bowa, Charlie Manuel, and Dallas Green, former Flyers coach Fred Shero, former Sixers coaches Alex Hannum and Billy Cunningham, and former Eagles head coaches Andy Reid, Greasy Neale, and Dick Vermeil. Since 2004, many of the most accomplished Philadelphia athletes and sports figures have been inducted into the Philadelphia Sports Hall of Fame. As of 2013, Philadelphia has the fourth largest media market in the United States, with almost three million television homes. Comcast SportsNet Philadelphia is a cable television channel that covers Philadelphia and Delaware Valley sports. It carries most Sixers and Flyers games, along with numerous college sports events. Sister channel The Comcast Network carries games when more than one team is playing at the same time. Comcast Sportsnet also carries most Phillies games, although some are carried by WPHL-TV. All three teams occasionally appear on national television. The Eagles usually play on WTXF-TV Fox, although games can also appear on CBS, NBC, ESPN, and the NFL Network. Philadelphia also has the sports radio station WTEL, as well as numerous other sports radio broadcasts. Prominent members of the sports media (past and present) include Richie Ashburn (who also played for the Phillies), Gene Hart, Harry Kalas, Merrill Reese, Jayson Stark, Jack Whitaker, Bill Campbell, Ray Didinger, Phil Jasner, Bill Conlin, Michael Barkann, Angelo Cataldi, and Howard Eskin. The Philadelphia Sports Writers Association presents annual awards. Several films have depicted sports in Philadelphia. Most prominently, the Rocky film franchise follows the boxing career of Rocky Balboa. The film Invincible was based on Vince Papale's career as a player on the Philadelphia Eagles. The Garbage Picking Field Goal Kicking Philadelphia Phenomenon starred Tony Danza as the kicker of the Philadelphia Eagles. Broad Street Bullies is a documentary that chronicles the early history of the Philadelphia Flyers. The film Pride follows swim coach Jim Ellis in 1970s Philadelphia. The Mighty Macs depicts the 1970s Immaculata College women's basketball team. The main character of the film Silver Linings Playbook is an Eagles fan who closely follows the 2008 Eagles season throughout the film. Philadelphia Sports Hall of Fame Philadelphia Sports Hall of Fame Roll Call of Champions

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Thurston Howell III (mentioned in the opening credits as: "The Millionaire") is a character on the CBS television sitcom Gilligan's Island, which ran from 1964 to 1967, and later in syndication. Howell, portrayed by veteran character actor Jim Backus, is so wealthy that he took hundreds of thousands of dollars in cash and several changes of clothing with him for what was intended to be only a three-hour boat tour in Hawaii, one of the sillier premises of the show. Speaking with a Locust Valley lockjaw accent, Howell is a stereotypical member of the New England Yankee elite — a resident of Newport, Rhode Island, a graduate of Harvard University and a Republican. He is a member of the Newport Country Club, Oyster Bay Yacht Club, and the Union League Club where he has a "window seat". His wife, Lovey, portrayed by Natalie Schafer, is conscious of social strata, yet seems to be a good-hearted woman with a deep sense of noblesse oblige, allowing her to interact with the other passengers and crew, though they are all her social inferiors. One of the implied humorous points of the show is that Thurston continually fails to realize that all of the Howells' money is essentially useless to them on the island. On the other hand, the other castaways apparently tolerate the fact that he refuses to do any work. One exception is when an egocentric Hollywood producer (played by Phil Silvers) "visited" the island and the Howells had to wait on him as butler and maid in order to be rescued. One of the most unusual aspects of his character is that, even though he is married, he sleeps with a teddy bear that he calls "Teddy". The Howells, as was common practice on American sitcoms of the mid-1960s, slept in twin beds. Thurston Howell III was the basis of a character in the television sitcom Dusty's Trail which was based on Gilligan's Island. Though described as a cunning, ruthless businessman, whose nickname was "The wolf of Wall St.", he's shown to have some moral scruples-when a mad scientist lures the castaways to his private island and shows Mr. Howell technology he'd developed to switch peoples bodies, he then asks for Mr. Howells help in switching the bodies of world leaders with his personal minions to take over the world. Mr. Howell instead turns him down and tells his fellow castaways about the scientists intentions. Howell was included on Forbes Magazine's 2006 list of the 15 richest fictional characters. Just how much money he had was never specified, but he was shown as owning several large corporations. When asked what happened to him during the Great Depression, his wife says that he was a billionaire, lost most of his money and "became just a millionaire." Among his assets were a diamond mine, a coconut plantation, a railroad, an oil well, and in Colorado—which included all of downtown Denver—that he bequeathed to his fellow castaways in his will. He also owned the Hatchet-Cuckoo Oil Company in Dust Bowl, Oklahoma. He tried to shove this supposedly worthless oil company on Gilligan. When he hears that an imposter is going to sell off his companies for cash, he is so enraged that he tries to swim back to the mainland three times, intent on killing the man, only to be stopped by Gilligan, the Skipper and his wife. Backus reprised his role in the three spin-off movies of the original series, although in the last one, (The Harlem Globetrotters on Gilligan's Island) Backus's declining health only allowed him to make a three-minute appearance. Although the Howells never had any children in the original series, their son, Thurston Howell IV (portrayed by David Ruprecht), is introduced in that movie. The younger Howell's mannerisms are similar to those of his father. Mitt Romney was compared to Thurston Howell during the 2012 U.S. Presidential campaign. Eunice "Lovey" Howell (née Wentworth), referred to as "Mrs. Howell" by characters other than her husband, is a fictional character from the 1964 to 1967 television show Gilligan's Island. Played by Natalie Schafer, the character was a rich, spoiled socialite, married to Thurston Howell III. While Mr. Howell always called her "Lovey", the other castaways always called her "Mrs. Howell". There are only two times someone besides Thurston calls her Lovey: in the pilot, when the radio is announcing the missing people, the announcer says "Thurston Howell III and his wife, international hostess Lovey Howell"; and in the episode in which Gilligan thinks he wins the lottery and invites all the people into the Howells' club, The Professor greets Mr. and Mrs. Howell as Thurston and Lovey. In episode 31 of season 2, "Mr. and Mrs. ???", in which the Howells were having marital problems, she mentioned her maiden name was Wentworth. If "Lovey" is a nickname, her actual first name was never mentioned in the series itself or its unaired pilot episode. Trivia buffs are always getting annoyed when the writer of the show Sherwood Schwartz would throw out information on interview shows that were never mentioned in the series. Two prime examples were that Gilligan's first name being Willie and Lovey's first name being Eunice. Bob Denver, himself found that out during a Tonight Show interview almost twenty years later. Not much information was revealed about her life before being marooned with her fellow castaways, but she introduced herself in episode 6 of season 2 ("Quick Before It Sinks") as "Mrs. Thurston Howell III, from New York, Palm Beach and of course, Paris, mon cher". She also mentions in episode 17 of season 2: "You've Been Disconnected" that she spoke fluent French and Italian, hinting at a classical education. In episode 9 of season 3 ("Ring Around Gilligan"), Mr. Howell mentions her having studied at Vassar, saying "Mommy warned me about you Vassar girls and your long gym classes". During episode 4 of season 2: "Smile, You're on Mars Camera" Thurston Howell indicates that Lovey, or at least her family, had money of their own; Mr. Howell describes her as being an heiress who is "loaded". It is also revealed that Mrs. Howell's father gave them an oil company (apparently dry) in "Dustbowl, Oklahoma" as a wedding gift, which she claims he thought was a football stadium (episode 13 of season 1:"Three Million Dollars More or Less"). Two members of her family Mr. Howell cannot stand are her mother (Mr. Howell describes her as sounding like a screech owl and having fangs for teeth and claws for hands) and her brother. Lovey claims she was a member of the Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR) (episode 30 of season 2, "'V' for Vitamins"), to have been presented at the Court of St. James, and to have been selected the "Queen of the Prune-Bowl Parade" (episode 30 of season 3, "Gilligan, the Goddess"). A favorite movie star of hers is silent movie star Mary Pickford ("Castaways Pictures Presents") Although spoiled and preoccupied with social status, Mrs. Howell was also kind and genuinely cared about the well-being of her fellow castaways. She frequently served as something of a mother figure to the two younger female castaways, Ginger Grant and Mary Ann Summers, offering advice (though she sometimes also displays jealousy toward the two younger women). One of the Island "visitors" she can't stand is socialite Erika-Tiffany Smith (played by Zsa Zsa Gabor) because her name appears before the Howells in the "Social Register". She also claims to be close friends with "Grace and Prince Rainier" on several episodes. Several times she acted as a motherly figure to Gilligan, such as psychoanalyzing him, adopting him, and praising him for his accomplishments when no one else did. She plotted with her husband several times to steal/access/manipulate things from the other survivors. She once tried to get Gilligan and Mary Ann to wed, kept a gold mine secret from the rest of the group, divulged secrets about stolen jewelry from a parrot, schemed to convince a burnt-out artist to leave the island, and got through to an uncivilized jungle boy played by Kurt Russell. Although she gives the impression of being physically frail, in one episode ["The Big Gold Strike"] she actually resorts to physical manual labor in order to extract gold from a mine; in another ["Ring Around Gilligan"], under the influence of Mad Dr. Balinkoff's ring, she actually executes a judo flip on her husband! She adores dogs but is allergic to cats. It was once quoted by Thurston Howell himself that their brilliance together was exceeded only by their greed. They had also proven to have a house in each state and several staffs of servants, including an upstairs maid, a downstairs maid and a butler who served him breakfast in bed. Thurston once quoted that the neighborhood of one million dollars apiece was considered a slum area where they resided. Although the Howells were portrayed as childless in the original series, their son Thurston Howell IV (portrayed by David Ruprecht) was introduced in the reunion movie The Harlem Globetrotters on Gilligan's Island. The following lists the main and recurring characters of the American situation comedy Gilligan's Island, created and produced by Sherwood Schwartz. Gilligan (played by Bob Denver) - The title character of the sitcom. Gilligan is a crewman of the S. S. Minnow who worked for the Skipper. He is well-meaning but bumbling, and he always seems to inadvertently mess up the castaways' escape. He wears a red shirt, light blue pants, and a white sailor's hat., The Skipper (played by Alan Hale Jr.) - His real name is Jonas Grumby and he is the captain of the S. S. Minnow. He is quite portly, leading to numerous fat jokes from Gilligan. Such an instance is when the Professor and Gilligan are helping him into a wetsuit: the Skipper says that he just has big bones, to which Gilligan adds: "and they're covered in big meat." Whenever he gets frustrated with Gilligan, he swats him in the head with his hat., Thurston Howell III (played by Jim Backus) - Thurston is a millionaire used to luxurious living and never does any work on the island. The only exception is when the castaways believe that Mr. Howell is broke and make him work. He devises many get-rich-quick schemes on the island. Thurston was originally a multi-billionaire until the stock market crash rendered him a multi-millionaire., Mrs. Howell (played by Natalie Schafer) - Thurston's wife. She can be more spoiled than Mr. Howell at times, but is always the first to want to try something new. Mr. Howell always calls her "Lovey". Her maiden name is Wentworth., Ginger Grant (played by Tina Louise) - A movie star from Hollywood. Ginger usually tries to use tricks from the movies she starred in to solve problems causing other castaways to rescue her from any dangers that befall her. She helps Mary Ann with cooking and dishwashing., The Professor (played by Russell Johnson): His real name is Roy Hinkley and he was a high school teacher and scout master before being stranded on the island. He has numerous scientific degrees and uses his knowledge to build many things on the island out of available materials. He is the most well-educated of the group and always has a logical answer to everything (although not always correct)., Mary Ann Summers (played by Dawn Wells) - A farm girl from Winfield, Kansas. Not much is known about her before she gets to the island. She is portrayed as a typical "girl next door" and does most of the laundry and cooking with some help from Ginger. She is famous for her coconut cream pies which usually end up on Gilligan's face. She also appears to have a slight crush on Gilligan. Radio Announcer (voiced by Charles Maxwell) - An announcer on the radio that the castaways own. The castaways would listen to his plot-advancing radio bulletins in many episodes and always with perfect timing to hear the exact news they needed to know., Wrongway Feldman (played by Hans Conried) - A fighter pilot from World War I. He was stuck on the island when he tried to fly around the world in The Spirit of the Bronx. He leaves at the end of the episode, but returns later saying he will stay on the island. However, he leaves again but he crashes and never appears again. The castaways get a message from him saying he "crashed on a strange island" which appears to be Hawaii., Dr. Balinkoff (played by Vito Scotti) - A mad scientist who appears twice. For his first appearance, he takes the castaways to his secret lair on another island. In the end, the castaways escape. The second time, he uses mind-control rings to get the castaways to rob Fort Knox. He then flees when they attack him with coconuts and is never seen by them again. He owns a pet monkey named Igor., Japanese Sailor (played by Vito Scotti) - Appeared in two episodes. For his first appearance, he locks everybody on the island up except Gilligan and Skipper. In his second appearance, he appears in a flashback of events that never happened., The Gorilla (played by Janos Prohaska) - The only animal antagonist on the island, causes mayhem and mischief. In the episode "Diamonds Are an Ape's Best Friend", he kidnaps Mrs. Howell because her perfume acted as a pheromone. In the episode "Chain of Command", he disciplines Gilligan to be a better leader. In the episode "Forward March", he shells the castaways with hand grenades after finding WWII weapons in a cave. In the episode "Our Vines Have Tender Apes", the Gorilla is replaced by an Orangutan. In some episodes, there are different people who appear on Gilligan's Island that are either visitors or have been on the unexplored parts of the island. Wrongway Feldman (played by Hans Conried) - A famed aviator, missing for 23 years, has been living on the island., The Japanese Sailor (played by Vito Scotti) - A Japanese sailor who doesn't know World War II is over, arrives in his one-man submarine., Dr. Boris Balinkoff (played by Vito Scotti) - Dr. Balinkoff, an archetypal mad scientist with nefarious motives, twice visits the island., The Mosquitoes - A rock/pop group who came to the island to escape all their fans. They were annoyed into leaving by the castaways, who eventually got them to leave by the girls forming the musical group "The Honeybees". The Mosquitoes left, leaving behind one of their records, called "The Mosquitoes at Carnegie Hall". Their names are Bingo, Bango, Bongo, and Irving., Erika Tiffany-Smith (played by Zsa Zsa Gabor) - Appeared in the season two episode "Erika Tiffany-Smith to the Rescue". Erika is a rich socialite and is a rival to Mrs. Howell. However, Mr. Howell takes a liking to Erika when she lets word out that she wants to buy the island; and, as usual, Mr. Howell takes all money offers. Erika falls in love with the Professor, ignores Mary Ann's sweetness and the Skipper's advances of romance, and treats Gilligan (like everyone else) as a butler. Ginger adores Erika because of her owning several movie studios; however, Ginger doesn't appear on screen with Erika at all. Erika leaves claiming to return and rescue the castaways and buy the island. Like other visitors, she never returns. She has heard on the radio at the end of the episode saying she doesn't know the coordinates of the island., Harold Hecuba (played by Phil Silvers) - Season 3, episode 4 was "The Producer" (airdate October 3, 1966). Obnoxious, overbearing, and smarmy Hollywood producer Harold Hecuba crash-lands on the island. When Ginger's acting fails to impress him, the castaways attempt to woo Hecuba with their collective talent in hopes of enticing him to rescue them. They put on an original play: A musical version of Hamlet consisting of songs sung to the instrumental melodies of popular arias from the operas Carmen and The Tales of Hoffmann (on records owned by Mr. and Mrs. Howell which were inexplicably taken aboard the Minnow and managed to survive the shipwreck). However, true to form as both guest to the island and conniving producer stereotype, Harold Hecuba sneaks back alone to civilization in the night. The castaways soon hear of his new hit smasha musical version of Hamlet., Eva Grubb (Tina Louise) - A plain Jane double for Ginger arrives on the island and attempts to assume Ginger's identity in the episode "All About Eva"., Jungle Boy (played by Kurt Russell) - A "Jungle Boy" is found on the island in the first season episode "Gilligan Meets Jungle Boy"., Jackson Farrell (Larry Storch) - a bank robber on the lam plans to use the island as a hideout., Alexandre Gregor Dubov (Harold J. Stone) - The castaways discover a reclusive, eccentric painter living on the island., El Presidente Pancho Hernando Gonzales Enrico Rodriguez of Ecuarico (Nehemiah Persoff) - a Latin-American dictator is exiled on the island, foments a revolution and convinces Gilligan to become his puppet leader., Ivan and Igor (Vincent Beck, Danny Klega) - Two Russian Cosmonauts in their space capsule land on the island., Mr. Howell's double (Jim Backus) - A look-alike for Mr. Howell assumes his identity, and ends up on the island after falling off a boat., Ghost (Richard Kiel) - A Russian spy attempts to scare the castaways from the island., Gilligan's Double (Bob Denver) - A Soviet secret agent who is Gilligan's double, arrives on the island., Lord Beasley Waterford (John McGiver) - A British nobleman visits the island in search of a rare butterfly., Norbert Wiley (Don Rickles) A con man and kidnapper arrives on the island., George Barkley (Strother Martin) - A dishonest game show contestant needs to survive a week on the supposedly deserted island in order to win $10,000., Johnathan Kincaid (Rory Calhoun) - A famous big game hunter wanting a human trophy decides to hunt Gilligan., Duke Williams (played by Denny Miller) - A surfer rides a tsunami from Hawaii and ends up on the island., Tongo the Ape Man (Denny Miller) - An actor for a Tarzan type ape-man role arrives on the island.

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Korea is a region in East Asia consisting of the Korean Peninsula, Jeju Island, and several minor islands near the peninsula. Korea has been divided since 1948 between two distinct sovereign states, North Korea and South Korea. Korea is bordered by Russia to the northeast, China to the northwest, and neighbours Japan to the east via the Korea Strait and the Sea of Japan (East Sea). During the first half of the 1st millennium, Korea was divided between the three competing states of Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla, together known as the "Three Kingdoms of Korea". In the second half of the 1st millennium, Silla defeated and conquered Baekje and Goguryeo, leading to the "Unified Silla" period. Meanwhile, Balhae formed in the north, superseding former Goguryeo. Unified Silla eventually collapsed into three separate states due to civil war, ushering in the Later Three Kingdoms. Toward the end of the 1st millennium, Goguryeo was resurrected as Goryeo, which defeated the two other states and unified the Korean Peninsula as a single sovereign state. Around the same time, Balhae collapsed and its last crown prince fled south to Goryeo. Goryeo (also spelled as Koryŏ), whose name developed into the modern exonym "Korea", was a highly cultured state that created the world's first metal movable type in 1234. However, multiple incursions by the Mongol Empire during the 13th century greatly weakened the nation, which eventually agreed to become a vassal state after decades of fighting. Following military resistance under King Gongmin that ended Mongol political influence in Goryeo, severe political strife followed, and Goryeo eventually fell to a coup led by General Yi Seong-gye, who established Joseon in July 17, 1392. The first 200 years of the Joseon era were marked by relative peace. During this period, the Korean alphabet was created by Sejong the Great in the 15th century and there was increasing influence of Confucianism. During the later part of the dynasty, Korea's isolationist policy earned it the Western nickname of the "Hermit Kingdom". By the late 19th century, the country became the object of imperial design by the Empire of Japan. After the First Sino-Japanese War, despite the Korean Empire's effort to modernize, the country was annexed by Japan in 1910 and ruled by it until the end of World War II in August 1945. In 1945, the Soviet Union and the United States agreed on the surrender of Japanese forces in Korea in the aftermath of World War II, leaving Korea partitioned along the 38th parallel. The North was under Soviet occupation and the South under U.S. occupation. These circumstances soon became the basis for the division of Korea by the two superpowers, exacerbated by their inability to agree on the terms of Korean independence. The Communist-inspired government in the North received backing from the Soviet Union in opposition to the pro-Western government in the South, leading to Korea's division into two political entities: North Korea (officially the Democratic People's Republic of Korea), and South Korea (officially the Republic of Korea). Tensions between the two resulted in the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950. With involvement by foreign troops, the war ended in a stalemate in 1953, but without a formalized peace treaty. This status contributes to the high tensions that continue to divide the peninsula. Both governments of the two Koreas claim to be the sole legitimate government of the region. "Korea" is the modern spelling of "Corea", a name attested in English as early as 1614. Korea was transliterated as Cauli in The Travels of Marco Polo, of the Chinese ( Kawlej, Gāolì). This was the Hanja for the Korean kingdom of Goryeo (), which ruled most of the Korean peninsula during Marco Polo's time. Korea's introduction to the West resulted from trade and contact with merchants from Arabic lands, with some records dating back as far as the 9th century. Goryeo's name was a continuation of Goguryeo (Koguryŏ) the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, which was officially known as Goryeo beginning in the 5th century. The original name was a combination of the adjective go ("high, lofty") with the name of a local Yemaek tribe, whose original name is thought to have been either * "walled city," inferred from some toponyms in Chinese historical documents) or * "center"). With expanding British and American trade following the opening of Korea in the late 19th century, the spelling "Korea" appeared and gradually grew in popularity; its use in transcribing East Asian languages avoids the issues caused by the separate hard and soft Cs existing in English vocabulary derived from the Romance languages. The name Korea is now commonly used in English contexts by both North and South Korea. In South Korea, Korea as a whole is referred to as "country of the Han"). The name references Samhan, referring to the Three Kingdoms of Korea, not the ancient confederacies in the southern Korean Peninsula. Although written in Hanja as , , or , this Han has no relation to the Chinese place names or peoples who used those characters but was a or Gan) of a native Korean word that seems to have had the meaning "big" or "great", particularly in reference to leaders. It has been tentatively linked with the title khan used by the nomads of Manchuria and Central Asia. In North Korea, Japan, China and Vietnam, Korea as a whole is referred to as ), (Chōsen), (Cháoxiǎn/Jīusīn), () "[land of the] Morning Calm"). "Great Joseon" was the name of the kingdom ruled by the Joseon dynasty from 1393 until their declaration of the short-lived Great Korean Empire in 1897. King Taejo had named them for the earlier who ruled northern Korea from its legendary prehistory until their conquest in 108 by China's Han Empire. This go is the Hanja and simply means "ancient" or "old"; it is a modern usage to distinguish the ancient Joseon from the later dynasty. Joseon itself is the modern Korean pronunciation of but it is unclear whether this was a transcription of a native Korean name ( *T[r]awser, Trjewsjen) or a partial translation into Chinese of the Korean capital whose meaning has been reconstructed as "Morning Land" or "Mountain". The Korean Peninsula is a peninsula located in East Asia. It extends southwards for about from continental Asia into the Pacific Ocean and is surrounded by the Sea of Japan (East Sea) to the east and the Yellow Sea (West Sea) to the west, the Korea Strait connecting the two bodies of water. To the northwest, the Amnok River separates the peninsula from China and to the northeast, the Duman River separates it from China and Russia. Notable islands include Jeju Island, Ulleung Island, Dokdo. The southern and western parts of the peninsula have well-developed plains, while the eastern and northern parts are mountainous. The highest mountain in Korea is Mount Paektu (2,744 m), through which runs the border with China. The southern extension of Mount Paektu is a highland called Gaema Heights. This highland was mainly raised during the Cenozoic orogeny and partly covered by volcanic matter. To the south of Gaema Gowon, successive high mountains are located along the eastern coast of the peninsula. This mountain range is named Baekdudaegan. Some significant mountains include Mount Sobaek or Sobaeksan (1,439 m), Mount Kumgang (1,638 m), Mount Seorak (1,708 m), Mount Taebaek (1,567 m), and Mount Jiri (1,915 m). There are several lower, secondary mountain series whose direction is almost perpendicular to that of Baekdudaegan. They are developed along the tectonic line of Mesozoic orogeny and their directions are basically northwest. Unlike most ancient mountains on the mainland, many important islands in Korea were formed by volcanic activity in the Cenozoic orogeny. Jeju Island, situated off the southern coast, is a large volcanic island whose main mountain Mount Halla or Hallasan (1950 m) is the highest in South Korea. Ulleung Island is a volcanic island in the Sea of Japan, the composition of which is more felsic than Jeju-do. The volcanic islands tend to be younger, the more westward. Because the mountainous region is mostly on the eastern part of the peninsula, the main rivers tend to flow westwards. Two exceptions are the southward-flowing Nakdong River and Seomjin River. Important rivers running westward include the Amnok River, the Chongchon River, the Taedong River, the Han River, the Geum River, and the Yeongsan River. These rivers have vast flood plains and provide an ideal environment for wet-rice cultivation. The southern and southwestern coastlines of the peninsula form a well-developed ria coastline, known as Dadohae-jin in Korean. Its convoluted coastline provides mild seas, and the resulting calm environment allows for safe navigation, fishing, and seaweed farming. In addition to the complex coastline, the western coast of the Korean Peninsula has an extremely high tidal amplitude (at Incheon, around the middle of the western coast. It can get as high as 9 m). Vast tidal flats have been developing on the south and west coastlines. The Korean Peninsula has a temperate climate with comparatively fewer typhoons than other countries in East Asia. Due to the peninsula's position, it has a unique climate influenced from Siberia in the north, the Pacific Ocean in the east and the rest of Eurasia in the west. The peninsula has four distinct seasons: spring, summer, autumn and winter. As influence from Siberia weakens, temperatures begin to increase while the high pressure begins to move away. If the weather is abnormally dry, Siberia will have more influence on the peninsula leading to wintry weather such as snow. During June at the start of the summer, there tends to be a lot of rain due to the cold and wet air from the Sea of Okhotsk and the hot and humid air from the Pacific Ocean combining. When these fronts combine, it leads to a so- called rainy season with often cloudy days with rain, which is sometimes very heavy. The hot and humid winds from the south west blow causing an increasing amount of humidity and this leads to the fronts moving towards Manchuria in China and thus there is less rain and this is known as midsummer; temperatures can exceed daily at this time of year. Usually, high pressure is heavily dominant during autumn leading to clear conditions. Furthermore, temperatures remain high but the humidity becomes relatively low. The weather becomes increasingly dominated by Siberia during winter and the jet stream moves further south causing a drop in temperature. This season is relatively dry with some snow falling at times. Animal life of the Korean Peninsula includes a considerable number of bird species and native freshwater fish. Native or endemic species of the Korean Peninsula include Korean hare, Korean water deer, Korean field mouse, Korean brown frog, Korean pine and Korean spruce. The Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) with its forest and natural wetlands is a unique biodiversity spot, which harbours eighty-two endangered species. There are also approximately 3,034 species of vascular plants. The Korean Academy claimed ancient hominid fossils originating from about 100,000 in the lava at a stone city site in Korea. Fluorescent and high- magnetic analyses indicate the volcanic fossils may be from as early as 300,000 . The best preserved Korean pottery goes back to the paleolithic times around 10,000 and the Neolithic period begins around 6000 . According to legend, Dangun, a descendant of Heaven, established Gojoseon in 2333 . In 108 , the Han dynasty defeated Gojoseon and installed four commanderies in the northern Korean peninsula. Three of the commanderies fell or retreated westward within a few decades, but the Lelang Commandery remained as a center of cultural and economic exchange with successive Chinese dynasties for four centuries. By 313, Goguryeo annexed all of the Chinese commanderies. The Proto–Three Kingdoms period, sometimes called the Multiple States Period, is the earlier part of what is commonly called the Three Kingdoms Period, following the fall of Gojoseon but before Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla fully developed into kingdoms. This time period saw numerous states spring up from the former territories of Gojoseon, which encompassed northern Korea and southern Manchuria. With the fall of Gojoseon, southern Korea entered the Samhan period. Located in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula, Samhan refers to the three confederacies of Mahan, Jinhan, and Byeonhan. Mahan was the largest and consisted of 54 states. Byeonhan and Jinhan both consisted of twelve states, bringing a total of 78 states within the Samhan. These three confederacies eventually developed into Baekje, Silla, and Gaya. The Three Kingdoms of Korea consisted of Goguryeo, Silla, and Baekje. Silla and Baekje controlled the southern half of the Korean Peninsula, maintaining the former Samhan territories, while Goguryeo controlled the northern half of the Korean Peninsula, Manchuria and the Liaodong Peninsula, uniting Buyeo, Okjeo, Dongye, and other states in the former Gojoseon territories. Goguryeo was a highly militaristic state; it was a powerful empire and one of the great powers in East Asia, reaching its zenith in the 5th century when its territories expanded to encompass most of Manchuria to the north, parts of Inner Mongolia to the west, parts of Russia to the east, and the Seoul region to the south. Goguryeo experienced a golden age under Gwanggaeto the Great and his son Jangsu, who both subdued Baekje and Silla during their times, achieving a brief unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea and becoming the most dominant power on the Korean Peninsula. In addition to contesting for control of the Korean Peninsula, Goguryeo had many military conflicts with various Chinese dynasties, most notably the Goguryeo–Sui War, in which Goguryeo defeated a huge force said to number over a million men. In 642, the powerful general Yeon Gaesomun led a coup and gained complete control over Goguryeo. In response, Emperor Tang Taizong of China led a campaign against Goguryeo, but was defeated and retreated. After the death of Tang Taizong, his son Emperor Tang Gaozong allied with the Korean kingdom of Silla and invaded Goguryeo again, but was unable to overcome Goguryeo's stalwart defenses and was defeated in 662. However, Yeon Gaesomun died of a natural cause in 666 and Goguryeo was thrown into chaos and weakened by a succession struggle among his sons and younger brother, with his eldest son defecting to Tang and his younger brother defecting to Silla. The Tang-Silla alliance finally conquered Goguryeo in 668. After the collapse of Goguryeo, Tang and Silla ended their alliance and fought over control of the Korean Peninsula. Silla succeeded in gaining control over most of the Korean Peninsula, while Tang gained control over Goguryeo's northern territories. However, 30 years after the fall of Goguryeo, a Goguryeo general by the name of Dae Joyeong founded the Korean- Mohe state of Balhae and successfully expelled the Tang presence from much of the former Goguryeo territories. The southwestern Korean kingdom of Baekje was founded around modern-day Seoul by a Goguryeo prince, a son of the founder of Goguryeo. Baekje absorbed all of the Mahan states and subjugated most of the western Korean peninsula (including the modern provinces of Gyeonggi, Chungcheong, and Jeolla, as well as parts of Hwanghae and Gangwon) to a centralised government; during the expansion of its territory, Baekje acquired Chinese culture and technology through maritime contacts with the Southern Dynasties. Baekje was a great maritime power; its nautical skill, which made it the Phoenicia of East Asia, was instrumental in the dissemination of Buddhism throughout East Asia and continental culture to Japan. Historic evidence suggests that Japanese culture, art, and language were influenced by the kingdom of Baekje and Korea itself; Baekje also played an important role in transmitting advanced Chinese culture to the Japanese archipelago. Baekje was once a great military power on the Korean Peninsula, most notably in the 4th century during the rule of Geunchogo when its influence extended across the sea to Liaoxi and Shandong in China, taking advantage of the weakened state of Former Qin, and Kyushu in the Japanese archipelago; however, Baekje was critically defeated by Gwanggaeto the Great and declined. Although later records claim that Silla was the oldest of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, it is now believed to have been the last kingdom to develop. By the 2nd century, Silla existed as a large state in the southeast, occupying and influencing its neighboring city-states. In 562, Silla annexed the Gaya confederacy, which was located between Baekje and Silla. The Three Kingdoms of Korea often warred with each other and Silla was often dominated by Baekje and Goguryeo. Silla was the smallest and weakest of the three, but it used cunning diplomatic means to make opportunistic pacts and alliances with the more powerful Korean kingdoms, and eventually Tang China, to its great advantage. In 660, King Muyeol ordered his armies to attack Baekje. General Kim Yu-shin, aided by Tang forces, conquered Baekje after defeating General Gyebaek at the Battle of Hwangsanbeol. In 661, Silla and Tang attacked Goguryeo but were repelled. King Munmu, son of Muyeol and nephew of General Kim Yu-shin, launched another campaign in 667 and Goguryeo fell in the following year. Beginning in the 6th century, Silla's power gradually extended across the Korean Peninsula. Silla first annexed the adjacent Gaya confederacy in 562. By the 640s, Silla formed an alliance with the Tang dynasty of China to conquer Baekje and later Goguryeo. After conquering Baekje and Goguryeo, Silla repulsed Tang China from the Korean peninsula in 676. Even though Silla unified most of the Korean Peninsula, most of the Goguryeo territories to the north of the Korean Peninsula were ruled by Balhae. Former Goguryeo general or chief of Sumo Mohe Dae Jo-yeong led a group of Goguryeo and Mohe refugees to the Jilin and founded the kingdom of Balhae, 30 years after the collapse of Goguryeo, as the successor to Goguryeo. At its height, Balhae's territories extended from southern Manchuria down to the northern Korean peninsula. Balhae was called the "Prosperous Country in the East". Later Silla carried on the maritime prowess of Baekje, which acted like the Phoenicia of medieval East Asia, and during the 8th and 9th centuries dominated the seas of East Asia and the trade between China, Korea and Japan, most notably during the time of Jang Bogo; in addition, Silla people made overseas communities in China on the Shandong Peninsula and the mouth of the Yangtze River. Later Silla was a prosperous and wealthy country, and its metropolitan capital of Gyeongju was the fourth largest city in the world. Later Silla was a golden age of art and culture, as evidenced by the Hwangnyongsa, Seokguram, and Emille Bell. Buddhism flourished during this time, and many Korean Buddhists gained great fame among Chinese Buddhists and contributed to Chinese Buddhism, including: Woncheuk, Wonhyo, Uisang, Musang, and Kim Gyo-gak, a Silla prince whose influence made Mount Jiuhua one of the Four Sacred Mountains of Chinese Buddhism. Later Silla fell apart in the late 9th century, giving way to the tumultuous Later Three Kingdoms period (892–935), and Balhae was destroyed by the Khitans in 926. Goryeo unified the Later Three Kingdoms and received the last crown prince and much of the ruling class of Balhae, thus bringing about a unification of the two successor nations of Goguryeo. Goryeo was founded in 918 and replaced Silla as the ruling dynasty of Korea. Goryeo's land was at first what is now South Korea and about 1/3 of North Korea, but later on managed to recover most of the Korean peninsula. Momentarily, Goryeo advanced to parts of Jiandao while conquering the Jurchens, but returned the territories due to the harsh climate and difficulties in defending them. The name "Goryeo" (高麗) is a short form of "Goguryeo" (高句麗) and was first used during the time of King Jangsu. Goryeo regarded itself as the successor of Goguryeo, hence its name and efforts to recover the former territories of Goguryeo. Wang Geon, the founder of Goryeo, was of Goguryeo descent and traced his ancestry to a noble Goguryeo clan. He made Kaesong, his hometown, the capital. During this period, laws were codified and a civil service system was introduced. Buddhism flourished and spread throughout the peninsula. The development of celadon industries flourished in the 12th and 13th centuries. The publication of the Tripitaka Koreana onto more than 80,000 wooden blocks and the invention of the world's first metal movable type in the 13th century attest to Goryeo's cultural achievements. Goryeo had to defend frequently against attacks by nomadic empires, especially the Khitans and the Mongols. Goryeo had a hostile relationship with the Khitans, because the Khitan Empire had destroyed Balhae, also a successor state of Goguryeo. In 993, the Khitans, who had established the Liao dynasty in 907, invaded Goryeo, demanding that it make amity with them. Goryeo sent the diplomat Seo Hui to negotiate, who successfully persuaded the Khitans to let Goryeo expand to the banks of the Amnok River, citing that in the past the land belonged to Goguryeo, the predecessor of Goryeo. During the Goryeo–Khitan War, the Khitan Empire invaded Korea twice more in 1009 and 1018, but was defeated. After defeating the Khitan Empire, which was the most powerful empire of its time, Goryeo experienced a golden age that lasted a century, during which the Tripitaka Koreana was completed, and there were great developments in printing and publishing, promoting learning and dispersing knowledge on philosophy, literature, religion, and science; by 1100, there were 12 universities that produced famous scholars and scientists. Goryeo was invaded by the Mongols in seven major campaigns from the 1230s until the 1270s, but was never conquered. Exhausted after decades of fighting, Goryeo sent its crown prince to the Yuan capital to swear allegiance to the Mongols; Kublai Khan accepted, and married one of his daughters to the Korean crown prince, and the dynastic line of Goryeo continued to survive under the overlordship of the Mongol Yuan dynasty as a semi-autonomous vassal state and compulsory ally. The two nations became intertwined for 80 years as all subsequent Korean kings married Mongol princesses, and the last empress of the Yuan dynasty was a Korean princess. In the 1350s, King Gongmin was free at last to reform the Goryeo government when the Yuan dynasty began to crumble. Gongmin had various problems that needed to be dealt with, which included the removal of pro-Mongol aristocrats and military officials, the question of land holding, and quelling the growing animosity between the Buddhists and Confucian scholars. During this tumultuous period, Goryeo momentarily conquered Liaoyang in 1356, repulsed two large invasions by the Red Turbans in 1359 and 1360, and defeated the final attempt by the Yuan to dominate Goryeo when General Choe Yeong defeated a Mongol tumen in 1364. During the 1380s, Goryeo turned its attention to the Wokou threat and used naval artillery created by Choe Museon to annihilate hundreds of pirate ships. In 1392, the general Yi Seong-gye overthrew the Goryeo dynasty after he staged a coup and defeated General Choe Yeong. Yi Seong-gye named his new dynasty Joseon and moved the capital from Kaesong to Hanseong (formerly Hanyang; modern-day Seoul) and built the Gyeongbokgung palace. In 1394, he adopted Confucianism as the country's official ideology, resulting in much loss of power and wealth by the Buddhists. The prevailing philosophy of the Joseon dynasty was Neo-Confucianism, which was epitomized by the seonbi class, scholars who passed up positions of wealth and power to lead lives of study and integrity. Joseon was a nominal tributary state of China but exercised full sovereignty, and maintained the highest position among China's tributary states, which also included countries such as the Ryukyu Kingdom, Vietnam, Burma, Brunei, Laos, Thailand, and the Philippines, among others. In addition, Joseon received tribute from Jurchens and Japanese until the 17th century, and had a small enclave in the Ryukyu Kingdom that engaged in trade with Siam and Java. During the 15th and 16th centuries, Joseon enjoyed many benevolent rulers who promoted education and science. Most notable among them was Sejong the Great (r. 1418–50), who personally created and promulgated Hangul, the Korean alphabet. This golden age saw great cultural and scientific advancements, including in printing, meteorological observation, astronomy, calendar science, ceramics, military technology, geography, cartography, medicine, and agricultural technology, some of which were unrivaled elsewhere. Joseon implemented a class system that consisted of yangban the noble class, jungin the middle class, yangin the common class, and cheonin the lowest class, which included occupations such as butchers, tanners, shamans, entertainers, and nobi, the equivalent of slaves, bondservants, or serfs. In 1592 and again in 1597, the Japanese invaded Korea; the Korean military at the time was unprepared and untrained, due to two centuries of peace on the Korean Peninsula. Toyotomi Hideyoshi intended to conquer China and India through the Korean Peninsula, but was defeated by strong resistance from the Righteous Army, the naval superiority of Admiral Yi Sun-sin and his turtle ships, and assistance from Wanli Emperor of Ming China. However, Joseon experienced great destruction, including a tremendous loss of cultural sites such as temples and palaces to Japanese pillaging, and the Japanese brought back to Japan an estimated 100,000–200,000 noses cut from Korean victims. Less than 30 years after the Japanese invasions, the Manchus took advantage of Joseon's war- weakened state and invaded in 1627 and 1637, and then went on to conquer the destabilized Ming dynasty. After normalizing relations with the new Qing dynasty, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace. Kings Yeongjo and Jeongjo led a new renaissance of the Joseon dynasty during the 18th century. In the 19th century, the royal in-law families gained control of the government, leading to mass corruption and weakening of the state, with severe poverty and peasant rebellions spreading throughout the country. Furthermore, the Joseon government adopted a strict isolationist policy, earning the nickname "the hermit kingdom", but ultimately failed to protect itself against imperialism and was forced to open its borders, beginning an era leading into Japanese imperial rule. Beginning in 1871, Japan began to exert more influence in Korea, forcing it out of China's traditional sphere of influence. As a result of the Sino- Japanese War (1894–95), the Qing dynasty had to give up such a position according to Article 1 of the Treaty of Shimonoseki, which was concluded between China and Japan in 1895. That same year, Empress Myeongseong of Korea was assassinated by Japanese agents. In 1897, the Joseon dynasty proclaimed the Korean Empire (1897–1910). King Gojong became emperor. During this brief period, Korea had some success in modernizing the military, economy, real property laws, education system, and various industries. Russia, Japan, France, and the United States all invested in the country and sought to influence it politically. In 1904, the Russo-Japanese War pushed the Russians out of the fight for Korea. In Manchuria on 26 October 1909, An Jung-geun assassinated the former Resident-General of Korea, Itō Hirobumi, for his role in trying to force Korea into occupation. In 1910, an already militarily occupied Korea was a forced party to the Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty. The treaty was signed by Lee Wan-Yong, who was given the General Power of Attorney by the Emperor. However, the Emperor is said to have not actually ratified the treaty according to Yi Tae-jin. There is a long dispute whether this treaty was legal or illegal due to its signing under duress, threat of force and bribes. Korean resistance to the brutal Japanese occupation was manifested in the nonviolent March 1st Movement of 1919, during which 7,000 demonstrators were killed by Japanese police and military. The Korean liberation movement also spread to neighbouring Manchuria and Siberia. Over five million Koreans were conscripted for labour beginning in 1939, and tens of thousands of men were forced into Japan's military. Nearly 400,000 Korean labourers died. Approximately 200,000 girls and women, mostly from China and Korea, were forced into sexual slavery for the Japanese military. In 1993, Japanese Chief Cabinet Secretary Yohei Kono acknowledged the terrible injustices faced by these euphemistically named "comfort women". During the Japanese annexation, the Korean language was suppressed in an effort to eradicate Korean national identity. Koreans were forced to take Japanese surnames, known as Sōshi-kaimei. Traditional Korean culture suffered heavy losses, as numerous Korean cultural artifacts were destroyed or taken to Japan. To this day, valuable Korean artifacts can often be found in Japanese museums or among private collections. One investigation by the South Korean government identified 75,311 cultural assets that were taken from Korea, 34,369 in Japan and 17,803 in the United States. However, experts estimate that over 100,000 artifacts actually remain in Japan. Japanese officials considered returning Korean cultural properties, but to date this has not occurred. Korea and Japan still dispute the ownership of the Dokdo islets, located east of the Korean Peninsula. There was significant emigration to the overseas territories of the Empire of Japan during the Japanese occupation period, including Korea. By the end of World War II, there were over 850,000 Japanese settlers in Korea. After World War II, most of these overseas Japanese repatriated to Japan. In 1945, with the surrender of Japan, the United Nations developed plans for a trusteeship administration, the Soviet Union administering the peninsula north of the 38th parallel and the United States administering the south. The politics of the Cold War resulted in the 1948 establishment of two separate governments, North Korea and South Korea. The aftermath of World War II left Korea partitioned along the 38th parallel, with the north under Soviet occupation and the south under US occupation supported by other allied states. Consequently, North Korea, a Soviet-style socialist republic was established in the north and South Korea; a Western-style regime, was established in the South. North Korea is a one-party state, now centred on Kim Il-sung's Juche ideology, with a centrally planned industrial economy. South Korea is a multi- party state with a capitalist market economy, alongside membership in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the Group of Twenty. The two states have greatly diverged both culturally and economically since their partition, though they still share a common traditional culture and pre-Cold War history. Since the 1960s, the South Korean economy has grown enormously and the economic structure was radically transformed. In 1957, South Korea had a lower per capita GDP than Ghana, and by 2008 it was 17 times as high as Ghana's. According to R. J. Rummel, forced labor, executions, and concentration camps were responsible for over one million deaths in North Korea from 1948 to 1987; others have estimated 400,000 deaths in concentration camps alone. Estimates based on the most recent North Korean census suggest that 240,000 to 420,000 people died as a result of the 1990s famine and that there were 600,000 to 850,000 unnatural deaths in North Korea from 1993 to 2008. In South Korea, as guerrilla activities expanded, the South Korean government used strong measures against peasants, such as forcefully moving their families from guerrilla areas. According to one estimate, these measures resulted in 36,000 people killed, 11,000 people wounded, and 432,000 people displaced. The Korean War broke out when Soviet-backed North Korea invaded South Korea, though neither side gained much territory as a result. The Korean Peninsula remained divided, the Korean Demilitarized Zone being the de facto border between the two states. In June 1950 North Korea invaded the South, using Soviet tanks and weaponry. During the Korean War (1950–53) more than 1.2 million people died and the three years of fighting throughout the nation effectively destroyed most cities. The war ended in an at approximately the Military Demarcation Line, but the two governments are officially at war. In 2018, the leaders of North Korea and South Korea officially signed the Panmunjom Declaration, announcing that they will work to end the conflict. The name "Korea" is written as it started from 1897. The combined population of the Koreas is about 76 million (North Korea: 25 million, South Korea: 51 million). Korea is chiefly populated by a highly homogeneous ethnic group, the Koreans, who speak the Korean language. The number of foreigners living in Korea has also steadily increased since the late 20th century, particularly in South Korea, where more than 1 million foreigners reside. It was estimated in 2006 that only 26,700 of the old Chinese community now remain in South Korea. However, in recent years, immigration from mainland China has increased; 624,994 persons of Chinese nationality have immigrated to South Korea, including 443,566 of ethnic Korean descent. Small communities of ethnic Chinese and Japanese are also found in North Korea. Korean is the official language of both North and South Korea, and (along with Mandarin) of Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in the Manchuria area of China. Worldwide, there are up to 80 million speakers of the Korean language. South Korea has around 50 million speakers while North Korea around 25 million. Other large groups of Korean speakers through Korean diaspora are found in China, the United States, Japan, former Soviet Union and elsewhere. The classification of Korean is debated. Some linguists place it in the Altaic language family; others consider it to be a language isolate. Korean is agglutinative in its morphology and SOV in its syntax. Like Japanese and Vietnamese, Korean has borrowed much vocabulary from the Chinese or created vocabulary on Chinese models. Modern Korean is written almost exclusively in the script of the Korean alphabet (known as Hangul in South Korea and Chosungul in China and North Korea), which was invented in the 15th century. Korean is sometimes written with the addition of some Chinese characters called Hanja; however, this is only occasionally seen nowadays. While Hangul may appear logographic, it is actually a phonemic alphabet organised into syllabic blocks. Each block consists of at least two of the 24 hangul letters (jamo): at least one each of the 14 consonants and 10 vowels. Historically, the alphabet had several additional letters (see obsolete jamo). For a phonological description of the letters, see Korean phonology. In ancient Chinese texts, Korea is referred to as "Rivers and Mountains Embroidered on Silk" (, ) and "Eastern Nation of Decorum" (, ). Individuals are regarded as one year old when they are born, as Koreans reckon the pregnancy period as one year of life for infants, and age increments increase on New Year's Day rather than on the anniversary of birthdays. Thus, one born immediately before New Year's Day may only be a few days old in western reckoning, but two years old in Korea. Accordingly, a Korean person's stated age (at least among fellow Koreans) will be one or two years more than their age according to western reckoning. However, western reckoning is sometimes applied with regard to the concept of legal age; for example, the legal age for purchasing alcohol or cigarettes in the Republic of Korea is 19, which is measured according to western reckoning. Korean literature written before the end of the Joseon Dynasty is called "Classical" or "Traditional." Literature, written in Chinese characters (hanja), was established at the same time as the Chinese script arrived on the peninsula. Korean scholars were writing poetry in the classical Korean style as early as the 2nd century , reflecting Korean thoughts and experiences of that time. Classical Korean literature has its roots in traditional folk beliefs and folk tales of the peninsula, strongly influenced by Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. Modern literature is often linked with the development of hangul, which helped spread literacy from the aristocracy to the common people. Hangul, however, only reached a dominant position in Korean literature in the second half of the 19th century, resulting in a major growth in Korean literature. Sinsoseol, for instance, are novels written in hangul. The Korean War led to the development of literature centered on the wounds and chaos of war. Much of the post-war literature in South Korea deals with the daily lives of ordinary people, and their struggles with national pain. The collapse of the traditional Korean value system is another common theme of the time. Traditional Korean music includes combinations of the folk, vocal, religious and ritual music styles of the Korean people. Korean music has been practiced since prehistoric times. Korean music falls into two broad categories. The first, Hyangak, literally means The local music or Music native to Korea, a famous example of which is Sujechon, a piece of instrumental music often claimed to be at least 1,300 years old. The second, yangak, represents a more Western style. Confucian tradition has dominated Korean thought, along with contributions by Buddhism, Taoism, and Korean Shamanism. Since the middle of the 20th century, however, Christianity has competed with Buddhism in South Korea, while religious practice has been suppressed in North Korea. Throughout Korean history and culture, regardless of separation; the influence of traditional beliefs of Korean Shamanism, Mahayana Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism have remained an underlying religion of the Korean people as well as a vital aspect of their culture; all these traditions have coexisted peacefully for hundreds of years up to today despite strong Westernisation from Christian missionary conversions in the South or the pressure from the Juche government in the North. According to 2005 statistics compiled by the South Korean government, about 46% of citizens profess to follow no particular religion. Christians account for 29.2% of the population (of which are Protestants 18.3% and Catholics 10.9%) and Buddhists 22.8%. Islam in South Korea is practiced by about 45,000 natives (about 0.09% of the population) in addition to some 100,000 foreign workers from Muslim countries. Koreans traditionally believe that the taste and quality of food depend on its spices and sauces, the essential ingredients to making a delicious meal. Therefore, soybean paste, soy sauce, gochujang or red pepper paste and kimchi are some of the most important staples in a Korean household. Korean cuisine was greatly influenced by the geography and climate of the Korean Peninsula, which is known for its cold autumns and winters, therefore there are many fermented dishes and hot soups and stews. Korean cuisine is probably best known for kimchi, a side dish which uses a distinctive fermentation process of preserving vegetables, most commonly cabbage. Kimchi is said to relieve the pores on the skin, thereby reducing wrinkles and providing nutrients to the skin naturally. It is also healthy, as it provides necessary vitamins and nutrients. Gochujang, a traditional Korean sauce made of red pepper is also commonly used, often as pepper (chilli) paste, earning the cuisine a reputation for spiciness. Bulgogi (roasted marinated meat, usually beef), galbi (marinated grilled short ribs), and samgyeopsal (pork belly) are popular meat entrees. Fish is also a popular commodity, as it is the traditional meat that Koreans eat. Meals are usually accompanied by a soup or stew, such as galbitang (stewed ribs) or doenjang jjigae (fermented bean paste soup). The center of the table is filled with a shared collection of sidedishes called banchan. Other popular dishes include bibimbap, which literally means "mixed rice" (rice mixed with meat, vegetables, and red pepper paste), and naengmyeon (cold noodles). Instant noodles, or ramyeon, is a popular snack food. Koreans also enjoy food from pojangmachas (street vendors), which serve tteokbokki, rice cake and fish cake with a spicy gochujang sauce; gimbap, made of steamed white rice wrapped in dried laver seaweed; fried squid; and glazed sweet potato. Soondae, a sausage made of cellophane noodles and pork blood, is widely eaten. Additionally, some other common snacks include "Choco Pie", shrimp crackers, "bbeongtwigi" (puffed rice grains), and "nurungji" (slightly burnt rice). Nurungji can be eaten as it is or boiled with water to make a soup. Nurungji can also be eaten as a snack or a dessert. Korea is unique among Asian countries in its use of metal chopsticks. Metal chopsticks have been discovered in archaeological sites belonging to the ancient Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. The modern South Korean school system consists of six years in elementary school, three years in middle school, and three years in high school. Students are required to go to elementary and middle school, and do not have to pay for their education, except for a small fee called a "School Operation Support Fee" that differs from school to school. The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, ranks South Korea's science education as the third best in the world and being significantly higher than the OECD average. South Korea ranks second on math and literature and first in . Although South Korean students often rank high on international comparative assessments, the education system is criticised for emphasising too much upon passive learning and memorization. The South Korean education system is rather notably strict and structured as compared to its counterparts in most Western societies. The North Korean education system consists primarily of universal and state funded schooling by the government. The national literacy rate for citizens 15 years of age and above is over 99 percent. Children go through one year of kindergarten, four years of primary education, six years of secondary education, and then on to universities. The most prestigious university in the DPRK is Kim Il-sung University. Other notable universities include Kim Chaek University of Technology, which focuses on computer science, Pyongyang University of Foreign Studies, which trains working level diplomats and trade officials, and Kim Hyong Jik University, which trains teachers. One of the best known artifacts of Korea's history of science and technology is the Cheomseongdae (첨성대, ), a 9.4-meter high observatory built in 634. The earliest known surviving Korean example of woodblock printing is the Mugujeonggwang Great Dharani Sutra. It is believed to have been printed in Korea in 750–51, which if correct, would make it older than the Diamond Sutra. During the Goryeo Dynasty, metal movable type printing was invented by Choe Yun-ui in 1234. This invention made printing easier, more efficient and also increased literacy, which observed by Chinese visitors was seen to be so important where it was considered to be shameful to not be able to read. The Mongol Empire later adopted Korea's movable type printing and spread as far as Central Asia. There is conjecture as to whether or not Choe's invention had any influence on later printing inventions such as Gutenberg's Printing press. When the Mongols invaded Europe they inadvertently introduced different kinds of Asian technology. During the Joseon period, the Turtle Ship was invented, which were covered by a wooden deck and iron with thorns, as well as other weapons such as the bigyeokjincheolloe cannon (비격진천뢰, ) and the hwacha. The Korean alphabet hangul was also invented during this time by King Sejong the Great. North Korea and South Korea usually compete as two separate nations in international events. There are, however, a few examples of them having competed as one entity, under the name Korea. While association football remains one of the most popular sports in South Korea, the martial art of taekwondo is considered to be the national sport. Baseball and golf are also popular. Taekwon-Do is Korea's most famous martial art and sport. It combines combat techniques, self-defence, sport and exercise. Taekwon-Do has become an official Olympic sport, starting as a demonstration event in 1988 (when South Korea hosted the Games in Seoul) and becoming an official medal event in 2000. The two major Taekwon-Do federations were founded in Korea. The two are the International Taekwon-Do Federation and the World Taekwondo Federation. Hapkido is a modern Korean martial art with a grappling focus that employs joint locks, throws, kicks, punches and other striking attacks like attacks against pressure points. Hapkido emphasizes circular motion, non-resisting movements and control of the opponent. Practitioners seek to gain advantage through footwork and body positioning to employ leverage, avoiding the pure use of strength against strength. Ssireum is a traditional form of wrestling that has been practiced in Korea for thousands of years, with evidence discovered from Goguryeo of Korea's Three Kingdoms Period (57 to 688). Ssireum is the traditional national sport of Korea. During a match, opponents grip each other by sash belts wrapped around the waist and the thigh, attempting to throw their competitor to the sandy ground of the ring. The first opponent to touch the ground with any body part above the knee or to lose hold of their opponent loses the round. Ssireum competitions are traditionally held twice a year, during the Dano Festival (the 5th day of the fifth lunar month) and Chuseok (the 15th day of the 8th lunar month). Competitions are also held throughout the year as a part of festivals and other events. Taekkyon is a traditional martial art, considered the oldest form of fighting technique of Korea. Practiced since centuries and especially popular during the Joseon dynasty, two forms co-existed: one for practical use, the other for sport. This form was usually practiced alongside Ssireum during festivals and competitions between villages. Nonetheless, Taekkyon almost disappeared during the Japanese Occupation and the Korean War. Though lost in North Korea, Taekkyon has enjoyed a spectacular revival from the 1980s in South Korea. It is the only martial art in the world (with Ssireum) recognized as a National Treasure of South Korea and a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage. Samiljeol, Independence Movement Day, commemorates Korea's declaration of independence from Japanese occupation on March 1, 1919. The name is derived from Korean 삼 "sam" 'three', 일 "il" 'one,' and 절 "jeol" 'day', the date of the uprising in 1919. Korea was annexed to the Empire of Japan on August 29, 1910 following the imposed Japan-Korea Treaty. On March 1, 1919, Korean presented their resistance towards Japan and Japanese occupation with a declaration of independence. Following the conclusion of World War II, Korea was liberated from Japan and its independence restored. The newly established Korean government set aside March 1 as a national holiday to commemorate the sacrifices borne in the long struggle for Korean independence. Hyunchoongil is the national holiday in Korea commemorating those who fought and died for the nation. In August 1948, only a few years after Korea achieved its independence from Japan, the Korean War, in Korea also known as the 6.25 war, broke out between North and South Korea. During this war, approximately 400,000 soldiers and some one million citizens were killed or injured. In 1953, North and South Korea agreed to a cease-fire, and three years later the Korean government established Hyungchoogil to commemorate the soldiers who fought in the Korean War. Subsequent to its establishment, Hyungchoogil was reinterpreted as a day of remembrance for those who died defending Korea in all conflicts, not only during the Korean War. Gwangbokjeol is the day for celebrating liberation of the country from Japan in 1945 as well as celebrating the establishment of Korean government in 1948. Gwangbok means "returned light" representing gaining national sovereignty from Japan. It was first declared to be national holiday in 1949 October 1. On this date every year, the president of Korea visits Independence Hall, and invites diplomatic envoys from many countries and all social standings in countries to Cheongwadae (the Blue House, the Korean presidential residence). Hangul Day (also spelled as Hangeul Day) is a day that celebrates the creation of the Hunminjeongeum (Hangul, Korean alphabet), which was inscribed to the UNESCO Memory of the World Register in 1997. Hangul was created by Sejong the Great in 1443 and proclaimed in 1446. Before the creation of Hangul, people in Korea (known as Joseon at the time) primarily wrote using Classical Chinese alongside native phonetic writing systems that predate Hangul by hundreds of years, including idu, hyangchal, gugyeol, and gakpil. However, due to the fundamental differences between the Korean and Chinese languages, and the large number of characters needed to be learned, there was much difficulty in learning how to write using Chinese characters for the lower classes, who often didn't have the privilege of education. To assuage this problem, King Sejong created the unique alphabet known as Hangul to promote literacy among the common people. Hangul Day was founded in 1926 during the Japanese occupation by members of the Korean Language Society, whose goal was to preserve the Korean language during a time of rapid forced Japanization. Today, both South Korea and North Korea celebrate Hangul Day as a national holiday. Index of Korea-related articles, Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea, Inter-Korean summits, Korean name, List of people of Korean descent, National Treasures of North Korea, National Treasures of South Korea, Korean natural farming, Korean cuisine, List of Korean inventions and discoveries, Korean War Sources ., ., ., (Review of ). Chun, Tuk Chu. "Korea in the Pacific Community". Social Education 52 (March 1988), 182. EJ 368 177., Cumings, Bruce. The Two Koreas. New York: Foreign Policy Association, 1984., Focus On Asian Studies. Special Issue: "Korea: A Teacher's Guide". No. 1, Fall 1986., Hart, Dennis. From Tradition to Consumption: Construction of a Capitalist Culture in South Korea. Seoul: Jimoondang, 2003., Joe, W.J. & Choe, H.A. Traditional Korea: A Cultural History, Seoul: Hollym, 1997., Joungwon, A.K. Divided Korea: The Politics of Development, Harvard University Press, 1975., Lee Ki-baik. A New History of Korea. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1984., Lee Sang-sup. "The Arts and Literature of Korea". The Social Studies 79 (July–August 1988): 153–60. EJ 376 894., Tae-Jin, Y. "The Illegality of the Forced Treaties Leading to Japan's Annexation of the Great Han Empire", In the Korean National Commission for UNESCO, Vol. 36, No. 4, 1996., . South Korea (Korean: ;大韓民國 RR: Hanguk or literally ; RR: Namhan; officially the Republic of Korea ; RR: Daehan Minguk) is a country in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korean Peninsula and sharing a land border with North Korea. The name Korea is derived from Goguryeo which was one of the great powers in East Asia during its time, ruling most of the Korean Peninsula, Manchuria, parts of the Russian Far East and Inner Mongolia under Gwanggaeto the Great. Its capital, Seoul, is a major global city and half of South Korea's over 51 million people live in the Seoul Capital Area, the fourth largest metropolitan economy in the world. The Korean Peninsula was inhabited as early as the Lower Paleolithic period. Its first kingdom was noted in Chinese records in the early 7th century BC. Following the unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea into Silla and Balhae in the late 7th century, Korea was ruled by the Goryeo dynasty (918–1392) and the Joseon dynasty (1392–1897). The succeeding Korean Empire was annexed into the Empire of Japan in 1910. After World War II, Korea was divided into Soviet and U.S.-administered zones, with the latter becoming the Republic of Korea in August 1948. In 1950, a North Korean invasion began the Korean War and after its end in 1953, the country's economy began to soar, recording the fastest rise in average GDP per capita in the world between 1980 and 1990. Authoritarian rule ended in 1987 and the country is now the most advanced democracy with the highest level of press freedom in Asia. South Korea is a member of the OECD's Development Assistance Committee, the G20 and the Paris Club. South Korea is a highly developed country and the world's 11th largest economy by nominal GDP. Its citizens enjoy the world's fastest Internet connection speeds along with the world's second best healthcare system, resulting in the third highest health adjusted life expectancy in the world. The world's 5th largest exporter and 8th largest importer, South Korea is a global leader in many technology and innovation driven fields. Since 2014, South Korea has been named the world's most innovative country by the Bloomberg Innovation Index for 6 consecutive years. Since the 21st century, South Korea has been renowned for its globally influential pop culture such as K-pop and TV dramas, a phenomenon referred to as the Korean Wave. The name Korea derives from the name Goryeo. The name Goryeo itself was first used by the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo in the 5th century as a shortened form of its name. The 10th-century kingdom of Goryeo succeeded Goguryeo, and thus inherited its name, which was pronounced by the visiting Persian merchants as "Korea". The modern spelling of Korea first appeared in the late 17th century in the travel writings of the Dutch East India Company's Hendrick Hamel. Despite the coexistence of the spellings Corea and Korea in 19th century publications, some Koreans believe that Imperial Japan, around the time of the Japanese occupation, intentionally standardised the spelling on Korea, making Japan appear first alphabetically. After Goryeo was replaced by Joseon in 1392, Joseon became the official name for the entire territory, though it was not universally accepted. The new official name has its origin in the ancient country of Gojoseon (Old Joseon). In 1897, the Joseon dynasty changed the official name of the country from Joseon to Daehan Jeguk (Korean Empire). The name Daehan (Great Han) derives from Samhan (Three Han), referring to the Three Kingdoms of Korea, not the ancient confederacies in the southern Korean Peninsula. However, the name Joseon was still widely used by Koreans to refer to their country, though it was no longer the official name. Under Japanese rule, the two names Han and Joseon coexisted. There were several groups who fought for independence, the most notable being the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea (/). Following the surrender of Japan, in 1945, the Republic of Korea (/, IPA: , ; ) was adopted as the legal English name for the new country. However, it is not a direct translation of the Korean name. As a result, the Korean name "Daehan Minguk" is sometimes used by South Koreans as a metonym to refer to the Korean ethnicity (or "race") as a whole, rather than just the South Korean state. Since the government only controlled the southern part of the Korean Peninsula, the informal term South Korea was coined, becoming increasingly common in the Western world. While South Koreans use Han (or Hanguk) to refer to both Koreas collectively, North Koreans and ethnic Koreans living in China and Japan use the term Joseon instead. The history of Korea begins with the founding of Joseon (also known as "Gojoseon", or Old Joseon, to differentiate it with the 14th century dynasty) in 2333 BCE by Dangun, according to Korea's foundation mythology. Gojoseon expanded until it controlled the northern Korean Peninsula and parts of Manchuria. Gija Joseon was purportedly founded in the 12th century BC, but its existence and role have been controversial in the modern era. In 108 BCE, the Han dynasty defeated Wiman Joseon and installed four commanderies in the northern Korean peninsula. Three of the commanderies fell or retreated westward within a few decades. As Lelang commandery was destroyed and rebuilt around this time, the place gradually moved toward Liaodong. Thus, its force was diminished and it only served as a trade center until it was conquered by Goguryeo in 313. During the period known as the Proto–Three Kingdoms of Korea, the states of Buyeo, Okjeo, Dongye and Samhan occupied the whole Korean peninsula and southern Manchuria. From them, Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla emerged to control the peninsula as the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Goguryeo, the largest and most powerful among them, was a highly militaristic state, and competed with various Chinese dynasties during its 700 years of history. Goguryeo experienced a golden age under Gwanggaeto the Great and his son Jangsu, who both subdued Baekje and Silla during their times, achieving a brief unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea and becoming the most dominant power on the Korean Peninsula. In addition to contesting for control of the Korean Peninsula, Goguryeo had many military conflicts with various Chinese dynasties, most notably the Goguryeo–Sui War, in which Goguryeo defeated a huge force said to number over a million men. Baekje was a great maritime power; its nautical skill, which made it the Phoenicia of East Asia, was instrumental in the dissemination of Buddhism throughout East Asia and continental culture to Japan. Baekje was once a great military power on the Korean Peninsula, especially during the time of Geunchogo, but was critically defeated by Gwanggaeto the Great and declined. Silla was the smallest and weakest of the three, but it used cunning diplomatic means to make opportunistic pacts and alliances with the more powerful Korean kingdoms, and eventually Tang China, to its great advantage. The unification of the Three Kingdoms by Silla in 676 led to the North South States Period, in which much of the Korean Peninsula was controlled by Later Silla, while Balhae controlled the northern parts of Goguryeo. Balhae was founded by a Goguryeo general and formed as a successor state to Goguryeo. During its height, Balhae controlled most of Manchuria and parts of the Russian Far East, and was called the "Prosperous Country in the East". Later Silla was a golden age of art and culture, as evidenced by the Hwangnyongsa, Seokguram, and Emille Bell. Relationships between Korea and China remained relatively peaceful during this time. Later Silla carried on the maritime prowess of Baekje, which acted like the Phoenicia of medieval East Asia, and during the 8th and 9th centuries dominated the seas of East Asia and the trade between China, Korea and Japan, most notably during the time of Jang Bogo; in addition, Silla people made overseas communities in China on the Shandong Peninsula and the mouth of the Yangtze River. Later Silla was a prosperous and wealthy country, and its metropolitan capital of Gyeongju was the fourth largest city in the world. Buddhism flourished during this time, and many Korean Buddhists gained great fame among Chinese Buddhists and contributed to Chinese Buddhism, including: Woncheuk, Wonhyo, Uisang, Musang, and Kim Gyo-gak, a Silla prince whose influence made Mount Jiuhua one of the Four Sacred Mountains of Chinese Buddhism. However, Later Silla weakened under internal strife and the revival of Baekje and Goguryeo, which led to the Later Three Kingdoms period in the late 9th century. In 936, the Later Three Kingdoms were united by Wang Geon, a descendant of Goguryeo nobility, who established Goryeo as the successor state of Goguryeo. Balhae had fallen to the Khitan Empire in 926, and a decade later the last crown prince of Balhae fled south to Goryeo, where he was warmly welcomed and included into the ruling family by Wang Geon, thus unifying the two successor nations of Goguryeo. Like Silla, Goryeo was a highly cultural state, and invented the metal movable type printing press. After defeating the Khitan Empire, which was the most powerful empire of its time, in the Goryeo–Khitan War, Goryeo experienced a golden age that lasted a century, during which the Tripitaka Koreana was completed and there were great developments in printing and publishing, promoting learning and dispersing knowledge on philosophy, literature, religion, and science; by 1100, there were 12 universities that produced famous scholars and scientists. However, the Mongol invasions in the 13th century greatly weakened the kingdom. Goryeo was never conquered by the Mongols, but exhausted after three decades of fighting, the Korean court sent its crown prince to the Yuan capital to swear allegiance to Kublai Khan, who accepted, and married one of his daughters to the Korean crown prince. Henceforth, Goryeo continued to rule Korea, though as a tributary ally to the Mongols for the next 86 years. During this period, the two nations became intertwined as all subsequent Korean kings married Mongol princesses, and the last empress of the Yuan dynasty was a Korean princess. In the mid-14th century, Goryeo drove out the Mongols to regain its northern territories, briefly conquered Liaoyang, and defeated invasions by the Red Turbans. However, in 1392, General Yi Seong-gye, who had been ordered to attack China, turned his army around and staged a coup. Yi Seong-gye declared the new name of Korea as "Joseon" in reference to Gojoseon, and moved the capital to Hanseong (one of the old names of Seoul). The first 200 years of the Joseon dynasty were marked by peace, and saw great advancements in science and education, as well as the creation of Hangul by Sejong the Great to promote literacy among the common people. The prevailing ideology of the time was Neo- Confucianism, which was epitomized by the seonbi class: nobles who passed up positions of wealth and power to lead lives of study and integrity. Between 1592 and 1598, Toyotomi Hideyoshi launched invasions of Korea, but his advance was halted by Korean forces (most notably the Joseon Navy led by Admiral Yi Sun-sin and his renowned "turtle ship") with assistance from Righteous Army militias formed by Korean civilians, and Ming dynasty Chinese troops. Through a series of successful battles of attrition, the Japanese forces were eventually forced to withdraw, and relations between all parties became normalized. However, the Manchus took advantage of Joseon's war-weakened state and invaded in 1627 and 1637, and then went on to conquer the destabilized Ming dynasty. After normalizing relations with the new Qing dynasty, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace. Kings Yeongjo and Jeongjo particularly led a new renaissance of the Joseon dynasty during the 18th century. In the 19th century, the royal in-law families gained control of the government, leading to mass corruption and weakening of the state, and severe poverty and peasant rebellions throughout the country. Furthermore, the Joseon government adopted a strict isolationist policy, earning the nickname "the hermit kingdom", but ultimately failed to protect itself against imperialism and was forced to open its borders. After the First Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War, Korea was occupied by Japan (1910–45). At the end of World War II, the Japanese surrendered to Soviet and U.S. forces who occupied the northern and southern halves of Korea, respectively. Despite the initial plan of a unified Korea in the 1943 Cairo Declaration, escalating Cold War antagonism between the Soviet Union and the United States eventually led to the establishment of separate governments, each with its own ideology, leading to the division of Korea into two political entities in 1948: North Korea and South Korea. In the South, Syngman Rhee, an opponent of communism, who had been backed and appointed by the United States as head of the provisional government, won the first presidential elections of the newly declared Republic of Korea in May. In the North, however, a former anti- Japanese guerrilla and communist activist, Kim Il-sung was appointed premier of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea in September. In October, the Soviet Union declared Kim Il-sung's government as sovereign over both parts. The UN declared Rhee's government as "a lawful government having effective control and jurisdiction over that part of Korea where the UN Temporary Commission on Korea was able to observe and consult" and the Government "based on elections which was observed by the Temporary Commission" in addition to a statement that "this is the only such government in Korea." Both leaders began an authoritarian repression of their political opponents inside their region, seeking for a unification of Korea under their control. While South Korea's request for military support was denied by the United States, North Korea's military was heavily reinforced by the Soviet Union. On June 25, 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea, sparking the Korean War, the Cold War's first major conflict, which continued until 1953. At the time, the Soviet Union had boycotted the United Nations (UN), thus forfeiting their veto rights. This allowed the UN to intervene in a civil war when it became apparent that the superior North Korean forces would unify the entire country. The Soviet Union and China backed North Korea, with the later participation of millions of Chinese troops. After an ebb and flow that saw both sides almost pushed to the brink of extinction, and massive losses among Korean civilians in both the north and the south, the war eventually reached a stalemate. The 1953 armistice, never signed by South Korea, split the peninsula along the demilitarized zone near the original demarcation line. No peace treaty was ever signed, resulting in the two countries remaining technically at war. Approximately 3 million people died in the Korean War, with a higher proportional civilian death toll than World War II or the Vietnam War, making it perhaps the deadliest conflict of the Cold War-era. In addition, virtually all of Korea's major cities were destroyed by the war. In 1960, a student uprising (the "April 19 Revolution") led to the resignation of the autocratic then-President Syngman Rhee. This was followed by 13 months of political instability as South Korea was led by a weak and ineffectual government. This instability was broken by the May 16, 1961, coup led by General Park Chung-hee. As president, Park oversaw a period of rapid export- led economic growth enforced by political repression. Park was heavily criticized as a ruthless military dictator, who in 1972 extended his rule by creating a new constitution, which gave the president sweeping (almost dictatorial) powers and permitted him to run for an unlimited number of six- year terms. The Korean economy developed significantly during Park's tenure. The government developed the nationwide expressway system, the Seoul subway system, and laid the foundation for economic development during his 17-year tenure, which ended with his assassination in 1979. The years after Park's assassination were marked again by political turmoil, as the previously suppressed opposition leaders all campaigned to run for president in the sudden political void. In 1979 there came the Coup d'état of December Twelfth led by General Chun Doo-hwan. Following the Coup d'état, Chun Doo-hwan planned to rise to power through several measures. On May 17, Chun Doo-hwan forced the Cabinet to expand martial law to the whole nation, which had previously not applied to the island of Jejudo. The expanded martial law closed universities, banned political activities and further curtailed the press. Chun's assumption of the presidency in the events of May 17, triggered nationwide protests demanding democracy, in particular in the city of Gwangju, to which Chun sent special forces to violently suppress the Gwangju Democratization Movement. Chun subsequently created the National Defense Emergency Policy Committee and took the presidency according to his political plan. Chun and his government held South Korea under a despotic rule until 1987, when a Seoul National University student, Park Jong-chul, was tortured to death. On , the Catholic Priests Association for Justice revealed the incident, igniting the June Democracy Movement around the country. Eventually, Chun's party, the Democratic Justice Party, and its leader, Roh Tae-woo announced the 6.29 Declaration, which included the direct election of the president. Roh went on to win the election by a narrow margin against the two main opposition leaders, Kim Dae-Jung and Kim Young-Sam. Seoul hosted the Olympic Games in 1988, widely regarded as successful and a significant boost for South Korea's global image and economy. South Korea was formally invited to become a member of the United Nations in 1991. The transition of Korea from autocracy to modern democracy was marked in 1997 by the election of Kim Dae-jung, who was sworn in as the eighth president of South Korea, on February 25, 1998. His election was significant given that he had in earlier years been a political prisoner sentenced to death (later commuted to exile). He won against the backdrop of the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, where he took IMF advice to restructure the economy and the nation soon recovered its economic growth, albeit at a slower pace. In June 2000, as part of president Kim Dae-jung's "Sunshine Policy" of engagement, a North–South summit took place in Pyongyang, the capital of North Korea. Later that year, Kim received the Nobel Peace Prize "for his work for democracy and human rights in South Korea and in East Asia in general, and for peace and reconciliation with North Korea in particular". However, because of discontent among the population for fruitless approaches to the North under the previous administrations and, amid North Korean provocations, a conservative government was elected in 2007 led by President Lee Myung-bak, former mayor of Seoul. Meanwhile, South Korea and Japan jointly co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup. However, South Korean and Japanese relations later soured because of conflicting claims of sovereignty over the Liancourt Rocks. In 2010, there was an escalation in attacks by North Korea. In March 2010 the South Korean warship ROKS Cheonan was sunk with the loss of 46 South Korean sailors, allegedly by a North Korean submarine. In November 2010 Yeonpyeong island was attacked by a significant North Korean artillery barrage, with 4 people losing their lives. The lack of a strong response to these attacks from both South Korea and the international community (the official UN report declined to explicitly name North Korea as the perpetrator for the Cheonan sinking) caused significant anger with the South Korean public. South Korea saw another milestone in 2012 with the first ever female president Park Geun- hye elected and assuming office. Daughter of another former president, Park Chung-hee, she carried on a conservative brand of politics. President Park Geun-hye's administration was formally accused of corruption, bribery, and influence-peddling for the involvement of close friend Choi Soon-sil in state affairs. There followed a series of massive public demonstrations from November 2016 and she was removed from office. After the fallout of President Park's impeachment and dismissal, new elections were held and Moon Jae-in of the Democratic party won the presidency, assuming office on 10 May 2017. His tenure so far has seen an improving political relationship with North Korea, some increasing divergence in the military alliance with the United States, and the successful hosting of the Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang. South Korea occupies the southern portion of the Korean Peninsula, which extends some from the Asian mainland. This mountainous peninsula is flanked by the Yellow Sea to the west, and the Sea of Japan to the east. Its southern tip lies on the Korea Strait and the East China Sea. The country, including all its islands, lies between latitudes 33° and 39°N, and longitudes 124° and 130°E. Its total area is . South Korea can be divided into four general regions: an eastern region of high mountain ranges and narrow coastal plains; a western region of broad coastal plains, river basins, and rolling hills; a southwestern region of mountains and valleys; and a southeastern region dominated by the broad basin of the Nakdong River. South Korea's terrain is mostly mountainous, most of which is not arable. Lowlands, located primarily in the west and southeast, make up only 30% of the total land area. About three thousand islands, mostly small and uninhabited, lie off the western and southern coasts of South Korea. Jeju-do is about off the southern coast of South Korea. It is the country's largest island, with an area of . Jeju is also the site of South Korea's highest point: Hallasan, an extinct volcano, reaches above sea level. The easternmost islands of South Korea include Ulleungdo and Liancourt Rocks (Dokdo/Takeshima), while Marado and Socotra Rock are the southernmost islands of South Korea. South Korea has 20 national parks and popular nature places like the Boseong Tea Fields, Suncheon Bay Ecological Park, and the first national park of Jirisan. South Korea tends to have a humid continental climate and a humid subtropical climate, and is affected by the East Asian monsoon, with precipitation heavier in summer during a short rainy season called jangma (), which begins end of June through the end of July. Winters can be extremely cold with the minimum temperature dropping below in the inland region of the country: in Seoul, the average January temperature range is , and the average August temperature range is . Winter temperatures are higher along the southern coast and considerably lower in the mountainous interior. Summer can be uncomfortably hot and humid, with temperatures exceeding in most parts of the country. South Korea has four distinct seasons; spring, summer, autumn and winter. Spring usually lasts from late March to early May, summer from mid-May to early September, autumn from mid-September to early November, and winter from mid- November to mid-March. Rainfall is concentrated in the summer months of June through September. The southern coast is subject to late summer typhoons that bring strong winds, heavy rains and sometime floods. The average annual precipitation varies from in Seoul to in Busan. During the first 20 years of South Korea's growth surge, little effort was made to preserve the environment. Unchecked industrialization and urban development have resulted in deforestation and the ongoing destruction of wetlands such as the Songdo Tidal Flat. However, there have been recent efforts to balance these problems, including a government run five-year green growth project that aims to boost energy efficiency and green technology. The green-based economic strategy is a comprehensive overhaul of South Korea's economy, utilizing nearly two percent of the national GDP. The greening initiative includes such efforts as a nationwide bike network, solar and wind energy, lowering oil dependent vehicles, backing daylight savings and extensive usage of environmentally friendly technologies such as LEDs in electronics and lighting. The country – already the world's most wired – plans to build a nationwide next-generation network that will be 10 times faster than broadband facilities, in order to reduce energy usage. The renewable portfolio standard program with renewable energy certificates runs from 2012 to 2022. Quota systems favor large, vertically integrated generators and multinational electric utilities, if only because certificates are generally denominated in units of one megawatt-hour. They are also more difficult to design and implement than a Feed-in tariff. Around 350 residential micro combined heat and power units were installed in 2012. Seoul's tap water recently became safe to drink, with city officials branding it "Arisu" in a bid to convince the public. Efforts have also been made with afforestation projects. Another multibillion-dollar project was the restoration of Cheonggyecheon, a stream running through downtown Seoul that had earlier been paved over by a motorway. One major challenge is air quality, with acid rain, sulfur oxides, and annual yellow dust storms being particular problems. It is acknowledged that many of these difficulties are a result of South Korea's proximity to China, which is a major air polluter. South Korea is a member of the Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity Treaty, Kyoto Protocol (forming the Environmental Integrity Group (EIG), regarding UNFCCC, with Mexico and Switzerland), Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (not into force), Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, and Whaling. The South Korean government's structure is determined by the Constitution of the Republic of Korea. Like many democratic states, South Korea has a government divided into three branches: executive, judicial, and legislative. The executive and legislative branches operate primarily at the national level, although various ministries in the executive branch also carry out local functions. Local governments are semi-autonomous, and contain executive and legislative bodies of their own. The judicial branch operates at both the national and local levels. South Korea is a constitutional democracy. The constitution has been revised several times since its first promulgation in 1948 at independence. However, it has retained many broad characteristics and with the exception of the short-lived Second Republic of South Korea, the country has always had a presidential system with an independent chief executive. Under its current constitution the state is sometimes referred to as the Sixth Republic of South Korea. The first direct election was also held in 1948. Although South Korea experienced a series of military dictatorships from the 1960s until the 1980s, it has since developed into a successful liberal democracy. Today, the CIA World Factbook describes South Korea's democracy as a "fully functioning modern democracy". South Korea is ranked 45th on the Corruption Perceptions Index (9th in the Asia-Pacific region), with a score of 57 out of 100. The major administrative divisions in South Korea are eight provinces, one special self-governing province, six metropolitan cities (self-governing cities that are not part of any province), one special city and one metropolitan autonomous city. In April 2016, South Korea's population was estimated to be around 50.8 million by National Statistical Office, with continuing decline of working age population and total fertility rate. The country is noted for its population density, which was an estimated 505 per square kilometer in 2015, more than 10 times the global average. Aside from micro-states and city-states, South Korea is the world's third most densely-populated country. In practice the population density in much of South Korea is higher than the national one, as most of the country's land is uninhabitable due to being used for other purposes such as farming. Most South Koreans live in urban areas, because of rapid migration from the countryside during the country's quick economic expansion in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. The capital city of Seoul is also the country's largest city and chief industrial center. According to the 2005 census, Seoul had a population of inhabitants. The Seoul National Capital Area has inhabitants (about half of South Korea's entire population) making it the world's second largest metropolitan area. Other major cities include Busan (), Incheon (), Daegu (), Daejeon (), Gwangju () and Ulsan (). The population has also been shaped by international migration. After World War II and the division of the Korean Peninsula, about four million people from North Korea crossed the border to South Korea. This trend of net entry reversed over the next 40 years because of emigration, especially to North America through the United States and Canada. South Korea's total population in 1955 was , and has more than doubled, to 50 million, by 2010. South Korea is considered one of the most ethnically homogeneous societies in the world with ethnic Koreans representing approximately 96% of total population. Precise numbers are difficult since statistics do not record ethnicity and given many immigrants are ethnically Korean themselves, and some South Korean citizens are not ethnically Korean. South Korea is nevertheless becoming a more multi-ethnic society over time due to immigration. The percentage of foreign nationals has been growing rapidly. , South Korea had 1,413,758 foreign residents, 2.75% of the population; however, many of them are ethnic Koreans with a foreign citizenship. For example, migrants from China (PRC) make up 56.5% of foreign nationals, but approximately 70% of the Chinese citizens in Korea are (), PRC citizens of Korean ethnicity. Regardless of the ethnicity, there are 28,500 US military personnel serving in South Korea, most serving a one-year unaccompanied tour (though approximately 10% serve longer tours accompanied by family), according to the Korea National Statistical Office. In addition, about 43,000 English teachers from English-speaking countries reside temporarily in Korea. Currently, South Korea has one of the highest rates of growth of foreign born population, with about 30,000 foreign born residents obtaining South Korean citizenship every year since 2010. Large number of ethnic Koreans live overseas, sometimes in Korean ethnic neighbourhoods also known as Koreatowns. The four largest diaspora population can be found in China (2.3 million), USA (1.8 million), Japan (0.85 million), and Canada (0.25 million). South Korea's birthrate was the world's lowest in 2009, at an annual rate of approximately 9 births per 1000 people. Fertility saw some modest increase afterwards, but dropped to a new global low in 2017, with fewer than 30,000 births per month for the first time since records began and less than 1 child per woman as of 2018 trends. The average life expectancy in 2008 was 79.10 years, (which was 34th in the world) but by 2015 it had increased to around 81. South Korea has the steepest decline in working age population of the OECD nations. In 2015, National Statistical Office estimated that the population of the country will have reached its peak by 2035. A centralized administration in South Korea oversees the process for the education of children from kindergarten to the third and final year of high school. The school year is divided into two semesters, the first of which begins at the beginning of March and ends in mid-July, the second of which begins in late August and ends in mid-February. The schedules are not uniformly standardized and vary from school to school. Most South Korean middle schools and high schools have school uniforms, modeled on western-style uniforms. Boys' uniforms usually consist of trousers and white shirts, and girls wear skirts and white shirts (this only applies in middle schools and high schools). The country adopted a new educational program to increase the number of their foreign students through 2010. According to the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, the number of scholarships for foreign students in South Korea would have (under the program) doubled by that time, and the number of foreign students would have reached 100,000. South Korea is one of the top-performing OECD countries in reading literacy, mathematics and sciences with the average student scoring 519, compared with the OECD average of 492, placing it ninth in the world and has one of the world's most highly educated labor forces among OECD countries. The country has one of the world's highest-educated labour forces among OECD countries. The country is well known for its highly feverish outlook on education, where its national obsession with education has been called "education fever". This obsession with education has catapulted the resource poor nation consistently atop the global education rankings where in 2014 national rankings of students' math and science scores by the Organization for Economic and Cooperation and Development (OECD), South Korea ranked second place worldwide, after Singapore. Higher education is a serious issue in South Korea society, where it is viewed as one of the fundamental cornerstones of South Korean life. Education is regarded with a high priority for South Korean families as success in education is often a source of pride for families and within South Korean society at large, and is a necessity to improve one's socioeconomic position in South Korean society. South Koreans view education as the main propeller of social mobility for themselves and their family as a gateway to the South Korean middle class. Graduating from a top university is the ultimate marker of prestige, high socioeconomic status, promising marriage prospects, and a respectable career path. The entrance into a top tier higher educational institution leads to a prestigious, secure and well-paid white collar job with the government, banks, or a major South Korean conglomerate such as Samsung, Hyundai or LG Electronics. An average South Korean child's life revolves around education as pressure to succeed academically is deeply ingrained in South Korean children from an early age. With incredible pressure on high school students to secure places at the nation's best universities, its institutional reputation and alumni networks are strong predictors of future career prospects. The top three universities in South Korea, often referred to as "SKY", are Seoul National University, Korea University and Yonsei University. Intense competition for top grades and academic pressure to be the top student is deeply ingrained in the psyche of South Korean students at a young age. Yet with only so many places at the nations most prestigious universities and even fewer places at top-tier companies, many young people remain disappointed and are often unwilling to lower their sights with the result of many feeling as underachievers. There is a major cultural taboo in South Korean society attached to those who have not achieved formal university education where those who do not hold university degrees face social prejudice and are often looked down by others as second-class citizens resulting in fewer opportunities for employment, improvement of one's socioeconomic position and prospects for marriage. In 2015, the country spent 5.1% of its GDP on all levels of education – roughly 0.8 percentage points above the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) average of 4.3%. A strong investment in education, a militant drive for success as well as the passion for excellence has helped the resource poor country rapidly grow its economy over the past 60 years from a war torn wasteland. International opinion regarding the South Korean education system has been divided. It has been praised for various reasons, including its comparatively high test results and its major role in ushering South Korea's economic development creating one of the world's most educated workforces. South Korea's highly enviable academic performance has persuaded British education ministers to actively remodel their own curriculums and exams to try to emulate Korea's militant drive and passion for excellence and high educational achievement. Former U.S. President Barack Obama has also praised the country's rigorous school system, where over 80 percent of South Korean high school graduates go on to university. The nation's high university entrance rate has created a highly skilled workforce making South Korea among the most highly educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentages of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. In 2017, the country ranked fifth for the percentage of 25 to 64 year olds that have attained tertiary education with 47.7 percent. In addition, 69.8 percent of South Koreans aged 25–34 have completed some form of tertiary education qualification and bachelor's degrees are held by 34.2 percent of South Koreans aged 25–64, the most in the OECD. The system's rigid and hierarchical structure has been criticized for stifling creativity and innovation; described as intensely and "brutally" competitive, the system is often blamed for the high suicide rate in the country, particularly the growing rates among those aged 10–19. Various media outlets attribute the country's high suicide rate to the nationwide anxiety around the country's college entrance exams, which determine the trajectory of students' entire lives and careers. Former South Korean hagwon teacher Se-Woong Koo wrote that the South Korean education system amounts to child abuse and that it should be "reformed and restructured without delay". The system has also been criticized for producing an excess supply of university graduates creating an overeducated and underemployed labor force; in the first quarter of 2013 alone, nearly 3.3 million South Korean university graduates were jobless, leaving many graduates overqualified for jobs requiring less education. Further criticism has been stemmed for causing labor shortages in various skilled blue collar labor and vocational occupations, where many go unfilled as the negative social stigma associated with vocational careers and not having a university degree continues to remain deep-rooted in South Korean society. Korean is the official language of South Korea, and is classified by most linguists as a language isolate. Korean is not related to any Chinese languages, although it incorporates a number of words that are Chinese in origin. Additionally, Korean spoken in South Korea uses a significant number of loan words from English and other European languages. Korean uses an indigenous writing system called Hangul, created in 1446 by King Sejong to provide a convenient alternative to the Classical Chinese Hanja characters that were difficult to learn and did not fit the Korean language well. South Korea still uses some Chinese Hanja characters in limited areas, such as print media and legal documentation. The Korean language in South Korea has a standard dialect known as Seoul (after the capital city), with an additional 4 Korean language dialect groups in use around the country. Almost all South Korean students today learn English throughout their education, with some optionally choosing Japanese or Mandarin as well. According to the results of the census of 2015 more than half of the South Korean population (56.9%) declared themselves not affiliated with any religious organizations. In a 2012 survey, 52% declared themselves "religious", 31% said they were "not religious" and 15% identified themselves as "convinced atheists". Of the people who are affiliated with a religious organization, most are Christians and Buddhists. According to the 2015 census, 27.6% of the population were Christians (19.7% identified themselves as Protestants, 7.9% as Roman Catholics), and 15.5% were Buddhists. Other religions include Islam (130,000 Muslims, mostly migrant workers from Pakistan and Bangladesh but including some 35,000 Korean Muslims,) the homegrown sect of Wonbuddhism, and a variety of indigenous religions, including Cheondoism (a Confucianizing religion), Jeungsanism, Daejongism, Daesun Jinrihoe and others. Freedom of religion is guaranteed by the constitution, and there is no state religion. Overall, between the 2005 and 2015 censuses there has been a slight decline of Christianity (down from 29% to 27.6%), a sharp decline of Buddhism (down from 22.8% to 15.5%), and a rise of the unaffiliated population (from 47.2% to 56.9%). Christianity is South Korea's largest organized religion, accounting for more than half of all South Korean adherents of religious organizations. There are approximately 13.5 million Christians in South Korea today; about two thirds of them belonging to Protestant churches, and the rest to the Roman Catholic Church. The number of Protestants has been stagnant throughout the 1990s and the 2000s, but increased to a peak level throughout the 2010s. Roman Catholics increased significantly between the 1980s and the 2000s, but declined throughout the 2010s. Christianity, unlike in other East Asian countries, found fertile ground in Korea in the 18th century, and by the end of the 18th century it persuaded a large part of the population as the declining monarchy supported it and opened the country to widespread proselytism as part of a project of Westernization. The weakness of Korean Sindo, which, unlike Japanese Shinto and China's religious system, never developed into a national religion of high status, combined with the impoverished state of Korean Buddhism (after 500 years of suppression at the hands of the Joseon state, by the 20th century it was virtually extinct) left a free hand to Christian churches. Christianity's similarity to native religious narratives has been studied as another factor that contributed to its success in the peninsula. The Japanese colonization of the first half of the 20th century further strengthened the identification of Christianity with Korean nationalism, as the Japanese coopted native Korean Sindo into the Nipponic Imperial Shinto that they tried to establish in the peninsula. Widespread Christianization of the Koreans took place during State Shinto, after its abolition, and then in the independent South Korea as the newly established military government supported Christianity and tried to utterly oust native Sindo. Among Christian denominations, Presbyterianism is the largest. About nine million people belong to one of the hundred different Presbyterian churches; the biggest ones are the HapDong Presbyterian Church, TongHap Presbyterian Church, the Koshin Presbyterian Church. South Korea is also the second-largest missionary-sending nation, after the United States. Buddhism was introduced to Korea in the 4th century. It became soon a dominant religion in the southeastern kingdom of Silla, the region that hitherto hosts the strongest concentration of Buddhists in South Korea. In the other states of the Three Kingdoms Period, Goguryeo and Baekje, it was made the state religion respectively in 372 and 528. It remained the state religion in Later Silla (North South States Period) and Goryeo. It was later suppressed throughout much of the subsequent history under the unified kingdom of Joseon (1392–1897), which officially adopted a strict Korean Confucianism. Today, South Korea has about 7 million Buddhists, most of them affiliated to the Jogye Order. Most of the National Treasures of South Korea are Buddhist artifacts. South Korea has a universal healthcare system. Suicide in South Korea is a serious and widespread problem and the country ranks poorly on world happiness reports for a high-income state. The suicide rate was the highest in the G20 in 2015 (24.1 deaths per 100,000 persons). South Korean hospitals have advanced medical equipment and facilities readily available, ranking 4th for MRI units per capita and 6th for CT scanners per capita in the OECD. It also had the OECD's second largest number of hospital beds per 1000 people at 9.56 beds. Life expectancy has been rising rapidly and South Korea ranked 11th in the world for life expectancy at 82.3 years by the WHO in 2015. South Korea maintains diplomatic relations with more than 188 countries. The country has also been a member of the United Nations since 1991, when it became a member state at the same time as North Korea. On January 1, 2007, Former South Korean Foreign Minister Ban Ki-moon served as UN Secretary- General from 2007 to 2016. It has also developed links with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations as both a member of ASEAN Plus three, a body of observers, and the East Asia Summit (EAS). In November 2009 South Korea joined the OECD Development Assistance Committee, marking the first time a former aid recipient country joined the group as a donor member. South Korea hosted the G-20 Summit in Seoul in November 2010, a year that saw South Korea and the European Union conclude a free trade agreement (FTA) to reduce trade barriers. South Korea went on to sign a Free Trade Agreements with Canada and Australia in 2014, and another with New Zealand in 2015. Both North and South Korea claim complete sovereignty over the entire peninsula and outlying islands. Despite mutual animosity, reconciliation efforts have continued since the initial separation between North and South Korea. Political figures such as Kim Koo worked to reconcile the two governments even after the Korean War. With longstanding animosity following the Korean War from 1950 to 1953, North Korea and South Korea signed an agreement to pursue peace. On October 4, 2007, Roh Moo-Hyun and North Korean leader Kim Jong-il signed an eight-point agreement on issues of permanent peace, high-level talks, economic cooperation, renewal of train services, highway and air travel, and a joint Olympic cheering squad. Despite the Sunshine Policy and efforts at reconciliation, the progress was complicated by North Korean missile tests in 1993, 1998, 2006, 2009, and 2013. , relationships between North and South Korea were very tense; North Korea had been reported to have deployed missiles, ended its former agreements with South Korea, and threatened South Korea and the United States not to interfere with a satellite launch it had planned. North and South Korea are still technically at war (having never signed a peace treaty after the Korean War) and share the world's most heavily fortified border. On May 27, 2009, North Korean media declared that the Armistice is no longer valid because of the South Korean government's pledge to "definitely join" the Proliferation Security Initiative. To further complicate and intensify strains between the two nations, the sinking of the South Korean warship Cheonan in March 2010, is affirmed by the South Korean government to have been caused by a North Korean torpedo, which the North denies. President Lee Myung-bak declared in May 2010 that Seoul would cut all trade with North Korea as part of measures primarily aimed at striking back at North Korea diplomatically and financially, except for the joint Kaesong Industrial Project, and humanitarian aid. North Korea initially threatened to sever all ties, to completely abrogate the previous pact of non-aggression, and to expel all South Koreans from a joint industrial zone in Kaesong, but backtracked on its threats and decided to continue its ties with South Korea. Despite the continuing ties, Kaesong industrial zone has seen a large decrease in investment and manpower as a result of this military conflict. In February 2016, the Kaesong complex was closed by Seoul in reaction to North Korea's launch of a rocket earlier in the month unanimously condemned by the United Nations security council. The 2017 election of President Moon Jae-in has seen a change in approach towards the North, and both sides used the South Korean held 2018 Winter Olympics as an opportunity for engagement, with a very senior North Korean political delegation sent to the games, along with a reciprocal visit by senior South Korean cabinet members to the North soon afterwards. Historically, Korea had close relations with the dynasties in China, and some Korean kingdoms were members of the Imperial Chinese tributary system. The Korean kingdoms also ruled over some Chinese kingdoms including the Kitan people and the Manchurians before the Qing dynasty and received tributes from them. In modern times, before the formation of South Korea, Korean independence fighters worked with Chinese soldiers during the Japanese occupation. However, after World War II, the People's Republic of China embraced Maoism while South Korea sought close relations with the United States. The PRC assisted North Korea with manpower and supplies during the Korean War, and in its aftermath the diplomatic relationship between South Korea and the PRC almost completely ceased. Relations thawed gradually and South Korea and the PRC re-established formal diplomatic relations on August 24, 1992. The two countries sought to improve bilateral relations and lifted the forty-year-old trade embargo, and South Korean–Chinese relations have improved steadily since 1992. The Republic of Korea broke off official relations with the Republic of China (Taiwan) upon gaining official relations with the People's Republic of China, which does not recognise Taiwan's sovereignty. China has become South Korea's largest trading partner by far, sending 26% of South Korean exports in 2016 worth $124 billion, as well as an additional $32 billion worth of exports to Hong Kong. South Korea is also China's 4th largest trading partner, with $93 billion of Chinese imports in 2016. The 2017 deployment of THAAD defence missiles by the United States military in South Korea in response to North Korean missile tests has been protested strongly by the Chinese government, concerned that the technologically advanced missile defence could be used more broadly against China. Relations between the governments have cooled in response, with South Korean commercial and cultural interests in China having been targeted, and Chinese tourism to South Korea having been curtailed. The situation was largely resolved by South Korea making significant military concessions to China in exchange for THAAD, including not deploying any more anti-ballistic missile systems in South Korea and not participating in an alliance between the United States and Japan. South Korea and Russia are participants in the Six-party talks on the North Korea's nuclear proliferation issue. Moon Jae- in's administration has focused on increasing South Korea's consumption of natural gas. These plans include re-opening dialogue around a natural gas pipeline that would come from Russia and pass through North Korea. In June 2018, president Moon Jae-in became the first South Korean leader to speak in the Russian Parliament. On June 22, Moon Jae-in and Putin signed a document for foundation of free trade area. Korea and Japan have had difficult relations since ancient times, but also significant cultural exchange, with Korea acting as the gateway between Asia and Japan. Contemporary perceptions of Japan are still largely defined by Japan's 35 year colonization of Korea in the 20th century, which is generally regarded in South Korea as having been very negative. Japan is today South Korea's third largest trading partner, with 12% ($46 billion) of exports in 2016. There were no formal diplomatic ties between South Korea and Japan directly after independence the end of World War II in 1945. South Korea and Japan eventually signed the Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea in 1965 to establish diplomatic ties. There is heavy anti- Japanese sentiment in South Korea because of a number of unsettled Japanese- Korean disputes, many of which stem from the period of Japanese occupation after the Japanese annexation of Korea. During World War II, more than 100,000 Koreans served in the Imperial Japanese Army. Korean women were coerced and forced to serve the Imperial Japanese Army as sexual slaves, called comfort women, in both Korea and throughout the Japanese war fronts. Longstanding issues such as Japanese war crimes against Korean civilians, the negationist re-writing of Japanese textbooks relating Japanese atrocities during World War II, the territorial disputes over the Liancourt Rocks, known in South Korea as "Dokdo" and in Japan as "Takeshima", and visits by Japanese politicians to the Yasukuni Shrine, honoring Japanese people (civilians and military) killed during the war continue to trouble Korean-Japanese relations. The Liancourt Rocks were the first Korean territories to be forcibly colonized by Japan in 1905. Although it was again returned to Korea along with the rest of its territory in 1951 with the signing of the Treaty of San Francisco, Japan does not recant on its claims that the Liancourt Rocks are Japanese territory. In response to then-Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi's visits to the Yasukuni Shrine, former President Roh Moo-hyun suspended all summit talks between South Korea and Japan in 2009. A summit between the nations' leaders was eventually held on February 9, 2018 during the Korean held Winter Olympics. South Korea asked the International Olympic Committee to ban the Japanese Rising Sun Flag from the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. The European Union (EU) and South Korea are important trading partners, having negotiated a free trade agreement for many years since South Korea was designated as a priority FTA partner in 2006. The free trade agreement was approved in September 2010, and took effect on July 1, 2011. South Korea is the EU's tenth largest trade partner, and the EU has become South Korea's fourth largest export destination. EU trade with South Korea exceeded €90 billion in 2015 and has enjoyed an annual average growth rate of 9.8% between 2003 and 2013. The EU has been the single largest foreign investor in South Korea since 1962, and accounted for almost 45% of all FDI inflows into Korea in 2006. Nevertheless, EU companies have significant problems accessing and operating in the South Korean market because of stringent standards and testing requirements for products and services often creating barriers to trade. Both in its regular bilateral contacts with South Korea and through its FTA with Korea, the EU is seeking to improve this situation. The close relationship began directly after World War II, when the United States temporarily administrated Korea for three years (mainly in the South, with the Soviet Union engaged in North Korea) after Japan. Upon the onset of the Korean War in 1950, U.S. forces were sent to defend against an invasion from North Korea of the South, and subsequently fought as the largest contributor of UN troops. The United States participation was critical for preventing the near defeat of the Republic of Korea by northern forces, as well as fighting back for the territory gains that define the South Korean nation today. Following the Armistice, South Korea and the U.S. agreed to a "Mutual Defense Treaty", under which an attack on either party in the Pacific area would summon a response from both. In 1967, South Korea obliged the mutual defense treaty, by sending a large combat troop contingent to support the United States in the Vietnam War. The US has over 23,000 troops stationed in South Korea, including the U.S. Eighth Army, Seventh Air Force, and U.S. Naval Forces Korea. The two nations have strong economic, diplomatic, and military ties, although they have at times disagreed with regard to policies towards North Korea, and with regard to some of South Korea's industrial activities that involve usage of rocket or nuclear technology. There had also been strong anti-American sentiment during certain periods, which has largely moderated in the modern day. The two nations also share a close economic relationship, with the U.S being South Korea's second largest trading partner, receiving $66 billion in exports in 2016. In 2007, a free trade agreement known as the Republic of Korea-United States Free Trade Agreement (KORUS FTA) was signed between South Korea and the United States, but its formal implementation was repeatedly delayed, pending approval by the legislative bodies of the two countries. On October 12, 2011, the U.S. Congress passed the long-stalled trade agreement with South Korea. It went into effect on March 15, 2012. Unresolved tension with North Korea has prompted South Korea to allocate 2.6% of its GDP and 15% of all government spending to its military (Government share of GDP: 14.967%), while maintaining compulsory conscription for men. Consequently, South Korea has the world's seventh largest number of active troops (599,000 in 2018), the world's highest number of reserve troops (3,100,000 in 2018) and the tenth largest defense budget. As of 2019 South Korea has a defense budget of $43.1 billion. The South Korean military is ranked as the 7th most powerful military force in the world as of 2019. The South Korean military consists of the Army (ROKA), the Navy (ROKN), the Air Force (ROKAF), and the Marine Corps (ROKMC), and reserve forces. Many of these forces are concentrated near the Korean Demilitarized Zone. All South Korean males are constitutionally required to serve in the military, typically 21 months. Previous exceptions for South Korean citizens of mixed race no longer apply since 2011. In addition to male conscription in South Korea's sovereign military, 1,800 Korean males are selected every year to serve 21 months in the KATUSA Program to further augment the United States Forces Korea (USFK). In 2010, South Korea was spending ₩1.68 trillion in a cost-sharing agreement with the US to provide budgetary support to the US forces in Korea, on top of the ₩29.6 trillion budget for its own military. The South Korean army has 2,500 tanks in operation, including the K1A1 and K2 Black Panther, which form the backbone of the South Korean army's mechanized armor and infantry forces. A sizable arsenal of many artillery systems, including 1,700 self-propelled K55 and K9 Thunder howitzers and 680 helicopters and UAVs of numerous types, are assembled to provide additional fire, reconnaissance, and logistics support. South Korea's smaller but more advanced artillery force and wide range of airborne reconnaissance platforms are pivotal in the counter-battery suppression of North Korea's large artillery force, which operates more than 13,000 artillery systems deployed in various state of fortification and mobility. The South Korean navy has made its first major transformation into a blue-water navy through the formation of the Strategic Mobile Fleet, which includes a battle group of Chungmugong Yi Sun-sin class destroyers, Dokdo class amphibious assault ship, AIP-driven Type 214 submarines, and King Sejong the Great class destroyers, which is equipped with the latest baseline of Aegis fleet-defense system that allows the ships to track and destroy multiple cruise missiles and ballistic missiles simultaneously, forming an integral part of South Korea's indigenous missile defense umbrella against the North Korean military's missile threat. The South Korean air force operates 840 aircraft, making it world's ninth largest air force, including several types of advanced fighters like F-15K, heavily modified KF-16C/D, and the indigenous T-50 Golden Eagle, supported by well-maintained fleets of older fighters such as F-4E and KF-5E/F that still effectively serve the air force alongside the more modern aircraft. In an attempt to gain strength in terms of not just numbers but also modernity, the commissioning of four Boeing 737 AEW&C; aircraft, under Project Peace Eye for centralized intelligence gathering and analysis on a modern battlefield, will enhance the fighters' and other support aircraft's ability to perform their missions with awareness and precision. In May 2011, Korea Aerospace Industries Ltd., South Korea's largest plane maker, signed a $400 million deal to sell 16 T-50 Golden Eagle trainer jets to Indonesia, making South Korea the first country in Asia to export supersonic jets. From time to time, South Korea has sent its troops overseas to assist American forces. It has participated in most major conflicts that the United States has been involved in the past 50 years. South Korea dispatched 325,517 troops to fight alongside American, Australian, Filipino, New Zealand and South Vietnamese soldiers in the Vietnam War, with a peak strength of 50,000. In 2004, South Korea sent 3,300 troops of the Zaytun Division to help re- building in northern Iraq, and was the third largest contributor in the coalition forces after only the US and Britain. Beginning in 2001, South Korea had so far deployed 24,000 troops in the Middle East region to support the War on Terrorism. A further 1,800 were deployed since 2007 to reinforce UN peacekeeping forces in Lebanon. The United States has stationed a substantial contingent of troops to defend South Korea. There are approximately 28,500 U.S. military personnel stationed in South Korea, most of them serving one year unaccompanied tours. The U.S. troops, which are primarily ground and air units, are assigned to USFK and mainly assigned to the Eighth United States Army of the U.S. Army and Seventh Air Force of the U.S. Air Force. They are stationed in installations at Osan, Kunsan, Yongsan, Dongducheon, Sungbuk, Camp Humphreys, and Daegu, as well as at Camp Bonifas in the DMZ Joint Security Area. A fully functioning UN Command is at the top of the chain of command of all forces in South Korea, including the U.S. forces and the entire South Korean military – if a sudden escalation of war between North and South Korea were to occur the United States would assume control of the South Korean armed forces in all military and paramilitary moves. There has been long term agreement between the United States and South Korea that South Korea should eventually assume the lead for its own defense. This transition to a South Korean command has been slow and often postponed, although it is currently scheduled to occur in the early 2020s. Male citizens who refuse or reject to undertake military services because of conscientious objection are typically imprisoned, with over 600 individuals usually imprisoned at any given time; more than the rest of the world put together. The vast majority of these are young men from the Jehovah's Witnesses Christian denomination. See Conscription in South Korea. However, in a recent court ruling, conscientious objectors were permitted to reject military service. South Korea's mixed economy ranks 11th nominal and 13th purchasing power parity GDP in the world, identifying it as one of the G-20 major economies. It is a developed country with a high-income economy and is the most industrialized member country of the OECD. South Korean brands such as LG Electronics and Samsung are internationally famous and garnered South Korea's reputation for its quality electronics and other manufactured goods. Its massive investment in education has taken the country from mass illiteracy to a major international technological powerhouse. The country's national economy benefits from a highly skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentages of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. South Korea's economy was one of the world's fastest-growing from the early 1960s to the late 1990s, and was still one of the fastest-growing developed countries in the 2000s, along with Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan, the other three Asian Tigers. South Koreans refer to this growth as the Miracle on the Han River. The South Korean economy is heavily dependent on international trade, and in 2014, South Korea was the fifth-largest exporter and seventh-largest importer in the world. Despite the South Korean economy's high growth potential and apparent structural stability, the country suffers damage to its credit rating in the stock market because of the belligerence of North Korea in times of deep military crises, which has an adverse effect on South Korean financial markets. The International Monetary Fund compliments the resilience of the South Korean economy against various economic crises, citing low state debt and high fiscal reserves that can quickly be mobilized to address financial emergencies. Although it was severely harmed by the Asian economic crisis of the late 1990s, the South Korean economy managed a rapid recovery and subsequently tripled its GDP. Furthermore, South Korea was one of the few developed countries that were able to avoid a recession during the global financial crisis. Its economic growth rate reached 6.2 percent in 2010 (the fastest growth for eight years after significant growth by 7.2 percent in 2002), a sharp recovery from economic growth rates of 2.3% in 2008 and 0.2% in 2009, when the global financial crisis hit. The unemployment rate in South Korea also remained low in 2009, at 3.6%. South Korea became a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 1996. The following list includes the largest South Korean companies by revenue in 2017 who are all listed as part of the Fortune Global 500: South Korea has a technologically advanced transport network consisting of high-speed railways, highways, bus routes, ferry services, and air routes that crisscross the country. Korea Expressway Corporation operates the toll highways and service amenities en route. Korail provides frequent train services to all major South Korean cities. Two rail lines, Gyeongui and Donghae Bukbu Line, to North Korea are now being reconnected. The Korean high- speed rail system, KTX, provides high-speed service along Gyeongbu and Honam Line. Major cities including Seoul, Busan, Incheon, Daegu, Daejeon and Gwangju have urban rapid transit systems. Express bus terminals are available in most cities. South Korea's main gateway and largest airport is Incheon International Airport, serving passengers in 2016. Other international airports include Gimpo, Busan and Jeju. There are also many airports that were built as part of the infrastructure boom but are barely used. There are also many heliports. The national carrier, Korean Air served over 26,800,000 passengers, including almost 19,000,000 international passengers in 2016. A second carrier, Asiana Airlines also serves domestic and international traffic. Combined, South Korean airlines serve 297 international routes. Smaller airlines, such as Jeju Air, provide domestic service with lower fares. South Korea is the world's fifth-largest nuclear power producer and the second-largest in Asia . Nuclear power in South Korea supplies 45% of electricity production, and research is very active with investigation into a variety of advanced reactors, including a small modular reactor, a liquid- metal fast/transmutation reactor and a high-temperature hydrogen generation design. Fuel production and waste handling technologies have also been developed locally. It is also a member of the ITER project. South Korea is an emerging exporter of nuclear reactors, having concluded agreements with the UAE to build and maintain four advanced nuclear reactors, with Jordan for a research nuclear reactor, and with Argentina for construction and repair of heavy-water nuclear reactors. , South Korea and Turkey are in negotiations regarding construction of two nuclear reactors. South Korea is also preparing to bid on construction of a light-water nuclear reactor for Argentina. South Korea is not allowed to enrich uranium or develop traditional uranium enrichment technology on its own, because of US political pressure, unlike most major nuclear powers such as Japan, Germany, and France, competitors of South Korea in the international nuclear market. This impediment to South Korea's indigenous nuclear industrial undertaking has sparked occasional diplomatic rows between the two allies. While South Korea is successful in exporting its electricity-generating nuclear technology and nuclear reactors, it cannot capitalize on the market for nuclear enrichment facilities and refineries, preventing it from further expanding its export niche. South Korea has sought unique technologies such as pyroprocessing to circumvent these obstacles and seek a more advantageous competition. The US has recently been wary of South Korea's burgeoning nuclear program, which South Korea insists will be for civilian use only. South Korea is the third highest ranked Asian country in the World Economic Forum's Network Readiness Index (NRI) after Singapore and Hong Kong respectively – an indicator for determining the development level of a country's information and communication technologies. South Korea ranked number 10 overall in the 2014 NRI ranking, up from 11 in 2013. In 2016, 17 million foreign tourists visited South Korea With rising tourist prospects, especially from foreign countries outside of Asia, the South Korean government has set a target of attracting 20 million foreign tourists a year by 2017. South Korean tourism is driven by many factors, including the prominence of Korean pop culture such as South Korean pop music and television dramas, known as the Korean Wave or (Hallyu), has gained popularity throughout East Asia. The Hyundai Research Institute reported that the Korean Wave has a direct impact in encouraging direct foreign investment back into the country through demand for products, and the tourism industry. Among East Asian countries, China was the most receptive, investing 1.4 billion in South Korea, with much of the investment within its service sector, a sevenfold increase from 2001. According to an analysis by economist Han Sang-Wan, a 1 percent increase in the exports of Korean cultural content pushes consumer goods exports up 0.083 percent while a 1 percent increase in Korean pop content exports to a country produces a 0.019 percent bump in tourism. The South Korean pension system was created to provide benefits to persons reaching old age, families and persons stricken with death of their primary breadwinner, and for the purposes of stabilizing its nations welfare state. South Korea's pension system structure is primarily based on taxation and is income-related. In 2007 there was a total of 18,367,000 insured individuals with only around 511,000 persons excluded from mandatory contribution. The current pension system is divided into four categories distributing benefits to participants through national, military personnel, governmental, and private school teacher pension schemes. The national pension scheme is the primary welfare system providing allowances to the majority of persons. Eligibility for the national pension scheme is not dependent on income but on age and residence, where those between the ages of 18 to 59 are covered. Any one who is under the age of 18 are dependents of someone who is covered or under a special exclusion where they are allowed to alternative provisions. The national pension scheme is divided into four categories of insured persons – the workplace-based insured, the individually insured, the voluntarily insured, and the voluntarily and continuously insured. Employees between the ages of 18 to 59 are covered under the workplace-based pension scheme and contribute 4.5% of their gross monthly earnings. The national pension covers employees who work in firms that employ five or more employees, fishermen, farmers, and the self-employed in both rural and urban areas. Employers are also covered under the workplace-based pension scheme and help cover their employees obligated 9% contribution by providing the remaining 4.5%. Anyone who is not employed, of the age of 60 or above, and excluded by article 6 of the National Pension Act but of the ages between 18 and 59, is covered under the individually insured pension scheme. Persons covered by the individually insured pension scheme are in charge of paying the entire 9% contribution themselves. Voluntarily insured persons are not subjected to mandatory coverage but can choose to be. This category comprises retirees who voluntarily choose to have additional benefits, individuals under the age of 27 without income, and individuals whose spouses are covered under a public welfare system, whether military, governmental, or private school teacher pensions. Like the Individually insured persons, they too are in charge of covering the full amount of the contribution. Voluntarily and continuously insured persons consists of individuals 60 years of age who want to fulfill the minimum insured period of 20 years to qualify for old age pension benefits. Excluding the workplace-based insured persons, all the other insured persons personally cover their own 9% contribution. South Korea's old-age pension scheme covers individuals age 60 or older for the rest of their life as long as they have satisfied the minimum of 20 years of national pension coverage beforehand. Individuals with a minimum of 10 years covered under the national pension scheme and who are 60 years of age are able to be covered by under a 'reduced old-age pension' scheme. There also is an 'active old-age pension' scheme that covers individuals age 60 to 65 engaged in activities yielding earned income. Individuals age of 55 and younger than 60 who are not engaged in activities yielding earned income are eligible to be covered under the 'early old-age pension' scheme. Around 60% of all Korean elders, age 65 and over are entitled to a 5% benefit of their past average income at an average of 90,000 Korean Won (KRW). Basic old-age pension schemes covered individuals 65 years of age who earned below an amount set by presidential order. In 2010, that ceiling was 700,00 KRW for a single individual and 1,120,000 for a couple, equivalent to around $600.00 and $960.00. Scientific and technological development in the South Korea at first did not occur largely because of more pressing matters such as the division of Korea and the Korean War that occurred right after its independence. It was not until the 1960s under the dictatorship of Park Chung-hee where South Korea's economy rapidly grew from industrialisation and the Chaebol corporations such as Samsung and LG. Ever since the industrialization of South Korea's economy, South Korea has placed its focus on technology-based corporations, which has been supported by infrastructure developments by the government. South Korean corporations Samsung and LG were ranked first and third largest mobile phone companies in the world in the first quarter of 2012, respectively. An estimated 90% of South Koreans own a mobile phone. Aside from placing/receiving calls and text messaging, mobile phones in the country are widely used for watching Digital Multimedia Broadcasting (DMB) or viewing websites. Over one million DMB phones have been sold and the three major wireless communications providers SK Telecom, KT, and LG U+ provide coverage in all major cities and other areas. South Korea has the fastest Internet download speeds in the world, with an average download speed of 25.3 Mbit/s. South Korea leads the OECD in graduates in science and engineering. The country ranks first among the most innovative countries in the Bloomberg Innovation Index. Additionally, South Korea today is known as a Launchpad of a mature mobile market, where developers can reap benefits of a market where very few technology constraints exist. There is a growing trend of inventions of new types of media or apps, utilizing the 4G and 5G internet infrastructure in South Korea. South Korea has today the infrastructures to meet a density of population and culture that has the capability to create strong local particularity. Following cyberattacks in the first half of 2013, whereby government, news- media, television station, and bank websites were compromised, the national government committed to the training of 5,000 new cybersecurity experts by 2017. The South Korean government blamed North Korea for these attacks, as well as incidents that occurred in 2009, 2011 and 2012, but Pyongyang denies the accusations. In late September 2013, a computer-security competition jointly sponsored by the defense ministry and the National Intelligence Service was announced. The winners were announced on September 29, 2013 and shared a total prize pool of 80 million won (US$74,000). South Korea's government maintains a broad-ranging approach toward the regulation of specific online content and imposes a substantial level of censorship on election-related discourse and on many websites that the government deems subversive or socially harmful. South Korea has sent up 10 satellites since 1992, all using foreign rockets and overseas launch pads, notably Arirang-1 in 1999, and Arirang-2 in 2006 as part of its space partnership with Russia. Arirang-1 was lost in space in 2008, after nine years in service. In April 2008, Yi So-yeon became the first Korean to fly in space, aboard the Russian Soyuz TMA-12. In June 2009, the first spaceport of South Korea, Naro Space Center, was completed at Goheung, Jeollanam-do. The launch of Naro-1 in August 2009 resulted in a failure. The second attempt in June 2010 was also unsuccessful. However, the third launch of the Naro 1 in January 2013 was successful. The government plans to develop Naro-2 by the year 2018. South Korea's efforts to build an indigenous space launch vehicle have been marred due to persistent political pressure from the United States, who had for many decades hindered South Korea's indigenous rocket and missile development programs in fear of their possible connection to clandestine military ballistic missile programs, which Korea many times insisted did not violate the research and development guidelines stipulated by US-Korea agreements on restriction of South Korean rocket technology research and development. South Korea has sought the assistance of foreign countries such as Russia through MTCR commitments to supplement its restricted domestic rocket technology. The two failed KSLV-I launch vehicles were based on the Universal Rocket Module, the first stage of the Russian Angara rocket, combined with a solid-fueled second stage built by South Korea. Robotics has been included in the list of main national R&D; projects in Korea since 2003. In 2009, the government announced plans to build robot-themed parks in Incheon and Masan with a mix of public and private funding. In 2005, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) developed the world's second walking humanoid robot, HUBO. A team in the Korea Institute of Industrial Technology developed the first Korean android, EveR-1 in May 2006. EveR-1 has been succeeded by more complex models with improved movement and vision. Plans of creating English-teaching robot assistants to compensate for the shortage of teachers were announced in February 2010, with the robots being deployed to most preschools and kindergartens by 2013. Robotics are also incorporated in the entertainment sector as well; the Korean Robot Game Festival has been held every year since 2004 to promote science and robot technology. Since the 1980s, the Korean government has invested in the development of a domestic biotechnology industry, and the sector is projected to grow to by 2010. The medical sector accounts for a large part of the production, including production of hepatitis vaccines and antibiotics. Recently, research and development in genetics and cloning has received increasing attention, with the first successful cloning of a dog, Snuppy (in 2005), and the cloning of two females of an endangered species of wolves by the Seoul National University in 2007. The rapid growth of the industry has resulted in significant voids in regulation of ethics, as was highlighted by the scientific misconduct case involving Hwang Woo-Suk. South Korea shares its traditional culture with North Korea, but the two Koreas have developed distinct contemporary forms of culture since the peninsula was divided in 1945. Historically, while the culture of Korea has been heavily influenced by that of neighboring China, it has nevertheless managed to develop a unique cultural identity that is distinct from its larger neighbor. Its rich and vibrant culture left 19 UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity, the third largest in the world, along with 12 World Heritage Sites. The South Korean Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism actively encourages the traditional arts, as well as modern forms, through funding and education programs. The industrialization and urbanization of South Korea have brought many changes to the way modern Koreans live. Changing economics and lifestyles have led to a concentration of population in major cities, especially the capital Seoul, with multi-generational households separating into nuclear family living arrangements. A 2014 Euromonitor study found that South Koreans drink the most alcohol on a weekly basis compared to the rest of the world. South Koreans drink 13.7 shots of liquor per week on average and, of the 44 other countries analyzed, Russia, the Philippines, and Thailand follow. Korean art has been highly influenced by Buddhism and Confucianism, which can be seen in the many traditional paintings, sculptures, ceramics and the performing arts. Korean pottery and porcelain, such as Joseon's baekja and buncheong, and Goryeo's celadon are well known throughout the world. The Korean tea ceremony, pansori, talchum and buchaechum are also notable Korean performing arts. Post-war modern Korean art started to flourish in the 1960s and 1970s, when South Korean artists took interest in geometrical shapes and intangible subjects. Establishing a harmony between man and nature was also a favorite of this time. Because of social instability, social issues appeared as main subjects in the 1980s. Art was influenced by various international events and exhibits in Korea, and with it brought more diversity. The Olympic Sculpture Garden in 1988, the transposition of the 1993 edition of the Whitney Biennial to Seoul, the creation of the Gwangju Biennale and the Korean Pavilion at the Venice Biennale in 1995 were notable events. Because of South Korea's tumultuous history, construction and destruction has been repeated endlessly, resulting in an interesting melange of architectural styles and designs. Korean traditional architecture is characterized by its harmony with nature. Ancient architects adopted the bracket system characterized by thatched roofs and heated floors called ondol. People of the upper classes built bigger houses with elegantly curved tiled roofs with lifting eaves. Traditional architecture can be seen in the palaces and temples, preserved old houses called hanok, and special sites like Hahoe Folk Village, Yangdong Village of Gyeongju and Korean Folk Village. Traditional architecture may also be seen at the nine UNESCO World Heritage Sites in South Korea. Western architecture was first introduced to Korea at the end of the 19th century. Churches, offices for foreign legislation, schools and university buildings were built in new styles. With the annexation of Korea by Japan in 1910 the colonial regime intervened in Korea's architectural heritage, and Japanese-style modern architecture was imposed. The anti- Japanese sentiment, and the Korean War, led to the destruction of most buildings constructed during that time. Korean architecture entered a new phase of development during the post-Korean War reconstruction, incorporating modern architectural trends and styles. Stimulated by the economic growth in the 1970s and 1980s, active redevelopment saw new horizons in architectural design. In the aftermath of the 1988 Seoul Olympics, South Korea has witnessed a wide variation of styles in its architectural landscape due, in large part, to the opening up of the market to foreign architects. Contemporary architectural efforts have been constantly trying to balance the traditional philosophy of "harmony with nature" and the fast-paced urbanization that the country has been going through in recent years. Korean cuisine, hanguk yori (한국요리; 韓國料理), or hansik (한식; 韓食), has evolved through centuries of social and political change. Ingredients and dishes vary by province. There are many significant regional dishes that have proliferated in different variations across the country in the present day. The Korean royal court cuisine once brought all of the unique regional specialties together for the royal family. Meals consumed both by the royal family and ordinary Korean citizens have been regulated by a unique culture of etiquette. Korean cuisine is largely based on rice, noodles, tofu, vegetables, fish and meats. Traditional Korean meals are noted for the number of side dishes, banchan (반찬), which accompany steam-cooked short-grain rice. Every meal is accompanied by numerous banchan. Kimchi (김치), a fermented, usually spicy vegetable dish is commonly served at every meal and is one of the best known Korean dishes. Korean cuisine usually involves heavy seasoning with sesame oil, doenjang (된장), a type of fermented soybean paste, soy sauce, salt, garlic, ginger, and gochujang (고추장), a hot pepper paste. Other well-known dishes are Bulgogi (불고기), grilled marinated beef, Gimbap (김밥), and Tteokbokki (떡볶이), a spicy snack consisting of rice cake seasoned with gochujang or a spicy chili paste. Soups are also a common part of a Korean meal and are served as part of the main course rather than at the beginning or the end of the meal. Soups known as guk (국) are often made with meats, shellfish and vegetables. Similar to guk, tang (탕; 湯) has less water, and is more often served in restaurants. Another type is jjigae (찌개), a stew that is typically heavily seasoned with chili pepper and served boiling hot. Popular Korean alcoholic beverages include Soju, Makgeolli and Bokbunja ju. Korea is unique among East Asian countries in its use of metal chopsticks. Metal chopsticks have been discovered in Goguryeo archaeological sites. In addition to domestic consumption, South Korea has a thriving entertainment industry where various facets of South Korean entertainment including television dramas, films, and popular music has generated significant financial revenues for the nation's economy. The cultural phenomenon known as Hallyu or the "Korean Wave", has swept many countries across Asia making South Korea a major soft power as an exporter of popular culture and entertainment, rivaling Western nations such as the United States and the United Kingdom. Until the 1990s, trot and traditional Korean folk based ballads dominated South Korean popular music. The emergence of the South Korean pop group Seo Taiji and Boys in 1992 marked a turning point for South Korean popular music, also known as K-pop, as the genre modernized itself from incorporating elements of popular musical genres from across the world such as Western popular music, experimental, jazz, gospel, Latin, classical, hip hop, rhythm and blues, electronic dance, reggae, country, folk, and rock on top of its uniquely traditional Korean music roots. Western-style pop, hip hop, rhythm and blues, rock, folk, electronic dance oriented acts have become dominant in the modern South Korean popular music scene, though trot is still enjoyed among older South Koreans. K-pop stars and groups are well known across Asia and have found international fame making millions of dollars in export revenue. Many K-pop acts have also been able secure a strong overseas following using online social media platforms such as the video sharing website YouTube. South Korean singer PSY became an international sensation when his song "Gangnam Style" topped global music charts in 2012. Since the success of the film Shiri in 1999, the Korean film industry has begun to gain recognition internationally. Domestic film has a dominant share of the market, partly because of the existence of screen quotas requiring cinemas to show Korean films at least 73 days a year. South Korean television shows have become popular outside of Korea. South Korean television dramas, known as K-dramas have begun to find fame internationally. Many dramas tend to have a romantic focus, such as Princess Hours, You're Beautiful, Playful Kiss, My Name is Kim Sam Soon, Boys Over Flowers, Winter Sonata, Autumn in My Heart, Full House, City Hunter, All About Eve, Secret Garden, I Can Hear Your Voice, Master's Sun, My Love from the Star, Healer, Descendants of the Sun and . Historical dramas have included Faith, Dae Jang Geum, The Legend, Dong Yi, Moon Embracing the Sun, Sungkyunkwan Scandal, and Iljimae. There are many official public holidays in South Korea. Korean New Year's Day, or "Seollal", is celebrated on the first day of the Korean lunar calendar. Korean Independence Day falls on March 1, and commemorates the March 1 Movement of 1919. Memorial Day is celebrated on June 6, and its purpose is to honor the men and women who died in South Korea's independence movement. Constitution Day is on July 17, and it celebrates the promulgation of Constitution of the Republic of Korea. Liberation Day, on August 15, celebrates Korea's liberation from the Empire of Japan in 1945. Every 15th day of the 8th lunar month, Koreans celebrate the Midautumn Festival, in which Koreans visit their ancestral hometowns and eat a variety of traditional Korean foods. On October 1, Armed Forces day is celebrated, honoring the military forces of South Korea. October 3 is National Foundation Day. Hangul Day, on October 9 commemorates the invention of hangul, the native alphabet of the Korean language. The martial art taekwondo originated in Korea. In the 1950s and 1960s, modern rules were standardized, with taekwondo becoming an official Olympic sport in 2000. Other Korean martial arts include Taekkyon, hapkido, Tang Soo Do, Kuk Sool Won, kumdo and subak. Football and baseball have traditionally been regarded as the most popular sports in Korea. Recent polling indicates that a majority, 41% of South Korean sports fans continue to self-identify as football fans, with baseball ranked 2nd at 25% of respondents. However, the polling did not indicate the extent to which respondents follow both sports. The national football team became the first team in the Asian Football Confederation to reach the FIFA World Cup semi-finals in the 2002 FIFA World Cup, jointly hosted by South Korea and Japan. The Korea Republic national team (as it is known) has qualified for every World Cup since Mexico 1986, and has broken out of the group stage twice: first in 2002, and again in 2010, when it was defeated by eventual semi-finalist Uruguay in the Round of 16. At the 2012 Summer Olympics, South Korea won the Bronze Medal for football. Baseball was first introduced to Korea in 1905 and has since become increasingly popular, with some sources claiming it has surpassed football as the most popular sport in the country. Recent years have been characterized by increasing attendance and ticket prices for professional baseball games. The Korea Professional Baseball league, a 10-team circuit, was established in 1982. The South Korea national team finished third in the 2006 World Baseball Classic and second in the 2009 tournament. The team's 2009 final game against Japan was widely watched in Korea, with a large screen at Gwanghwamun crossing in Seoul broadcasting the game live. In the 2008 Summer Olympics, South Korea won the gold medal in baseball. Also in 1982, at the Baseball Worldcup, Korea won the gold medal. At the 2010 Asian Games, the Korean National Baseball team won the gold medal. Several Korean players have gone on to play in Major League Baseball. Basketball is a popular sport in the country as well. South Korea has traditionally had one of the top basketball teams in Asia and one of the continent's strongest basketball divisions. Seoul hosted the 1967 and 1995 Asian Basketball Championship. The Korea national basketball team has won a record number of 23 medals at the event to date. South Korea hosted the Asian Games in 1986 (Seoul), 2002 (Busan) and 2014 (Incheon). It also hosted the Winter Universiade in 1997, the Asian Winter Games in 1999 and the Summer Universiade in 2003, 2015. In 1988, South Korea hosted the Summer Olympics in Seoul, coming fourth with 12 gold medals, 10 silver medals and 11 bronze medals. South Korea regularly performs well in archery, shooting, table tennis, badminton, short track speed skating, handball, hockey, freestyle wrestling, Greco-Roman wrestling, baseball, judo, taekwondo, speed skating, figure Skating, and weightlifting. The Seoul Olympic Museum is a museum in Seoul, South Korea, dedicated to the 1988 Summer Olympics. On July 6, 2011 Pyeongchang was chosen by the IOC to host the 2018 Winter Olympics. South Korea has won more medals in the Winter Olympics than any other Asian country with a total of 45 medals (23 gold, 14 silver, and 8 bronze). At the 2010 Winter Olympics, South Korea ranked fifth in the overall medal rankings. South Korea is especially strong in short track speed skating. However, speed skating and figure skating are very popular, too, and ice hockey is an emerging sport with Anyang Halla winning their first ever Asia League Ice Hockey title in March 2010. Seoul hosted a professional triathlon race, which is part of the International Triathlon Union (ITU) World Championship Series in May 2010. In 2011, the South Korean city of Daegu hosted the 2011 IAAF World Championships in Athletics. In October 2010, South Korea hosted its first Formula One race at the Korea International Circuit in Yeongam, about south of Seoul. The Korean Grand Prix was held from 2010 to 2013, but was not placed on the 2014 F1 calendar. Domestic horse racing events are also followed by South Koreans and Seoul Race Park in Gwacheon, Gyeonggi-do is located closest to Seoul out of the country's three tracks. Competitive video gaming, also called eSports (sometimes written e-Sports), has become more popular in South Korea in recent years, particularly among young people. The two most popular games are League of Legends and StarCraft. The gaming scene of South Korea is managed by the Korean e-Sports Association (KeSPA for short) and has become something of a career for many players. They can make a living out of their activity and top players can even make a significant amount of money with some high end Starcraft II players ending up making six figure salaries. Outline of South Korea, Index of South Korea-related articles Lew, Yong Ick. The Making of the First Korean President: Syngman Rhee's Quest for Independence (University of Hawai'i Press; 2013); scholarly biography; 576 pages; (Korea.net), Korea Tourism Guide website, Korea National Statistical Office, A Country Study: South Korea in the Library of Congress, Korea OECD, South Korea profile from the BBC News, South Korea Encyclopædia Britannica entry, Key Development Forecasts for South Korea from International Futures The Korean War (in South Korean , "Korean War"; in North Korean , "Fatherland Liberation War"; 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953) was a war between North Korea (with the support of China and the Soviet Union) and South Korea (with the support of the United Nations, principally from the United States). The war began on 25 June 1950 when North Korea invaded South Korea. At the end of World War II, the Soviet Union and the United States liberated Korea from imperial Japanese colonial control on 15 August 1945. After the war had ended, Korea was divided at the 38th parallel into two zones of occupation, the Soviets administered the northern half and the Americans administered the southern half. With the border set at the 38th parallel in 1948, two sovereign states were established as a result of geopolitical tensions of the Cold War (between the Soviet Union and the United States). A socialist state was established in the north under the communist leadership of Kim Il-sung and a capitalist state in the south under the anti-communist leadership of Syngman Rhee. Both governments of the two new Korean states claimed to be the sole legitimate government of all of Korea, and neither accepted the border as permanent. The conflict escalated into warfare when North Korean military (KPA) forces—supported by the Soviet Union and China—crossed the border and advanced into South Korea on 25 June 1950. The United Nations Security Council authorized the formation of the United Nations Command and the dispatch of forces to Korea to repel what was recognized as a North Korean invasion. Twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing around 90% of the military personnel. After the first two months of war, South Korean Army (ROKA) and the US forces rapidly dispatched to Korea were on the point of defeat. As a result, the ROKA and US troops retreated to a small area behind a defensive line known as the Pusan Perimeter. In September 1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Incheon, and cut off many KPA troops in South Korea. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were forced back north. UN forces invaded North Korea in October 1950 and moved rapidly towards the Yalu River—the border with China—but on 19 October 1950, Chinese forces of the People's Volunteer Army (PVA) crossed the Yalu and entered the war. The surprise Chinese intervention triggered a retreat of UN forces back below the 38th Parallel by late December. In these and subsequent battles, Seoul changed hands four times, and the last two years of fighting became a war of attrition, with the front line close to the 38th Parallel. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate. North Korea was subject to a massive U.S. bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in air-to-air combat for the first time in history, and Soviet pilots covertly flew in defense of their communist allies. The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when the Korean Armistice Agreement was signed. The agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no peace treaty was ever signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war, engaged in a frozen conflict. In April 2018, the leaders of North and South Korea met at the DMZ and agreed to work towards a treaty to formally end the Korean War. The Korean War was among the most destructive conflicts of the modern era, with approximately 3 million war fatalities and a larger proportional civilian death toll than World War II or the Vietnam War. It incurred the destruction of virtually all of Korea's major cities, thousands of massacres by both sides (including the mass killing of tens of thousands of suspected communists by the South Korean government), and the torture and starvation of prisoners of war by the North Korean command. North Korea became among the most heavily-bombed countries in history. In South Korea, the war is usually referred to as "625" or the "6–2–5 Upheaval" ( (), yook-i-o dongnan), reflecting the date of its commencement on 25 June. In North Korea, the war is officially referred to as the "Fatherland Liberation War" (Choguk haebang chǒnjaeng) or alternatively the "Chosǒn [Korean] War" (, Chosǒn chǒnjaeng). In China, the war is officially called the "War to Resist America and Aid Korea" (), although the term "Chaoxian (Korean) War" () is also used in unofficial contexts, along with the term "Hán (Korean) War" () more commonly used in regions such as Hong Kong and Macau. In the US, the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a "police action" as the United States never formally declared war on its opponents and the operation was conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. It has been sometimes referred to in the English-speaking world as "The Forgotten War" or "The Unknown War" because of the lack of public attention it received both during and after the war, relative to the global scale of World War II, which preceded it, and the subsequent angst of the Vietnam War, which succeeded it. Imperial Japan destroyed the influence of China over Korea in the First Sino- Japanese War (1894–95), ushering in the short-lived Korean Empire. A decade later, after defeating Imperial Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05), Japan made Korea its protectorate with the Eulsa Treaty in 1905, then annexed it with the Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty in 1910. Many Korean nationalists fled the country. The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea was founded in 1919 in Nationalist China. It failed to achieve international recognition, failed to unite nationalist groups, and had a fractious relationship with its US-based founding president, Syngman Rhee. From 1919 to 1925 and beyond, Korean communists led internal and external warfare against the Japanese. In China, the Nationalist National Revolutionary Army and the communist People's Liberation Army (PLA) helped organize Korean refugees against the Japanese military, which had also occupied parts of China. The Nationalist-backed Koreans, led by Yi Pom-Sok, fought in the Burma Campaign (December 1941 – August 1945). The communists, led by Kim Il-sung among others, fought the Japanese in Korea and Manchuria. At the Cairo Conference in November 1943, China, the United Kingdom and the United States all decided that "in due course Korea shall become free and independent". At the Tehran Conference in November 1943 and the Yalta Conference in February 1945, the Soviet Union promised to join its allies in the Pacific War within three months of the victory in Europe. Accordingly, it declared war on Japan on 9 August 1945, three days after the USA atomic bombing of Hiroshima. By 10 August, the Red Army had begun to occupy the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. On the night of 10 August in Washington, US Colonels Dean Rusk and Charles H. Bonesteel III were assigned with dividing the Korean Peninsula into Soviet and US occupation zones and proposed the 38th Parallel. This was incorporated into the US General Order No. 1 which responded to the Japanese surrender on 15 August. Explaining the choice of the 38th Parallel, Rusk observed, "even though it was further north than could be realistically reached by US forces, in the event of Soviet disagreement ... we felt it important to include the capital of Korea in the area of responsibility of American troops". He noted that he was "faced with the scarcity of US forces immediately available, and time and space factors, which would make it difficult to reach very far north, before Soviet troops could enter the area". As Rusk's comments indicate, the US doubted whether the Soviet government would agree to this. Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, however, maintained his wartime policy of co-operation, and on 16 August the Red Army halted at the 38th Parallel for three weeks to await the arrival of U.S. forces in the south. On 8 September 1945, US Lieutenant General John R. Hodge arrived in Incheon to accept the Japanese surrender south of the 38th Parallel. Appointed as military governor, Hodge directly controlled South Korea as head of the United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK 1945–48). He attempted to establish control by restoring Japanese colonial administrators to power, but in the face of Korean protests quickly reversed this decision. Hodge did keep in governmental positions a large number of Koreans who had directly served and collaborated with the Japanese colonial government. This presence was particularly pronounced in the Korean National Police Force, who would later suppress widespread rebellions to the ROK. The USAMGIK refused to recognize the provisional government of the short-lived People's Republic of Korea (PRK) due to its suspected Communist sympathies. In December 1945, Korea was administered by a US-Soviet Union Joint Commission, as agreed at the Moscow Conference, with the aim of granting independence after a five-year trusteeship. The idea was not popular among Koreans and riots broke out. To contain them, the USAMGIK banned strikes on 8 December 1945 and outlawed the PRK Revolutionary Government and the PRK People's Committees on 12 December 1945. Following further large-scale civilian unrest, the USAMGIK declared martial law. Citing the inability of the Joint Commission to make progress, the US government decided to hold an election under United Nations auspices with the aim of creating an independent Korea. The Soviet authorities and the Korean Communists refused to co-operate on the grounds it would not be fair, and many South Korean politicians boycotted it. A general election was held in the South on 10 May 1948. North Korea held parliamentary elections three months later on 25 August. The resultant South Korean government promulgated a national political constitution on 17 July 1948, and elected Syngman Rhee as President on 20 July 1948. This election is generally considered to have been manipulated by the Rhee regime. The Republic of Korea (South Korea) was established on 15 August 1948. In the Soviet Korean Zone of Occupation, the Soviet Union agreed to the establishment a communist government led by Kim Il- sung. The Soviet Union withdrew its forces from Korea in 1948, and US troops withdrew in 1949. With the end of the war with Japan, the Chinese Civil War resumed in earnest between the Communists and Nationalists. While the Communists were struggling for supremacy in Manchuria, they were supported by the North Korean government with matériel and manpower. According to Chinese sources, the North Koreans donated 2,000 railway cars worth of supplies while thousands of Koreans served in the Chinese PLA during the war. North Korea also provided the Chinese Communists in Manchuria with a safe refuge for non-combatants and communications with the rest of China. The North Korean contributions to the Chinese Communist victory were not forgotten after the creation of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949. As a token of gratitude, between 50,000 and 70,000 Korean veterans that served in the PLA were sent back along with their weapons, and they later played a significant role in the initial invasion of South Korea. China promised to support the North Koreans in the event of a war against South Korea. After the formation of the PRC, the PRC government named the Western nations, led by the US, as the biggest threat to its national security. Basing this judgment on China's century of humiliation beginning in the mid-19th century, US support for the Nationalists during the Chinese Civil War, and the ideological struggles between revolutionaries and reactionaries, the PRC Chinese leadership believed that China would become a critical battleground in the US' crusade against Communism. As a countermeasure and to elevate China's standing among the worldwide Communist movements, the PRC leadership adopted a foreign policy that actively promoted Communist revolutions throughout territories on China's periphery. By 1948, a large-scale North Korea-backed insurgency had broken out in the southern half of the peninsula. This was exacerbated by the ongoing undeclared border war between the Koreas, which saw division level engagements and thousands of deaths on both sides. The ROK in this time was almost entirely trained and focused in counterinsurgency, rather than conventional warfare. They were equipped and advised by a force of a few hundred American officers, who were largely successful in helping the ROKA to subdue guerrillas and hold its own against KPA forces along the 38th parallel. Approximately 8,000 South Korean soldiers and police died in the insurgent war and border clashes. The first socialist uprising occurred without direct North Korean participation, though the guerrillas still professed support for the northern government. Beginning in April 1948 on the isolated island of Jeju, the campaign saw mass arrests and repression by the South Korean government in the fight against the South Korean Labor Party, resulting in a total of 30,000 violent deaths, among them 14,373 civilians (of whom ~2,000 were killed by rebels and ~12,000 by ROK security forces). The Yeosu–Suncheon rebellion overlapped with it, as several thousand army defectors waving red flags massacred right-leaning families. This resulted in another brutal suppression by the government and between 2,976 and 3,392 deaths. By May 1949, both uprisings had been crushed. Insurgency reignited in the spring of 1949, when attacks by guerrillas in the mountainous regions (buttressed by army defectors and North Korean agents) increased. Insurgent activity peaked in late 1949 as the ROKA engaged so- called People's Guerrilla Units. Organized and armed by the North Korean government, and backed up by 2,400 KPA commandos who had infiltrated through the border, these guerrillas launched a large offensive in September aimed at undermining the South Korean government and preparing the country for the KPA's arrival in force. This offensive failed. However, by this point the guerrillas were firmly entrenched in the Taebaek-san region of the North Gyeongsang Province (around Taegu), as well as in the border areas of the Gangwon Province. While the insurgency was ongoing, the ROKA and KPA engaged in multiple battalion-sized battles along the border, starting in May 1949. Serious border clashes between South and North continued on 4 August 1949, when thousands of North Korean troops attacked South Korean troops occupying territory north of the 38th Parallel. The 2nd and 18th ROK Infantry Regiments repulsed initial attacks in Kuksa-bong (above the 38th Parallel) and Ch'ungmu, and at the end of the clashes ROK troops were "completely routed". Border incidents decreased significantly by the start of 1950. Meanwhile, counterinsurgency efforts in the South Korean interior intensified; persistent operations, paired with worsening weather conditions, eventually denied the guerrillas sanctuary and wore away their fighting strength. North Korea responded by sending more troops to link up with existing insurgents and build more partisan cadres; the number of North Korean infiltrators had reached 3,000 men in 12 units by the start of 1950, but all of these units were destroyed or scattered by the ROKA. On 1 October 1949, the ROKA launched a three-pronged assault on the insurgents in South Cholla and Taegu. By March 1950, the ROKA claimed 5,621 guerrillas killed or captured and 1,066 small arms seized. This operation crippled the insurgency. Soon after, the North Koreans made two final attempts to keep the uprising active, sending two battalion-sized units of infiltrators under the commands of Kimg Sang-ho and Kim Moo-hyon. The first battalion was annihilated to a man over the course of several engagements by the ROKA 8th Division. The second battalion was annihilated by a two-battalion hammer-and-anvil maneuver by units of the ROKA 6th Division, resulting in a loss toll of 584 KPA guerrillas (480 killed, 104 captured) and 69 ROKA troops killed, plus 184 wounded. By spring of 1950, guerrilla activity had mostly subsided; the border, too, was calm. By 1949, South Korean and US military actions had reduced the active number of indigenous communist guerrillas in the South from 5,000 to 1,000. However, Kim Il-sung believed that widespread uprisings had weakened the South Korean military and that a North Korean invasion would be welcomed by much of the South Korean population. Kim began seeking Stalin's support for an invasion in March 1949, traveling to Moscow to attempt to persuade him. Stalin initially did not think the time was right for a war in Korea. PLA forces were still embroiled in the Chinese Civil War, while US forces remained stationed in South Korea. By spring 1950, he believed that the strategic situation had changed: PLA forces under Mao Zedong had secured final victory in China, US forces had withdrawn from Korea, and the Soviets detonated their first nuclear bomb, breaking the US atomic monopoly. As the US had not directly intervened to stop the communist victory in China, Stalin calculated that they would be even less willing to fight in Korea, which had much less strategic significance. The Soviets had also cracked the codes used by the US to communicate with their embassy in Moscow, and reading these dispatches convinced Stalin that Korea did not have the importance to the US that would warrant a nuclear confrontation. Stalin began a more aggressive strategy in Asia based on these developments, including promising economic and military aid to China through the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance. In April 1950, Stalin gave Kim permission to attack the government in the South under the condition that Mao would agree to send reinforcements if needed. For Kim, this was the fulfillment of his goal to unite Korea after its division by foreign powers. Stalin made it clear that Soviet forces would not openly engage in combat, to avoid a direct war with the US. Kim met with Mao in May 1950. Mao was concerned the US would intervene but agreed to support the North Korean invasion. China desperately needed the economic and military aid promised by the Soviets. However, Mao sent more ethnic Korean PLA veterans to Korea and promised to move an army closer to the Korean border. Once Mao's commitment was secured, preparations for war accelerated. Soviet generals with extensive combat experience from the Second World War were sent to North Korea as the Soviet Advisory Group. These generals completed the plans for the attack by May. The original plans called for a skirmish to be initiated in the Ongjin Peninsula on the west coast of Korea. The North Koreans would then launch a counterattack that would capture Seoul and encircle and destroy the ROK. The final stage would involve destroying South Korean government remnants and capturing the rest of South Korea, including the ports. On 7 June 1950, Kim Il-sung called for a Korea- wide election on 5–8 August 1950 and a consultative conference in Haeju on 15–17 June 1950. On 11 June, the North sent three diplomats to the South as a peace overture that Rhee rejected outright. On 21 June, Kim Il-Sung revised his war plan to involve a general attack across the 38th Parallel, rather than a limited operation in the Ongjin Peninsula. Kim was concerned that South Korean agents had learned about the plans and that South Korean forces were strengthening their defenses. Stalin agreed to this change of plan. While these preparations were underway in the North, there were frequent clashes along the 38th Parallel, especially at Kaesong and Ongjin, many initiated by the South. The ROK was being trained by the US Korean Military Advisory Group (KMAG). On the eve of war, KMAG commander General William Lynn Roberts voiced utmost confidence in the ROK and boasted that any North Korean invasion would merely provide "target practice". For his part, Syngman Rhee repeatedly expressed his desire to conquer the North, including when US diplomat John Foster Dulles visited Korea on 18 June. Although some South Korean and US intelligence officers predicted an attack from the North, similar predictions had been made before and nothing had happened. The Central Intelligence Agency noted the southward movement by the KPA, but assessed this as a "defensive measure" and concluded an invasion was "unlikely". On 23 June, UN observers inspected the border and did not detect that war was imminent. Throughout 1949 and 1950, the Soviets continued arming North Korea. After the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War, ethnic Korean units in the PLA were released to North Korea. Chinese involvement was extensive from the beginning, building on previous collaboration between the Chinese and Korean communists during the Chinese Civil War. In the fall of 1949, two PLA divisions composed mainly of Korean-Chinese troops (the 164th and 166th) entered North Korea, followed by smaller units throughout the rest of 1949; these troops brought with them not only their experience and training, but their weapons and other equipment, changing little but their uniforms. The reinforcement of the KPA with PLA veterans continued into 1950, with the 156th division and several other units of the former Fourth Field Army arriving (also with their equipment) in February; the PLA 156th Division was reorganized as the KPA 7th Division. By mid-1950, between 50,000 and 70,000 former PLA troops had entered North Korea, forming a significant part of the KPA's strength on the eve of the war's beginning. Several generals, such as Lee Kwon-mu, were PLA veterans born to ethnic Koreans in China. The combat veterans and equipment from China, the tanks, artillery and aircraft supplied by the Soviets, and rigorous training increased North Korea's military superiority over the South, armed by the US military with mostly small arms, but no heavy weaponry such as tanks. According to the first official census in 1949 the population of North Korea numbered 9,620,000, and by mid-1950 North Korean forces numbered between 150,000 and 200,000 troops, organized into 10 infantry divisions, one tank division, and one air force division, with 210 fighter planes and 280 tanks, who captured scheduled objectives and territory, among them Kaesong, Chuncheon, Uijeongbu and Ongjin. Their forces included 274 T-34-85 tanks, 200 artillery pieces, 110 attack bombers, and some 150 Yak fighter planes, and 35 reconnaissance aircraft. In addition to the invasion force, the North had 114 fighters, 78 bombers, 105 T-34-85 tanks, and some 30,000 soldiers stationed in reserve in North Korea. Although each navy consisted of only several small warships, the North and South Korean navies fought in the war as sea-borne artillery for their armies. In contrast, the South Korean population totaled 20,188,641, and its army was unprepared and ill-equipped. As of 25 June 1950 the ROK had 98,000 soldiers (65,000 combat, 33,000 support), no tanks (they had been requested from the US military, but requests were denied), and a 22-plane air force comprising 12 liaison-type and 10 AT6 advanced-trainer airplanes. Large US garrisons and air forces were in Japan, but only 200–300 US troops were in Korea. At dawn on Sunday, 25 June 1950, the KPA crossed the 38th Parallel behind artillery fire. The KPA justified its assault with the claim that ROK troops attacked first and that the KPA were aiming to arrest and execute the "bandit traitor Syngman Rhee". Fighting began on the strategic Ongjin Peninsula in the west. There were initial South Korean claims that the 17th Regiment captured the city of Haeju, and this sequence of events has led some scholars to argue that the South Koreans fired first. Whoever fired the first shots in Ongjin, within an hour, KPA forces attacked all along the 38th Parallel. The KPA had a combined arms force including tanks supported by heavy artillery. The ROK had no tanks, anti-tank weapons or heavy artillery to stop such an attack. In addition, the South Koreans committed their forces in a piecemeal fashion and these were routed in a few days. On 27 June, Rhee evacuated from Seoul with some of the government. On 28 June, at 2 am, the ROK blew up the Hangang Bridge across the Han River in an attempt to stop the KPA. The bridge was detonated while 4,000 refugees were crossing it and hundreds were killed. Destroying the bridge also trapped many ROK units north of the Han River. In spite of such desperate measures, Seoul fell that same day. A number of South Korean National Assemblymen remained in Seoul when it fell, and forty-eight subsequently pledged allegiance to the North. On 28 June, Rhee ordered the massacre of suspected political opponents in his own country. In five days, the ROK, which had 95,000 men on 25 June, was down to less than 22,000 men. In early July, when US forces arrived, what was left of the ROK were placed under US operational command of the United Nations Command. The Truman administration was unprepared for the invasion. Korea was not included in the strategic Asian Defense Perimeter outlined by United States Secretary of State Dean Acheson. Truman himself was at his home in Independence, Missouri. Military strategists were more concerned with the security of Europe against the Soviet Union than East Asia. At the same time, the administration was worried that a war in Korea could quickly widen into another world war should the Chinese or Soviets decide to get involved. While there was initial hesitance by some in the US government to get involved in the war, considerations about Japan played a part in the ultimate decision to engage on behalf of South Korea. Especially after the fall of China to the Communists, US experts on East Asia saw Japan as the critical counterweight to the Soviet Union and China in the region. While there was no US policy dealing with South Korea directly as a national interest, its proximity to Japan increased the importance of South Korea. Said Kim: "The recognition that the security of Japan required a non-hostile Korea led directly to President Truman's decision to intervene ... The essential point ... is that the American response to the North Korean attack stemmed from considerations of U.S. policy toward Japan." Another major consideration was the possible Soviet reaction in the event that the US intervened. The Truman administration was fearful that a war in Korea was a diversionary assault that would escalate to a general war in Europe once the United States committed in Korea. At the same time, "[t]here was no suggestion from anyone that the United Nations or the United States could back away from [the conflict]". Yugoslavia—a possible Soviet target because of the Tito-Stalin Split—was vital to the defense of Italy and Greece, and the country was first on the list of the National Security Council's post-North Korea invasion list of "chief danger spots". Truman believed if aggression went unchecked, a chain reaction would be initiated that would marginalize the UN and encourage Communist aggression elsewhere. The UN Security Council approved the use of force to help the South Koreans, and the US immediately began using what air and naval forces that were in the area to that end. The Truman administration still refrained from committing on the ground because some advisers believed the North Koreans could be stopped by air and naval power alone. The Truman administration was still uncertain if the attack was a ploy by the Soviet Union or just a test of US resolve. The decision to commit ground troops became viable when a communiqué was received on 27 June indicating the Soviet Union would not move against US forces in Korea. The Truman administration now believed it could intervene in Korea without undermining its commitments elsewhere. On 25 June 1950, the United Nations Security Council unanimously condemned the North Korean invasion of South Korea, with UN Security Council Resolution 82. The Soviet Union, a veto-wielding power, had boycotted the Council meetings since January 1950, protesting that the Taiwanese "Republic of China" and not the mainland "People's Republic of China" held a permanent seat in the UN Security Council. After debating the matter, the Security Council, on 27 June 1950, published Resolution 83 recommending member states provide military assistance to the Republic of Korea. On 27 June President Truman ordered US air and sea forces to help South Korea. On 4 July the Soviet Deputy Foreign Minister accused the US of starting armed intervention on behalf of South Korea. The Soviet Union challenged the legitimacy of the war for several reasons. The ROK intelligence upon which Resolution 83 was based came from US Intelligence; North Korea was not invited as a sitting temporary member of the UN, which violated UN Charter Article 32; and the fighting was beyond the UN Charter's scope, because the initial north-south border fighting was classed as a civil war. Because the Soviet Union was boycotting the Security Council at the time, legal scholars posited that deciding upon an action of this type required the unanimous vote of all the five permanent members including the Soviet Union. Within days of the invasion, masses of ROK soldiers—of dubious loyalty to the Syngman Rhee regime—were retreating southwards or defecting en masse to the northern side, the KPA. As soon as word of the attack was received, Acheson informed President Truman that the North Koreans had invaded South Korea. Truman and Acheson discussed a US invasion response and agreed that the US was obligated to act, paralleling the North Korean invasion with Adolf Hitler's aggressions in the 1930s, with the conclusion being that the mistake of appeasement must not be repeated. Several US industries were mobilized to supply materials, labor, capital, production facilities, and other services necessary to support the military objectives of the Korean War. However, President Truman later acknowledged that he believed fighting the invasion was essential to the US goal of the global containment of communism as outlined in the National Security Council Report 68 (NSC 68) (declassified in 1975): In August 1950, the President and the Secretary of State obtained the consent of Congress to appropriate $12 billion for military action in Korea. Because of the extensive defense cuts and the emphasis placed on building a nuclear bomber force, none of the services were in a position to make a robust response with conventional military strength. General Omar Bradley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, was faced with re-organizing and deploying a US military force that was a shadow of its World War II counterpart. Acting on Secretary of State Acheson's recommendation, President Truman ordered Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers in Japan General Douglas MacArthur to transfer matériel to the South Korean military while giving air cover to the evacuation of US nationals. The President disagreed with advisers who recommended unilateral US bombing of the North Korean forces, and ordered the US Seventh Fleet to protect the Republic of China (Taiwan), whose government asked to fight in Korea. The United States denied Taiwan's request for combat, lest it provoke a PRC retaliation. Because the United States had sent the Seventh Fleet to "neutralize" the Taiwan Strait, Chinese premier Zhou Enlai criticized both the UN and US initiatives as "armed aggression on Chinese territory". The Battle of Osan, the first significant US engagement of the Korean War, involved the 540-soldier Task Force Smith, which was a small forward element of the 24th Infantry Division which had been flown in from Japan. On 5 July 1950, Task Force Smith attacked the KPA at Osan but without weapons capable of destroying the KPA tanks. The KPA defeated the US soldiers; the result was 180 American dead, wounded, or taken prisoner. The KPA progressed southwards, pushing back US forces at Pyongtaek, Chonan, and Chochiwon, forcing the 24th Division's retreat to Taejeon, which the KPA captured in the Battle of Taejon; the 24th Division suffered 3,602 dead and wounded and 2,962 captured, including its commander, Major General William F. Dean. By August, the KPA steadily pushed back the ROK and the Eighth United States Army southwards. The impact of the Truman administration's defense budget cutbacks were now keenly felt, as US troops fought a series of costly rearguard actions. Facing a veteran and well led KPA force, and lacking sufficient anti-tank weapons, artillery or armor, the Americans retreated and the KPA advanced down the Korean Peninsula. During their advance, the KPA purged South Korea's intelligentsia by killing civil servants and intellectuals. On 20 August, General MacArthur warned North Korean leader Kim Il-sung was responsible for the KPA's atrocities. By September, UN forces were hemmed into a small corner of southeast Korea, near Pusan. This perimeter enclosed about 10% of Korea, in a line partially defined by the Nakdong River. Although Kim's early successes led him to predict he would end the war by the end of August, Chinese leaders were more pessimistic. To counter a possible US deployment, Zhou Enlai secured a Soviet commitment to have the Soviet Union support Chinese forces with air cover, and deployed 260,000 soldiers along the Korean border, under the command of Gao Gang. Zhou commanded Chai Chengwen to conduct a topographical survey of Korea, and directed Lei Yingfu, Zhou's military advisor in Korea, to analyze the military situation in Korea. Lei concluded that MacArthur would most likely attempt a landing at Incheon. After conferring with Mao that this would be MacArthur's most likely strategy, Zhou briefed Soviet and North Korean advisers of Lei's findings, and issued orders to PLA commanders deployed on the Korean border to prepare for US naval activity in the Korea Strait. In the resulting Battle of Pusan Perimeter (August–September 1950), the UN forces withstood KPA attacks meant to capture the city at the Naktong Bulge, P'ohang-dong, and Taegu. The United States Air Force (USAF) interrupted KPA logistics with 40 daily ground support sorties that destroyed 32 bridges, halting most daytime road and rail traffic. KPA forces were forced to hide in tunnels by day and move only at night. To deny matériel to the KPA, the USAF destroyed logistics depots, petroleum refineries, and harbors, while the US Navy air forces attacked transport hubs. Consequently, the over-extended KPA could not be supplied throughout the south. On 27 August, 67th Fighter Squadron aircraft mistakenly attacked facilities in Chinese territory and the Soviet Union called the UN Security Council's attention to China's complaint about the incident. The US proposed that a commission of India and Sweden determine what the US should pay in compensation but the Soviets vetoed the US proposal. Meanwhile, US garrisons in Japan continually dispatched soldiers and matériel to reinforce defenders in the Pusan Perimeter. Tank battalions deployed to Korea directly from the US mainland from the port of San Francisco to the port of Pusan, the largest Korean port. By late August, the Pusan Perimeter had some 500 medium tanks battle-ready. In early September 1950, UN forces outnumbered the KPA 180,000 to 100,000 soldiers. Against the rested and re-armed Pusan Perimeter defenders and their reinforcements, the KPA were undermanned and poorly supplied; unlike the UN forces, they lacked naval and air support. To relieve the Pusan Perimeter, General MacArthur recommended an amphibious landing at Incheon, near Seoul and well over behind the KPA lines. On 6 July, he ordered Major General Hobart R. Gay, commander of the US 1st Cavalry Division, to plan the division's amphibious landing at Incheon; on 12–14 July, the 1st Cavalry Division embarked from Yokohama, Japan, to reinforce the 24th Infantry Division inside the Pusan Perimeter. Soon after the war began, General MacArthur began planning a landing at Incheon, but the Pentagon opposed him. When authorized, he activated a combined US Army and Marine Corps, and ROK force. US X Corps, led by Major General Edward Almond, consisted of 40,000 men of the 1st Marine Division, the 7th Infantry Division and around 8,600 ROK soldiers. By 15 September, the amphibious assault force faced few KPA defenders at Incheon: military intelligence, psychological warfare, guerrilla reconnaissance, and protracted bombardment facilitated a relatively light battle. However, the bombardment destroyed most of the city of Incheon. On 16 September Eighth Army began its breakout from the Pusan Perimeter. Task Force Lynch, 3rd Battalion, 7th Cavalry Regiment, and two 70th Tank Battalion units (Charlie Company and the Intelligence–Reconnaissance Platoon) advanced through of KPA territory to join the 7th Infantry Division at Osan on 27 September. X Corps rapidly defeated the KPA defenders around Seoul, thus threatening to trap the main KPA force in Southern Korea. On 18 September, Stalin dispatched General H. M. Zakharov to North Korea to advise Kim Il-sung to halt his offensive around the Pusan perimeter and to redeploy his forces to defend Seoul. Chinese commanders were not briefed on North Korean troop numbers or operational plans. As the overall commander of Chinese forces, Zhou Enlai suggested that the North Koreans should attempt to eliminate the UN forces at Incheon only if they had reserves of at least 100,000 men; otherwise, he advised the North Koreans to withdraw their forces north. On 25 September, Seoul was recaptured by UN forces. US air raids caused heavy damage to the KPA, destroying most of its tanks and much of its artillery. KPA troops in the south, instead of effectively withdrawing north, rapidly disintegrated, leaving Pyongyang vulnerable. During the general retreat only 25,000 to 30,000 KPA soldiers managed to reach the KPA lines. On 27 September, Stalin convened an emergency session of the Politburo, in which he condemned the incompetence of the KPA command and held Soviet military advisers responsible for the defeat. On 27 September, MacArthur received the top secret National Security Council Memorandum 81/1 from Truman reminding him that operations north of the 38th Parallel were authorized only if "at the time of such operation there was no entry into North Korea by major Soviet or Chinese Communist forces, no announcements of intended entry, nor a threat to counter our operations militarily". On 29 September MacArthur restored the government of the Republic of Korea under Syngman Rhee. On 30 September, US Defense Secretary George Marshall sent an eyes-only message to MacArthur: "We want you to feel unhampered tactically and strategically to proceed north of the 38th parallel." During October, the South Korean police executed people who were suspected to be sympathetic to North Korea, and similar massacres were carried out until early 1951. The Joint Chiefs of Staff on 27 September sent to General MacArthur a comprehensive directive to govern his future actions: the directive stated that the primary goal was the destruction of the KPA, with unification of the Korean Peninsula under Rhee as a secondary objective "if possible"; the Joint Chiefs added that this objective was dependent on whether or not the Chinese and Soviets would intervene, and was subject to changing conditions. On 30 September, Zhou Enlai warned the US that China was prepared to intervene in Korea if the US crossed the 38th Parallel. Zhou attempted to advise KPA commanders on how to conduct a general withdrawal by using the same tactics that allowed Chinese communist forces to successfully escape Chiang Kai-shek's Encirclement Campaigns in the 1930s, but by some accounts KPA commanders did not use these tactics effectively. Historian Bruce Cumings argues, however, that the KPA's rapid withdrawal was strategic, with troops melting into the mountains from where they could launch guerrilla raids on the UN forces spread out on the coasts. By 1 October 1950, the UN Command repelled the KPA northwards past the 38th Parallel; the ROK advanced after them, into North Korea. MacArthur made a statement demanding the KPA's unconditional surrender. Six days later, on 7 October, with UN authorization, the UN Command forces followed the ROK forces northwards. The X Corps landed at Wonsan (in southeastern North Korea) and Riwon (in northeastern North Korea) on 26 October, but these cities had already been captured by ROK forces. The Eighth US Army drove up western Korea and captured Pyongyang on 19 October 1950. The 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team made their first of two combat jumps during the Korean War on 20 October 1950 at Sunchon and Sukchon. The mission was to cut the road north going to China, preventing North Korean leaders from escaping from Pyongyang; and to rescue US prisoners of war. At month's end, UN forces held 135,000 KPA prisoners of war. As they neared the Sino-Korean border, the UN forces in the west were divided from those in the east by of mountainous terrain. In addition to the 135,000 captured, the KPA had also suffered some 200,000 men killed or wounded for a total of 335,000 casualties since the end of June 1950, and had lost 313 tanks (mostly T-34/85 models). A mere 25,000 KPA regulars retreated across the 38th Parallel, as their military had entirely collapsed. The U.N. forces on the peninsula numbered 229,722 combat troops (including 125,126 Americans and 82,786 South Koreans), 119,559 rear area troops, and 36,667 U.S. Air Force personnel. Taking advantage of the UN Command's strategic momentum against the communists, General MacArthur believed it necessary to extend the Korean War into China to destroy depots supplying the North Korean war effort. President Truman disagreed, and ordered caution at the Sino-Korean border. From the beginning of the conflict, the People's Republic of China had been preparing to invade Korea if they deemed it necessary. On 30 June 1950, five days after the outbreak of the war, Zhou Enlai, premier of the PRC and vice- chairman of the Central Military Committee of the CCP (CMCC), decided to send a group of Chinese military intelligence personnel to North Korea to establish better communications with Kim II Sung as well as to collect first-hand materials on the fighting. One week later, on 7 July, Zhou and Mao chaired a conference discussing military preparations for the Korean Conflict. Another conference took place on 10 July. Here it was decided that the Thirteenth Army Corps under the Fourth Field Army of the PLA, one of the best trained and equipped units in China, would be immediately transformed into the Northeastern Border Defense Army (NEBDA) to prepare for "an intervention in the Korean War if necessary." On 13 July the CMCC formally issued the order to establish the NEBDA, appointing Deng Flua, the commander of the Fifteenth Army Corps and one of the most talented commanders of the Chinese Civil War, to coordinate all preparation efforts. On 20 August 1950, Premier Zhou Enlai informed the UN that "Korea is China's neighbor... The Chinese people cannot but be concerned about a solution of the Korean question". Thus, through neutral-country diplomats, China warned that in safeguarding Chinese national security, they would intervene against the UN Command in Korea. President Truman interpreted the communication as "a bald attempt to blackmail the UN", and dismissed it. By early August, long before a single U.N. soldier had crossed into North Korea, Mao Zedong had already decided to intervene in the conflict in order to bring the whole peninsula under communist rule, as the North Koreans looked to be unable to do so. He ordered this his troops should be ready for action by the end of August. Stalin, by contrast, was reluctant to escalate the war with a Chinese intervention. On 1 October 1950, the day that UN troops crossed the 38th Parallel, the Soviet ambassador forwarded a telegram from Stalin to Mao and Zhou requesting that China send five to six divisions into Korea, and Kim Il-sung sent frantic appeals to Mao for Chinese military intervention. At the same time, Stalin made it clear that Soviet forces themselves would not directly intervene. In a series of emergency meetings that lasted from 2 to 5 October, Chinese leaders debated whether to send Chinese troops into Korea. There was considerable resistance among many leaders, including senior military leaders, to confronting the US in Korea. Mao strongly supported intervention, and Zhou was one of the few Chinese leaders who firmly supported him. After Lin Biao politely refused Mao's offer to command Chinese forces in Korea (citing his upcoming medical treatment), Mao decided that Peng Dehuai would be the commander of the Chinese forces in Korea after Peng agreed to support Mao's position. Mao then asked Peng to speak in favor of intervention to the rest of the Chinese leaders. After Peng made the case that if US troops conquered Korea and reached the Yalu they might cross it and invade China, the Politburo agreed to intervene in Korea. On 4 August 1950, with a planned invasion of Taiwan aborted due to the heavy US naval presence, Mao reported to the Politburo that he would intervene in Korea when the People's Liberation Army's (PLA) Taiwan invasion force was reorganized into the PLA North East Frontier Force. On 8 October 1950, Mao redesignated the PLA North East Frontier Force as the People's Volunteer Army (PVA). To enlist Stalin's support, Zhou and a Chinese delegation arrived in Moscow on 10 October, at which point they flew to Stalin's home on the Black Sea. There they conferred with the top Soviet leadership, which included Joseph Stalin as well as Vyacheslav Molotov, Lavrentiy Beria and Georgy Malenkov. Stalin initially agreed to send military equipment and ammunition, but warned Zhou that the Soviet Air Force would need two or three months to prepare any operations. In a subsequent meeting, Stalin told Zhou that he would only provide China with equipment on a credit basis, and that the Soviet Air Force would only operate over Chinese airspace, and only after an undisclosed period of time. Stalin did not agree to send either military equipment or air support until March 1951. Mao did not find Soviet air support especially useful, as the fighting was going to take place on the south side of the Yalu. Soviet shipments of matériel, when they did arrive, were limited to small quantities of trucks, grenades, machine guns, and the like. Immediately on his return to Beijing on 18 October 1950, Zhou met with Mao Zedong, Peng Dehuai and Gao Gang, and the group ordered two hundred thousand PVA troops to enter North Korea, which they did on 19 October. UN aerial reconnaissance had difficulty sighting PVA units in daytime, because their march and bivouac discipline minimized aerial detection. The PVA marched "dark-to-dark" (19:00–03:00), and aerial camouflage (concealing soldiers, pack animals, and equipment) was deployed by 05:30. Meanwhile, daylight advance parties scouted for the next bivouac site. During daylight activity or marching, soldiers were to remain motionless if an aircraft appeared, until it flew away; PVA officers were under order to shoot security violators. Such battlefield discipline allowed a three-division army to march the from An- tung, Manchuria, to the combat zone in some 19 days. Another division night- marched a circuitous mountain route, averaging daily for 18 days. Meanwhile, on 15 October 1950, President Truman and General MacArthur met at Wake Island. This meeting was much publicized because of the General's discourteous refusal to meet the President on the continental United States. To President Truman, MacArthur speculated there was little risk of Chinese intervention in Korea, and that the PRC's opportunity for aiding the KPA had lapsed. He believed the PRC had some 300,000 soldiers in Manchuria, and some 100,000–125,000 soldiers at the Yalu River. He further concluded that, although half of those forces might cross south, "if the Chinese tried to get down to Pyongyang, there would be the greatest slaughter" without air force protection. After secretly crossing the Yalu River on 19 October, the PVA 13th Army Group launched the First Phase Offensive on 25 October, attacking the advancing UN forces near the Sino-Korean border. This military decision made solely by China changed the attitude of the Soviet Union. Twelve days after PVA troops entered the war, Stalin allowed the Soviet Air Force to provide air cover, and supported more aid to China. After inflicting heavy losses on the ROK II Corps at the Battle of Onjong, the first confrontation between Chinese and US military occurred on 1 November 1950. Deep in North Korea, thousands of soldiers from the PVA 39th Army encircled and attacked the US 8th Cavalry Regiment with three-prong assaults—from the north, northwest, and west—and overran the defensive position flanks in the Battle of Unsan. The surprise assault resulted in the UN forces retreating back to the Ch'ongch'on River, while the PVA unexpectedly disappeared into mountain hideouts following victory. It is unclear why the Chinese did not press the attack and follow up their victory. The UN Command, however, were unconvinced that the Chinese had openly intervened because of the sudden PVA withdrawal. On 24 November, the Home-by- Christmas Offensive was launched with the US Eighth Army advancing in northwest Korea, while US X Corps attacked along the Korean east coast. But the PVA were waiting in ambush with their Second Phase Offensive, which they executed at two sectors: in the East at the Chosin Reservoir and in the Western sector at Ch'ongch'on River. On 13 November, Mao appointed Zhou Enlai the overall commander and coordinator of the war effort, with Peng as field commander. On 25 November on the Korean western front, the PVA 13th Army Group attacked and overran the ROK II Corps at the Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River, and then inflicted heavy losses on the US 2nd Infantry Division on the UN forces' right flank. Believing that they could not hold against the PVA the Eighth Army began to retreat from North Korea crossing the 38th Parallel in mid-December. UN morale hit rock bottom when Lieutenant General Walton Walker, commander of the U.S. Eighth Army, was killed on 23 December 1950 in an automobile accident. In the east on 27 November the PVA 9th Army Group initiated the Battle of Chosin Reservoir. Here the UN forces fared comparatively better: like the Eighth Army the surprise attack also forced X Corps to retreat from northeast Korea, but they were in the process able to breakout from the attempted encirclement by the PVA and execute a successful tactical withdrawal. X Corps managed to establish a defensive perimeter at the port city of Hungnam on 11 December and were able to evacuate by 24 December in order to reinforce the badly depleted US Eighth Army to the south. During the evacuation, about 193 shiploads of UN forces and matériel (approximately 105,000 soldiers, 98,000 civilians, 17,500 vehicles, and 350,000 tons of supplies) were evacuated to Pusan. The SS Meredith Victory was noted for evacuating 14,000 refugees, the largest rescue operation by a single ship, even though it was designed to hold 12 passengers. Before escaping, the UN forces razed most of Hungnam city, especially the port facilities. On 16 December 1950, President Truman declared a national state of emergency with Presidential Proclamation No. 2914, 3 C.F.R. 99 (1953), which remained in force until 14 September 1978. The next day, 17 December 1950, Kim Il-sung was deprived of the right of command of KPA by China. China justified its entry into the war as a response to "American aggression in the guise of the UN". Later, the Chinese claimed that US bombers had violated PRC national airspace on three separate occasions and attacked Chinese targets before China intervened. With Lieutenant General Matthew Ridgway assuming the command of the US Eighth Army on 26 December, the PVA and the KPA launched their Third Phase Offensive (also known as the "Chinese New Year's Offensive") on New Year's Eve of 1950/51. Utilizing night attacks in which UN fighting positions were encircled and then assaulted by numerically superior troops who had the element of surprise, the attacks were accompanied by loud trumpets and gongs, which fulfilled the double purpose of facilitating tactical communication and mentally disorienting the enemy. UN forces initially had no familiarity with this tactic, and as a result some soldiers panicked, abandoning their weapons and retreating to the south. The offensive overwhelmed UN forces, allowing the PVA and KPA to capture Seoul for the second time on 4 January 1951. Following this, the CPV party committee issued orders regarding tasks during rest and reorganization on 8 January 1951, outlining Chinese war goals. The orders read: "the central issue is for the whole party and army to overcome difficulties ... to improve tactics and skills. When the next campaign starts ... we will annihilate all enemies and liberate all Korea." In his telegram to Peng on 14 January, Mao stressed the importance of preparing for "the last battle" in the spring in order to "fundamentally resolve the [Korean] issue." These setbacks prompted General MacArthur to consider using nuclear weapons against the Chinese or North Korean interiors, with the intention that radioactive fallout zones would interrupt the Chinese supply chains. However, upon the arrival of the charismatic General Ridgway, the esprit de corps of the bloodied Eighth Army immediately began to revive. UN forces retreated to Suwon in the west, Wonju in the center, and the territory north of Samcheok in the east, where the battlefront stabilized and held. The PVA had outrun its logistics capability and thus were unable to press on beyond Seoul as food, ammunition, and matériel were carried nightly, on foot and bicycle, from the border at the Yalu River to the three battle lines. In late January, upon finding that the PVA had abandoned their battle lines, General Ridgway ordered a reconnaissance-in-force, which became Operation Thunderbolt (25 January 1951). A full-scale advance followed, which fully exploited the UN's air superiority, concluding with the UN forces reaching the Han River and recapturing Wonju. Following the failure of ceasefire negotiations in January, the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 498 on 1 February, condemning the PRC as an aggressor, and called upon its forces to withdraw from Korea. In early February, the ROK 11th Division ran the operation to destroy the guerrillas and their sympathizer citizens in Southern Korea. During the operation, the division and police conducted the Geochang massacre and Sancheong-Hamyang massacre. In mid-February, the PVA counterattacked with the Fourth Phase Offensive and achieved initial victory at Hoengseong. But the offensive was soon blunted by US IX Corps at Chipyong-ni in the center. The US 23rd Regimental Combat Team and the French Battalion fought a short but desperate battle that broke the attack's momentum. The battle is sometimes known as the "Gettysburg of the Korean War": 5,600 South Korean, U.S., and French troops were surrounded on all sides by 25,000 PVA. UN forces had previously retreated in the face of large PVA/KPA forces instead of getting cut off, but this time they stood and fought, and won. In the last two weeks of February 1951, Operation Thunderbolt was followed by Operation Killer, carried out by the revitalized Eighth Army. It was a full-scale, battlefront- length attack staged for maximum exploitation of firepower to kill as many KPA and PVA troops as possible. Operation Killer concluded with US I Corps re- occupying the territory south of the Han River, and IX Corps capturing Hoengseong. On 7 March 1951, the Eighth Army attacked with Operation Ripper, expelling the PVA and the KPA from Seoul on 14 March 1951. This was the fourth and final conquest of the city in a year's time, leaving it a ruin; the 1.5 million pre-war population was down to 200,000, and people were suffering from severe food shortages. On 1 March 1951, Mao sent a cable to Stalin emphasizing the difficulties faced by Chinese forces and the need for air cover, especially over supply lines. Apparently impressed by the Chinese war effort, Stalin agreed to supply two air force divisions, three anti-aircraft divisions, and six thousand trucks. PVA troops in Korea continued to suffer severe logistical problems throughout the war. In late April Peng Dehuai sent his deputy, Hong Xuezhi, to brief Zhou Enlai in Beijing. What Chinese soldiers feared, Hong said, was not the enemy, but having no food, bullets, or trucks to transport them to the rear when they were wounded. Zhou attempted to respond to the PVA's logistical concerns by increasing Chinese production and improving supply methods, but these efforts were never sufficient. At the same time, large-scale air defense training programs were carried out, and the People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) began participating in the war from September 1951 onward. The Fourth Phase Offensive had catastrophically failed, in contrast to the success of the Second Phase Offensive and limited gains of the Third Phase Offensive. The U.N. forces, after earlier defeats and subsequent retraining, proved much harder to infiltrate by Chinese light infantry than they had been in previous months. From 31 January to 21 April, the Chinese had suffered 53,000 casualties. On 11 April 1951, President Truman relieved General MacArthur as Supreme Commander in Korea. There were several reasons for the dismissal. MacArthur crossed the 38th Parallel in the mistaken belief that the Chinese would not enter the war, leading to major allied losses. He believed that whether to use nuclear weapons should be his decision, not the President's. MacArthur threatened to destroy China unless it surrendered. While MacArthur felt total victory was the only honorable outcome, Truman was more pessimistic about his chances once involved in a land war in Asia, and felt a truce and orderly withdrawal from Korea could be a valid solution. MacArthur was the subject of congressional hearings in May and June 1951, which determined that he had defied the orders of the President and thus had violated the US Constitution. A popular criticism of MacArthur was that he never spent a night in Korea, and directed the war from the safety of Tokyo. MacArthur was relieved primarily due to his determination to expand the war into China, which other officials believed would needlessly escalate a limited war and consume too many already overstretched resources. Despite MacArthur's claims that he was restricted to fighting a limited war when China was fighting all-out, congressional testimony revealed China was using restraint as much as the US was, as they were not using air power against front-line troops, communication lines, ports, naval air forces, or staging bases in Japan, which had been crucial to the survival of UN forces in Korea. Simply fighting on the peninsula had already tied down significant portions of US airpower; as Air Force chief of staff Hoyt Vandenberg said, 80–85% the tactical capacity, one-fourth of the strategic portion, and 20% of air defense forces of the USAF were engaged in a single country. There was also fear that crossing into China would provoke the Soviet Union into entering the war. General Omar Bradley testified that there were 35 Russian divisions totaling some 500,000 troops in the Far East, and if sent into action with the approximately 85 Russian submarines in the vicinity of Korea, they could overwhelm US forces and cut supply lines, as well as potentially assist China in taking over territory in Southeast Asia. General Ridgway was appointed Supreme Commander in Korea, and he regrouped the UN forces for successful counterattacks, while General James Van Fleet assumed command of the US Eighth Army. Further attacks slowly depleted the PVA and KPA forces; Operations Courageous (23–28 March 1951) and Tomahawk (23 March 1951) (a combat jump by the 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team) were a joint ground and airborne infilltration meant to trap PVA forces between Kaesong and Seoul. UN forces advanced to the Kansas Line, north of the 38th Parallel. The PVA counterattacked in April 1951, with the Fifth Phase Offensive, with three field armies (approximately 700,000 men). The first thrust of the offensive fell upon I Corps, which fiercely resisted in the Battle of the Imjin River (22–25 April 1951) and the Battle of Kapyong (22–25 April 1951), blunting the impetus of the offensive, which was halted at the No-name Line north of Seoul. Casualty ratios were grievously disproportionate; Peng had expected a 1-1 or 2-1 ratio, but instead, Chinese combat casualties from 22 to 29 April totaled between 40,000 and 60,000 compared to only 4,000 for the U.N. By the time Peng had called off the attack in the western sector on 29 April, the three participating armies had lost a third of their front line combat strength within a week. Additional casualties were incurred on 30 April. On 15 May 1951, the PVA commenced the second impulse of the Spring Offensive and attacked the ROK and US X Corps in the east at the Soyang River. 370,000 PVA and 114,000 KPA troops had been mobilized for the second step of the Fifth Phase Offensive, with the bulk attacking in the eastern sector with about a quarter attempting to pin the U.S. I Corps and IX Corps in the western sector. After initial success, they were halted by 20 May and repulsed over the following days, with western histories generally designating 22 May as the end of the offensive. At month's end, the Chinese planned the third step of the Fifth Phase Offensive (withdrawal), which they estimated would take 10 to 15 days to complete for their 340,000 remaining men, and set the retreat date for the night of 23 May. They were caught off guard when the U.S. Eighth Army counterattacked and regained the Kansas Line on the morning of 12 May, 23 hours before the expected withdrawal. The surprise attack turned the retreat into "the most severe loss since our forces had entered Korea"; from 16 May to 23 May, the PVA had suffered another 45,000 to 60,000 casualties before their remaining men managed to evacuate back north. Per official Chinese statistics, the Fifth Phase Offensive as a whole had cost the PVA 102,000 men (85,000 killed/wounded, 17,000 captured), with unknown but significant losses for the KPA. The end of the Fifth Phase Offensive precluded the start of the UN May–June 1951 counteroffensive. During the counteroffensive, the U.S.-led coalition captured land up to about six miles north of the 38th Parallel, with most forces stopping at the Kansas Line and a minority going further to the Wyoming Line. PVA and KPA forces suffered greatly during this offensive, especially in the Chuncheon sector and at Chiam-ni and Hwacheon; in the latter sector alone the PVA/KPA suffered over 73,207 casualties, including 8,749 captured, compared to 2,647 total casualties of the U.S. IX Corps which engaged them. The UN's Kansas Line halt and subsequent offensive action stand- down began the stalemate that lasted until the armistice of 1953. The disastrous failure of the Fifth Phase Offensive (which Peng later recalled as one of only four mistakes he made in his military career) "led Chinese leaders to change their goal from driving the UNF out of Korea to merely defending China’s security and ending the war through negotiations." For the remainder of the war the UN and the PVA/KPA fought but exchanged little territory, as the stalemate held. Large-scale bombing of North Korea continued, and protracted armistice negotiations began on 10 July 1951 at Kaesong, an ancient capital of North Korea located in PVA/KPA held territory. On the Chinese side, Zhou Enlai directed peace talks, and Li Kenong and Qiao Guanghua headed the negotiation team. Combat continued while the belligerents negotiated; the goal of the UN forces was to recapture all of South Korea and to avoid losing territory. The PVA and the KPA attempted similar operations, and later effected military and psychological operations in order to test the UN Command's resolve to continue the war. The two sides constantly traded artillery fire along the front, the American-led forces possessing a large firepower advantage over the Chinese-led forces. For example, in the last three months of 1952 the U.N. fired 3,553,518 field gun shells and 2,569,941 mortar shells, while the communists fired 377,782 field gun shells and 672,194 mortar shells: an overall 5.83:1 ratio in the U.N.'s favor. The communist insurgency, reinvigorated by North Korean support and scattered bands of KPA stragglers, also resurged in the south. In the autumn of 1951 Van Fleet ordered Major General Paik Sun-yup to break the back of guerrilla activity. From December 1951 to March 1952, ROK security forces claimed to have killed 11,090 partisans and sympathizers and captured 9,916 more. The principal battles of the stalemate include the Battle of Bloody Ridge (18 August–15 September 1951), the Battle of the Punchbowl (31 August-21 September 1951), the Battle of Heartbreak Ridge (13 September–15 October 1951), the Battle of Old Baldy (26 June–4 August 1952), the Battle of White Horse (6–15 October 1952), the Battle of Triangle Hill (14 October–25 November 1952), the Battle of Hill Eerie (21 March–21 June 1952), the sieges of Outpost Harry (10–18 June 1953), the Battle of the Hook (28–29 May 1953), the Battle of Pork Chop Hill (23 March–16 July 1953) and the Battle of Kumsong (13–27 July 1953). PVA troops suffered from deficient military equipment, serious logistical problems, overextended communication and supply lines, and the constant threat of UN bombers. All of these factors generally led to a rate of Chinese casualties that was far greater than the casualties suffered by UN troops. The situation became so serious that, in November 1951, Zhou Enlai called a conference in Shenyang to discuss the PVA's logistical problems. At the meeting it was decided to accelerate the construction of railways and airfields in the area, to increase the number of trucks available to the army, and to improve air defense by any means possible. These commitments did little to directly address the problems confronting PVA troops. In the months after the Shenyang conference Peng Dehuai went to Beijing several times to brief Mao and Zhou about the heavy casualties suffered by Chinese troops and the increasing difficulty of keeping the front lines supplied with basic necessities. Peng was convinced that the war would be protracted, and that neither side would be able to achieve victory in the near future. On 24 February 1952, the Military Commission, presided over by Zhou, discussed the PVA's logistical problems with members of various government agencies involved in the war effort. After the government representatives emphasized their inability to meet the demands of the war, Peng, in an angry outburst, shouted: "You have this and that problem... You should go to the front and see with your own eyes what food and clothing the soldiers have! Not to speak of the casualties! For what are they giving their lives? We have no aircraft. We have only a few guns. Transports are not protected. More and more soldiers are dying of starvation. Can't you overcome some of your difficulties?" The atmosphere became so tense that Zhou was forced to adjourn the conference. Zhou subsequently called a series of meetings, where it was agreed that the PVA would be divided into three groups, to be dispatched to Korea in shifts; to accelerate the training of Chinese pilots; to provide more anti-aircraft guns to the front lines; to purchase more military equipment and ammunition from the Soviet Union; to provide the army with more food and clothing; and, to transfer the responsibility of logistics to the central government. With peace negotiations ongoing, the Chinese attempted one final offensive in the final weeks of the year to capture territory: on 10 June, 30,000 Chinese troops struck two South Korean and one U.S. divisions on an eight-mile front, and on 13 July, 80,000 Chinese soldiers struck the east-central Kumsong sector, with the brunt of their attack following on four South Korean divisions. In both cases, the Chinese had some success in penetrating South Korean lines, but failed to capitalize, particularly when the U.S. forces present responded with overwhelming firepower. Chinese casualties in their final major offensive of the war (above normal wastage for the front) were about 72,000, including 25,000 killed in action compared to 14,000 for the U.N. (the vast majority of these deaths were South Koreans, though 1,611 were Americans). The communists fired 704,695 field gun shells in June–July compared to 4,711,230 fired by the U.N., a ratio of 6.69:1. June 1953 saw the highest monthly artillery expenditure of the war by both sides. The on-again, off-again armistice negotiations continued for two years, first at Kaesong, on the border between North and South Korea, and then at the neighboring village of Panmunjom. A major, problematic negotiation point was prisoner of war (POW) repatriation. The PVA, KPA and UN Command could not agree on a system of repatriation because many PVA and KPA soldiers refused to be repatriated back to the north, which was unacceptable to the Chinese and North Koreans. A Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission, under the chairman Indian General K. S. Thimayya, was subsequently set up to handle the matter. In 1952, the US elected a new president, and on 29 November 1952, the president-elect, Dwight D. Eisenhower, went to Korea to learn what might end the Korean War. With the United Nations' acceptance of India's proposed Korean War armistice, the KPA, the PVA and the UN Command signed the Korean Armistice Agreement on 27 July 1953. South Korean president Syngman Rhee refused to sign the agreement. The war is considered to have ended at this point, even though there was no peace treaty. North Korea nevertheless claims that it won the Korean War. Under the Armistice Agreement, the belligerents established the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), along the frontline which vaguely follows the 38th Parallel. The DMZ runs northeast of the 38th Parallel; to the south, it travels west. Kaesong, site of the initial armistice negotiations, originally was in pre-war South Korea, but now is part of North Korea. The DMZ has since been patrolled by the KPA and the ROK and US still operating as the UN Command. The Armistice also called upon the governments of South Korea, North Korea, China and the United States to participate in continued peace talks. After the war, Operation Glory was conducted from July to November 1954, to allow combatant countries to exchange their dead. The remains of 4,167 US Army and US Marine Corps dead were exchanged for 13,528 KPA and PVA dead, and 546 civilians dead in UN prisoner-of-war camps were delivered to the South Korean government. After Operation Glory, 416 Korean War unknown soldiers were buried in the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific (The Punchbowl), on the island of Oahu, Hawaii. Defense Prisoner of War/Missing Personnel Office (DPMO) records indicate that the PRC and North Korea transmitted 1,394 names, of which 858 were correct. From 4,167 containers of returned remains, forensic examination identified 4,219 individuals. Of these, 2,944 were identified as from the US, and all but 416 were identified by name. From 1996 to 2006, North Korea recovered 220 remains near the Sino-Korean border. The Korean Armistice Agreement provided for monitoring by an international commission. Since 1953, the Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission (NNSC), composed of members from the Swiss and Swedish Armed Forces, has been stationed near the DMZ. In April 1975, South Vietnam's capital was captured by the People's Army of Vietnam. Encouraged by the success of Communist revolution in Indochina, Kim Il-sung saw it as an opportunity to invade the South. Kim visited China in April of that year, and met with Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai to ask for military aid. Despite Pyongyang's expectations, however, Beijing refused to help North Korea for another war in Korea. Since the armistice, there have been numerous incursions and acts of aggression by North Korea. In 1976, the axe murder incident was widely publicized. Since 1974, four incursion tunnels leading to Seoul have been uncovered. In 2010, a North Korean submarine torpedoed and sank the South Korean corvette , resulting in the deaths of 46 sailors. Again in 2010, North Korea fired artillery shells on Yeonpyeong island, killing two military personnel and two civilians. After a new wave of UN sanctions, on 11 March 2013, North Korea claimed that the armistice had become invalid. On 13 March 2013, North Korea confirmed it ended the 1953 Armistice and declared North Korea "is not restrained by the North- South declaration on non-aggression". On 30 March 2013, North Korea stated that it entered a "state of war" with South Korea and declared that "The long- standing situation of the Korean peninsula being neither at peace nor at war is finally over". Speaking on 4 April 2013, the US Secretary of Defense, Chuck Hagel, informed the press that Pyongyang "formally informed" the Pentagon that it "ratified" the potential use of a nuclear weapon against South Korea, Japan and the United States of America, including Guam and Hawaii. Hagel also stated the US would deploy the Terminal High Altitude Area Defense anti-ballistic missile system to Guam, because of a credible and realistic nuclear threat from North Korea. In 2016, it was revealed that North Korea approached the United States about conducting formal peace talks to formally end the war. While the White House agreed to secret peace talks, the plan was rejected due to North Korea's refusal to discuss nuclear disarmament as part of the terms of the treaty. On 27 April 2018, it was announced that North Korea and South Korea agreed to talks to end the ongoing 65-year conflict. They committed themselves to the complete denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula. Approximately 3 million people died in the Korean War, the majority of whom were civilians, making it perhaps the deadliest conflict of the Cold War-era. Samuel S. Kim lists the Korean War as the deadliest conflict in East Asia—itself the region most affected by armed conflict related to the Cold War–from 1945 to 1994, with 3 million dead, more than the Vietnam War and Chinese Civil War during the same period. Although only rough estimates of civilian fatalities are available, scholars from Guenter Lewy to Bruce Cumings have noted that the percentage of civilian casualties in Korea was higher than in World War II or the Vietnam War, with Cumings putting civilian casualties at 2 million and Lewy estimating civilian deaths in the range of 2 million to 3 million. Cumings states that civilians represent "at least" half of the war's casualties, while Lewy suggests that the civilian portion of the death toll "may have gone as high as 70 percent," compared to Lewy's estimates of 42% in World War II and 30%-46% in the Vietnam War. Data compiled by the Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO) lists just under 1 million "battle deaths" over the course of the Korean War (with a range of 644,696 to 1.5 million) and a mid-value estimate of 3 million total deaths (with a range of 1.5 million to 4.5 million), attributing the difference to excess mortality among civilians from one-sided massacres, starvation, and disease. Compounding this devastation for Korean civilians, virtually all of the major cities on the entire Korean Peninsula were destroyed as a result of the war. In both per capita and absolute terms, North Korea was the country most devastated by the war, which resulted in the death of an estimated 12%-15% of the North Korean population ( 10 million), "a figure close to or surpassing the proportion of Soviet citizens killed in World War II," according to Charles K. Armstrong. The May 1953 bombing of major North Korean dams threatened several million more North Koreans with starvation, although large-scale famine was averted with emergency aid provided by North Korea's allies. According to the data from the US Department of Defense, the US suffered 33,686 battle deaths, along with 2,830 non-battle deaths, during the Korean War. American combat casualties were over 90 percent of non-Korean UN losses. U.S. battle deaths were 8,516 up to their first engagement with the Chinese on 1 November 1950. The first four months of the Korean War, that is, the war prior to the Chinese intervention (which started near the end of October), were by far the bloodiest per day for the US forces as they engaged and destroyed the comparatively well-equipped KPA in intense fighting. American medical records show that from July to October 1950, the US Army sustained 31 percent of the combat deaths it would ultimately accumulate in the whole 37-month war. The U.S. spent $30 billion in total on the war. Some 1,789,000 American soldiers served in the Korean War, accounting for 31 percent of the 5,720,000 Americans who served on active-duty worldwide from June 1950 to July 1953. South Korea reported some 137,899 military deaths and 24,495 missing. Deaths from the other non-American U.N. militaries totaled 3,730, with another 379 missing. Data from official Chinese sources reported that the PVA had suffered 114,000 battle deaths, 34,000 non-battle deaths, 340,000 wounded, and 7,600 missing during the war. 7,110 Chinese POWs were repatriated to China. In 2010, the Chinese government would revise their official tally of war losses to 183,108 dead (114,084 in combat, 70,000 outside of combat) and 25,621 missing. Overall, 73 percent of Chinese infantry troops served in Korea (25 of 34 armies, or 79 of 109 infantry divisions, were rotated in). More than 52 percent of the Chinese air force, 55 percent of the tank units, 67 percent of the artillery divisions, and 100 percent of the railroad engineering divisions were sent to Korea as well. Chinese soldiers who served in Korea faced a great chance of being killed than those who served in World War II or the Chinese Civil War. In terms of financial cost, China spent over 10 billion yuan on the war (roughly $3.3 billion), not counting USSR aid which had been donated or forgiven. This included $1.3 billion in money owed to the Soviet Union by the end of it. This was a relatively large cost, as China had only 1/25 the national income of the United States. Spending on the Korean War constituted 34-43 percent of China's annual government budget from 1950 to 1953, depending on the year. Despite its underdeveloped economy, Chinese military spending was the world's fourth largest globally for most of the war after that of the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom, though by 1953, with the winding down of the Korean War (which ended halfway through the year) and the escalation of the First Indochina War (which reached its peak in 1953-1954), French spending also surpassed Chinese spending by about a third. According to the South Korean Ministry of National Defense, North Korean military losses totaled 294,151 dead, 91,206 missing, and 229,849 wounded, giving North Korea the highest military deaths of any belligerent in both absolute and relative terms. The PRIO Battle Deaths Dataset gave a similar figure for North Korean military deaths of 316,579. Chinese sources reported similar figures for the North Korean military of 290,000 "casualties" and 90,000 captured. The exact financial cost of the war for North Korea is unknown, but was known to be massive in terms of both direct losses and lost economic activity; the country was devastated both by the cost of the war itself and the American strategic bombing campaign, which among other things destroyed 85 percent of North Korea's buildings and 95 percent of its power generation capacity. The Chinese and North Koreans estimated that about 390,000 soldiers from the United States, 660,000 soldiers from South Korea and 29,000 other UN soldiers were "eliminated" from the battlefield. Western sources estimate the PVA suffered about 400,000 killed and 486,000 wounded, while the KPA suffered 215,000 killed and 303,000 wounded. Cumings cites a much higher figure of 900,000 fatalities among Chinese soldiers. According to the South Korean Ministry of National Defense, there were over three-quarters of a million confirmed violent civilians deaths during the war, another million civilians were pronounced missing, and millions more ended up as refugees. In South Korea, some 373,500 civilians were killed, more than 225,600 wounded, and over 387,740 were listed as missing. During the first communist occupation of Seoul alone, the KPA massacred 128,936 civilians and deported another 84,523 to North Korea. On the other side of the border, some 406,000 North Korean civilians were reported to have been killed, 1,594,000 were wounded, and 680,000 were missing. Over 1.5 million North Koreans fled to the South during the war. In a postwar analysis of the unpreparedness of US Army forces deployed to Korea during the summer and fall of 1950, Army Major General Floyd L. Parks stated that "Many who never lived to tell the tale had to fight the full range of ground warfare from offensive to delaying action, unit by unit, man by man ... [T]hat we were able to snatch victory from the jaws of defeat ... does not relieve us from the blame of having placed our own flesh and blood in such a predicament." By 1950, US Secretary of Defense Louis A. Johnson had established a policy of faithfully following President Truman's defense economization plans, and had aggressively attempted to implement it even in the face of steadily increasing external threats. He consequently received much of the blame for the initial setbacks in Korea and the widespread reports of ill-equipped and inadequately trained US military forces in the war's early stages. As an initial response to the invasion, Truman called for a naval blockade of North Korea, and was shocked to learn that such a blockade could be imposed only "on paper", since the US Navy no longer had the warships with which to carry out his request. Army officials, desperate for weaponry, recovered Sherman tanks from World War II Pacific battlefields and reconditioned them for shipment to Korea. Army Ordnance officials at Fort Knox pulled down M26 Pershing tanks from display pedestals around Fort Knox in order to equip the third company of the Army's hastily formed 70th Tank Battalion. Without adequate numbers of tactical fighter-bomber aircraft, the Air Force took F-51 (P-51) propeller-driven aircraft out of storage or from existing Air National Guard squadrons, and rushed them into front-line service. A shortage of spare parts and qualified maintenance personnel resulted in improvised repairs and overhauls. A Navy helicopter pilot aboard an active duty warship recalled fixing damaged rotor blades with masking tape in the absence of spares. US Army Reserve and Army National Guard infantry soldiers and new inductees (called to duty to fill out understrength infantry divisions) found themselves short of nearly everything needed to repel the North Korean forces: artillery, ammunition, heavy tanks, ground-support aircraft, even effective anti-tank weapons such as the M20 3.5-inch (89 mm) Super Bazooka. Some Army combat units sent to Korea were supplied with worn out, 'red-lined' M1 rifles or carbines in immediate need of ordnance depot overhaul or repair. Only the Marine Corps, whose commanders had stored and maintained their World War II surplus inventories of equipment and weapons, proved ready for deployment, though they still were woefully under-strength, as well as in need of suitable landing craft to practice amphibious operations (Secretary of Defense Louis Johnson had transferred most of the remaining craft to the Navy and reserved them for use in training Army units). Due to public criticism of his handling of the Korean War, Truman decided to ask for Johnson's resignation. On 19 September 1950, Johnson resigned as Secretary of Defense, and the president quickly replaced him with General George C. Marshall. The initial assault by KPA forces was aided by the use of Soviet T-34-85 tanks. A KPA tank corps equipped with about 120 T-34s spearheaded the invasion. These drove against the ROK with few anti-tank weapons adequate to deal with the T-34s. Additional Soviet armor was added as the offensive progressed. The KPA tanks had a good deal of early successes against ROK infantry, Task Force Smith and the US M24 Chaffee light tanks that they encountered. Interdiction by ground attack aircraft was the only means of slowing the advancing KPA armor. The tide turned in favor of the UN forces in August 1950 when the KPA suffered major tank losses during a series of battles in which the UN forces brought heavier equipment to bear, including M4A3 Sherman medium tanks backed by M26 heavy tanks, and the British Centurion, Churchill and Cromwell tanks. The Inchon landings on 15 September cut off the KPA supply lines, causing their armored forces and infantry to run out of fuel, ammunition, and other supplies. As a result of this and the Pusan perimeter breakout the KPA had to retreat, and many of the T-34s and heavy weapons had to be abandoned. By the time the KPA withdrew from the South, a total of 239 T-34s and 74 SU-76 self-propelled guns were lost. After November 1950, KPA armor was rarely encountered. Following the initial assault by the north, the Korean War saw limited use of tanks and featured no large-scale tank battles. The mountainous, forested terrain, especially in the eastern central zone, was poor tank country, limiting their mobility. Through the last two years of the war in Korea, UN tanks served largely as infantry support and mobile artillery pieces. Because neither Korea had a significant navy, the war featured few naval battles. A skirmish between North Korea and the UN Command occurred on 2 July 1950; the US Navy cruiser , the Royal Navy cruiser and the Royal Navy frigate fought four North Korean torpedo boats and two mortar gunboats, and sank them. USS Juneau later sank several ammunition ships that had been present. The last sea battle of the Korean War occurred at Inchon, days before the Battle of Inchon; the ROK ship PC-703 sank a North Korean mine layer in the Battle of Haeju Island, near Inchon. Three other supply ships were sunk by PC-703 two days later in the Yellow Sea. Thereafter, vessels from the UN nations held undisputed control of the sea about Korea. The gun ships were used in shore bombardment, while the aircraft carriers provided air support to the ground forces. During most of the war, the UN navies patrolled the west and east coasts of North Korea, sinking supply and ammunition ships and denying the North Koreans the ability to resupply from the sea. Aside from very occasional gunfire from North Korean shore batteries, the main threat to UN navy ships was from magnetic mines. During the war, five US Navy ships were lost to mines: two minesweepers, two minesweeper escorts, and one ocean tug. Mines and gunfire from North Korean coastal artillery damaged another 87 US warships, resulting in slight to moderate damage. The war was the first in which jet aircraft played the central role in air combat. Once-formidable fighters such as the P-51 Mustang, F4U Corsair, and Hawker Sea Fury—all piston-engined, propeller-driven, and designed during World War II—relinquished their air-superiority roles to a new generation of faster, jet-powered fighters arriving in the theater. For the initial months of the war, the P-80 Shooting Star, F9F Panther, Gloster Meteor and other jets under the UN flag dominated the Korean People's Air Force (KPAF) propeller- driven Soviet Yakovlev Yak-9 and Lavochkin La-9s. The Chinese intervention in late October 1950 bolstered the KPAF with the MiG-15, one of the world's most advanced jet fighters. The heavily armed MiGs were faster than first- generation UN jets and therefore could reach and destroy US B-29 Superfortress bomber flights despite their fighter escorts. With increasing B-29 losses, the USAF was forced to switch from a daylight bombing campaign to the safer but less accurate nighttime bombing of targets. The USAF countered the MiG-15 by sending over three squadrons of its most capable fighter, the F-86 Sabre. These arrived in December 1950. The MiG was designed as a bomber interceptor. It had a very high service ceiling— and carried very heavy weaponry: one 37 mm cannon and two 23 mm cannons. The F-86 had a ceiling of and were armed with six .50 caliber (12.7 mm) machine guns, which were range adjusted by radar gunsights. If coming in at higher altitude the advantage of engaging or not went to the MiG. Once in a level flight dogfight, both swept-wing designs attained comparable maximum speeds of around . The MiG climbed faster, but the Sabre turned and dived better. In the summer and autumn of 1951, the outnumbered Sabres of the USAF's 4th Fighter Interceptor Wing—only 44 at one point—continued seeking battle in MiG Alley, where the Yalu River marks the Chinese border, against Chinese and North Korean air forces capable of deploying some 500 aircraft. Following Colonel Harrison Thyng's communication with the Pentagon, the 51st Fighter-Interceptor Wing finally reinforced the beleaguered 4th Wing in December 1951; for the next year-and-a-half stretch of the war, aerial warfare continued. Unlike the Vietnam War, in which the Soviet Union only officially sent "advisers", the 64th Fighter Aviation Corps saw action in the Korean air war. Fearful of confronting the US directly, the Soviet Union denied involvement of their personnel in anything other than an advisory role, but air combat quickly resulted in Soviet pilots dropping their code signals and speaking over the wireless in Russian. This known direct Soviet participation was a casus belli that the UN Command deliberately overlooked, lest the war expand to include the Soviet Union, and potentially escalate into atomic warfare. After the war, and to the present day, the USAF reports an F-86 Sabre kill ratio in excess of 10:1, with 792 MiG-15s and 108 other aircraft shot down by Sabres, and 78 Sabres lost to enemy fire. The Soviet Air Force reported some 1,100 air-to-air victories and 335 MiG combat losses, while China's PLAAF reported 231 combat losses, mostly MiG-15s, and 168 other aircraft lost. The KPAF reported no data, but the UN Command estimates some 200 KPAF aircraft lost in the war's first stage, and 70 additional aircraft after the Chinese intervention. The USAF disputes Soviet and Chinese claims of 650 and 211 downed F-86s, respectively. However, one source claims that the USAF has more recently cited 224 losses (c.100 to air combat) out of 674 F-86s deployed to Korea. The war marked a major milestone not only for fixed-wing aircraft, but also for rotorcraft, featuring the first large-scale deployment of helicopters for medical evacuation (medevac). In 1944–1945, during the Second World War, the YR-4 helicopter saw limited ambulance duty, but in Korea, where rough terrain trumped the jeep as a speedy medevac vehicle, helicopters like the Sikorsky H-19 helped reduce fatal casualties to a dramatic degree when combined with complementary medical innovations such as Mobile Army Surgical Hospitals. The limitations of jet aircraft for close air support highlighted the helicopter's potential in the role, leading to development of the helicopter gunships used in the Vietnam War (1965–75). The initial bombing attack on North Korea was approved on the fourth day of the war, 29 June 1950, by General Douglas MacArthur immediately upon request by the commanding general of the Far East Air Forces, George E. Stratemeyer. Major bombing began in late July. On 12 August 1950, the USAF dropped 625 tons of bombs on North Korea; two weeks later, the daily tonnage increased to some 800 tons. From June through October, official US policy was to pursue precision bombing aimed at communication centers (railroad stations, marshaling yards, main yards, and railways) and industrial facilities deemed vital to war making capacity. The policy was the result of debates after World War II, in which US policy rejected the mass civilian bombings that had been conducted in the later stages of World War II as unproductive and immoral. In early July, General Emmett O'Donnell Jr. requested permission to firebomb five North Korean cities. He proposed that MacArthur announce that the UN would employ the firebombing methods that "brought Japan to its knees." The announcement would warn the leaders of North Korea "to get women and children and other noncombatants the hell out." According to O'Donnell, MacArthur responded, "No, Rosie, I'm not prepared to go that far yet. My instructions are very explicit; however, I want you to know that I have no compunction whatever to your bombing bona fide military objectives, with high explosives, in those five industrial centers. If you miss your target and kill people or destroy other parts of the city, I accept that as a part of war." In September 1950, MacArthur said in his public report to the UN, "The problem of avoiding the killing of innocent civilians and damages to the civilian economy is continually present and given my personal attention." In October 1950, FEAF commander General Stratemeyer requested permission to attack the city of Sinuiju, a provincial capital with an estimated population of 60,000, "over the widest area of the city, without warning, by burning and high explosive." MacArthur's headquarters responded the following day: "The general policy enunciated from Washington negates such an attack unless the military situation clearly requires it. Under present circumstances this is not the case." Following the intervention of the Chinese in November, General MacArthur ordered increased bombing on North Korea which included firebombing against the country's arsenals and communications centers and especially against the "Korean end" of all the bridges across the Yalu River. As with the aerial bombing campaigns over Germany and Japan in World War II, the nominal objective of the USAF was to destroy North Korea's war infrastructure and shatter the country's morale. On 3 November 1950, General Stratemeyer forwarded to MacArthur the request of Fifth Air Force commander General Earle E. Partridge for clearance to "burn Sinuiju." As he had done previously in July and October, MacArthur denied the request, explaining that he planned to use the town's facilities after seizing it. However, at the same meeting, MacArthur agreed for the first time to a firebombing campaign, agreeing to Stratemeyer's request to burn the city of Kanggye and several other towns: "Burn it if you so desire. Not only that, Strat, but burn and destroy as a lesson to any other of those towns that you consider of military value to the enemy." The same evening, MacArthur's chief of staff told Stratemeyer that the firebombing of Sinuiju had also been approved. In his diary, Stratemeyer summarized the instructions as follows: "Every installation, facility, and village in North Korea now becomes a military and tactical target." Stratemeyer sent orders to the Fifth Air Force and Bomber Command to "destroy every means of communications and every installation, factory, city, and village." On 5 November 1950, General Stratemeyer gave the following order to the commanding general of the Fifth Air Force: "Aircraft under Fifth Air Force control will destroy all other targets including all buildings capable of affording shelter." The same day, twenty-two B-29s attacked Kanggye, destroying 75% of the city. After MacArthur was removed as UN Supreme Commander in Korea in April 1951, his successors continued this policy and ultimately extended it to all of North Korea. The U.S. dropped a total of 635,000 tons of bombs, including 32,557 tons of napalm, on Korea, more than during the whole Pacific campaign of World War II. North Korea ranks alongside Cambodia (500,000 tons), Laos (2 million tons) and South Vietnam (4 million tons) as among the most heavily-bombed countries in history, with Laos suffering the most extensive bombardment relative to its size and population. Almost every substantial building in North Korea was destroyed as a result. The war's highest-ranking US POW, Major General William F. Dean, reported that the majority of North Korean cities and villages he saw were either rubble or snow-covered wasteland. North Korean factories, schools, hospitals, and government offices were forced to move underground, and air defenses were "non-existent." In November 1950, the North Korean leadership instructed their population to build dugouts and mud huts and to dig tunnels, in order to solve the acute housing problem. US Air Force General Curtis LeMay commented: "We went over there and fought the war and eventually burned down every town in North Korea anyway, some way or another, and some in South Korea, too." Pyongyang, which saw 75 percent of its area destroyed, was so devastated that bombing was halted as there were no longer any worthy targets. On 28 November, Bomber Command reported on the campaign's progress: 95 percent of Manpojin was destroyed, along with 90 percent of Hoeryong, Namsi and Koindong, 85 percent of Chosan, 75 percent of both Sakchu and Huichon and 20 percent of Uiju. According to USAF damage assessments, "Eighteen of twenty-two major cities in North Korea had been at least half obliterated." By the end of the campaign, US bombers had difficulty in finding targets and were reduced to bombing footbridges or jettisoning their bombs into the sea. As well as conventional bombing, the Communist side claimed that the U.S. used biological weapons. These claims have been disputed; Conrad Crane asserts that while the US worked towards developing chemical and biological weapons, the US military "possessed neither the ability, nor the will", to use them in combat. On 5 November 1950, the US Joint Chiefs of Staff issued orders for the retaliatory atomic bombing of Manchurian PRC military bases, if either their armies crossed into Korea or if PRC or KPA bombers attacked Korea from there. The President ordered the transfer of nine Mark 4 nuclear bombs "to the Air Force's Ninth Bomb Group, the designated carrier of the weapons ... [and] signed an order to use them against Chinese and Korean targets", which he never transmitted. Many US officials viewed the deployment of nuclear-capable (but not nuclear-armed) B-29 bombers to Britain as helping to resolve the Berlin Blockade of 1948–1949. Truman and Eisenhower both had military experience and viewed nuclear weapons as potentially usable components of their military. During Truman's first meeting to discuss the war on 25 June 1950, he ordered plans be prepared for attacking Soviet forces if they entered the war. By July, Truman approved another B-29 deployment to Britain, this time with bombs (but without their cores), to remind the Soviets of US offensive ability. Deployment of a similar fleet to Guam was leaked to The New York Times. As UN forces retreated to Pusan, and the CIA reported that mainland China was building up forces for a possible invasion of Taiwan, the Pentagon believed that Congress and the public would demand using nuclear weapons if the situation in Korea required them. As PVA forces pushed back the UN forces from the Yalu River, Truman stated during a 30 November 1950 press conference that using nuclear weapons was "always [under] active consideration", with control under the local military commander. The Indian ambassador, K. Madhava Panikkar, reports "that Truman announced he was thinking of using the atom bomb in Korea. But the Chinese seemed unmoved by this threat ... The PRC's propaganda against the US was stepped up. The 'Aid Korea to resist America' campaign was made the slogan for increased production, greater national integration, and more rigid control over anti- national activities. One could not help feeling that Truman's threat came in useful to the leaders of the Revolution, to enable them to keep up the tempo of their activities." After his statement caused concern in Europe, Truman met on 4 December 1950 with UK prime minister and Commonwealth spokesman Clement Attlee, French Premier René Pleven, and French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman to discuss their worries about atomic warfare and its likely continental expansion. The US' forgoing atomic warfare was not because of "a disinclination by the Soviet Union and People's Republic of China to escalate [the Korean War]", but because UN allies—notably from the UK, the Commonwealth, and France—were concerned about a geopolitical imbalance rendering NATO defenseless while the US fought China, who then might persuade the Soviet Union to conquer Western Europe. The Joint Chiefs of Staff advised Truman to tell Attlee that the US would use nuclear weapons only if necessary to protect an evacuation of UN troops, or to prevent a "major military disaster". On 6 December 1950, after the Chinese intervention repelled the UN armies from northern North Korea, General J. Lawton Collins (Army Chief of Staff), General MacArthur, Admiral C. Turner Joy, General George E. Stratemeyer and staff officers Major General Doyle Hickey, Major General Charles A. Willoughby and Major General Edwin K. Wright met in Tokyo to plan strategy countering the Chinese intervention; they considered three potential atomic warfare scenarios encompassing the next weeks and months of warfare. In the first scenario: If the PVA continued attacking in full and the UN Command was forbidden to blockade and bomb China, and without Taiwanese reinforcements, and without an increase in US forces until April 1951 (four National Guard divisions were due to arrive), then atomic bombs might be used in North Korea., In the second scenario: If the PVA continued full attacks and the UN Command blockaded China and had effective aerial reconnaissance and bombing of the Chinese interior, and the Taiwanese soldiers were maximally exploited, and tactical atomic bombing was to hand, then the UN forces could hold positions deep in North Korea., In the third scenario: if China agreed to not cross the 38th Parallel border, General MacArthur recommended UN acceptance of an armistice disallowing PVA and KPA troops south of the parallel, and requiring PVA and KPA guerrillas to withdraw northwards. The US Eighth Army would remain to protect the Seoul–Incheon area, while X Corps would retreat to Pusan. A UN commission should supervise implementation of the armistice. Both the Pentagon and the State Department were cautious about using nuclear weapons because of the risk of general war with China and the diplomatic ramifications. Truman and his senior advisors agreed, and never seriously considered using them in early December 1950 despite the poor military situation in Korea. In 1951, the US escalated closest to atomic warfare in Korea. Because China deployed new armies to the Sino-Korean frontier, ground crews at the Kadena Air Base, Okinawa, assembled atomic bombs for Korean warfare, "lacking only the essential pit nuclear cores". In October 1951, the United States effected Operation Hudson Harbor to establish a nuclear weapons capability. USAF B-29 bombers practiced individual bombing runs from Okinawa to North Korea (using dummy nuclear or conventional bombs), coordinated from Yokota Air Base in east-central Japan. Hudson Harbor tested "actual functioning of all activities which would be involved in an atomic strike, including weapons assembly and testing, leading, [and] ground control of bomb aiming". The bombing run data indicated that atomic bombs would be tactically ineffective against massed infantry, because the "timely identification of large masses of enemy troops was extremely rare." General Matthew Ridgway was authorized to use nuclear weapons if a major air attack originated from outside Korea. An envoy was sent to Hong Kong to deliver a warning to China. The message likely caused Chinese leaders to be more cautious about potential US use of nuclear weapons, but whether they learned about the B-29 deployment is unclear and the failure of the two major Chinese offensives that month likely was what caused them to shift to a defensive strategy in Korea. The B-29s returned to the United States in June. Despite the greater destructive power deploying atomic weapons would bring to the war, their effects on determining the war's outcome would have likely been minimal. Tactically, given the dispersed nature of PVA/KPA forces, the relatively primitive infrastructure for staging and logistics centers, and the small number of bombs available (most would have been conserved for use against the Soviets), atomic attacks would have limited effects against the ability of China to mobilize and move forces. Strategically, attacking Chinese cities to destroy civilian industry and infrastructure would cause the immediate dispersion of the leadership away from such areas and give propaganda value for the communists to galvanize the support of Chinese civilians. Since the Soviets were not expected to intervene with their few primitive atomic weapons on China or North Korea's behalf, if the US used theirs first factors such as little operational value and the lowering of the "threshold" for using atomic weapons against non-nuclear states in future conflicts played more of a role in not deploying them than the threat of a possible nuclear exchange. When Eisenhower succeeded Truman in early 1953 he was similarly cautious about using nuclear weapons in Korea, including for diplomatic purposes to encourage progress in ongoing truce discussions. The administration prepared contingency plans to use them against China, but like Truman, the new president feared doing so would result in Soviet attacks on Japan. The war ended as it began, without US nuclear weapons deployed near battle. There were numerous atrocities and massacres of civilians throughout the Korean War committed by both sides, but the majority by the South Korean side. Many started on the first days of the war. On 28 June, North Korean troops committed the Seoul National University Hospital massacre. On the same day, South Korean President Syngman Rhee ordered the Bodo League massacre, beginning mass killings of suspected leftist sympathizers and their families by South Korean officials and right-wing groups. Estimates of those killed during the Bodo League massacre range from at least 60,000–110,000 (Kim Dong- choon) to 200,000 (Park Myung-lim). During the massacre, the British protested to their allies and saved some citizens. US troops had a policy of stopping any civilian refugee approaching US battlefield positions, a policy that led US soldiers to kill an estimated 400 civilians at No Gun Ri (26–29 July 1950) in central Korea because they believed some of the refugees to be KPA soldiers in disguise. The South Korean Truth and Reconciliation Commission defended this policy as a "military necessity". Beginning in 2005, the South Korean Truth and Reconciliation Commission has investigated numerous atrocities committed by the Japanese colonial government, North Korean military, US military, and the authoritarian South Korean government. It has investigated atrocities before, during and after the Korean War. Of the Korean War-era massacres that the Truth and Reconciliation Commission was petitioned to investigate, 82% were perpetrated by South Korean forces, with 18% perpetrated by North Korean forces. The Commission verified that 14,373 civilians and some 16,000 combatants (on both sides) were killed in the Jeju uprising (1948–49) that involved South Korean military and paramilitary units against pro-North Korean guerrillas on the island of Jeju southwest of tip of the peninsula. Although most of the fighting subsided by 1949, it continued until 1950. The Commission estimates 86% of the civilians were killed by South Korean forces. The Americans on the island documented the events, but never intervened. At Geoje prison camp on Geoje Island, Chinese POWs experienced anti-communist lecturing and missionary work from secret agents from the US and Taiwan in No. 71, 72 and 86 camps. Pro-Communist POWs experienced torture, cutting off of limbs, or were executed in public. Being forced to write confession letters and receiving tattoos of an anti-Communism slogan and Flag of the Republic of China were also commonly seen, in case any wanted to go back to mainland China. Pro-Communist POWs who could not endure the torture formed an underground group to fight the pro-Nationalist POWs secretly by assassination which led to the Geoje Uprising. The rebellion captured Francis Dodd, and was suppressed by the 187th Infantry Regiment. In the end, 14,235 Chinese POWs went to Taiwan and less than 6,000 POWs went back to mainland China. Those who went to Taiwan are called "righteous men" and experienced brainwashing again and were sent to the army or were arrested; while the survivors who went back to mainland China were welcomed as a "hero" first, but experienced anti- brainwashing, strict interrogation, and house arrest eventually, after the tattoos were discovered. After 1988, the Taiwanese government allowed POWs to go back to mainland China, and helped remove anti-communist tattoos; while the mainland Chinese government started to allow mainland Chinese prisoners of war to return from Taiwan. The United States reported that North Korea mistreated prisoners of war: soldiers were beaten, starved, put to forced labor, marched to death, and summarily executed. The KPA killed POWs at the battles for Hill 312, Hill 303, the Pusan Perimeter, Daejeon and Sunchon; these massacres were discovered afterwards by the UN forces. Later, a US Congress war crimes investigation, the United States Senate Subcommittee on Korean War Atrocities of the Permanent Subcommittee of the Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations, reported that "two-thirds of all American prisoners of war in Korea died as a result of war crimes". Although the Chinese rarely executed prisoners like their North Korean counterparts, mass starvation and diseases swept through the Chinese-run POW camps during the winter of 1950–51. About 43 percent of US POWs died during this period. The Chinese defended their actions by stating that all Chinese soldiers during this period were suffering mass starvation and diseases due to logistical difficulties. The UN POWs said that most of the Chinese camps were located near the easily supplied Sino-Korean border, and that the Chinese withheld food to force the prisoners to accept the communism indoctrination programs. According to Chinese reports, over a thousand US POWs died by the end of June 1951, while a dozen British POWs died, and all Turkish POW survived. According to Hastings, wounded US POWs died for lack of medical attention and were fed a diet of corn and millet "devoid of vegetables, almost barren of proteins, minerals, or vitamins" with only 1/3 the calories of their usual diet. Especially in early 1951, thousands of prisoners lost the will to live and "declined to eat the mess of sorghum and rice they were provided." The unpreparedness of US POWs to resist heavy communist indoctrination during the Korean War led to the Code of the United States Fighting Force which governs how US military personnel in combat should act when they must "evade capture, resist while a prisoner or escape from the enemy". North Korea may have detained up to 50,000 South Korean POWs after the ceasefire. Over 88,000 South Korean soldiers were missing and the KPA claimed they captured 70,000 South Koreans. However, when ceasefire negotiations began in 1951, the KPA reported they held only 8,000 South Koreans. The UN Command protested the discrepancies and alleged that the KPA were forcing South Korean POWs to join the KPA. The KPA denied such allegations. They claimed their POW rosters were small because many POWs were killed in UN air raids and that they had released ROK soldiers at the front. They insisted only volunteers were allowed to serve in the KPA. By early 1952, UN negotiators gave up trying to get back the missing South Koreans. The POW exchange proceeded without access to South Korean POWs not on the PVA/KPA rosters. North Korea continued to claim that any South Korean POW who stayed in the North did so voluntarily. However, since 1994, South Korean POWs have been escaping North Korea on their own after decades of captivity. , the South Korean Ministry of Unification reported that 79 ROK POWs escaped the North. The South Korean government estimates 500 South Korean POWs continue to be detained in North Korea. The escaped POWs have testified about their treatment and written memoirs about their lives in North Korea. They report they were not told about the POW exchange procedures, and were assigned to work in mines in the remote northeastern regions near the Chinese and Russian border. Declassified Soviet Foreign Ministry documents corroborate such testimony. In 1997, the Geoje POW Camp in South Korea was turned into a memorial. In December 1950, the South Korean National Defense Corps was founded; the soldiers were 406,000 drafted citizens. In the winter of 1951, 50,000 to 90,000 South Korean National Defense Corps soldiers starved to death while marching southward under the PVA offensive when their commanding officers embezzled funds earmarked for their food. This event is called the National Defense Corps Incident. There is no evidence that Syngman Rhee was personally involved in or benefited from the corruption. In 1950, Secretary of Defense George C. Marshall and Secretary of the Navy Francis P. Matthews called on the United Service Organizations (USO) which was disbanded by 1947 to provide support for US servicemen. By the end of the war, more than 113,000 USO volunteers from the US were working at home front and abroad. Many stars came to Korea to give their performances. Throughout the Korean War, UN Comfort Stations were operated by South Korean officials for UN soldiers. Postwar recovery was different in the two Koreas. South Korea stagnated in the first postwar decade. In 1953, South Korea and the United States signed a Mutual Defense Treaty. In 1960, the April Revolution occurred and students joined an anti-Syngman Rhee demonstration; 142 were killed by police; in consequence Syngman Rhee resigned and left for exile in the United States. Park Chung-hee's May 16 coup enabled social stability. In the 1960s, prostitution and related services represented 25 percent of South Korean GNP. From 1965 to 1973, South Korea dispatched troops to South Vietnam and received $235,560,000 in allowance and military procurement from the United States. GNP increased fivefold during the Vietnam War. South Korea industrialized and modernized. South Korea had one of the world's fastest-growing economies from the early 1960s to the late 1990s. In 1957 South Korea had a lower per capita GDP than Ghana, and by 2010 it was a developed country and ranked thirteenth in the world (Ghana was 86th). Following extensive USAF bombing, North Korea "had been virtually destroyed as an industrial society." After the armistice, Kim Il-Sung requested Soviet economic and industrial assistance. In September 1953, the Soviet government agreed to "cancel or postpone repayment for all ... outstanding debts", and promised to grant North Korea one billion rubles in monetary aid, industrial equipment and consumer goods. Eastern European members of the Soviet Bloc also contributed with "logistical support, technical aid, [and] medical supplies." China canceled North Korea's war debts, provided 800 million yuan, promised trade cooperation, and sent in thousands of troops to rebuild damaged infrastructure. Contemporary North Korea remains underdeveloped. Estimates based on the most recent North Korean census suggest that 240,000 to 420,000 people died as a result of the 1990s North Korean famine and that there were 600,000 to 850,000 unnatural deaths in North Korea from 1993 to 2008. A study by South Korean anthropologists of North Korean children who had defected to China found that 18-year-old males were shorter than South Koreans their age because of malnutrition. South Korean anti-Americanism after the war was fueled by the presence and behavior of US military personnel (USFK) and US support for Park's authoritarian regime, a fact still evident during the country's democratic transition in the 1980s. However, anti-Americanism has declined significantly in South Korea in recent years, from 46% favorable in 2003 to 74% favorable in 2011, making South Korea one of the most pro-US countries in the world. A large number of mixed-race "GI babies" (offspring of US and other UN soldiers and Korean women) were filling up the country's orphanages. Because Korean traditional society places significant weight on paternal family ties, bloodlines, and purity of race, children of mixed race or those without fathers are not easily accepted in South Korean society. International adoption of Korean children began in 1954. The US Immigration Act of 1952 legalized the naturalization of non-blacks and non-whites as US citizens, and made possible the entry of military spouses and children from South Korea after the Korean War. With the passage of the Immigration Act of 1965, which substantially changed US immigration policy toward non-Europeans, Koreans became one of the fastest- growing Asian groups in the United States. Mao Zedong's decision to take on the United States in the Korean War was a direct attempt to confront what the Communist bloc viewed as the strongest anti-Communist power in the world, undertaken at a time when the Chinese Communist regime was still consolidating its own power after winning the Chinese Civil War. Mao supported intervention not to save North Korea, but because he believed that a military conflict with the US was inevitable after the US entered the war, and to appease the Soviet Union to secure military dispensation and achieve Mao's goal of making China a major world military power. Mao was equally ambitious in improving his own prestige inside the communist international community by demonstrating that his Marxist concerns were international. In his later years Mao believed that Stalin only gained a positive opinion of him after China's entrance into the Korean War. Inside mainland China, the war improved the long-term prestige of Mao, Zhou, and Peng, allowing the Chinese Communist Party to increase its legitimacy while weakening anti-Communist dissent. The Chinese government have encouraged the point of view that the war was initiated by the United States and South Korea, though ComIntern documents have shown that Mao sought approval from Joseph Stalin to enter the war. In Chinese media, the Chinese war effort is considered as an example of China's engaging the strongest power in the world with an under-equipped army, forcing it to retreat, and fighting it to a military stalemate. These successes were contrasted with China's historical humiliations by Japan and by Western powers over the previous hundred years, highlighting the abilities of the PLA and the Chinese Communist Party. The most significant negative long-term consequence of the war for China was that it led the United States to guarantee the safety of Chiang Kai- shek's regime in Taiwan, effectively ensuring that Taiwan would remain outside of PRC control through the present day. Mao had also discovered the usefulness of large-scale mass movements in the war while implementing them among most of his ruling measures over PRC. Finally, anti-U.S. sentiments, which were already a significant factor during the Chinese Civil War, was ingrained into Chinese culture during the Communist propaganda campaigns of the Korean War. The Korean War affected other participant combatants. Turkey, for example, entered NATO in 1952, and the foundation was laid for bilateral diplomatic and trade relations with South Korea. United Nations Memorial Cemetery, Busan, Republic of Korea, Korean War Veterans Memorial, Washington, D.C., Philadelphia Korean War Memorial, National War Memorial (New Zealand), Korean War Memorial Wall, Brampton, Ontario, War Memorial of Korea Yongsan-dong, Yongsan-gu, Seoul, South Korea Lin, L., et al. "Whose history? An analysis of the Korean war in history textbooks from the United States, South Korea, Japan, and China." Social Studies 100.5 (2009): 222-232. online Anniversary of the Korean War Armistice: Truman on Acheson's Crucial Role in Going to War Shapell Manuscript Foundation, Korean War resources, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, North Korea International Documentation Project, Grand Valley State University Veteran's History Project digital collection, The Forgotten War, Remembered – four testimonials in The New York Times, Collection of Books and Research Materials on the Korean War an online collection of the United States Army Center of Military History, Korean War, US Army Signal Corps Photograph Collection US Army Heritage and Education Center, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, The Korean War at History.com, Koreanwar-educator.org West Point Atlas of the Korean War, The Korean War You Never Knew – slideshows by Life magazine, US Army Korea Media Center official Korean War online image archive, Rare pictures of the Korean War from the U.S. Library of Congress and National Archives, Land of the Morning Calm Canadians in Korea – multimedia project including veteran interviews, Pathé Online newsreel archive featuring films on the war, CBC Digital Archives – Forgotten Heroes: Canada and the Korean War Korea Defense Veterans of America, Korean War Ex-POW Association, Korean War Veterans Association, The Center for the Study of the Korean War Korean Children's War Memorial, Chinese 50th Anniversary Korean War Memorial

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Jane Addams (September 6, 1860May 28, 1935) was an American settlement activist, reformer, social worker, sociologist, public administrator and author. She was a notable figure in the history of social work and women's suffrage in the United States and an advocate for world peace. She co-founded Chicago's Hull House, one of America's most famous settlement houses. In 1910, Addams was awarded an honorary master of arts degree from Yale University, becoming the first woman to receive an honorary degree from the school. In 1920, she was a co-founder for the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). In 1931, she became the first American woman to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, and is recognized as the founder of the social work profession in the United States. Maurice Hamington considered her a radical pragmatist and the first woman "public philosopher" in the United States. When Addams died in 1935, she was the best-known female public figure in the United States. In the Progressive Era, when presidents such as Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson identified themselves as reformers and social activists, Addams was one of the most prominent reformers. She helped America address and focus on issues that were of concern to mothers, such as the needs of children, local public health, and world peace. In her essay "Utilization of Women in City Government," Addams noted the connection between the workings of government and the household, stating that many departments of government, such as sanitation and the schooling of children, could be traced back to traditional women's roles in the private sphere. Thus, these were matters of which women would have more knowledge than men, so women needed the vote to best voice their opinions. She said that if women were to be responsible for cleaning up their communities and making them better places to live, they needed to be able to vote to do so effectively. Addams became a role model for middle-class women who volunteered to uplift their communities. Born in Cedarville, Illinois, Jane Addams was the youngest of eight children born into a prosperous northern Illinois family of English-American descent which traced back to colonial Pennsylvania. By the time Addams was eight, four of her siblings had died: three in infancy and one at age 16. In 1863, when Addams was two years old, her mother, Sarah Addams (née Weber), died while pregnant with her ninth child. Thereafter Addams was cared for mostly by her older sisters. Addams spent her childhood playing outdoors, reading indoors, and attending Sunday school. When she was four she contracted tuberculosis of the spine, known as Potts's disease, which caused a curvature in her spine and lifelong health problems. This made it complicated as a child to function with the other children, considering she had a limp and could not run as well. As a child, she thought she was ugly and later remembered wanting not to embarrass her father, when he was dressed in his Sunday best, by walking down the street with him. Addams adored her father, John H. Addams, when she was a child, as she made clear in the stories of her memoir, Twenty Years at Hull House (1910). He was a founding member of the Illinois Republican Party, served as an Illinois State Senator (1855–70), and supported his friend Abraham Lincoln in his candidacies, for senator (1854) and the presidency (1860). He kept a letter from Lincoln in his desk, and Addams loved to look at it as a child. Her father was an agricultural businessman with large timber, cattle, and agricultural holdings; flour and timber mills; and a woolen factory. He was the president of The Second National Bank of Freeport. He remarried in 1868 when Addams was eight years old. His second wife was Anna Hosteler Haldeman, the widow of a miller in Freeport. During her childhood, Addams had big dreams—to do something useful in the world. Interested in the poor from her reading of Dickens and inspired by her mother's kindness to the Cedarville poor, she decided to become a doctor so that she could live and work among the poor. It was a vague idea, nurtured by literary fiction. She was a voracious reader. Addams's father encouraged her to pursue higher education but close to home. She was eager to attend the new college for women, Smith College in Massachusetts; but her father required her to attend nearby Rockford Female Seminary (now Rockford University), in Rockford, Illinois. After graduating from Rockford in 1881, with a collegiate certificate and membership in Phi Beta Kappa, she still hoped to attend Smith to earn a proper B.A. That summer, her father died unexpectedly from a sudden case of appendicitis. Each child inherited roughly $50,000 (equivalent to $ in 2016). That fall, Addams, her sister Alice, Alice's husband Harry, and their stepmother, Anna Haldeman Addams, moved to Philadelphia so that the three young people could pursue medical educations. Harry was already trained in medicine and did further studies at the University of Pennsylvania. Jane and Alice completed their first year of medical school at the Woman's Medical College of Philadelphia, but Jane's health problems, a spinal operation and a nervous breakdown prevented her from completing the degree. She was filled with sadness at her failure. Her stepmother Anna was also ill, so the entire family canceled their plans to stay two years and returned to Cedarville. The following fall her brother-in-law Harry performed surgery on her back, to straighten it. He then advised that she not pursue studies but, instead, travel. In August 1883, she set off for a two-year tour of Europe with her stepmother, traveling some of the time with friends and family who joined them. Addams decided that she did not have to become a doctor to be able to help the poor. Upon her return home in June 1887, she lived with her stepmother in Cedarville and spent winters with her in Baltimore. Addams, still filled with vague ambition, sank into depression, unsure of her future and feeling useless leading the conventional life expected of a well-to-do young woman. She wrote long letters to her friend from Rockford Seminary, Ellen Gates Starr, mostly about Christianity and books but sometimes about her despair. Her nephew was James Weber Linn (1876-1939) who taught English at the University of Chicago and served in the Illinois General Assembly. Linn also wrote books and newspaper articles. Meanwhile, Addams gathered inspiration from what she read. Fascinated by the early Christians and Tolstoy's book , she was baptized a Christian in the Cedarville Presbyterian Church, in the summer of 1886. Reading Giuseppe Mazzini's Duties of Man, she began to be inspired by the idea of democracy as a social ideal. Yet she felt confused about her role as a woman. John Stuart Mill's The Subjection of Women made her question the social pressures on a woman to marry and devote her life to family. In the summer of 1887, Addams read in a magazine about the new idea of starting a settlement house. She decided to visit the world's first, Toynbee Hall, in London. She and several friends, including Ellen Gates Starr, traveled in Europe from December 1887 through the summer of 1888. After watching a bullfight in Madrid, fascinated by what she saw as an exotic tradition, Addams condemned this fascination and her inability to feel outraged at the suffering of the horses and bulls. At first, Addams told no one about her dream to start a settlement house; but, she felt increasingly guilty for not acting on her dream. Believing that sharing her dream might help her to act on it, she told Ellen Gates Starr. Starr loved the idea and agreed to join Addams in starting a settlement house. Addams and another friend traveled to London without Starr, who was busy. Visiting Toynbee Hall, Addams was enchanted. She described it as "a community of University men who live there, have their recreation clubs and society all among the poor people, yet, in the same style in which they would live in their own circle. It is so free of 'professional doing good,' so unaffectedly sincere and so productive of good results in its classes and libraries seems perfectly ideal." Addams's dream of the classes mingling socially to mutual benefit, as they had in early Christian circles seemed embodied in the new type of institution. The settlement house as Addams discovered was a space within which unexpected cultural connections could be made and where the narrow boundaries of culture, class, and education could be expanded. They doubled up as community arts centers and social service facilities. They laid the foundations for American civil society, a neutral space within which different communities and ideologies could learn from each other and seek common grounds for collective action. The role of the settlement house was an "unending effort to make culture and 'the issue of things' go together." The unending effort was the story of her own life, a struggle to reinvigorate her own culture by reconnecting with diversity and conflict of the immigrant communities in America's cities and with the necessities of social reform. In 1889 Addams and her college friend and paramour Ellen Gates Starr co- founded Hull House, a settlement house in Chicago. The run-down mansion had been built by Charles Hull in 1856 and needed repairs and upgrading. Addams at first paid for all of the capital expenses (repairing the roof of the porch, repainting the rooms, buying furniture) and most of the operating costs. However gifts from individuals supported the House beginning in its first year and Addams was able to reduce the proportion of her contributions, although the annual budget grew rapidly. A number of wealthy women became important long-term donors to the House, including Helen Culver, who managed her first cousin Charles Hull's estate, and who eventually allowed the contributors to use the house rent-free. Other contributors were Louise DeKoven Bowen, Mary Rozet Smith, Mary Wilmarth, and others. Addams and Starr were the first two occupants of the house, which would later become the residence of about 25 women. At its height, Hull House was visited each week by some 2,000 people. The Hull House was a center for research, empirical analysis, study, and debate, as well as a pragmatic center for living in and establishing good relations with the neighborhood. Among the aims of Hull House was to give privileged, educated young people contact with the real life of the majority of the population. Residents of Hull House conducted investigations on housing, midwifery, fatigue, tuberculosis, typhoid, garbage collection, cocaine, and truancy. The core Hull House residents were well-educated women bound together by their commitment to labour unions, the National Consumers League and the suffrage movement. Dr. Harriett Alleyne Rice joined Hull House to provide medical treatment for poor families. Its facilities included a night school for adults, clubs for older children, a public kitchen, an art gallery, a gym, a girls' club, a bathhouse, a book bindery, a music school, a drama group and a theater, apartments, a library, meeting rooms for discussion, clubs, an employment bureau, and a lunchroom. Her adult night school was a forerunner of the continuing education classes offered by many universities today. In addition to making available social services and cultural events for the largely immigrant population of the neighborhood, Hull House afforded an opportunity for young social workers to acquire training. Eventually, Hull House became a 13-building settlement complex, which included a playground and a summer camp (known as Bowen Country Club). One aspect of the Hull House that was very important to Jane Addams was the Art Program. The art program at Hull House allowed Addams to challenge the system of industrialized education, which "fitted" the individual to a specific job or position. She wanted the house to provide a space, time and tools to encourage people to think independently. She saw art as the key to unlocking the diversity of the city through collective interaction, mutual self-discovery, recreation and the imagination. Art was integral to her vision of community, disrupting fixed ideas and stimulating the diversity and interaction on which a healthy society depends, based on a continual rewriting of cultural identities through variation and interculturalism. With funding from Edward Butler, Addams opened an art exhibition and studio space as one of the first additions to Hull House. On the first floor of the new addition there was a branch of the Chicago Public Library, and the second was the Butler Art Gallery, which featured recreations of famous artwork as well as the work of local artists. Studio space within the art gallery provided both Hull House residents and the entire community with the opportunity to take art classes or to come in and hone their craft whenever they liked. As Hull House grew, and the relationship with the neighborhood deepened, that opportunity became less of a comfort to the poor and more of an outlet of expression and exchange of different cultures and diverse communities. Art and culture was becoming a bigger and more important part of the lives of immigrants within the 19th ward, and soon children caught on to the trend. These working-class children were offered instruction in all forms and levels of art. Places such as the Butler Art Gallery or the Bowen Country Club often hosted these classes, but more informal lessons would often be taught outdoors. Addams, with the help of Ellen Gates Starr, founded the Chicago Public School Art Society (CPSAS) in response to the positive reaction the art classes for children caused. The CPSAS provided public schools with reproductions of world-renowned pieces of art, hired artists to teach children how to create art, and also took the students on field trips to Chicago's many art museums. The Hull House neighborhood was a mix of European ethnic groups that had immigrated to Chicago around the start of the 20th century. That mix was the ground where Hull House's inner social and philanthropic elitists tested their theories and challenged the establishment. The ethnic mix is recorded by the Bethlehem-Howard Neighborhood Center: "Germans and Jews resided south of that inner core (south of Twelfth Street) ... The Greek delta formed by Harrison, Halsted Street, and Blue Island Streets served as a buffer to the Irish residing to the north and the French Canadians to the northwest." Italians resided within the inner core of the Hull House Neighborhood ... from the river on the east end, on out to the western ends of what came to be known as Little Italy. Greeks and Jews, along with the remnants of other immigrant groups, began their exodus from the neighborhood in the early 20th century. Only Italians continued as an intact and thriving community through the Great Depression, World War II, and well beyond the ultimate demise of Hull House proper in 1963. Hull House became America's best known settlement house. Addams used it to generate system-directed change, on the principle that to keep families safe, community and societal conditions had to be improved. The neighborhood was controlled by local political bosses. Starr and Addams developed three "ethical principles" for social settlements: "to teach by example, to practice cooperation, and to practice social democracy, that is, egalitarian, or democratic, social relations across class lines." Thus Hull House offered a comprehensive program of civic, cultural, recreational, and educational activities and attracted admiring visitors from all over the world, including William Lyon Mackenzie King, a graduate student from Harvard University who later became prime minister of Canada. In the 1890s Julia Lathrop, Florence Kelley, and other residents of the house made it a world center of social reform activity. Hull House used the latest methodology (pioneering in statistical mapping) to study overcrowding, truancy, typhoid fever, cocaine, children's reading, newsboys, infant mortality, and midwifery. Starting with efforts to improve the immediate neighborhood, the Hull House group became involved in city- and statewide campaigns for better housing, improvements in public welfare, stricter child- labor laws, and protection of working women. Addams brought in prominent visitors from around the world, and had close links with leading Chicago intellectuals and philanthropists. In 1912, she helped start the new Progressive Party and supported the presidential campaign of Theodore Roosevelt. "Addams' philosophy combined feminist sensibilities with an unwavering commitment to social improvement through cooperative efforts. Although she sympathized with feminists, socialists, and pacifists, Addams refused to be labeled. This refusal was pragmatic rather than ideological." Hull House stressed the importance of the role of children in the Americanization process of new immigrants. In keeping with this philosophy which also fostered the play movement and the research and service fields of leisure, youth, and human services. Addams argued in The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets (1909) that play and recreation programs are needed because cities are destroying the spirit of youth. Hull-House featured multiple programs in art and drama, kindergarten classes, boys' and girls' clubs, language classes, reading groups, college extension courses, along with public baths, a gymnasium, a labor museum and playground, all within a free-speech atmosphere. They were all designed to foster democratic cooperation and collective action and downplay individualism. She helped pass the first model tenement code and the first factory laws. Along with her colleagues from Hull House, in 1901 Jane Addams founded what would become the Juvenile Protective Association. JPA provided the first probation officers for the first Juvenile Court in the United States until this became a government function. From 1907 until the 1940s, JPA engaged in many studies examining such subjects as racism, child labor and exploitation, drug abuse and prostitution in Chicago and their effects on child development. Through the years, their mission has now become to improve the social and emotional well-being and functioning of vulnerable children so they can reach their fullest potential at home, in school, and in their communities. Addams and her colleagues documented the communal geography of typhoid fever and reported that poor workers were bearing the brunt of the illness. She identified the political corruption and business avarice that caused the city bureaucracy to ignore health, sanitation, and building codes. Linking environmental justice and municipal reform, she eventually defeated the bosses and fostered a more equitable distribution of city services and modernized inspection practices. Addams spoke of the "undoubted powers of public recreation to bring together the classes of a community in the keeping them apart." Addams worked with the Chicago Board of Health and served as the first vice-president of the Playground Association of America. In 1912, Addams published "A New Conscience and Ancient Evil", about prostitution. This book was extremely popular because it was published during the moral panic over "white slavery" (forced prostitution). Addams believed that prostitution was a result of kidnapping only. Her book later inspired Stella Wynne Herron's 1916 short story Shoes, which Lois Weber adapted into a groundbreaking 1916 film of the same name. Addams and her colleagues originally intended Hull House as a transmission device to bring the values of the college-educated high culture to the masses, including the Efficiency Movement, a major movement in industrial nations in the early 20th century that sought to identify and eliminate waste in the economy and society, and to develop and implement best practices. However, over time, the focus changed from bringing art and culture to the neighborhood (as evidenced in the construction of the Butler Building) to responding to the needs of the community by providing childcare, educational opportunities, and large meeting spaces. Hull-House became more than a proving ground for the new generation of college-educated, professional women: it also became part of the community in which it was founded, and its development reveals a shared history. Addams called on women, especially middle class women with leisure time and energy as well as rich philanthropists, to exercise their civic duty to become involved in municipal affairs as a matter of "civic housekeeping." Addams thereby enlarged the concept of civic duty to include roles for women beyond motherhood (which involved child rearing). Women's lives revolved around "responsibility, care, and obligation," which represented the source of women's power. This notion provided the foundation for the municipal or civil housekeeping role that Addams defined, and gave added weight to the women's suffrage movement that Addams supported. Addams argued that women, as opposed to men, were trained in the delicate matters of human welfare and needed to build upon their traditional roles of housekeeping to be civic housekeepers. Enlarged housekeeping duties involved reform efforts regarding poisonous sewage, impure milk (which often carried tuberculosis), smoke-laden air, and unsafe factory conditions. Addams led the "garbage wars"; in 1894 she became the first woman appointed as sanitary inspector of Chicago's 19th Ward. With the help of the Hull-House Women's Club, within a year over 1000 health department violations were reported to city counsel and garbage collection reduced death and disease. Addams had long discussions with philosopher John Dewey in which they redefined democracy in terms of pragmatism and civic activism, with an emphasis more on duty and less on rights. The two leading perspectives that distinguished Addams and her coalition from the modernizers more concerned with efficiency were the need to extend to social and economic life the democratic structures and practices that had been limited to the political sphere, as in Addams' programmatic support of trade unions; and second, their call for a new social ethic to supplant the individualist outlook as being no longer adequate in modern society. Addams' construction of womanhood involved daughterhood, sexuality, wifehood, and motherhood. In both of her autobiographical volumes, Twenty Years at Hull-House (1910) and The Second Twenty Years at Hull-House (1930), Addams's gender constructions parallel the Progressive-Era ideology she championed. In A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil (1912) she dissected the social pathology of sex slavery, prostitution and other sexual behaviors among working class women in American industrial centers during 1890–1910. Addams's autobiographical persona manifests her ideology and supports her popularized public activist persona as the "Mother of Social Work," in the sense that she represents herself as a celibate matron, who served the suffering immigrant masses through Hull-House, as if they were her own children. Although not a mother herself, Addams became the "mother to the nation," identified with motherhood in the sense of protective care of her people. Addams kept up her heavy schedule of public lectures around the country, especially at college campuses. In addition, she offered college courses through the Extension Division of the University of Chicago. She declined offers from the university to become directly affiliated with it, including an offer from Albion Small, chair of the Department of Sociology, of a graduate faculty position. She declined in order to maintain her independent role outside of academia. Her goal was to teach adults not enrolled in formal academic institutions, because of their poverty and/or lack of credentials. Furthermore, she wanted no university controls over her political activism. Addams was a charter member of the American Sociological Society, founded in 1905. She gave papers to it in 1912, 1915, and 1919. She was the most prominent woman member during her lifetime. Generally, Addams was close to a wide set of other women and was very good at eliciting their involvement from different classes in Hull House's programs. Nevertheless, throughout her life Addams did have significant romantic relationships with a few of these women, including Mary Rozet Smith and Ellen Starr. Her relationships offered her the time and energy to pursue her social work while being supported emotionally and romantically. From her exclusively romantic relationships with women, she would most likely be described as a lesbian in contemporary terms, similar to many leading figures in the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom of the time. Her first romantic partner was Ellen Starr, with whom she founded Hull House, and whom she met when both were students at Rockford Female Seminary. In 1889, both had visited Toynbee Hall together, and started their settlement house project, purchasing a house in Chicago. Her second romantic partner was Mary Rozet Smith, who was financially wealthy and supported Addams's work at Hull House, and with whom she shared a house. Historian Lilian Faderman wrote that Jane was in love and she addressed Mary as "My Ever Dear", "Darling" and "Dearest One", and concluded that they shared the intimacy of a married couple. They remained together until 1934, when Mary died of pneumonia, after forty years together. It was said that, "Mary Smith became and always remained the highest and clearest note in the music that was Jane Addams' personal life". Together they owned a summer house in Bar Harbor, Maine. When apart, they would write to each other at least once a day - sometimes twice. Addams would write to Smith, "I miss you dreadfully and am yours 'til death". The letters also show that the women saw themselves as a married couple: "There is reason in the habit of married folks keeping together", Addams wrote to Smith. Addams' religious beliefs were shaped by her wide reading and life experience. She saw her settlement work as part of the "social Christian" movement. Addams learned about social Christianity from the co-founders of Toynbee Hall, Samuel and Henrietta Barnett. The Barnetts held a great interest in converting others to Christianity, but they believed that Christians should be more engaged with the world, and, in the words of one of the leaders of the social Christian movement in England, W. H. Fremantle, "imbue all human relations with the spirit of Christ's self-renouncing love." According to Christie and Gauvreau (2001), while the Christian settlement houses sought to Christianize, Jane Addams "had come to epitomize the force of secular humanism." Her image was, however, "reinvented" by the Christian churches. According to Joslin (2004), "The new humanism, as [Addams] interprets it comes from a secular, and not a religious, pattern of belief". According to the Jane Addams Hull-House Museum, "Some social settlements were linked to religious institutions. Others, like Hull-House [co-founded by Addams], were secular." Hilda Satt Polacheck, a former resident of Hull House, stated that Addams firmly believed in religious freedom and bringing people of all faiths into the social, secular fold of Hull House. The one exception, she notes, was the annual Christmas Party, although Addams left the religious side to the church." In 1898, Addams joined the Anti-Imperialist League, in opposition to the U.S. annexation of the Philippines. A staunch supporter of the Progressive Party, she nominated Theodore Roosevelt for the Presidency during the Party Convention, held in Chicago in August 1912. She signed up on the party platform, even though it called for building more battleships. She went on to speak and campaign extensively for Roosevelt's 1912 presidential campaign. In January 1915, she became involved in the Woman's Peace Party and was elected national chairman. Addams was invited by European women peace activists to preside over the International Congress of Women in The Hague, 28–30 April 1915, and was chosen to head the commission to find an end to the war. This included meeting ten leaders in neutral countries as well as those at war to discuss mediation. This was the first significant international effort against the war. Addams, along with co-delegates Emily Balch and Alice Hamilton, documented their experiences of this venture, published as a book, Women at The Hague (University of Illinois). In her journal, Balch recorded her impression of Jane Addams (April 1915): Miss Addams shines, so respectful of everyone's views, so eager to understand and sympathize, so patient of anarchy and even ego, yet always there, strong, wise and in the lead. No 'managing', no keeping dark and bringing things subtly to pass, just a radiating wisdom and power of judgement. Addams was elected president of the International Committee of Women for a Permanent Peace, established to continue the work of the Hague Congress; at a conference in 1919 in Zurich, Switzerland, the International Committee developed into the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF). Addams continued as president, a position that entailed frequent travel to Europe and Asia. In 1917, she became also a member of the Fellowship of Reconciliation USA (American branch of the International Fellowship of Reconciliation founded in 1919) and was a member of the Fellowship Council until 1933. When the US joined the war, in 1917, Addams started to be strongly criticized. She faced increasingly harsh rebukes and criticism as a pacifist. Her 1915 speech on pacifism at Carnegie Hall received negative coverage by newspapers such as The New York Times, which branded her as unpatriotic. Later, during her travels, she spent time meeting with a wide variety of diplomats and civic leaders and reiterating her Victorian belief in women's special mission to preserve peace. Recognition of these efforts came with the award of the Nobel Peace Prize to Addams in 1931. As the first U.S. woman to win the prize, Addams was applauded for her "expression of an essentially American democracy." She donated her share of the prize money to the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom. Addams was a major synthesizing figure in the domestic and international peace movements, serving as both a figurehead and leading theoretician; she was influenced especially by Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy and by the pragmatism of philosophers John Dewey and George Herbert Mead. She envisioned democracy, social justice and peace as mutually reinforcing; they all had to advance together to achieve any one. Addams became an anti-war activist from 1899, as part of the anti-imperialist movement that followed the Spanish–American War. Her book Newer Ideals of Peace (1907) reshaped the peace movement worldwide to include ideals of social justice. She recruited social justice reformers like Alice Hamilton, Lillian Wald, Florence Kelley, and Emily Greene Balch to join her in the new international women's peace movement after 1914. Addams's work came to fruition after World War I, when major institutional bodies began to link peace with social justice and probe the underlying causes of war and conflict. In 1899 and 1907, world leaders sought peace by convening an innovative and influential peace conference at The Hague. These conferences produced Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907. A 1914 conference was canceled due to World War I. The void was filled by an unofficial conference convened by Women at the Hague. At the time, both the US and The Netherlands were neutral. Jane Addams chaired this pathbreaking International Congress of Women at the Hague, which included almost twelve hundred participants from 12 warring and neutral countries. Their goal was to develop a framework to end the violence of war. Both national and international political systems excluded women's voices. The women delegates argued that the exclusion of women from policy discourse and decisions around war and peace resulted in flawed policy. The delegates adopted a series of resolutions addressing these problems and called for extending the franchise and women's meaningful inclusion in formal international peace processes at war's end. Following the conference, Addams and a congressional delegation traveled throughout Europe meeting with leaders, citizen groups, and wounded soldiers from both sides. Her leadership during the conference and her travels to the Capitals of the war-torn regions were cited in nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize. Addams was opposed to U.S. interventionism, expansionism and ultimately was against those who sought American dominance abroad. In 1915 she gave a speech at Carnegie Hall and was booed offstage for opposing U.S. intervention into World War I. Addams damned war as a cataclysm that undermined human kindness, solidarity, civic friendship, and caused families across the world to struggle. In turn her views were denounced by patriotic groups and newspapers during World War I (1917–18). Oswald Garrison Villard came to her defense when she suggested that armies gave liquor to soldiers just before major ground attacks. "Take the case of Jane Addams for one. With what abuse did not the [New York] Times cover her, one of the noblest of our women, because she told the simple truth that the Allied troops were often given liquor or drugs before charging across No Man's Land. Yet when the facts came out at the hands of Sir Philip Gibbs and others not one word of apology was ever forthcoming." Even after the war the WILPF's program of peace and disarmament was characterized by opponents as radical, Communist-influenced, unpatriotic, and unfeminine. Young veterans in the American Legion, supported by some members of the Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR) and the League of Women Voters, were ill-prepared to confront the older, better-educated, more financially secure and nationally famous women of the WILPF. Nevertheless, the DAR could and did expel Addams from membership in their organization. The Legion's efforts to portray the WILPF members as dangerously naive females resonated with working class audiences, but President Calvin Coolidge and the middle classes supported Addams and her WILPF efforts in the 1920s to prohibit poison gas and outlaw war. After 1920, however, she was widely regarded as the greatest woman of the Progressive Era. In 1931 the award of the Nobel Peace prize earned her near-unanimous acclaim. Jane Addams was also a philosopher of peace. Peace theorists often distinguish between negative and positive peace. Negative peace deals with the absence of violence or war. Positive peace is more complicated. It deals with the kind of society we aspire to, and can take into account concepts like justice, cooperation, the quality of relationships, freedom, order and harmony. Jane Addams's philosophy of peace is a type of positive peace. Patricia Shields and Joseph Soeters (2017) have summarized her ideas of peace using the term Peaceweaving. They use weaving as a metaphor because it denotes connection. Fibers come together to form a cloth, which is both flexible and strong. Further, weaving is an activity in which men and women have historically engaged. Addams peaceweaving is a process which builds "the fabric of peace by emphasizing relationships. Peaceweaving builds these relationships by working on practical problems, engaging people widely with sympathetic understanding while recognizing that progress is measured by the welfare of the vulnerable" In the 21st century, Addams is regarded as an early American democratic socialist. While "no record is available of any speech she ever made on behalf of the eighteenth amendment", she nonetheless supported prohibition on the basis that alcohol "was of course a leading lure and a necessary element in houses of prostitution, both from a financial and a social standpoint." She repeated the claim that "professional houses of prostitution could not sustain themselves without the 'vehicle of alcohol.'" Jane Addams is buried at Cedarville Cemetery, Cedarville, Illinois. Hull House and the Peace Movement are widely recognized as the key tangible pillars of Addams' legacy. While her life focused on the development of individuals, her ideas continue to influence social, political and economic reform in the United States as well as internationally. Addams and Starr's creation of the settlement house, Hull House, impacted the community, immigrant residents, and the social working nearby. Willard Motley, a resident artist of Hull House, extracting from Addams' central theory on symbolic interactionism, used the neighborhood and its people to write his 1948 best seller, Knock on Any Door. His novel later became a well known court-room film in 1949. This book and film brought attention to how a resident lived an everyday life inside a settlement house and his relationship with Jane Addams, herself. Addams' role as reformer enabled her to petition the establishment at and alter the social and physical geography of her Chicago neighborhood. Although contemporary academic sociologists defined her engagement as "social work," Addams' efforts differed significantly from activities typically labeled as "social work" during that time period. Before Addams' powerful influence on the profession, social work was largely informed by a "friendly visitor" model in which typically wealthy women of high public stature visited impoverished individuals and, through systematic assessment and intervention, aimed to improve the lives of the poor. Addams rejected the friendly visitor model in favor of a model of social reform/social theory-building, thereby introducing the now-central tenets of social justice and reform to the field of social work. Addams worked with other reform groups toward goals including the first juvenile court law, tenement-house regulation, an eight-hour working day for women, factory inspection, and workers' compensation. She advocated research aimed at determining the causes of poverty and crime, and she supported women's suffrage. She was a strong advocate of justice for immigrants, African Americans, and minority groups by becoming a chartered member of the NAACP. Among the projects that the members of the Hull House opened were the Immigrants' Protective League, the Juvenile Protective Association, the first juvenile court in the United States, and a Juvenile Psychopathic Clinic. Addams' influential writings and speeches, on behalf of the formation of the League of Nations and as a peace advocate, influenced the later shape of the United Nations. Jane Addams also sponsored the work of Neva Boyd, who founded the Recreational Training School at Hull House, a one-year educational program in group games, gymnastics, dancing, dramatic arts, play theory, and social problems. At Hull House, Neva Boyd ran movement and recreational groups for children, using games and improvisation to teach language skills, problem- solving, self-confidence and social skills. During the Great Depression, Boyd worked with the Recreational Project in the Works Progress Administration, (WPA) as The Chicago Training School for Playground Workers, which subsequently became the foundation for the Recreational Therapy and Educational Drama movements in the U.S. One of her best known disciples, Viola Spolin taught in the Recreational Theater Program at Hull House during the WPA era. Spolin went on to be a pioneer in the improvisational theater movement in the US and the inventor of Theater Games. The main legacy left by Jane Addams includes her involvement in the creation of the Hull House, impacting communities and the whole social structure, reaching out to colleges and universities in hopes of bettering the educational system, and passing on her knowledge to others through speeches and books. She paved the way for women by publishing several books and co-winning the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931 with Starr. Jane Addams was intimately involved with the founding of Sociology as a field in the United States. Hull House enabled Addams to befriend and become a colleague to early members of the Chicago School of Sociology. She actively contributed to the sociology academic literature, publishing five articles in the American Journal of Sociology between 1896 and 1914. Her influence, through her work in applied sociology, impacted the thought and direction of the Chicago School of Sociology's members. In 1893, she co-authored the compilation of essays written by Hull House residents and workers titled, Hull-House Maps and Papers. These ideas helped shape and define the interests and methodologies of the Chicago School. She worked with American philosopher, George H. Mead, and John Dewey on social reform issues, including promoting women's rights, ending child labor, and mediating during the 1910 Garment Workers' Strike. This strike in particular bent thoughts of protests because it dealt with women workers, ethnicity, and working conditions. All of these subjects were key items that Addams wanted to see in the society. The University of Chicago Sociology department was established in 1892, three years after Hull House was established (1889). Members of Hull House welcomed the first group of professors, who soon were "intimately involved with Hull House" and assiduously engaged with applied social reform and philanthropy" In 1893, for example, faculty (Vincent, Small and Bennis) worked with Jane Addams and fellow Hull House resident Florence Kelley to pass legislation "banning sweat shops and employment of children" Albion Small, chair of the Chicago Department of Sociology and founder of the American Journal of Sociology, called for a sociology that was active "in the work of perfecting and applying plans and devices for social improvement and amelioration," which took place in the "vast sociological laboratory" that was 19th-century Chicago. Although, untenured, women residents of Hull House taught classes in the Chicago Sociology Department. During and after World War I the focus of the Chicago Sociology Department shifted away from social activism toward a more positivist orientation. Social activism was also associated with communism and a "weaker" woman's work orientation. In response to this change, women sociologists in the department "were moved inmasse out of sociology and into social work" in 1920 The contributions of Jane Addams and other Hull House residents were buried in history. Mary Jo Deegan, in her 1988 book Jane Addams and the Men of the Chicago School, 1892-1918 was the first person to recover Addams influence on Sociology. Deegan's work has led to recognition of Addams' place in sociology. In a 2001 address, for example, Joe Feagin, then president of the American Sociology Association, identified Addams as a "key founder" and he called for sociology to again claim its activist roots and commitment to social justice. On December 10, 2007, Illinois celebrated the first annual Jane Addams Day. Jane Addams Day was initiated by a dedicated school teacher from Dongola, Illinois, assisted by the Illinois Division of the American Association of University Women (AAUW). Chicago activist Jan Lisa Huttner traveled throughout Illinois as Director of International Relations for AAUW-Illinois to help publicize the date, and later gave annual presentations about Jane Addams Day in costume as Jane Addams. In 2010, Huttner appeared as Jane Addams at a 150th Birthday Party sponsored by Rockford University (Jane Addams' alma mater), and in 2011, she appeared as Jane Addams at an event sponsored by the Chicago Park District. There is a Jane Addams Memorial Park located near Navy Pier in Chicago. In 2007, the state of Illinois renamed the Northwest Tollway as the Jane Addams Memorial Tollway. Hull House buildings were demolished for the establishment of the campus of the University of Illinois at Chicago, in 1963, and relocated. The Hull residence itself was preserved as museum and monument to Jane Addams. The Jane Addams College of Social Work is a professional school at the University of Illinois at Chicago. Jane Addams Business Careers Center is a high school in Cleveland, Ohio. Jane Addams High School For Academic Careers is a high school in The Bronx, NY. Jane Addams House is a residence hall built in 1936 at Connecticut College. In 1973, Jane Addams was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. In 2008 Jane Addams was inducted into the Chicago Gay and Lesbian Hall of Fame. Addams was inducted into the Chicago Literary Hall of Fame in 2012. Also, in 2012 she was inducted into the Legacy Walk, an outdoor public display which celebrates LGBT history and people. In 2014, Jane Addams was one of the first 20 honorees awarded a 3-foot x 3-foot bronze plaque on San Francisco's Rainbow Honor Walk (www.rainbowhonorwalk.org) paying tribute to LGBT heroes and heroines. In 2015, Addams was named by Equality Forum as one of their 31 Icons of the 2015 LGBT History Month. Jane Addams was possibly the inspiration of the character of Edith Keeler (played by Joan Collins) in the Hugo Award winning 1967 Star Trek episode The City on the Edge of Forever, which is widely considered to be one of the best episodes in the Star Trek series. Like Addams, Keeler was a visionary social reformer, based in a large city, who was active in the world peace movement. In 2014 Addams was one of the inaugural honorees in the Rainbow Honor Walk, a walk of fame in San Francisco's Castro neighborhood noting LGBTQ people who have "made significant contributions in their fields." Jane Addams Burial Site, Jane Addams School for Democracy, Jane Addams Middle School, Jane Addams Children's Book Award, John H. 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(1999). 318 pp., Elshtain, Jean Bethke. Jane Addams and the Dream of American Democracy: A Life Basic Books: 2002 online edition, by a leading conservative scholar, Haldeman-Julius, Marcet. Jane Addams As I Knew Her. Girard, Kansas: Haldeman-Julius Publications, ca. 1936. Marcet was Addams's niece., Knight, Louise W. Citizen: Jane Addams and the Struggle for Democracy. (2005). 582 pp.; biography to 1899 online edition, Knight, Louise W. Jane Addams: Spirit in Action. (2010). 334 pp., complete biography aimed at a broader audience., Joslin, Katherine. Jane Addams: A Writer's Life. (2004). 306 pp., Linn, James W. Jane Addams: A Biography. (1935) 457 pp, by her admiring nephew Agnew, Elizabeth N. "A Will to Peace: Jane Addams, World War I, and 'Pacifism in Practice'" Peace & Change (2017) 42#1 pp 5–31 https://doi.org/10.1111/pech.12216, Alonso, Harriet Hyman. "Nobel Peace Laureates, Jane Addams And Emily Greene Balch: Two Women Of The Women's International League for Peace and Freedom." Journal of Women's History 1995 7(2): 6–26., Beauboeuf-Lafontant, Tamara. "Becoming Jane Addams: Feminist Developmental Theory and' The College Woman'" Girlhood Studies (2014) 7#2 pp: 61-78., Beer, Janet and Joslin, Katherine. "Diseases of the Body Politic: White Slavery in Jane Addams' "A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil" and "Selected Short Stories" by Charlotte Perkins Gilman." Journal of American Studies 1999 33(1): 1–18., Bowen, Louise de Koven. Growing up with Pity. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1926., Brinkmann, Tobias. Sundays at Sinai: A Jewish Congregation in Chicago (2012), on Addams relationship with Chicago Jews., Bryan, Mary Linn McCree, and Allen F. Davis. One Hundred Years at Hull-House (1990), a history of the programs there, Craraft, James. Two Shining Souls: Jane Addams, Leo Tolstoy, and the Quest for Global Peace (Lanham: Lexington, 2012).179 pp., Carson, Minal. Settlement Folk: Social Thought and the American Settlement Movement, 1885-1930 (1990), Chansky, Dorothy. "Re-visioning Reform," American Quarterly vol 55 #3 (2003) 515–523 online at Project Muse, Curti, Merle. "Jane Addams on Human Nature," Journal of the History of Ideas Vol. 22, No. 2 (Apr., 1961), pp. 240–253 in JSTOR, Danielson, Caroline Page. "Citizen Acts: Citizenship and Political Agency in the Works of Jane Addams, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, and Emma Goldman." PhD dissertation U. of Michigan 1996. 331 pp. DAI 1996 57(6): 2651-A. DA9635502 Fulltext: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses, Dawley, Alan. Changing the World: American Progressives in War and Revolution (2003), Deegan, Mary Jo. "Jane Addams, the Hull-House School of Sociology, and Social Justice, 1892 to 1935." Humanity & Society (2013) 37#3 pp: 248-258., Deegan, Mary. Jane Addams and the Men of the Chicago School, 1892–1918. (Transaction, Inc., 1988), Donovan, Brian. White Slave Crusades: Race, Gender, and Anti-Vice Activism, 1887-1917. (U of Illinois Press. 2006). 186 pp., Duffy, William. "Remembering is the Remedy: Jane Addams's Response to Conflicted Discourse." Rhetoric Review (2011) 30#2 pp: 135–152., Fischer, Marilyn, et al. eds. Jane Addams and the Practice of Democracy (2009), 230pp; 11 specialized essays by scholars excerpt and text search, Foust, Mathew A. "Perplexities of Filiality: Confucius and Jane Addams on the Private/Public Distinction," "Asian Philosophy" (2008) 18(2): 149-166., Grimm, Robert Thornton, Jr. "Forerunners for a Domestic Revolution: Jane Addams, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, and the Ideology Of Childhood, 1900-1916." Illinois Historical Journal 1997 90(1): 47–64., Gustafson, Melanie. Women and the Republican Party, 1854-1924 (University of Illinois Press, 2001)., Hamington, Maurice. "Jane Addams," Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2007) online edition, Addams as philosopher, Hamington, Maurice. Embodied Care Jane Addams, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, and Feminist Ethics (2004) excerpt and online search at amazon.com, Hamington, Maurice. "Jane Addams and a Politics of Embodied Care," The Journal of Speculative Philosophy v 15 #2 2001, pp. 105–121 online at Project Muse, Hamington, Maurice. "Public Pragmatism: Jane Addams and Ida B. Wells on Lynching," The Journal of Speculative Philosophy v. 19#2 (2005), pp. 167–174 online at Project Muse, Hansen, Jonathan M. "Fighting Words: The Transnational Patriotism of Eugene V. Debs, Jane Addams, and W. E. B. Du Bois." PhD dissertation Boston U. 1997. 286 pp. DAI 1997 57(10): 4511-A. DA9710148 Fulltext: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses, Henderson, Karla A. "Jane Addams: Leisure Services Pioneer". Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, (1982) 53#2 pp. 42–45, Imai, Konomi, and 今井小の実. "The Women's Movement and the Settlement Movement in Early Twentieth-Century Japan: The Impact of Hull House and Jane Addams on Hiratsuka Raichō." Kwansei Gakuin University humanities review 17 (2013): 85-109. online, Jackson, Shannon. Lines of Activity: Performance, Historiography, Hull-House Domesticity (2000). 384 pp., Joslin, Katherine. Jane Addams: A writer's Life (2009) excerpt and text search, Krysiak, Barbara H. "Full-Service Community Schools: Jane Addams Meets John Dewey.". School Business Affairs, v67 n8 pp. 4–8 Aug 2001., Knight, Louise W. "An Authoritative Voice: Jane Addams and the Oratorical Tradition." Gender & History 1998 10(2): 217–251. Fulltext: Ebsco, Knight, Louise W. "Biography's Window on Social Change: Benevolence and Justice in Jane Addams's 'A Modern Lear.'" Journal of Women's History 1997 9(1): 111–138. Fulltext: Ebsco, Lissak, R. S. Pluralism and Progressives: Hull-House and the New Immigrants. (1989), Matassarin, Kat. "Jane Addams of Hull-House: Creative Drama at the Turn of the Century". Children's Theatre Review, Oct 1983. v32 n4 pp 13–15, Morton, Keith. "Addams, Day, and Dewey: The Emergence of Community Service in American Culture". Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, Fall 1997 v4 pp 137–49, Oakes, Jeannie. Becoming Good American Schools: The Struggle for Civic Virtue in Education Reform. (2000)., Ostman, Heather Elaine. "Social Activist Visions: Constructions of Womanhood in the Autobiographies of Jane Addams and Emma Goldman." PhD dissertation Fordham U. 2004. 240 pp. DAI 2004 65(3): 934-A. DA3125022 Fulltext: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses, Packard, Sandra. "Jane Addams: Contributions and Solutions for Art Education". Art Education, 29, 1, 9–12, Jan 76., Phillips, J. O. C. "The Education of Jane Addams". History of Education Quarterly, 14, 1, 49–68, Spr 74., Philpott, Thomas. L. The Slum and the Ghetto: Immigrants, Blacks, and Reformers in Chicago, 1880–1930. (1991)., Platt, Harold. "Jane Addams and the Ward Boss Revisited: Class, Politics, and Public Health in Chicago, 1890–1930." Environmental History 2000 5(2): 194–222., Polacheck, Hilda Satt. I Came a Stranger: The Story of a Hull-House Girl. Chicago, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1989., Sargent, David Kevin. "Jane Addams's Rhetorical Ethic." PhD dissertation Northwestern U. 1996. 275 pp. DAI 1997 57(11): 4597-A. DA9714673 Fulltext: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses, Scherman, Rosemarie Redlich. "Jane Addams and the Chicago Social Justice Movement, 1889–1912." PhD dissertation City U. of New York 1999. 337 pp. DAI 1999 60(4): 1297-A. DA9924849 Fulltext: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses, Schott, Linda. "Jane Addams and William James on Alternatives to War." Journal of the History of Ideas 1993 54(2): 241–254. in JSTOR, Seigfried, Charlene H. "A Pragmatist Response to Death: Jane Addams on the Permanent and the Transient" "Journal of Speculative Philosophy" (2007) 21(2): 133-141., Shields, Patricia M. 2006. "Democracy and the Social Feminist Ethics of Jane Addams: A Vision for Public Administration". Administrative Theory & Praxis, vol. 28, no. 3, September, pp. 418–443. https://digital.library.txstate.edu/handle/10877/3959, Shields, Patricia M. 2011. Jane Addams' Theory of Democracy and Social Ethics: Incorporating a Feminist Perspective. In Women in Public Administration: Theory and Practice. Edited by Maria D'Agostiono and Helisse Levine, Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlet., Shields, Patricia M. 2017. "Jane Addams: Progressive Pioneer of Peace, Philosophy, Sociology, Social Work and Public Administration." New York, NY: Springer., Shields, Patricia M. and Soeters, Joseph. 2017. Peaceweaving: Jane Addams, Positive Peace and Public Administration. The American Review of Public Administration Vol. 47, no 3 pp. 323–399. doi/10.1177/0275074015589629., Sklar, Kathryn Kish. "Hull House in the 1890s: A Community of Women Reformers," Signs, Vol. 10, No. 4, (Summer, 1985), pp. 658–677 in JSTOR, Sklar, Kathryn Kish. "'Some of us who deal with the Social Fabric': Jane Addams Blends Peace and Social Justice, 1907-1919." Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 2003 2(1): 80–96., Soeters, Joseph. 2018. "Jane Addams: From Peace Activism to Pragmatic Peacekeeper" Chapter 5 in Sociology and Military Studies: Classical and Current Foundations New York: Routledge, Stebner, E. J. The Women of Hull-House: A Study in Spirituality, Vocation, and Friendship. (1997)., Stiehm, Judith Hicks. Champions for Peace: Women Winners of the Nobel Peace Prize. Rowman and Littlefield, 2006., Sullivan, M. "Social work's legacy of peace: echoes from the early 20th century." Social Work, Sep93; 38(5): 513–20. EBSCO, Toft, Jessica and Abrams, Laura S. "Progressive Maternalists and the Citizenship Status of Low-Income Single Mothers." Social Service Review 2004 78(3): 447-465. Fulltext: Ebsco Addams, Jane. "A Belated Industry" The American Journal of Sociology Vol. 1, No. 5 (Mar., 1896), pp. 536–550 in JSTOR, Addams, Jane. The subjective value of a social settlement (1892) online, Addams, Jane, ed. Hull-House Maps and Papers: A Presentation of Nationalities and Wages in a Congested District of Chicago, Together with Comments and Essays on Problems Growing Out of the Social Conditions (1896; reprint 2007) excerpts and online search from amazon.com full text, Kelley, Florence. "Hull House" The New England magazine. Volume 24, Issue 5. (July 1898) pp. 550–566 online at MOA, Addams, Jane. "Ethical Survivals in Municipal Corruption," International Journal of Ethics Vol. 8, No. 3 (Apr., 1898), pp. 273–291 in JSTOR, Addams, Jane. "Trades Unions and Public Duty," The American Journal of Sociology Vol. 4, No. 4 (Jan., 1899), pp. 448–462 in JSTOR, Addams, Jane. "The Subtle Problems of Charity," The Atlantic monthly. Volume 83, Issue 496 (February 1899) pp. 163–179 online at MOA, Addams, Jane. Democracy and Social Ethics (1902) online at Internet Archive online at Harvard Library, 23 editions published between 1902 and 2006 in English and held by 1,570 libraries worldwide, Addams, Jane. Child labor 1905 Harvard Library online, Addams, Jane. "Problems of Municipal Administration," The American Journal of Sociology Vol. 10, No. 4 (Jan., 1905), pp. 425–444 JSTOR, Addams, Jane. "Child Labor Legislation - A Requisite for Industrial Efficiency," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science Vol. 25, Child Labor (May, 1905), pp. 128–136 in JSTOR, Addams, Jane. The operation of the Illinois child labor law, (1906) online at Harvard Library, Addams, Jane. Newer Ideals of Peace (1906) online at Internet Archive, 13 editions published between 1906 and 2007 in English and held by 686 libraries worldwide, Addams, Jane. National protection for children 1907 online at Harvard Library, Addams, Jane. The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets (1909) online at books.google.com, online at Harvard Library, 16 editions published between 1909 and 1972 in English and held by 1,094 libraries worldwide, Addams, Jane. Twenty Years at Hull-House: With Autobiographical Notes, 1910 online at A Celebration of Women Writers online at Harvard Library, 72 editions published between 1910 and 2007 in English and held by 3,250 libraries worldwide, Addams, Jane. A new conscience and an ancient evil (1912) online at Harvard Library, 14 editions published between 1912 and 2003 in English and held by 912 libraries worldwide, Addams, Jane; Balch, Emily Greene; and Hamilton, Alice. Women at the Hague: The International Congress of Women and Its Results. (1915) reprint ed by Harriet Hyman Alonso, (2003). 91 pp. online at Harvard Library, Addams, Jane. The Long Road of Woman's Memory (1916) online at Internet Archive online at Harvard Library, also reprint U. of Illinois Press, 2002. 84 pp., Addams, Jane. Peace and Bread in Time of War 1922 online edition, online at Harvard Library, 12 editions published between 1922 and 2002 in English and held by 835 libraries worldwide, Addams, Jane. My Friend, Julia Lathrop. (1935; reprint U. of Illinois Press, 2004) 166 pp., Addams, Jane. Jane Addams: A Centennial Reader (1960) online edition, Bryan, Mary Lynn McCree, Barbara Bair, and Maree De Angury. eds., The Selected Papers of Jane Addams Volume 1: Preparing to Lead, 1860–1881. University of Illinois Press, 2002. online excerpt and text search, Elshtain, Jean B. ed. The Jane Addams Reader (2002), 488pp, Lasch, Christopher, ed. (1965). The Social Thought of Jane Addams. Jane Addams's Hull-House, Jane Addams on the history of social work timeline, Harvard University Library Open Collections Program. Women Working, 1870–1930. Jane Addams (1860–1935). 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Andrew Mearns, Online photograph exhibit of Jane Addams from Swarthmore College's Peace Collection, Taylor Street Archives; Hull House: Bowen Country Club, Looks at her as "the first woman 'public philosopher' in United States history"., Women at the Hague: the International Congress of Women and its Results By Jane Addams, Emily Greene Balch, Alice Hamilton. 171 pages, published 1915 by MacMillan., International Fellowship of Reconciliation, Twenty Years at Hull House University of Virginia American Studies Hypertext project., Short historical film showing Jane Addams in Berlin in 1915, on her peace mission with Aletta Jacobs and Alice Hamilton., Jane Addams Papers Finding Aid, Sophia Smith Collection, American Commission for Peace in Ireland Interim Report, Jane Addams National Women's Hall of Fame, Michals, Debra "Jane Addams". National Women's History Museum. 2017., Sklar, Kathryn Kish et al. "How Did Changes in the Built Environment at Hull-House Reflect the Settlement's Interaction with Its Neighbors, 1889–1912?" Sklar, Women and Social Movements in the United States, 1600-2000, Kathi Coon Badertscher: Jane Addams, In: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, American Commission for Peace in Ireland Interim Report Octavia Hill (3 December 1838 – 13 August 1912) was an English social reformer, whose main concern was the welfare of the inhabitants of cities, especially London, in the second half of the nineteenth century. Born into a family with a strong commitment to alleviating poverty, she herself grew up in straitened circumstances owing to the financial failure of her father's businesses. With no formal schooling, she worked from the age of 14 for the welfare of working people. Hill was a moving force behind the development of social housing, and her early friendship with John Ruskin enabled her to put her theories into practice with the aid of his initial investment. She believed in self-reliance, and made it a key part of her housing system that she and her assistants knew their tenants personally and encouraged them to better themselves. She was opposed to municipal provision of housing, believing it to be bureaucratic and impersonal. Another of Hill's concerns was the availability of open spaces for poor people. She campaigned against development on existing suburban woodlands, and helped to save London's Hampstead Heath and Parliament Hill Fields from being built on. She was one of the three founders of the National Trust, set up to preserve places of historic interest or natural beauty for the enjoyment of the British public. She was a founder member of the Charity Organisation Society (now the charity Family Action) which organised charitable grants and pioneered a home-visiting service that formed the basis for modern social work. She was a member of the Royal Commission on the Poor Laws in 1905. Hill's legacy includes the large holdings of the modern National Trust, several housing projects still run on her lines, a tradition of training for housing managers, and the Octavia Hill Birthplace House established by the Octavia Hill Society at her birthplace in Wisbech. Octavia Hill was the daughter of James Hill (banker) snr, corn merchant, follower of Richard Owen and former banker, and his third wife, Caroline Southwood Smith. He had been widowed twice, and had six children (five daughters and a son) from his previous marriages. He had been impressed by the writings on education of his future wife, the daughter of Dr Thomas Southwood Smith, a pioneer of sanitary reform. He had engaged Caroline as a governess to his children in 1832, and they were married in 1835, the same year he bought the Georgian Wisbech Theatre now the Angles Theatre, three years before Octavia was born in Wisbech, Isle of Ely, Cambridgeshire, her father's eighth daughter and ninth child. The family's comfortably prosperous life was disrupted by James Hill's financial problems and his mental collapse. In 1840 he was declared bankrupt. Caroline Hill's father gave the family financial support, and took on some of Hill's paternal role. James Hill died in 1871. Southwood Smith was a health and welfare reformer concerned with a range of social issues including child labour in mines and the housing of the urban poor. Caroline Hill held similar views on social reform, and her interest in progressive education, influenced by Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, and Southwood Smith's daily experience in his work at the London Hospital in the East End inspired Octavia Hill's concern for the poorest in early Victorian London. She received no formal schooling: her mother educated the family at home. The family settled in a small cottage in Finchley, now a north London suburb, but then a village. Octavia Hill was impressed and moved by Henry Mayhew's London Labour and the London Poor, a book that portrayed the daily lives of slum dwellers. She was also strongly influenced by the theologian, Anglican priest and social reformer F. D. Maurice, who was a family friend. She began her work on behalf of London's poor by helping to make toys for Ragged school children, and serving as secretary of the women's classes at the Working Men's College in Bloomsbury in central London. A co-operative guild providing employment for "distressed gentlewomen" accepted Hill for training in glass-painting when she was 13. When the work of the guild was expanded to provide work in toy-making for Ragged school children, she was invited, at the age of 14, to take charge of the workroom. The following year she began working in her spare time from the guild as a copyist for John Ruskin in Dulwich Art Gallery and the National Gallery. She was deeply aware of the dreadful living conditions of the children in her charge at the guild. Her views on encouraging self-reliance led to her association with the Charity Organisation Society (COS), described by Hill's biographer Gillian Darley as "a contentious body which deplored dependence fostered by kindly but unrigorous philanthropy … support to the poor had to be carefully targeted and efficiently supervised. Later in life, however, she began to think the COS line … was over-harsh." Hill was short, like all her family, and indifferent to fashion. Her friend Henrietta Barnett wrote: "She was small in stature with a long body and short legs. She did not dress, she only wore clothes, which were often unnecessarily unbecoming; she had soft and abundant hair and regular features, but the beauty of her face lay in brown and very luminous eyes, which quite unconsciously she lifted upwards as she spoke on any matter for which she cared. Her mouth was large and mobile, but not improved by laughter. Indeed, Miss Octavia was nicest when she was made passionate by her earnestness." Barnett also spoke of Hill's streak of ruthlessness. Gertrude Bell called Hill despotic. Later in Hill's life, the Bishop of London, Frederick Temple, encountered her at a meeting of the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, and wrote, "She spoke for half an hour … I never had such a beating in all my life." Parliament and many concerned reformers had been attempting to improve the housing of the working classes since the early 1830s. When Hill began her work, the model dwelling movement had been in existence for twenty years, royal and select committees had sat to examine the problems of urban well- being, and the first of many tranches of legislation aimed at improving working class housing had been passed. From Hill's point of view these had all failed the poorest members of the working class, the unskilled labourers. She found that their landlords routinely ignored their obligations towards their tenants, and that the tenants were too ignorant and oppressed to better themselves. She tried to find new homes for her charges, but there was a severe shortage of available property, and Hill decided that her only solution was to become a landlord herself. John Ruskin, who was interested in the co- operative guild, knew Hill from her work as his copyist and was impressed by her. As an aesthete and a humanitarian he was affronted by the brutal ugliness of the slums. In 1865, having inherited a substantial sum of money from his father, he acquired for £750 the leases of three cottages of six rooms each in Paradise Place, Marylebone. Ruskin placed these houses, which were "in a dreadful state of dirt and neglect", under Hill's management. He told her that investors might be attracted to such schemes if a five percent annual return could be secured. In 1866 Ruskin acquired the freehold of five more houses for Hill to manage in Freshwater Place, Marylebone. The Times recorded, "The houses faced a bit of desolate ground occupied by dilapidated cowsheds and manure heaps. The needful repairs and cleaning were carried out, the waste land was turned into a playground where Mr. Ruskin had some trees planted." After being improved the properties were let to those on intermittent and low incomes. A return of five per cent on capital was obtained as promised to Ruskin; any excess over the five per cent was reinvested within the properties for the benefit of the tenants. Rent arrears were not tolerated, and bad debts were minimal. As Hill said, "Extreme punctuality, and diligence in collecting rents, and a strict determination that they shall be paid regularly, have accomplished this." In consequence of her prudent management, Hill was able to attract new backers, and by 1874 she had 15 housing schemes with around 3,000 tenants. Hill's system was based on closely managing not only the buildings but the tenants; she insisted, "you cannot deal with the people and their houses separately." She maintained close personal contact with all her tenants, and was strongly opposed to impersonal bureaucratic organisations and to governmental intervention in housing. In her view, "municipal socialism and subsidized housing" led to indiscriminate demolition, re-housing schemes, and the destruction of communities. At the heart of the Octavia Hill system was the weekly visit to collect rent. From the outset, Hill conceived this as a job for women only. She and her assistants (who included Emma Cons and Eva McLaren) combined the weekly rent collection with checking every detail of the premises and getting to know the tenants personally, acting as early social workers. At first Hill believed, "Voluntary workers are a necessity. They are better than paid workers, and can be had in sufficient numbers." Later, she found it expedient to maintain a paid workforce. Her system required a large staff. Rent was collected on Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday mornings. Rent accounts were balanced in the afternoons and arrangements were made with contractors for repairs. On Thursdays and Fridays arrears were pursued, contractors' invoices paid, new tenancy lettings and tenants' moves organised. If any of Hill's assistants had spare time, whether during normal working hours or in frequent voluntary after-hours working, it was used to promote tenants' associations and after- work and children's after-school clubs and societies. In 1859, Hill created the Southwark detachment of the Army Cadet Force, its first independent unit, which gave training along military lines for local boys. Hill considered that such an organisation would be more like the "real thing" than such existing outfits as the Church Lads' Brigade and therefore more attractive to young men "who had passed the age of make-believe". She invited a serving officer of the Derbyshire Regiment to set up the company, and such was its popularity that its numbers had to be capped at 160 cadets. Hill's principles were summed up in an article of 1869: "Where a man persistently refuses to exert himself, external help is worse than useless." She was an outspoken critic of the principles of "outdoor relief" or the Speenhamland system of poor relief as operated by various Poor Law Boards. Because these systems did not encourage recipients to work, she regarded them as "a profligate use of public funds." Under her methods, personal responsibility was encouraged. She insisted on dealing with arrears promptly; she appointed reliable caretakers; she took up on references of prospective tenants, and visited them in their homes; she paid careful attention to allocations and the placing of tenants, with regard to size of families and the size and location of the accommodation to be offered; and she made no rules that could not be properly enforced. In 1884, the Ecclesiastical Commissioners recognised her enlightened approach and turned to her to manage and reform their slum properties in South London, which were notorious for poverty and petty crime. Hill turned these estates into model properties, which still paid a return on investment. An American admirer described her as "ruling over a little kingdom of three thousand loving subjects with an iron scepter twined with roses." Although Hill drove her associates hard, she drove herself harder. In 1877, she collapsed and had to take a break of several months from her work. Darley ascribes a number of contributory causes: "chronic overwork, a lack of delegation, the death of her close friend Jane Senior, the failure of a brief engagement", as well as an attack on her by John Ruskin. The Hill family found a companion for her, Harriot Yorke (1843–1930). Yorke took on a great amount of the everyday work that had contributed to Hill's collapse. She remained her companion until Hill's death. A further palliative was the building of a cottage, at Crockham Hill near Sevenoaks in Kent, where they could take breaks from their work in London. Among Hill's concerns was that her tenants, and all urban workers, should have access to open spaces. She believed in "the life-enhancing virtues of pure earth, clean air and blue sky." In 1883 she wrote: She campaigned hard against building on existing suburban woodlands, and helped to save Hampstead Heath and Parliament Hill Fields from development. She was the first to use the term "Green Belt" for the protected rural areas surrounding London. Three hills in Kent (Mariners Hill, Toys Hill and Ide Hill) which she helped to protect from development form part of the belt. In 1876 Hill became the treasurer of the Kyrle Society, founded in that year by her eldest sister, Miranda, as a "Society for the Diffusion of Beauty". Under the slogan "Bring Beauty Home to the Poor" it aimed to bring art, books, music and open spaces into the lives of the urban poor. For a short period it flourished and expanded, and although it declined after a few years, it was a template for the National Trust, 20 years later. Before that, however, Hill was engaged in a campaign in 1883 to stop the construction of railways from the quarries in the fells overlooking Buttermere, in the English Lake District, with damaging effect on the unspoilt scenery. The campaign was led by Canon Hardwicke Rawnsley, who secured the support of Ruskin, Hill, and Sir Robert Hunter, solicitor to the Commons Preservation Society. From 1875 onwards, Hunter had been Hill's legal adviser on the protection of open spaces in London. Both he and Rawnsley, building on an idea put forward by Ruskin, conceived of a trust that could buy and preserve places of natural beauty and historic interest for the nation. On 16 November 1893, Hill, Hunter and Rawnsley met in the offices of the Commons Preservation Society and agreed to launch such a trust. Hill suggested that it should be called "The Commons and Gardens Trust", but the three agreed to adopt Hunter's suggested title, the "National Trust". Under its full formal title, the National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty was inaugurated the following year. The trust was concerned primarily with protecting open spaces and endangered buildings of historic interest; its first property was Alfriston Clergy House and its first nature reserve was Wicken Fen. The number of homes managed by Hill continued to grow. Although Ruskin had turned against her in a bout of mental instability, she found a new supporter, the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, who handed over to her the management of their housing estates in several poor areas of south London. By the end of the nineteenth century, Hill's women workers were no longer unpaid volunteers but trained professionals. Hill's influence spread beyond the properties under her own control. Her ideas were taken up and copied, with her enthusiastic support, in continental Europe and the United States of America. Beatrice Webb said that she "first became aware of the meaning of the poverty of the poor," while staying with her sister, who was a rent collector for Octavia Hill in the East End. Queen Victoria's daughter, Princess Alice of Hesse-Darmstadt, was taken incognito on a tour of some of Hill's properties, and she translated Hill's Homes of the London Poor into German. Among those whom Hill trained was her assistant and secretary, Maud Jeffery, who was later engaged by the Commissioners of Crown Lands to run new housing estates in London on Octavia Hill's lines. Even some local authorities, despite Hill's distrust, followed her model: some of the earliest examples of municipal council housing, at Kensington and Camberwell, were run on her lines, with the acquisition of working class houses, and their gradual improvement, without evictions or demolitions. Despite her opposition to interference by national or local government in the provision of housing, Hill had to cope with the newly created London County Council and the involvement of the council and other local authorities in providing housing for the poor. In 1884 a Royal commission on the housing of the working classes was set up, but the prime minister, W.E. Gladstone, and his ministerial colleagues vetoed a proposal to include Hill among the members of the commission. The municipal authorities quickly surpassed her in the number of properties under their management. A.S. Wohl notes that in the 1880s Hill had about £70,000 worth of property under her management, and at the end of her career she was managing the dwellings of "perhaps three or four thousand people at the most." The London County Council, by contrast, had a budget of £1,500,000 for its programme of rehousing London's poor in 1901–02. Hill was opposed to other reforms that came about in the early part of the twentieth century. She was against female suffrage on the grounds that "men and women help one another because they are different, have different gifts and different spheres." She also believed that provision of social services and old-age pensions by the government did more harm than good, sapping people's self-reliance. Hill died from cancer on 13 August 1912 at her home in Marylebone, at the age of 73. When John Singer Sargent's portrait of her was presented by her fellow-workers in 1898, Hill made a speech in which she said, "When I am gone, I hope my friends will not try to carry out any special system, or to follow blindly in the track which I have trodden. New circumstances require various efforts, and it is the spirit, not the dead form, that should be perpetuated. ... We shall leave them a few houses, purified and improved, a few new and better ones built, a certain amount of thoughtful and loving management, a few open spaces..." But, she said, more important would be "the quick eye to see, the true soul to measure, the large hope to grasp the mighty issues of the new and better days to come – greater ideals, greater hope, and patience to realize both." The Horace Street Trust, founded by Hill, became a model for many subsequent housing associations and developed into the present trust that bears her name, Octavia Housing. Today it owns several of the homes, including Gable Cottages, designed by Elijah Hoole, who worked with Hill for many years. Hill's determination to provide community space can still be seen in the shape of the Red Cross site in Southwark (1888), among others. The Octavia Hill Society website states that with a community hall, and soundly maintained attractive houses, Hill here anticipated the fundamental ingredients of town planning by some 15 years. The Settlement Movement (creating integrated mixed communities of rich and poor) grew directly out of Hill's work. Her colleagues Samuel and Henrietta Barnett, founded Toynbee Hall, the first university- sponsored settlement, which together with the Women's University Settlement (later called the Blackfriars Settlement) continues to serve local communities. Overseas, Hill's name is perpetuated in the Octavia Hill Association in Philadelphia, a small property company founded in 1896 to provide affordable housing to low and middle-income city residents. Women who had trained under Hill formed the Association of Women Housing Workers in 1916. This later changed its name to the Society of Housing Managers in 1948. After merging with the Institute of Housing Managers in 1965, the society became the present day Chartered Institute of Housing in 1994. The CIH is a professional body for those working in the housing profession in the UK and overseas. The training that Hill gave to Charity Organisation Society volunteers contributed to the development of modern social work, and COS continued to be instrumental in developing social work as a profession during the twentieth century. COS is still in operation today as the charity Family Action. In 1907, Parliament passed the first National Trust Act, enshrining the trust's permanent purpose and giving it powers to protect property for the benefit of the nation. The trust now looks after a wide range of coast, countryside and historic buildings. According to the trust's website, "Staff, volunteers and tenants are engaged daily in providing access to open spaces for people's enjoyment, providing habitats for wildlife and in improving our environment – 'for ever, for everyone'." A single grave marker for Miranda Hill, Octavia Hill and Harriet Yorke was placed in Holy Trinity churchyard, Crockham Hill, Kent. Commemorations of Hill herself include a monument to her at a Surrey beauty spot, on the summit of a hill called Hydon Ball (now owned by the National Trust). Shortly after her death, the family erected a stone seat there, from which walkers can enjoy views over the Surrey countryside. The Octavia Hill Society was set up in 1992 "to promote awareness of the ideas and ideals of Octavia Hill, her family, fellow workers and their relevance in today's society nationally and internationally". Under the society's auspices her birthplace at Wisbech has been turned into the Octavia Hill Birthplace Museum. In 1995, to mark the centenary of the National Trust, a new variety of rose, "Octavia Hill", was named in her honour. A zonal palargonium 'Octavia Hill' bred in Germany by plant-breeding company Elster PAC Jungpflanzen was launched at the Birthplace House in June 2009. Boyd, Nancy (1984). Josephine Butler, Octavia Hill, Florence Nightingale: Three Victorian Women Who Changed Their World. London: Palgrave Macmillan., Darley, Gillian (1990). Octavia Hill: A Life. London: Constable., Darley, Gillian (2004). Octavia Hill: Social Reformer and founder of the National Trust. London: Francis Boutle., Emily Southwood Maurice (ed, 1928) Octavia Hill: Early Ideals. London: Allen and Unwin. OCLC 68245696, Hill, Octavia (1872). Further Account of the Walmer Street Industrial Experiment. London: George Pulman. OCLC 560462399, Hill, Octavia (1877). . London: Macmillan. OCLC 156901340, Hill, Octavia (1883). . London: Macmillan. OCLC 79061157, Hill, Octavia (1884). Colour, Space, and Music for the People. London: Kegan Paul, Trench. OCLC 49912542, Hill, Octavia (1909). Memorandum on the Report of the Royal Commission on the Poor Laws and Relief of Distress. London: P.S. King and Son. OCLC 232315440, Jeffery, Maud, and Edith Neville (eds, 1921). House Property & its Management. Some papers on the methods of management introduced by Miss Octavia Hill, etc. London: Allen & Unwin. OCLC 27713282, Maurice, C. Edmund (ed, 1913). Life of Octavia Hill as told in her letters. London: Macmillan. OCLC 187454788, Moberly Bell, Enid (1942). Octavia Hill: A Biography. London: Constable. OCLC 493117448, Rooff, Madeline (1972) A Hundred Years of Family Welfare: A Study of the Family Welfare Association (Formerly Charity Organisation Society) 1869–1969. London: Michael Joseph., Whelan, Robert (ed, 1998). Octavia Hill and The Social Housing Debate: Essays and Letters by Octavia Hill IEA Health and Welfare Unit,, Whelan, Robert (ed, 2005). Octavia Hill's Letters to Fellow-Workers 1872–1911: Together with an Account of the Walmer Street Industrial Experiment. London: Kyrle Books., Wyatt, R.J. (2000). Octavia Hill and The Crown Estate – a Continuing Legacy?, The Crown Estate, Elizabeth Baigent and Ben Cowell (eds., 2016), ‘Nobler imaginings and mightier struggles’: Octavia Hill, Social Activism, and the Remaking of British Society, Institute of Historical Research. BBC Radio 4 discussion "Octavia Hill" on In Our Time 7 April 2011, Website of museum in Wisbech The Charity Organization Societies were founded in England in 1869 following the 'Goschen Minute' (Poor Law Board; 22nd Annual Report (1869–70), Appendix A No.4. Relief to the Poor in the Metropolis. PP XXXI, 1871) that sought to severely restrict outdoor relief distributed by the Poor Law Guardians. In the early 1870s a handful of local societies were formed with the intention of restricting the distribution of outdoor relief to the elderly. Also called the Associated Charities was a private charity that existed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as a clearing house for information on the poor. The society was mainly concerned with distinction between the deserving poor and undeserving poor. The society believed that giving out charity without investigating the problems behind poverty created a class of citizens that would always be dependent on alms giving. The society originated in Elberfeld, Germany and spread to Buffalo, New York around 1877. The conviction that relief promoted dependency was the basis for forming the Societies. Instead of offering direct relief, the societies addressed the cycle of poverty. Neighborhood charity visitors taught the values of hard work and thrift to individuals and families. The COS set up centralized records and administrative services and emphasized objective investigations and professional training. There was a strong scientific emphasis as the charity visitors organized their activities and learned principles of practice and techniques of intervention from one another. The result led to the origin of social casework. Gradually, over the ensuing years, volunteer visitors began to be supplanted by paid staff. Charity Organization Societies were made up of charitable groups that used scientific philanthropy to help poor, distressed or deviant persons. The Societies considered themselves more than just alms givers. Their ultimate goal was to restore as much self-sufficiency and responsibility as an individual could manage. Through their activities, the Societies tended to be aware of the range of social services available in their communities. They thus became the primary source of information and referral for all services. Through these referrals, a Society often became the central agency in the social services of its community. For instance, the Charity Organization Society of Denver, Colorado, the forerunner of the modern United Way of America, coordinated the charitable activities of local Jewish, Congregational and Catholic groups. Its work under the leadership of Frances Wisebart Jacobs ranged from work with tuberculosis patients to the care and education of young children and was funded in part by direct assistance from the city itself. The Charity Organization Society can be compared to the settlement house movement which emphasized social reform rather than personal problems as the proper focus of charity. Despite its claims that private charity would be superior to public welfare because it improved the moral character of the recipients, records from the COS' Indianapolis branch show that only a minority of its relief recipients managed to become self-reliant, with the exit rate declining sharply the longer people were on relief. The exit rates are similar to those in late-20th-century public welfare programs, despite the fact that COS only granted relief only to recipients it deemed worthy and improvable. Furthermore, journals kept by the COS case workers and "friendly visitors" indicate that they were not on friendly terms with the relief recipients but described them in disparaging terms and interacted with them in an intrusive and presumptuous way. The COS was resented by the poor for its harshness, and its acronym was rendered by critics as "Cringe or Starve". In Britain, the Charity Organisation Society led by Helen Bosanquet and Octavia Hill was founded in London in 1869 and supported the concept of self- help and limited government intervention to deal with the effects of poverty. Alsager Hay Hill was prominent from its foundation, acting as honorary secretary of the council until July 1870, and as an active member of the council until 1880: The organisation claimed to use "scientific principles to root out scroungers and target relief where it was most needed". Annie Barnes joined the organisation and used her own background that people objected to accepting "Charity". The Charity Organisation Society was renamed Family Welfare Association in 1946 and still operates today as Family Action, a registered family support charity. Scientific Charity Movement

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"4 Days Out" is the ninth episode of the second season of the American television drama series Breaking Bad. It was written by Sam Catlin and directed by Michelle MacLaren. Walt arrives at the hospital with his family for a CT scan to learn how he has reacted to chemotherapy. He is told that the results of the test will not be ready for a week, but sees a scan of his lungs and notices a prominent growth. Believing that he has little time left, and realizing that recent expenses and Saul Goodman's fees for laundering his money leave him with little to give his family, Walt decides to spend several days doing nothing but cooking meth. Walt makes up a story about visiting his mother for an extended weekend to be able to explain his absence to Skyler. He convinces Jesse to help for the weekend; Jesse is initially reluctant but cancels his plans to go on a date in Santa Fe with Jane when Walt claims they need to use as much of their supply of methylamine as possible before it goes bad. After Jesse collects the additional supplies and picks Walter up from the airport, they drive the RV out to the desert to cook. Walt tells Jesse to leave the keys in a safe spot, and Jesse leaves them in the ignition switch, unaware that it is draining the vehicle's battery. After a few days of cooking, Walt estimates they have nearly $1.2 million in meth. With their portable generator out of gasoline, Walt wants to get more gasoline and get right back to work, but Jesse convinces him they should take a break to find a hotel for the night. When they go to start the RV, they find the battery dead. They attempt to siphon off gasoline from the RV to the generator to jump start the vehicle, but gas spilled in the process causes the generator to catch fire, and Jesse uses all of their drinking water to douse it. Jesse suggests they call Skinny Pete for help using Walt's cell phone; despite knowing that Skyler will likely discover this in his cell phone records, Walt allows Jesse to make the call. Jesse tries to give directions to Skinny Pete, but they are unsure if he got them all. When Skinny Pete does not arrive, they call him again, and discover he is far off the directions before the phone dies. Walter tears down the generator to allow him to try to trickle charge the RV's battery by manually turning the generator's crank. Though this briefly enables the engine to turn over, the battery quickly dies. Walt becomes depressed and starts suffering from heat exhaustion. Jesse realizes that Walt believes he is going to die, evidenced later when Walt coughs up blood. Walt believes he deserves to die as he has constantly lied to his family. Jesse tries to cheer Walt from his slump, and this inspires Walt to construct their own battery from the materials they have on hand. The makeshift battery provides enough power to jump-start the RV, and they are able to return to Albuquerque. Jesse drops Walt at the airport, assuring Walt that if Walt dies, his family will get their share of the money. Walt and his family return to the doctor the next week, and learn that Walt's cancer is in remission; the "growth" Walt spotted was simply inflamed tissue in his lung, and a resulting tear in his esophagus caused him to cough up blood, but will heal in time. Walt's family is ecstatic, but Walt, privately, has a violent outburst realizing that death will not put an end to his web of lies or his drug empire. The episode was directed by Michelle MacLaren and written by Sam Catlin. It aired on AMC in the United States and Canada on May 3, 2009. The episode was universally acclaimed by critics and is generally considered to be one of the best episodes in the series. Emily VanDerWerff, writing for Slant, praised the episode for its cinematography: "It's also staggeringly beautiful, drinking in the desert landscape that dominates its running time with a wide-eyed sense for the beauty of the wilderness." She added that the episode continued the series' world-building, comparing it to the likes of The Wire and The Sopranos, stating "the best television series are full of the breadth and depth of the panoply of human life." Alan Sepinwall felt similarly, writing "image after image—the glowing orange light of the desert, the cool blues of the chemicals mixing together, the tableaux of the RV resting in the tall grass or Walt and Jesse enjoying the night air after a hard day's work—looked absolutely gorgeous." Donna Bowman, of The A.V. Club, gave the episode an A. She praised the episode for highlighting the characters' ability to act under pressure. Despite the general consensus among critics, in 2019 The Ringer ranked "4 Days Out" as just the 29th best out of the 62 total Breaking Bad episodes. An expert named Dr. Matthew Vincent stated that the battery made in this episode (estimated current: 200 to 300 amps) would have probably been unable to start the RV's engine. "4 Days Out" at the official Breaking Bad site "Pickle Rick" is the third episode of the third season of the Adult Swim animated television series Rick and Morty. Written by Jessica Gao and directed by Anthony Chun, the episode premiered on August 6, 2017. In "Pickle Rick", the eccentric scientist Rick Sanchez turns himself into a pickle just as he and his family are scheduled to attend a therapy session. The episode separately follows Rick's adventures as a pickle and the rest of the family's trip to therapy. The episode parodies action films and was inspired by Breaking Bad episode "4 Days Out". In a continuation of the season's storyline of Beth and Jerry's divorce, "Pickle Rick" explores Beth's unhealthy relationship with Rick, who disregards the importance of family. It was watched by 2.3 million viewers when it first aired on Adult Swim, having been a highly anticipated episode for the show's fanbase. The episode received positive reviews, particularly praising the animation and design of Pickle Rick and his fight scenes, as well as the performance of guest actors Danny Trejo (as Jaguar) and Susan Sarandon (as Dr. Wong). It won the 2018 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program, which was the first Emmy Award won by Rick and Morty. As Beth, Morty, and Summer prepare for family counseling, Rick informs Morty that he has turned himself into a pickle and cannot go. He denies that he timed the experiment to avoid the counseling session, but the family notices a telltale mechanism rigged to drop a syringe in him soon after they leave. Beth takes the syringe, leaving Rick alone on his workbench. Rick is knocked off the bench and then washed into the sewer during a rain shower. Despite having no movable limbs other than his tongue, he sets up a lab in the sewer and builds himself a cybernetic body from rat corpses. He then uses a jetpack to escape the sewer into a secure compound, where he kills several guards. The compound's administrator sends a prisoner named Jaguar to fight Rick, but Rick persuades Jaguar to join him, and they escape together in the administrator's helicopter. Meanwhile the counseling therapist, Dr. Wong, tells Beth that her suspicions about the syringe point to a dynamic between her and Rick that is tearing the family apart. As the group are saying I-messages, Rick enters to get the syringe that will change him back to human form. Dr. Wong uses the occasion to make Beth and Rick speak openly about their grievances. Rick says that he sees no value in therapy because he wants to change the world, not feel comfortable about it. Dr. Wong reminds him that when offered a choice to change the family's strained relationships, he instead risked death as a pickle, and the session ends. On the way home, Rick apologizes to Beth for lying, then uses the syringe to turn back into a human. Morty and Summer express interest in further therapy but Rick and Beth ignore them, instead discussing plans to go out drinking. In a post-credits scene, the villain Concerto is preparing to kill Rick and Morty in his gigantic piano, but Jaguar saves them just in time. Rick tells Morty, "that is why you don't go to therapy." The episode differs from previous season three episodes in that it is entirely set on Earth. However, like the previous two episodes in the season, "Pickle Rick" covers Beth and Jerry's divorce. This marks a change for the show, which previously had little continuity of storylines. Jenny Jaffe of Vulture describes the episode as an instance of how Rick and Morty "likes to back itself into corners with the world's dumbest ideas and execute them in the absolute smartest ways." Jesse Schedeen of IGN notes that this is the show "at its most violent", containing "a level of blood and gore" to match the season 2 episode "Look Who's Purging Now". Greene concurs, saying the episode "reached some new levels of grotesquery" even compared to the violence of Rick's car while protecting Summer in "The Ricks Must Be Crazy". A Nerdist article connects the scene where Rick controls the movement of the cockroach by poking its brain with his tongue to a 2015 study "Central-Complex Control of Movement in the Freely Walking Cockroach", published in Current Biology, where researchers were able to stimulate neurons of a cockroach in order to control its movement. Jack Shepherd of The Independent says that the episode parodies 1980s action films in the storyline with Russian mobsters and their English leader, while Schedeen believes that it parodies "hyper-violent action films" and the John Wick film series. Joe Matar of Den of Geek! writes that the episode emulates Die Hard, which Harmon has done previously in the Community episode "Modern Warfare". Scheeden refers to the building in the episode as a "Russian embassy", while Shepherd calls it an "unnamed, high- secure facility filled with Russian mobsters" and Steve Greene of IndieWire describes it as apparently a "shadowy Eastern European financial consortium." Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club writes, "I don't think the country of the embassy is ever specifically established, which is part of the joke," though notes that the bodyguards are "European." Writer Ryan Ridley has said that the episode is "not a spoof of anything in particular," though it does reference 127 Hours and Gravity. Series creator Dan Harmon has stated that the episode is largely inspired by Breaking Bad episode "4 Days Out", where Walter White is "up against primal forces" and has to "fall back on his basic science knowledge to keep them alive." Jaffe writes that "Summer and Morty seem much more affected" by the therapist's concerns than Beth and Rick. Matar agrees, stating that "Morty and Summer both hope they'll get to go back to therapy, but Beth and Rick have chosen to act above it all." Zach Blumenfeld of Paste writes about the car scene that "the eyes of Morty and Summer [lock] into a thousand-yard stare as their mom and grandpa totally ignore the kids' needs." Jaffe comments that "Beth doesn't want to believe that Rick would purposefully avoid something so important to her." Shepherd writes that "Beth has unresolved abandonment issues, and that mental agony is causing her some serious inner stress that comes out in snarky attacks on everyone around her." Jess Joho of Mashable opines that Beth has a father or Electra complex, saying that the episode "takes Freudian symbolism [...] into the literal" and the choice of a pickle is a "literal phallic symbol". Blumenfeld believes that "the conversation between Beth and her father shows more clearly than ever that they are blood relatives with a seemingly hereditary penchant for self- destructive narcissism" and notes that Jerry's "wet-blanket but well-meaning personality" had a "stabilizing effect" on Beth and the family. Shepherd opines that Rick turning up to therapy shows that he "cares for the family". Handlen writes that "the very fact that Rick is still living with any version of his family would suggest that on some level he does recognize a basic need for those relationships" and that he avoids therapy because "he's smart enough to know that Dr. Wong [...] is right." Schedeen says, "Sarandon's [Dr. Wong's] monologue about Rick's habit of disregarding anything in his life that feels like work really cut to the core of his selfish, narcissistic behavior". Rick has a "rare [moment] of clarity", but Beth will forgive anything he does "so long as she has her father in her life." Joho says that in his diatribe against therapy, "Rick finally shows his true colors to everyone in the room". He calls Dr. Wong's speech a "succinct [takedown] of toxic masculinity". Harmon says in an interview with Fast Company that he believes the episode's concept was first pitched by a writer asking, "What if we started the episode this way, with [Rick] turning himself into a pickle?" The reason for this would be that "he'd want to prove himself", and the therapy plot was used to "keep addressing the divorce story of the season." Character designer Kendra Melton says that "there's probably at least 100 versions of that rat suit". Maximus Pauson, also a character designer, states that the one used in the final episode was one that "emphasized the pickle-ness". Dan Harmon notes that initial designs for the rats were "too adorable" considering that Rick murders many of them, with Melton corroborating that "we arched the back a lot more, put some boils on him, got rid of some fur". According to Harmon, the writers gave more detailed instructions to animators than for most episodes, in particular "about the process of hacking the cockroach to give Rick mobility." "Pickle Rick" is one of Harmon's favorite episodes of the season. During the writing process, he was undergoing a divorce and had entered therapy, which influenced his work; he says of the speech Dr. Wong gives to Rick, "I don't know if I could've written that two years ago [...] I would've made sure Rick got the final word". At the 2016 San Diego Comic-Con, a rough cut animation of "Pickle Rick" was released, featuring him in the sewer attacking rats. As the second season of the show ended with Rick jailed, this led some fans to believe that this was how he would escape, leading to confusion when the third-season premiere was released on April 1, 2017, and showed Rick escaping in a very different way. Three weeks prior to the episode's airing, free "Pickle Rick" T-shirts and other merchandise were given away at the 2017 San Diego Comic-Con. The episode first aired on Adult Swim at 11:30 p.m. on August 6, 2017, where it was watched by 2.31 million viewers. Zach Blumenfeld of Paste calls the episode "arguably the most eagerly anticipated Rick and Morty episode ever" due to the large amount of episode content released by Adult Swim before it premiered. Green calls the Pickle Rick concept "season 3's most anticipated wrinkle." In June 2017, Polygon published an article entitled "Pickle Rick is already everyone's favorite character from Rick and Morty's third season", citing actions of fans such as creating Twitter and Tumblr accounts for the character. Julia Alexander, the writer of the article, comments that the show has "found a dedicated fan base because of the absurdity it bases its comedy in." Jesse Schedeen of IGN gave the episode a rating of 8.7 out of 10, summarising that "this wacky odyssey captured Rick and Morty at its most entertaining". Schedeen praises Danny Trejo's guest appearance, calling the fight scene between Jaguar and Rick "just sublime". Zach Blumenfeld of Paste rates the episode 8.2 out of 10, commending the animators' work. Blumenfeld criticizes Rick's conversation with Jaguar, feeling that "Harmon and Roiland are struggling to express themselves elegantly on the matter", and has the same issue with the therapy session scenes, but he compliments the ending for "packing a strong emotional punch". Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gives the episode an A in a positive review, writing that "Dr. Wong helping people with their coprophagia is a very good joke". Steve Greene of IndieWire grades the episode as a B+, complimenting "the series' increasingly sharp details" such as giving Pickle Rick a black eye and the sound design of his mustard salve. Greene praises guest stars Sarandon and Trejo, but criticizes that "there's a certain thread of magic that gets lost when the Rick/Morty dynamic gets removed from the heart of an episode". Jack Shepherd of The Independent gives the episode a highly positive review, calling it an "excellent, non-stop, blood-soaked adventure". Shepherd calls the choice of a pickle "both hilarious and very, very Rick" and notes Jaguar's line "This ends when one of us dies, and I've never died before" as a highlight for the episode. Jenny Jaffe of Vulture also gives a complimentary review, summarising it as a "Freudian acid trip" and "surreal and self-aware", comparing it to the BoJack Horseman episode "Fish Out of Water". Joe Matar of Den of Geek! said "Pickle Rick" was a "super-engaging episode with a charmingly stupid concept" and "a killer action episode", complimenting the animation, particularly the "slice-and-dice goriness" of the rat scenes. Matar criticized the episode's homage to Die Hard. Scott Russell of Paste ranks the episode third out of ten in a list of season 3 Rick and Morty episodes. Russell calls it "one of the single most entertaining Rick and Morty episodes to date", writing that it "lays essential groundwork for season three's progression"; "doesn't lack for incredibly animated, uber-bloody and powerfully funny action sequences"; and "boasts what may be season three's strongest B-plot". In September 2018, "Pickle Rick" won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program. It is the first Emmy for the show. Rick and Morty is an American adult animated science fiction sitcom created by Justin Roiland and Dan Harmon for Cartoon Network's late-night programming block Adult Swim. The series follows the misadventures of cynical mad scientist Rick Sanchez and his good-hearted but fretful grandson Morty Smith, who split their time between domestic life and interdimensional adventures. Roiland voices the eponymous characters, with Chris Parnell, Spencer Grammer and Sarah Chalke voicing the rest of the family. The series originated from an animated short parody film of Back to the Future, created by Roiland for Channel 101, a short film festival co-founded by Harmon. The series has been acclaimed by critics for its originality, creativity and humor. The series has been picked up for an additional seventy episodes over an unspecified number of seasons, beginning with season 4. The fourth season premiered on November 10, 2019 and will consist of ten episodes. The show revolves around the adventures of the members of the Smith household, which consists of parents Jerry and Beth, their children Summer and Morty, and Beth's father, Rick Sanchez, who lives with them as a guest. According to Justin Roiland, the family lives outside of Seattle, Washington. The adventures of Rick and Morty, however, take place across an infinite number of realities, with the characters travelling to other planets and dimensions through portals and Rick's flying car. Rick is an eccentric and alcoholic mad scientist, who eschews many ordinary conventions such as school, marriage, love, and family. He frequently goes on adventures with his 14-year-old grandson, Morty, a kind-hearted but easily distressed boy, whose naïve but grounded moral compass plays counterpoint to Rick's Machiavellian ego. Morty's 17-year-old sister, Summer, is a more conventional teenager who worries about improving her status among her peers and sometimes follows Rick and Morty on their adventures. The kids' mother, Beth, is a generally level-headed person and assertive force in the household, though self-conscious about her professional role as a horse surgeon. She is dissatisfied with her marriage to Jerry, a simple-minded and insecure person, who disapproves of Rick's influence over his family. Different versions of the characters inhabit other dimensions throughout the multiverse and their personal characteristics can vary from one reality to another. The show's original Rick identifies himself as "Rick Sanchez of Earth Dimension C-137", in reference to his original universe, but this does not necessarily apply to every other member of the Smith household. For instance, in the first-season episode "Rick Potion #9", after turning the entire world population into monsters, Rick and Morty move to a different dimension, leaving Summer, Beth and Jerry behind. In May 2012, Adult Swim unveiled its development slate that included a Rick and Morty pilot from Harmon and Roiland, which was eventually picked up to series in October 2012, as one of the network's first primetime original shows. The first season premiered in December 2013 and concluded in April 2014. It comprised eleven episodes (including the pilot), and aired Mondays at 10:30pm ET/PT. Two months earlier, in February 2014, the show had been renewed for a second season, with the press release noting that Rick and Morty consistently outperformed direct competition in its time slot. Season two aired Sundays at 11:30pm ET/PT, from July to October 2015, and comprised ten episodes. In an interview with The Hollywood Reporter, Roiland said that Rick and Morty will remain "a big priority above anything else" for him in the future, and expressed his intention to keep the show growing. Adult Swim renewed Rick and Morty for a third season in August 2015, shortly after a successful second-season premiere. The two co-creators and executive producers expressed their delight at the series' popularity. The season premiered unannounced on April 1, 2017, as part of an April Fools' prank. The remaining episodes began airing weekly almost four months later, continuing in the same time slot from season two, and the initial airing concluded in October 2017. Although it was originally intended for the season to consist of fourteen episodes, as a result of production delays it eventually comprised only ten. Following the conclusion of the show's third season, co-creators Harmon and Roiland wanted to have assurance that there would be many more seasons of Rick and Morty in the future, so that they would be able to focus on the show and minimize their involvement in other projects. Additionally, Harmon had expressed his wish for the upcoming fourth season to consist of more than ten episodes. In May 2018, after prolonged contract negotiations, Adult Swim announced a long-term deal with the creators, ordering 70 new episodes over an unspecified number of seasons. In a June 2018 interview with Polygon, Justin Roiland was confident that this big renewal deal will allow the creators to minimize the gaps between seasons, as they will be able to schedule their time around the show and "keep the machine going." In May 2019, at WarnerMedia's 2019 Upfronts presentation, the fourth season of Rick and Morty was announced to debut in November 2019, and it premiered on November 10, 2019. In a July 2019 interview with Entertainment Weekly, Roiland confirmed that the fourth season will consist of ten episodes. Rick and Morty was created by Justin Roiland and Dan Harmon. The duo first met at Channel 101, a non-profit monthly short film festival in Los Angeles co- founded by Harmon. At Channel 101, participants submit a short film in the format of a pilot, and a live audience decides which pilots continue as a series. Roiland, then a producer on reality programming, began submitting content to the festival a year after its launch, in 2004. His pilots typically consisted of shock value—"sick and twisted" elements that received a confused reaction from the audience. Nevertheless, Harmon took a liking to his humor and the two began collaborating. In 2006, Roiland was fired from working on a television series he regarded as intensely creatively stifling, and funneled his creative energies into creating a webisode for Channel 101. The result was The Real Animated Adventures of Doc and Mharti, an animated short starring parodies of Doc Brown and Marty McFly, characters from the Back to the Future film trilogy. In the short, which Harmon would dub "a bastardization, a pornographic vandalization", Doc Smith urges Mharti that the solution to all of his problems is to give him oral sex. The audience reacted to it wildly, and Roiland began creating more shorts involving the characters, which soon evolved beyond his original intentions and their obvious origin within the film from which it was culled. Harmon would later create and produce Community, an NBC sitcom, while Roiland would work primarily in voice acting for Disney's Fish Hooks and Cartoon Network's Adventure Time. In 2012, Harmon was briefly fired from Community. Adult Swim, searching for a more prime-time, "hit" show, approached Harmon shortly afterward, who initially viewed the channel as unfit for his style. He also was unfamiliar with animation, and his process for creating television focuses more heavily on dialogue, characters, and story. Instead, he phoned Roiland to inquire if he had any ideas for an animated series. Roiland immediately brought up the idea of using the Doc and Mharti characters, renamed Rick and Morty. Roiland initially wanted the show's run time to consist of one eleven-minute segment, but Adult Swim pushed for a half-hour program. Harmon felt the best way to extend the voices into a program would be to build a family around the characters, while Adult Swim development executive Nick Weidenfeld suggested that Rick be Morty's grandfather. Having pitched multiple television programs that did not get off the ground, Roiland was initially very unreceptive to others attempting to give notes on his pitch. Prior to developing Rick and Morty, he had created three failed animated pilots for Fox, and he had begun to feel "burned out" with developing television. The first draft was completed in six hours on the Paramount Pictures lot in Dan Harmon's unfurnished Community office. The duo had broken the story that day, sold the pilot, and then sat down to write. Roiland, while acknowledging a tendency for procrastination, encouraged Harmon to stay and write the entire first draft. "We were sitting on the floor, cross-legged with laptops and I was about to get up and go home and he said, 'Wait, if you go home, it might take us three months to write this thing. Stay here right now and we can write it in six hours.' He just had a premonition about that," recalled Harmon. Adult Swim was initially unsure of Roiland doing both voices, partially due to the undeveloped nature of the character of Morty. Harmon wrote four short premises in which Morty took a more assertive role and sent it to Mike Lazzo. Adult Swim placed a tamer TV-14 rating on the program, which initially was met with reluctance from the show's staff. The network's reason behind the rating was that it would soon begin broadcasting in prime-time, competing with major programs. The main theme for Rick and Morty by Ryan Elder was originally used in a rejected Cartoon Network pilot Roiland made called "Dog World", which was referenced in the episode "Lawnmower Dog". Harmon has noted that the writers' room at the show's studio bears a striking resemblance to the one used for Community. In comparing the two, he noted that the writing staff of Rick and Morty was significantly smaller, and more "rough and tumble verbally". The first season writing staff consisted of Roiland, Harmon, Tom Kauffman, Ryan Ridley, Wade Randolph, and Eric Acosta, while writer's assistant Mike McMahan was also given writing credit. Described as a "very, very tiny little writers' room with a lot of heavy lifting from everybody," the show's writing staff, like many Adult Swim productions, is not unionized with the Writers' Guild of America. The writing staff first meets and discusses ideas, which evolve into a story. Discussions often include anecdotes from personal life as well as thoughts on the science fiction genre. After breaking the story—which consists of developing its consistency and logical beginning, middle, and conclusion—a writer is assigned to create an outline. Roiland and Harmon do a "pass" on the outline, and from there the episode undergoes several more drafts. The final draft of the script is last approved by either of the co-creators. Harmon has admitted that his perfectionism can sometimes be disruptive and cause writing schedule delays. For the most part, this was the reason why the third season of the show consisted of only 10 episodes instead of 14, as was initially intended. Many episodes are structured with use of a story circle, a Harmon creation based largely on Joseph Campbell's monomyth, or The Hero's Journey. Its two-act structure places the act break at an odd location in the stages of the monomyth: after The Meeting with the Goddess, instead of Atonement with the Father. Roiland has stated his and Harmon's intentions for the series to lack traditional continuity, opting for discontinuous storylines "not bound by rules". He has also confirmed that the writers avoid revisiting old tropes from the show's past, "in fear of that coming off as disingenuous fan service." In producing the series' first season, episodes were occasionally written out of order. For example, "Rick Potion #9" was the second episode written for the series, but was instructed to be animated as the fifth, as it would make more sense within the series' continuity. Animation for the show is done using Toon Boom Harmony, post-production work is done in Adobe After Effects, and background art is done in Adobe Photoshop. Production of animation is handled by Bardel Entertainment in Vancouver, Canada. Roiland's cartooning style is heavily indebted to The Simpsons, a factor he acknowledged in a 2013 interview, while also comparing his style to that of Pendleton Ward (Adventure Time) and J. G. Quintel (Regular Show): "You'll notice mouths are kind of similar and teeth are similar, but I think that's also a stylistic thing that... all of us are kind of the same age, and we're all inspired by The Simpsons and all these other shows we're kind of subconsciously tapping into." John Kricfalusi's The Ren & Stimpy Show was another strong influence for Rick and Morty, which is why, according to Roiland, the small "w-shaped mouths" that the characters occasionally make is a reference to a similar expression that Ren frequently makes. Talking about the style guide the animators of the show have to follow, season three art director Jeffrey Thompson explained that the characters are often drawn with odd or asymmetrical features, in order to avoid looking "too normal to live in the Rick and Morty universe." When recording dialogue, Roiland does a considerable amount of improvisation, in order to make the characters feel more natural. The general formula of Rick and Morty consists of the juxtaposition of two conflicting scenarios: an extremely selfish, alcoholic grandfather dragging his grandson along for interdimensional adventures, intercut with domestic family drama. Co-creator Dan Harmon has described the series as a cross between Matt Groening's two shows The Simpsons and Futurama, balancing family life with heavy science fiction. The series is inspired by British-style storytelling, as opposed to traditional American family TV stories. Harmon has stated that his inspiration behind much of the concept and humor for the series comes from various British television series, such as The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy and Doctor Who. He figures that the audience will only understand developments from Morty's point of view, but stated "we don't want to be the companions. We want to hang out with the Doctor, we idolize the Doctor, but we don't think like him, and that's really interesting." Occasionally, characters will acknowledge an episode's narrative or hint at the presence of a fourth wall, suggesting that they are aware of the fact that they are characters of a TV show. Thereunder, Troy Patterson of The New Yorker notes that Rick and Morty "supplies an artful answer to the question of what follows postmodernism: a decadent regurgitation of all its tropes, all at once, leavened by some humanistic wistfulness." Sean Sebastian of Junkee says that the show can be both hilarious and deeply disturbing at the same time as it excels at the "intersection between big ideas, flippancy and wit." Rick and Morty has been described as "a never-ending fart joke wrapped around a studied look into nihilism". The series addresses the insignificance of human existence as compared to the size of the universe, with no recognizable divine presence, as described by Lovecraft's philosophy of cosmicism. The characters of the show deal with cosmic horror and existential dread, either by asserting the utility of science over magic or by choosing a life in ignorant bliss. However, as Joachim Heijndermans of Geeks notes, none of them appear able to handle the absurd and chaotic nature of the universe, as Jerry gets by through denial, and Rick is a "depressed, substance-addicted, suicidal mess". Harmon describes Rick as a self-interested anarchist, who doesn't like being told what to do. He believes that the character's life on a larger scale has caused him mental illness, and opines that "the knowledge that nothing matters—while accurate—gets you nowhere". Matthew Bulger of The Humanist notes that the creators of the series are trying to communicate the message that we need to focus on human relationships and not preoccupy our minds with unanswerable questions, in order to find a sense of purpose and live a better life. Eric Armstrong of The New Republic notes that Morty represents the audience, as he is "mostly there to react to Rick's deranged schemes". The character is transformed by the truths he discovers during his interdimensional adventures with his grandfather. However, instead of sinking into depression, Morty accepts these truths that empower him to value his own life. The show is available to watch on Netflix in a number of countries outside the United States, including Australia, while the first three seasons are available to stream domestically on Hulu. Following the conclusion of the show's third season, Adult Swim made a livestream marathon of Rick and Morty available to watch on its official website in select regions, hoping to dissuade viewers from watching other illegal livestreams. In the United Kingdom, public-service broadcaster Channel 4 outbid Netflix and began airing the series with season 4, which represents its first pickup by an international television channel. Season 4 was originally scheduled to premiere on Channel 4 in January 2020; viewer complaints resulted in the broadcaster moving the first episode forward to 20 November on E4. The 11-episode first season was released on DVD (2-disc set) and Blu-ray (single BD-50 disc) on October 7, 2014. Special features include commentary and animatics for every episode, deleted scenes, behind the scenes featurette and commentaries by special guests Matt Groening, Robert Kirkman, Pendleton Ward, Al Jean and others. The 10-episode second season was released on DVD (2-disc set) and Blu-ray (single BD-50 disc) on June 7, 2016. Special features include behind the scenes, commentary and animatics for every episode, deleted animatic sketches and a "Plumbus Owner's Manual" booklet. The 10-episode third season, was released on DVD (2-disc set) and Blu-ray (single BD-50 disc) on May 15, 2018. Special features include exclusive commentary and animatics for every episode, "inside the episode", the origins of Rick and Morty, and an exclusive "inside the recording booth" session. On February 12, 2019, a set containing seasons 1-3 was released on DVD and Blu-ray. Uncensored versions of the show are also available to purchase on various digital platforms, including iTunes and Amazon, with the digital releases of each season containing bonus material. The digital release of the first season includes the 2013 Rick and Morty Comic-Con panel, the digital release of the second season includes the 2015 ATX Television Festival panel, and the digital release of the third season includes commentary on every episode, as well as seven more short videos featuring co-creators Dan Harmon and Justin Roiland. Rick and Morty has received near-universal critical acclaim, holding an approval rating of 94% on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes for the entire series. David Weigand of San Francisco Chronicle described it as "offbeat and occasionally coarse... the take-away here is that it works". He praised the animation direction by James McDermott for being "fresh, colorful and as wacky as the script", and states that the series possesses "shades of Futurama, South Park and even Beetlejuice", ultimately opining that its humor felt "entirely original". Neil Genzlinger of The New York Times praised the series and stated that it was "Grandparenting at its unhinged finest." In a review shortly after the second-season premiere, Sean Sebastian of Junkee said that although the crude animation and over-the-top voice acting might have discouraged some viewers to continue watching, Rick and Morty is "exceptionally well-made" and that "the more you dissect it, the more you find it has to say." Todd Spangler of Variety gave the series a lukewarm review; while he found the series was passable, he contrasted it with other Adult Swim series as "often seems overly reliant on simply being frenetic at the expense of being witty" and enjoyed it as "a welcome attempt to dream just a little bigger". David Sims of The A.V. Club gave the series an "A−". In reviewing the first two episodes, he complimented the animation for its "clean, simple style". He stated that while the series has "a dark, sick sensibility", he praised its "effort to give each character a little bit of depth", further applauding Roiland's voice talent for the eponymous characters. On April 1, 2015, a Rick and Morty comic book adaptation debuted with its first monthly issue, entitled "BAM!" The series is written by Zac Gorman and illustrated by CJ Cannon. Artist Tom Fowler wrote a multi-issue story arc that began in March 2016. Using the television series' established premise of alternate timelines, the first two volumes of the comic book expressly features the Rick and Morty (and supporting cast) of a different timeline, allowing the comics to tell stories without conflicting with the canon of the show. From the third volume onwards, the series switched focus to display the off-screen adventures of the Rick and Morty of the television series, keeping in the canon of the show, with the Ricks and Mortys of different timelines forming the basis for backup stories., On August 29, 2018, a four-issue crossover comic with the fantasy tabletop role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons was released. The series titled Rick and Morty vs. Dungeons & Dragons is co-written by Jim Zub and Patrick Rothfuss, and drawn by Troy Little., A sequel mini-series, titled Rick and Morty vs. Dungeons & Dragons: Chapter II: Painscape, was published in September 2018. It was written by Jim Zub and Sarah Stern with art by Troy Little. In 2014, Rick and Morty's Rushed Licensed Adventure, a Flash point-and-click adventure game, was released on the Adult Swim website., In December 2014, Rick and Morty: Jerry's Game was released for iOS and Android. The game consists of the player popping balloons and air-filled condoms endlessly. Characters show up from time to time. The number of balloons popped is counted and used as currency for unlocking special balloons, backdrops and features. The game is based on a game Jerry was seen playing in an episode. The game includes micro-transactions., On August 10, 2015, a Rick and Morty-themed announcer pack was released for the competitive multiplayer video game Dota 2. The announcer pack can be purchased by players and replaces the Default announcer and Mega-Kills announcer with characters from Rick and Morty, voiced by Justin Roiland., Pocket Mortys is a Pokémon parody game set in the "Rick and Morty Rickstaverse", released on iOS and Android as a free-to-play game from Adult Swim Games, released early on January 13, 2016. Coinciding with the many-worlds interpretation, the game follows versions of Rick and Morty that belong to an alternate timeline, rather than the duo followed in the show. The game uses a style and concept similar to the Pokémon games, with catching various "wild" Mortys, battling them with a variety of Aliens, Ricks, and Jerrys. The game features voice acting from Roiland and Harmon., , announced on July 15, 2016, and released on April 20, 2017, for Microsoft Windows and on April 10, 2018, for PlayStation 4, is a VR game for HTC Vive VR and Oculus Rift developed by Owlchemy Labs, the developers of Job Simulator. On June 22, 2016, Cryptozoic Entertainment released Total Rickall, a co-operative strategy card game based on the plot of the second-season episode of the same name, where players must determine which characters are real and which ones are parasites., On August 3, 2016, Cryptozoic Entertainment released Mr. Meeseeks' Box o' Fun, a game combining elements of dice games and truth or dare featuring the popular Mr. Meeseeks character from the first-season episode "Meeseeks and Destroy"., On July 12, 2017, Cryptozoic Entertainment released Anatomy Park — The Game, a co-operative tile-placing strategy game based on the plot of the first-season episode of the same name, where players score points by placing park tiles into the best spots within the body. On August 27, 2017, the song "Terryfold", recorded by the American indie pop band Chaos Chaos and featuring Justin Roiland on vocals, was released onto music streaming platforms and made available for digital download. The song was created for the third-season episode "Rest and Ricklaxation"., On March 16, 2018, Adult Swim released a music video directed by Juan Meza-León in which the series' eponymous characters embark on an adventure, while the song "Oh Mama" from the American hip hop duo Run the Jewels plays in the background. The video promoted the duo's appearance in the 2018 Adult Swim Festival. On May 11, 2017, the Rickmobile, a traveling shop with exclusive merchandise, made its first stop in Atlanta for the Rick and Morty Don't Even Trip Road Trip.

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Istanbul Atatürk Airport (former IATA code: IST) () is a general aviation, cargo, and state aircraft airport in Istanbul. It closed to commercial passenger flights on April 6, 2019 when all flights were transferred to Istanbul Airport. As of 6 April 2019, the airport is open only for cargo, maintenance, general aviation, air taxis, business flights and state and diplomatic aircraft, while commercial passenger flights are all handled at the newly built Istanbul Airport. First opened in 1912 in San Stefano (now Yeşilköy) as a military airfield, on the European side of the city, it is located west of the city centre. The airport was originally named Yeşilköy Airport. In the 1980s, it was renamed Istanbul Atatürk International Airport in honour of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder and first president of the Republic of Turkey. It served more than 60 million passengers in 2015, making it the 11th-busiest airport in the world in terms of total passenger traffic and the 10th-busiest in the world in terms of international passenger traffic. In 2017, it was Europe's 5th-busiest airport after London Heathrow, Paris Charles de Gaulle, Frankfurt Airport and Amsterdam Schiphol Airport, having fallen from third place after a decline in passengers due to security fears. Istanbul Atatürk Airport was replaced in regards to commercial passenger functions by the newly constructed Istanbul Airport, in April 2019, in order to meet Istanbul's growing domestic and international air traffic demand as a source, destination and transit point. Both airports were used in parallel for five months from late 2018, with the new airport gradually expanding to serve more domestic and regional destinations. On 6 April 2019, Atatürk's IST IATA airport code was inherited by Istanbul Airport and Atatürk Airport was assigned the code ISL after the full transfer of all scheduled passenger activities to the new airport was completed. The final commercial flight, Turkish Airlines Flight 54, left Atatürk Airport on 6 April 2019 at 2.44am for Singapore. Istanbul Atatürk Airport featured two passenger terminals linked to each other. The former Domestic Terminal is the older and smaller of the two terminals and exclusively handled domestic flights within Turkey. It featured its own check-in and airside facilities on the upper floor, with twelve departure gates equipped with jet bridges., and five baggage reclaim belts on the ground level. The former International Terminal was inaugurated in 2000 and used for all international flights. It featured a large main hall containing eight check-in isles and a wide range of airside facilities such as shops and restaurant, 34 gates equipped with jetbridges and 7 bus-boarding stands. The arrivals floor had 11 baggage reclaim belts. In addition, there is a general aviation Terminal to the northwest of the passenger terminals. The airport features a dedicated cargo terminal including facilities for the handling of radioactive and refrigerated freight. Turkish Airlines has its headquarters in the Turkish Airlines General Management Building, located within the airport campus., Onur Air has its headquarters in Technical Hangar B., Prima Aviation Services Inc. has its MRO Facilities in new technical site at the air side Gate A. As of April 2019, all passenger operations have been relocated to the new Istanbul Airport. The following cargo airlines serve the airport on a regular basis as of December 2019. Below is the passenger data and development for Istanbul Atatürk Airport for the years 2002–2018: Istanbul Atatürk Airport ranked 17th in ACI statistics at the end of 2011 in terms of international traffic with almost 24 million international passengers. It ranked 29th in the world in terms of total passenger traffic with over 37.4 million passengers in 2011. Its total traffic within the last decade more than tripled, and its international traffic quadrupled. According to data from FlightStats in 2012, the İstanbul Atatürk Airport had the most flight delays in Europe, and was ranked second in flight cancellations. On 30 January 1975, Turkish Airlines Flight 345, crashed into the Sea of Marmara during its final approach to the airport. All 42 passengers and crew on board were killed., On 25 April 2015, Turkish Airlines Flight 1878, operated by A320-200, TC-JPE was severely damaged in a landing accident. The aircraft aborted the first hard landing, which inflicted engine and gear damage. On the second attempt at landing, the right gear collapsed and the aircraft rolled off the runway spinning 180 degrees. All on board evacuated without injury., On 28 June 2016, three terrorists killed 44 civilians by gunfire and subsequent suicide bombings, along with 239 civilians injured. The three men arrived in a taxi cab, and opened fire at the terminal. The three men then blew themselves up when police opened fire. The airport has X-ray scanners at the entrance to the terminal but security checks for cars are limited., On 15 July 2016, the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt took place. During the attempted coup, units of the Turkish Armed Forces seized control of the airport and closed it however it was reopened after pro-goverment forces regained control. The Turkish Chamber of Civil Engineers lists İstanbul Atatürk Airport as one of the fifty civil engineering feats in Turkey, a list of remarkable engineering projects completed in the first 50 years of the chamber's existence., In the 2013 Air Transport News awards ceremony, İstanbul Atatürk Airport was named Airport of the Year., The airport was named Europe's Best Airport in the 40-50 million passenger per year category at the 2013 Skytrax World Airport Awards. The city of Istanbul, including the entirety in general and the old city in the historic city walls in particular has been known by a number of different names. The most notable names besides the modern Turkish name are Byzantium, Constantinople, and Stamboul. Different names are associated with different phases of its history, with different languages, and with different portions of it. According to Pliny the Elder the first name of Byzantium was Lygos. This may have been the name of a Thracian settlement situated on the site of the later city, near the point of the peninsula (Sarayburnu). Byzantion (Βυζάντιον), Latinized as Byzantium, was founded by Greek colonists from Megara in 667 BC. The name is believed to be of Thracian or Illyrian origin and thus to predate the Greek settlement. It may be derived from a Thracian or Illyrian personal name, Byzas. Ancient Greek legend refers to a legendary king of that name as the leader of the Megarean colonists and eponymous founder of the city. After its fall, the name "Byzantine Empire" started being used by the West to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire whose capital the city had been. This usage was introduced by the German historian Hieronymus Wolf in 1555, a century after the empire had ceased to exist. During the time of the empire, the term Byzantium was used only for the city, not for the empire that it ruled. The city was called Augusta Antonina () for a brief period in the 3rd century AD. The Roman Emperor Septimius Severus (193–211) conferred the name in honor of his son Antoninus, the later Emperor Caracalla. Before the Roman emperor Constantine the Great made the city the new eastern capital of the Roman Empire on May 11, 330, he undertook a major construction project, essentially rebuilding the city on a monumental scale, partly modeled after Rome. Names of this period included "the New, second Rome", Alma Roma , , "Eastern Rome", Roma Constantinopolitana. The Third Canon of the First Council of Constantinople (360) refers to the city as New Rome. The term "New Rome" lent itself to East-West polemics, especially in the context of the Great Schism, when it was used by Greek writers to stress the rivalry with (the original) Rome. New Rome is also still part of the official title of the Patriarch of Constantinople. Kōnstantinoúpolis (Κωνσταντινούπολις), Constantinopolis in Latin and Constantinople in English, was the name by which the city became soon more widely known, in honour of Constantine the Great who established it as his capital. It is first attested in official use under Emperor Theodosius II (408–450). It remained the principal official name of the city throughout the Byzantine period, and the most common name used for it in the West until the early 20th century. It was also used (including its Kostantiniyye variant) by the Ottoman Empire until the advent of the Republic of Turkey. According to Eldem Edhem, who wrote an encyclopedia entry on Istanbul for Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, "many" Turkish members of the public as well as Turkish historians often perceive the use of Constantinople for the Ottoman city, despite any historically accuracy, as being "politically incorrect". Besides Constantinople, the Byzantines referred to the city with a large range of honorary appellations, such as the "Queen of Cities" (), also as an adjective, Βασιλεύουσα, the 'Reigning City'. In popular speech, the most common way of referring to it came to be simply the City (Greek: hē Polis, , Modern Greek: i Poli, η Πόλη). This usage, still current today in colloquial Greek and Armenian (Պոլիս, pronounced "Polis" or "Bolis" in the Western Armenian dialect prevalent in the city), also became the source of the later Turkish name, Istanbul (see below). Kostantiniyye (Arabic and Persian: , Qusṭanṭinīyya, Ottoman Turkish: , Ḳosṭanṭīnīye) is the name by which the city came to be known in the Islamic world. It is an Arabic calqued form of Constantinople, with an Arabic ending meaning 'place of' instead of the Greek element -polis. After the Ottoman conquest of 1453, it was used as the most formal official name in Ottoman Turkish, and remained in use throughout most of the time up to the fall of the Empire in 1923. However, during some periods Ottoman authorities favoured other names (see below). The modern Turkish name İstanbul () () is attested (in a range of variants) since the 10th century, at first in Armenian and Arabic (without the initial İ-) and then in Ottoman sources. It derives from the Greek phrase "στην Πόλη" " , meaning "in the city" or "to the city", reinterpreted as a single word; a similar case is Stimboli, Crete. It is thus based on the common Greek usage of referring to Constantinople simply as The City (see above). The incorporation of parts of articles and other particles into Greek place names was common even before the Ottoman period: Navarino for earlier Avarino, Satines for Athines, etc. Similar examples of modern Turkish place names derived from Greek in this fashion are İzmit, earlier İznikmit, from Greek Nicomedia, İznik from Greek Nicaea ([iz nikea]), Samsun (s'Amison from "se" and "Amisos"), and İstanköy for the Greek island Kos (from is tin Ko). The occurrence of the initial i- in these names, including Istanbul's, is largely secondary epenthesis to break up syllabic consonant clusters, prohibited by the phonotactic structure of Turkish, as seen in Turkish istasyon from French station or ızgara from the Greek schára. İstanbul originally was not used for the entire city and referred to the portion of Istanbul within the city walls. İstanbul was the common name for the city in normal speech in Turkish even before the conquest of 1453, but in official use by the Ottoman authorities other names, such as Kostantiniyye, were preferred in certain contexts. Thus, Kostantiniyye was used on coinage up to the late 17th and then again in the 19th century. The Ottoman chancelery and courts used Kostantiniyye as part of intricate formulae in expressing the place of origin of formal documents, such as be-Makam-ı Darü's-Saltanat-ı Kostantiniyyetü'l-Mahrusâtü'l-Mahmiyye. In 19th century Turkish book-printing it was also used in the impressum of books, in contrast to the foreign use of Constantinople. At the same time, however, İstanbul too was part of the official language, for instance in the titles of the highest Ottoman military commander (İstanbul ağası) and the highest civil magistrate (İstanbul efendisi) of the city, and the Ottoman Turkish version of the Ottoman constitution of 1876 states that "The capital city of the Ottoman State is İstanbul". İstanbul and several other variant forms of the same name were also widely used in Ottoman literature and poetry. Names other than استانبول (İstanbul) had become obsolete in the Turkish language after the establishment of the Republic of Turkey. However, at that point Constantinople was still used when writing the city's name in Latin script. In 1928, the Turkish alphabet was changed from Arabic script to Latin script. Beginning 28 March 1930, Turkey officially requested that other countries use Turkish names for Turkish cities, instead of other transliterations to Latin script that had been used in the Ottoman times. Letters or packages sent to "Constantinople" instead of "Istanbul" were no longer delivered by Turkey's PTT, which contributed to the eventual worldwide adoption of the new name. In English the name is usually written "Istanbul". In modern Turkish the name is written "İstanbul" (dotted i/İ and dotless ı/I being two distinct letters in the Turkish alphabet). Stamboul or Stambul is a variant form of İstanbul. Like Istanbul itself, forms without the initial i- are attested from early on in the Middle Ages, first in Arabic sources of the 10th century and Armenian ones of the 12th. Some early sources also attest to an even shorter form Bulin, based on the Greek word Poli(n) alone without the preceding article. (This latter form lives on in modern Armenian.) The word-initial i- arose in the Turkish name as an epenthetic vowel to break up the St- consonant cluster, prohibited in Turkish phonotactics. Stamboul was used in Western languages to refer to the central city, as Istanbul did in Turkish, until the time it was replaced by the official new usage of the Turkish form in the 1930s for the entire city. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Western European and American sources often used Constantinople to refer to the metropolis as a whole, but Stamboul to refer to the central parts located on the historic peninsula, i.e. Byzantine- era Constantinople inside the walls. Islambol (, Full of Islam) or Islambul (find Islam) or Islam(b)ol (old Turkic: be Islam), both in the Turkish language, were folk-etymological adaptations of Istanbul created after the Ottoman conquest of 1453 to express the city's new role as the capital of the Islamic Ottoman Empire. It is first attested shortly after the conquest, and its invention was ascribed by some contemporary writers to Sultan Mehmed II himself. Some Ottoman sources of the 17th century, most notably Evliya Çelebi, describe it as the common Turkish name of the time. Between the late 17th and late 18th centuries, it was also in official use. The first use of the word "Islambol" on coinage took place in 1703 (1115 AH) during the reign of Sultan Ahmed III. The term Kostantiniyye still appeared, however, into the 20th century. Ottomans and foreign contemporaries, especially in diplomatic correspondence, referred to the Ottoman imperial government with particular honorifics. Among them are the following: Bāb-i ʿĀlī (, "The Sublime Porte"); A metonym referring to the gate of Topkapı Palace., Der-i Devlet ( "Abode of the State"), Der-i Saʿādet ( "Abode of Felicity" or "Abode of Eudaimonia"), Āsitāne ( "Threshold"); Referring to the imperial court., Pāy-taḫt or sometimes Pāyitaḫt (, "The Seat/Base of the Throne") The "Gate of Felicity", the "Sublime Gate", and the "Sublime Porte" were literally places within the Ottoman Sultans' Topkapı Palace, and were used metonymically to refer to the authorities located there, and hence for the central Ottoman imperial administration. Modern historians also refer to government by these terms, similar to popular usage of Whitehall in Britain. The sublime Gate is not inside Topkapı palace; the administration building whose gate is named Bâb-ı Âlî is between Agia Sofia and Beyazit mosque, a huge building. Names in minority languages: Judaeo-Spanish: Konstantinopla Many peoples neighboring on the Byzantine Empire used names expressing concepts like "The Great City", "City of the Emperors", "Capital of the Romans" or similar. During the 10th to 12th century Constantinople was one of the largest two cities in the world, the other being Baghdad. The medieval Vikings, who had contacts with the Byzantine Empire through their expansion through eastern Europe (Varangians) used the Old Norse name Miklagarðr (from mikill 'big' and garðr 'wall' or 'stronghold'), later Miklagard and Micklegarth. This name lives on in the modern Icelandic name Mikligarður and Faroese Miklagarður. East and South Slavic languages referred to the city as Tsarigrad or Carigrad, 'City of the Tsar (Emperor)', from the Slavonic words tsar ('Caesar' or 'Emperor') and grad ('city'). Cyrillic: Царьград, Цариград. This was presumably a calque on a Greek phrase such as Βασιλέως Πόλις (Basileos Polis), 'the city of the emperor [emperor]'. The term is still occasionally used in Bulgarian, whereas it has become archaic in Russian, and Macedonian. In Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, Serbian and Slovene, is a living alternative name for the modern city, as well as being used when referring to the historic capital of the medieval Roman Empire or the Ottoman Empire. In Czech (a West Slavic language) this Slavic name is used in the form Cařihrad (used in the 19th century, now only occasionally). It was also borrowed from the Slavic languages into Romanian in the form Țarigrad, though Constantinopole remained the far more widely preferred term. Besides Kustantiniyyah, Persian, Arabic and other languages of the Islamic world used names based on the title Cesar ('Emperor'), as in Persian and Hindi-Urdu Kayser-i Zemin, or on the ethnic name Rum ('Romans'), as in Arabic Rūmiyyat al-kubra ('Great City of the Romans') or Persian Takht-e Rum ('Throne of the Romans'). The city is referred as Kostandina or Kostantina (an alteration of Kostantiniyye) and more often as its short form Kosta (קושטה) or Kostán in most Judaeo-Spanish publications during the Ottoman period. Kosta was the name for the entire province of Istanbul, while the word Estambol was used for the area of the old city and Pera. Today the word Kosta is restricted only for historical purposes and is no more in common use. The word Estambol has widened in meaning to include exclusively the entire European side of Istanbul. The Asian side is usually not considered as Estambol, however the expression la civdad de Estambol would encompass the boundaries of the present-day city. There are few expression denoting the Asian side. Anatol, from Anatolia and Asya, meaning Asia are common words to denote the Asian side of Istanbul. Moreover, el otro lado (literally the other side) is a quite simplistic and descriptory expression for the Asian side of Istanbul, especially for those living in the European side. Those living in the Asian side however do not use this expression to denote the European side, but simply call it Estambol. The inhabitants are called Estambulí or Estambullí. In Hebrew, the city was sometimes referred to as "Kushtandina" , and sometimes "Kushtandina Rabati" , literally, Great Kushtandina, or shortened to "Kushta" , probably due to a distorted pronunciation of the Judaeo-Spanish Kostandina. This usage was common among non-Sephardic Jews until the early 20th century; however, in present-day Israel it has virtually disappeared, replaced by the Hebrew transliteration of the Turkish "Istanbul" (). Lumi city 魯迷城 (Lumi 魯迷 is the Chinese pronunciation of Rûm or Rumi) during the Ming dynasty, Wulumu 務魯木 (originates from Rûm or Rumi), during the Qing dynasty, Gongsidangdinebole 拱斯當底訥伯勒 during the Qing dynasty, Kangsitanyinuoge'er 康思坦貽諾格爾 during the Qing dynasty, Junshitandingbao 君士坦丁堡 modern transcription of Constantinople, used when referring to the city in a historical sense Present-day Chinese uses transcriptions of the name Istanbul (Yisitanbu'er 伊斯坦布尔 or Yisitanbao 伊斯坦堡) when referring to the modern city. Most modern Western languages have adopted the name Istanbul for the modern city during the 20th century, following the current usage in the Turkish Republic. However, many languages also preserve other, traditional names. Greeks continue to call the city Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολη Konstantinupoli in Modern Greek) or simply "The City" (η Πόλη i Poli). Languages that use forms based on Stamboul include Russian, Polish (though the alternative form of Istambuł is also universally accepted and employed in many translations), Latvian, Lithuanian, Georgian and Albanian. The Albanian form is Stamboll; the Spanish form is Estambul; the Portuguese form is Istambul, with an m instead of an n; the Hungarian form is Isztambul with an extra z because if it was omitted, Hungarians would mispronounce the name as "Ishtanbul". Armenian uses Bolis, based on the Greek Poli(s) 'City'. Icelandic preserves the old Norse name Mikligarður, though the form Istanbúl is generally used. In Slovene Carigrad is still largely used and often preferred over the official name. "Istanbul (Not Constantinople)", a 1953 novelty song Baghdad International Airport , previously Saddam International Airport (), is Iraq's largest international airport, located in a suburb about west of downtown Baghdad in the Baghdad Governorate. It is the home base for Iraq's national airline, Iraqi Airways. The present airport was developed under a consortium led by French company, Spie Batignolles, under an agreement made in 1979. The Iran/Iraq war delayed full opening of the airport until 1982. The airport at the time was opened as Saddam International Airport, bearing the name of the then Iraqi president, Saddam Hussein. Most of Baghdad's civil flights stopped in 1991, when the United Nations imposed restrictions on Iraq after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait during the Persian Gulf War. Because of the no-fly zone imposed on Iraq by the United States and the United Kingdom, Iraqi Airways was only able to continue domestic flights for limited periods. Internationally, Baghdad was able to receive occasional charter flights carrying medicine, aid workers, and government officials. Royal Jordanian Airlines operated regular flights from Amman to Baghdad. In April 2003, US-led coalition forces invaded Iraq and changed the airport's name from Saddam International Airport to Baghdad International Airport. The ICAO code for the airport consequently changed from ORBS to ORBI; the IATA code subsequently switched from SDA to BGW, which previously referred to all Baghdad airports and before that to Al Muthana Airport when Saddam was in power. Civilian control of the airport was returned to the Iraqi Government in 2004. Sather Air Base came under fire from periodic rocket attacks from Baghdad. On 6 December 2006 a 107 rocket attack landed 30 yards (meters) from a parked C-5A aircraft placing scores of shrapnel holes in the aircraft. Terminal C has been refreshed with three active gate areas for carriers operating from the airport. In January 2015, a FlyDubai jet carrying 154 passengers was struck by gunfire as it landed at the airport. One passenger was injured when at least three bullets struck the plane. After the incident, UAE carriers FlyDubai and Emirates suspended their flights from Dubai to Baghdad. Flights by Turkish Airlines and Royal Jordanian were also temporarily suspended. Baghdad Airport Road, connecting to UAE Green Zone, which was once a dangerous route full of IEDs, has been refurbished with palm trees, manicured lawns, and a fountain, with Turkish assistance. On 3 January 2020, Baghdad International Airport was the location of a U.S. airstrike that killed Qassem Soleimani, leader of Iran's Quds Force, and Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis, deputy commander of the Popular Mobilization Forces. Within the airport there is a separate enclave called the New Al Muthana Air Base where the Iraqi Air Force's 23rd Squadron is based with three Lockheed C-130E Hercules transport aircraft. It is also home to a number of Sukhoi Su-25 "Frogfoot"s. Sather Air Base or Camp Sather was a United States Air Force base on the west side of the airport occupied from 2003 to 2011 during the Iraq War. It was named in memory of Combat Controller Staff Sergeant Scott Sather, the first enlisted Airman to die in Operation Iraqi Freedom. Sather was awarded the Bronze Star Medal with Valor for his leadership of a 24th Special Tactics Squadron reconnaissance task force during the initial stages of the 2003 invasion of Iraq. On 18 May 2010, plans were unveiled for an expansion of Baghdad International Airport, which will double its capacity to 15 million passengers per year. The expansion, to be funded by foreign investors, will include the construction of three new terminals and the refurbishment of the existing three terminals, which will each accommodate 2.5 million passengers annually. On 25 December 1986, Iraqi Airways Flight 163, a Boeing 737-200 flying from Baghdad to Amman, Jordan, was hijacked and damaged by a bomb in flight. The bomb exploded in the cockpit, causing the plane to crash in the Saudi Arabian desert, killing 63 of the 106 on board. On 29 November 1987, Korean Air Flight 858, a Boeing 707-3B5C, was destroyed by a bomb over the Andaman Sea. The bomb was left by two North Korean agents who had boarded in Baghdad but got off in Abu Dhabi. The plane was flying the Baghdad-Abu Dhabi-Bangkok-Seoul flight. All 104 passengers and 11 crew died. On 22 November 2003, a European Air Transport Airbus A300B4 freighter, registered OO-DLL, operating on behalf of DHL Aviation, was hit by an SA-14 'Grail' missile shortly after takeoff. The airplane lost hydraulic pressure, causing a loss of control. After extending the landing gear to create more drag, the crew piloted the plane using differences in engine thrust and landed the plane with minimal further damage. All three crew survived. Civilian planes now routinely perform corkscrew landings to minimise the risk of damage from surface weapons. On 26 January 2015, a flydubai Boeing 737-800 flying from Dubai to Baghdad was hit by small-arms fire on approach to Baghdad International Airport with 154 passengers on board. The plane landed safely. On 3 January 2020, the US Air Force launched a drone strike near the airport, killing ten people, including the general in command of the Quds Force of Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, Qasem Soleimani. List of United Kingdom Military installations used during Operation Telic Baghdad Airport Arrivals and Departures, Globalsecurity.org profile, Christian Science Monitor article on reconstruction, October 2003, Extensive photographs of Baghdad Airport – 12.07.2004

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A general election was held in the U.S. state of Illinois on November 4, 2014. All of Illinois' executive officers were up for election as well as a United States Senate seat, and all of Illinois' eighteen seats in the United States House of Representatives. Primary elections were held on March 18, 2014. Incumbent Democratic Governor Pat Quinn ran for re-election to a second full term as governor. Quinn, the then-lieutenant governor, assumed the office of governor on January 29, 2009, when Rod Blagojevich was impeached and removed from office. He was narrowly elected to a first full term in 2010. Quinn was renominated by the Democrats, while the Republicans chose businessman and venture capitalist Bruce Rauner and the Libertarians nominated political activist Chad Grimm. Previously in Illinois, there were separate primary elections for governor and lieutenant governor, with the winners then running together on the same ticket. In 2011, the law was changed and candidates for governor now pick their own running mate. Incumbent Democratic lieutenant governor Sheila Simon did not run for re-election, instead running unsuccessfully for Comptroller. She was replaced as Quinn's running mate by former Chicago Public Schools CEO Paul Vallas. Rauner chose Wheaton City Councilwoman Evelyn Sanguinetti and Grimm chose Alex Cummings. Rauner defeated Quinn in the general election by 50.3% of the vote to Quinn's 46.4%. Rauner won every county in Illinois except for Cook County, home to the city of Chicago and 40% of the state's residents. Incumbent Democratic Attorney General Lisa Madigan ran for re-election to a fourth term in office. Declared Lisa Madigan, Illinois Attorney General Declared Paul Schimpf, attorney Withdrew Mark Curran, Lake County Sheriff, Mike Webster, attorney, accountant and president of the board of education for Cass School District #63 (ran for secretary of state) Declined Tom Cross, state representative and former Minority Leader of the Illinois House of Representatives (ran for treasurer), Jim Durkin, state representative (replaced Cross as Minority Leader) Incumbent Democratic Secretary of State Jesse White ran for re-election to a fifth term in office. Declared Jesse White, Illinois Secretary of State Declared Mike Webster, attorney, accountant and president of the board of education for Cass School District #63 Withdrew Will Lindsey, businessman Incumbent Republican Comptroller Judy Baar Topinka ran for re-election to a second term in office. Declared Judy Baar Topinka, Illinois Comptroller Withdrew William J. Kelly, political activist, columnist and Republican candidate for Illinois Comptroller in 2010 Declared Sheila Simon, Lieutenant Governor of Illinois Topinka died on December 10, 2014. Governor Pat Quinn appointed Jerry Stermer to serve out the remainder of her term. A special election was held for the office in 2016. Incumbent Republican Treasurer Dan Rutherford did not run for re-election to a second term in office. He instead ran unsuccessfully for the Republican nomination for governor. Declared Tom Cross, Minority Leader of the Illinois House of Representatives, Bob Grogan, DuPage County Auditor Withdrew Michael Scott Carter, financial executive, Bob Schillerstrom, former DuPage County Board Chairman and candidate for governor in 2010 Declined Darin LaHood, state senator, Dan Rutherford, Illinois Treasurer Declared Mike Frerichs, state senator and former Champaign County auditor Incumbent Democratic senator and Senate Majority Whip Dick Durbin ran for re- election to a fourth term in office. He defeated Republican state senator Jim Oberweis and Libertarian Sharon Hansen in the general election. All of Illinois' eighteen seats in the United States House of Representatives were up for election in 2014. The 2018 Illinois Attorney General election took place on November 6, 2018, to elect the Attorney General of Illinois. Incumbent Democratic Attorney General Lisa Madigan, who had served since 2003, did not seek re-election to a fifth term. Democrat Kwame Raoul won the election with 55 percent of the vote, while Republican Erika Harold took 43 percent of the vote. Scott Drury, member of the Illinois House of Representatives., Sharon Fairley, chief administrator of the Chicago Civilian Office of Police Accountability., Aaron Goldstein, Democratic Committeeman from Chicago's 33rd ward and former defense attorney for Rod Blagojevich., Renato Mariotti, former federal prosecutor, television legal analyst and commentator., Pat Quinn, former governor and lieutenant governor of Illinois., Kwame Raoul, member of the Illinois Senate., Nancy Rotering, Mayor of Highland Park, Illinois., Jesse Ruiz, Chicago Park District President. Jennifer Burke, former member of the Illinois Pollution Control Board., Sarah Burke, attorney and director of external affairs at Northwestern Memorial Hospital, Gery Chico, former chairman of the Illinois State Board of Education., Tom Dart, Cook County Sheriff and nominee for state treasurer in 2002, Zach Fardon, former United States Attorney for the Northern District of Illinois, Kim Foxx, Cook County State's Attorney., Jack D. Franks, chairman of the McHenry County Board., James Glasgow, Will County State's Attorney, Mike Hastings, member of the Illinois Senate., David Hoffman, former federal prosecutor, former Chicago Inspector General and candidate for U.S. Senate in 2010, Dan Hynes, former Illinois Comptroller, candidate for U.S. Senate in 2004 and candidate for governor in 2010, Lori Lightfoot, president of the Chicago Police Board, Mike McRaith, former director of the Federal Insurance Office, Elaine Nekritz, Assistant Majority Leader in the Illinois House of Representatives., Andrew Schapiro, former United States Ambassador to the Czech Republic, Ira Silverstein, Majority Caucus Chair in the Illinois Senate., Mariyana Spyropoulos, president of the Metropolitan Water Reclamation District, Chris Welch, state representative, Ann Williams, state representative., Andrea Zopp, deputy mayor of Chicago and candidate for U.S. Senate in 2016. 2018 Illinois elections Official campaign websites Erika Harold (R) for Attorney General, Bubba Harsy (L) for Attorney General, Kwame Raoul (D) for Attorney General The Illinois Attorney General is the highest legal officer of the state of Illinois in the United States. Originally an appointed office, it is now an office filled by election through universal suffrage. Based in Chicago and Springfield, Illinois, the Attorney General is responsible for providing legal counsel for the various state agencies including the Governor of Illinois and Illinois General Assembly, and conducting all legal affairs pertaining to the state. The office of the Illinois Attorney General was established on December 3, 1818 based on guidelines adopted by a state constitutional convention. The Attorney General is second (behind the Lieutenant Governor) in the line of succession to the office of Governor of Illinois. The first person to fulfill the duties of the office was Daniel Pope Cook who only served eleven days, and was later elected to the United States Congress. Cook County was named in his honor. The current holder of the office is Kwame Raoul. List of law enforcement agencies in Illinois Illinois Attorney General official website, Illinois Attorney General articles at Legal Newsline Legal Journal, Illinois Attorney General articles at ABA Journal, News and Commentary at FindLaw, Illinois Compiled Statutes at Law.Justia.com, U.S. Supreme Court Opinions - "Cases with title containing: State of Illinois" at FindLaw, Illinois State Bar Association, Illinois Attorney General Lisa Madigan profile at National Association of Attorneys General, Press releases at Illinois Attorney General

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The Lok Sabha, or House of the People, is the lower house of India's bicameral Parliament, with the upper house being the Rajya Sabha. Members of the Lok Sabha are elected by adult universal suffrage and a first-past-the-post system to represent their respective constituencies, and they hold their seats for five years or until the body is dissolved by the President on the advice of the council of ministers. The house meets in the Lok Sabha Chambers of the Sansad Bhavan, New Delhi. The maximum strength of the House allotted by the Constitution of India is 553. Currently, the house has 545 seats which is made up by the election of up to 543 elected members and at a maximum, 2 nominated members of the Anglo-Indian Community by the President of India which was abolished in 2019. A total of 131 seats (24.03%) are reserved for representatives of Scheduled Castes (84) and Scheduled Tribes (47). The quorum for the House is 10% of the total membership. The Lok Sabha, unless sooner dissolved, continues to operate for five years from the date appointed for its first meeting. However, while a proclamation of emergency is in operation, this period may be extended by Parliament by law. An exercise to redraw Lok Sabha constituencies' boundaries is carried out by the Boundary Delimitation Commission of India every decade based on the Indian census, last of which was conducted in 2011. This exercise earlier also included redistribution of seats among states based on demographic changes but that provision of the mandate of the commission was suspended in 1976 following a constitutional amendment to incentivise the family planning programme which was being implemented. The 17th Lok Sabha was elected in May 2019 and is the latest to date. The Lok Sabha has its own television channel, Lok Sabha TV, headquartered within the premises of Parliament. A major portion of the Indian subcontinent was under British rule from 1858 to 1947. During this period, the office of the Secretary of State for India (along with the Council of India) was the authority through whom British Parliament exercised its rule in the Indian sub-continent, and the office of Viceroy of India was created, along with an Executive Council in India, consisting of high officials of the British government. The Indian Councils Act 1861 provided for a Legislative Council consisting of the members of the Executive Council and non-official members. The Indian Councils Act 1892 established legislatures in each of the provinces of British India and increased the powers of the Legislative Council. Although these Acts increased the representation of Indians in the government, their power still remained limited, and the electorate very small. The Indian Councils Act 1909 and the Government of India Act 1919 further expanded the participation of Indians in the administration. The Government of India Act 1935 introduced provincial autonomy and proposed a federal structure in India. The Indian Independence Act 1947, passed by the British parliament on 18 July 1947, divided British India (which did not include the Princely States) into two new independent countries, India and Pakistan, which were to be dominions under the Crown until they had each enacted a new constitution. The Constituent Assembly was divided into two for the separate nations, with each new Assembly having sovereign powers transferred to it for the respective dominion. The Constitution of India was adopted on 26 November 1949 and came into effect on 26 January 1950, proclaiming India to be a sovereign, democratic republic. This contained the founding principles of the law of the land which would govern India in its new form, which now included all the princely states which had not acceded to Pakistan. According to Article 79 (Part V-The Union.) of the Constitution of India, the Parliament of India consists of the President of India and the two Houses of Parliament known as the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) and the House of the People (Lok Sabha). The Lok Sabha (House of the People) was duly constituted for the first time on 17 April 1952 after the first General Elections held from 25 October 1951 to 21 February 1952. Article 84 (under Part V. — The Union) of Indian Constitution sets qualifications for being a member of Lok Sabha, which are as follows: 1. He / She should be a citizen of India, and must subscribe before the Election Commission of India an oath or affirmation according to the form set out for the purpose in the Third Schedule of Indian Constitution. 2. He / She should not be less than 25 years of age. 3. He / She possesses such other qualifications as may be prescribed in that behalf by or under any law made by Parliament. 4. He / She should not be proclaimed criminal i.e. they should not be a convict, a confirmed debtor or otherwise disqualified by law; and 5. He / She should have his/her name in the electoral rolls in any part of the country. However, a member can be disqualified of being a member of Parliament: 1. If he / she holds office of profit; 2. If he / she is of unsound mind and stands so declared by a competent court 3. If he / she is an undischarged insolvent; 4. If he / she is not a citizen of India, or has voluntarily acquired the citizenship of a foreign State, or is under any acknowledgment of allegiance or adherence to a foreign State; 5. If he / she is violating party discipline (as per Tenth schedule of the constitution); disqualified under Representation of People Act. A seat in the Lok Sabha will become vacant in the following circumstances (during normal functioning of the House): 1. When the holder of the seat, by writing to the speaker, resigns. 2. When the holder of the seat is absent from 60 consecutive days of proceedings of the House, without prior permission of the Speaker. 3. When the holder of the seat is subject to any disqualifications mentioned in the Constitution or any law enacted by Parliament. 4. A seat may also be vacated when the holder stands disqualified under the 'Anti-Defection Law'. Furthermore, as per article 101 (Part V.—The Union) of the Indian Constitution, a person cannot be: 1. A member of both Houses of Parliament and provision shall be made by Parliament by law for the vacation by a person who is chosen a member of both Houses of his seat in one House or the other. 2. A member both of Parliament and of a House of the Legislature of a State. Members of the Lok Sabha are directly elected by the people of India, on the basis of Universal Suffrage. Elections are by the people directly to the Lok Sabha and each state is divided into territorial constituencies under two provisions of the Constitution: 1. Each state "is" (See Note 1) allotted a number of seats in the Lok Sabha in such a manner that the ratio between that number and its population was as close to uniform as possible. This provision does not apply for states having a population of less than 6 million (60 lakhs). The number of seats per state has been frozen under the constitutional amendment of 1976. 2. Each state is divided into territorial constituencies in such a manner that the ratio between the population of each constituency and the number of seats allotted to it (in each case, one) remain the same throughout the state. This principle is upheld by the boundary reviews mentioned above. Notes: 1. The expression "population" while distributing seats among states refers to the population ascertained at the census of 1971, per the Constitutional Amendment of 1976. 2. The expression "population" while distributing constituencies within a state refers to the population ascertained at the census of 2011. The Lok Sabha has certain powers that make it more powerful than the Rajya Sabha. Motions of no confidence against the government can be introduced and passed in the Lok Sabha. If passed by a majority vote, the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers resign collectively. The Rajya Sabha has no power over such a motion, and hence has no real power over the executive. This is because the Constitution of India has only made the Union Council of ministers responsible to the Lok Sabha, not to the Rajya Sabha., Money bills can only be introduced in the Lok Sabha, and upon being passed, are sent to the Rajya Sabha, where it can be deliberated on for up to 14 days. If not rejected by the Rajya Sabha, or 14 days lapse from the introduction of the bill in the Rajya Sabha without any action by the House, or recommendations made by the Rajya Sabha are not accepted by the Lok Sabha, the bill is considered passed. The budget is presented in the Lok Sabha by the Finance Minister in the name of the President of India., In matters pertaining to non-financial (ordinary) bills, after the bill has been passed by the House where it was originally tabled (Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha), it is sent to the other house, where it may be kept for a maximum period of 6 months. If the other House rejects the bill or a period of 6 months elapses without any action by that House, or the House that originally tabled the bill does not accept the recommendations made by the members of the other house, it results in a deadlock. This is resolved by a joint session of both Houses, presided over by the speaker of the Lok Sabha and decided by a simple majority. Though the Constitution has placed both houses on the same footing in this regard, in reality it is the Lok Sabha's opinions that mostly prevails—due to its bigger numerical strength., Equal Powers with the Rajya Sabha in initiating and passing any Bill for Constitutional Amendment (by a majority of the total membership of the House and at least two-thirds majority of the members present and voting)., Equal Powers with the Rajya Sabha in initiating and passing a motion for the impeachment of the President (by two-thirds of the membership of the House)., Equal Powers with the Rajya Sabha in impeachment process (initiating and passing a motion for the removal) of the judges of the Supreme Court and the state High Courts (by a majority of the membership of the House and at least two-thirds majority of the members present and voting), who then can be removed by the President of India., Equal Powers with the Rajya Sabha in initiating and passing a resolution declaring war or national emergency (by two-thirds majority) or constitutional emergency (by simple majority) in a state., If the Lok Sabha is dissolved before or after the declaration of a National Emergency, the Rajya Sabha becomes the sole Parliament. It cannot be dissolved. This is a limitation on the Lok Sabha. But there is a possibility that president can exceed the term to not more than 1 year under the proclamation of emergency and the same would be lowered down to six-month if the said proclamation ceases to operate. In conclusion, it is clear that the Lok Sabha is more powerful than the Rajya Sabha in almost all matters. Even in those matters in which the Constitution has placed both Houses on an equal footing, the Lok Sabha has more influence due to its greater numerical strength. This is typical of any Parliamentary democracy, with the lower House always being more powerful than the upper. The Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha and Directions issued by the Speaker from time to time there under regulate the procedure in Lok Sabha. The items of business, notice of which is received from the Ministers/ Private Members and admitted by the Speaker, are included in the daily List of Business which is printed and circulated to members in advance.. Three sessions of Lok Sabha take place in a year: Budget session: February to May., Monsoon session: July to September., Winter session: November to mid-December. When in session, Lok Sabha holds its sittings usually from 11 a.m. to 1 p.m. and from 2 p.m. to 6 p.m. On some days the sittings are continuously held without observing lunch break and are also extended beyond 6 p.m. depending upon the business before the House. Lok Sabha does not ordinarily sit on Saturdays and Sundays and other closed holidays. The first hour of every sitting is called Question Hour. Asking questions in Parliament is the free and unfettered right of members, and during Question Hour they may ask questions of ministers on different aspects of administration and government policy in the national and international spheres. Every minister whose turn it is to answer to questions has to stand up and answer for his department's acts of omission or commission. Questions are of three types—Starred, Unstarred and Short Notice. A Starred Question is one to which a member desires an oral answer in the House and which is distinguished by an asterisk mark. An unstarred Question is one which is not called for oral answer in the house and on which no supplementary questions can consequently be asked. An answer to such a question is given in writing. Minimum period of notice for starred/unstarred question is 10 clear days. If the questions given notice of are admitted by the Speaker, they are listed and printed for answer on the dates allotted to the Ministries to which the subject matter of the question pertains. The normal period of notice does not apply to short-notice questions which relate to matters of urgent public importance. However, a short-notice question may be answered only on short notice if so permitted by the Speaker and the Minister concerned is prepared to answer it at shorter notice. A short-notice question is taken up for answer immediately after the Question Hour, popularly known as Zero Hour. The time immediately following the Question Hour has come to be known as "Zero Hour". It starts at around 12 noon (hence the name) and members can, with prior notice to the Speaker, raise issues of importance during this time. Typically, discussions on important Bills, the Budget, and other issues of national importance take place from 2 p.m. onwards. After the Question Hour, the House takes up miscellaneous items of work before proceeding to the main business of the day. These may consist of one or more of the following: Adjournment Motions, Questions involving breaches of Privileges, Papers to be laid on the Table, Communication of any messages from Rajya Sabha, Intimations regarding President's assent to Bills, Calling Attention Notices, Matters under Rule 377, Presentation of Reports of Parliamentary Committee, Presentation of Petitions, miscellaneous statements by Ministers, Motions regarding elections to Committees, Bills to be withdrawn or introduced. The main business of the day may be consideration of a Bill or financial business or consideration of a resolution or a motion. Legislative proposals in the form of a Bill can be brought forward either by a Minister or by a private member. In the former case it is known as Government Bill and in the latter case it is known as a Private Members' Bill. Every Bill passes through three stages—called three readings—before it is passed. To become law it must be passed by both the Houses of Parliament, Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha, and then assented to by the president. The presentation, discussion of, and voting on the annual General and Railways budgets—followed by the passing of the Appropriations Bill and the Finance Bill—is a long, drawn-out process that takes up a major part of the time of the House during its Budget Session every year. Among other kinds of business that come up before the House are resolutions and motions. Resolutions and motions may be brought forward by Government or by private members. Government may move a resolution or a motion for obtaining the sanction to a scheme or opinion of the House on an important matter of policy or on a grave situation. Similarly, a private member may move a resolution or motion in order to draw the attention of the House and of the Government to a particular problem. The last two and half hours of sitting on every Friday are generally allotted for transaction of private members' business. While private members' bills are taken up on one Friday, private members' resolutions are taken up on the succeeding Friday, and so on. Most of the business of drafting a bill or amendments are initially discussed and debated in the parliamentary committees. Since the time for legislation is limited, work of all departments of the government and any special focus tasks is delegated to the committees, wherein the committees shall prepare the initial draft of the bill/amendment for the consideration by both the houses. They consist of members from both the houses. There are primarily two kinds of parliamentary committees based on their nature:- Parliament Standing Committees (PSC) – Permanent in nature, reconstituted time to time with every new election., Department based, Others, Ad hoc Committees – Created for specific purpose and ceases to exist when that purpose is achieved. A Half-an-Hour Discussion can be raised on a matter of sufficient public importance which has been the subject of a recent question in Lok Sabha irrespective of the fact whether the question was answered orally or the answer was laid on the Table of the House and the answer which needs elucidation on a matter of fact. Normally not more than half an hour is allowed for such a discussion. Usually, half-an-hour discussion is listed on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays only. In one session, a member is allowed to raise not more than two half-hour discussions. During the discussion, the member, who has given notice, makes a short statement and not more than four members, who have intimated earlier and have secured one of the four places in the ballot, are permitted to ask a question each for further elucidating any matter of fact. Thereafter, the Minister concerned replies. There is no formal motion before the House nor voting. Members may raise discussions on matters of urgent public importance with the permission of the Speaker. Such discussions may take place on two days in a week. No formal motion is moved in the House nor is there any voting on such a discussion. After the member who initiates discussion on an item of business has spoken, other members can speak on that item of business in such order as the Speaker may call upon them. Only one member can speak at a time and all speeches are directed to the Chair. A matter requiring the decision of the House is decided by means of a question put by the Speaker on a motion made by a member. A division is one of the forms in which the decision of the House is ascertained. Normally, when a motion is put to the House members for and against it indicate their opinion by saying "Aye" or "No" from their seats. The Chair goes by the voices and declares that the motion is either accepted or rejected by the House. If a member challenges the decision, the Chair orders that the lobbies be cleared. Then the division bell is rung and an entire network of bells installed in the various parts and rooms in Parliament House and Parliament House Annexe rings continuously for three and a half minutes. Members and Ministers rush to the Chamber from all sides. After the bell stops, all the doors to the Chamber are closed and nobody can enter or leave the Chamber till the division is over. Then the Chair puts the question for second time and declares whether in its opinion the "Ayes" or the "Noes", have it. If the opinion so declared is again challenged, the Chair asks the votes to be recorded by operating the Automatic Vote Recording Equipment. With the announcement of the Speaker for recording the votes, the Secretary- General of the Lok Sabha presses the button of a key board. Then a gong sounds, serving as a signal to members for casting their votes. To vote, each member present in the Chamber has to flip a switch and then operate one of the three push buttons fixed in their seat. The push switch must be kept pressed simultaneously until the gong sounds for the second time after 10 seconds. There are two indicator boards installed in the wall on either side of the Speaker's chair in the Chamber. Each vote cast by a member is flashed here. Immediately after the votes are cast, they are totalled mechanically and the details of the results are flashed on the Result Indicator Boards installed in the railings of the Speaker's and Diplomatic Galleries. Divisions are normally held with the aid of the Automatic Vote Recording Equipment. Where so directed by the Speaker in terms of relevant provision in the Rules of Procedure etc. in Lok Sabha, divisions may be held either by distribution of 'Aye'/'No' and 'Abstention' slips to members in the House or by the members recording their votes by going into the lobbies. There is an Indicator Board in the machine room showing the name of each member. The result of Division and vote cast by each member with the aid of Automatic Vote Recording Equipment appear also on this Board and immediately a photograph of the Indicator Board is taken. Later the Photograph is enlarged and the names of members who voted 'Ayes' and for 'Noes' are determined with the help of the photograph and incorporated in Lok Sabha Debates. Three versions of Lok Sabha Debates are prepared: the Hindi version, the English version and the Original version. Only the Hindi and English versions are printed. The Original version, in cyclostyled form, is kept in the Parliament Library for record and reference. The Hindi version contains proceedings (all Questions asked and Answers given thereto and speeches made) in Hindi, and verbatim Hindi translation of proceedings in English or in regional languages. The English version contains proceedings in English and the English translation of the proceedings which take place in Hindi or in any regional language. The Original version, however, contains proceedings in Hindi or in English as they actually took place in the House and also the English/Hindi translation of speeches made in regional languages. If conflicting legislation is enacted by the two Houses, a joint sitting is held to resolve the differences. In such a session, the members of the Lok Sabha would generally prevail, since the Lok Sabha includes more than twice as many members as the Rajya Sabha. Speaker and Deputy Speaker As per Article 93 of Indian Constitution, the Lok Sabha has a Speaker and a Deputy Speaker. In the Lok Sabha, both presiding officers—the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker- are elected from among its members by a simple majority of members present and voting in the House. No specific qualifications are prescribed for being elected Speaker; the Constitution only requires that Speaker should be a member of the House. But an understanding of the Constitution and the laws of the country and the rules of procedure and conventions of Parliament is considered a major asset for the holder of the office of the Speaker. Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the offices of Speaker and Deputy Speaker are mentioned under Article 94 of the Constitution of India. As per Article 94 of Indian Constitution, a Speaker or a Deputy Speaker should vacate his/her office, a) if he/she ceases to be a member of the House of the People, b) he/she resigns, or c) is removed from office by a resolution of the House passed by a majority. The Speaker of Lok Sabha is both a member of the House and its Presiding Officer. The Speaker conducts the business in the House. He/she decides whether a bill is a money bill or not. He/she maintains discipline and decorum in the house and can punish a member for their unruly behaviour by suspending them. He/she permits the moving of various kinds of motions and resolutions like the motion of no confidence, motion of adjournment, motion of censure and calling attention notice as per the rules. The Speaker decides on the agenda to be taken up for discussion during the meeting. It is the Speaker of the Lok Sabha who presides over joint sittings called in the event of disagreement between the two Houses on a legislative measure. Following the 52nd Constitution amendment, the Speaker is vested with the power relating to the disqualification of a member of the Lok Sabha on grounds of defection. The Speaker makes obituary references in the House, formal references to important national and international events and the valedictory address at the conclusion of every Session of the Lok Sabha and also when the term of the House expires. Though a member of the House, the Speaker does not vote in the House except on those rare occasions when there is a tie at the end of a decision. Till date, the Speaker of the Lok Sabha has not been called upon to exercise this unique casting vote. While the office of Speaker is vacant due to absence/resignation/removal, the duties of the office are performed by the Deputy Speaker or, if the office of Deputy Speaker is also vacant, by such member of the House of the People as the President may appoint for the purpose. The Lok Sabha has also a separate non-elected Secretariat staff. Shri G. V. Mavalankar was the first Speaker of Lok Sabha (15 May 1952 – 27 February 1956) and Shri M. Ananthasayanam Ayyangar was the first Deputy Speaker (30 May 1952 – 7 March 1956). In the 17th Lok Sabha, Om Birla is the Speaker. Secretariat The Secretariat of Lok Sabha was set up pursuant to the provisions contained in Article 98 of the Constitution. The said Article, which provides for a separate secretarial staff for each House of Parliament, reads as follows:- 98. Secretariat of Parliament – Each House of Parliament shall have a separate secretarial staff: Provided that nothing in this clause shall be construed as preventing the creation of posts common to both Houses of Parliament. (2) Parliament may by law regulate the recruitment and the conditions of service of persons appointed to the secretarial staff of either House of Parliament. The Lok Sabha Secretariat functions under the overall guidance and control of the Speaker. The main activities of the Secretariat inter alia include the following : (i) providing secretarial assistance and support to the effective functioning of the House of the People (Lok Sabha) possible to Members of Lok Sabha; (ii) providing amenities as admissible to Members of Lok Sabha; (iii) servicing the various Parliamentary Committees; (v) preparing research and reference material and bringing out various publications; (vi) recruitment of manpower in the Lok Sabha Secretariat and attending to personnel matters; & (vii) preparing and publishing a record of the day-to-day proceedings of the Lok Sabha and bringing out such other publications, as may be required concerning the functioning of the Lok Sabha and its Committees, among other things. In the discharge of his constitutional and statutory responsibilities, the Speaker of the Lok Sabha is assisted by the Secretary-General, who holds the rank equivalent to the Cabinet Secretary to the Government of India. The Secretary-General, in turn, is assisted by senior functionaries at the level of Secretary, Additional Secretary, Joint Secretary and other officers and staff of the Secretariat. Present Secretary- General of Lok Sabha is Snehlata Shrivastava, IAS. Lok Sabha is constituted after the general election as follows: The Lok Sabha is composed of 543 members till 26 January 2020 Members of 17th Lok Sabha by their political party (As of 18 November 2019): List of constituencies of the Lok Sabha, Parliament of India, Rajya Sabha Lok Sabha website, 1951 to 2014 Lok Sabha Election Results in Detail, General Elections 2019, Lok Sabha General Election 2019 - Parliamentary Polls 2019 Latest News & Updates Notable people bearing the name Mahajan include: Ashwani Mahajan, economist, National Co-Convener, Swadeshi Jagran Manch; Professor at PG DAV College., Harsh Mahajan, Indian politician., Mehr Chand Mahajan, former Chief Justice of India and former Prime Minister of Kashmir, Nikhil Mahajan, an Indian film director who has directed the Marathi films, Pune 52 and Baji., Pramod Mahajan, a prominent Indian Politician, Rahul Mahajan (blogger), an American blogger, Sumitra Mahajan, a prominent Indian Politician Who is the speaker of the 16th Lok Sabha, Vijay Mahajan (academic), former Dean of the Indian School of Business, prominent Marketing professor at the University of Texas at Austin Sasaram Lok Sabha constituency is one of the 40 Lok Sabha (parliamentary) constituencies in Bihar state in eastern India. Presently, Sasaram Lok Sabha constituency comprises the following six Vidhan Sabha (legislative assembly) segments: Mohania, Bhabua, Chainpur, Chenari, Sasaram, Kargahar The following is the list of the Members of Parliament elected from this Lok Sabha constituency: Rohtas district, List of Constituencies of the Lok Sabha Sasaram lok sabha constituency election 2019 result details

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The dystopian novel was previously entered into the 1997 Japan Horror Fiction Awards but was eventually rejected in the final round due to concerns over its depictions of students killing each other. Upon publication in 1999, the novel became a surprise bestseller. In 2000, one year after publication, Battle Royale was adapted into a manga series, written by Takami himself, and a feature film. The film was both controversial and successful, becoming one of the year's highest-grossing films as well as prompting condemnation by Japan's National Diet. The film spawned , and two more brief manga adaptations were also created. Battle Royale takes place in a fictional fascist Japan in the year 1997. The state, known as the , arose after an alternate World War 2 where Japan emerged victorious and a rebellion was put down by the combined military and police forces. The government controls everything, and anything "immoral", such as rock music, is banned, unless it beatifies the government, along with an unnamed dictator with a strong cult of personality able to bend the whims of the populace. The government has established a military program, the , wherein fifty randomly selected classes of third-year junior high school students are kidnapped, dropped into a remote location, and forced to kill one another until only one student of each class remains. Ostensibly, it is to help the government and its military research survival skills and battle readiness – in actuality, it is meant to instill terror and distrust in all of Japan's citizens to curb any attempts at rebellion, by showcasing the government's power and ability to target citizen's families and preying on the fear of being killed by a friend. A group of students from , a junior high school in the fictional Kagawa Prefecture town of Shiroiwa, prepare for a field trip – among them are wannabe rock star Shuya Nanahara, whose father was killed by the regime; Noriko Nakagawa, the demure crush of Shuya's best friend; Shogo Kawada, a quiet, tough young transfer student; and sociopathic prodigy Kazuo Kiriyama. En route, they are gassed – the "field trip" was a ruse for the Program. They awake in a classroom in a small, vacated island, surrounded by troops, and wearing metal collars around their necks. A teacher, psychopathic sadist Kinpatsu Sakamochi, briefs the students: the class has been chosen to participate in the Program. The students are also given a time limit. If twenty-four hours pass without someone being killed, then all of the collars will be detonated simultaneously and there will be no winner. It is mentioned that only 0.5% of Programs end in this fashion. The students are issued survival packs and a random weapon/tool, and sent out onto the island one by one. While most of the students receive guns and knives, some acquire relatively useless items like boomerangs, dartboard darts, or a fork. Hiroki Sugimura finds a radar device that tracks nearby students, and Toshinori Oda receives a bulletproof vest. To make sure the students obey the rules and kill each other, the metal collars around their necks track their positions and will explode if they attempt to remove the collars, or linger in "Forbidden Zones"; randomly chosen areas of the map that increase in number over time, re-sculpting and shrinking the battlefield and forcing the students to move around. The collars secretly transmit sound back to the organizers of the game, allowing them to hear the students' conversations, root out escape plans, and log their activities. The collars will explode if the students go a full day without anyone dying. The students desperately fight amongst each other for survival, with mentally-ill bully Mitsuko Souma and Kiriyama killing many. Shuya takes Noriko under his wing after his best friend is killed, believing that he has a duty to honor his fallen friend by protecting his crush. Shogo – who was in a previous Battle Royale and hopes to put an end to the Program – avoids the fighting, joining with Shuya. Shuya's friend, athlete Shinji Mimura, attempts to hack the system running the Program and bomb the building where Sakamochi and the other personnel overseeing the Program are stationed, but is killed by Kiriyama. Eventually, halfway through the third day, only Shogo, Shuya, Noriko, and Kiriyama remain, with Kiriyama dead set on hunting down the trio. After a frantic car chase Kiriyama is finally gunned down, but Nanahara and Nakagawa are held at gunpoint by Shogo, who taunts them over being so naive as to trust anyone in the Program. The collars record gunshots and Shuya and Noriko flatlining. Declared the winner by Sakamochi, Shogo is escorted to his transport off the island, surrounded by soldiers. Sakamochi, however, reveals that he knows Nanahara and Nakagawa are alive and that his supposed execution of Noriko and Shuya was a ruse after he found a way to disable their collars, and attempts to kill Shogo. Shogo kills him as a hidden Nanahara and Nakagawa hijack the ship and kill the soldiers on board. As the boat sails towards the mainland, Shogo succumbs to his wounds sustained during the fight with Kiriyama and dies, but not before thanking Shuya and Noriko for being his friends. On the advice of Shogo, Shuya and Noriko escape to the mainland and plan to escape to a democratic America, pursued by the government. Shuya Nanahara – An orphan whose parents were killed for taking part in anti-government activities. Shuya is a self-proclaimed "rock star," listening to and playing rock 'n' roll music in spite of the ban on the genre. After the death of his best friend Yoshitoki Kuninobu, he vows to protect Kuninobu's crush, Noriko Nakagawa, in his stead., Noriko Nakagawa – A quiet, reserved girl who teams up with Nanahara from the beginning and becomes a sort of love interest. She is shot in the leg by a soldier before the Program starts., Shogo Kawada – A transfer student from Kobe that is one year older than the rest of the class and covered in scars. He is a loner and, unbeknownst to his classmates, won the Program the previous year. He teams up with Nanahara and Nakagawa with a plan to escape the island together., Kazuo Kiriyama – The leader of delinquents, who is also the smartest and one of the most athletic students in the class. He feels no emotion due to damage suffered in an accident while in utero, leading to a partial lobotomy. He actively takes part in the Program, killing his fellow students without remorse., Mitsuko Souma – The beautiful leader of a female gang. Having been sexually abused several times as a child, Souma actively takes part in the Program, using her sexuality to kill her male classmates., Kinpatsu Sakamochi – The government official in charge of supervising this year's Program. He is stocky, with long hair reaching his shoulders, and ruthless. Koushun Takami completed Battle Royale when he stopped working as a journalist in 1996. The story was rejected in the final round of the 1997 , which took place in March 1998, because of its controversial content. Masao Higashi, who took part in the award's preliminary selection committee, later suspected this was due to its backdrop of students killing each other being too reminiscent of the Kobe child murders committed the previous year. Battle Royale was first published in April 1999 by Ohta Publishing. In August 2002, it was released in a revised, two-part bunkobon by Gentosha. Takami describes the characters as possibly all being "kind of alike", being "all the same" despite differing appearances and hobbies, and being static characters. Takami used these descriptions in contrast to the manga adaptation he wrote, with Masayuki Taguchi illustrating, which he believes has a more diverse and well-developed cast. Battle Royale was translated into English by Yuji Oniki and released in North America by Viz Media on February 26, 2003. An expanded edition with a revision of Oniki's translation and an afterword by Takami was published on November 17, 2009 by Haikasoru, a division of Viz Media. This version also included an interview with the director of the book's film adaptation, Kinji Fukasaku. Viz released a new translation by Nathan Collins on April 1, 2014, under the title Battle Royale: Remastered. They also published The Battle Royale Slam Book: Essays on the Cult Classic by Koushun Takami on the same day, which includes essays on the details of the novel and the controversies surrounding it as well as its adaptations written by science-fiction, horror, and thriller authors such as Brian Keene, John Skipp, and Catherynne M. Valente. A manga adaptation, written by Takami and illustrated by Masayuki Taguchi, was serialized in Akita Shoten's Young Champion from 2000 to 2005. It was collected into fifteen tankōbon volumes, and published in North America by Tokyopop from 2003 to 2006. A second manga, Battle Royale II: Blitz Royale, ran in Young Champion from 2003 to 2004. Written and illustrated by Hiroshi Tomizawa, it was collected into two tankōbon volumes. In 2011, a two chapter spin-off manga titled Battle Royale: Angels' Border was drawn by Mioko Ohnishi and Youhei Oguma (each drawing one chapter). It focuses on the six girls who holed up in the lighthouse, was published in Young Champion and later combined into one tankōbon volume on January 20, 2012. The single volume was published in North America by Viz Media on June 17, 2014. Battle Royale was adapted into a 2000 feature film of the same name, directed by Kinji Fukasaku and written by his son Kenta Fukasaku. The film was also controversial and successful, with it being condemned by members of Japan's National Diet on grounds of it being harmful to the youth, yet becoming one of the year's highest-grossing films. It was followed in 2003 by . In June 2006, Variety reported that New Line Cinema, with producers Neal Moritz and Roy Lee, intended to produce a new American film adaptation of Battle Royale. However, New Line never secured remake rights and following the Virginia Tech massacre in April 2007, Lee stated that prospects for the project had been "seriously shaken." In 2012, Lee stated a remake would no longer be possible due to the release of the film adaptation of The Hunger Games, which has been criticized for its similarities to Battle Royale, stating that: "Audiences would see it as just a copy of Games — most of them wouldn't know that Battle Royale came first. It's unfair, but that's reality." However, he stated that he might return to the film in ten years to "develop a Battle Royale movie for the next generation." In 2012, the Sipat Lawin Ensemble and two other college theater groups in the Philippines, made an unofficial loose adaptation of the novel into a live- action performance called Battalia Royale, which had its debut at the Cultural Center of the Philippines. Performances were also held at an abandoned high school in Quezon City. On July 26, 2012, the Los Angeles Times reported that The CW Television Network had been in discussions with Hollywood representatives about the possibility of turning Battle Royale into an American television show. According to a spokesperson, the talks were only preliminary, but if a deal could be reached, the network would acquire rights to Koushun Takami's novel, then expand on it for an hourlong dramatic series. Joyce Jun, a Hollywood attorney representing U.S. rights to the title, states that "there is no deal in place." A CW spokesman only confirmed there had been some discussion, declining to comment further. At the Television Critics Association winter press tour on January 13, 2013, CW president Mark Pedowitz stated "At this time, we're not planning to do anything with Battle Royale." He clarified that the reports stemmed from one phone call he made to see if the rights to the book were available and also noted that his interest in the novel predated the 2012 Aurora shooting and the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting. Upon publication in 1999, Battle Royale became a best-seller in Japan. The original Japanese novel sold more than 1million copies, before being translated into nearly a dozen languages. The novel was entered into the 1997 Japan Horror Fiction Awards, but was eventually rejected in the final round with no winner that year. All three members of the final round's selection committee that year admitted Battle Royale was the best work, but declined to award it due to its controversial content. Hiroshi Aramata said that while it was the best nominee in terms of "story, structure, and subject matter," he felt it was too much of a Kinpachi-sensei parody and suspected its content would cause problems. Katsuhiko Takahashi felt that although it was the superior work as far as its construction as a novel, giving the award to a story about students killing each other at "this time" would hurt the reputation of the competition. Mariko Hayashi said that while she believed it was the best of the four novels, it was like reading an "unpleasant near- future manga" and "No matter how squarely it might be horror or how interesting it might be, I'm not so sure we should be writing stories like this." In 2001, Kōji Ōnuma wrote , a dissertation that explores the themes of the book. Battle Royale has been critically acclaimed abroad. In Entertainment Weekly, writer Stephen King included it as one of the seven books in his 2005 summer reading list, after it was recommended to him by novelist Kelly Braffet (writer of Josie and Jack). King described Battle Royale as "an insanely entertaining pulp riff that combines Survivor with World Wrestling Entertainment. Or maybe Royale is just insane." He also notes that it has some similarities to his own novel The Long Walk. He concludes the brief review with a "No prob," as "Takami's Springsteen-quoting teenagers are fond of saying." David N. Alderman, writing for the Red Room site, gave Battle Royale a score of 4½ out of 5 stars, stating that the "story itself is brilliant. Touted as being extremely controversial, especially for the time it was released, the book opens up all sorts of doors to conversations and thoughts about psychology, murder, survival, love, loyalty, and moral ground." While noting that those who "cringe at slash and hack" should "steer away from this" since "it is a bit gory," he states that it is "definitely worth the read" and concludes that it has "touches of romance, and definitely some great moral themes to spark off in-depth conversations with others." Complete Review gave the novel a B rating, describing it as "a perfectly fine thriller, with a fun premise, quite well drawn-out." In The Journal of the Lincoln Heights Literary Society, Tom Good praises the novel, concluding that, as "a pulp-fiction horror tale, Battle Royale delivers plenty of thrills, action, suspense and fun." Since its release, the novel and its film adaptation have had an influence on later works. These include filmmakers such as Quentin Tarantino, most notably his Kill Bill films; the character Gogo Yubari, played by Chiaki Kuriyama, is similar to the character she plays in the Battle Royale film, Takako Chigusa. V.A. Musetto of the New York Post also compared it to The Condemned, which the critic called "a bad rip-off" of Battle Royale as well as The Most Dangerous Game. Critics have also noted the influence of Battle Royale on other later works, such as the 2008 film Kill Theory, the 2009 film The Tournament, and the 2016 film The Belko Experiment, and have noted similarities with the novel and film franchise The Hunger Games. The manga, anime and film franchise Gantz and the 2007 video game The World Ends with You have both been compared to Battle Royale. The 2008 American young adult novel The Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins has been accused of being strikingly similar to Battle Royale in terms of the basic plot premise. While Collins maintains that she "had never heard of that book until her book was turned in", Susan Dominus of The New York Times reports that "the parallels are striking enough that Collins's work has been savaged on the blogosphere as a baldfaced ripoff," but argued that "there are enough possible sources for the plot line that the two authors might well have hit on the same basic setup independently." The general consensus in the time since has been one of amicable controversy, especially since the release of The Hunger Games film adaptation. Battle Royale author Takami said he appreciated fans "standing up" for his book, but stated that he thinks "every novel has something to offer," and that if "readers find value in either book, that's all an author can ask for." The 2012 comic Avengers Arena has a similar plot to Battle Royale. Additionally, the cover of its first issue bears a homage to the Battle Royale film poster; featuring the main characters posed in the same manner and a similarly designed logo. The novel and especially its film adaptation have been influential in global popular culture, inspiring numerous works of fiction in a number of different media, particularly in East Asia and the Western world. Since the film's release, the term "battle royale" has been used to refer to a fictional narrative genre and/or mode of entertainment inspired by the film, where a select group of people are instructed to kill each off until there is a triumphant survivor. The "battle royale" phenomenon has become especially popular in the 2010s. A new video game genre, the battle royale game which built upon survival concept became popular in the mid-2010s, with the early examples of the "Battle Royale" mods for Arma II: DayZ, the stand-alone edition of DayZ and ARMA 3, concept subsequently transposed into full games like , PlayerUnknown's Battlegrounds and Fortnite Battle Royale. Other works focused on the doubt and mistrust among a group of people in a "murder game", such as the Saw film series, The Cube, and games in the Danganronpa series. "The Most Dangerous Game", a 1924 short story about a big game hunter who is hunted down by another hunter on an isolated island, The Hunger Games, a 2008 dystopian novel with a similar premise "Battle Royale" is the eleventh episode of the of the anthology television series American Horror Story. It aired on January 6, 2016 on the cable network FX. This episode was written by Ned Martel and directed by Michael Uppendahl. Liz Taylor and Iris head for the penthouse to shoot Elizabeth, who is with Donovan. Elizabeth, though shot multiple times, escapes the room while Donovan lays dying. Iris is upset because she did not mean to shoot her son. Donovan pleads with them to take him outside so that he would not die in the hotel. Elizabeth ends up with Sally who pulls out her bullets. Sally then reminisces about an old drug dealer of hers as well as a couple of musicians in the 1990s. Sally and the two musicians decided to get a room at the Hotel Cortez. There, they engaged in a threesome mixed with drugs and Sally then sewed the three of them together. Her two friends died in the process. Sally laid there for five days, with the Addiction Demon showing up and torturing her for three days. After the fifth day, she pulled free. Sally then tells Elizabeth that she does not want her, but John Lowe. Elizabeth needs blood like hers in order to heal and Sally decides to take the blood from two of her children. Liz cremates Donovan's body in the furnace and gives the ashes to Iris. They discuss freeing Ramona as a weapon against Elizabeth, and are terrified when they discover Ramona is already free. Ramona is skeptical about their loyalties but she feels ill and she needs to take a fresh life. Liz and Iris find Queenie from the in the hotel. They lead her to her Room 64 where Ramona emerges from behind a shower curtain and slashes at her. Queenie reveals that she is a witch. After a fight, in which Ramona is injured, James March materializes and stabs Queenie in the neck and Ramona feeds on Queenie's blood. John returns home with a victim for Alex Lowe, but she is missing and a key of the hotel is left behind. He tracks back to the indicated room, where Sally is waiting. She tells him that March has taken his family after John broke his promise to him. Ramona confronts Elizabeth, but Elizabeth apologizes and gives the hotel to her. Then, Elizabeth packs to leave and opens the elevator only to find John, who shoots her as his final kill is "Thou Shall Not Commit Murder" and she eventually dies. John then presents Elizabeth's head on a trophy, completing the Ten Commandments Killings. March asks Hazel when first she realized she was a ghost, and her reaction. Elizabeth's ghost arrives at March's suite for dinner. There March says that he can finally forgive her for turning him in to the police; Elizabeth admits after 90 years that she did not. Hazel admits that she did, so that she could have March to herself in death. He spurns her and Elizabeth cries after realizing her worst nightmare: spending eternity with March. "Battle Royale" was watched by 1.84 million people during its original broadcast, and gained a 0.9 ratings share among adults aged 18 to 49. It also ranked third in the Nielsen Social ratings, with 52,000 tweets seen by over 897,000 people. The episode received positive reviews, earning an 82% approval rating based on 11 reviews, with an average score of 6.4/10, on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes. The critical consensus reads, "Thanks to a story that starts pulling the viewer toward the end of the season – and a surprise special appearance from a familiar character – "Battle Royale" is a penultimate episode with more than enough momentum to overcome its flaws." Battle Royale (Japanese): バトル・ロワイアル, Hepburn: Batoru Rowaiaru) is a 2000 Japanese dystopian thriller film directed by Kinji Fukasaku and screenplay written by Kenta Fukasaku, based on the 1999 novel by Koushun Takami. Starring Tatsuya Fujiwara, Aki Maeda and Takeshi Kitano, the film follows a group of junior high-school students that are forced to fight to the death by the Japanese totalitarian government. The film drew controversy and was banned or excluded from distribution in several countries. Toei even refused to sell the film to any United States distributor for a long time, because Toei was worried of potential controversy and lawsuits (until Anchor Bay Entertainment eventually acquired the film in 2010 for direct-to-video release). The film was first screened in Tokyo on more than 200 screens on December 16, 2000, with an R-15 rating, which is rarely used in Japan. It was the highest- grossing Japanese-language film for six weeks after its initial release, and it was later released in 22 countries worldwide, grossing approximately in eight countries. The film earned critical acclaim and, especially with its DVD releases, drew a large global cult following. It is often regarded as one of Fukasaku's best films, and one of the best films of the 2000s. In 2009, filmmaker Quentin Tarantino praised Battle Royale as the best film he had seen in the past two decades. Battle Royale was the last film to be directed by Fukasaku. He started working on a sequel, , but he died of prostate cancer on January 12, 2003, after shooting only one scene with Kitano. His son Kenta Fukasaku, who wrote the screenplay for both films, completed the film in 2003. Battle Royale became a cultural phenomenon, and has been highly influential in global popular culture. Since the film's release, the term "battle royale" has been redefined to refer to a fictional narrative genre and/or mode of entertainment inspired by the film, where a select group of people are instructed to kill each other off until there is a triumphant survivor. It has inspired numerous media, including films, manga, anime, comics, visual novels, and video games; the battle royale game genre, for example, is named after the film. Following a major recession, the Japanese government has passed the "BR ACT” to control Japan's unruly youth. Middle school student Shuya Nanahara copes with life after his father committed suicide. Noriko Nakagawa is the only student regularly attending class 3-B. Their teacher, Kitano, resigns after being wounded by Yoshitoki Kuninobu, Shuya's best friend. One year later, class 3-B takes a field trip, but they are gassed and taken to a remote island. Kitano reappears surrounded by JSDF soldiers, explaining to the class that they are chosen to participate in the annual Battle Royale as a result of the Act: they have three days to fight to the death until a victor emerges, while explosive collars will kill uncooperative students or those within daily "danger zones". Each student is provided rations, water, a map of the island, compass, flashlight, and a random weapon. Kitano personally kills two of the students for disobedience, one of them being Kuninobu, who dies from collar detonation. The first six hours see twelve deaths, four by suicide, and eight caused by the desperate, psychotic Mitsuko Souma and psychopathic volunteer Kazuo Kiriyama. Transfer student Shogo Kawada lets Shuya go after killing one student, while Shuya accidentally kills a student, Oki, which is witnessed by Yuko Sakaki, while basketball player Shinji Mimura plots to hack into the military's computer system to disrupt the program. Amid shifting loyalties and violent confrontations, Shuya promises to keep Noriko safe as Yoshitoki secretly loved her. He carries her to a clinic, where Kawada reveals that he won a previous Battle Royale at the cost of his girlfriend, Keiko Onuki, whose death he seeks to avenge. When Kiriyama attacks, Shuya entrusts Kawada to protect Noriko and runs as a distraction. Shuya is wounded by Kiriyama's Uzi. However, he is saved by Hiroki Sugimura, a martial artist who has recently had his friend Takako Chigusa die in his arms, and is on a personal mission to find his unrequited love, Kayoko Kotohiki. Shuya awakens in the island's lighthouse, bandaged by female class representative Yukie Utsumi, who has a crush on him. Five other girls are also hiding in the building, including Yuko, who attempts to poison Shuya out of fear of Shuya possibly killing them like he did Tatsumichi Oki. However, Yuka accidentally eats the food, leading to a shootout between the girls. Yuko is the only survivor; horrified and realizing her mistake, she apologizes to Shuya and commits suicide. Shuya finds Noriko and Kawada, and they set out to find Mimura. Now only ten players left, Hiroki is killed by Kotohiki, who is then killed by Mitsuko. Kiriyama kills Mitsuko with her own weapon, making Noriko the last surviving girl. Mimura and two others, Yutaka Seto and Keita Iijima, infiltrate the military's computer system, but Kiriyama kills them, but not before Mirmura uses his homemade bomb to explode the base to hide all evidence. When Kawada, Noriko and Shuya arrive at the hackers' burning base, Kawada confronts and kills Kiriyama, who had his eyes burned out by the explosion, by detonating the collar with his shotgun, but in turn is seriously injured by Kiriyama's uzi. On the morning of the final day, Kawada, aware of the collars' internal microphones, seemingly kills Shuya and Noriko by shooting them. Suspicious, Kitano ends the game and dismisses the troops, intent on personally killing the supposed victor. Kitano realizes that Kawada hacked the system months beforehand, and has disabled Shuya and Noriko's tracking devices. The three survivors confront Kitano in the headquarters, and he unveils a homemade painting of the massacred class depicting Noriko as the sole survivor. He reveals that he was unable to bear the hatred between him and his students, having been rejected by his daughter, and confesses that he always thought of Noriko as a daughter. He asks her to kill him, but Shuya shoots him after he threatens her with a gun. As he falls, Kitano shoots, revealing the gun to be a water pistol. Kitano's daughter calls him; after an argument, he shoots the phone with an actual gun before dying of his wounds. Shuya, Noriko and Kawada leave the island on a boat, but Kawada dies from the injuries, happy that he found friendship. Shuya and Noriko are declared fugitive murderers, and are last seen on the run in the direction of Shibuya Station. Noriko gives Shuya the Seto Dragon Claw butterfly knife Kuninobu used to injure Kitano at the beginning of the film. They then run off together. Tatsuya Fujiwara as Shuya Nanahara, Aki Maeda as Noriko Nakagawa, Tarō Yamamoto as Shogo Kawada, Masanobu Andō as Kazuo Kiriyama, Kou Shibasaki as Mitsuko Souma, Chiaki Kuriyama as Takako Chigusa, Takashi Tsukamoto as Shinji Mimura, Sousuke Takaoka as Hiroki Sugimura, Eri Ishikawa as Yukie Utsumi, Hitomi Hyuga as Yuko Sakaki Takeshi Kitano as Kitano, Yukihiro Kotani as Yoshitoki Kuninobu, Sayaka Ikeda as Megumi Eto, Takayo Mimura as Kayoko Kotohiki, Minami as Keiko Onuki, Yūko Miyamura as Training Video Girl Roughly 6,000 actors auditioned for the film, which was narrowed down to 800 potential cast members. These finalists were subjected to a 6-month period of physical fitness training under supervision of the director, Kinji Fukasaku, who eventually cast 42 out of the 800. Despite the characters being middle school students, Aki Maeda, Yukihiro Kotani, Takayo Mimura, Yukari Kanasawa were the only four who were aged 15 to 16 years old. The other members of the cast had all graduated from secondary education, and Tarō Yamamoto and Masanobu Andō were the oldest among the actors, aged 25. Kinji Fukasaku stated that he decided to direct the film because the novel it was adapted from reminded him of his time as a 15-year-old munitions factory worker during World War II. At that time, his class was made to work in a munitions factory. In July 1945, the factory came under artillery fire. The children could not escape so they dived under each other for cover. The surviving members of the class had to dispose of the corpses. At that point, Fukasaku realised that the Japanese government was lying about World War II, and he developed a burning hatred of adults in general that he maintained for a long time afterwards. Beat Takeshi told a documentary crew during filming that he believes "an actor's job is to satisfy the director... I move the way I'm told to. I try to look the way I'm told to. I don't know much about the emotional side", before adding, "Mr. Fukasaku told me to play myself. I did not really understand, but he told me to play myself, as I ordinarily would be! I'm just trying to do what he tells me." When asked in an interview with The Midnight Eye if the film is "a warning or advice to the young", Kinji Fukasaku responded by describing the words "warning" and "advice" as "sounding very strong to me" as if they were actions which one tries to accomplish; therefore the film would not be "particularly a warning or advice." Fukasaku explained that the film, which he describes as "a fable", includes themes, such as crime by young people, which in Japan "are very much real modern issues." Fukasaku said that he did not have a lack of concern or a lack of interest; he used the themes as part of his fable. When the interviewer told Fukasaku that he asked the question specifically because of the word "run" in the concluding text, which the interviewer described as "very positive", Fukasaku explained that he developed the concept throughout the film. Fukasaku interpreted the interviewer's question as having "a stronger meaning" than "a simple message." He further explained that the film simply contains his "words to the next generation", so the viewer should decide whether to take the words as advice or as a warning. The film score of Battle Royale was composed, arranged and conducted by Masamichi Amano, performed by the Warsaw Philharmonic Orchestra and features several pieces of Western classical music along with Amano's original compositions. The choral movement used in the film's overture and original trailer is the "Dies Irae" from Giuseppe Verdi’s Requiem. The song used during the end credits, "Shizuka na Hibi no Kaidan o" by the rap rock band Dragon Ash, is not included in either the Japanese or French edition of the soundtrack. Track listing Fukasaku originally opposed the R15 rating given by the Eiga Rinri Kanri Iinkai (Eirin) because of Fukasaku's experiences as a teenager, the novel's use of 15-year-olds, and the fact that many of the actors were around fifteen years of age. After he submitted an appeal and before Eiga Rinri Kanri Iinkai could rule on the appeal, members of the National Diet said that the film harmed teenagers; the Diet members also criticised the film industry ratings, which were a part of self-regulation by the Japanese film industry. Fukasaku dropped the appeal to appease the Japanese Diet in hopes they would not pursue increasing film regulation further. Fukasaku criticized the ruling since the film was already blocked from people under 16 years of age. The film was labeled "crude and tasteless" by members of National Diet and other government officials after the film was screened for them before its general release. Fukasaku stated that the Diet members had preconceived biases, making them unable to understand the points of the film. The film created a debate over government action on media violence. At one point, director Kinji Fukasaku gave a press statement directed at the age group of the film's characters, saying "you can sneak in, and I encourage you to do so." Many conservative politicians used the film to blame popular culture for a youth crime wave. Ilya Garger of TIME magazine said that Battle Royale received "free publicity" and received "box-office success usually reserved for cartoons and TV-drama spin-offs." The Japanese reaction to the film in the early 2000s has been compared to the British outrage over A Clockwork Orange in the early 1970s. Fukasaku stated that he felt discomfort with it even though publicity increased due to the controversy. Critics note the relation of Battle Royale to the increasingly extreme trend in Asian cinema and its similarity to reality television. For eleven years, the film was never officially released in the United States or Canada, except for screenings at various film festivals. The film was screened to a test audience in the U.S. during the early 2000s, not long after the Columbine High School massacre, resulting in a negative reaction to the film's content. According to the book Japanese Horror Cinema, "Conscious of the Columbine syndrome, which also influenced the reception of The Matrix (1999), much of the test audience for Battle Royale condemned the film for its 'mindless' and gratuitous violence in terms very reminiscent of the British attitude towards Sam Peckinpah's Straw Dogs (1971) on its initial release." No North American distribution agreement for the film had ever been reached due to myriad corporate and legal concerns on the parts of both the Japanese Toei Company and prospective North American studios, despite mutual interest. It was said in 2005 by a representative of a prospective U.S. distributor that Japanese executives from the Toei Company were advised by American lawyers who attended test screenings in the early 2000s that "they'd go to jail" had the film been mass-released in the United States at the time. In the company's best interests, Toei attached prohibitive rules, costs, and legal criteria to any possible North American distribution deal. Toei representative Hideyuki Baba stated that the reason for "withholding distribution" in North America was "due to the picture's contents and theme." A representative for a prospective US distributor criticised Toei for expecting a wide release rather than a limited art house run, noting that "in the US it will never get past the MPAA ratings board, and the major theater chains will never play it un-rated. If you cut it enough to get an R rating there'd be nothing left." In April 2013, the film was banned in Germany, but subsequently the ban was lifted following an objection by the German distributor Capelight Pictures. Battle Royale was released on December 16, 2000, in Japan. During the first weekend, it grossed (). It went on to domestically gross (). Over the next two years, the film was distributed to cinemas in 22 countries, across Asia, Australia, Europe, and South America (in addition to Mexico), gaining early cult film followings in France, the United Kingdom, Germany, Spain, and the Philippines. The film grossed $895,894 overseas in seven countries, bringing worldwide revenue to approximately in eight countries, equivalent to adjusted for inflation in 2018. The first showing in the US was at the Pacific Film Archive in Berkeley, California, in 2002. The original 113-minute version of the film began its first North American theatrical run at the Cinefamily Theater in Los Angeles on December 24, 2011 – 11 years after its original Japanese release. The planned 9-day run was extended another 6 days due to popular demand. Beginning in early 2012, the film has been publicly exhibited at screenings in many American universities, including those in Wisconsin, Oklahoma, Texas and Massachusetts, with a New York City run at the IFC Center that began on May 25, 2012. As of June 2012, it has been regularly showing at the Projection Booth Theatre, site of the former Gerrard Cinema in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The Cleveland Cinematheque also held a screening of the film on April 3, 2012. A special edition of the film was released after the original which has eight extra minutes of running time. Unusually, the extra material includes scenes newly filmed after the release of the original. Inserted scenes include (but are not limited to): Flashbacks to a basketball game which is used as a framework for the entire story., A flashback that expands on a likely contributor to Mitsuko Souma's mental illness or sociopathy. She comes home from school to find her mother drunk with a strange man, who tries to molest her. She then pushes him down the staircase to his death., Three epilogues (referred to as "requiems"). The first is an extension of the basketball scene, showing the students of Class 3-B winning their game. It also spotlights Mitsuko's apparent social anxiety and alienation from the classmates in 3-B. The second is a vision of Nobu telling Shuya to take care of Noriko (a replay of a hallucination seen earlier in the special version of the film). The third is a scene between Kitano and Noriko, who talk casually by a riverbank; parts of this scene (a dream sequence) also appear in the original version of the film, but with the dialogue muted whereas in the requiem it is audible and reveals a friendship or other relationship that may or may not have existed between Noriko and Kitano., Added shots of the lighthouse after the shoot-out., Added reaction shots in the classroom, and extensions to existing shots., Extra CGI throughout the film. The film was released to theaters in 3D in Japan on November 20, 2010. Fukasaku's son and the film's screenwriter, Kenta Fukasaku, oversaw the conversion. The 3D version was also screened at the Glasgow Film Festival on 24 February 2011. Anchor Bay Entertainment planned to release the 3D version in the United States sometime in 2011, but the release was cancelled. The creators of the sequel postponed the release of the DVD (originally scheduled for June 9, 2004) to later that year because of the Sasebo slashing, in which the killer had read Battle Royale. Arrow Video released the film on Blu-ray and DVD in a limited edition version in the United Kingdom on December 13, 2010, as a three-disc collector's edition set, featuring both cuts of the film. The DVD version was limited to 5,000 copies. The Blu-ray version was initially being released as limited to 5,000 copies but due to the large volume of pre-orders was increased to 10,000 copies. The limited edition Blu-ray is region-free, meaning it can play on Blu-ray players worldwide. The DVD is also region-free. For a long time, Toei refused to sell the film to a United States distributor, because Toei worried that the film would get involved in legal troubles in the United States. Eventually, Toei agreed to sell the film's United States rights to Anchor Bay Entertainment in 2010. An official DVD and Blu-ray edition of the film (and its sequel) was released in North America on March 20, 2012, by Anchor Bay Entertainment. The film is available in a standard edition featuring the two films and a 4-disc Complete Collection that features both the Special Edition (labelled the Director's Cut) and the theatrical version of the first film, the sequel, and a disc of behind-the-scenes material. Afterwards, Battle Royale and its sequel are available on Netflix, a major home-entertainment distributor in the United States, and it has been aired uncut on Showtime. Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 87% based on reviews from 46 critics, and an average rating of 7.54/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Battle Royale is a controversial and violent parable of adolescence, heightening teenage melodrama with life-or-death stakes." Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 81 out of 100 based on seven critics, indicating "universal acclaim." Robert Koehler of Variety commented, "Given the most basic characters to work with, the mostly teen cast attacks the material with frightening gusto, and Fujiwara dutifully invokes the voice of inner moral conflict. Production is exceedingly handsome and vigorous, offering no sign that Fukasaku is slowing down." He stated that, "returning to his roots as Japan's maestro of mayhem, Kinji Fukasaku has delivered" one of "his most outrageous and timely films", comparing it to "the outrage over youth violence" that Stanley Kubrick's A Clockwork Orange "generated in early-'70s Britain" and featuring some of "the most startling scenes of mayhem since the movies of the wild and bloody '70s." Jason Korsner of BBC News gave Battle Royale four out of five stars, stating that it is "a heart-stopping action film, teaching us the worthy lessons of discipline, teamwork, and determination, but wrapping them up in a deliberately provocative, shockingly violent package." BBC users gave the film five out of five stars. Almar Haflidason of BBC also gave the film five out of five stars. In a review for Empire, critic Kim Newman gave the film four stars out of five. He compared it to Lord of the Flies in how it makes audiences "wonder what they would do in the same situation", but wrote that Battle Royale gives "even harder choices for its school-uniformed characters." He concluded that, "Some will be uncomfortable or appalled, and the mix of humour and horror is uneasy, but this isn't a film you'll forget easily. And, seriously, what would you do?" The Guardian critic Peter Bradshaw gave the film four stars in September 2001, choosing it as the best film of the week. He praised Takeshi Kitano's performance as the teacher and some of the scenes as "a stunningly proficient piece of action film-making, plunging us into a world of delirium and fear." He notes that, among "the hail of bullets and the queasy gouts of blood, troubling narratives of yearning and sadness are played out. It is as if the violence of Battle Royale is not a satire of society at all, but simply a metaphor for the anguish of adolescent existence." He concluded that, while some "will find the explicit violence of this movie repulsive", it "is a film put together with remarkable confidence and flair. Its steely candour, and weird, passionate urgency make it compelling." Bryant Frazer of Deep Focus gave it a B+ rating and called it "a vicious take-off on reality TV that turns a high-school milieu dominated by cliques and childish relationships into a war zone." British critic Jonathan Ross stated that "if you want to catch a wildly original and super-cool slice of entertainment before it gets remade and ruined by the Americans, then I suggest you try hard not to miss it" and concluded that "it's a wildly imaginative example of just what can be achieved in a teen movie." In 2009, filmmaker Quentin Tarantino praised Battle Royale as the best film he had seen in the past two decades, stating that, "If there’s any movie that’s been made since I’ve been making movies that I wish I had made, it’s that one." There has been renewed interest in the film following its 2012 Blu-ray release in the United States. Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly rates the film as "A" grade, positing that examination of the students' different motives for survival or subversion of the Program is a "sick blast". A.O. Scott of The New York Times gave the film a positive review, stating "[the] expertly choreographed scenes of mayhem are at once comical and appalling, and [Fukasaku's] young cast embraces the melodramatic extremity of the story with impressive conviction", adding that Battle Royale "is in many ways a better movie [than The Hunger Games] and in any case a fascinating companion, drawn from a parallel cultural universe. It is a lot uglier and also, perversely, a lot more fun." Entertainment critic for the Cary Darling describes Battle Royale as "tense, tragic and timely... a modern- day horror story imbued with an electric sense of drama and dread." Alexandra Cavallo of the Boston Phoenix writes, "Battle Royale is The Hunger Games not diluted for young audiences" while giving the film three stars out of four. Jeffrey M. Anderson of Combustible Celluloid gave the film 4 out of 4 stars, calling it a "gloriously sick and twisted story" and claiming that it is "endlessly entertaining, by turns gory and hilarious, disturbing and exciting." In the Chicago Sun-Times, Roger Ebert's Australia correspondent Michael Mirasol praised Battle Royale for its "thoughtful characterisation" that is "lavished upon all the students" and concluded that it is an "intensely violent fable aimed at a young audience, but with true feeling, intelligence, and respect." Jake Mulligan of The Suffolk Voice gave it five out of five stars, stating that "the influence of "Royale" on works as disparate as "Kill Bill" and "The Hunger Games" cannot be measured" and describing Battle Royale as "Provocative, funny, violent, and aided by a script that somehow gives equal attention to most of the students while also displaying the well-thought out minutia behind the narrative." R.L. Shaffer of IGN gave the film a score of 8 out of 10, taking "a moment to thank The Hunger Games for reminding us how awesome Battle Royale really is" and concluding that Battle Royale is "a masterpiece of mayhem, violence and unfettered teen melodrama." J. Hurtado of Twitch Film noted that many "reviews of Battle Royale focus on the violence, which is extreme to be sure, and not so much on the humanity of the film." He stated that "cranking up that already elevated hormonal level of emotional hysteria by throwing these students into a real life-or-death situation is incredibly effective" and that "the story of Battle Royale is the story of those teenage years and just how wrong we all were about the extent of our emotional turmoil." DVD Talk gave the original theatrical cut of the film 4.5 out of 5 stars and 4 out of 5 for the Director's Cut, concluding that it gives "a glimpse into what might very well happen should the rules of society, such as they are, ever do crumble to the point where it's everyone for themselves. There's enough black humor here and enough tense action that the film never quite feels bleak or depressing (though it does come close) – but most importantly it makes you think." Devon Ashby of CraveOnline gave the film a score of 8.5 out of 10, referring to it as "Japanese legend Kinji Fukasaku’s adolescent shooting spree opus" and "a compassionate and technically accomplished masterpiece." Brent McKnight of PopMatters gave the film a score of 9 out of 10, describing it as "savage, sharp, satirical, and brutally funny" and "a bleak commentary on humanity and society." Film critics Robert Davis and Riccardo de los Rios praise the film's narrative structure. They comment that in adapting a story such as Battle Royale which requires a suspension of disbelief to go along with its “far- fetched” story Fukasaku instead turns conventional rules of screenwriting on its head. Instead of focusing on the detail of the premise of a near future where school kids kill one another “the filmmakers dispense with premise in a short series of title cards”. As the last film to be fully directed by Fukasaku, the Directory of World Cinema refers to Battle Royale as "perhaps the finest cinematic swansong ever conceived." Critics have often expressed the opinion that the film is a social commentary that is reflecting the issues of Japanese society towards the end of the 20th century. Some viewers see Battle Royale as a satire of the Japanese economy during the Lost Decade. Others view it as a criticism of the Japanese educational system, such as the issues of school violence and its failings to prepare students for the extremely competitive Japanese employment market that favors elitism, in which students must partake in fiercely competitive nationwide examinations in order to secure a spot into the more distinguished universities, as these will guarantee student placement into better careers. Other interpretations include the Japanese generational attitudes that are creating social, political and economic divides between the young and old. Fukasaku himself has stated: "The children who have grown up and witnessed what happened to the adults, their anxiety became heightened as well. So I set Battle Royale within this context of children versus adults." At the 2001 Japanese Academy Awards, Battle Royale was nominated for nine awards, including Picture of the Year and won three of them. The film was nominated for two awards from international film festivals but failed to win. In 2009, Quentin Tarantino listed Battle Royale as his favorite film released since he began directing in 1992. That same year, Moviefone included it in the top three of its "50 Best Movies of the Decade" list. Jon Condit of Dread Central called it "one of the best movies [he's] ever seen." Bloody Disgusting ranked the film fifteenth in its list of the "Top-20 Horror Film of the Decade", with the article calling the film "a go-for-broke extravaganza: fun, provocative, ultra-violent, and bound to arouse controversy (which it did)...the film [is] more than just an empty provocation – it builds character through action, a method all good filmmakers should seek to emulate." In 2010, Empire ranked Battle Royale #235 and #82 on their lists of "The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time" and "The 100 Best Films of World Cinema" respectively. Time magazine included the film in its list of Top 10 Ridiculously Violent Movies. In 2012, The Independent included it in its "10 best sports movies ever made" list. Complex magazine ranked it #47 in its list of The 50 Best Action Movies of All Time. Kinji Fukasaku, who directed the first film, began work on a sequel, entitled , but died of prostate cancer on January 12, 2003, after shooting only one scene with Takeshi Kitano. His son Kenta Fukasaku directed the rest of the film, which was released on May 18, 2003. Unlike the first film, the sequel is not adapted from a novel, but was based on an original screenplay written by Kenta Fukasaku. The plot revolves around the survivor Shuya Nanahara leading a terrorist rebellion, but was controversial for its provocative anti-American sentiments and criticised for being inferior to the original. In June 2006, Variety reported that New Line Cinema, with producers Neil Moritz and Roy Lee, intended to produce a new adaptation of Battle Royale. Several Web sites echoed the news, including Ain't It Cool News, which claimed the remake would be "an extremely Hard R – serious-minded Americanisation of BATTLE ROYALE." New Line tentatively set a release date of 2008. The next month, The New York Times reported on an Internet backlash against the remake. Through the article, Lee assured fans of his respect for the original work, claiming, "This is the one I'm going to be the most careful with." He stated that, despite earlier concerns, the film would not be toned down to PG or PG-13, the characters would remain young teenagers, and that it would draw elements equally from the novel, the original film, and the manga. The reporter noted "the hubbub...was at least slightly premature [as] New Line hasn't yet purchased the remake rights." Following the Virginia Tech massacre in April 2007, Lee claimed that prospects for the remake had been "seriously shaken". While he remained willing to proceed, he stated, "we might be a little more sensitive to some of the issues." The reporting article noted that New Line still had not secured remake rights – its spokeswoman claimed "no news" when asked about progress on any deal. Maclean's pointed out that the 2008 novel The Hunger Games, and its subsequent 2012 film adaptation, have similar themes. Although Hunger Games author Suzanne Collins maintains that she "had never heard of that book until [her] book was turned in", The New York Times reports that "the parallels are striking enough that Collins's work has been savaged on the blogosphere as a baldfaced ripoff" and that "there are enough possible sources for the plot line that the two authors might well have hit on the same basic setup independently." The 2012 film adaptation has also faced similar criticisms for similarities to Battle Royale. In March 2012, Roy Lee reported that a remake of Battle Royale would no longer be possible due to the release of The Hunger Games, stating, "Audiences would see it as just a copy of Games – most of them wouldn't know that ‘Battle Royale’ came first. It's unfair, but that's reality." However, he stated that he might return to the film in ten years to "develop a ‘Battle Royale movie for the next generation." During the summer of 2012, The CW had been in discussion with the Hollywood representatives about the possibility of turning Battle Royale into an American television show. According to a spokesperson, the talks were only preliminary, but if a deal could be reached, the network would acquire rights to Koushun Takami's underlying novel, then unpack and expand on it for an hour-long dramatic series. Joyce Jun, a Hollywood attorney representing U.S. rights to the title, stated that "there is no deal in place". A CW spokesman confirmed only there had been some discussion, but declined to comment further. The film, especially with its DVD releases, drew a large global cult following and became a cultural phenomenon. The film has been highly influential in global popular culture, inspiring numerous works of fiction in a number of different media across the world. Since the film's release, the term "battle royale" has been redefined to refer to a fictional narrative genre and/or mode of entertainment inspired by the film, where a select group of people are instructed to kill each off until there is a triumphant survivor. The "battle royale" phenomenon has become especially popular in the 2010s. Since its release, the film has had an influence on filmmakers such as Quentin Tarantino, most notably his Kill Bill films; the character Gogo Yubari, played by Chiaki Kuriyama, resembles the character she plays in Battle Royale, Takako Chigusa. Battle Royale has also been referenced in the 2004 zombie comedy film Shaun of the Dead, where Edgar Wright and Simon Pegg made sure a big Battle Royale poster is prominently displayed in Shaun’s living room. Despite not being officially released in the United States for a long time, Battle Royale has often been referenced in American pop culture, ranging from Tarantino's films to the rock band The Flaming Lips' use of footage from the film as a backdrop for its Yoshimi Battles the Pink Robots tour, along with references in Hollywood films such as Jason Reitman's Thank You for Smoking (2005) and Juno (2007) and American television shows such as Lost and Community. In Wrong Turn 2: Dead End one of the characters (Matthew Currie Holmes as Michael "M" Epstein) wears a Battle Royale Shirt. Maggie Lee of Reuters describes Battle Royale as the "film that pioneered the concept of the teen death game", citing its influence on films such as Kaiji (2009) and Hideo Nakata's The Incite Mill (2010), both of which starred Tatsuya Fujiwara (who played Battle Royale's protagonist Shuya Nanahara) in the leading roles. V.A. Musetto of the New York Post compared it to The Condemned (2007), which the critic called "a bad rip- off" of Battle Royale as well as The Most Dangerous Game. Critics have also noted the influence of Battle Royale on other films, such as the 2008 film Kill Theory, the 2009 film The Tournament, and The Hunger Games trilogy. Battle Royale has also drawn comparisons to films such as Gamer (2009), Kick- Ass (2010), and The Belko Experiment (2016). Other examples of "battle royale" films include The Purge series (2013), Assassination Nation (2018), and Ready or Not (2019). In Japan, the film established the battle royale genre of manga and anime, revolving around a similar narrative premise. Along with the Battle Royale manga (2000 debut), other examples of the genre include Basilisk (2003 debut), Bokurano (2003 debut), the Fate/stay night franchise (2004 debut), Future Diary (2006 debut), Deadman Wonderland (2007 debut), the Danganronpa franchise (2010 debut), Magical Girl Raising Project (2012 debut), and the Death Parade series (2013 debut). Battle Royale has also drawn comparisons to the Gantz franchise of manga (2000), anime (2004) and films (2011). Btooom (2009 debut) features a variation of the battle royale theme. The film has influenced the creation of the Marvel Comics series Avengers Arena. The series' logo also mirrors that of the logo used in the Battle Royale movie. The genre of battle royale video games, in which players compete to be the last one standing in a shrinking battlefield, was inspired by and took its name from the film. The genre became popular in the mid-2010s, and includes games such as ARMA 3, Day Z, , PlayerUnknown's Battlegrounds, Fortnite Battle Royale, Knives Out, Rules of Survival, Garena Free Fire, Apex Legends, Realm Royale and s "Blackout" game mode. The film's title also refers to the battle royale genre of visual novels, revolving around a similar narrative premise. Examples include the Fate/stay night series (2004 debut), Dies irae (2007), and the Zero Escape series (2009 debut). The Danganronpa series (2010 debut) is also notably influenced by the film, with its scenario writer Kazutaka Kodaka citing the film as an influence. Battle Royale has also drawn comparisons to Square Enix's The World Ends with You (2007). Cinema of Japan, List of cult films Review and analysis of the Battle Royale film, Battle Royale 3D Official Website

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Great Britain competed at the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea, from 9 to 25 February 2018, with 58 competitors in 11 sports. They won five medals in total, one gold and four bronze, ranking 19th in the medal table. There were a number of notable firsts for Great Britain at the Winter Olympics: Day 8 (17 February) was the most successful day for Great Britain at any Winter Olympics, with three medals won., Lizzy Yarnold was the first British athlete to retain a Winter Olympic title and, in doing so, became Great Britain's most successful Winter Olympic athlete by surpassing the single gold and bronze medals won by Jeannette Altwegg, Christopher Dean and Jayne Torvill., Yarnold and Laura Deas were the first British athletes to win medals in the same event at a Winter games., Izzy Atkin won Great Britain's first ever medal on skis., On Day 15 (24 February) Great Britain won a fifth medal at a single Winter Olympics for the first time. The following is the list of number of competitors participating at the Games per sport/discipline. On 9 January 2018, the funding body UK Sport announced their medal targets for Team GB at the 2018 Winter Olympic Games in Pyeongchang with the target to win at least five medals which if achieved would be a record-breaking haul for a Winter Olympic Games. Although the target was set at three medals the funding body predicted that Great Britain had the potential to win as many as ten medals, this total was not widely expected to be reached. In the Winter Olympic Cycle running from 2014 to 2018 the UK government body UK Sport allocated a record budget of over £28 million to fund Team GB for the individual athletes as well as the bobsleigh and curling teams for the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang. The sports receiving the highest funding were bobsleigh, curling and skeleton, whilst speed skating, ski and snowboard, and figure skating also received funding, but all other winter sports where British athletes were competing did not receive any funding from the body. Mixed On 22 January 2018, the British Olympic Association announced Amanda Lightfoot as the selection for their solitary representative in the Biathlon competitions. Lightfoot finished 67th in the sprint event, failing to qualify for the pursuit in which only the top 60 sprint athletes took part. Based on their rankings in the 2017-18 World Cup, Great Britain qualified 4 sleds. Sam Blanchet and Montell Douglas were travelling reserves Andrew Musgrave's seventh place in the men's 30 km skiathlon was the best performance by a Briton in an Olympic cross country event. Distance Sprint Great Britain qualified a men's and women's team for a total of 10 athletes (five of each gender). The teams were officially announced on 22 June 2017. Outside of the Olympic Games, Great Britain competes under the flags of its constituent home nations, Scotland, England and Wales (Northern Irish players compete for a combined Ireland); Scotland results are treated as Great Britain for the purposes of Olympic qualification. Summary Based on results from the 2016 and 2017 World Championships obtained by Scotland, Great Britain qualified a men's team, consisting of five athletes, as one of the seven highest ranked nations. Team Round-robin Great Britain had a bye in draws 4, 7 and 11 Draw 1 Wednesday 14 February, 09:05 Draw 2 Wednesday 14 February, 20:05 Draw 3 Thursday 15 February, 14:05 Draw 5 Friday 16 February, 20:05 Draw 6 Saturday 17 February, 14:05 Draw 8 Sunday 18 February, 20:05 Draw 9 Monday 19 February, 14:05 Draw 10 Tuesday 20 February, 09:05 Draw 12 Wednesday 21 February, 14:05 Tiebreaker Having finished tied for fourth with the same record in the round robin stage the Great Britain men's team faced a tiebreaker against Switzerland for a place in the semifinals. Thursday February 22, 9:05 Based on results from the 2016 and 2017 World Women's Curling Championships, Great Britain qualified a women's team, consisting of five athletes, as one of the seven highest ranked nations. Team Round-robin Great Britain had a bye in draws 4, 8 and 12 Draw 1 Wednesday 14 February, 14:05 Draw 2 Thursday 15 February, 09:05 Draw 3 Thursday 15 February, 20:05 Draw 5 Saturday 17 February, 09:05 Draw 6 Saturday 17 February, 20:05 Draw 7 Sunday 18 February, 14:05 Draw 9 Monday 19 February, 20:05 Draw 10 Tuesday 20 February, 14:05 Draw 11 Wednesday 21 February, 09:05 Semifinal Friday 23 February, 20:05 Bronze Medal Game Saturday 24 February, 20:05 Aerials Halfpipe Ski cross Slopestyle On 18 January 2018, the British Olympic Association announced the selection of the athletes who will compete for Team GB in the luge in Pyeongchang. American-born Adam Rosen competed in the luge for Great Britain in his third Olympics. Great Britain qualified five short track speed skaters (two male and three female) based on results at the 2017–18 ISU Short Track Speed Skating World Cup. Based on the world rankings, Great Britain qualified 4 sleds. Freestyle Snowboard cross Canada competed at the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea, from February 9 to 25, 2018. It was the nation's 23rd appearance at the Winter Olympics, having competed at every Games since their inception in 1924. Canada competed in all sports disciplines, except Nordic combined. The chef de mission was Isabelle Charest, who was appointed in February 2017. On January 16, 2018, figure skaters Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir were announced as the country's flag bearers during the opening ceremony. This was the first time two athletes were named as Canada's opening ceremony flag bearer. On February 24, 2018, short track speed skater Kim Boutin was named the flag bearer for the closing ceremony. Instead of setting a specific medal count as a target, the Canadian Olympic Committee aimed "to contend for No. 1" in the medal count. Private data analytics company Gracenote projected that the Canadian team would win 28 medals. Canada finished with 11 gold medals and 29 overall (ranking 3rd in both categories). This was the most successful Canadian performance in terms of overall medals, surpassing the 26 won at the 2010 Winter Olympics. For the first time since its official introduction at the 1998 Winter Olympics, Canada failed to medal in men's and women's curling, but did win gold in mixed doubles curling, a category making its Olympic debut. On Day 2 of the Games, Mark McMorris won the bronze medal in the men's slopestyle. This was eleven months after the snowboarder ended up in a coma. Pairs skater Eric Radford became the first openly gay man to win a gold medal at any Winter Olympics, as part of the Canadian team that won the team figure skating competition. A corner of Canada Olympic House was set aside as Pride House for the duration of the Olympics. Alex Gough won Canada's first ever permanent luge medal on February 13. She had been part of the 2014 luge relay team which briefly won a previous Olympic bronze due to a Russian doping disqualification, but that finding had been overturned on appeal. On February 23, Canada broke its record for most ever Winter Olympic medals, previously at 26, with figure skater Kaetlyn Osmond winning the 27th medal. A day before the closing ceremony, on February 24, Canada won its 28th medal when Sebastien Toutant took gold in the first ever "big air" competition in snowboarding. That medal was Canada's 500th Olympic medal (not counting two medals (gold and silver) at the 1906 Olympic Games). Canada maintained its record for the most gold medals at a single Games—14 at Vancouver 2010—and now shares the honor with Norway and Germany, which equalled that mark at these Games. The following is the list of number of competitors participating at the Games per sport/discipline. Canada qualified a total of 15 male and female athletes for alpine skiing. However they declined one spot. On January 31, 2018 Alpine Canada announced that Erik Guay was not able to return to health due to continuing severe back pain. Therefore, he will not compete at the upcoming Winter Olympics. Men Women Mixed Based on their Nations Cup rankings in the 2016–17 Biathlon World Cup, Canada qualified five men and five women. The official team of ten athletes was named on January 16, 2018. Men Women Mixed Canada qualified a full team of three sleds in the two-man, four-man and women's bobsleigh competitions each. The team will consist of 18 athletes, and also marked the largest bobsleigh team the country has ever sent to the Winter Olympics. The official team was named on January 24, 2018. Men \- Sam Giguere and Joey Nemet will serve as the team's alternates. Women \- Cynthia Appiah and Kristen Bujnowski will serve as the team's alternates. Canada qualified a total of 8 male and female athletes for cross-country skiing and receive three additional quota places based on the reallocation process. Seven male and four female competitors were announced on January 29. Distance Men Women Sprint Men Women Canada qualified a full team of 12 athletes (6 men and 6 women). The country will compete in all three events, including the debuting mixed doubles event. The teams and the alternates for the men's and women's tournaments were announced officially on January 8, 2017. Summary Canada qualified a men's team by earning enough points in the last two World Curling Championships. The Olympic team was decided at the 2017 Canadian Olympic Curling Trials. The Canadian team consists of Kevin Koe, Marc Kennedy, Brent Laing, Ben Hebert, and Scott Pfeifer. Round-robin Canada has a bye in draws 4, 8 and 11. Draw 1 Wednesday, 14 February, 09:05 Draw 2 Wednesday, 14 February, 20:05 Draw 3 Thursday, 15 February, 14:05 Draw 5 Friday, 16 February, 20:05 Draw 6 Saturday, 17 February, 14:05 Draw 7 Sunday, 18 February, 09:05 Draw 9 Monday, 19 February, 14:05 Draw 10 Tuesday, 20 February, 09:05 Draw 12 Wednesday, 21 February, 14:05 Semifinal Thursday, 22 February, 20:05 Bronze Medal Game Friday, 23 February, 15:35 Canada qualified a women's team by earning enough points in the last two World Curling Championships. The Olympic team was decided at the 2017 Canadian Olympic Curling Trials. The Canadian team consists of Rachel Homan, Emma Miskew, Joanne Courtney, Lisa Weagle, and Cheryl Bernard. Round-robin Canada has a bye in draws 1, 5 and 9. Draw 2 Thursday, 15 February, 09:05 Draw 3 Thursday, 15 February, 20:05 Draw 4 Friday, 16 February, 14:05 Draw 6 Saturday, 17 February, 20:05 Draw 7 Sunday, 18 February, 14:05 Draw 8 Monday, 19 February, 09:05 Draw 10 Tuesday, 20 February, 14:05 Draw 11 Wednesday, 21 February, 09:05 Draw 12 Wednesday, 21 February, 20:05 Canada qualified a mixed doubles team by earning enough points in the last two World Mixed Doubles Curling Championships. The Olympic team was decided at the 2018 Canadian Mixed Doubles Curling Olympic Trials. Former Olympic gold medallists John Morris and Kaitlyn Lawes won the trials, and were the mixed doubles representative for Canada. Draw 1 Thursday, February 8, 9:05 Draw 2 Thursday, February 8, 20:04 Draw 3 Friday, February 9, 8:35 Draw 4 Friday, February 9, 13:35 Draw 5 Saturday, February 10, 9:05 Draw 6 Saturday, February 10, 20:04 Draw 7 Sunday, February 11, 9:05 Semifinal Monday, February 12, 9:05 Final Tuesday, February 13, 20:05 Based on placements at the 2017 World Figure Skating Championships in Helsinki, Finland, Canada qualified 17 athletes (8 male and 9 female) across all four individual and pairs events. This meant Canada qualified the most figure skaters out of all nations. The team was announced after the conclusion of the 2018 Canadian Figure Skating Championships. Canada also qualified in the team event after finishing in first place in the overall qualification rankings. Individual Mixed Team trophy Aerials Halfpipe Moguls Ski cross Slopestyle Canada qualified a men's and women's team for a total of 48 athletes (25 men and 23 women). Summary Canada men's national ice hockey team qualified by finishing 1st in the 2015 IIHF World Ranking. The official roster of the games was announced on January 11, 2018. The team did not include any of Canada's National Hockey League players as the league decided to not participate at the games. This meant about 300 of the country's top players did not make the team. Roster Preliminary round Quarterfinal Semifinal Bronze medal game Canada women's national ice hockey team qualified by finishing 2nd in the 2016 IIHF World Ranking. Roster Preliminary round Semifinal Final Based on results of the 2017–18 Luge World Cup, Canada qualified eight athletes and a relay team. The team consists of three athletes each in the individual events and a doubles sled. The team was officially named on December 20, 2017. Men Women Mixed team relay Canada named its team of short track speed skaters in August 2017. Later in 2017 after the conclusion of the 2017–18 ISU Short Track Speed Skating World Cup, Canada qualified a full team of ten athletes (five per gender), allowing all athletes named to the team to compete. On January 25, 2018, Speed Skating Canada officially unveiled the team and which events each athlete would compete in. Men Women Canada qualified the maximum team size of three men and three women. The team was officially announced on January 24, 2018. Canada qualified two ski jumpers, one male and one female. The team was officially announced on January 24, 2018. Canada qualified 21 athletes (ten men and eleven women), however returned its only quota for the women's parallel giant slalom, meaning only 20 athletes were officially named to the team (ten per gender). Canada's slopestyle and big air team of seven athletes was named on January 9, 2018. Canada's halfpipe, snowboard cross and alpine team of thirteen athletes was named on January 25, 2018. On January 30, 2018 Canada received an additional spot in men's snowboard cross, allowing Éliot Grondin to compete as the fourth Canadian in this event. Freestyle Men Women Parallel Snowboard cross Canada earned the following quotas at the conclusion of the four World Cup's used for qualification. Five athletes were pre-selected for the games after their results from the World Cup (Alex Boisvert-Lacroix, Ivanie Blondin, Ted- Jan Bloemen, Olivier Jean and Keri Morrison). The rest of the team will be named after the Canadian trials held in Calgary from January 4 to 9, 2018. The official team was named on January 10, 2018. The team consists of 19 athletes (10 men and 9 women), which is one less than the maximum the country could have sent to the games. Canada also did not nominate a third skater in the women's 500 and 1000 metres events. Men Women Mass start Team pursuit Canada at the 2018 Winter Paralympics, Canada at the 2018 Commonwealth Games, Canada at the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics Curling was included in the program of the inaugural Winter Olympic Games in 1924 in Chamonix although the results of that competition were not considered official by the International Olympic Committee until 2006. Curling was a demonstration sport at the 1932 Games, and then again after a lengthy absence in 1988 and 1992. The sport was finally added to the official program for the 1998 Nagano Games. Until 2018, men's and women's events were contested. An additional event, mixed doubles, was rejected for 2010 because the Olympic Programme Commission felt it had not developed enough, but was approved for the 2018 Winter Olympics at an IOC Executive Board meeting in June 2015. Since the 1998 Olympics, Canada has generally dominated the sport with their men's teams winning gold in 2006, 2010, and 2014, and silver in 1998 and 2002. The women's team won gold in 1998 and 2014, a silver in 2010, and a bronze in 2002 and 2006. Their mixed doubles team won gold in 2018. The related ice stock sport (Eisstockschießen in German) was a demonstration event in 1936 and 1964. These events are not considered additional demonstrations of curling. • = official event, (d) = demonstration event The final placement for each team in each tournament is shown in the following tables. Men's tournament Note: The three medal winners in 1924 were the only teams entered that year. Women's tournament Mixed doubles tournament Standings in curling medals won as of the 2018 Winter Olympics. List of Olympic venues in curling, Wheelchair curling at the Winter Paralympics, Ice stock sport at the Winter Olympics, a similar sport, Curling at the Youth Olympic Games Olympic information at the World Curling Federation's site

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Donald "Dee" Margo (born February 4, 1952) is an American businessman who is the 54th mayor of El Paso, Texas. On June 10, 2017, he became the mayor-elect of El Paso after winning the runoff part of the city's mayoral election of 2017 against another Republican businessman, David Saucedo. Margo served a term in the Texas House of Representatives from 2011 to 2013, representing the 78th district, which covers parts of El Paso County, having defeated Texas state representative Joe Moody. Moody defeated Margo in a rematch in 2012. Margo is running for re-election, against former mayor Oscar Leeser in 2020. Donald Margo accepted a football scholarship to Vanderbilt University in 1970 and graduated in 1974; afterwards Margo moved to El Paso in 1977 from Nashville, Tennessee to join his father-in-law at John D. Williams Company (JDW). In February 1981, six days after Margo’s 29th birthday, his father-in- law suffered a fatal heart attack. Margo had purchased JDW from the estate, and expanded the company from six employees to 70 in the span of 30 years. Margo has been a resident of El Paso for over 40 years. He and his wife Adair married on August 21, 1976 and moved to El Paso in March 1977, where they raised their sons. Their granddaughters are fifth-generation El Pasoans. List of mayors of the 50 largest cities in the United States Donald Margo - BallotPedia District 29 of the Texas Senate is a senatorial district that currently serves a portion of El Paso county in the U.S. state of Texas. The current Senator from District 29 is José R. Rodríguez. Election history of District 29 from 1992. Suzie Azar (née Suzanne Schmeck, born 1946) is a politician, aviator and former mayor of El Paso, Texas. Azar was the first woman to serve as mayor in El Paso. Azar lives in Central El Paso. She is also a flight instructor and owner of a fixed-base operator and flight school; and is a member of the women pilots' organization the Ninety-Nines. Azar has been inducted into the El Paso Women's Hall of Fame. Azar was born in Bay City, Michigan in 1946 and as a young person was a member of the Civil Air Patrol. She moved to El Paso in 1970 and attended the University of Texas at El Paso (UTEP). Azar was sworn into office as mayor of El Paso in 1989. During her campaign, she was called a "cheerleader" by her opponent, and Azar turned the intended insult to "her advantage, campaigning with pom poms and calling herself an unabashed cheerleader for El Paso". She won the campaign for mayor with a 65% majority vote. Suzie Azar on her life experiences (video)

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A state of emergency in India refers to a period of governance under an altered constitutional setup that can be proclaimed by the President of India, when they perceives grave threats to the nation from internal and external sources or from financial situations of crisis. Under the advice of the cabinet of ministers and using the powers vested in him/her largely by Part XVIII of the Constitution of India, the President can overrule many provisions of the constitution, which guarantee fundamental rights to the citizens of India and acts governing devolution of powers to the states which form the federation. In the history of independent India, a state of emergency has been declared thrice. The first instance was between 26 October 1962 to 10 January 1968 during the India-China war, when "the security of India" was declared as being "threatened by external aggression". The second instance was between 3 December 1971 to 21 March 1977, which was originally proclaimed during the Indo-Pakistan war. It was later extended along with the third proclamation between 25 June 1975 to 21 March 1977 under controversial circumstances of political instability under Indira Gandhi's prime ministership, when emergency was declared on the basis of "internal disturbance", but this term was too vague and had a wider connotation and hence 44th amendment act 1978 substituted the words "internal disturbance" for "armed rebellion" ". The phrase Emergency period used loosely, when referring to the political history of India, often refers to the third and the most controversial of the three occasions. The President can declare three types of emergencies — national, state and financial emergency. Originally at the beginning, National emergency could be declared on the basis of "external aggression or war" and "internal disturbance" in the whole of India or a part of its territory under Article 352. Such an emergency was declared in India in 1962 war (China war), 1971 war (Pakistan war), and 1975 internal disturbance (declared by Indira Gandhi). But after 44th amendment act 1978, National Emergency can only be declared on grounds of "External aggression or war", also called as External Emergency & on the ground of "armed rebellion", also called as Internal Emergency. The President can declare such an emergency only on the basis of a written request by the Cabinet headed by the Prime Minister. Such a proclamation must be laid before both houses of Parliament and the state of emergency expires after one month unless approved within that time by both houses sitting and voting separately. However, if the Lok Sabha (the lower house) has been dissolved or dissolution takes place in the state of emergency, and the Rajya Sabha approves of the state of emergency, the deadline for the Lok Sabha is extended until thirty days after that house reconstituted. According to Article 352(6), approval by either house requires a special majority: those in favour of the motion must be two thirds of those present and voting, and amount to a majority of the entire membership of that house. A Parliamentary resolution extends the state of emergency for up to six months, and it can be extended indefinitely by further resolutions in six-monthly increments. During a national emergency, many Fundamental Rights of Indian citizens can be suspended. The six freedoms under Right to Freedom are automatically suspended. By contrast, the Right to Life and Personal Liberty cannot be suspended according to the original Constitution. In January 1977, during the emergency declared controversially by Indira Gandhi, the government decided to suspend even the Right to Life and Personal Liberty by dispensing with Habeas corpus. Justice Hans Raj Khanna defended the Right to Life and asked: "Life is also mentioned in Article 21 and would Government argument extend to it also?". The Attorney General observed: "Even if life was taken away illegally, courts are helpless". A national emergency modifies the federal system of government to a unitary one by granting Parliament the power to make laws on the 66 subjects of the State List (which contains subjects on which the state governments can make laws). Also, all state money bills are referred to the Parliament for its approval. During an emergency, the term of the Lok Sabha can be successively extended by intervals of up to one year, but not beyond six months after the state of emergency has been revoked. A state of emergency can be declared in any state of India under article 356 on the recommendation of the governor of the state. Every state in India except two states, Chhattisgarh and Telangana has been under a state of emergency at some point of time or the other. The state of emergency is commonly known as 'President's Rule'. If the President is satisfied, based on the report of the Governor of the concerned state or from other sources, that the governance in a state cannot be carried out according to the provisions in the Constitution, he/she may declare an emergency in the state. Such an emergency must be approved by the Parliament within a period of two months. It is imposed for an initial period of six months and can last for a maximum period of three years with repeated parliamentary approval every six months. In case of Jammu & Kashmir, first there should be a Governor's rule for 6 months (under section 92 of Jammu & Kashmir constitution) then only President rule can follow. The 42nd amendment act of 1976 extended the initial time duration of state emergency from 6 months to 1 year. Subsequently, 44th CAA 1978 restored the 1-year period back to 6 months. Originally, the maximum period of operation of state emergency was 3 years. This 3-year period was divided into 1 year of ordinary period and 2 years of extra ordinary period for which certain conditions are to be fulfilled. Therefore, from now on after every 1 year Parliament needs to approve the same. If the emergency has to be extended for more than three years, it can only be done by a constitutional amendment, as has happened in Punjab and Jammu and Kashmir. During such an emergency, the President can take over the entire work of the executive, and the Governor administers the state in the name of the President. The Legislative Assembly can be dissolved or may remain in suspended animation. The Parliament makes laws on the 66 subjects of the state list (see National emergency for explanation). All money bills have to be referred to the Parliament for approval. In this occasion ministers of state legislature do not perform actions in state. State of Emergency law The president of India is the ceremonial head of state of India and the commander-in-chief of the Indian Armed Forces. The president is indirectly elected by an electoral college comprising the Parliament of India (both houses) and the legislative assemblies of each of India's states and territories, who themselves are all directly elected. Although the of the Constitution of India states that the president can exercise his powers directly or by subordinate authority, with few exceptions, all of the executive powers vested in the president are, in practice, exercised by the prime minister (a subordinate authority) with the help of the Council of Ministers. The president is bound by the constitution to act on the advice of the prime minister and cabinet as long as the advice is not violating the constitution. India achieved independence from the British on 15 August 1947, initially as a dominion within the Commonwealth of Nations with George VI as king, represented in the country by a governor-general. Still, following this, the Constituent Assembly of India, under the leadership of B.R.Ambedkar, undertook the process of drafting a completely new constitution for the country. The Constitution of India was eventually enacted on 26 November 1949 and came into force on 26 January 1950, making India a republic. The offices of monarch and governor-general were replaced by the new office of President of India, with Rajendra Prasad as its first incumbent. The Indian constitution accords with the president, the responsibility and authority to defend and protect the Constitution of India and its rule of law. Invariably, any action taken by the executive or legislature entities of the constitution shall become law only after the president's assent. The president shall not accept any actions of the executive or legislature which are unconstitutional. The president is the foremost, most empowered and prompt defender of the constitution (Article 60), who has pre-emptive power for ensuring constitutionality in the actions of the executive or legislature. The role of the judiciary in upholding the Constitution of India is the second line of defence in nullifying any unconstitutional actions of the executive and legislative entities of the Indian Union. The primary duty of the president is to preserve, protect and defend the constitution and the law of India as made part of his oath (Article 60 of Indian constitution). The president is the common head of all independent constitutional entities. All his actions, recommendations (Article 3, Article 111, Article 274, etc.) and supervisory powers (Article 74(2), Article 78C, Article 108, Article 111, etc.) over the executive and legislative entities of India shall be used in accordance to uphold the constitution. There is no bar on the actions of the president to contest in the court of law. Legislative power is constitutionally vested by the Parliament of India of which the president is the head, to facilitate the lawmaking process per the constitution (Article 78, Article 86, etc.). The president summons both the houses (The House of the People and 'The Council of States') of the parliament and prorogues them. He can dissolve the Lok Sabha. The president inaugurates parliament by addressing it after the general elections and also at the beginning of the first session every year per Article 87(1). The presidential address on these occasions is generally meant to outline the new policies of the government. All bills passed by the parliament can become laws only after receiving the assent of the president per . After a bill is presented to him, the president shall declare either that he assents to the Bill, or that he withholds his assent from it. As a third option, he can return a bill to parliament, if it is not a money bill, for reconsideration. President may be of the view that a particular bill passed under the legislative powers of parliament is violating the constitution, he can send back the bill with his recommendation to pass the bill under the constituent powers of parliament following the procedure. When, after reconsideration, the bill is passed accordingly and presented to the president, with or without amendments, the president cannot withhold his assent from it. The president can also withhold his assent to a bill when it is initially presented to him (rather than return it to parliament) thereby exercising a pocket veto on the advice of prime minister or council of ministers per if it is inconsistent to the constitution. Article 143 gave power to the president to consult the supreme court about the constitutional validity of an issue. The president shall assent to constitutional amendment bills without power to withhold the bills per . When either of the two Houses of the Parliament of India is not in session, and if the government feels the need for an immediate procedure, the president can promulgate ordinances which have the same force and effect as an act passed by parliament under its legislative powers. These are in the nature of interim or temporary legislation and their continuance is subject to parliamentary approval. Ordinances remain valid for no more than six weeks from the date the parliament is convened unless approved by it earlier. Under , the president as the upholder of the constitution shall be satisfied that immediate action is mandatory as advised by the union cabinet and he is confident that the government commands majority support in the parliament needed for the passing of the ordinance into an act and parliament can be summoned to deliberate on the passing of the ordinance as soon as possible. The promulgated ordinance is treated as an act of parliament when in force and it is the responsibility of the president to withdraw the ordinance as soon as the reasons for promulgation of the ordinance are no longer applicable. Bringing laws in the form of ordinances has become a routine matter by the government and president, but the provisions made in Article 123 are meant for mitigating unusual circumstances where immediate action is inevitable when the extant provisions of the law are inadequate. Re-promulgation of an ordinance after failing to get approval within the stipulated time of both houses of parliament is an unconstitutional act by the president. The president should not incorporate any matter in an ordinance which violates the constitution or requires an amendment to the constitution. The president should take moral responsibility when an ordinance elapses automatically or is not approved by the parliament or violates the constitution. Per , the executive power of the country is vested in the president and is exercised by president either directly or through officers subordinate to him in accordance with the constitution. When parliament thinks fit it may accord additional executive powers to the president per which may be further delegated by the president to the governors of states per . Union cabinet with prime minister as its head, should aid and advice the president in performing his functions. Per Article 74 (2), the council of ministers or prime minister are not accountable legally to the advice tendered to the president but it is the sole responsibility of the president to ensure compliance with the constitution in performing his duties. President or his subordinate officers is bound by the provisions of the constitution notwithstanding any advice by union cabinet. Per , it is the duty of the president to enforce the decrees of the supreme court. The primary duty of the president is to preserve, protect and defend the constitution and the law of India per . The president appoints the Chief Justice of India and other judges on the advice of the chief justice. He dismisses the judges if and only if the two Houses of the parliament pass resolutions to that effect by a two-thirds majority of the members present. The Indian government's chief legal adviser, Attorney General of India, is appointed by the president of India under Article 76(1) and holds office during the pleasure of the president. If the president considers a question of law or a matter of public importance has arisen, he can also ask for the advisory opinion of the supreme court per . Per , the president can ask the attorney general to attend the parliamentary proceedings and report to him any unlawful functioning if any. The president appoints as prime minister, the person most likely to command the support of the majority in the Lok Sabha (usually the leader of the majority party or coalition). the president then appoints the other members of the Council of Ministers, distributing portfolios to them on the advice of the prime minister. The Council of Ministers remains in power at the 'pleasure' of the president. The president appoints 12 members of the Rajya Sabha from amongst persons who have special knowledge or practical experience in respect of such matters as literature, science, art and social service. The president may nominate not more than two members of Anglo Indian community as Lok Sabha members per Governors of states are also appointed by the president who shall work at the pleasure of the president. Per , the president is empowered to dismiss a governor who has violated the constitution in his acts. The president is responsible for making a wide variety of appointments. These include: The chief justice and other judges of the Supreme Court of India and state/union territory high courts., The Chief Minister of the National Capital Territory of Delhi (Article 239 AA 5 of the constitution)., The Comptroller and Auditor General., The Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners., The Chairman and other Members of the Union Public Service Commission., The Attorney General., Ambassadors and High Commissioners to other countries (only through the list of names given by the prime minister)., Officers of the All India Services (IAS, IPS and IFoS), and other Central Civil Services in Group 'A'. A money bill can be introduced in the parliament only with the president's recommendation., The president lays the Annual Financial Statement, i.e. the Union budget, before the parliament., The president can take advances out of the Contingency Fund of India to meet unforeseen expenses., The president constitutes a Finance commission after every five years to recommend the distribution of the taxes between the centre and the States. All international treaties and agreements are negotiated and concluded on behalf of the president. However, in practice, such negotiations are usually carried out by the prime minister along with his Cabinet (especially the Foreign Minister). Also, such treaties are subject to the approval of the parliament. The president represents India in international forums and affairs where such a function is chiefly ceremonial. The president may also send and receive diplomats, i.e. the officers from the Indian Foreign Service. The president is the first citizen of the country. The president is the Supreme Commander of the Indian Armed Forces. The president can declare war or conclude peace, on the advice of the Union Council of Ministers headed by the prime minister. All important treaties and contracts are made in the president's name. As mentioned in of the Indian constitution, the president is empowered with the powers to grant pardons in the following situations: Punishment is for an offence against Union law., Punishment is by a military court., A sentence that is of death. The decisions involving pardoning and other rights by the president are independent of the opinion of the prime minister or the Lok Sabha majority. In most cases, however, the president exercises his executive powers on the advice of the prime minister and the cabinet. The president can declare three types of emergencies: national, state and financial, under articles 352, 356 & 360 in addition to promulgating ordinances under article 123. A national emergency can be declared in the whole of India or a part of its territory for causes of war or armed rebellion or an external aggression. Such an emergency was declared in India in 1962 (Indo-China war), 1971 (Indo- Pakistan war), and 1975 to 1977 (declared by Indira Gandhi). Under of the India constitution, the president can declare such an emergency only on the basis of a written request by the cabinet of ministers headed by the prime minister. Such a proclamation must be approved by the parliament with an at least two-thirds majority within one month. Such an emergency can be imposed for six months. It can be extended by six months by repeated parliamentary approval-there is no maximum duration. In such an emergency, Fundamental Rights of Indian citizens can be suspended. The six freedoms under Right to Freedom are automatically suspended. However, the Right to Life and Personal Liberty cannot be suspended (). The president can make laws on the 66 subjects of the State List (which contains subjects on which the state governments can make laws). Also, all money bills are referred to the president for approval. The term of the Lok Sabha can be extended by a period of up to one year, but not so as to extend the term of parliament beyond six months after the end of the declared emergency. National Emergency has been proclaimed 3 times in India till date. It was declared first in 1962 by President Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, during the Sino-Indian War. This emergency lasted through the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 and up to 1968. It was revoked in 1968. The second emergency in India was proclaimed in 1971 by President V. V. Giri on the eve of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. The first two emergencies were in the face of external aggression and War. They were hence external emergencies. Even as the second emergency was in progress, another internal emergency was proclaimed by President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, with Indira Gandhi as prime minister in 1975. In 1977, the second and the third emergencies were together revoked. If the president is not fully satisfied, on the basis of the report of the governor of the concerned state or from other sources that the governance in a state cannot be carried out according to the provisions in the constitution, he can proclaim under Article 356 a state of emergency in the state. Such an emergency must be approved by the parliament within a period of 2 months. Under of the Indian constitution, it can be imposed from six months to a maximum period of three years with repeated parliamentary approval every six months. If the emergency needs to be extended for more than three years, this can be achieved by a constitutional amendment, as has happened in Punjab and Jammu and Kashmir. During such an emergency, the president can take over the entire work of the executive, and the governor administers the state in the name of the president. The Legislative Assembly can be dissolved or may remain in suspended animation. The parliament makes laws on the 66 subjects of the state list (see National emergency for explanation). A State Emergency can be imposed via the following: 1. By Article 356If that state failed to run constitutionally, i.e. constitutional machinery has failed. When a state emergency is imposed under this provision, the state is said to be under "President's rule. 2. By Article 365If that state is not working according to the direction of the Union government issued per the provisions of the constitution. This type of emergency needs the approval of the parliament within 2 months. It can last up to a maximum of three years via extensions after each 6-month period. However, after one year it can be extended only if 1. A state of National Emergency has been declared in the country or in the particular state. 2. The Election Commission finds it difficult to organise an election in that state. The Sarkaria Commission held that presidents have unconstitutionally misused the provision of Article 356 many times for achieving political motives, by dismissing the state governments although there was no constitutional break down in the states. During 2005, President's rule was imposed in Bihar state, misusing Article 356 unconstitutionally to prevent the democratically elected state legislators to form a government after the state elections. There is no provision in the constitution to re-promulgate president's rule in a state when the earlier promulgation ceased to operate for want of parliaments approval within two months duration. During 2014 in Andhra Pradesh, president's rule was first imposed on 1 March 2014 and it ceased to operate on 30 April 2014. President's rule was promulgated after being fully aware that the earliest parliament session is feasible at the end of May 2014 after the general elections. It was reimposed again unconstitutionally on 28 April 2014 by the president. Article 282 accords financial autonomy in spending the financial resources available with the states for public purpose. gives liberty to states to borrow without any limit to its ability for its requirements within the territory of India without any consent from the Union government. However, Union government can insist for compliance of its loan terms when a state has outstanding loan charged to the consolidated fund of India or an outstanding loan in respect of which a guarantee has been given by the Government of India under the liability of consolidated fund of India. Under article 360 of the constitution, the president can proclaim a financial emergency when the financial stability or credit of the nation or of any part of its territory is threatened. However, until now no guidelines defining the situation of financial emergency in the entire country or a state or a union territory or a panchayat or a municipality or a corporation have been framed either by the finance commission or by the central government. Such an emergency must be approved by the parliament within two months by a simple majority. It has never been declared. A state of financial emergency remains in force indefinitely until revoked by the president. The president can reduce the salaries of all government officials, including judges of the supreme court and high courts, in cases of a financial emergency. All money bills passed by state legislatures are submitted to the president for approval. He can direct the state to observe certain principles (economy measures) relating to financial matters. of the constitution sets the principal qualifications one must meet to be eligible to the office of the president. A president must be: a citizen of India, of 35 years of age or above, qualified to become a member of the Lok Sabha A person shall not be eligible for election as President if he holds any office of profit under the Government of India or the Government of any State or under any local or other authority subject to the control of any of the said Governments. Certain office-holders, however, are permitted to stand as presidential candidates. These are: The current vice-president, The governor of any state, A Minister of the Union or of any state (including prime minister and chief ministers) In the event that the vice-president, a state governor or a minister is elected President, they are considered to have vacated their previous office on the date they begin serving as President. A member of parliament or of a State Legislature can seek election to the office of the president but if he is elected as President, he shall be deemed to have vacated his seat in parliament or State Legislature on the date on which he enters upon his office as President [Article 59(1)]. Article 57 provides that a person who holds, or who has held, office as President shall, subject to the other provisions of this constitution, be eligible for re-election to that office. Under the Presidential and Vice-Presidential Elections Act, 1952, a candidate to be nominated for the office of president needs 50 electors as proposers and 50 electors as seconders for his name to appear on the ballot. Article 56(1) of the constitution provides that the president shall hold office for a term of five years from the date on which he enters upon his office. According to Article 62, an election to fill a vacancy caused by the expiration of the term of office of President shall be completed before the expiration of the term. An election to fill a vacancy in the office of President occurring by reason of his death, resignation or removal, or otherwise shall be held as soon as possible after, and in no case later than six months from, the date of occurrence of the vacancy; and the person elected to fill the vacancy shall, subject to the provisions of Article 56, be entitled to hold office for the full term of five years from the date on which he enters upon his office. To meet the contingency of an election to the office of President not being completed in time due to unforeseen circumstances like countermanding of election due to death of a candidate or on account of postponement of the poll for any valid reason, Article 56(1)(c) provides that the president shall, notwithstanding the expiration of his term, continue to hold office until his successor enters upon his office. Certain conditions, per of the Indian constitution, debar an otherwise eligible citizen from contesting the presidential elections. The conditions are: The president shall not be a member of either house of the parliament or of a house of the legislature of any state, and if a member of either house of the parliament or of a house of the legislature of any state be elected President, he shall be deemed to have vacated his seat in that house on the date on which he enters upon his office as President., The president shall not hold any other office of profit., The president shall be entitled without payment of rent to the use of his official residences and shall be also entitled to such emoluments, allowances and privileges as may be determined by parliament by law and until provision in that behalf is so made, such emoluments, allowances and privileges as are specified in the Second Schedule., The emoluments and allowances of the president shall not be diminished during his term of office. Whenever the office becomes vacant, the new president is chosen by an electoral college consisting of the elected members of both houses of parliament (M.P.s), the elected members of the State Legislative Assemblies (Vidhan Sabha) of all States and the elected members of the legislative assemblies (MLAs) of two union territories, i.e., National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi and Union Territory of Puducherry. The election process of President is more extensive process than prime minister who is also elected indirectly (not elected by people directly) by the Lok Sabha members only. Whereas President being the constitutional head with duties to protect, defend and preserve the constitution and rule of law in a constitutional democracy with constitutional supremacy, is elected in an extensive manner by the members of Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha and state legislative assemblies in a secret ballot procedure. The nomination of a candidate for election to the office of the president must be subscribed by at least 50 electors as proposers and 50 electors as seconders. Each candidate has to make a security deposit of in the Reserve Bank of India. The security deposit is liable to be forfeited in case the candidate fails to secure one-sixth of the votes polled. The election is held in accordance with the system of proportional representation (PR) by means of the single transferable vote (STV) method. The voting takes place by a secret ballot system. The manner of election of President is provided by of the constitution. Each elector casts a different number of votes. The general principle is that the total number of votes cast by Members of parliament equals the total number of votes cast by State Legislators. Also, legislators from larger states cast more votes than those from smaller states. Finally, the number of legislators in state matters; if a state has few legislators, then each legislator has more votes; if a state has many legislators, then each legislator has fewer votes. The actual calculation for votes cast by a particular state is calculated by dividing the state's population by 1000, which is divided again by the number of legislators from the State voting in the electoral college. This number is the number of votes per legislator in a given state. Every elected member of the parliament enjoys the same number of votes, which may be obtained by dividing the total number of votes assigned to the members of legislative assemblies by the total number of elected representatives of the parliament. Although Indian presidential elections involve actual voting by MPs and MLAs, they tend to vote for the candidate supported by their respective parties. The president is required to make and subscribe in the presence of the Chief Justice of India—or in his absence, the senior-most judge of the supreme court—an oath or affirmation that he/she shall protect, preserve and defend the constitution as follows: The president of India used to receive per month per the Second Schedule of the constitution. This amount was increased to in 1998. On 11 September 2008, the Government of India increased the salary of the president to . This amount was further increased to in the 2018 Union budget of India. However, almost everything that the president does or wants to do is taken care of by an annual budget that the Government allots for his or her upkeep. Rashtrapati Bhavan, the president's official residence, is the largest Presidential palace in the world. The Rashtrapati Nilayam at Bolarum, Hyderabad and Retreat Building at Chharabra, Shimla are the official Retreat Residences of the president of India. The official state car of the president is a custom-built heavily armoured Mercedes Benz S600 (W221) Pullman Guard. The former presidents and spouses of deceased presidents are eligible for pension, furnished accommodation, security, various allowances, etc. Supreme court shall inquire and decide regarding all doubts and disputes arising out of or in connection with the election of a president per of the constitution. supreme court can remove the president for the electoral malpractices or upon being not eligible to be Lok Sabha member under the Representation of the People Act, 1951. Subject to Article 71 (3), parliament made applicable rules/procedure to petition the supreme court for resolving the disputes only that arise during the election process of the president but not the doubts that arise from his unconstitutional actions/deeds or changing Indian citizenship during the tenure of president which may violate the requisite election qualifications. The president may also be removed before the expiry of the term through impeachment for violating the Constitution of India by the Parliament of India. The process may start in either of the two houses of the parliament. The house initiates the process by levelling the charges against the president. The charges are contained in a notice that has to be signed by at least one-quarter of the total members of that house. The notice is sent up to the president and 14 days later, it is taken up for consideration. A resolution to impeach the president has to be passed by a two-thirds majority of the total number of members of the originating house. It is then sent to the other house. The other house investigates the charges that have been made. During this process, the president has the right to defend oneself through an authorised counsel. If the second house also approves the charges made by special majority again, the president stands impeached and is deemed to have vacated their office from the date when such a resolution stands passed. No president has faced impeachment proceedings so the above provisions have never been used. Under of the constitution, though the president cannot be summoned for questioning except on his voluntary willingness to testify in the court in support of his controversial deeds, the unconstitutional decisions taken by the president would be declared invalid by the courts. The case would be decided by the courts based on the facts furnished by the Union government for the president's role. As clarified by the supreme court in the case Rameshwar Prasad & Ors vs Union Of India & Anr on 24 January 2006; though the president cannot be prosecuted and imprisoned during his term of office, he can be prosecuted after he/she steps down from the post for the guilty committed during the term of presidency as declared earlier by the courts. No president has resigned on impropriety to continue in office for declaring and nullifying his unconstitutional decisions by the courts till now. No criminal case at least on the grounds of disrespecting constitution is lodged till now against former presidents to punish them for their unconstitutional acts; though many decisions taken during the term of a president have been declared by the supreme court as unconstitutional, mala fides, void, ultra vires, etc. The Office of the president falls vacant in the following scenarios: 1. On the expiry of their term. 2. By reason of death. 3. By reason of resignation. 4. Removal by supreme court. 5. Removal by impeachment. of the Indian constitution says that the vice-president of India will have to discharge the duties, if the office falls vacant due to any reason other than the expiry of the term. The vice-president reverts to their office when a new president is elected and enters office. When the president is unable to act because of absence, illness or any other cause, the vice-president discharges the president's functions until the president resumes the duties. A vice- president who acts as or discharges the functions of the president has all the powers and immunities of the president and is entitled to the same emoluments as the president. When a vice-president discharges the duties of the president, he/she does not function as the Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha. The Indian parliament has enacted the law—The President (Discharge of Functions) Act, 1969 — for the discharge of the functions of the president when vacancies occur in the offices of the president and of the vice-president simultaneously, owing to removal, death, resignation of the incumbent or otherwise. In such an eventuality, the chief justice—or in his absence, the senior most judge of the Supreme Court of India available—discharges the functions of the president until a newly elected President enters upon his office or a newly elected Vice-president begins to act as President under Article 65 of the constitution, whichever is the earlier. For example, in 1969, when President Zakir Husain died in Office, Vice-President V. V. Giri served as the acting president of India. However, later, V.V Giri resigned from both posts (Acting President of India and Vice-President of India) as he became a candidate in the 1969 presidential election in India. In this event, the then Chief Justice of India, Justice Mohammad Hidayatullah served as the acting president of India until the next president was elected. The president's role as defender of the constitution and the powers as Head of State, especially in relation to those exercised by the prime minister as leader of the government, have changed over time. In particular, Presidents have made a number of interventions into government and lawmaking, which have established and challenged some conventions concerning presidential intervention. In 1979, Prime Minister Charan Singh, did not enjoy a parliamentary majority. He responded to this by simply not advising the president to summon parliament. Since then, presidents have been more diligent in directing incoming Prime Ministers to convene parliament and prove their majority within reasonable deadlines (2 to 3 weeks). In the interim period, the Prime Ministers are generally restrained from making policy decisions. Since the 1990s, Parliamentary elections have generally not resulted in a single party or group of parties having a distinct majority, until the 2014 Lok Sabha elections when BJP received a clear majority. In such cases, presidents have used their discretion and directed Prime Ministerial aspirants to establish their credentials before being invited to form the government. Typically, the aspirants have been asked to produce letters from various party leaders, with the signatures of all the MPs who are pledging support to their candidature. This is in addition to the requirement that a prime minister prove he has the support of the Lok Sabha (by a vote on the floor of the house) within weeks of being sworn into office. Since the Indian constitution does not provide any time limit within which the president is to declare his assent or refusal, the president could exercise a "pocket veto" by not taking any action for an indefinite time. The veto was used in 1986 by President Zail Singh over the Postal Bill. The president did not give assent to the bill, arguing that its scope was too sweeping and would give the government arbitrary powers to intercept postal communications indiscriminately. In the late 1990s, President K. R. Narayanan introduced explaining to the nation (by means of Rashtrapati Bhavan communiqués), the thinking that led to the various decisions he took while exercising his discretionary powers; this has led to openness and transparency in the functioning of the president. The constitution gives the president the power to return a bill unsigned but it circumscribes the power to send it back only once for reconsideration. If the parliament sends back the bill with or without changes, the president is obliged to sign it. In mid-2006, President A. P. J. Abdul Kalam sent back a controversial bill regarding the exclusion of certain offices from the scope of 'offices of profit', the holding of which would disqualify a person from being a member of parliament. The combined opposition, the NDA, hailed the move. The UPA chose to send the bill back to the president without any changes and, after 17 days, Kalam gave his assent on 18 August 2006. Arunachal Pradesh governor who was earlier appointed by the ruling party at the centre, has been sacked by the president after the supreme court has quashed his unconstitutional acts. There are two living former Indian presidents: List of Presidents of India, Vice President of India, Chief Justice of India, Prime Minister of India, Spouse of the President of India In a major turn of events, the ruling Congress lost control of India for the first time in independent India in the Indian general election, 1977. The hastily formed Janata alliance of parties, opposed to the ruling Congress party, won 298 seats. Morarji Desai was chosen as the leader of the alliance in the newly formed parliament and thus became India's first non-Congress Prime Minister on 24 March. The Congress lost nearly 200 seats. Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and her powerful son Sanjay Gandhi both lost their seats. The election came after the end of The Emergency that Prime Minister Indira Gandhi had imposed in 1975; it effectively suspended democracy, suppressed the opposition, and took control of the media with authoritarian measures. The opposition called for a restoration of democracy and many Indians saw the election results as a repudiation of the Emergency. India held general elections to the 6th Lok Sabha. This sixth general elections, which were conducted for 542 seats from 542 constituencies, represented 27 Indian states and union territories. These 542 constituencies remained same until 2004 Indian general elections for the 14th Lok Sabha. The Emergency declared by the Indira Gandhi led Congress government was the core issue in the 1977 elections. Civil liberties were suspended during the national emergency from 25 June 1975 to 21 March 1977 and Prime Minister Indira Gandhi assumed vast powers. Gandhi had become extremely unpopular for her decision and paid for it during the elections. Mrs. Gandhi, on 18 January, called for fresh elections and released all political prisoners. On 20 January Four Opposition parties, the Congress (Organisation), the Jan Sangh, the Bharatiya Lok Dal and the Socialist Party, decided to fight the elections under a single banner called the Janata alliance. The alliance used the symbol allocated to Bhartiya Lok dal as their symbol on the ballot papers. The votes were cast from 16 to 19 March. The counting of votes started on 20-March and the results started coming in from that day's evening. The Janata alliance reminded voters of the excesses and human rights violations during the Emergency, like compulsory sterilisation and imprisonment of political leaders. The Janata campaign said the elections would decide whether India would have "democracy or dictatorship." The Congress looked jittery. Agriculture and Irrigation Minister Babu Jagjivan Ram quit the party in the first week of February; other notable Congress stalwarts who crossed the floor with Jagjivan Ram before the election were Hemvati Nandan Bahuguna and Nandini Satpathy. The elections in the largest state, Uttar Pradesh, historically a Congress stronghold, turned against Mrs. Gandhi. Dhanagare says the structural reasons included the emergence of a strong and united opposition, disunity and weariness within the Congress, an effective opposition and the failure of Mrs. Gandhi in controlling the mass media, which was under censorship during the Emergency. The structural factors allowed voters to express their grievances, notably their resentment of the emergency and its authoritarian and repressive policies. One grievance often mentioned was the 'Nasbandi' (vasectomy) campaign in rural areas. The middle class also emphasised on the curbing of freedom of speech throughout the country. Meanwhile, Congress hit an all-time low in West Bengal, according to the Gangulys, because of poor discipline and factionalism among Congress activists as well as numerous defections that weakened the party. Opponents emphasised the issues of corruption within the Congress and appealed to a deep desire by the voters for fresh leadership. The Congress, however, did well in Southern Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh. The results were mixed in the Western states of Maharashtra and Gujarat, however, the Janata Front won all the seats in Mumbai. Source: Keesings (There is only partial data in this section to begin with. It will be completed by and by, as time permits.) Andhra Pradesh: Total: 42. Congress: 40 or 41 out of 42, Janata Party: 1 Bihar: Janata Party + Allies: 54 out of 54. Congress: Zero Delhi. Janata Party: 7 out of 7. Gujarat. Total: 26. Janata Party: 20, Congress: 6 Madhya Pradesh. Total: 40. Janata: 37, RPK: 1, Congress: 1 (Chhindwara), Ind: 1 (Madhavrao Scindia from Guna) Maharashtra. Total: 48. Janata Party + Allies (CPM, PWP, et al.): 28/48, Congress: 20 Orissa. Total: 21. Janata Party + CPM: 15+1, Congress: 4 Punjab: Akali Dal + Janata + Alliance: 13 out of 13 Rajasthan. Janata: 24/25, Congress: 1. Uttar Pradesh: Janata Party + Allies: 85 out of 85. Congress: Zero West Bengal. Janata Alliance: 38/42 (Janata: 15, CPM: 17, Forward Block: 3, RSP: 3), Congress: 3, Ind: 1 Election Commission of India, 1974 Indian presidential election Guha, Ramachandra. India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy (2008) pp 491–518, Klieman, Aaron S. "Indira's India: Democracy and Crisis Government," Political Science Quarterly (1981) 96#2 pp. 241–259 in JSTOR, Roy, Ramashray; Sheth, D. L. "The 1977 Lok Sabha Election Outcome: The Salience of Changing Voter Alignments Since 1969," Political Science Review (1978), Vol. 17 Issue 3/4, pp 51–63

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Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them (often referred to as simply Fantastic Beasts) is a 2001 guide book written by British author J. K. Rowling (under the pen name of the fictitious author Newt Scamander) about the magical creatures in the Harry Potter universe. The original version, illustrated by the author herself, purports to be Harry Potter's copy of the textbook of the same name mentioned in Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (or Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone in the US), the first novel of the Harry Potter series. It includes several notes inside it supposedly handwritten by Harry, Ron Weasley, and Hermione Granger, detailing their own experiences with some of the beasts described, and including in-jokes relating to the original series. In a 2001 interview with publisher Scholastic, Rowling stated that she chose the subject of magical creatures because it was a fun topic for which she had already developed a lot of information in earlier books. Rowling's name did not appear on the cover of the first edition, the work being credited under the pen name "Newt Scamander", who, in the books, wrote this textbook as seen on Harry's supply list for his first year. The book benefits the BBC affiliated charity Comic Relief. Over 80% of the cover price of each book sold goes directly to poor children in various places around the world. According to Comic Relief, sales from this book and its companion Quidditch Through the Ages had raised over £17 million by July 2009. On 12 September 2013, Warner Bros. and Rowling announced they would be producing a film inspired by the book, being the first in a series of five such films. Rowling herself was the screenwriter. She came up with a plan for a movie after Warner Bros. suggested the idea. The story features Newt Scamander as a main character and is set in New York City, 70 years before Harry's story started. The film was released on 18 November 2016. On 14 March 2017 a new edition of the book, with cover illustrations by Johnny Duddle and interior illustrations by Tomislav Tomic, was published with six new creatures and a foreword by Newt Scamander. It is assumed to be a new copy as it does not feature any handwritten notes. Proceeds from this edition are donated to Lumos as well as Comic Relief. On 7 November 2017 a new edition was published with illustrations by Olivia Lomenech Gill, featuring the aforementioned 2017 text. On 1 February 2018 a Kindle in Motion edition, featuring these illustrations with movement, was released for compatible devices. Fantastic Beasts purports to be a reproduction of a textbook owned by Harry Potter and written by magizoologist Newt Scamander, a character in the fictional Harry Potter series. In the series, magizoology is the study of magical creatures. Albus Dumbledore, headmaster of Hogwarts, provides the foreword and explains the purpose of the special edition of this book (the Comic Relief charity). At the end, he tells the reader, "The amusing creatures described hereafter are fictional and cannot hurt you." He repeats the Hogwarts motto: "Draco dormiens nunquam titillandus", Latin for "Never tickle a sleeping dragon". Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them contains the history of magizoology and describes 85 magical species found around the world. Scamander says that he collected most of the information found in the book through observations made over years of travel across five continents. He notes that the first edition was commissioned in 1918 by Augustus Worme of Obscurus Books. However, it was not published until 1927. It is now in its fifty-second edition. In the Harry Potter universe, the book is a required textbook for first-year Hogwarts students, having been an approved textbook since its first publication. In his foreword to the book, Albus Dumbledore notes that it serves as an excellent reference for wizarding households in addition to its use at Hogwarts. The book features doodles and comments added by Ron Weasley. The comments would appear to have been written around the time of the fourth book, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. These doodles add some extra information for fans of the series (for example the "Acromantula" entry has a comment confirming that Hogwarts is located in Scotland) along with comic relief (such as Ron saying "you're not kidding" when talking about the Hungarian Horntail being the most fearsome dragon of all, a reference to Harry's encounter with one in the fourth book). The cover design of the first edition of the book features apparent claw marks from an unidentified animal. This edition features six new creatures: the hidebehind, the hodag, the horned serpent, the snallygaster, the thunderbird, and the wampus cat, in addition to the original 75, and the illustrations are replaced. Newt Scamander, in the foreword, explains the reason the six new creatures were not previously included is because MACUSA president Seraphina Picquery requested the more important American creatures not be mentioned to deter wizarding sightseers at a time when the US wizarding community were subject to greater persecution than their European counterparts, and after Scamander had contributed to a breach of the International Statute of Secrecy in New York. The book's fictional author, Newt Scamander, does not appear in the main Harry Potter book series though his name is seen on the Marauder's Map in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. He is the central character of the Fantastic Beasts film series, in which he is played by Eddie Redmayne. The following mythological beasts are listed in the book: Acromantula, Ashwinder, Augurey, Basilisk, Billywig, Bowtruckle, Bundimun, Centaur, Chimaera, Chizpurfle, Clabbert, Crup, Demiguise, Diricawl, Doxy, Dragon, Antipodean Opaleye, Chinese Fireball, Common Welsh Green, Hebridean Black, Hungarian Horntail, Norwegian Ridgeback, Peruvian Vipertooth, Romanian Longhorn, Swedish Short-Snout, Ukrainian Ironbelly, Dugbog, Erkling, Erumpent, Fairy, Fire Crab, Flobberworm, Fwooper, Ghoul, Glumbumble, Gnome, Graphorn, Griffin, Grindylow, Hidebehind, Hippocampus, Hippogriff, Hodag, Horklump, Horned serpent, Imp, Jarvey, Jobberknoll, Kappa, Kelpie, Knarl, Kneazle, Leprechaun, Lethifold, Lobalug, Mackled Malaclaw, Manticore, Merpeople, Moke, Mooncalf, Murtlap, Niffler, Nogtail, Nundu, Occamy, Phoenix, Pixie, Plimpy, Pogrebin, Porlock, Puffskein, Quintaped, Ramora, Red Cap, Re'em, Runespoor, Salamander, Sea Serpent, Shrake, Snallygaster, Snidget, Sphinx, Streeler, Tebo, Thunderbird, Troll, Unicorn, Wampus cat, Werewolf, Winged horse, Yeti Scholastic editions Bloomsbury edition Sagebrush Rebound edition Pottermore E-book edition Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly graded the book with an "A" and wrote "With its richly detailed history lessons and witty debate parsing the differences between being and beast, plus a compendium of 85 magical creatures that's chockablock with Rowling's trademark wordplay (Glumbumble is a standout), Beasts adds a vital new dimension to the Potter mythology." The 2017 version of the book was recorded as an unabridged audiobook in 2017. The audiobook is read by Eddie Redmayne in the character of Newt Scamander. Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them is a British-American fantasy film inspired by the book of the same name by J. K. Rowling. An extension of the wizarding world from the Harry Potter film series and directed by David Yates, the film stars Eddie Redmayne, Katherine Waterston, Alison Sudol, Dan Fogler, Samantha Morton, Ezra Miller, Colin Farrell, Carmen Ejogo, Faith Wood- Blagrove, Jenn Murray, Jon Voight and Ron Perlman. The first movie is set to be followed by four more. Principal photography commenced on 17 August 2015, at Warner Bros. Studios, Leavesden. Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them was released in the United Kingdom and the United States on 18 November 2016. A was released on 16 November 2018. The third movie is scheduled to be released in November 2021. Newt Scamander. Fantastic Beasts & Where to Find Them. New York, NY: Arthur A. Levine Books, 2001. Print. Interview with J. K. Rowling about her book Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them is a 2016 fantasy film directed by David Yates. A joint British and American production, it is a spin-off of and prequel to the Harry Potter film series. It was produced and written by J. K. Rowling in her screenwriting debut, inspired by her 2001 “guide book” of the same name. The film features an ensemble cast that includes Eddie Redmayne, Katherine Waterston, Dan Fogler, Alison Sudol, Ezra Miller, Samantha Morton, Jon Voight, Carmen Ejogo, and Colin Farrell. It is the first installment in the Fantastic Beasts film series, and ninth overall in the Wizarding World franchise that began with the Harry Potter films. Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them premiered in New York City on 10 November 2016 and opened in cinemas worldwide on 18 November 2016 in 3D, IMAX 4K Laser and other large- format cinemas. It received generally positive reviews from critics and emerged a commercial success after grossing $814 million worldwide, making it the eighth highest-grossing film of 2016. The film was nominated for five BAFTAs, including Best British Film, and won for Best Production Design. It was nominated for two Academy Awards and won for Best Costume Design, becoming the first Wizarding World film to win an Academy Award. The first sequel, , was released on 16 November 2018. Filming for a third sequel, as yet unnamed, will begin in spring 2020, with a projected release date in November 2021. In 1926, British wizard and "magizoologist" Newt Scamander arrives in New York, en route to Arizona. He encounters Mary Lou Barebone, a non-magical woman ("No-Maj" or "Muggle") who heads the New Salem Philanthropic Society. As Newt listens to her speaking about witches and wizards being real and dangerous, a Niffler escapes from Newt's magically expanded suitcase, which houses various magical creatures. As Newt attempts to capture the Niffler, he meets No-Maj cannery worker and aspiring baker Jacob Kowalski, and they unwittingly swap suitcases. Demoted Auror (hunter of dark wizards) Tina Goldstein arrests Newt for the chaos caused by the Niffler and takes him to the Magical Congress of the United States of America (MACUSA) headquarters, hoping to regain her former position. However, as Jacob's suitcase contains only baked goods, Newt is released. At Jacob's tenement apartment, several creatures escape from Newt's suitcase. After Tina and Newt find Jacob and the suitcase, Tina takes them to her apartment and introduces them to Queenie, her Legilimens sister. Jacob and Queenie are mutually attracted, though American wizards are forbidden to have any contact with No-Majs. Newt takes Jacob inside his magically expanded suitcase, where Jacob encounters a contained Obscurus, a parasite that develops inside magically gifted children if they suppress their magical abilities. Newt extracted it from a young girl who died: Those afflicted rarely live past the age of ten. Newt persuades Jacob to help search for the missing creatures. After they re-capture two of the three escaped beasts, Tina returns the suitcase to MACUSA. Officials arrest them, believing one of Newt's beasts to be responsible for killing Senator Henry Shaw, Jr., Director of Magical Security. Percival Graves accuses Newt of conspiring with the infamous dark wizard Gellert Grindelwald, and decides to destroy Newt's suitcase and erase Jacob's recent memories of magic. Newt and Tina are sentenced to immediate death in secret, but they escape, aided by Queenie and Jacob, who also retrieve Newt's suitcase. Following a tip from Tina's old goblin informant Gnarlack, the foursome find and re-capture the last of the escaped creatures. Meanwhile, Graves approaches Mary Lou's adopted son Credence and offers to free him from his abusive mother. In exchange, Graves wants Credence to find an Obscurus that he believes has caused the mysterious destructive incidents around the city. Credence finds a wand under his adopted sister Modesty's bed. Mary Lou assumes it is Credence's wand, but Modesty says it is hers. When Modesty is about to be punished, the Obscurus kills Mary Lou and her eldest daughter Chastity. Graves arrives, and after Credence leads him to Modesty, who he assumes is the Obscurus's host, he dismisses Credence as being a Squib and refuses to teach him magic as he had previously promised. Credence reveals he is the real host, having lived longer than any other host due to the intensity of his magic. In a fit of rage, Credence transforms and attacks the city. Newt finds Credence hiding in a subway tunnel, but he is attacked by Graves. Tina, who knows Credence, arrives and attempts to calm him, while Graves tries to convince Credence to listen to him. As Credence begins to settle back into human form, Aurors arrive and apparently disintegrate him to protect the magical society. However, a tiny Obscurus fragment escapes. Graves admits his plan to unleash the Obscurus, expose the magical community to the No-Majs and frame Newt for it. He angrily claims that MACUSA protects the No-Majs more than themselves. As the president orders the Aurors to apprehend Graves, he attacks and begins to defeat all of them. Newt manages to subdue him with one of his beasts, and uses a revealing spell to expose Graves as Grindelwald in disguise; he is taken into custody. MACUSA fears their secret world has been exposed, but Newt releases his Thunderbird to disperse a potion as rainfall over the city, erasing all New Yorkers' recent memories while MACUSA wizards repair the destruction. Queenie kisses Jacob goodbye as the rain erases his memories. Jacob and the rest of the No-Majs are obliviated with the help of the Thunderbird, and Newt returns to England. Jacob opens a bakery: Some of his products look like the beasts he met. Queenie enters, and Jacob smiles at her. Eddie Redmayne as Newt Scamander, an introverted British wizard, magizoologist and an employee of the Ministry of Magic. Scamander is the future author of the Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry standard textbook Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them. Redmayne was cast in June 2015. Matt Smith and Nicholas Hoult were also considered for the role., Katherine Waterston as Porpentina "Tina" Goldstein, a grounded, down-to-earth witch and former Auror employed by MACUSA. She longs to fight for what is right, but was demoted to a position well below her skill level., Dan Fogler as Jacob Kowalski, a genial No-Maj cannery worker and aspiring baker who is accidentally exposed to the New York City magical community upon meeting Newt., Alison Sudol as Queenie Goldstein, Tina's younger sister and roommate, described as a free-spirited big-hearted bombshell she is a naturally born and skilled Legilimens. The picture is Sudol's feature-film debut. Michelle Rodriguez, Carolyn Murphy, Heather Matarazzo and Lindsey Stirling were also under consideration for the role of Queenie., Ezra Miller as Credence Barebone, Mary Lou's troubled adopted son, who is an Obscurial., Samantha Morton as Mary Lou Barebone, a narrow-minded No-Maj and the sinister leader of the New Salem Philanthropic Society or "The Second-Salemers," a group whose goals include exposing and killing wizards and witches., Jon Voight as Henry Shaw Sr., a newspaper owner and the father of U.S. Senator Henry Shaw, Jr., and Langdon Shaw., Carmen Ejogo as Seraphina Picquery, the President of MACUSA, the Magical Congress of the United States of America. As such, she is the American equivalent of a Minister for Magic in the United Kingdom., Gemma Chan as Madam Ya Zhou., Colin Farrell as Percival Graves, a high-ranking Auror and Director of Magical Security for MACUSA, responsible for with the protection of wizards., Ron Perlman as the voice of Gnarlack, a goblin gangster who owns a magical speakeasy nightclub called "The Blind Pig.”, Faith Wood-Blagrove as Modesty Barebone, a haunted young girl who is the youngest of Mary Lou's adopted children. Wood-Blagrove was chosen for the role following thousands of auditions in an open casting call., Ronan Raftery as Langdon Shaw, the youngest of Henry Shaw, Sr.'s sons, who begins to believe in magic., Josh Cowdery as Henry Shaw, Jr., the eldest of Henry Shaw, Sr.'s sons; an arrogant and cruel U.S. Senator., Kevin Guthrie as Mr. Abernathy, Tina and Queenie's MACUSA supervisor., Jenn Murray as Chastity Barebone, the eldest of Mary Lou's adopted children., Johnny Depp as Gellert Grindelwald, an infamous, powerful dark wizard who believes in the superiority of wizards and seeks to lead a new Wizarding Order., Zoë Kravitz as Leta Lestrange, Newt's former love, who betrayed his trust. Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them is mentioned several times as a school textbook in the Harry Potter book series, although Scamander himself does not appear in any of the books. In 2001, Rowling published an edition of the "textbook" to be sold to raise money for the British charity Comic Relief. The book is a directory of magical creatures with an introduction by its author, Newt Scamander: It does not contain a narrative. First announced in September 2013, the Fantastic Creatures project marked Rowling's debut as a screenwriter. The film sees the return of producer David Heyman, as well as writer Steve Kloves, both veterans of the Potter film franchise. There were rumors that Alfonso Cuarón would direct, which he refuted in May 2014. Warner Bros. announced that David Yates would direct at least the first instalment of a planned trilogy. James Newton Howard was brought on board to score the film. Principal photography began on 17 August 2015, at Warner Bros. Studios, Leavesden, in Hertfordshire, England and wrapped in January 2016. Several scenes were shot on location in London. After two months, the production moved to the Cunard Building and St George's Hall in Liverpool, which was transformed into 1920s New York City. Framestore in London produced the visual effects for the film. On 9 April 2016, the film's website announced that James Newton Howard would write and compose the score. On 24 October 2016, Pottermore published an official first look at the film's main theme composed by Howard. The main theme incorporated John Williams' themes from earlier films, such as "Hedwig's Theme". The soundtrack was released by WaterTower Music on 18 November 2016, coinciding with the film's release worldwide. The visual effects were provided by Cinesite, DNEG, Framestore, Image Engine, Moving Picture Company, Milk VFX and Rodeo FX. Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them had its world premiere at Alice Tully Hall in New York City on 10 November 2016. The film was released worldwide on 18 November 2016, in 2D, 3D and the new IMAX 4K Laser system. It would premiere one day earlier in a number of other countries, including Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Germany and Italy, on 17 November. The film would be released to a total of 1,028 IMAX screens worldwide (388 screens in the United States and Canada, 347 screens in China, 26 screens in Japan and 267 screens in other countries). This marked the second time—after Doctor Strange—that a film secured a release in more than 1,000 IMAX screens worldwide. On 4 November 2015, Entertainment Weekly released the first official publicity shots of the film, including pictures of characters Newt, Tina, and Queenie, and behind-the-scenes shots of production and filming on various sets designed to mirror 1920s New York City. On 10 December 2015, @Fantastic Beasts announced on Twitter that an "announcement trailer" would be released on 15 December. A teaser poster was also released along with the one-minute trailer. During "A Celebration of Harry Potter" at Universal Orlando Resort in February 2016, a featurette was released showcasing several interviews with various cast and crew members, as well as the first official behind-the-scenes footage. On 10 April 2016, the first "teaser trailer" was released during the MTV Movie Awards. On 10 August 2016, more information and publicity shots for the film were released through Entertainment Weekly, with new information on Ezra Miller's character, Credence Barebone, and the news that Zoë Kravitz would have a role in the series. New images released at the time include the quartet running down a New York City alleyway; David Yates chatting to stars Katherine Waterston and Eddie Redmayne on the set in front of a blown out subway station; Colin Farrell's character, Percival Graves, interrogating an arrested and handcuffed Newt; and Graves and Credence putting up anti-magic propaganda. The film's script was published in book form on 18 November 2016. Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them: The Original Screenplay was written by Rowling herself. On 7 March 2016 a trailer-preview was released about the History of Magic in North America as it is in the Harry Potter universe. On 7 October 2016, Rowling also released on Pottermore four pieces of writing exclusively as an introduction to the film Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them, titled History of Magic in North America. It includes information about scourers in North America, brutal and violent magical mercenaries who played a significant role in the historic Salem witch trials of the 1600s, as well as info about various American wand makers; the role magic played in World War I; Native American magic; the foundation of MACUSA; the harsh enforcement No- Maj/Wizarding segregation; and life in 1920s Wizarding America; with info about wand permits and prohibition. On 28 June 2016, Rowling released a second part to her History of Magic in North America series, concerning the fictitious Ilvermorny School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, detailing the founding of the pre-eminent American Wizarding academy and allowing users to sort themselves into one of the four houses of the school. The school itself is mentioned in the film. A "story pack" based on Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them was released for the video game Lego Dimensions by WB Games and TT Games. The pack includes a constructible model of MACUSA, figures of Newt Scamander and a Niffler, and a six-level game campaign that adapts the film's events. The pack was released on the same day as the film, alongside a "fun pack" containing figures of Tina Goldstein and a Swooping Evil. The cast of the film reprises their roles in the game. Fantastic Beasts was released on Digital HD on 7 March 2017, and on 4K UHD, 3D Blu-ray, Blu-ray and DVD on 28 March 2017. Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them grossed $234 million in the United States and Canada and $580 million in other countries for a total of $814 million. The film was made on a budget of $180 million, with an additional $150 million spent on marketing. Worldwide, the film grossed $219.9 million during its opening weekend in around 64 markets on 24,200 screens, both the fifth-biggest in Rowling's wizarding cinematic universe, and the seventh- biggest for the month of November 2016. IMAX totalled $15 million from 605 screens. Deadline Hollywood calculated the net profit of the film to be $164 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film, making it the ninth-most profitable release of 2016. Fantastic Beasts went on general release in the United Kingdom and Ireland on 18 November 2016. It debuted with £15.33 million ($19.15 million) from 666 cinemas, the biggest debut of any film in 2016, ahead of the previous record holder, (£14.62 million). The film vied with Bridget Jones' Baby and briefly won first place, only to be surpassed during the last days of 2016 by Rogue One: A Star Wars Story. In the United States and Canada, estimates predicted that the film would gross $68–85 million—or more—in its opening weekend. The film was released on 18 November in 4,143 cinemas, of which 388 were IMAX screens, and more than 3,600 were showing the film in 3D It grossed $29.7 million on its first day, the second-lowest opening day among Rowling's adaptations (behind the $29.6 million Friday of Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets). This included $8.75 million it earned from Thursday-night preview screenings beginning at 6 p.m. in 3,700 cinemas. In total, the film earned $74.4 million in its opening weekend, falling in line with projections and finishing first at the box office, but it recorded the lowest opening among films in Rowling's Harry Potter universe. It made $8 million from 388 IMAX screens, $9 million from 500 premium large-format locations and $1.75 million from Cinemark XD. The film's opening was considered a hit, taking into account the fact that the story was not based on an existing, popular source, and the film itself was missing the franchise's main character, Harry Potter. It was the top choice among moviegoers, representing 47% of the weekend's total $157.6 million tickets sales. On its second Friday, it had a gradual drop of 37% ($18.5 million) from the week before, the second-best Friday drop for any Harry Potter film, behind The Philosopher's Stone. This was in part due to Black Friday, the most lucrative day of the Thanksgiving Day stretch. It ended up grossing $45.1 million in its second weekend (a drop of just 39.4%), finishing 2nd at the box office behind newcomer Moana. Outside North America, the film debuted day-and-date in 63 countries, along with its North American release, where it was projected to gross $90–125 million in its opening weekend. It opened 16 November 2016 in 9 countries, earning $6.9 million from 5,070 screens. It opened in 38 more countries on 18 November, earning $16.6 million for a total of $23.5 million in two days. In three days, it made $53.6 million. Through Sunday, 20 November, the film had a five-day opening weekend of $145.5 million from 63 countries, above the initial projections. It earned another $132 million in its second weekend after a large debut in China and Japan. It recorded the biggest opening day of all time among the Harry Potter franchise in Korea ($1.7 million), the Philippines ($1.2 million), the UAE ($429,000) and Ukraine, the second biggest in Mexico ($1.8 million), Russia and the CIS ($1.7 million), Brazil ($1.3 million) and in Indonesia ($480,000), all behind Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 and the third biggest in the United Kingdom ($5.4 million), behind Part 1 and Part 2. It also scored the second-biggest Warner Bros. opening of all-time in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Notably, France opened with $1.8 million, Spain with $1.4 million, and Germany with $1 million ($2 million including paid previews). In terms of opening weekends, the film posted the biggest opening among the Harry Potter franchise in 16 markets, including South Korea ($14.2 million, also the third-biggest opening for the studio), Russia ($9.8 million) and Brazil ($6.4 million), the biggest opener of the year in Germany ($10.2 million), Sweden, Belgium and Switzerland and the biggest Warner Bros. debut in those along with France ($10.2 million), Holland and Denmark. Italy debuted with $6.6 million, the biggest for a U.S. film in the country. Australia opened with $7.4 million, followed by Mexico ($5.8 million) and Spain ($4.5 million). It opened in China on 25 November alongside Disney's animated Moana but did not face significant competition from it. It earned $11.2 million on its opening day from 11,600 screens, the best among the Rowlings cinematic universe. In total, it had an opening weekend of $41.1 million, dominating 60% of the top five films with 70,000 screenings per day. This alone surpassed the entire lifetime total of all Harry Potter films save the last one. Similarly in Japan—typically the biggest or second biggest market for the previous Harry Potter films—it debuted with $15.5 million, besting the total lifetime of all the previous films except for Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince and Deathly Hallows – Part 2. The film also set a number of IMAX records. In total, the opening weekend was worth $7 million from 276 screens, which is the second-highest ever in the Wizarding World, behind Deathly Hallows – Part 2. In 33 territories, it opened at number one. Moreover, it's also the third-highest-grossing November international IMAX opening ever, and the No. 1 start for IMAX in November in 19 countries including Japan ($1.1 million), the UK, Russia, Germany, and the Netherlands. In China, it had the biggest IMAX opening among the franchise with $5.1 million from 347 IMAX screens. Overall, the film has earned a global cumulative total of $19.1 million from the format. It has become the highest- grossing film in Rowling's cinematic universe in Russia ($16.7 million) and the second-highest in South Korea ($24.6 million). China ($41.1 million) the United Kingdom ($37.6 million), followed by Germany ($18.4 million), France ($16.7 million), and Spain ($13.3 million) are the film's biggest-earning markets. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes sampled 326 critics and judged 75% of the reviews as positive, with an average rating of 6.82/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them draws on Harry Potters rich mythology to deliver a spin-off that dazzles with franchise-building magic all its own." Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating to reviews, gives the film a score 66 out of 100, based on 50 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it a 90% positive score and a 74% "definite recommend". Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian gave the film five out of five stars, hailing it as "a rich, baroque, intricately detailed entertainment" and a "terrifically good-natured, unpretentious and irresistibly buoyant film". NME's Larry Bartleet also gave it five out of five, calling it "more enchanting to your inner kid than the Potter films ever were". IndieWire's Eric Kohn gave the film a B+ saying that it "delivers the most satisfying period fantasy since Tim Burton's ", and that its layers of sophistication made it one of the best Hollywood blockbusters of the year. Mike Ryan of Uproxx gave the film a positive review, writing "Newt Scamander is nothing like Harry, but it has to be this way. It all has to be different. And it is, but, again, with just enough 'sameness' to make us feel like we are at home again. I'm looking forward to wherever these movies are taking us". John DeFore of The Hollywood Reporter wrote that the film is "likely to draw in just about everyone who followed the Potter series and to please most of them". However, New York Magazine's David Edelstein deemed the film a "distinctly unmagical slog", remarking that the beasts "aren’t especially fantastic and the effects are too blandly corporate to be exhilarating". In a mixed review, Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of The A.V. Club found the film "patchy but occasionally charming." Notes Initially, in October 2014, the studio announced the film would be the start of a trilogy. In July 2016, David Yates confirmed that Rowling had written the screenplay for the second film and had ideas for the third. In October 2016, Rowling announced that the series would comprise five films. The first sequel, titled , was released on 16 November 2018. The film's script, Fantastic Beasts—The Crimes of Grindelwald: The Original Screenplay, was published on 16 November 2018. On 4 November 2019, Wizarding World officially announced that production of the as-yet-unnamed third picture is slated to begin in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in Spring 2020, with a release date of 12 November 2021. James Newton Howard (born June 9, 1951) is an American composer, conductor, and music producer. He has scored over 100 films and is the recipient of a Grammy Award, Emmy Award, and eight Academy Award nominations. His film scores include Pretty Woman (1990), Grand Canyon (1991), The Fugitive (1993), The Devil's Advocate (1997), Dinosaur (2000), (2001), Treasure Planet (2002), King Kong (2005), Batman Begins (2005), Blood Diamond (2006), The Dark Knight (2008), The Bourne Legacy (2012), The Hunger Games series (2012–2015) and Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them (2016) and (2018). He has collaborated with directors M. Night Shyamalan, having scored nine of his films since The Sixth Sense, Christopher Nolan, having collaborated with Hans Zimmer on The Dark Knight Trilogy excluding The Dark Knight Rises, Peter Jackson, composing the score for his 2005 remake of King Kong, and Francis Lawrence, having scored all of his films since I Am Legend. Howard was born in Los Angeles. He is from a musical family; his grandmother was the Pittsburgh Symphony's concertmaster and violinist during the 1930s and '40s. Howard began studying music as a child, taking classical piano lessons at the age of four. He went on to attend the Thacher School in Ojai, California and the Music Academy of the West in Santa Barbara, California with Reginald Stewart and Leon Fleischer. He then attended the University of Southern California, studying at the School of Music as a piano performance major, but dropped out after 6 weeks because "He wanted to do other things than practicing the piano." After Howard left college, he joined a short-lived rock band called Mama Lion. The band was led by Neil Merryweather (bass, backing vocals) and featured lead singer Lynn Carey, Coffi Hall on drums, and Rick Gaxiola on guitar. Mama Lion recorded two full-length albums. Members of Mama Lion also formed the band Heavy Cruiser with Merryweather now on lead vocals, recording two albums whose genre was closer to hard rock, bit also displayed psychedelic and progressive influences. He then worked for a couple of years as a session musician with artists including Diana Ross, Ringo Starr, and Harry Nilsson. In the early 70s, he described himself as being "dirt poor", until his big break in 1975 when his manager got him an audition with Elton John. He joined John's band and toured with them as keyboardist during the late 70s and early 80s. He was part of the band that played Central Park, New York, on September 13, 1980. Howard also arranged strings for several of John's songs during this period including the hits "Don't Go Breaking My Heart" and "Sorry Seems to Be the Hardest Word", and played additional keyboards and synthesizers on studio albums including Rock of the Westies (1975), Blue Moves (1976), 21 at 33 (1980), and The Fox (1981). In 1982, Howard was featured on Toto IV as the strings conductor and orchestrator for "I Won't Hold You Back", "Afraid of Love", and "Lovers in the Night". A year later, he released the live album James Newton Howard and Friends, which featured Toto's David Paich (keyboards), Steve Porcaro (keyboards), Jeff Porcaro (drums), and Joe Porcaro (percussion). In 1983, Howard was co- producer, musician (keyboards), and orchestrator of Riccardo Cocciante's album Sincerità. After briefly touring with Crosby, Stills and Nash, he took an opportunity brought to him by his manager to write a film score for a small- time movie. This career move would lead to his becoming a successful film music composer. During this early foray into film music, he did not entirely abandon his previous musical path and returned for a brief collaboration with Elton John on his Tour De Force of Australia in the fall of 1986. He conducted both his own and Paul Buckmaster's arrangements during the second half of the set, which focused on orchestrated performances of selected songs from the Elton John catalog. When delving into his family history, twenty-five years after the death of his father, Howard learned that his father was Jewish. Howard later became a practicing Reconstructionist Jew. Howard scored the surprise blockbuster romantic comedy Pretty Woman (1990) and received his first Academy Award nomination for his score for Barbra Streisand's drama The Prince of Tides (1991). Setting the musical mood for numerous films throughout the decade, Howard's skills encompassed a plethora of genres, including four more best original score Oscar nominations, for the Harrison Ford action feature The Fugitive (1993), the Julia Roberts romantic comedy My Best Friend's Wedding (1997), M. Night Shyamalan's The Village (2004), and Michael Clayton (2007). In addition, Howard scored the Western epic Wyatt Earp (1994), Kevin Costner's Waterworld (1995), and Primal Fear (1996). His collaborations on songs for One Fine Day (1996) and Junior (1994) garnered Oscar nominations for Best Song. Along with scoring small-scaled, independent films such as Five Corners (1988), Glengarry Glen Ross (1992), and American Heart (1993), Howard proved equally skilled at composing for big- budget Hollywood spectacles, including Space Jam (1996), Dante's Peak (1997) (theme only – score was composed by John Frizzell), and Collateral (2004). He has also scored three Disney animated feature films: Dinosaur (2000), (2001) and Treasure Planet (2002). Although he concentrates primarily on films, Howard has also contributed music for TV, earning an Emmy nomination in 1995 for his theme to NBC's ratings smash ER (Howard also scored the two-hour pilot); he also provided the themes for The Sentinel and Gideon's Crossing, winning an Emmy for the latter. He has scored all of Shyamalan's suspense thrillers, The Sixth Sense (1999), Unbreakable (2000), Signs (2002), The Village (2004), Lady in the Water (2006), The Happening (2008), and The Last Airbender (2010), notably dropping the intense, yet subtle, opening credit music for The Sixth Sense from the corresponding soundtrack album. On October 14, 2005 Howard replaced Howard Shore as composer for King Kong, due to "differing creative aspirations for the score" between Shore and director Peter Jackson. The resultant score earned Howard his first Golden Globe nomination for Best Original Score. His work on Michael Clayton earned him an Oscar nomination. He followed in 2008 with his eighth Oscar nomination for Edward Zwick's Defiance. He also collaborated with Hans Zimmer on the scores for Batman Begins and its record-breaking sequel The Dark Knight. Further works were The Happening, his sixth film with M. Night Shyamalan, Blood Diamond, Michael Clayton, , I Am Legend, Charlie Wilson's War, and Shyamalan's film adaptation of the Nickelodeon series . Howard debuted his work for symphony orchestra, I Would Plant A Tree, in February 2009 as part of the Pacific Symphony's annual American Composers Festival. The debut took place at the Renee and Henry Segerstrom Concert Hall in Costa Mesa, California, with the Symphony under the direction of Carl St.Clair. In 2009, he was awarded a Grammy alongside Hans Zimmer for the soundtrack to The Dark Knight. After being replaced in later seasons, his original theme song for the hit TV show ER returned for the final episode of the series. In September 2010, he was appointed visiting professor of media composition at the Royal Academy of Music in London. From 2012-2015, James Newton Howard scored the music for the critically acclaimed Hunger Games franchise. From 2014-2015, Howard saw major success with when he composed the score for the movie, which included "The Hanging Tree", featuring vocals from actress Jennifer Lawrence. The song peaked at number 12 on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming the highest-charting single from The Hunger Games movies and both Howard's and Lawrence's first chart single. In 2014, Howard scored two Academy Award-nominated films, Nightcrawler and Maleficent. Howard composed the score for the fantasy drama Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them, a spin- off/prequel of the Harry Potter film series, and for its sequel, . In 2015, James Newton Howard was named the new artistic director of the Henry Mancini Institute (HMI) at the Phillip and Patricia Frost School of Music at the University of Miami in Coral Gables, Florida. On March 23–24, 2019, Los Angeles Chamber Orchestra gave the world premiere of Howard's Concerto for Cello & Orchestra with LACO principal cello Andrew Shulman as the soloist. The LA Times described the work as having "an elegiac tone, along with thematic material from the beginning and closing titles of 'Red Sparrow,'" the score of which Howard was working on while first composing the concerto. In May 2008, he was made an Honorary Member of the Royal Academy of Music. In October 2015, he was honored with the Max Steiner Film Music Achievement Award during the annual Hollywood in Vienna concert. List of film director and composer collaborations Full discography James Newton Howard at FilmMusicSite.com

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The history of the Philadelphia Eagles begins in 1933. In their history, the Eagles have appeared in the Super Bowl three times, losing in their first two appearances but winning the third, in 2018. They won three NFL Championships, the precursor to the Super Bowl, in four appearances. They have a total of four championship rings. The beginning era of the Eagles history, 1933 to 1939, was influenced by its owner, and then also coach, Bert Bell. After Bell ostensibly sold the team, to Alexis Thompson in 1940, the second era of the Eagles history was largely directed by their coach (and future Hall of Famer) Greasy Neale. In 1931, Philadelphia's NFL franchise, the Frankford Yellow Jackets, who had won the NFL Championship in 1926, went bankrupt and ceased operations midway through the season. After more than a year searching for a suitable replacement, the NFL granted an expansion franchise to a syndicate headed by former University of Pennsylvania teammates Lud Wray and Bert Bell. In exchange for an entry fee of $2,500, the Bell-Wray group was awarded the assets of the failed Yellow Jackets organization. Drawing inspiration from the insignia of the centerpiece of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal, specifically the National Recovery Act's "blue eagle," Bell and Wray named the new franchise the Philadelphia Eagles, with Bell as president and general manager and Wray as head coach. Although this makes it appear that the Yellow Jackets sat out the 1932 season and returned in 1933 as the Eagles, this is not the case. The Eagles do not claim the Yellow Jackets' history as their own, and neither they nor the NFL officially regard the two franchises as the same, citing the aforementioned period of dormancy. The Eagles simply inherited the NFL rights to the Philadelphia area. Further, Wray and Bell assembled an almost entirely new team; only a single player from the 1931 Yellow Jackets ended up with the 1933 Eagles. The new team played its first game on October 15, 1933, against the New York Giants at the Polo Grounds in New York City. They lost the game 56-0. The Eagles struggled over the course of their first decade, never winning more than four games. Their best finish was in their second season, 1934, when they finished tied for third in the East. For the most part, the Eagles' early rosters were composed of former Penn, Temple and Villanova players who put in a few years before going on to other things. In 1935, Bell proposed an annual college draft to equalize talent across a league that had been dominated by the Chicago Bears, Green Bay Packers and New York Giants. Between 1927 (the year the NFL changed from a sprawling Midwestern-based association to a narrower, major-market league) and 1934, the Bears, Packers and Giants had won all but one title (the lone exception being the Providence Steam Roller of 1928). The draft was a revolutionary concept in professional sports. Having teams select players in inverse order of their finish in the standings, a practice still followed today, strove to increase fan interest by guaranteeing that even the worst teams would have the opportunity for annual infusions of the best college talent. Having finished last in the standings, the Eagles had the first pick in the 1936 draft, an opportunity they used to select the University of Chicago's Heisman Trophy-winning back, Jay Berwanger. They then traded his rights to the Chicago Bears. Berwanger, who had no interest in playing professional football, elected to go to medical school instead. The Eagles' first major recruiting success would come in 1939, with the signing of Texas Christian's All-America quarterback, Davey O'Brien; O'Brien proceeded to shatter numerous existing single-season NFL passing records in his rookie season. That year, the Eagles participated in the first televised football game, against the football Brooklyn Dodgers, at Ebbets Field in Brooklyn (losing the game 23-14). The 1940s would prove a tumultuous and ultimately triumphant decade for the young club. In 1940, the team moved from Philadelphia Municipal Stadium to Shibe Park. Lud Wray's half-interest in the team was purchased by Art Rooney, who had just sold the Pittsburgh Steelers to Alexis Thompson. Soon thereafter, Bell/Rooney and Thompson swapped franchises, but not teams. Bell/Rooney's entire Eagles' corporate organization, including most of the players, moved to Pittsburgh (The Steelers' corporate name remained "Philadelphia Football Club, Inc." until 1945) and Thompson's Steelers moved to Philadelphia, leaving only the team nicknames in their original cities. Since NFL franchises are territorial rights distinct from individual corporate entities, the NFL does not consider this a franchise move and considers the current Philadelphia Eagles as a single unbroken entity from 1933. After assuming ownership, Thompson promptly hired Greasy Neale as the team's head coach. In its first years under Neale, the team continued to struggle. In 1943, when manpower shortages stemming from World War II made it impossible to fill the roster, the team temporarily merged with the Steelers to form a team popularly known as the "Steagles." The merger, never intended as a permanent arrangement, was dissolved at the end of the 1943 season. This season saw the team's first winning season in its 11-year history, with a finish of 5-4-1. In 1944, however, the Eagles finally experienced good fortune, as they made their finest draft pick to date: running back Steve Van Buren. At last, the team's fortunes were about to change. Led by Van Buren and Neale, the Eagles became a serious competitor for the first time. They had their first winning season as a separate team in 1944. After two more second-place finishes (in 1945 and 1946), the Eagles reached the NFL title game for the first time in 1947. Van Buren, end Pete Pihos, and Bosh Pritchard fought valiantly, but the young team fell to the Chicago Cardinals 28-21 at Chicago's Comiskey Park. Undeterred, the young squad rebounded and returned to face the Cardinals once more in the 1948 championship. With home-field advantage (and a blinding snowstorm) on their side, the Eagles won their first NFL Championship 7-0. Due to the severity of the weather, few fans were on hand to witness the joyous occasion. That would not be the case the following season, however, when the Eagles returned to the NFL championship game for the third consecutive year and won in dominating fashion in front of a large crowd in Los Angeles, beating the Los Angeles Rams 14-0. In Thompson's final draft, Chuck Bednarik was selected as the first overall pick in the 1949 NFL Draft. An All-American lineman/linebacker from the University of Pennsylvania, Bednarik would go on to become one of the greatest and most beloved players in Eagles history. The 1949 season also saw the sale of the team by Thompson to a syndicate of 100 buyers, known as the "Happy Hundred", each of whom paid a fee of $3,000 for their share of the team. While the leader of the "Happy Hundred" was noted Philadelphia businessman James P. Clark, one unsung investor was Leonard Tose, a name that would eventually become very familiar to Eagles fans. With the turn of the decade came another turn in team fortunes. The Eagles were slated to open the 1950 season against the AAFC champion Cleveland Browns, who had just (with the other AAFC franchises) joined the NFL. The Eagles were expected to make short work of the Browns, who were widely reckoned at the time as the dominant team in a lesser league. However, the Browns lit up the Eagles' vaunted defense for 487 total yards, including 246 passing yards, in a 35-10 rout. The Eagles never really recovered, and finished 6-6. Neale retired after the season and was replaced by Bo McMillin. Two games into the season, McMillin was forced to retire due to terminal stomach cancer. Wayne Millner finished out the season before being replaced by Jim Trimble. While the remnants of the great 1940s teams managed to stay competitive for the first few years of the decade, and while younger players like Bobby Walston and Sonny Jurgensen occasionally provided infusions of talent, the team lacked the stuff of true greatness for most of the 1950s. The Eagles considered trying to purchase Temple Stadium in 1952 when the team was unhappy with their lease at Shibe Park. Temple University claimed the property to have been appraised for $1 million and said they were uninterested in selling. In 1958, however, the franchise took key steps to improve, hiring Buck Shaw as Head Coach and acquiring Norm Van Brocklin in a trade with the Los Angeles Rams. That year also saw the team move from Connie Mack Stadium (formerly Shibe Park) to Franklin Field, and attendance doubled. The 1959 squad showed real flashes of talent, and finished in second place in the Eastern Division. 1960 remains the most celebrated year in Eagle history. Shaw, Van Brocklin and Chuck Bednarik (each in his last season before retirement) led a team more notable for its grit than its talent (one observer later quipped that the team had "nothing but a championship") to its first division title since 1949. The team was aided by their two Pro Bowl receivers, WR Tommy McDonald (who would later pen a short autobiography titled "They Pay Me to Catch Footballs") and TE Pete Retzlaff. On December 26, 1960, one of the coldest days in recorded Philadelphia history, the Eagles faced Vince Lombardi's Green Bay Packers in the NFL title game and dealt the mighty Lombardi the sole championship game loss of his storied career. Bednarik lined up at center on offense and at linebacker on defense. Fittingly, the game ended as Bednarik tackled a struggling Jim Taylor and refused to allow him to stand until the last seconds had ticked away. Flush with excitement from the 17-13 victory, with the talented Jurgensen poised to take the reins of the offense, the future looked promising. That promise, however, proved illusory. In 1961, the Eagles finished just a half-game behind the New York Giants for first place in the Eastern Conference standings with a 10-4 record. Despite the on-the-field success, however, the franchise was in turmoil. Van Brocklin had come to Philadelphia and agreed to play through 1960 with the tacit understanding that, upon his retirement as a player, he would succeed Shaw as head coach. Ownership, however, opted to promote assistant Nick Skorich instead, and Van Brocklin quit the organization in a fit of pique, instead becoming head coach of the expansion Minnesota Vikings. In 1962, the bottom dropped out as the team was decimated by injury, managed only three wins and were embarrassed at home 49-0 by the Packers. The off-field chaos would continue through 1963, as the remaining 65 shareholders out of the original Happy Hundred sold the team to Jerry Wolman, a 36-year-old millionaire Washington developer who outbid local bidders for the team, paying an unprecedented $5,505,000 for control of the club. In 1964, Wolman hired former Cardinals and Washington Redskins coach Joe Kuharich to a 15-year contract. Many people have heavily criticized Kuharich as a coach, as they say he wasted top-tier talent such as that of Jurgensen, Timmy Brown, Ollie Matson and Ben Hawkins and effectively ran the franchise into the ground. At Kuharich’s insistence, Jurgensen was traded to the Washington Redskins for Norm Snead in 1964: Jurgensen would go on to a Hall of Fame career while Snead, although serviceable, lacked the talent to lift the team out of mediocrity. By 1968, fans were in full revolt. Chants of “Joe must go” echoed through the increasingly empty bleachers of Franklin Field. Adding insult to injury, the Eagles managed to eke out meaningless wins in two of the last three games of the season, costing the franchise the first pick in the draft, and with it the opportunity to add O. J. Simpson to the roster. (With the second pick, the Eagles chose Leroy Keyes, who played only four years in an Eagles uniform.) The last game of 1968, played on December 15, helped cement the rowdy reputation of Philadelphia fans when some of them booed and threw snowballs at an actor playing Santa Claus. By 1969, Wolman had lost most of his fortune and was bankrupt, leaving the franchise under the administration of a federal bankruptcy court. At the end of the bankruptcy proceedings, the Eagles were sold to Leonard Tose, the self-made trucking millionaire and original member of the Happy Hundred. Tose's first official act was to fire Kuharich. With an earned reputation as a fast-living high-flier, Tose infused the organization with some much-needed panache. Initially, however, he ran the team with more enthusiasm than ability, as was exemplified by his choice to replace Kuharich, the hapless Jerry Williams. Tose also selected former Eagles great Pete Retzlaff as General Manager. In 1971, the Eagles moved from Franklin Field to brand-new Veterans Stadium. In its first season, the “Vet” was widely acclaimed as a triumph of ultra- modern sports engineering, a consensus that would be short-lived. Equally short-lived was Williams’s tenure as head coach: after a 3-10-1 record in 1970 and three consecutive blowout losses to Cincinnati, Dallas and San Francisco to open the 1971 season, Williams was fired and replaced by assistant Ed Khayat, a defensive lineman on the Eagles' 1960 NFL championship team. Williams and Khayat were hampered by Retzlaff's decision to trade longtime starting quarterback Norm Snead to the Minnesota Vikings in early 1971, leaving the Eagles a choice between journeyman Pete Liske and the raw Rick Arrington. Khayat lost his first two games, but won six of the final nine in 1971 thanks to the exploits of the defense, led by All-Pro safety Bill Bradley, who led the NFL in interceptions (11) and interception return yardage (248). The team regressed in 1972, and Khayat was released after the Eagles finished 2-11-1. The two wins (both on the road) proved to be surprises, however. Philadelphia beat Kansas City (which had the best record in the AFC a year before) 21-20 and Houston 18-17 on six field goals by kicker Tom Dempsey. The latter game became known as the "Johnny Rodgers Bowl", because the loser would finish with the worst record in the league and obtain the #1 draft pick of 1973, which was then assumed to be Nebraska wingback Johnny Rodgers. The Oilers ultimately got the #1 pick, which instead turned out to be University of Tampa defensive end John Matuszak (who would end up facing Philadelphia in the Super Bowl several years later). With the second pick, the Eagles selected USC tight end Charle Young. Khayat was replaced by offensive guru Mike McCormick, who, aided by the skills of Roman Gabriel and towering young receiver Harold Carmichael, managed to infuse a bit of vitality into a previously moribund offense. New general manager Jim Murray also began to add talent on the defensive side of the line, most notably through the addition of future Pro Bowl linebacker Bill Bergey. Overall, however, the team was still mired in mediocrity. McCormick was fired after a 4-10 1975 season, and replaced by a college coach unknown to most Philadelphians. That coach would become one of the most beloved names in Philadelphia sports history: Dick Vermeil. Vermeil faced numerous obstacles as he attempted to rejuvenate a franchise that had not seriously contended in well over a decade. Despite the team’s young talent and Gabriel’s occasional flashes of brilliance, the Eagles finished 1976 with the same result—a 4-10 record—as in 1975. 1977, however, saw the first seeds of hope begin to sprout. Rifle-armed quarterback Ron Jaworski was obtained by trade with the Los Angeles Rams in exchange for popular tight end Charlie Young. The defense, led by Bergey and defensive coordinator Marion Campbell, began earning a reputation as one of the hardest hitting in the league. By the next year, the Eagles had fully taken Vermeil’s enthusiastic attitude, and made the playoffs for the first time since 1960. Young running back Wilbert Montgomery became the first Eagle since Steve Van Buren to exceed 1,000 yards in a single season. (1978 also bore witness to one of the greatest, and unquestionably most surreal moment in Eagles history: "The Miracle at the Meadowlands," when Herman Edwards returned a late-game fumble by Giants' quarterback Joe Pisarcik for a touchdown with 20 seconds left, resulting in a 19-17 Eagles victory - the Eagles would later edge into the playoffs that year with a 9-7 season.) By 1979, in which the Eagles tied for first place with an 11-5 record and Wilbert Montgomery shattered club rushing records with a total of 1,512 yards, the Eagles were poised to join the NFL elite. In 1980, the team, led by coach Dick Vermeil, quarterback Ron Jaworski, running back Wilbert Montgomery, wide receiver Harold Carmichael, and linebacker Bill Bergey, dominated the NFC, facing its chief nemesis, the Dallas Cowboys, in the NFC Championship. The game was played in cold conditions in front of the Birds' faithful fans at Veterans Stadium. Led by an incredible rushing performance from Montgomery, whose long cutback TD run in the first half is surely one of the most memorable plays in Eagles history, and a gutsy performance from fullback Leroy Harris, who scored the Eagles' only other TD that day, the Birds earned a berth in Super Bowl XV with a 20-7 victory. The Eagles traveled to New Orleans for Super Bowl XV, which was played on January 25, 1981, and were heavy favorites to knock off the Oakland Raiders, who were merely a wild card team. Things did not go the Eagles' way, beginning with the disastrous decision by Tose to bring comedian Don Rickles into the pregame locker room to lighten the mood. Jaworski's first pass was intercepted by Rod Martin, setting up an Oakland touchdown. Later in the first quarter, a potential game-tying 40-yard touchdown pass to Rodney Parker was nullified by an illegal motion penalty, and the Raiders promptly marched down the field and scored again, making the score 14-3 at halftime. The Eagles finally managed to score a touchdown that counted early in the fourth quarter, but Jawordki's third interception of the day on a subsequent drive erased any hope of a comeback. The final score was 27-10. Veteran journeyman quarterback Jim Plunkett was named the game's MVP. In a bizarre coincidence, Joe Kuharich died on the same day. The Eagles got off to a great start in the 1981 season, winning their first six games. They eventually ended up 10-6 and earned a wild card berth. However, they were unable to repeat as NFC champs when they were knocked out in the wild card round by the New York Giants, 27-21. After the Eagles finished 3-6 in the strike-shortened 1982 season, Vermeil quit the team, citing "burnout." He was replaced by defensive coordinator Marion Campbell, aka "the Swamp Fox". Campbell had helped to popularize the "bend-don't-break" defensive strategy in the 1970s. Under Campbell, however, the team struggled, although his stewardship was notable in that it saw the arrival of all-time football greats Reggie White and Randall Cunningham. The 1983-85 seasons would see the Eagles go 5-11, 6-9-1, and 7-9, respectively. Campbell's reign of error ended in 1986, when Buddy Ryan was named head coach. Immediately infusing the team with his tough, hard-as-nails attitude, the Eagles quickly became known for their tough defense and tougher personalities. Ryan began rejuvenating the team by releasing several aging players, including Ron Jaworski. Randall Cunningham took his place, and despite a 5-10-1 season, he began showing considerable promise. 1987 saw another strike, reducing the season by one game. The substitutes who were filling in for the strikers turned in a poor performance, being crushed 41-22 by the Dallas Cowboys. After the strike ended, the regular Eagles team won a 37-20 revenge game against Dallas. The season record was 7-8, three games having been played by substitutes. The Eagles would reach the playoffs in 1988, but lost to the Chicago Bears 20-12 in what became known as the "Fog Bowl", due to the weather conditions during the game. The following two years would see playoff appearances as well, but the team could not make it past the first round. This failure was greatly frustrating to many Eagles fans, as the team was commonly acknowledged as among the most talented in the NFL. On offense, the Eagles were led by quarterback Cunningham, one of the most exciting players of his generation; tight end Keith Jackson; and running back Keith Byars. The defense is commonly acknowledged as among the greatest in league history, and as the best never to win a championship. The two 1989 matches with Dallas were known as the Bounty Bowls. Both were won easily by the Eagles (the Cowboys finished 1-15 that year), and were marked by Ryan insulting new Cowboys coach Jimmy Johnson, putting a "bounty" on their kicker, and for Eagles fans throwing snowballs on the season ender. On November 12, 1990, during a Monday Night Football game at the Vet, the Eagles crushed the Washington Redskins by a score of 28-14, with the defense scoring three of the team's four touchdowns. More lopsided than its score would indicate, the game quickly acquired the sobriquet "the Body Bag Game", attesting to the physical damage inflicted by the tougher Eagles squad. The Eagles knocked out the starting Washington quarterback, and then seriously injured his replacement as well. Running back Brian Mitchell, who would later be signed by the Eagles, was forced to play quarterback for the Redskins. Unfortunately, the Redskins returned to Veterans stadium in the first round of the playoffs and defeated the Eagles 20-6, ending their season. Buddy Ryan was fired at the end of the season. Despite his tough talk, the Eagles failed to win a playoff game in the five years he had been head coach. In 1991, the Eagles became the first NFL team since 1975 to rank first in the league in both rushing and passing yardage allowed, but with the loss of Randall Cunningham to an ACL tear in week 1 and competing in a strong division were unable to reach the playoffs despite a 10-6 record. Along with White, notable defensive stars included Jerome Brown, Clyde Simmons, Seth Joyner, Eric Allen, Wes Hopkins, and Andre Waters. With Ryan's firing by Norman Braman, Ryan's former Offensive Coordinator, Rich Kotite, took the helm of the franchise. Although Cunningham suffered a season-ending ACL tear in the season opener, veteran backup QB Jim McMahon performed admirably in his stead and the Eagles still made a respectable showing, missing the playoffs on a tiebreaker. In 1992, Kotite led the Eagles back into the postseason with an 11-5 record. In the Wild Card Round, the Eagles soundly defeated the New Orleans Saints by a final score of 36-20. The Eagles were eliminated by Dallas in the next round (34-10). At the end of the season, DE Reggie White would leave the team through free agency. In the 1992 NFL Off-season, DT Jerome Brown died in a high-speed automobile crash on June 25. In 1993 and 1994, Kotite's Eagles would fall apart after initially promising starts, and missed the playoffs in each season, going 8-8 and 7-9. By this point, Braman had become unpopular among most local fans and a polarizing presence in the front office. Under rising scrutiny and deflating optimism, he sold the team to current owner Jeffrey Lurie. Almost Lurie's first act was to fire Kotite. Lurie's choice to replace Kotite was San Francisco 49ers Defensive Coordinator Ray Rhodes, who successfully lobbied 49ers star Ricky Watters to join the team as a free agent. In 1995, Rhodes's first season, the Eagles got off to a slow start by losing 3 out their first 4 games: they subsequently rebounded, finishing with a 10-6 record and a playoff spot. In the Wild Card Round, the Eagles played at home and overwhelmed the Detroit Lions 58-37, with 31 of Philadelphia's points coming in the second quarter alone. Despite this dominating performance, yet again, the Eagles were eliminated in the next round by the Cowboys (30-11). Ironically, this would be Randall Cunningham's last game as an Eagle. Cunningham would score the only touchdown of the game and the last Eagles post season touchdown for six years. 1995 was Cunningham's final season as starting quarterback. Rhodes benched Cunningham in favor of Rodney Peete, leading to friction between the two. Before the benching, news reports circulated that Lurie and Rhodes tried to trade Cunningham to the Arizona Cardinals. However, no such trade was executed and Cunningham retired shortly after the season. In 1996, the Eagles donned new uniforms featuring a darker shade of green. They got off to a good start, winning three of their first four games. However, a week-5 Monday night game at Veterans Stadium against the hated Cowboys would witness a season-ending knee injury to Peete and the loss of the team's momentum, and the transition to an offense led by Ty Detmer and Watters. While Detmer played well and Watters rushed for 1,411 yards, the season followed an all-too-familiar pattern: 10-6 record, and early elimination (a 14-0 shutout by the 49ers) in the playoffs. The continued early playoff exits led to fans and local media blaming the high priced free agent signings (Irving Fryar, Watters, Troy Vincent, and Guy McIntyre) for not stepping up in big games, most notably the postseason. Rhodes gradually deteriorated under the stress of the job, and players were beginning to grow tired of his brash demeanor and often autocratic coaching style. After an up-and-down 6-9-1 campaign in 1997, the bottom fell out in 1998. The Eagles suffered a 3-13 record—the worst in franchise history, as each of Philadelphia's three quarterbacks won one game. They were ranked dead last in numerous offensive statistics. Home game attendance was declining, a quarterback controversy was deteriorating an already rudderless locker room, and the players had all but tuned out the embattled coaching staff. Left with little choice after a disastrous season, fan revolt and sagging team morale, Lurie fired Rhodes. Resurgence would come under the leadership of new head coach Andy Reid, who began by drafting Syracuse QB Donovan McNabb with the #2 pick in the 1999 draft (the Eagles would have had the #1 pick, but it was awarded to the rebooted Cleveland Browns). Despite clearing up roster space for new talent by releasing unpopular, aging veterans (such as Watters and Irving Fryar), Reid was still a virtual unknown at the time of his selection as head coach, and his appointment was met with considerable skepticism in Philadelphia. McNabb was also not considered a good choice to draft by Eagles fans. When he was drafted, many Eagles fans booed the selection, believing that the Eagles should draft Ricky Williams. The choices proved wise, however: with Reid leading the way and McNabb emerging as one of the game's great players. However, 1999 was a rebuilding year and so the Eagles only won five games and game attendance was still looking stale as two home games were not sold out - resulting in local TV blackouts- while the other 6 were only sold out due to several small business owners purchasing the remainder of the unsold tickets to spare TV viewers. The Week 5 game, on Sunday, October 10, 1999, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, saw Dallas WR Michael Irvin suffer a career-ending spinal injury where Eagles fans stood up and cheered as he lay on the field. Even the TV commentators expressed their disgust at this behavior. The 2000 season saw the team go 11-5, reaching the playoffs as a wildcard which rejuvenated the fan base and optimism. After brushing aside the Tampa Bay Buccaneers 21-3, the Eagles moved to the second round of the playoffs, only to lose a 20-10 game against the Giants. The 2000 regular season opener in Dallas (September 3), became known in NFL lore as the "Pickle Juice Game". Kickoff temperature in Texas Stadium was 109 degrees Fahrenheit and soared to nearly 120, making it the hottest game in league history, beating a previous record set during the 1997 Cowboys-Cardinals match in Arizona. The nickname came about because a certain Eagles trainer had been preparing for the projected high temperatures by having the players drink the juice from jars of dill pickles in order to retain body moisture and stave off cramps and heat exhaustion. The experiment proved a success as the Cowboys lost the game 44-14 and had multiple players benched for inability to handle the brutal temperatures (the Eagles had no players benched). The game also had significance because it marked the beginning of Philadelphia's domination of the NFC East and the end of the Cowboys' dominance. After compiling an 11-5 record in 2001, the Eagles reached the playoffs again, this time at the top of their division. In a near-rerun of the previous year, they disposed of the Buccaneers in a 31-9 game. In the second round, the Eagles defeated the Bears 33-19 at Soldier Field. Reaching the NFC Championship game, they were unable to stop the St. Louis Rams, who defeated them 29-24 Despite injuries, McNabb led the Eagles to a 12-4 season in 2002. Once again, they reached the NFC Championship, but lost at home 27-10 to the eventual Super Bowl champion Tampa Bay Buccaneers in the last game at Veterans Stadium. The 2003 team lost its first two games, both at their new home. In the opening game of the 2003 season, the Eagles were shut out 17-0 by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in the first regular-season game ever played at Lincoln Financial Field. Once again, the team went 12-4 for the season. By reaching the conference championship game in the same year as this defeat, they became the first team in modern history to get that far in the postseason after having been shut out at home in its first game. They achieved that distinction despite getting only five touchdown catches all year from their wide receivers, which tied the league low since the regular-season schedule was lengthened to its present 16 games in 1978 (this record would be broken in 2004 when the New York Giants' wide receivers caught only two touchdown passes). The Eagle receivers even went through both September and October without a TD catch -- the last time an NFL team had done that was in 1945. The Eagles actively pursued premier wide receiver Terrell Owens, and acquired him in a controversial three-way deal with the Baltimore Ravens and the San Francisco 49ers, on March 16, 2004. Owens would often feud with McNabb, and was released by the Eagles after the 2005 season. The 2004 season began with a bang as Owens caught three touchdown passes from McNabb in their season opener against the New York Giants. Owens would end up with exactly 1,200 receiving yards and 14 touchdown receptions, although his season ended prematurely with an ankle injury on December 19, 2005 against the Dallas Cowboys. Their 12-7 victory in this game gave them home field advantage throughout the conference playoffs for the third year in a row. [This distinction also includes a "bye" in the first round (also known as the Wild Card Round) of the playoffs, which the top two teams in each conference receive.] The Eagles tied a record by clinching the NFC East division crown (their fourth straight such title) after only their eleventh game of the season, matching the mark set by the 1985 Chicago Bears and the 1997 San Francisco 49ers. Their final two regular-season games thus rendered meaningless, the Eagles sat out most of their first-string players in these games and lost them both, yet still finished with a 13-3 record, their best 16-game season ever. McNabb had his finest season to date, passing for 3,875 yards and 31 touchdowns, with only eight interceptions. This made him the first quarterback in NFL history to throw 30 or more TD passes and fewer than 10 interceptions in a single regular season. They then began their playoff run with the Divisional round at home against the sixth-seeded Minnesota Vikings. The Eagles led from the start and never looked back, as McNabb led a very efficient passing attack (21 of 33 for 286 yards and 2 TDs), Brian Westbrook dominated on the ground with 70 rushing yards, and Freddie Mitchell performed very well on the receiving corps (5 receptions for 65 yards and a TD), as Philadelphia won 27-14, setting up their fourth-straight NFC Championship appearance. The Eagles' futility in Conference Championship games had become notorious. In 2002, the Eagles had fallen in the NFC Championship Game against the Rams in St. Louis, 29-24. In 2003, the Eagles hosted the Tampa Bay Buccaneers at Veterans Stadium and were widely viewed as the overwhelming favorites—this view no doubt accentuated by the expected emotional boost that many anticipated would power the team, given that the game was to be the last at "the Vet." After a promising start, however, the game slipped away, and the ensuing 27-10 loss devastated a fan base that had already become too accustomed to disappointment. In 2004, a banged-up Eagles squad managed to overcome numerous injuries, particularly to its defense, to reach the NFC Championship for the third year in a row, only to suffer a heartbreaking 14-3 loss against the Carolina Panthers. On January 23, 2005, the Eagles reached a fourth consecutive conference championship game (the first time this happened in the salary cap era of the NFL). At long last, the Eagles justified the hopes of their long-suffering fan base, defeating Michael Vick's much-hyped Atlanta Falcons, 27-10, sending them to their first Super Bowl in 24 years. The victory sent the city of Philadelphia into wild celebrations. With two Super Bowl wins under their belt, the defending champion New England Patriots were heavily favored. McNabb had a great game with 357 yards and three touchdowns, but he also threw three interceptions. Terell Owens returned despite his injury, and caught 122 yards on 9 catches. The game was a defensive struggle through the third quarter, but in the fourth, the Patriots took the lead, with the Eagles trailing ten points. The early game struggle left everyone exhausted, and for his best efforts, McNabb scored one touchdown, but could not get the team within field goal range on the final drive. He was picked off in the closing seconds of the game. The final score was 24-21, and the Patriots had won their third Super Bowl in four years. The defending NFC Champions did not fare well the next year. The season was tainted by a locker room division started by Terrell Owens, who argued that he should be paid more following the Super Bowl season. The 2005 season began in a strange and erratic fashion with a 14-10 road loss to the Atlanta Falcons on Monday Night Football, a game in which Donovan McNabb suffered a chest bruise. In addition, Eagles linebacker Jeremiah Trotter was ejected prior to kick-off for getting involved in an altercation with Falcons cornerback Kevin Mathis. In the Week 2 home opener in Philadelphia, the Eagles defeated the San Francisco 49ers in a rout 42-3; however, McNabb was diagnosed with a sports hernia following the game. Weeks 3 and 4 saw the Eagles struggle somewhat but still manage to defeat the Oakland Raiders (23-20) and mount a stunning comeback from an 18-point deficit to defeat the Kansas City Chiefs at Arrowhead Stadium (37-31). In week 5, the Eagles were manhandled by the Dallas Cowboys in Texas Stadium, losing by 23 points (33-10). Following a bye week, the Eagles pulled off a miraculous 20-17 win against the San Diego Chargers when cornerback Matt Ware returned a blocked field goal for a touchdown in the fourth quarter. Fans hoped the play would “wake up” the Eagles and save the season similar to Brian Westbrook's fourth quarter punt return against the New York Giants in 2003. However, in the next week, the Eagles were unable to stop the running and passing attack of the Denver Broncos, losing 49-21. Week after week, Andy Reid had come under criticism for the Eagles' lack of dedication to a running game and overworking an injured Donovan McNabb, who was on pace to break the records for all-time passing attempts and completions. The Eagles had also allowed themselves to get behind in the first quarters of games, only to end up fighting from behind in the remaining quarters. Some analysts speculated the Eagles' problems were due to not finding replacements for former defensive linemen Corey Simon and Derrick Burgess, poor pass rush, poor special teams, and the contract disputes with Brian Westbrook and Terrell Owens, along with Owens' virtually weekly controversies. They had also been hindered by injuries to McNabb, Correll Buckhalter, Todd Pinkston, Lito Sheppard, Dirk Johnson, and David Akers. On November 4, 2005, on ESPN, Terrell Owens criticized the Eagles front office for not recognizing his 100th touchdown catch. He also agreed with Michael Irvin's statement that the Eagles would be undefeated had Brett Favre been the quarterback. Despite Owens's apology the next day to the front office (but not to McNabb), he was suspended indefinitely. There were also reports that he got into a fist fight with Hugh Douglas and challenged other players in the locker room which contributed to his suspension. At Andy Reid's press conference after the Washington loss, he announced T.O. would no longer be playing this year for the Eagles due to conduct detrimental to the team. Things only got worse for the Eagles. They lost a Sunday night match-up to their division rival, the Washington Redskins 17-10. Then, when they went home and played a rematch with their much-hated rival, the Cowboys, on Monday Night Football, a late game interception by Roy Williams sealed their doom. Not only did they lose 21-20, but the already suffering Donovan McNabb got shoved to the ground, worsening his sports hernia and ending his season. On November 20, former Detroit quarterback Mike McMahon was named the Eagles starter. However, his wild gun passing didn't do much to phase the Giants, as the Eagles went down again 27-17. Then, on November 21 Donovan McNabb announced that he would undergo surgery for his sports hernia. The Eagles would finish the season without at least eight of their projected starters heading into the season, including Pinkston, Hank Fraley, Dirk Johnson, and Pro Bowlers McNabb, Brian Westbrook, Lito Sheppard, Tra Thomas, and the exiled Owens. Their next-to-last win of the season came a week later against the injury-ravaged Green Bay Packers 19-14. At a home game on December 5, on Monday Night Football, the Eagles retired #92, which had belonged to the late Reggie White. Unfortunately, they got shut out by the NFC West and eventual NFC champion Seattle Seahawks 42-0. Afterwards, they lost to the Giants at home 26-2. Their last win of the season came on the road against the St. Louis Rams 17-16. Then they lost their last two games of the season to the Arizona Cardinals on the road 27-21 and then at home to the wild card Washington Redskins 31-20. They ended their 2005 season at 6-10, which marked the first time since 1999 that the Eagles failed to make the playoffs. After expectations of a return to the Super Bowl, it appeared the Eagles would have to retool in the 2006 off-season to make another run for the Vince Lombardi Trophy. In 2006, the Eagles started off hot, beating the Houston Texans in Houston 24-10. And they kept the streak going, jumping to a 24-7 lead against the Giants before losing 30-24 in overtime. They won their next two games easily, beating the 49ers in San Francisco and then returning home to limit Brett Favre's Packers to three field goals. The Birds' 3-1 record set the stage for Terrell Owens' return to Philadelphia. Owens return to Philadelphia was being promoted by Fox as the "game of the year". The game had more at stake, because the winner would take the lead in the NFC East. Owens received boos and jokes about his accidental overdose from a sell-out crowd. Lito Sheppard's game- winning interception for a touchdown sealed the game for the Eagles, 38-24. McNabb's season was already considered one of the finest in Eagles history and his career. After the win against Owens' Cowboys, they faced the upstart New Orleans Saints, with critics claiming the winner would be the NFC favorite. The Eagles ended up losing 27-24 on a last second field goal. The next week at Tampa, the Eagles would once again lose on a last second field goal. This time the field goal was an improbable 62 yarder by Matt Bryant - the second longest in NFL History. One week before their bye, the Eagles faced the Jacksonville Jaguars and failed to score a touchdown in a 13-6 loss. After their bye, they routed the Redskins, which not only kept Reid/McNabb perfect after the bye week, it put them back on track after three consecutive losses. The Birds were on a roll going into their match with Vince Young's Titans, but were dominated throughout the game, losing 31-13. The bigger loss however was Donovan McNabb - who suffered a season ending injury for the second straight year. With Donovan McNabb going down to injury, the Eagles called on Jeff Garcia to lead the team. The move was a highly unpopular one, because fans believed A.J. Feeley was their best bet. After falling to Peyton Manning's Indianapolis Colts, the Eagles' record stood at 5-6, and they did not appear to be in playoff contention. However, Garcia led the team to an improbable five-game winning streak, which included a three-game NFC East road trip and a Christmas showdown in Dallas. The Eagles finished the season 10-6, but lost the tie- breaker to the Saints, meaning they would be the third seed. The Eagles won their home wild card game against the Giants 23-20, on a David Akers' field goal. The game officially sent Tiki Barber into retirement. Their divisional playoff game was a Week 6 rematch against the Saints. The Eagles lost by the same score as in the regular season: 27-24. Andy Reid made the controversial decision to punt with less than two minutes remaining. 2007 marked the Eagles' 75th season. The Eagles drafted quarterback Kevin Kolb from Houston, signaling a possible life beyond Mcnabb. McNabb delivered average performances, and missed three games due to an injury. The team only achieved an 8-8 record and missed the playoffs. The beginning of 2008 presented a good opportunity for the Eagles. Donovan McNabb got a good start to the season, Brian Westbrook ran for many touchdowns, and rookie receiver DeSean Jackson became an important figure in the Eagles' passing game. However, the Eagles went against the 1-8 Bengals in Week 10 and McNabb played horribly, throwing consistent interceptions and leading the Eagles to a ten-point deficit at the half. Despite being able to score those ten points, the game went into overtime. A Bengals missed field goal led to Eagles ball, but McNabb's 'Hail Mary' was deflected with seconds left in overtime, and the game ended in a 13-13 tie, the first since 2002. McNabb then sparked controversy by admitting that he was unaware that an NFL game could end in a tie. Against Baltimore, things were even worse. At halftime, due to bad performance, McNabb was benched. However, the Eagles needed him, and it would show. His backup, Kevin Kolb, managed to get the Eagles to the Baltimore two-yard line; he then threw an interception in the end zone that was returned by Ed Reed for a record 107-yard touchdown. By this time, it was obvious that the Eagles needed a good quarterback for the next week's match-up against the Arizona Cardinals, who for the first time in several decades seemed poised to win their division. The game was scheduled for Thanksgiving night, and the decision was eventually made to start Donovan McNabb, but if he played like he did in the last couple of weeks, he would probably be benched for the season. But McNabb surprised everyone and led the Eagles to what was perhaps one of the greatest games in franchise history, a 48-21 blowout in which McNabb threw for four touchdowns. The Eagles went on a three-game win streak following up the Cardinals victory with wins over the Giants and Browns. The Eagles then lost to a mediocre at best Redskins team, 10-3 and putting their post season prospects in serious doubt. O n December 28, 2008, the Eagles needed Oakland Raiders (4-11) to defeat the Tampa Bay Buccaneers (9-6), and either the Minnesota Vikings (9-6) losing to the New York Giants (12-3) or the Chicago Bears (8-7) losing to Houston Texans (7-8), on top of the Eagles needing to beat the Cowboys at 4:00. However, getting the help that they needed earlier in the day, the Eagles were able to run over the Dallas Cowboys 44-6 and advanced to the playoffs. The Raiders were down 24-14 and came back to win, and the game was being shown and watched by Eagles fans at Lincoln Financial Field before the Eagles-Cowboys game. The Eagles then defeated the Minnesota Vikings 26-14 in the first round of the playoffs on January 4, 2009. They defeated their division rival and the defending Super Bowl champions the New York Giants 23-11 in the NFC Divisional Round to advance to their fifth NFC Championship game in nine years. For the third time in a decade, an all-Pennsylvania Super Bowl seemed possible, as the Pittsburgh Steelers won the AFC Championship against the Baltimore Ravens. However, the Eagles lost 32-25 to the Arizona Cardinals. In August, the team stirred up controversy by signing ex-Falcons quarterback Michael Vick, who had recently been released from prison for federal dogfighting charges. On the regular season opener against Carolina, McNabb sustained a broken rib and sat out the next two games, with Kevin Kolb taking his place as starter. Afterwards, Philadelphia endured a bad loss to New Orleans, but then beat Kansas City the following week. McNabb returned, and Vick also began playing (as he had been barred from the first two games). He got off to a slow start and was used sparingly for much of the season. After a 13-9 loss in Oakland, the Eagles defeated the Redskins 27-17 on Monday Night Football. During this game, running back Brian Westbrook suffered a severe concussion and was knocked unconscious. He returned to play in the Week 10 game against San Diego, but was felled by a second concussion. Afterwards, Philadelphia went on a five-game winning streak and clinching a playoff berth after defeating the Broncos in Week 16, which marked Brian Westbrook's return to action after an absence of five weeks. However, the season ended with a whimper, as they were shut out by a resurgent Cowboys squad the following week. This put Dallas at the top of the NFC East and gave the Eagles a wild card spot. The two teams then had to play again the following week, but Philadelphia went down to defeat a second time, the score being 34-14. On January 11, 2010, General Manager Tom Heckert was hired by the Cleveland Browns in the same role. He was replaced by Howie Roseman, who was promoted from Vice President of Player Personnel. On February 23, 2010 the Eagles released starting running back Brian Westbrook, Eagles' all-time leader in yards from scrimmage with 9,785 yards. A bigger surprise came on Easter Sunday, when the team traded quarterback Donovan McNabb to their division rival Washington Redskins for a second-round (37th overall) pick in the 2010 NFL Draft, and a third- or fourth-round pick in the 2011 NFL Draft. Kevin Kolb was named team's starting quarterback. The Kolb era did not begin on a positive note as the Eagles donned their throwback kelly green jerseys and hosted the Green Bay Packers in their opening game as both teams performed poorly in the first half, although that was partially because of weather conditions and damaged turf in Lincoln Financial Field. Kolb was thrown to the ground by Packers linebacker Clay Matthews and was forced to sit out the rest of the game after it was determined that he suffered a concussion. Five other Packers and Eagles players were also injured in the game. Michael Vick replaced Kolb, but the Packers ended up winning the game, 27-20, the Packers' first win in Philadelphia since 1962 and their first-ever win on Lincoln Financial Field. With Vick taking over as starter, the Eagles traveled and defeated the Detroit Lions 35-32 in week 2 with Vick's impressive performance in the team's offense. Although Kolb was presumed to be the starter after he recovered from injury, Andy Reid named Vick as the starting quarterback instead. The team then traveled to Jacksonville. Vick scored four touchdowns (three passing and one rushing) and no interceptions in a 28-3 rout of the Jaguars. Week 4 saw the return of McNabb to Philadelphia. He was generally given a warm reception, and the Redskins got a touchdown early in the first quarter. After that, both offenses sputtered and the Eagles had to settle for two field goals. But things rapidly fell apart when Vick was injured late in the first quarter with chest and rib injuries he suffered when two Redskins defensive backs crushed him from both sides while running near to the endzone. Kolb was once again brought out as starter, but delivered an uninspired performance. He did manage a touchdown pass in the fourth quarter, but it was too little too late. A two-point conversion attempt after the touchdown failed, and Washington won 16-12. Afterward, Vick was diagnosed with cracked cartilage and forced to sit out at least one game. With Kolb starting, the Eagles headed to San Francisco for a Sunday Night Football match against the 0-4 49ers. Kolb passed for 253 yards and one touchdown to lead his team to a 27-24 victory. Philadelphia won its first home game in week 6 by overpowering the Falcons 31-17. Kolb continued to improve, passing for 326 yards, three touchdown passes, and one interception. However, he was not able to sustain this momentum in the week 8 game against Tennessee, throwing two interceptions and only one touchdown. The Eagles lost 37-19 to enter their bye week at 4-3, and once again Vick was brought out as starter prior to hosting Indianapolis in week 10. This game proved an intense, highly physical contest as Vick scored two touchdowns (one passing and one rushing) and Philadelphia overcame stubborn resistance by the Colts to win 27-24. Afterwards, the Eagles headed to Washington, where, for the second year in a row, they faced the Redskins on Monday Night Football. Philadelphia quickly marched out to two touchdowns in the first quarter, putting them up at 14-0 within five minutes. By the second quarter, they had scored another two, leading by 28 points. Four more touchdowns followed in a 59-28 blowout of Washington. All in all, there were eight (four passing, three rushing, and one interception return), six of which were from Michael Vick, who had 333 passing and 80 rushing yards for one of the finest performances of his career. For the third season in a row, the Eagles traveled to Chicago, a team that Michael Vick had a career 0-4 record against. This time would be no different as the Bears' defense slowed him down to win 31-26. Vick also threw his first interception of the season. The Eagles rebounded with a Thursday game against Houston. Despite winning 34-24, Philadelphia's defense turned in a relatively mediocre performance, which may have had to do with the fact that the team had played four games in a 17-day stretch. On Sunday Night in Week 14, the Eagles headed to Dallas for a game with their arch-rivals. However, the Cowboys were a considerably weaker team than when they defeated Philadelphia three times in 2009. Their QB Tony Romo was out of commission from an injury, they had had their head coach Wade Phillips fired halfway through the season, and they were barely clinging to life at 4-9. Michael Vick delivered an average performance, although one of the game's highlights was a 90-yard TD pass to DeSean Jackson. Although Andy Reid had gained a reputation as a pass-happy coach, the Eagles' scoring was mainly based on run plays and long field goals. Despite a close game, they prevailed 30-27 and eliminated Dallas from playoff contention. In Week 15, the Eagles beat New York in a shocking upset by overcoming a 21-point deficit in the second half. In the closing seconds of the game, DeSean Jackson returned a punt 65 yards for a touchdown to win 38-31. This became known as the Miracle at the New Meadowlands. After locking up their first division title in four years, the Eagles played a surprisingly bad game against Minnesota and lost. The team lost a meaningless season ender against Dallas before preparing to host Green Bay again in the wild card round of the playoffs. Despite playing the Packers hard, Philadelphia's first home playoff game since 2006 ended in defeat 21-16 as Vick threw a hail mary interception in the closing minute of the 4th quarter. Pro bowler David Akers, who had one of the best seasons ever by a kicker, also contributed to the loss having a rare poor game going 1 for 3, missing from 34 & 41 yards. The off-season was marred by a lockout that began in March after the NFL's collective bargaining agreement expired, making practices, trades, and free agency impossible. During the draft, the Eagles did comparatively little. After the lockout ended in July, the team embarked on a rash of high-profile FA signings, including Raiders CB Nnamdi Asomugha, Dolphins RB Ronnie Brown, Giants WR Steve Smith, Packers TE Donald Lee, Titans DE Jason Babin, Packers DT Cullen Jenkins, and Cardinals CB Dominique Rodgers-Cromartie. Meanwhile, Kevin Kolb, displeased at losing the starting QB job to Michael Vick in 2010, was traded to Arizona for Cromartie. Replacing him as 2nd-stringer was ex- Titans QB Vince Young. Vince Young made a lot of hype by calling Philadelphia the "Dream Team". Although the Eagles won their 2011 opener in St. Louis, the Dream Team failed to deliver as Michael Vick fell victim to injuries and turnovers. The Eagles lost four straight games. With Vince Young taking over, Philadelphia beat the Washington Redskins at last in Week 6. In Week 8, Vick returned to help crush the Cowboys at home 34-7. After further losses to Chicago and Arizona, the Eagles beat the New York Giants and then fell to New England and Seattle before winning their final four matches and finishing 8-8. The Eagles entered 2012 with strong hopes after winning their last 4 games of last season. When the team started 3-1, including a 24-23 victory over the eventual Super Bowl champion Baltimore Ravens, the fans were thinking playoffs, even Super Bowl. However, these hopes came to a crashing halt as the team lost their next 8 and 11 of their next 12 to finish 4-12, their worst record since 1998. After a Michael Vick injury in week 10 against the Dallas Cowboys, Nick Foles stepped in and made his Philadelphia debut. In week 14, at the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Nick Foles led his offense on a game winning TD drive, throwing a touchdown to Jeremy Maclin with 1 second left in the game to record his first win as an Eagle. The Eagles proceeded to fire Andy Reid, the longest-tenured and winningest coach in team history. Reid would later join the Kansas City Chiefs as head coach. After the firing of Andy Reid, Chip Kelly was named head coach of the Eagles on January 16, 2013 after a successful four-year reign manning the sidelines at the University of Oregon. Kelly was known for his up tempo approach to football which helped him make the University of Oregon a premier college organization. In his first season in professional football, Kelly produced a 10-6 record and an NFC East championship, becoming just the second head coach in league history to win a division title in his first season in the NFL. During the start of the season Michael Vick got injured, and backup Nick Foles took over. Nick Foles would become the surprise of the NFL as he would end the season with 27 touchdowns and only 2 interceptions with one game at the Oakland Raiders in which he threw for 7 touchdowns in one game, tying an NFL record. Along the way, the Eagles set a plethora of team records, including points (442), total net yards (6,676), touchdowns (53), passing yards (4,406) and fewest turnovers (19). The Eagles also set an NFL record with 99 plays of 20+ yards and became the first team since the 1991 Buffalo Bills to lead the league in rushing while ranking last in time of possession. Individually, RB LeSean McCoy set the franchise record for rushing yards and scrimmage yards in a season in 2013, while QB Nick Foles had the 3rd best QB rating in NFL history in 2013. By week 17, the division race between the Cowboys and Eagles culminated to a must win, winner-takes-all, loser-goes-home Sunday night matchup between the Eagles and Cowboys in Dallas. After a hard fought game, the game came down to the final two minutes, with the Cowboys down by 2 and having possession of the ball. However, not far into the potentially game winning drive, cornerback Brandon Boykin intercepted an under thrown pass to win the game and the division. The Eagles preceded to the playoffs for the first time since 2010. However, they would not make it far as they were defeated by the New Orleans Saints in the Wild Card Round of the playoffs. At the end of the game, the Saints made a game-winning field goal as time expired after a 7 minute drive drained the clock. In 2014 a lot of expectations were set on the team after what seemed like a successful first year for Chip Kelly. The Eagles started off as a force to be reckoned with, enjoying a 6-2 record with both losses having been on the road and ending with failed red zone attempts at game winning touchdowns. Nick Foles' 2014 season would end during Week 9, however, where he broke his collarbone in a win against the Houston Texans. Mark Sanchez would take over for the rest of the season for the Eagles. They would collapse from their 9-3 record near the end of the season to go 10-6 again, but miss the playoffs due to losing their division to the Dallas Cowboys and tiebreakers. After beating the Cowboys on Thanksgiving to put themselves in good position to win the division, the Eagles then lost the next two, against the Seahawks and at home against the Cowboys to hand the division lead back to the Cowboys. Philadelphia had the 6th best record in the NFC, but the NFC South winners, the 7-8-1 Carolina Panthers, took a playoff spot for winning the division, thus leaving the 10-6 Eagles out of the playoffs. With the 2015 season, Chip Kelly was given full control which he used to revamp the roster into something he preferred. Offensive stalwarts such as LeSean McCoy, Jeremy Maclin, Nick Foles, and Evan Mathis were either traded, released, or not resigned, often to the chagrin of Eagles fans. The new quarterback of the Eagles was Sam Bradford. In a surprise free agent signing, Chip Kelly also acquired the previous season's rushing yard leader, DeMarco Murray, from the rival Dallas Cowboys. LeSean McCoy was traded for Kiko Alonso from the Buffalo Bills. Many changes were made with the offense to better fit Chip Kelly's fast-paced offense. The new roster didn't work out as the Eagles would go 7-9, and miss the playoffs, however, this was in part due to an injury suffered by Sam Bradford in week 9 during a home game against the Dolphins. Weeks 9-11, in which the Eagles played vs. Dolphins, vs. Buccaneers, and at the Lions on Thanksgiving, were supposed to be the easiest stretch of the season for Philadelphia. In the 3rd quarter of the game against Miami, when the Eagles were leading, Sam Bradford exited the game with an injury that would sideline him for the remainder of that game and for the next two games. Mark Sanchez took his place and went on to throw an interception in the end zone in a potential game winning TD drive. Sanchez's offense went on to be blown out in the next two games, scoring no more than 17 in each. Bradford came back in week 12, and beat the strong favorites, the New England Patriots, on the road. Kelly was fired as head coach with one game remaining on the season. After Chip Kelly, Doug Pederson was announced head coach on January 18, 2016, his first NFL head coaching job. The Eagles traded up for the second overall draft pick and chose North Dakota State quarterback Carson Wentz in the 2016 NFL Draft. The season started off well for the Eagles when they went 3-0 to start the season (Doug Pederson would become the first head coach in franchise history to win their first three games). However, the lack of weapons for Carson Wentz and his lack of experience would catch up to them as the Eagles would go 4-9 in their final 13 games, and end the season 7-9 again and miss the playoffs. During the offseason, a lot of changes were made in the receiving corps and running back position to help Wentz. This would end up working as the Eagles would soar to the top of the NFL with a 13-3 record which gave them their first NFC East Championship since 2013, and gave them a first round bye for the first time since the 2004 season which was the last time they last went to the Super Bowl. Carson Wentz improved drastically during the season in which he threw for 33 touchdowns and only 7 interceptions. His potential MVP season came to an end though during Week 14 against the Los Angeles Rams where he tore his ACL, and would be out for the rest of the year. Nick Foles, who returned to the Eagles after having short stints with the Rams (then St. Louis Rams) and Chiefs (where Andy Reid was coaching), would take over. His shaky performances during the end of the regular season made the team become underdogs during the playoffs despite being the number one seed. The Eagles would beat the Atlanta Falcons 15-10 in the Divisional Round which was their first playoff win since the 2008 season. The divisional game in Atlanta ended with a 4th down stop at the goal line as Matt Ryan's pass sailed through star WR Julio Jones' hands after having been stopped on 1st, 2nd, and 3rd. The Eagles went on to face the Minnesota Vikings in the NFC Championship. The game would end up being a surprising blowout with the Eagles dominating the Vikings 38-7 to go to the Super Bowl for the first time since the 2004 season. The Eagles would face Tom Brady and the New England Patriots in a rematch of Super Bowl XXXIX at Super Bowl LII. The Eagles would end up winning the game 41-33 to give the Eagles their first Super Bowl Championship and their first championship since the 1960 season before the NFL-AFL merger. Nick Foles would be named Super Bowl MVP. See Super Bowl LII. The Eagles came back from a successful 2017 season hoping to become the first repeat Super Bowl victors since the New England Patriots during their 2003 and 2004 season. Before the season started many injuries plagued the team including their quarterback Carson Wentz who was still recovering from an ACL injury. Nick Foles would be the starting quarterback to begin the season and helped win the team their opening game against the Atlanta Falcons 18-12. The season opener against Atlanta ended in similar fashion as the previous year's divisional round matchup had; an incomplete pass to Julio Jones in the end zone to end the game. Throughout the 2018 season many injuries plagued the team, especially in their secondary like Jalen Mills, Ronald Darby, and Rodney McLeod. A feeling of complacency after winning the franchise's first Super Bowl Championship (and 3rd NFL championship) had set into the team and fanbase, giving them a lack of urgency through the beginning of the season. In many of the games in the beginning of the season, like those against Carolina and Tennessee for example, the Eagles had blown leads late in the 4th quarter. The Eagles had a 4-6 record in their first ten games and looked to have a very small chance of making the playoffs, but the Eagles managed to win 5 of their last 6 games which included upset victories over the Rams and Texans to go 9-7 and make the playoffs as the sixth seed. Carson Wentz, having been rushed back to playing too soon, was diagnosed with a stress fracture in his back after Week 14. Nick Foles filled in for Wentz late in the season yet again. The Eagles win against the Texans in week 16 was a close one; the Eagles were winning for most of the game, but fell apart towards the end in the 4th quarter, where they when the Texans took the lead with only a few minutes remaining to play. In the end, the Eagles drove down the field and Jake Elliott made a field goal to win the game. That set up a week 17 where the Eagles had to win in Washington, D.C. and needed the Bears to beat the Vikings in order to clinch a playoff spot. The Eagles beat the Redskins comfortably, and the Bears beat the Vikings. The Bears had left in their starters throughout the whole game, even though, toward the end, the situation became so that their 3rd seed spot could not possibly change whether they won or lost. They did this because, among other reasons, they preferred to play the Eagles in the first round of the playoffs. In the Wild Card game against the Chicago Bears Nick Foles threw 2 touchdowns and 2 interceptions in a 16-15 win. Bears kicker Cody Parkey missed a game winning field goal that hit the upright and crossbar. The kick was also tipped slightly by Treyvon Hester sending the Philadelphia Eagles to a NFC Divisional matchup against the New Orleans Saints. In the NFC Divisional Round match with the Saints, the Eagles ended the first quarter with a 14-0 lead. However, the offense would be unable to get any more points as the defense got pressure on Nick Foles and the Eagles would end up losing to the Saints 20-14, ending their opportunity to defend their Super Bowl championship. The Eagles attempted to go down the field to score a game winning TD, and were progressing well down the field, when at around the Saints' 20 yard line, Alshon Jeffery let a pass go through his hands and into Marshon Lattimore's arms. In the offseason Nick Foles left Philadelphia to sign with the Jacksonville Jaguars. The Eagles also traded away Michael Bennett and a 2020 seventh-round pick to the New England Patriots for a 2020 fifth-round pick. One of the Eagles' most notable offseason addition was a trade with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers to reaquire DeSean Jackson. Other additions to the team included defensive tackle Malik Jackson and running back Jordan Howard. The Eagles got off to a promising start with a Week 1 win against the Washington Redskins, in which DeSean Jackson caught two touchdowns from Carson Wentz of over 50 yards. However, the Eagles lost their next two games with major injuries to both their offense and defense. They defeated the then-undefeated Green Bay Packers in Week 4 and the New York Jets the following week but lost to the Minnesota Vikings in Week 6. In Week 7 the Eagles lost a game in Dallas that could have put them in a favorable position within the division. However, the Eagles went on to win two straight in Buffalo and at home against the Chicago Bears. After the bye week, the Eagles played the New England Patriots for the first time since Super Bowl LII. In a low scoring game, the Eagles blew a 10–0 early lead to lose 17–10. The next week saw the Eagles lose 17-9 at home against the Seattle Seahawks, a game in which Carson Wentz threw a touchdown, 2 interceptions, and lost 2 fumbles. The Eagles last 5 games are the easiest in the NFL, based on records. However, in the first of the last five games, week 13 the Eagles lost 37-31 in Miami to the Dolphins, who were 2-9 heading into the game. The Eagles had a 28-14 lead in the third quarter but failed to retain the lead as the Dolphins punted only once in the second half. In the next two weeks, the Eagles beat the Giants at home on an overtime touchdown pass from Wentz to Ertz after coming back from a 17-3 halftime deficit, and then beat the Redskins in Washington 37-27 after Nigel Bradham sealed the game with a fumble return for a touchdown following a go-ahead touchdown pass by Greg Ward Jr. from Carson Wentz. In week 16, the Eagles played the Cowboys in Philadelphia having lost to Dallas in their previous four matchups. The Eagles jumped to a quick 10 point lead and held on to win 17-9, preventing the Cowboys from clinching the division. It was a crucial game against their longtime rivals, and heading into week 17 the Eagles needed either a win against the 3-11 Giants or a Cowboys loss to the Redskins to clinch the NFC East. The Eagles headed into their week 17 matchup without Zach Ertz, their leading receiver who had broken a rib and suffered a lacerated kidney on a hit in the first quarter of the Cowboys game. Regardless, the Eagles broke away from the Giants in the third quarter with a touchdown following a fumble recovery by Fletcher Cox. Boston Scott, backup RB, scored three touchdowns in the 34-17 win, and the Eagles won the NFC East with a 9-7 record. The Eagles became the first team in NFL history to have a quarterback throw for more than 4,000 yards without having a wide receiver catch for more than 500 yards in a season. Carson Wentz started his first postseason game at home against the 5th seeded Seahawks. In the 1st quarter, Wentz took a hit to the head by Jadeveon Clowney, which gave him a concussion that sidelined him for the rest of the game. Backup Josh McCown stepped in for Wentz, becoming the oldest quarterback to play their first playoff game. Although he led the offense on multiple drives to the end zone, the offense failed to convert two red zone 4th downs in the red zone in the 9-17 loss. Didinger, Ray; with Lyons, Robert S. (2005). The Eagles Encyclopedia. Philadelphia: Temple University Press., NFL Editors (2011). NFL Record & Fact Book 2011: The Official National Football League Record and Fact Book Time Home Entertainment Eagles record-setting game in 1934 was against doomed Cincinnati Reds, Claassen, Harold (Spike) (1963). The History of Professional Football. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., Davis, Jeff (2005). Papa Bear, The Life and Legacy of George Halas. New York: McGraw-Hill, Lyons, Robert S. (2010). On Any Given Sunday, A Life of Bert Bell. Philadelphia: Temple University Press., MacCambridge, Michael (2005). America's Game. New York: Anchor Books, Peterson, Robert W. (1997). Pigskin: The Early Years of Pro Football. New York: Oxford University Press., Westcott, Rich (2001). A Century of Philadelphia Sports. Philadelphia: Temple University Press., Willis, Chris (2010). The Man Who Built the National Football League: Joe F. Carr. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, Inc. The Super Bowl is the annual championship game of the National Football League (NFL). The game is the culmination of a regular season that begins in the late summer of the previous year. The game was created as a part of the merger agreement between the NFL and its then-rival, the American Football League (AFL). It was agreed that the two champion teams would play in the AFL–NFL World Championship Game until the merger was to officially begin in 1970. After the merger, each league was re-designated as a "conference", and the game has since been played between the conference champions to determine the NFL's league champion. The New England Patriots and the Pittsburgh Steelers have the most Super Bowl championship titles, with six. The Patriots have the most Super Bowl appearances, with eleven. The National Football Conference (NFC) leads the league with 27 wins to 26 wins for the American Football Conference (AFC). The Super Bowl is the second-largest day for U.S. food consumption, after Thanksgiving Day. In addition, the Super Bowl has frequently been the most-watched American television broadcast of the year; the seven most-watched broadcasts in U.S. television history are Super Bowls. In 2015, Super Bowl XLIX became the most-watched American television program in history with an average audience of 114.4 million viewers, the fifth time in six years the game had set a record, starting with Super Bowl XLIV, which itself had taken over the number-one spot held for 27 years by the final episode of M*A*S*H. The Super Bowl is also among the most-watched sporting events in the world, almost all audiences being North American, and is second to the UEFA Champions League final as the most watched annual sporting event worldwide. Because of the high viewership, commercial airtime during the Super Bowl broadcast is the most expensive of the year, leading to companies regularly developing their most expensive advertisements for this broadcast. As a result, watching and discussing the broadcast's commercials has become a significant aspect of the event. In addition, popular singers and musicians have performed during the event's pre-game and halftime ceremonies. The NFL restricts the use of its "Super Bowl" trademark; it is frequently called the "big game" or other generic terms by non-sponsoring corporations. For four decades after its 1920 inception, the NFL successfully fended off several rival leagues. In 1960, the NFL encountered its most serious competitor when the American Football League (AFL) was formed. The AFL vied with the NFL for players and fans. The original "bowl game" was the Rose Bowl Game in Pasadena, California, which was first played in 1902 as the "Tournament East–West football game" as part of the Pasadena Tournament of Roses and moved to the new Rose Bowl Stadium in 1923. The stadium got its name from the fact that the game played there was part of the Tournament of Roses and that it was shaped like a bowl, much like the Yale Bowl in New Haven, Connecticut. The Tournament of Roses football game eventually came to be known as the Rose Bowl Game. Exploiting the Rose Bowl Game's popularity, post-season college football contests were created for Miami (the Orange Bowl), New Orleans (the Sugar Bowl), and El Paso (the Sun Bowl) in 1935, and for Dallas (the Cotton Bowl) in 1937. By the time the first Super Bowl was played, the term "bowl" for any major American football game was well established. Lamar Hunt, owner of the AFL's Kansas City Chiefs, first used the term "Super Bowl" to refer to the AFL–NFL championship game in the merger meetings. Hunt later said the name was likely in his head because his children had been playing with a Super Ball toy; a vintage example of the ball is on display at the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton, Ohio. In a July 25, 1966, letter to NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle, Hunt wrote, "I have kiddingly called it the 'Super Bowl,' which obviously can be improved upon." The leagues' owners chose the name "AFL–NFL Championship Game", but in July 1966 the Kansas City Star quoted Hunt in discussing "the Super Bowl — that's my term for the championship game between the two leagues", and the media immediately began using the term. Although the league stated in 1967 that "not many people like it", asking for suggestions and considering alternatives such as "Merger Bowl" and "The Game", the Associated Press reported that "Super Bowl" "grew and grew and grew—until it reached the point that there was Super Week, Super Sunday, Super Teams, Super Players, ad infinitum". "Super Bowl" became official beginning with the third annual game. Roman numerals are used to identify each Super Bowl, rather than the year in which it is held, since the fifth edition, in January 1971. The sole exception to this naming convention tradition occurred with Super Bowl 50, which was played on February 7, 2016, following the 2015 regular season, and the following year, the nomenclature returned to Roman numerals for Super Bowl LI, following the 2016 regular season. After the NFL's Green Bay Packers won the first two Super Bowls, some team owners feared for the future of the merger. At the time, many doubted the competitiveness of AFL teams compared with their NFL counterparts, though that perception changed when the AFL's New York Jets defeated the NFL's Baltimore Colts in Super Bowl III in Miami. One year later, the AFL's Kansas City Chiefs defeated the NFL's Minnesota Vikings 23–7 in Super Bowl IV in New Orleans, which was the final AFL–NFL World Championship Game played before the merger. Beginning with the 1970 season, the NFL realigned into two conferences; the former AFL teams plus three NFL teams (the Baltimore Colts, Pittsburgh Steelers, and Cleveland Browns) would constitute the American Football Conference (AFC), while the remaining NFL clubs would form the National Football Conference (NFC). The champions of the two conferences would play each other in the Super Bowl. The winning team receives the Vince Lombardi Trophy, named after the coach of the Green Bay Packers, who won the first two Super Bowl games and three of the five preceding NFL championships in 1961, 1962, and 1965. Following Lombardi's death in September 1970, the trophy was named the Vince Lombardi Trophy. The first trophy awarded under the new name was presented to the Baltimore Colts following their win in Super Bowl V in Miami. The Super Bowl is currently played on the first Sunday in February. This is due to the current NFL schedule which consists of the opening weekend of the season being held immediately after Labor Day (the first Monday in September), the 17-week regular season (where teams each play 16 games and have one bye), the first three rounds of the playoffs, and the Super Bowl two weeks after the two Conference Championship Games, which is the next week after the Pro Bowl. This schedule has been in effect since Super Bowl XXXVIII in February 2004. The date of the Super Bowl can thus be determined from the date of the preceding Labor Day. For example, Labor Day in 2015 occurred on September 7; therefore the next Super Bowl was scheduled exactly five months later on February 7, 2016. Originally, the game took place in early to mid-January. For Super Bowl I there was only one round of playoffs: the pre-merger NFL and AFL Championship Games. The addition of two playoff rounds (first in 1967 and then in 1978), an increase in regular season games from 14 to 16 (1978), and the establishment of one bye-week per team (1990) have caused the Super Bowl to be played later. Partially offsetting these season-lengthening effects, simultaneous with the addition of two regular season games in 1978, the season was started earlier. Prior to 1978, the season started as late as September 21. Now, since Labor Day is always the first Monday of September, September 13 is the latest possible date for the first full Sunday set of games (Since 2002, the regular season has started with the Kickoff Game on the first Thursday after Labor Day). The earliest possible season start date is September 7. The New England Patriots and the Pittsburgh Steelers are tied with six Super Bowl wins; the Dallas Cowboys and San Francisco 49ers have five victories each, while the Green Bay Packers and New York Giants have four Super Bowl championships. Fourteen other NFL franchises have won at least one Super Bowl. The Patriots own the record for most Super Bowl appearances overall (eleven) and tied for the most won (six). The Dallas Cowboys, Pittsburgh Steelers, and Denver Broncos are tied for second with eight appearances apiece, achieving reaching that milestone in this respective order. Belichick owns the record for most Super Bowl wins (eight) and participation in any capacity (twelve, nine times as head coach, once as assistant head coach, and twice as defensive coordinator). Dan Reeves previously held the Super Bowl participation record in any capacity (nine, twice as a player, three times as assistant coach, and four times as head coach). Brady has the most Super Bowl starts (nine) and wins as a player (six), while Charles Haley has the second-most wins among players (five). Eight teams have appeared in Super Bowl games without a win. The Minnesota Vikings won the last NFL Championship before the merger but lost to the AFL champion Kansas City Chiefs in Super Bowl IV and became the first team to have appeared a record four times without a win. The Buffalo Bills played in a record four Super Bowls in a row but lost every one. The Patriots and Denver Broncos are tied for the most Super Bowl losses (five). Four teams (the Cleveland Browns, Detroit Lions, Jacksonville Jaguars, and Houston Texans) have never appeared in a Super Bowl. The Browns and Lions both won NFL Championships prior to the creation of the Super Bowl, while the Jaguars (1995) and Texans (2002) are both recent NFL expansion teams. The Green Bay Packers won the first two Super Bowls (Known as the AFL–NFL World Championship Game for these first two contests), defeating the Kansas City Chiefs and Oakland Raiders following the and seasons, respectively. The Packers were led by quarterback, Bart Starr, who was named the Most Valuable Player (MVP) for both games. These two championships, coupled with the Packers' NFL championships in , , and , amount to the most successful stretch in NFL History; five championships in seven years, and the only threepeat in NFL history (1965, 1966, and 1967). In Super Bowl III, the AFL's New York Jets defeated the eighteen-point favorite Baltimore Colts of the NFL, 16–7. The Jets were led by quarterback Joe Namath, who had famously guaranteed a Jets win prior to the game, and former Colts head coach Weeb Ewbank, and their victory proved that the AFL was the NFL's competitive equal. This was reinforced the following year when the AFL's Kansas City Chiefs defeated the NFL's Minnesota Vikings 23–7 in Super Bowl IV. After the AFL–NFL merger was completed in 1970, three franchises—the Dallas Cowboys, Miami Dolphins, and Pittsburgh Steelers—would go on to dominate the 1970s, winning a combined eight Super Bowls in the decade. The Baltimore Colts, now a member of the AFC, would start the decade by defeating the Cowboys in Super Bowl V, a game which is notable as being the only Super Bowl to date in which a player from the losing team won the Super Bowl MVP (Cowboys' linebacker Chuck Howley). Beginning with this Super Bowl, all Super Bowls have served as the NFL's championship game. The Cowboys, coming back from a loss the previous season, won Super Bowl VI over the Dolphins. However, this would be the Dolphins' final loss in over a year, as the next year, the Dolphins would go 14–0 in the regular season and eventually win all their playoff games, capped off with a 14–7 victory in Super Bowl VII, becoming the first and only team to finish an entire perfect regular and postseason. The Dolphins would repeat as league champions by winning Super Bowl VIII a year later. In the late 1970s, the Steelers became the first NFL dynasty of the post-merger era by winning four Super Bowls (IX, X, XIII, and XIV) in six years. They were led by head coach Chuck Noll, the play of offensive stars Terry Bradshaw, Franco Harris, Lynn Swann, John Stallworth, and Mike Webster, and their dominant "Steel Curtain" defense, led by "Mean" Joe Greene, L. C. Greenwood, Ernie Holmes, Mel Blount, Jack Ham, and Jack Lambert. The coaches and administrators also were part of the dynasty's greatness as evidenced by the team's "final pieces" being part of the famous 1974 draft. The selections in that class have been considered the best by any pro franchise ever, as Pittsburgh selected four future Hall of Famers, the most for any team in any sport in a single draft. The Steelers were the first team to win three and then four Super Bowls and appeared in six AFC Championship Games during the decade, making the playoffs in eight straight seasons. Nine players and three coaches and administrators on the team have been inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Pittsburgh still remains the only team to win back-to- back Super Bowls twice and four Super Bowls in a six-year period. The Steelers' dynasty was interrupted only by the Oakland Raiders' Super Bowl XI win and the Cowboys winning their second Super Bowl of the decade. In the 1980s and 1990s, the tables turned for the AFC, as the NFC dominated the Super Bowls of the new decade and most of those in the 1990s. The NFC won 16 of the 20 Super Bowls during these two decades, including 13 straight from Super Bowl XIX to Super Bowl XXXI. The NFC's winning streak was interrupted only when the Los Angeles Raiders routed the Washington Redskins, 38–9 in Super Bowl XVIII. The most successful team of the 1980s was the San Francisco 49ers, which featured the West Coast offense of Hall of Fame head coach Bill Walsh. This offense was led by three-time Super Bowl MVP and Hall of Fame quarterback Joe Montana, Super Bowl MVP and Hall of Fame wide receiver Jerry Rice, running back Roger Craig, and defensive safety/cornerback Ronnie Lott. Under their leadership, the 49ers won four Super Bowls in the decade (XVI, XIX, XXIII, and XXIV) and made nine playoff appearances between 1981 and 1990, including eight division championships, becoming the second dynasty of the post-merger NFL. The 1980s also produced the 1985 Chicago Bears, who posted an 18–1 record under head coach Mike Ditka; quarterback Jim McMahon; and Hall of Fame running back Walter Payton. Their team won Super Bowl XX in dominant fashion. The Washington Redskins and New York Giants were also top teams of this period; the Redskins won Super Bowls XVII, XXII, and XXVI. The Giants claimed Super Bowls XXI and XXV. As in the 1970s, the Oakland Raiders were the only team to interrupt the Super Bowl dominance of other teams; they won Super Bowls XV and XVIII (the latter as the Los Angeles Raiders). Following several seasons with poor records in the 1980s, the Dallas Cowboys rose back to prominence in the 1990s. During this decade, the Cowboys made post-season appearances every year except for the seasons of 1990 and 1997. From 1992 to 1996, the Cowboys won their division championship each year. In this same period, the Buffalo Bills had made their mark reaching the Super Bowl for a record four consecutive years, only to lose all four. After Super Bowl championships by division rivals New York (1990) and Washington (1991), the Cowboys won three of the next four Super Bowls (XXVII, XXVIII, and XXX) led by quarterback Troy Aikman, running back Emmitt Smith, and wide receiver Michael Irvin. All three of these players went to the Hall of Fame. The Cowboys' streak was interrupted by the 49ers, who won their league-leading fifth title overall with Super Bowl XXIX with a dominant performance featuring the Super Bowl MVP and Hall of Fame quarterback Steve Young, Hall of Fame wide receiver Jerry Rice, and Hall of Fame cornerback Deion Sanders; however, the Cowboys' victory in Super Bowl XXX the next year also gave them five titles overall and they did so with Sanders after he won the Super Bowl the previous year with the 49ers. The NFC's winning streak was continued by the Green Bay Packers led by Hall of Fame quarterback Brett Favre, won Super Bowl XXXI, their first championship since Super Bowl II in 1968. Super Bowl XXXII saw quarterback John Elway and running back Terrell Davis lead the Denver Broncos to an upset victory over the defending champion Packers, snapping the NFC's thirteen-year winning streak. The following year, the Broncos defeated the Atlanta Falcons in Super Bowl XXXIII, Elway's fifth Super Bowl appearance, his second NFL championship, and his final NFL game. The back-to-back victories heralded a change in momentum in which AFC teams would win nine out of 12 Super Bowls. In the years between 1995 and 2018, five teams—the Steelers, New England Patriots, Broncos, Baltimore Ravens, and Indianapolis Colts—accounted for 22 of the 24 AFC Super Bowl appearances (including the last 16), with those same teams often meeting each other earlier in the playoffs. In contrast, the NFC saw a different representative in the Super Bowl every season from 2001 through 2010. The New England Patriots became the dominant team throughout the early 2000s, winning the championship three out of four years early in the decade. They would become only the second team in the history of the NFL to do so (after the 1990s Dallas Cowboys). In Super Bowl XXXVI, first-year starting quarterback Tom Brady led his team to a 20–17 upset victory over the St. Louis Rams. Brady would go on to win the MVP award for this game. The Patriots also won Super Bowls XXXVIII and XXXIX defeating the Carolina Panthers and the Philadelphia Eagles respectively. This four-year stretch of Patriot dominance was interrupted by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers' 48–21 Super Bowl XXXVII victory over the Oakland Raiders. The Pittsburgh Steelers and Indianapolis Colts continued the era of AFC dominance by winning Super Bowls XL and XLI in 2005–06 and 2006–07, respectively defeating the Seattle Seahawks and Chicago Bears. In the 2007 season, the Patriots became the fourth team in NFL history to have a perfect unbeaten and untied regular season record, the second in the Super Bowl era after the 1972 Miami Dolphins, and the first to finish 16–0. They easily marched through the AFC playoffs and were heavy favorites in Super Bowl XLII. However, they lost that game to Eli Manning and the New York Giants 17–14, leaving the Patriots' 2007 record at 18–1. The following season, the Steelers logged their record sixth Super Bowl title (XLIII) in a 27–23, final- minute victory against the Arizona Cardinals. The 2009 season saw the New Orleans Saints defeat the Indianapolis Colts in Super Bowl XLIV by a score of 31–17 to take home their first Championship. With this victory, the Saints joined the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and New York Jets as the only teams to have won in their sole Super Bowl appearance. In the AFC, this era was dominated by the New England Patriots, with the only three other teams to represent the conference being the Pittsburgh Steelers, Denver Broncos and Baltimore Ravens. The Super Bowls of the late 2000s and 2010s are notable for the performances (and the pedigrees) of several of the participating quarterbacks, especially on the AFC side in repeated appearances by the same teams and players. In particular, Tom Brady, Ben Roethlisberger, or Peyton Manning appeared as the AFC team's quarterback in all but two of the Super Bowls between 2001 and 2018. Conversely, the only NFC team to make the Super Bowl twice in this era was the Seattle Seahawks, led by quarterback Russell Wilson. One of these teams was featured in the culmination of the 2010 season, Super Bowl XLV, which brought the Green Bay Packers their fourth Super Bowl victory and record thirteenth NFL championship overall with the defeat of the Pittsburgh Steelers in February 2011. This became Aaron Rodgers' only Super Bowl victory. The following year, in Super Bowl XLVI, the Patriots made their first appearance of the decade, a position where they would become a mainstay. The Patriots, however, lost to the Eli Manning led New York Giants, 21–17, who had beaten the Patriots four years before. This was the Giants 4th Super Bowl victory. In Super Bowl XLVII the NFC's San Francisco 49ers were defeated by the Baltimore Ravens 34–31. The game had been dubbed as the 'Harbaugh Bowl' in the weeks leading up to the game, due to the fact that the coaches of the two teams, John Harbaugh and Jim Harbaugh, are brothers. During the 3rd quarter, the Ravens had a commanding 28–6. However there was a blackout in New Orleans, where the game was being played. The game was delayed for 34 minutes, and after play resumed, San Francisco stormed back with 17 straight points, but lost anyway. Super Bowl XLVIII, played at New Jersey's MetLife Stadium in February 2014, was the first Super Bowl held outdoors in a cold weather environment. The Seattle Seahawks won their first NFL title with a 43–8 defeat of the Denver Broncos, in a highly touted matchup that pitted Seattle's top-ranked defense against a Peyton Manning-led Denver offense that had broken the NFL's single-season scoring record. In Super Bowl XLIX, the Patriots beat the defending Super Bowl champions, the Seahawks, by a score of 28–24. Down by 10, the Patriots hosted a late 4th quarter comeback to win the game with Tom Brady scoring two touchdowns in the 4th quarter. In a key play in the final seconds of the game, then rookie free agent Malcolm Butler would intercept a pass by Russell Wilson at the one yard line, allowing the Patriots to run out the clock and end the game. Tom Brady was awarded his 3rd Super Bowl MVP, tying Joe Montana for the most Super Bowl MVP awards. In Super Bowl 50, the first Super Bowl to be branded with Arabic numerals, the Broncos, led by the league's top-ranked defense, defeated the Carolina Panthers, who had the league's top-ranked offense, in what became the final game of quarterback Peyton Manning's career. Von Miller dominated, totaling 2.5 sacks and forcing two Cam Newton fumbles; both fumbles leading to Broncos touchdowns. In Super Bowl LI, the first Super Bowl to end in overtime, the Atlanta Falcons led 28–3 late in the third quarter; however, they squandered the lead as the Patriots would tie the game 28–28 on back to back touchdowns and two point converstions. The Atlanta Falcons lost to the Patriots 34–28 in overtime. This 25 point deficit would be the largest comeback win for any team in a Super Bowl, breaking the previous of a 10 point deficit to comback and win. The Patriots never held the lead until the game winning touchdown in overtime. Tom Brady was awarded his record fourth Super Bowl MVP and 5th win as a Super Bowl Champion, throwing a then record 466 yards for 43 completions. In Super Bowl LII, the Philadelphia Eagles defeated the defending Super Bowl Champion Patriots 41–33. Nick Foles won the Super Bowl MVP. The Patriots totaled 613 yards in defeat, with Tom Brady breaking his previous Superbowl record of 466 passing yards with an all time playoff record 505 passing yards in the high scoring game; while the Eagles would gain 538 yards in victory. The Patriots' 33 points was the highest losing score in Super Bowl history. The combined total of 1,151 yards of offense for both teams broke an NFL record (for any game) that had stood for nearly seven decades. It was the Eagles' third Super Bowl appearance, and their first win in franchise history. While Super Bowl LII produced the second highest-scoring Super Bowl, the following year's Super Bowl LIII became the lowest-scoring Super Bowl. The Patriots defeated the Los Angeles Rams, 13–3. Tom Brady would receive a record sixth Super Bowl championship, the most of any player in NFL history, surpassing his tie with Charles Haley for five wins. Brady would also become the oldest player to ever win a Super Bowl at age 41, while Bill Belichick would be the oldest coach to ever win a Super Bowl at age 66. Wide receiver Julian Edelman was named Super Bowl MVP. The Super Bowl is one of the most watched annual sporting events in the world, with viewership overwhelmingly domestic. The only other annual event that gathers more viewers is the UEFA Champions League final. For many years, the Super Bowl has possessed a large US and global television viewership, and it is often the most watched United States originating television program of the year. The game tends to have high Nielsen television ratings, which is usually around a 40 rating and 60 shares. This means that on average, more than 100 million people from the United States alone are tuned into the Super Bowl at any given moment. In press releases preceding each year's event, the NFL typically claims that this year's Super Bowl will have a potential worldwide audience of around one billion people in over 200 countries. This figure refers to the number of people able to watch the game, not the number of people actually watching. However, the statements have been frequently misinterpreted in various media as referring to the latter figure, leading to a common misperception about the game's actual global audience. The New York- based media research firm Initiative measured the global audience for the 2005 Super Bowl at 93 million people, with 98 percent of that figure being viewers in North America, which meant roughly two million people outside North America watched the Super Bowl that year. The 2015 Super Bowl XLIX holds the record for average number of U.S. viewers, with a final number of 114.4 million, making the game the most-viewed television broadcast of any kind in American history. The halftime show followed with 118.5 million viewers tuning in, and an all-time high of 168 million viewers in the United States had watched several portions of the Super Bowl 2015 broadcast. The game set a record for total viewers for the fifth time in six years. The highest-rated game according to Nielsen was Super Bowl XVI in 1982, which was watched in 49.1% of households (73 shares), or 40,020,000 households at the time. Ratings for that game, a San Francisco victory over Cincinnati, may have been aided by a large blizzard that had affected much of the northeastern United States on game day, leaving residents to stay at home more than usual. Super Bowl XVI still ranks fourth on Nielsen's list of top-rated programs of all time, and three other Super Bowls, XII, XVII, and XX, made the top ten. Famous commercial campaigns include the Budweiser "Bud Bowl" campaign, the 1984 introduction of Apple's Macintosh computer, and the 1999 and 2000 dot-com ads. As the television ratings of the Super Bowl have steadily increased over the years, prices have also increased every year, with advertisers paying as much as $3.5 million for a thirty-second spot during Super Bowl XLVI in 2012. A segment of the audience tunes into the Super Bowl solely to view commercials. In 2010, Nielsen reported that 51 percent of Super Bowl viewers tune in for the commercials. The Super Bowl halftime show has spawned another set of alternative entertainment such as the Lingerie Bowl, the Beer Bottle Bowl, and others. Since 1991, the Super Bowl has begun between 6:19 and 6:40 PM EST so that most of the game is played during the primetime hours on the East Coast. Super Bowls I–VI were blacked out in the television markets of the host cities, due to league restrictions then in place. Game analyst John Madden is the only person to broadcast a Super Bowl for each of the four networks that have televised the game (five with CBS, three with Fox, two with ABC, and one with NBC). The Super Bowl provides an extremely strong lead-in to programming following it on the same channel, the effects of which can last for several hours. For instance, in discussing the ratings of a local TV station, Buffalo television critic Alan Pergament noted on the coattails from Super Bowl XLVII, which aired on CBS: "A paid program that ran on Channel4 (WIVB-TV) at 2:30 in the morning had a 1.3 rating. That's higher than some CW prime time shows get on WNLO-TV, Channel 4's sister station." Because of this strong coattail effect, the network that airs the Super Bowl typically takes advantage of the large audience to air an episode of a hit series, or to premiere the pilot of a promising new one in the lead-out slot, which immediately follows the Super Bowl and post-game coverage. Early Super Bowls featured a halftime show consisting of marching bands from local colleges or high schools; but as the popularity of the game increased, a trend where popular singers and musicians performed during its pre-game ceremonies and the halftime show, or simply sang the national anthem of the United States or America the Beautiful emerged. Unlike regular season or playoff games, thirty minutes are allocated for the Super Bowl halftime. After a special live episode of the Fox sketch comedy series In Living Color caused a drop in viewership for the Super Bowl XXVI halftime show, the NFL sought to increase the Super Bowl's audience by hiring A-list talent to perform. They approached Michael Jackson, whose performance the following year drew higher figures than the game itself. Another notable performance came during Super Bowl XXXVI in 2002, when U2 performed; during their third song, "Where the Streets Have No Name", the band played under a large projection screen which scrolled through names of the victims of the September 11 attacks. For many years, Whitney Houston's performance of the national anthem at Super Bowl XXV in 1991, during the Gulf War, had long been regarded as one of the best renditions of the anthem in history. Then, in an historic, groundbreaking, and emotional performance prior to Super Bowl XLVIII, soprano Renee Fleming became the first opera singer to perform the anthem, propelling FOX to the highest ratings of any program in its history, and remains so today. The halftime show of Super Bowl XXXVIII attracted controversy, following an incident in which Justin Timberlake removed a piece of Janet Jackson's top, briefly exposing one of her breasts before the broadcast quickly cut away from the shot. The incident led to fines being issued by the FCC (and a larger crackdown over "indecent" content broadcast on television), and MTV (then a sister to the game's broadcaster that year, CBS, under Viacom) being banned by the NFL from producing the Super Bowl halftime show in the future. In an effort to prevent a repeat of the incident, the NFL held a moratorium on Super Bowl halftime shows featuring pop performers, and instead invited a single, headlining veteran act, such as Paul McCartney, The Rolling Stones, The Who, Prince, and Bruce Springsteen. This practice ended at Super Bowl XLV, which returned to using current pop acts such as The Black Eyed Peas and Lady Gaga. Excluding Super Bowl XXXIX, the famous "I'm going to Disney World!" advertising campaign took place in every Super Bowl since Super Bowl XXI when quarterback Phil Simms from the New York Giants became the first player to say the tagline. As of Super Bowl LII, 27 of 52 Super Bowls have been played in three cities: New Orleans (ten times), the Greater Miami area (ten times), and the Greater Los Angeles area (seven times). No market or region without an active NFL franchise has ever hosted a Super Bowl, and the presence of an NFL team in a market or region is now a de jure requirement for bidding on the game. The winning market is not, however, required to host the Super Bowl in the same stadium that its NFL team uses, and nine Super Bowls have been held in a stadium other than the one the NFL team in that city was using at the time. For example, Los Angeles's last five Super Bowls were all played at the Rose Bowl, which has never been used by any NFL franchise outside of the Super Bowl. No team has ever played the Super Bowl in its home stadium. The closest any team has come was the 2017 Minnesota Vikings, who were within one win of playing Super Bowl LII in U.S. Bank Stadium, but lost the NFC Championship game to the Philadelphia Eagles. In that instance, U.S. Bank Stadium became the first Super Bowl host stadium (selected on May 20, 2014) to also host a Divisional Playoff Game in the same season (which the Vikings won); all previous times that the Super Bowl host stadium hosted another playoff game in the same postseason were all Wild Card games. Two teams have played the Super Bowl in their home market: the San Francisco 49ers, who played Super Bowl XIX in Stanford Stadium instead of Candlestick Park; and the Los Angeles Rams, who played Super Bowl XIV in the Rose Bowl instead of the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. In both cases, the stadium in which the Super Bowl was held was perceived to be a better stadium for a large, high-profile event than the stadiums the Rams and 49ers were playing in at the time. This situation has not arisen since 1993, in part because the league has given preference in awarding the Super Bowl to brand new or recently renovated stadiums, alongside a trend of teams demanding public money or relocating to play in new stadiums. Besides those two, the only other Super Bowl venue that was not the home stadium to an NFL team at the time was Rice Stadium in Houston: the Houston Oilers had played there previously, but moved to the Astrodome several years prior to Super Bowl VIII. The Orange Bowl was the only AFL stadium to host a Super Bowl and the only stadium to host consecutive Super Bowls, hosting Super Bowls II and III. Traditionally, the NFL does not award Super Bowls to stadiums that are located in climates with an expected average daily temperature less than 50 °F (10 °C) on game day unless the field can be completely covered by a fixed or retractable roof. Six Super Bowls have been played in northern cities: two in the Detroit area—Super Bowl XVI at Pontiac Silverdome in Pontiac, Michigan and Super Bowl XL at Ford Field in Detroit, two in Minneapolis—Super Bowl XXVI at the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome and Super Bowl LII at the U.S. Bank Stadium, one in Indianapolis at Lucas Oil Stadium for Super Bowl XLVI, and one in the New York area—Super Bowl XLVIII at MetLife Stadium. Only MetLife Stadium did not have a roof (be it fixed or retractable) but it was still picked as the host stadium for Super Bowl XLVIII in an apparent waiver of the warm-climate rule, with a contingency plan to reschedule the game in the event of heavy snowfall. MetLife Stadium's selection over Sun Life Stadium generated controversy as the league requested a roof to be added to Sun Life Stadium (in the event of rainstorms) in order to considered for future Super Bowls. There have been a few instances where the league has rescinded the Super Bowl from cities. Super Bowl XXVII in 1993 was originally awarded to Sun Devil Stadium in Tempe, Arizona, but after Arizona voters elected not to recognize Martin Luther King, Jr. Day as a paid state employees' holiday in 1990, the NFL moved the game to the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California. When voters in Arizona opted to create such a legal holiday in 1992, Super Bowl XXX in 1996 was awarded to Tempe. Super Bowl XXXIII was awarded first to Candlestick Park in San Francisco, but when plans to renovate the stadium fell through, the game was moved to Pro Player Stadium in greater Miami. Super Bowl XXXVII was awarded to a new stadium not yet built in San Francisco, when that stadium failed to be built, the game was moved to SDCCU Stadium in San Diego. Super Bowl XLIV, slated for February 7, 2010, was withdrawn from New York City's proposed West Side Stadium, because the city, state, and proposed tenants New York Jets could not agree on funding. Super Bowl XLIV was then eventually awarded to Hard Rock Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida. Super Bowl XLIX in 2015 was originally given to Arrowhead Stadium in Kansas City, Missouri, but after two sales taxes failed to pass at the ballot box, and opposition by local business leaders and politicians increased, Kansas City eventually withdrew its request to host the game. Super Bowl XLIX was then eventually awarded to State Farm Stadium in Glendale, Arizona The location of the Super Bowl is chosen by the NFL well in advance, usually three to five years before the game. Cities place bids to host a Super Bowl and are evaluated in terms of stadium renovation and their ability to host. In 2014, a document listing the specific requirements of Super Bowl hosts was leaked, giving a clear list of what was required for a Super Bowl host. Much of the cost of the Super Bowl is to be assumed by the host community, although some costs are enumerated within the requirements to be assumed by the NFL. Some of the host requirements include: The host stadium must be in a market that hosts an NFL team and must have a minimum of 70,000 seats, with the media and electrical amenities necessary to produce the Super Bowl. Stadiums may include temporary seating for Super Bowls, but seating must be approved by the league. Stadiums where the average game day temperature is below 50° Fahrenheit must either have a roof or a waiver given by the league. There must be a minimum of 35,000 parking spaces within one mile of the stadium., The host stadium must have space for the Gameday Experience, a large pregame entertainment area, within walking distance of the stadium., The host city must have space for the NFL Experience, the interactive football theme park which is operated the week prior to the Super Bowl. An indoor venue for the event must have a minimum of 850,000 square feet, and an outdoor venue must have a minimum of a million square feet. Additionally, there must be space nearby for the Media Center, and space for all other events involved in the Super Bowl week, including golf courses and bowling alleys., The necessary infrastructure must be in place around the stadium and other Super Bowl facilities, including parking, security, electrical needs, media needs, communication needs, and transportation needs., There must be a minimum number of hotel spaces within one hour's drive of the stadium equaling 35% of the stadium's capacity, along with hotels for the teams, officials, media, and other dignitaries. (For Super Bowl XXXIX, the city of Jacksonville docked several luxury cruise liners at their port to act as temporary hotel space.), There must be practice space of equal and comparable quality for both teams within a twenty minute drive of the team hotels, and rehearsal space for all events within a reasonable distance to the stadium. The practice facilities must have one grass field and at least one field of the same surface as the host stadium., The stadium must have a minimum of 70,000 fixed seats, including club and fixed suite seating, during regular season operations. The NFL owners meet to make a selection on the site, usually three to five years prior to the event. In 2007, NFL commissioner Roger Goodell suggested that a Super Bowl might be played in London, perhaps at Wembley Stadium. The game has never been played in a metropolitan area that lacked an NFL franchise at the time the game was played. New Orleans, the site of the 2013 Super Bowl, invested more than $1 billion in infrastructure improvements in the years leading up to the game. Through Super Bowl LVI, teams were allowed to bid for the rights to host Super Bowls. The league rescinded this privilege in 2018 and will make all decisions regarding hosting sites from Super Bowl LVII onward; the league will choose a potential venue unilaterally, the chosen team will put together a hosting proposal, and the league will vote upon it to determine if it is acceptable. The designated "home team" alternates between the NFC team in odd-numbered games and the AFC team in even-numbered games. This alternation was initiated with the first Super Bowl, when the Green Bay Packers were the designated home team. Regardless of being the home or away team of record, each team has their team logo and wordmark painted in one of the end zones. Designated away teams have won 30 of 53 Super Bowls to date (approximately 57%). Since Super Bowl XIII in January 1979, the home team is given the choice of wearing their colored or white jerseys. Originally, the designated home team had to wear their colored jerseys, which resulted in Dallas donning their less exposed dark blue jerseys for Super Bowl V. While most of the home teams in the Super Bowl have chosen to wear their colored jerseys, there have been six (6) exceptions: the Dallas Cowboys during Super Bowl XIII and XXVII, the Washington Redskins during Super Bowl XVII, the Pittsburgh Steelers during Super Bowl XL, the Denver Broncos during Super Bowl 50, and the New England Patriots in Super Bowl LII. The Cowboys, since , have worn white jerseys at home. The Redskins wore white at home under coach Joe Gibbs starting in through , continued by Richie Petitbon and Norv Turner through , then again when Gibbs returned from through . Meanwhile, the Steelers, who have always worn their black jerseys at home since the AFL–NFL merger in , opted for the white jerseys after winning three consecutive playoff games on the road, wearing white. The Steelers' decision was compared with the New England Patriots in Super Bowl XX; the Patriots had worn white jerseys at home during the season, but after winning road playoff games against the New York Jets and Miami Dolphins wearing red jerseys, New England opted to switch to crimson for the Super Bowl as the designated home team. For the Broncos in Super Bowl 50, Denver general manager John Elway simply stated, "We've had Super Bowl success in our white uniforms"; they previously had been in Super Bowls when wearing their orange jerseys. The Broncos' decision is also perceived to be made out of superstition, losing all Super Bowl games with the orange jerseys in terrible fashion. It is unclear why the Patriots chose to wear their white jerseys for Super Bowl LII. During the pairing of Bill Belichick and Tom Brady, New England has mostly worn their blue jerseys for home games, but have worn white for a home game in the , , and seasons. The New England Patriots were 3–0 in their white uniforms in Super Bowls prior to Super Bowl LII with Belichick and Brady, and they may have been going on recent trends of teams who wear white for the Super Bowl game. White-shirted teams have won 33 of 52 Super Bowls to date (63%). The only teams to win in their dark-colored uniform in more recent years are the Green Bay Packers against the Pittsburgh Steelers in Super Bowl XLV and the Philadelphia Eagles against the New England Patriots in Super Bowl LII, with teams in white winning 12 of the last 14 Super Bowls. The 49ers, as part of the league's 75th Anniversary celebration, used their 1955 throwback uniform in Super Bowl XXIX, which for that year was their regular home jersey. The Los Angeles Rams in Super Bowl LIII wore their royal blue and yellow throwback uniforms, which they have previously worn for six home games including a home playoff game. No team has yet worn a third jersey or Color Rush uniform for the Super Bowl. Fifteen different regions have hosted Super Bowls. A total of 26 different stadiums, six of which no longer exist and one of which does not yet exist, either have hosted or are scheduled to host Super Bowls. The years listed in the table below are the years the game was actually played (will be played) rather than what NFL season it is considered to have been. Future venues: 2020: Hard Rock Stadium (6), Miami Gardens, Florida (6; 11 for the Miami metropolitan area), 2021: Raymond James Stadium (3), Tampa, Florida (5), 2022: SoFi Stadium (1), Inglewood, California (1; 8 for the Los Angeles metropolitan area), 2023: State Farm Stadium (3), Glendale, Arizona (4), 2024: Mercedes-Benz Superdome (8), New Orleans, Louisiana (11) The game has never been played in a region that lacked an NFL or AFL franchise at the time the game was played. San Diego is the only metropolitan area that has hosted past Super Bowls but does not currently have an NFL franchise; what is now SDCCU Stadium hosted three Super Bowls prior to that city losing its NFL franchise to relocation. Also, London, England, has occasionally been mentioned as a host city for a Super Bowl in the near future. Wembley Stadium has hosted several NFL games as part of the NFL International Series and is specifically designed for large, individual events. NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell has openly discussed the possibility on different occasions. Time zone complications are a significant obstacle to a Super Bowl in London; a typical 6:30 p.m. EST start would result in the game beginning at 11:30 p.m. local time in London, an unusually late hour to be holding spectator sports (the NFL has never in its history started a game later than 9:15 p.m. local time). As bids have been submitted for all Super Bowls through Super Bowl LVIII, the soonest that any stadium outside the NFL's footprint could serve as host would be Super Bowl LIX in 2025. Seven stadiums that hosted a Super Bowl game no longer exist. Tulane Stadium, on the Tulane University campus, which hosted three Super Bowls, was demolished in November 1979; Tampa Stadium, which hosted two Super Bowls, was demolished in April 1999; Stanford Stadium, which hosted one Super Bowl, was demolished and redeveloped in 2005-06; the Orange Bowl, which hosted five Super Bowls, was demolished in May 2008; the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome, which hosted the 1992 Super Bowl, was demolished in March 2014; the Georgia Dome in Atlanta, which hosted two Super Bowls, was demolished in November 2017; and the Pontiac Silverdome in suburban Detroit, which hosted the 1982 Super Bowl, was demolished in March 2018, five months following the demolition of the Georgia Dome. The NFL is very active on stopping what it says is unauthorized commercial use of its trademarked terms "NFL", "Super Bowl", and "Super Sunday". As a result, many events and promotions tied to the game, but not sanctioned by the NFL, are asked to refer to it with euphemisms such as "The Big Game", or other generic descriptions. A radio spot for Planters nuts parodied this, by saying "it would be super... to have a bowl... of Planters nuts while watching the big game!" and comedian Stephen Colbert began referring to the game in 2014 as the "Superb Owl". In 2015, the NFL filed opposition with the USPTO Trademark Trial and Appeal Board to a trademark application submitted by an Arizona- based nonprofit for "Superb Owl". The NFL claims that the use of the phrase "Super Bowl" implies an NFL affiliation, and on this basis the league asserts broad rights to restrict how the game may be shown publicly; for example, the league says Super Bowl showings are prohibited in churches or at other events that "promote a message", while venues that do not regularly show sporting events cannot show the Super Bowl on any television screen larger than 55 inches. Some critics say the NFL is exaggerating its ownership rights by stating that "any use is prohibited", as this contradicts the broad doctrine of fair use in the United States. Legislation was proposed by Utah Senator Orrin Hatch in 2008 "to provide an exemption from exclusive rights in copyright for certain nonprofit organizations to display live football games", and "for other purposes". In 2004, the NFL started issuing Cease and Desist letters to casinos in Las Vegas that were hosting Super Bowl parties. "Super Bowl" is a registered trademark, owned by the NFL, and any other business using that name for profit-making ventures is in violation of federal law, according to the letters. In reaction to the letters, many Vegas resorts, rather than discontinue the popular and lucrative parties, started referring to them as "Big Game Parties". In 2006, the NFL made an attempt to trademark "The Big Game" as well; however, it withdrew the application in 2007 due to growing commercial and public relations opposition to the move, mostly from Stanford University and the University of California, Berkeley and their fans, as the Stanford Cardinal football and California Golden Bears football teams compete in the Big Game, which has been played since 1892 (28 years before the formation of the NFL and 75 years before Super Bowl I). Additionally, the Mega Millions lottery game was known as The Big Game (then The Big Game Mega Millions) from 1996 to 2002. Like the other major professional leagues in the United States, the winner of the Super Bowl is usually declared de facto "World Champion." The origin of U.S. major professional sports using the term "World Champion" originates from the World Series of Major League Baseball, and it was later used during the first three Super Bowls when they were referred to as AFL–NFL World Championship Games. The phrase is still engraved on the Super Bowl rings. Active head coach career Super Bowl history, Grey Cup, the Canadian equivalent of the Super Bowl hosted by the Canadian Football League (CFL)., History of National Football League championship, List of NFL champions (1920–1969), List of NFL franchise post-season droughts, List of NFL franchise post-season streaks, List of quarterbacks with multiple Super Bowl starts, List of Super Bowl champions, List of Super Bowl broadcasters, List of Super Bowl head coaches, List of Super Bowl officials, List of Super Bowl records, NFL Honors, Super Bowl advertising, Super Bowl counterprogramming, Super Bowl curse, Super Bowl indicator Notes Further reading Chris Jones (February 2, 2005). "NFL tightens restrictions on Super Bowl advertisements". Las Vegas Review-Journal., John Branch (February 4, 2006). "Build It and They Will Come". The New York Times., Super Bowl play-by-plays from USA Today. Retrieved September 28, 2005., 100 Greatest Super Bowl Moments by Kevin Jackson, Jeff Merron, and David Schoenfield; espn.com. Retrieved October 31, 2005., Various Authors—"SI's 25 Lost Treasures"—Sports Illustrated, July 11, 2005 p. 114., "The Super Bowl I–VII." Lost Treasures of NFL Films. ESPN2. January 26, 2001., "MTV's Super Bowl Uncensored". MTV. January 27, 2001., "Talk Shows." CBS: 50 Years from Television City. CBS. April 27, 2002. Super Bowl broadcast backend (2016)—Terry Collins, Super Bowl special effects: New cameras power 'Matrix'-style replays, CNET, February 5, 2016 Super Bowl LIII was an American football game played to determine the champion of the National Football League (NFL) for the 2018 season. The American Football Conference (AFC) champion New England Patriots defeated the National Football Conference (NFC) champion Los Angeles Rams, 13–3. The game was played on February 3, 2019, at Mercedes-Benz Stadium in Atlanta, Georgia. This was the first Super Bowl played at that stadium, and the third one held in Atlanta. The Patriots' victory was their sixth, tying the Pittsburgh Steelers for the most Super Bowl championships. New England, after finishing the regular season with a 11–5 record, advanced to their 11th Super Bowl appearance, their fourth in five years, and their ninth under the leadership of head coach Bill Belichick and quarterback Tom Brady. The Rams, who finished the regular season with a 13–3 record under 33-year-old head coach Sean McVay and third-year quarterback Jared Goff, advanced to their fourth Super Bowl appearance overall, and their first one since relocating back from St. Louis to Los Angeles in 2016. Super Bowl LIII was a rematch of Super Bowl XXXVI, a 20–17 Patriots win over the Rams that gave the Belichick–Brady tandem its first Super Bowl championship. Coincidentally, the Patriots reached that Super Bowl with an 11–5 record as well. With the Rams now playing in Los Angeles, Super Bowl LIII marked the first Super Bowl appearance of a Los Angeles-based team since the then-Los Angeles Raiders' victory in Super Bowl XVIII and the Rams' first Super Bowl appearance as a Los Angeles-based team since Super Bowl XIV. This marked the 14th meeting in a major sports championship between the Los Angeles and Greater Boston areas. Super Bowl LIII was the lowest-scoring Super Bowl game in history, eclipsing the previous record of 14–7 held by Super Bowl VII, and the lowest-scoring league championship contest since a 14–0 score was recorded during the 1949 NFL Championship Game. It also marked the first Super Bowl with no touchdowns scored by either team in the first three quarters, as the Patriots and the Rams battled to a 3–3 tie as they entered the fourth quarter. New England then scored 10 unanswered points for the victory, as their lone touchdown tied them with the New York Jets in Super Bowl III for the fewest touchdowns by a winning Super Bowl team. The Rams ended up as only the second Super Bowl team to not score a touchdown, joining the Miami Dolphins in Super Bowl VI. Patriots wide receiver Julian Edelman, who caught 10 passes for 141 yards, was named Super Bowl MVP. The broadcast of the game on CBS, along with the halftime show headlined by U.S. pop group Maroon 5 saw the smallest Super Bowl audience in 10 years. On May 19, 2015, the league announced the four finalists that would compete to host Super Bowl LIII in 2019, LIV in 2020, and LV in 2021. NFL owners voted on these cities on May 24, 2016, with the first round of voting determining the host for Super Bowl LIII, the second round deciding a different site for Super Bowl LIV and the third round deciding the site for Super Bowl LV. The four finalists for Super Bowl LIII, all in the Southeastern United States, were: Mercedes-Benz Stadium, Atlanta, Georgia: This would be the first Super Bowl played at Mercedes-Benz Stadium after it opened in 2017. The city had previously hosted two Super Bowls at the Georgia Dome, with the last being Super Bowl XXXIV in 2000., Hard Rock Stadium, Miami Gardens, Florida: South Florida had previously hosted 10 Super Bowls, with the last being Super Bowl XLIV in 2010., Mercedes-Benz Superdome, New Orleans, Louisiana: New Orleans had previously hosted 10 Super Bowls, with the last being Super Bowl XLVII in 2013., Raymond James Stadium, Tampa, Florida: Tampa has hosted four Super Bowls, with the last being Super Bowl XLIII in 2009. After three votes, Atlanta was awarded Super Bowl LIII at the NFL owners' meeting on May 24, 2016. The losing candidates, except for New Orleans which removed itself from the voting for all games except Super Bowl LIII due to event conflicts in 2020 and 2021, were then pitted against SoFi Stadium in Inglewood, California for Super Bowl LIV and Super Bowl LV hosting rights. Miami eventually won the rights to host Super Bowl LIV and Los Angeles won the rights to host Super Bowl LV. However, on May 23, 2017, NFL owners opted to award Super Bowl LV to Tampa and give Super Bowl LVI to Los Angeles after it was announced that SoFi Stadium would open in 2020 due to construction delays. New Orleans would be awarded Super Bowl LVIII. The NFL unveiled the official logo for Super Bowl LIII in February 2018; it is a navy blue-tinted version of the design introduced at Super Bowl LI, and the overall branding of the game featured use of blue and red. The host committee logo featured a stylized overhead rendition of Mercedes-Benz Stadium's roof. The Patriots finished the 2018 season with an 11–5 record to earn the #2 seed in the AFC and their 17th season with at least ten wins in their 19 years under 66-year-old head coach Bill Belichick. They went on to join the Miami Dolphins and Buffalo Bills as the only teams in NFL history to ever reach three consecutive Super Bowls. Though the team had only two Pro Bowl selections, they scored 436 points (fourth in the league) while giving up only 325 (seventh fewest). Patriots quarterback Tom Brady earned his 14th Pro Bowl selection at age 41, finishing the season with 4,355 passing yards and 29 touchdowns, with only 11 interceptions, while also rushing for 35 yards and two more scores on the ground. These totals made him just the second quarterback in NFL history to amass 70,000 career passing yards and 1,000 rushing yards. His top receiver from the previous season, Brandin Cooks, was traded to the eventual Super Bowl rival Rams, but Julian Edelman, who had missed the previous season with an torn ACL injury, returned to catch 74 receptions for a team-leading 850 yards and six touchdowns, while also returning 20 punts for 154 yards. Other key receivers included Chris Hogan (35 receptions for 553 yards and three touchdowns) and Josh Gordon (40 receptions for 720 yards and three touchdowns), though Gordon would end up leaving the team to focus on his mental health after 11 games when faced with a suspension for violating the league's substance abuse policy. Tight end Rob Gronkowski added 47 receptions for 682 yards and three touchdowns. Meanwhile, the running game featured a dynamic new weapon, rookie halfback Sony Michel, who lead the team with 931 rushing yards and 6 touchdowns, along with veteran James White who racked up 1,176 yards from scrimmage while leading the team in receptions (87) and total touchdowns (12). On special teams, receiver Cordarrelle Patterson returned 23 kickoffs for 663 yards and a touchdown, an average of 28.8 yards per return (third in the NFL), while also catching 21 passes for 247 yards, rushing for 228 yards and scoring four touchdowns on offense. On defense, defensive end Trey Flowers led the team with 7.5 sacks and also forced three fumbles. Linebacker Kyle Van Noy led the team in total tackles (92), while also recording 3.5 sacks, a forced fumble and two fumble recoveries. In the secondary, safety Duron Harmon lead the team in interceptions for the second year in a row with four, while Pro Bowl cornerback Stephon Gilmore intercepted two passes and forced two fumbles. Safety Patrick Chung also made an impact with 84 total tackles to go with an interception and a fumble recovery. The Patriots secondary also featured twin brothers Jason McCourty and Devin McCourty, who both had an interception each. Devin had 82 tackles, while Jason had 70. The Rams finished the 2018 season earning the #2 seed in the NFC, before knocking off the fourth seeded Dallas Cowboys in the divisional round and top seeded New Orleans Saints in the NFC Championship to earn their fourth Super Bowl in franchise history. The Rams went from 2004 to 2016 without recording a winning record. After relocating from St. Louis back to Los Angeles and posting a dismal 4–12 season in 2016, the team's fortunes changed with the hiring of 30-year-old head coach Sean McVay, the youngest head coach in NFL history. Under McVay and second year quarterback Jared Goff, who recovered from a lackluster winless rookie season to record a triple digit passer rating, the Rams improved to an 11–5 record in 2017. Then in 2018, they won their first eight games and finished the year with a 13–3 record, tying the Saints for the best record in the NFC. The Rams offense ranked second in the NFL in both points scored (527) and yards gained (6,738). Goff continued to improve in his third season, setting new career highs in passing yards (4,688, fourth in the NFL), passing touchdowns (32), passer rating (101.1), rushing yards (108) and rushing touchdowns (two). His top receiver was Robert Woods, who caught 86 passes for 1,219 yards and 6 touchdowns. Brandin Cooks, an off- season pickup from the Patriots via trade, also made a big impact with 80 receptions for 1,204 yards and 5 scores. The team's #3 receiver, Cooper Kupp, suffered a season ending injury after catching 40 passes for 566 yards in 8 games, forcing Goff to rely heavily on other targets like Gerald Everett (32 receptions) and Josh Reynolds (29). Pro Bowl running back Todd Gurley was the team's leading rusher with 1,251 yards (fourth in the NFL) and 17 touchdowns, while also catching 59 passes for 580 yards and five more touchdowns. His 17 rushing touchdowns led the league, while his 22 total touchdowns gave him 132 points, fifth in the NFL. Running back C. J. Anderson, who made the Rams his third different team in 2018 after signing up with them in December, also was a key aspect of the running game, finishing the season with 405 yards and leading the team in rushing in both of their playoff victories. On special teams, JoJo Natson returned 26 punts for 280 yards, while kicker Greg Zuerlein made 87.1% of his field goals, including a franchise postseason record 57-yard kick to defeat the Saints in overtime in the NFC championship game. The Rams defense featured Pro Bowl defensive tackle Aaron Donald, who led the league in sacks with 20.5, as many sacks as the rest of the team combined. He also had 59 tackles (25 for loss), four forced fumbles and two fumble recoveries. Veteran defensive lineman Ndamukong Suh was second on the team with 4.5 sacks, while also getting 59 tackles and recovering two fumbles. Pro Bowl linebacker Cory Littleton led the team in total tackles with 125, while also picking up four sacks, three interceptions and blocking two punts. The Rams also had a strong secondary, led by John Johnson (119 tackles and four interceptions), Marcus Peters (three interceptions), Lamarcus Joyner (78 tackles) and Aqib Talib. In the playoffs, the Patriots earned a first-round bye as the AFC's second overall seed. In the divisional round, they defeated the Los Angeles Chargers 41–28, scoring touchdowns on five of their first six possessions. Brady passed for 343 yards and a touchdown, while running back Sony Michel rushed for 129 yards and three touchdowns. They then defeated the Kansas City Chiefs 37–31 in the AFC Championship Game, scoring the game-winning touchdown in overtime. The Patriots held a 14–0 lead at halftime, before the Chiefs rallied to take the lead 21–17 in the fourth quarter. From there, both teams took turns taking the lead, until the Chiefs forced overtime with a 39-yard field goal by Harrison Butker to tie the game 31–31. In overtime, Rex Burkhead scored a two-yard touchdown to win the game. Michel ended up rushing for a combined total of 242 yards and five touchdowns in the Patriots' two playoff games, setting an NFL record for postseason rushing touchdowns by a rookie. In the AFC championship game, the Patriots defense held Chiefs receiver Tyreek Hill and tight end Travis Kelce, who had both gained over 1,300 receiving yards during the season, to a combined total of just four receptions for 65 yards. Meanwhile, the Rams also had a first-round bye as the NFC's second overall seed. They started off the divisional round by defeating the Dallas Cowboys 30–22. The Rams gained 273 yards on the ground with running backs Todd Gurley and C. J. Anderson rushing for over 100 yards each. They then defeated the New Orleans Saints 26–23 in the NFC Championship Game, scoring a game-winning field goal in overtime. The Saints jumped out to an early 13–0 first quarter lead, before the Rams rallied to close the lead to 13–10 at halftime. In the fourth quarter, Greg Zuerlein tied the game at 20–20, with just over 5 minutes remaining. The Saints moved the ball to the Rams' 13 yard line, but could not gain a first down. On third down, quarterback Drew Brees threw a pass to receiver Tommylee Lewis, who was covered by Nickell Robey-Coleman. Though Robey-Coleman knocked Lewis to the ground and the pass fell incomplete, no penalty was called and the Saints' Wil Lutz kicked a 31-yard field goal to take the lead. The Rams took possession and sent the game to overtime with a 48-yard field goal by Greg Zuerlein. In overtime, Brees threw an interception on their first drive and Zuerlein kicked a 57-yard field goal to win the game. The game was a rematch of Super Bowl XXXVI between the Patriots and the Rams; the Rams at the time were based in St. Louis. However, only one player, Patriots starting quarterback Tom Brady, remained on either roster from that contest. Bill Belichick, the Patriots' head coach in the previous contest, also remained in that position for this game. Super Bowl LIII featured record setting age differences between each team's starting quarterbacks and head coaches, pitting 41-year-old Brady against 24-year-old Jared Goff, as well as 66-year-old Belichick against 33-year-old Sean McVay. The then-St. Louis Rams won their sole Super Bowl title in Atlanta, Super Bowl XXXIV, hosted at the now-demolished Georgia Dome in 2000, which was located adjacent to Mercedes- Benz Stadium. As the designated home team in the annual rotation between AFC and NFC teams, the Rams elected to wear their royal blue and yellow throwback uniforms for the game, which they have previously worn for six home games including a home playoff game during the 2018 season. The Patriots wore their standard white away uniforms. Boston and Los Angeles teams of other professional sports have met in the championship rounds, popularizing the "Beat L.A." chant and the hashtag "#BeatLA". The Boston Celtics and Los Angeles Lakers have contested a record twelve NBA Finals. Furthermore, Los Angeles Galaxy and New England Revolution have contested three MLS Cups. The Boston Red Sox and Los Angeles Dodgers faced off in the 2018 World Series, and with the Patriots and Rams meeting in Super Bowl LIII, it was only the second time in 50 years that two cities' MLB and NFL teams have competed for the league title in the same season (or calendar year), the first time being in 1969 when the New York Jets and Baltimore Colts competed for Super Bowl III in January 1969 followed by the 1969 World Series featuring the New York Mets and Baltimore Orioles. The Patriots faced another Los Angeles-based team in the same playoffs, the Chargers in the divisional round, en route to their Super Bowl meeting with the Rams. Pre-game events and entertainment were centered around Downtown Atlanta, with State Farm Arena having hosted Super Bowl Opening Night, the Georgia World Congress Center hosting the Super Bowl Experience and Super Bowl Live at Centennial Olympic Park. State Farm Arena also hosted the inaugural Bud Light Super Bowl Music Fest, a three-night concert series that was headlined by Ludacris and Migos (night 1), Aerosmith and Post Malone (night 2), and Bruno Mars and Cardi B (night 3). The show competed with a "Super Saturday Night" concert held by DirecTV at a temporary venue near Atlantic Station, headlined by the Foo Fighters and featuring Roger Taylor, Zac Brown, Tom Morello, Perry Farrell and Dave Koz as special guests. The NFL officially launched its centennial commemorations at Super Bowl LIII, ahead of its 100th season. A themed, two-minute advertisement was aired during the game. CBS broadcast Super Bowl LIII as part of an annual cycle between the three main broadcast television partners of the NFL, marking the 20th time it has broadcast the game. As with CBS's most recent Super Bowl (Super Bowl 50), ESPN Deportes aired a Spanish-language broadcast of the game (additional to CBS's SAP channel Spanish version). CBS's coverage utilized a total of 115 cameras, including 8K resolution cameras (for the first time in a U.S. network sports telecast) in the end zones, as well as field-level and "up close" augmented reality graphics (with the latter generated from a wireless, handheld camera). Digitally, the game was available via the CBS Sports app, CBSSports.com, the Yahoo! Sports app, Tumblr app, the NFL app and through CBS's subscription service CBS All Access. The Yahoo! Sports app and Tumblr app streams are part of a long-term deal between then NFL and Verizon Media. Westwood One affiliates carried the game on radio for free, with SiriusXM carrying the game in eight languages and hometown broadcasts from Boston's WBZ-FM and Los Angeles's KSPN and KCBS-FM, along with the main feed on Sirius XM NFL Radio. With a base price slightly higher than $5 million for a 30-second ad, the cost of commercial time remained even with the previous three events. There were fewer spots sold overall in comparison to the previous Super Bowl; CBS aired more than double the number of promos for its own programming (as well as that of its subscription service CBS All Access) than NBC did at Super Bowl LII. Despite this, Kantar estimated its total revenue to be the third-highest in Super Bowl history, at $382 million. Anheuser-Busch made its largest-ever advertising purchase for a single Super Bowl, with a total of eight different commercials of various lengths (covering five-and-a-half minutes of airtime) across seven product brands, including three being advertised during the game for the first time. CBS rejected an ad from medical cannabis company Acreage Holdings advocating for legalization. For the first time in its history, the NFL itself won USA Todays Super Bowl Ad Meter survey determining the best commercial aired during the game, with an advertisement launching a campaign celebrating its 100th season. CBS's lead-out program was the series premiere of the talent competition series The World's Best. After late local programs, CBS also aired a special Sunday-night episode of The Late Show with Stephen Colbert. Initial overnight Nielsen Ratings measured a 44.9 rating for the game, down 5% from the previous year and the lowest rating for a Super Bowl since Super Bowl XLIII ten years prior. 98.2 million viewers were measured, the fewest since Super Bowl XLII. Jemele Hill of The Atlantic attributed the low ratings "to the game being the lowest-scoring Super Bowl ever, moderate national interest in the Rams, the lingering bad taste from the huge blown call in the NFC Championship Game, and Patriots fatigue". In New Orleans, whose Saints had lost the NFC Championship in part because of the blown call, ratings were down 51% compared to Super Bowl LII as Louisianans boycotted and refused to watch the game. Outside the Boston market, where the 57.1 overnight rating was the highest among local markets, the highest-rated markets were in Richmond, Virginia and Buffalo, New York (the latter having traditionally high ratings for sporting events and being the home of the Patriots' division rivals the Buffalo Bills); Los Angeles was near the national average. A downturn of approximately 5% was noted during the halftime show. The fewer television viewers did not migrate to online or mobile platforms; viewership online and on mobile only totaled 2.5 million viewers, which was not an appreciable enough change to affect the overall viewership decline. In Canada, the game was aired by CTV, CTV 2 and TSN. Unifor purchased time on the Canadian broadcast to air an attack ad criticizing General Motors' decision to close the Oshawa Car Assembly plant, defying demands from the company to pull the ad because they deemed it to be misleading. In Australia and New Zealand, ESPN Australia aired an ESPN-produced broadcast of the game that featured the Monday Night Football commentary crew of Joe Tessitore, Jason Witten and Booger McFarland (McFarland was in the booth rather than the controversial sideline vehicle he used that was abandoned before the end of the 2018 MNF season). It would prove to be Witten's last commentary appearance for the time being, due to his unretirement and return to the Dallas Cowboys. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the game was broadcast on the free-to-air channel BBC One, and paid-subscription channels Sky Sports Main Event, Sky Sports Mix and Sky Sports USA. The musical artists who agreed to perform at the show—including Gladys Knight, Maroon 5, Travis Scott, and Big Boi—were criticized by media outlets, other artists, and members of the public for performing at Super Bowl LIII because of the NFL's alleged blacklisting of Colin Kaepernick for protesting police brutality by kneeling during the pre-game national anthem. Several artists, including Jay-Z and Cardi B, turned down offers to perform at the game in support of Kaepernick. Quinton Peron and Napoleon Jinnies became the first male cheerleaders to perform at a major US sporting event. Scott Winer was the first openly gay cameraman to film the Super Bowl. The NFL had Mercedes-Benz Stadium's retractable roof open for the pre-game ceremonies, then closed it prior to kickoff. Atlanta natives Chloe x Halle performed "America the Beautiful". Gladys Knight, also from Atlanta, performed "The Star-Spangled Banner". D.C. resident Aarron Loggins performed a sign- language interpretation for both songs. Bernice King—the daughter of Martin Luther King Jr.—and civil rights movement leaders Andrew Young and John Lewis participated in the coin toss ceremony. King had the honors of flipping the coin. On January 13, 2019, the NFL announced that pop band Maroon 5 would headline the Super Bowl LIII halftime show. They were joined by Big Boi of Outkast and Travis Scott as guests. A short clip featuring the cast of SpongeBob SquarePants and a clip from the 2001 episode "Band Geeks" was aired as a tribute to series creator Stephen Hillenburg, who died in November due to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), as a response to a petition on Change.org calling the NFL to have the song "Sweet Victory" performed at the halftime show. The full clip of the "Sweet Victory" song, including a dedication to Hillenburg, was played inside the stadium prior to the game. The Patriots received first possession as Cordarrelle Patterson returned the opening kickoff 38 yards to the Patriots' 39-yard line and the team picked up 27 yards with their next five plays. But on Tom Brady's first pass attempt of the day, Nickell Robey-Coleman, who was notable for a non-pass interference call in the NFC Championship two weeks ago, deflected the ball, allowing linebacker Cory Littleton to make an interception. The turnover had no avail, and following a punt, the Patriots drove 45 yards in 11 plays, the longest a 19-yard catch by tight end Rob Gronkowski. Placekicker Stephen Gostkowski missed a field goal attempt from 46 yards, still keeping the score at zero. The Rams were again unable to move the ball and again, the Patriots threatened to score when Brady completed a 25-yard pass to Julian Edelman at the Rams 45-yard line. But on the next play, Brady was sacked by defensive end John Franklin-Myers and fumbled the ball. Center David Andrews recovered the fumble, but the team was only able to get as far as the Rams' 40 before 4th down and had to punt with 18 seconds left in the first quarter. After forcing another three-and-out, the Patriots managed to drive 39 yards in seven plays, most of which came from another 25-yard completion from Brady to Edelman. Gostkowski finished the possession with a 42-yard field goal, giving the team a 3–0 lead with 10:29 left in the second quarter. After the next three drives ended in punts, the Patriots took the ball and drove 36 yards to the Rams 32-yard line. But on a 4th-and-1 conversion attempt, Brady threw an incomplete pass with 1:16 left on the clock. The two teams went into their locker rooms with the Patriots leading, 3–0, the second lowest halftime score in Super Bowl history and the lowest since the 2–0 halftime score in Super Bowl IX after the 1974 season. In the entire first half, the Rams had gained just 57 yards and two first downs, both record lows for coach Sean McVay. This was also the first time that McVay's Rams had ever been shut out in a first half. The defensive battle continued into the second half as both teams punted twice (one of them was a Super Bowl record 65-yard punt by the Rams' Johnny Hekker). With 6:33 left in the third quarter, the Rams opened their first drive of more than five plays and their first not to end in a punt, moving the ball 42 yards in 10 plays. On the third play of the drive, Jared Goff completed a 15-yard pass to Brandin Cooks and later made his first third-down conversion with an 18-yard pass to Robert Woods on 3rd-and-6. On 3rd-and-7 from the Patriots' 26-yard line, Goff was sacked for a 9-yard loss by Dont'a Hightower, but Greg Zuerlein was able to pull off a 53-yard field goal, the second-longest in Super Bowl history, to tie the game at 3–3 with 2:11 left in the third quarter. The Patriots took the ball back and drove to the Rams' 44-yard line, but could not go any further, and had to punt on the first play of the fourth quarter. For the first time in Super Bowl history, both teams had gone three quarters without scoring a touchdown. After forcing the Rams to punt, the Patriots mounted the longest drive of the game as Brady completed an 18-yard pass to Gronkowski, a 13-yard pass to Edelman, a 7-yard pass to running back Rex Burkhead and a 29-yard pass to Gronkowski, bringing them to the Rams' 2-yard line. On the next play, Sony Michel gave the Patriots the lead with a touchdown run, extending his rookie postseason rushing touchdown record to six. With the extra point by Gostkowski, the Patriots had a 10–3 lead with seven minutes left in regulation. On the first play of the Rams' next drive, Goff completed a 19-yard pass to Cooks and later converted a 3rd-and-9 with an 11-yard throw to Josh Reynolds. On the next play, his 17-yard completion to Woods moved the ball to the Patriots' 27-yard line. But with just over 4 minutes left in the game, Goff threw a pass that was intercepted by Stephon Gilmore on the 3-yard line. The Rams needed to force a punt or turnover, but were unable to contain the Patriots on the ground. On the second play of the Patriots' possession, Michel stormed through the line for a 26-yard run. After he picked up 10 more yards with his next two carries, Burkhead's 26-yard run gave the Patriots a first down on the Rams' 33-yard line. Three plays later, Gostkowski succeeded on a 41-yard field goal, giving the Patriots a 13–3 lead with 1:12 left on the clock. Taking the ball back on their own 25, Goff completed a 10-yard pass to Woods, as well as completions to Cooks for gains of 24 and 21 yards, moving the ball to the Patriots' 30-yard line. With 8 seconds left, the Rams decided to kick a field goal, which would have been followed by an onside kick attempt, but Zuerlein missed wide left from 48 yards, and the Patriots ran out the last few seconds of the game clock. Brady completed 21 of 35 passes for 262 yards, with one interception. Edelman was his top target with 10 receptions for 141 yards, while Gronkowski made six receptions for 87 yards in his final NFL game (he announced his retirement in March 2019). Michel was the top rusher of the game with 94 yards and a touchdown. Gilmore had five solo tackles and an interception. Goff finished the day 19-for-38 passing, for 229 yards and an interception. Cooks was his top receiver with eight receptions for 120 yards. Littleton had 10 tackles (six solo) and an interception. Hekker punted nine times for 417 yards, an average of 46.3 yards per punt, and put five punts inside the 20. The Rams were only the second team in Super Bowl history to not score a touchdown, the first having been the Miami Dolphins in Super Bowl VI after the 1971 season. Brady became the first player in NFL history to win six Super Bowls, surpassing Charles Haley's sole record of five. Brady, also, at age 41, became the oldest quarterback to win a Super Bowl, and Bill Belichick became the oldest coach to win a Super Bowl, at age 66. Edelman was named the Super Bowl Most Valuable Player, the first wide receiver so recognized since Santonio Holmes in Super Bowl XLIII after the 2008 season. Despite holding the Rams to just three points, no Patriots defender received a vote. Completions/attempts Carries Long gain Receptions Times targeted Super Bowl LIII had seven officials. The numbers in parentheses below indicate their uniform numbers. John Parry became the second referee in a row to retire after officiating the Super Bowl after Gene Steratore, who retired after Super Bowl LII. Referee: John Parry (132), Umpire: Fred Bryan (11), Down judge: Ed Camp (134), Line judge: Jeff Bergman (32), Field judge: Steve Zimmer (33), Side judge: Eugene Hall (103), Back judge: Terrence Miles (111), Replay Official: Jim Lapetina, Replay Assistant: Chad Adams, Alternate Referee: Ron Torbert (62), Alternate Umpire: Mark Pellis (131), Alternate Wing: Tom Stephan (68), Alternate Deep: Michael Banks (72), Alternate Back Judge: Rich Martinez (39) On the morning of February 5, the Patriots celebration duck boat parade was held in Boston, starting at Boylston Street and ending at City Hall Plaza. The date of the parade was unseasonably warm for New England. The high temperature for the day was 65 degrees Fahrenheit, with a low of 40. Temperatures in Boston during this time of year average in the mid to low 40’s. It was attended by an estimated 1.5 million fans.

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Vincent Lamar Carter (born January 26, 1977) is an American professional basketball player for the Broklen Nets of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He is tall and plays both shooting guard and small forward but occasionally has played power forward during the latter part of his career. Carter is the only player in NBA history to play 22 seasons; the only player to play in four different calendar decades (1990s, 2000s, 2010s, and 2020s); and, at 42 years old, he is the oldest active NBA player. Carter is widely regarded as one of the greatest dunkers of all time. A high school McDonald's All-American, Carter played three years at the University of North Carolina. While there, he twice reached the Final Four of the NCAA Tournament before being selected as the fifth overall pick in the 1998 NBA draft by the Golden State Warriors, who traded him to the Toronto Raptors. Carter emerged as a star in Toronto. He won the 1999 NBA Rookie of the Year Award and won the Slam Dunk Contest at the 2000 NBA All-Star Weekend. That summer, he represented the United States in the Summer Olympics, winning a gold medal. He entertained crowds with his leaping ability and slam dunks, earning nicknames such as "Vinsanity", "Air Canada", and "Half-Man, Half-Amazing". In December 2004, Carter was traded to the New Jersey Nets, where he continued to put up big numbers. Carter has also played for the Orlando Magic, the Phoenix Suns, the Dallas Mavericks, the Memphis Grizzlies, the Sacramento Kings, and the Atlanta Hawks. He received the Twyman–Stokes Teammate of the Year Award in 2016. Carter is an eight-time NBA All-Star. Off the court, Carter established the Embassy of Hope Foundation, assisting children and their families in Florida, New Jersey, and Ontario. He was also recognized in 2000 as Child Advocate of the Year by the Children's Home Society, and he received the Florida Governor's Points of Light award in 2007 for his philanthropy in his home state. Born in Daytona Beach, Florida, Carter attended Mainland High School in Daytona Beach. Carter played football as a quarterback until a broken wrist in his freshman year forced him to pick up volleyball instead. In volleyball, he was named the Volusia County Player of the Year as a junior and averaged 24 kills per match; for comparison, none of his teammates averaged more than one. Carter was also offered a saxophone scholarship to attend Bethune–Cookman. He led Mainland's basketball team to its first Class 6A state title in 56 years and was a 1995 McDonald's All-American. Carter was contacted by 77 NCAA Division I schools but ultimately chose North Carolina over Florida. Carter attended the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, spending three seasons playing college basketball for the North Carolina Tar Heels under Dean Smith and later, Bill Guthridge. During the 1997–98 season, he was a member of new coach Guthridge's "Six Starters" system that featured Antawn Jamison, Shammond Williams, Ed Cota, Ademola Okulaja, and Makhtar N'Diaye. During his sophomore and junior seasons, Carter helped North Carolina to consecutive ACC Men's Basketball Tournament titles and Final Four appearances. He finished the 1997–98 season with a 15.6 points per game average and was named second-team All-American, First-Team All-ACC, and to the fan's guide third-annual Coaches ACC All-Defensive Team. In May 1998, Carter declared for the 1998 NBA draft, following his classmate Jamison, who had declared earlier that spring. During his NBA career, Carter continued his coursework at North Carolina, and in August 2000, he graduated with a degree in African-American studies. On January 31, 2012, Carter was honored as one of the 35 greatest McDonald's All- Americans, and on February 23, 2012, President Barack Obama, an avid basketball fan, gave praise to Carter at a fundraiser event, referring to Carter's game as a "huge treat for me ever since he's been playing for the Tar Heels." Carter was initially drafted by the Golden State Warriors with the fifth overall pick in the 1998 NBA draft. He was then traded to the Toronto Raptors for the fourth overall pick, Antawn Jamison—Carter's college teammate and good friend. The Raptors had struggled in their first three years as a franchise. Carter was instrumental in leading the Raptors to their first ever playoff appearance in 2000 before going on to lead them to a 47-win season and their first ever playoff series win in 2001, advancing them to the Eastern Conference Semifinals. Due to the NBA lockout, Carter's rookie season did not start until January 1999. Carter quickly became a fan favorite with a soaring offensive game that earned him the nickname "Air Canada". He won the NBA Rookie of the Year Award after averaging 18.3 points and throwing down countless highlight-reel dunks. Carter ascended to full-fledged stardom in his second season – he averaged 25.7 points per game (fourth-highest in the league) and lifted Toronto to its first playoff appearance in franchise history. He subsequently earned his first NBA All-Star selection and was named to the All-NBA Third Team. During the 2000 NBA All-Star Weekend, Carter showcased arguably the most memorable Slam Dunk Contest event in its history. He won the contest by performing an array of dunks including a 360° windmill, a between the legs bounce dunk, and an "elbow in the rim" dunk (also known as a "cookie jar" dunk or the "honey dip"). Carter and his distant cousin Tracy McGrady formed a formidable one-two punch as teammates in Toronto between 1998 and 2000. However, McGrady was dealt to the Orlando Magic in August 2000, leaving Carter as the Raptors' franchise player. It is believed by some that the Raptors could have won championships if McGrady and Carter stayed together in Toronto. In 2000–01, his third season, Carter averaged a career-high 27.6 points per game, made the All-NBA Second Team, and was voted in as a starter for the 2001 NBA All-Star Game. The Raptors also finished the regular season with a then franchise-record 47 wins. In the playoffs, the Raptors beat the New York Knicks 3–2 in the first round, and advanced to the Eastern Conference Semifinals to face off against the Philadelphia 76ers. Carter and Allen Iverson played in a seven-game series that see-sawed back and forth. Carter scored 50 points in Game 3 and set an NBA playoff record for most three-point field goals made in one game. Television ratings for Game 7 soared as one of the highest watched in NBC's history for a non-finals game. As the Sixers and Raptors increased their double team pressures on Carter and Iverson respectively, the game winning shot came down to Carter who missed with 2.0 seconds remaining. Iverson said of the series in July 2011: "It was incredible. (Carter) had great games at home and I had some great games at home, but both of us were just trying to put our teams on our back and win basketball games. It is great just having those memories and being a part of something like that." In August 2001, Carter signed a six-year contract extension worth as much as $94 million. However, Carter began showing the effects of what would become career-altering problems with his knees in the wake of his big contract. He earned a reputation as a fragile player after suffering a series of knee and hamstring injuries. Carter missed the final 22 games of the 2001–02 regular season due to injury. He started in 60 games and averaged 24.7 points per game. On December 7, 2001, Carter recorded 42 points, 15 rebounds, 6 assists and 5 steals against the Denver Nuggets. He joined Charles Barkley (1988) as the only two players to have ever posted a game with 40 points, 15 rebounds, five steals and five assists, dating back to the 1973–74 season, when the league officially began tracking steals. He was voted into the 2002 NBA All-Star Game, but he could not participate due to injury. Without Carter during the 2002 NBA Playoffs, the Raptors were defeated in five games by the Detroit Pistons in the first round. Following off-season surgery, Carter only managed 43 games during the 2002–03 season. In February 2003, Carter gave up his starting spot in the 2003 NBA All-Star Game to Michael Jordan to allow Jordan to make his final start as an All-Star. Carter played in 73 games during the 2003–04 season, but the Raptors fell three games short of making the playoffs. During the 2004 off-season, general manager Glen Grunwald and the entire coaching staff were fired following the team's failure to reach the playoffs. Carter became frustrated with the Raptors' upper management. In particular, Carter was unhappy with Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment (MLSE) and Raptors president Richard Peddie. In a private meeting, Peddie reassured Carter that MLSE was serious in building a contender in Toronto and that he would pursue established players like point guard Steve Nash and center Jamaal Magloire. Carter was also given the impression that Peddie would consider Julius Erving as a serious candidate for general manager; however, it was later disclosed that Erving was never really in the mix. Peddie instead hired Rob Babcock as general manager, whose first priority in rebuilding the Raptors was to "establish our philosophy", stating "we are not really worried about how many wins we get right away, or whether we make the playoffs within the first year or two." He then hired Sam Mitchell as head coach. Consequently, much speculation arose whether Carter wanted to be traded. The Toronto Sun reported that Carter felt misled and felt the Raptors would never be an elite team under the current MLSE structure with Peddie as Raptors president. Some fans raised money to fly a "Keep Vince, Trade Peddie" banner over the Air Canada Centre just before Carter's annual charity game. When Rob Babcock was questioned about the trade speculations, he denied Carter asked for a trade but indiscreetly revealed Carter's agent had approached him for a trade request. During the 2004–05 season, coach Mitchell often benched Carter in the fourth quarter to emphasize the new team philosophy he and Babcock wanted players to adapt to, spurring rumors of fights between Carter and Mitchell and new point guard Rafer Alston. Carter's trade wish was finally granted on December 17, 2004, when he was dealt to the New Jersey Nets for Alonzo Mourning, Aaron Williams, Eric Williams and two first round draft picks. In his first game back in Toronto, on April 15, 2005, Carter was heavily booed and jeered by Raptors fans; some fans were found burning Vince Carter jerseys, while many donned No. 15 baby bibs, 'FUVC' T-shirts, and other merchandise that labelled Carter as "Wince" or as "immature", alluding to Carter's knee and ankle injuries and his dissent. Much like former Raptors teammate Tracy McGrady, Carter received such treatment for years to come in the town that once embraced him. In January 2005, Carter was asked if he had pushed himself as hard as he should have in Toronto. Carter replied, "In years past, no. I was fortunate to have the talent ... you get spoiled when you're able to do a lot of things. You see that you don't have to work at it. Now, with the all the injuries, I have to work harder. I'm a little hungrier. Getting a fresh start has made me want to attack the basket." Though Carter's comments were perceived by Raptors fans as his confession of quitting on the Raptors, Thompson said the comments were misinterpreted, saying, "That boy never said to me, 'Coach, I just laid down and quit.' ...I was embarrassed and felt awful about it for his sake, because I knew what he was communicating to me... he was more expressing a desire of wanting to do better, as we all do." Despite Thompson's defense of Carter, the Toronto Stars Dave Feschuk in 2007 wrote that Carter "cheated on (the Raptors). He quit on the floor." Carter later stated his comments were misconstrued. On the eve of the Raptors–Nets playoff series in 2007, Carter told New York's WFAN radio station, "One day, maybe the fans will understand how it all went down. That's all I can say." In November 2011, Carter, along with his cousin Tracy McGrady and Charles Oakley, addressed the Toronto audience in an interview on Off the Record with Michael Landsberg. When asked about being booed in Toronto, Carter said, "They watched myself and Tracy grow up. And when we left they still got to see (us) flourish and become (who we are). For me, I looked at it as, a young child growing up into a grown man and moving on. And I get it. Leaving, hurt a lot of people. It hurt me because I tell you what... I accomplished a lot, I learned a lot, I became the person and player of who I am today because of that experience, through the coaches, players, and everything else. I get it... but regardless I still love the city. I have friends there and my heart is still there because that's where it all started." Later in the interview, when asked about any words to the Toronto fans, Carter said, "I appreciate the fans and whether you cheer for me, boo me, or hate me, I still love you. Toronto's one of the best kept secrets.. puts one of the best products on the floor and one of the top places to play in." On November 6, 2012, in an interview with TSN Radio 1050, Carter reiterated his love for the city and his appreciation for the Toronto Raptors organization. The next day, Sam Mitchell and Rob Babcock revealed on Sportsnet 590, The Fan that the night before Carter was traded to New Jersey, Carter phoned Mitchell to express his desire to stay in Toronto and commit to their vision for the team. However, Babcock said it was too late and the trade had already been verbally agreed upon. Looking back on it, Mitchell feels he should have personally contacted the MLSE chairman, Larry Tanenbaum, but was reluctant because he did not want to break the chain of command. Raptors general manager Masai Ujiri referred to Carter in April 2014 as "one of the symbols of the Toronto Raptors." To this day, Carter remains the Raptors' all-time leader in points per game with 23.4, having amassed 9,420 points during his -year run in Toronto. On November 19, 2014, nearly a decade after the trade, as a part of the Raptors' 20th anniversary celebration, the team paid tribute to Carter with a video montage during the first quarter of the Raptors-Grizzlies game. Leading up to the game, questions were raised about how Raptors fans would receive the planned video tribute. As the sellout crowd watched the video tribute featuring highlights of Carter's high-flying Raptors days, what began as the usual booing turned into an overwhelmingly positive standing ovation. An emotional Carter used his warm-up shirt to wipe tears running down his face as he pointed to his heart and waved to the fans in appreciation. He later stated, "It was a great feeling, I couldn't write it any better." Carter was acquired by the New Jersey Nets on December 17, 2004, playing five seasons for them before departing in June 2009. Carter produced some of his highest numbers with the Nets, surpassing his 23.4 points per game with the Raptors to average 23.6 points per game over his tenure in New Jersey. He missed just 11 games in his four full seasons and helped lead the Nets to three straight playoff runs between 2005 and 2007. Carter joined a Nets team with Jason Kidd and Richard Jefferson as the leading players. However, the trio never got to play together at full strength during the 2004–05 season. Carter and Kidd carried a shallow roster on a 15–4 run to end the season to make the playoffs. In the 2005–06 season, the Carter-Kidd duo co-led the Nets to 49 wins, an Atlantic Division title, and the No. 3 seed in the playoffs. Carter helped lead the Nets to the second round of the playoffs before losing to the eventual NBA champions Miami Heat in five games. Carter averaged 29.6 points, 7.0 rebounds and 5.3 assists in 11 playoff games. Carter was named an Eastern Conference All-Star in 2006. On November 7, 2005, Carter threw down a very memorable dunk against the Miami Heat, over defensive stalwart, Alonzo Mourning. On December 23, 2005, Carter set an NBA record for the most free throws made in a quarter (4th quarter) with 16 against Miami. He tied his career high of 51 points in the same game. In the 2006–07 season, Carter was named as a reserve to the 2007 NBA All-Star Game, marking his eighth All-Star appearance. In a 120–114 overtime win over the Washington Wizards on April 7, 2007, Carter and Kidd became the first teammates in over 18 years to record triple-doubles in the same game since the Chicago Bulls' Michael Jordan and Scottie Pippen achieved this feat against the Los Angeles Clippers in 1989. Carter finished with 46 points, a career-high 16 rebounds, and 10 assists. Kidd finished with 10 points, tied a career high with 16 rebounds, and tied a season high with 18 assists. Carter finished the 2006–07 season playing all 82 games, averaging over 25 points with a 21 PER. In July 2007, Carter re-signed with the Nets to a four-year, $61.8 million contract. During the 2007–08 season, Kidd was traded to the Dallas Mavericks. Carter was credited for becoming a leader following the All-Star break. He became captain of the Nets, and in 2008–09, he and teammate Devin Harris were the highest-scoring starting backcourt in the league. On November 21, 2008, Carter scored a season-high 39 points, including a game winning two-handed reverse dunk, as the Nets battled back from an 18-point deficit to defeat the Toronto Raptors 129–127 in overtime at the Air Canada Center. He hit a 29-foot, game tying three-pointer to send the game into overtime and then scored the winning basket in the extra period. On February 3, 2009, Carter recorded his fifth career triple-double with 15 points, 12 assists and 10 rebounds in a 99–85 win over the Milwaukee Bucks. On June 25, 2009, Carter was traded, along with Ryan Anderson, to the Orlando Magic in exchange for Rafer Alston, Tony Battie and Courtney Lee. Orlando hoped Carter would provide center Dwight Howard with a perimeter scorer who can create his own shot—something the Magic lacked in losing the NBA Finals to the Los Angeles Lakers. On February 8, 2010, he had a season-high 48 points, 34 in the second half, when the Magic rallied from a 17-point deficit to defeat the New Orleans Hornets 123–117. Carter helped the Magic reach the Eastern Conference Finals, where they were defeated 4–2 by the Boston Celtics. It marked his first and so far only Conference Finals series. On December 18, 2010, Carter was acquired by the Phoenix Suns in a six-player trade with the Magic. On January 17, 2011, Carter recorded 29 points and 12 rebounds in a 129–121 win over the New York Knicks. He reached 20,000 career points during the game, becoming the 37th NBA player to reach that plateau. On December 9, 2011, following the conclusion of the NBA lockout, Carter was waived by the Suns, meaning the team only had to pay him $4 million of the $18 million he was due for the 2011–12 season. Carter appeared in 51 games with 41 starts while averaging 13.5 points while shooting 42 percent. On December 12, 2011, Carter signed a three-year contract with the Dallas Mavericks. This move reunited Carter with former Nets teammate Jason Kidd. On April 20, 2012 against the Golden State Warriors, Carter became the eighth player in NBA history with 1,500 3-pointers when he made one in the closing minutes. While known early on in his career for his circus dunks, Carter became known for his 3-point shooting with the Mavericks. On February 13, 2013, in a 123–100 win over the Sacramento Kings, Carter scored 26 points to pass Larry Bird on the NBA's career scoring list, moving him into 29th place. Carter turned aside a Sacramento rally in the third quarter by going 5 of 7 from long range and scoring 17 of Dallas' last 21 points in the period. He ended the night with 21,796 career points for 29th on the all-time list, five ahead of Bird. He also became the 11th NBA player with at least 1,600 3-pointers. He finished the season ranked 27th on the NBA's all-time scoring list with 22,223 career points. His 162 3-pointers tied his career high for 3s made in a season (162-of-397, .408, with Toronto in 2000–01). Over the course of the season, he advanced from 17th place to 11th place on the NBA's all-time 3-point field goals made list (passing Nick Van Exel, Tim Hardaway, Eddie Jones, Glen Rice, Jason Richardson and Kobe Bryant), finishing the year with 1,663 career 3-pointers. Prior to the 2013–14 season, Carter established himself as the Mavericks' sixth man, after the departure of Jason Terry. He averaged just 10.5 points and shot 37.6% from the field during the first 22 games of the season due to increased responsibilities and pressure to be the team's lone scoring punch off of the bench. He saw his numbers improve in December, averaging 12.5 points and shooting 44.3% from the field during an 18-game stretch. On March 16, 2014 against the Oklahoma City Thunder, Carter raised his career total to 23,010 points, becoming the 27th NBA player to pass the 23,000-point mark with a 3-pointer with 2:17 left in the third quarter. In Game 3 of the Mavericks' first round playoff series against the San Antonio Spurs, Carter drilled the game-winning 3-pointer with no time remaining on the clock to give the eighth-seeded Mavericks a 109–108 win and a 2–1 series edge over the top-seeded Spurs. The Mavericks went on to lose the series in seven games. On July 12, 2014, Carter signed a multi-year deal with the Memphis Grizzlies. On November 13, 2014, he made a game winning alley-oop assist from the sideline to teammate Courtney Lee at the buzzer to win the game 111–110 over the Sacramento Kings. On December 17, 2014, Carter scored a season-high 18 points in a 117–116 triple overtime win over the San Antonio Spurs. Carter moved into 25th in all-time NBA scoring during the game, passing Robert Parish (23,334). Carter appeared in just one of the Grizzlies' first 12 games of the 2015–16 season. On February 24, 2016, with nine points scored against the Los Angeles Lakers, Carter passed Charles Barkley (23,757) for 24th in career points scored. Two days later, he scored a season-high 19 points in a 112–95 win over the Lakers. For the latter half of April and the whole first round playoff series against the Spurs, Carter was inserted in the starting lineup and played well. In Game 1 against the Spurs, Carter scored a team-high 16 points in a 106–74 loss. The Grizzlies went on to lose the series in four games. After finishing second behind Tim Duncan in the 2014–15 season, Carter was awarded with the Twyman–Stokes Teammate of the Year Award for the 2015–16 season. The award recognizes the player deemed the best teammate based on selfless play, on- and off-court leadership as a mentor and role model to other NBA players, and commitment and dedication to team. On November 1, 2016, Carter played in his 1,278th NBA game, tying him with A. C. Green for 25th on the NBA's career list. He also became the 24th player in NBA history to surpass 24,000 career points. On November 8, he scored 20 points against the Denver Nuggets and became the oldest player in the NBA to post a 20-point game since Michael Jordan scored 25 for the Washington Wizards in April 2003, at age 40. It was also Carter's first 20-point game since April 30, 2014. On November 12, Carter made seven field goals against the Milwaukee Bucks to pass Gary Payton (8,708) for 21st in NBA history. Carter also passed Charles Oakley for 24th on the NBA's career games played list with 1,283. On November 14, in a win over the Utah Jazz, Carter had his second 20-point game of the season, joining Michael Jordan and Patrick Ewing as the only players in NBA history to put up 20 points and 5+ rebounds off the bench at the age of 39, with Carter being the oldest at 39 years and 287 days. Carter missed seven games in early December with a right hip flexor strain. On January 11, Carter hit his 1,989th career three-pointer to move ahead of Jason Kidd and into fifth on the all- time list. On February 1, in a game against the Denver Nuggets, Carter hit his 2,000th career three-pointer, making him only the fifth player to ever reach that mark. On February 6 against San Antonio, Carter joined Karl Malone, Dikembe Mutombo, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar and Robert Parish as the only 40-year old players to record at least four blocks in a game. On February 15, in a game against the New Orleans Pelicans, Carter passed Allen Iverson for 23rd on the NBA all-time scoring list. On March 13, Carter made his first start of the season and made all eight of his shots, including six from beyond the arc, to score a season-high 24 points and lead the Grizzlies past the Milwaukee Bucks 113–93. He became the first 40-year-old in NBA history to hit six triples in one game. At 40 years, 46 days old, Carter also became the oldest player to start an NBA game since Juwan Howard in April 2013. On March 29 against the Indiana Pacers, Carter passed Ray Allen for 22nd on the NBA all-time scoring list. In the Grizzlies' regular-season finale on April 12 against the Dallas Mavericks, Carter played in his 1,347th game and passed Kobe Bryant for 13th in regular-season games played. On April 22, Carter became the first 40-year- old to make three or more 3-pointers in a playoff game during Game 4 of the Grizzlies' first-round series against the San Antonio Spurs. On July 10, 2017, Carter signed a one-year, $8 million contract with the Sacramento Kings. On August 18, 2017, during the Players Voice Awards, Carter was named by the NBA Players Association as the Most Influential Veteran. Carter missed seven games early in the season with a kidney stone. On December 27, 2017, Carter scored a season-high 24 points in a 109–95 win over the Cleveland Cavaliers. It was the first time in NBA history that a 40-plus-year- old reserve scored at least 20 points in a game. He shot 10-of-12 from the field in 30 minutes off the bench, with his 83 percent shooting marking the second highest percentage of his career. On January 28, 2018 against the San Antonio Spurs, Carter and Manu Ginóbili scored 21 and 15 points respectively; it was the first game in NBA history where two players over the age of 40 each scored at least 15 points. On March 19, 2018, in a 106–90 loss to the Detroit Pistons, Carter had seven points to move past Patrick Ewing into 22nd place on the NBA's career scoring list. At the season's end, he was named the recipient of the NBPA's Backbone Award and Most Respected Award, as part of the Players Voice Awards. On August 24, 2018, Carter signed with the Atlanta Hawks. In his debut for the Hawks on October 17, 2018, Carter started at forward and scored 12 points in a 126–107 loss to the New York Knicks, becoming the second oldest player in NBA history to start a season opener at 41 years and 264 days old. Only Robert Parish (42 years and 65 days old) was an older opening-night NBA starter than Carter. On November 21, he scored 14 points off the bench in a 124–108 loss to the Toronto Raptors, thus becoming the 22nd player in NBA history to reach 25,000 career points. On December 29, he scored an equal team-high 21 points in 111–108 win over the Cleveland Cavaliers. It was his first game with 20 points for Atlanta and became the oldest player in history to lead or tie for the team lead in scoring. He also became the oldest player in NBA history to score 20+ points at 41 years and 337 days old, breaking Kareem Abdul-Jabbar's record by 6 days. On February 7, 2019, against the Raptors, Carter passed Jerry West for 21st on the NBA's all-time scoring list. On March 1, 2019, he logged the second-most minutes for the Hawks in a 168–161 quadruple-overtime loss to the Chicago Bulls. At 42, Carter became the oldest player in NBA history to play at least 45 minutes in a game. On March 4, he scored 21 points, all on 3-pointers, in a 114–113 loss to the Miami Heat. He thus surpassed Reggie Miller for 20th on the all-time scoring list, passed Jamal Crawford for sixth on the all-time 3-point field goals made list, became the oldest player to shoot seven 3-pointers, and broke his own record of being the oldest player to score 20+ points in a game at 42 years old. On March 31, against the Milwaukee Bucks, Carter passed Karl Malone for fifth place on the all-time games played list with his 1,477th game. In June 2019, Carter stated that he was planning to retire at the end of the 2019-20 NBA season. On September 20, 2019, Carter re-signed with the Hawks and played his first game on October 24, 2019, making his 22nd season official. Four of Carter's teammates were born sometime after he was drafted in 1998. On December 10, 2019, he became the fifth player in NBA history to play at least 1,500 games. On January 4, 2020, during a 116–111 win over the Indiana Pacers, Carter became the only player in NBA history to have played in 4 different decades. Carter played for head coach Kelvin Sampson on the United States men's national under-19 team at the 1995 FIBA Under-19 Basketball World Cup in Athens. He and Samaki Walker tied for the team lead in blocks in the team's eight games. During the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, Carter performed one of the most memorable dunks of his career when he jumped over French center Frédéric Weis. Teammate Jason Kidd said "It was one of the best plays I've ever seen." The French media later dubbed it "le dunk de la mort" ("the Dunk of Death"). The U.S. team went on to win the gold medal that year and Carter led the team with 14.8 points per game. Carter admitted he channeled his frustrations in his personal life and Tracy McGrady leaving the Raptors before the Olympics. Carter replaced Kobe Bryant on the USA roster for the 2003 FIBA Americas Tournament while Bryant was undergoing surgeries on his knee and shoulder. He wore Bryant's jersey number 8. Bryant was supposed to take his spot back in time for the 2004 Olympics. However, Bryant later on withdrew due to the rape charges he was facing at that time. Carter was offered the Olympic spot but declined as he felt he needed to take some time off during the summer to rest and heal and he was also getting married at that time. Carter is the only player in NBA history to appear in a game in four different decades. He is one of six players in NBA history to average at least 20 points, 4 rebounds and 3 assists per game in 10 straight seasons. He is also one of six players in league history to record 24,000 points, 6,000 rebounds, 2,500 assists, 1,000 steals and 1,000 3-point field goals. 8× NBA All-Star selection: 2000–07 (did not play in 2002 due to injury), Olympic gold medal: 2000, 2× All-NBA:, Second Team: 2001, Third Team: 2000, NBA Slam Dunk Champion: 2000, NBA All-Rookie First Team: 1999, NBA Rookie of the Year Award: 1999, The Sporting News NBA Rookie of the Year: 1999, Twyman–Stokes Teammate of the Year Award: 2016 NBA playoff records Most three-point field goals made in one half: 8 (May 11, 2001 vs. Philadelphia 76ers, Eastern Conference Semifinals), Most consecutive three-point field goals made in one game: 8 (same game as above), Most consecutive three-point field goals made in one half: 8 (same game as above), First 40-year old player to hit at least three 3-pointers in a playoff game: 3 (April 22, 2017 vs. San Antonio Spurs, Western Conference 1st round) Toronto Raptors franchise records Most points scored in a season: 2,107 (1999-2000), Most points scored in a game: 51 (February 27, 2000 vs Phoenix Suns), Most points scored in a playoff game: 50 (May 11, 2001 vs. Philadelphia 76ers), Highest franchise career points per game average: 23.4, Highest points per game in a season: 27.6 (2000–01), Most blocks in a playoff game: 4 (May 11, 2001 vs. Philadelphia 76ers), Most field goals made in a season (1999-2000), Most field goals made in a game: 20 (January 14, 2000 vs. Milwaukee Bucks), Most minutes played in a game: 63 (February 23, 2001 vs. Sacramento Kings), 3rd All-Time Franchise points leader: 9,420, 4th All-Time Franchise blocks leader: 415 New Jersey Nets franchise records Most three-point field goals made in one game: 9 (December 11, 2006 vs. Memphis Grizzlies), Most points scored in one season: 2,070 (2006–07), Most consecutive 20 or more point games: 23 (2005–06), First Net to score at least 2,000 points in a single season (2006–07) Career highs Points: 51 (2 times), Field goals made: 20 vs. Milwaukee January 14, 2000, Three point field goals made: 9 vs. Memphis December 11, 2006, Free throws made: 23 vs. Miami December 23, 2005, Rebounds: 16 vs. Washington April 7, 2007, Assists: 14 vs. Milwaukee January 9, 2009, Steals: 6 (5 times), Blocks: 6 vs. Chicago March 28, 1999 Appeared on the cover of NBA Live 2004., Appeared on the cover of NBA Inside Drive 2002., Appeared in the 2002 film Like Mike, where the fictional Los Angeles Knights had to beat Carter and the Toronto Raptors in order to gain the 8th seed in the playoffs., Appeared in Fabolous' 2002 music video for "This Is My Party", and Glenn Lewis' 2003 music video for "Back for More"., Appeared in the TV Series Moesha as himself in the episode Mis-Directed Study in 1999., A 60-minute Vince Carter documentary entitled The Carter Effect by Sean Menard was shown at the 2017 Toronto International Film Festival about Carter's impact in the Canadian basketball scene. It was also made available on Netflix., Vince Carter appears in the 2008 title . He has been turned into a cyborg by the evil terrorist organization B.L.O.O.D.M.O.S.E.S. Carter is the son of Michelle and Vincent Carter, Sr. His parents divorced when he was seven years old. Carter's mother remarried at least twice. Carter married Ellen Rucker, a chiropractor, in July 2004; the couple divorced in 2006. They have one daughter together. Carter is now married to Sondi Carter, an NASM trainer. They have a son and a daughter. Carter has donated to his high school, Mainland, as well as the foundation he established upon being drafted into the NBA in 1998, The Embassy of Hope. On February 3, 2007, a statue of Carter was unveiled at Mainland. Carter opened a self-titled restaurant in Daytona Beach in 2010. He and his mother, who operated the restaurant, sold it in January 2017 for $4.3 million (equivalent to $ million in ). Carter visited with the Duquesne University men's basketball team in Pittsburgh as a show of support after five of its players were shot in September 2006. He is a member of the Omega Psi Phi fraternity. Source List of National Basketball Association career scoring leaders, List of National Basketball Association career steals leaders, List of National Basketball Association career turnovers leaders, List of National Basketball Association career 3-point scoring leaders, List of National Basketball Association career minutes played leaders, List of National Basketball Association career games played leaders, List of National Basketball Association career free throw scoring leaders, List of National Basketball Association single-game playoff scoring leaders, List of oldest and youngest National Basketball Association players, List of National Basketball Association seasons played leaders, List of Olympic medalists in basketball, NBA regular season records, NBA post-season records The 2011 NBA Finals was the championship series of the 2010–11 season of the National Basketball Association (NBA) in which the Western Conference champion Dallas Mavericks defeated the Eastern Conference champion Miami Heat in six games to win their first NBA championship. The series was held from May 31 to June 12, 2011. Mavericks forward and German player Dirk Nowitzki was named the Finals MVP, becoming the second European to win the award after Tony Parker (2007) and the first German player to do so. The series was a rematch of the 2006 NBA Finals, which the Heat had won in six games to win their first NBA championship. Going into the series, the Heat were heavy favorites with their newly acquired superstars LeBron James and Chris Bosh along with returning superstar Dwyane Wade. The Dallas Mavericks became the first team in NBA history since the institution of the 2–3–2 format to enter Game 3 tied at one, lose Game 3 and still win the Finals. The previous 11 times this occurred, the Game 3 winner went on to win the series. The Mavericks also became just the 7th team, and the first since 1988, to come back and win the Finals after being down in the series two or more separate times (one game to none, and later two games to one). The previous six times this happened, the Finals ended in seven games; Dallas became the first team in NBA history to do it in six games. ABC averaged a 10.1 rating, 11.7 million households and nearly 17.3 million viewers with the 2011 Finals, according to Nielsen. Both the Mavericks and Heat made their second appearance in the NBA Finals, the first for both teams being the 2006 NBA Finals. This Finals marked a rematch of those 2006 Finals, won by Miami in six games, after the Mavericks were up 2–0. It was also the first time since 2006 that neither the Los Angeles Lakers nor the San Antonio Spurs represented the Western Conference in the Finals and only the second time since , and also the thirteenth consecutive NBA Finals to feature a Western Conference champion from either the states of California or Texas. This was the first finals since 1998 not to feature Kobe Bryant (2000–2002, 2004, 2008–2010), Shaquille O'Neal (2000–2002, 2004, 2006) or Tim Duncan (1999, 2003, 2005, 2007). The Mavericks' appearance also meant that three of North America's four major professional sports championships were played in the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex in a span of eight months, with the 2010 World Series and Super Bowl XLV both occurring in nearby Arlington. The Heat had home-court advantage by virtue of a better regular-season record than the Mavericks. This was only the second time that the Eastern Conference had home-court advantage during the Finals since the end of the Michael Jordan era in 1998. It also marks the first time since 1995 that the Eastern Conference team lost in the Finals despite having home-court advantage. The 2011 series marked the first time a Finals match (Game 1) was played in the month of May since . Among the players from both teams, only Dirk Nowitzki and Jason Terry of Dallas, and Dwyane Wade and Udonis Haslem of Miami, appeared in the 2006 series with the same team. Heat center Erick Dampier played for the Mavericks in 2006. Aside from Dampier, Caron Butler, Juwan Howard, and Shawn Marion are the only other players who have played for both the Mavericks and Heat. Eddie House, Žydrūnas Ilgauskas, LeBron James (James would reach the finals every year from 2011 to 2018, with both the Heat and the Cavaliers), and Jason Kidd have appeared in the Finals with different teams, with House (as a member of Boston's 2008 championship team), Wade and Haslem winning a championship ring. Mavericks head coach Rick Carlisle won a championship as a reserve for Boston's 1986 championship team making him only the eleventh person in NBA history to win a Finals as both a player and a coach. The Dallas Mavericks won both games in the regular season. Game 1 was the first NBA Finals game to be held in the month of May since 1986. The Heat made only 28.6 percent of their shots during the first quarter, and this low scoring percentage early on left the Mavs with an 8-point lead early into the 3rd quarter. The Heat changed course from this point on, outscoring the Mavs 22–10 and taking a 65–61 lead going into the 4th quarter. Mavs power forward Dirk Nowitzki injured his finger within the last four minutes of the game, but remained in play, wearing a splint to support the torn tendon. Despite having a below-average performance early in the game, Heat shooting guard Dwyane Wade and small forward LeBron James collaborated on both defensive and offensive ends of the court in the fourth quarter, leading the Heat to win Game 1 over the Mavs 92–84. The Mavs' 15-point comeback was the biggest in an NBA Finals game since the 24-point comeback the Celtics made against the Lakers in Game 4 of the 2008 NBA Finals. Dirk Nowitzki hit a 3 with 26.7 seconds left to give the Mavericks a 93–90 lead. However, Mario Chalmers tied it with a 3 of his own with 24.5 seconds left when Jason Terry left him wide open. After Jason Kidd ran the clock down, Nowitzki then made a driving layup with his injured left hand with 3.6 seconds left. The Heat had no timeouts left, and Dwyane Wade's potential game-winning 3 hit the back rim at the buzzer as he fell to the ground in an attempt to draw a foul on Nowitzki. The Mavs win broke the Heat's 9-game home winning streak in the playoffs, costing them a chance to tie the 1996 Bulls' mark of 10 straight. This was the second straight Finals with a 1–1 split after two games, after five straight years with one team leading 2–0 (2005–09). The Heat led most of the game, but the Mavericks fought back from a 14-point deficit. With 39.6 seconds left in the 4th, LeBron James found Chris Bosh for a 20-foot baseline jumper; Dirk Nowitzki had a chance to force OT, but missed a well-defended fadeaway jumper at the buzzer as the Heat handed Dallas another defeat to go up 2–1 in the series. It was Miami's sixth win in its last seven NBA Finals games, four by 3 points or less. Game 4 was a back-and-forth affair, with 12 lead changes and 15 ties. Miami went up 74–65 early in the fourth quarter on a baseline jumpshot by Udonis Haslem, tallying their largest lead of the game. After a timeout, Dallas answered with 4 straight points by Jason Terry, similar to the 6 straight he scored with Dallas down 15 halfway through the fourth quarter of Game 2. Dallas would take their first lead of the fourth quarter with 5:15 left on a fastbreak layup by Terry. They held the lead for the rest of the game, although Miami cut the lead to 1 twice in the final minute. Up 82–81 with 20 seconds left after Dwyane Wade missed 1 of 2 free throws, Dirk Nowitzki hit a driving layup with 14.4 seconds left to extend the lead to 3. After a dunk by Wade with 9 seconds left, 2 free throws by Terry pushed the lead back up to 3. With a chance to tie the game with a 3, Wade fumbled the inbounds pass with 6.7 seconds left, only to make a diving save to prevent a backcourt violation. The ball landed in Mike Miller's hands, whose desperation 3 airballed at the buzzer, preserving Dallas's 86–83 win. LeBron James scored just eight total points in Game 4. After four low-scoring games, Game 5 saw the first time either team would break 100 points in this series. Dallas connected 13 times out of their 19 tries from three-point range. Jason Terry, Jason Kidd, and J. J. Barea combined to make 10 of those 13 made threes. Late in the first quarter, Dwyane Wade ran into Brian Cardinal and had to go to the locker room with a hip injury; he eventually returned and hit a 3 to cap a 9–0 run that put Miami in front 99–95 with less than 5 minutes left in the game. Unhappy with Terry for missing a defensive assignment and setting a poor cross-screen, Mavs coach Rick Carlisle pulled Terry from the game, telling him, "Refocus. I'm putting you right back in." After less than a minute, Carlisle subbed in Terry and made the crucial decision to run the offense through him for the rest of the game. This move ignited Dallas' offense, leading them on a game-winning 15–3 run in which Terry scored or assisted on 11 points. With Miami leading 100–97, Terry passed to Dirk Nowitzki, who drew a double team and then kicked it back out to Terry for a game-tying 3. Nowitzki then drove baseline on Chris Bosh for a two-handed dunk (assisted by Terry) with 2:44 left in the game to give the Mavs a 102–100 lead they would not relinquish. After LeBron James was called for an offensive foul (Tyson Chandler drew the charge), Terry found Kidd for another wide-open 3 that gave the Mavs a 105–100 lead with 1:26 left. After Chandler blocked Wade with 1:04 left, Bosh made 1 of 2 free throws to cut the Mavs' lead to 105–101. On the Mavs' next possession, Terry knocked down a 28-foot three-pointer with James closely guarding him to give the Mavs an insurmountable 108–101 lead with 33.3 seconds left. The Mavericks won 112–103 and grabbed a 3–2 series lead going back to Miami. Lebron James made his first four shots to contribute to the Heat taking a 20–11 lead. The Mavericks went to a zone defense that perplexed Miami and Dallas went on a 21–4 run in a span of 5½ minutes. They made 9 of 12 shots during this stretch with DeShawn Stevenson making three-pointers in a 24-second duration to give Dallas a 40–28 lead with 9:42 left in the first half. Dallas turned Miami's first six turnovers into 14 points. The Heat then went on a 14–0 run to take a 42–40 lead. With 6:25 left in the half, Stevenson along with Udonis Haslem and Mario Chalmers received technical fouls after a scuffle occurred at midcourt during a timeout. In the second half, James did not score until making a layup with 1:49 remaining in the third. The Mavericks led by nine going into the 4th quarter after Ian Mahinmi hit a buzzer beater to give Dallas an 81–72 lead. The Mavericks took a 12-point lead with 8:12 remaining. With 2:27 left, Nowitzki made a jump shot to help build the Mavericks' lead to 99–89. The Mavericks, who led for the final 22 minutes in the game, won their first championship in franchise history. Nowitzki was named Finals MVP. He had a poor shooting performance in the first half but managed to score 18 points in the second half. When the final buzzer sounded, an emotional Nowitzki went straight to the locker room in tears, although he re-emerged for the trophy presentation. Dallas Mavericks | align="left" | || 6 || 3 || 21.4 || .382 || .333 || .714 || 2.2 || 3.2 || 0.5 || 0.0 || 8.8 Miami Heat | align="left" | || 6 || 6 || 20.6 || .286 || .000 || .000 || 3.5 || 0.3 || 0.2 || 1.2 || 1.3 The Finals were originally projected to begin on Thursday, June 9, but (along with the entire NBA schedule) were pushed up ahead one week to Thursday, June 2 due to negotiations on an impending league-wide lockout at the end of the season. They were again pushed ahead to a start date of May 31 as both conference finals series ended in five games. This series marked the first time since (or the last game of the NBA's coverage on NBC) that the NBA Finals ended before the NHL's Stanley Cup Finals. The Finals were televised in the United States through ABC, with Mike Breen, Jeff Van Gundy, and Mark Jackson as announcers. Doris Burke was the sideline reporter, while Stuart Scott hosted the championship presentation. Scott also hosted the pre-game and halftime shows along with Jon Barry, Michael Wilbon, and Magic Johnson. ESPN Radio aired the Finals nationally on radio, with Mike Tirico, Hubie Brown, and Jack Ramsay announcing. This was the first sports championship for the Metroplex since the Stars won the 1999 Stanley Cup against the Buffalo Sabres in six games, and remains the metro area's most recent sports title as of 2019. Weeks after the NBA Finals ended, the league went to a lockout after the expiration of the previous collective bargaining agreement on July 1. The lockout would last until December 8, after which the league played an abbreviated 66-game season beginning on Christmas Day. On opening day, the Heat beat the Mavericks 105–94 in Dallas, on the afternoon the Mavericks raised their championship banner. Dallas fielded a virtually different team from the previous year, letting free agents Tyson Chandler, J. J. Barea, Caron Butler, and DeShawn Stevenson go. The Mavericks struggled with their makeshift lineup, which included Lamar Odom and Vince Carter, finishing with 36 wins. The seventh-seeded Mavericks were swept in the first round of the playoffs by the Oklahoma City Thunder, who went on to make the 2012 NBA Finals. The Heat would maintain the momentum of their opening-day win, starting the season with five straight wins, before finishing second in the Eastern Conference behind the Chicago Bulls with 46 wins. The Heat returned to the Finals by beating the New York Knicks, Indiana Pacers, and Boston Celtics in five, six, and seven games, respectively. After losing Game 1 to the Thunder, the Heat would win four straight games to capture their second NBA championship. Official website of the 2011 NBA Finals, 2011 NBA Finals at ESPN, 2011 NBA Finals at Basketball-Reference.com Cris Darin Carter (born November 25, 1965) is a former American football player in the National Football League. He was a wide receiver for the Philadelphia Eagles (1987–89), the Minnesota Vikings (1990–2001) and the Miami Dolphins (2002). After starting for the Ohio State University Buckeyes, Carter was drafted by the Eagles in the fourth round of the 1987 NFL supplemental draft. While in Philadelphia, head coach Buddy Ryan helped to coin one of ESPN's Chris Berman's famous quotes about Carter: "All he does is catch touchdowns." He was let go by Ryan in 1989, however, due to off-the-field issues. Carter was signed by the Vikings and turned his life and career around, becoming a two-time first-team and one-time second-team All-Pro and playing in eight consecutive Pro Bowls. When he left the Vikings after 2001, he held most of the team career receiving records. He briefly played for the Dolphins in 2002 before retiring. Since retiring from the NFL, Carter has worked on HBO's Inside the NFL, ESPN's Sunday NFL Countdown and Monday Night Countdown, and online at Yahoo Sports. He also works as an assistant coach at St. Thomas Aquinas High School, where his son played wide receiver. In 2017, Carter began co-hosting First Things First with Nick Wright on FS1. He was terminated from the show following a suspension and investigation in 2019. Carter resides in Boca Raton, Florida. He is the brother of former NBA player and coach Butch Carter. After six years, and five finalist selections, Carter was voted to the Pro Football Hall of Fame on February 2, 2013. Carter was born in Troy, Ohio. For elementary school he went to Heywood Elementary in Troy, Ohio. He spent his early childhood there before moving to Middletown, Ohio, with his mother, three brothers, and two sisters. They lived in a small four-bedroom apartment. He attended Middletown High School and starred in both football and basketball. Named after his grandfather, Graduel, Carter dropped his birth name and unofficially changed his name to Cris after wide receiver Cris Collinsworth, stating that he would never be famous with the name Graduel. According to Carter on ESPN Radio's "Mike & Mike" (on September 15, 2014), he dropped the name during 7th grade, and his name is still listed as Christopher on official documents, including his driver's license. Carter was heavily recruited out of high school for both basketball and football. He accepted the offer from Ohio State head coach Earle Bruce. Carter became a consensus All-America selection after his junior season, Ohio State's first All American at wide receiver. Carter had intended to play both football and basketball at Ohio State, but decided to focus on football after making an immediate impact his freshman year. That year, he set a Rose Bowl record with nine receptions for 172 yards. Carter was known for great hands, running precise routes, and for acrobatic leaps. He had remarkable body control and footwork when making catches near the sidelines. At the Citrus Bowl at the end of the 1985 season, Carter caught a ball that quarterback Jim Karsatos was intending to throw away. Karsatos has claimed that catch by Carter was the greatest in the history of college football: "When I finally saw it on film, he was tiptoeing the sidelines and he jumped up and caught the ball left- handed by the point of the football at least a yard out of bounds. Then he somehow levitated back in bounds to get both his feet in bounds. I swear to this day he actually levitated to get back in bounds. When I saw it on film, it just blew me away." Prior to Carter's senior season, he secretly signed with notorious sports agent Norby Walters. When the contract was discovered, Carter was ruled ineligible. The absence of Carter in the 1987 offense contributed to a disappointing 6-4-1 season and the firing of Coach Bruce. Missing this season also cost him a chance at evening his personal record against Michigan; Carter finished 1-2, his lone taste of victory in the series being his freshman year. Despite losing his senior year, Carter left Ohio State holding the school record for receptions (168). In 2000, he was selected as a member of the Ohio State Football All-Century Team. In 2003, he was inducted into the Ohio State Varsity O Hall of Fame. A 4th round pick by the Philadelphia Eagles in the 1987 supplemental draft, Carter saw limited action during his rookie season catching just 5 passes for 84 yards and 2 touchdowns. His first professional catch was a 22-yard touchdown vs. the St. Louis Cardinals. Carter got more involved in the Eagles offense in 1988 catching 39 passes for 761 yards and tying for the team lead with 6 scoring receptions. In 1989, he became the teams' primary red zone receiver, leading the Eagles with 11 touchdown catches (3rd in the NFC) while hauling in 45 passes for 605 yards. Shortly after, Carter had a falling out with coach Buddy Ryan and was a surprise cut following the pre-season. Carter later admitted that Ryan released him because of alcohol and drug abuse, including large amounts of ecstasy, cocaine and marijuana, and credits his former coach with helping him turn his life around as a result. The Minnesota Vikings claimed the troubled wide receiver off waivers on September 4, 1990. Stuck behind Hassan Jones and resident star receiver, Anthony Carter (no relation), Carter didn't see very many passes come his way during his first season in Minnesota. He did gain a measure of revenge against his former team, however, catching six passes for 151 yards, including a 78-yard touchdown, in a Monday Night contest at Philadelphia on October 15. Carter finished the 1990 campaign with 27 receptions for 413 yards and 3 touchdowns. In 1991, Carter stepped forward as Minnesota's top pass catcher. He led the team with 72 receptions, 962 yards, and 5 touchdown catches. The winds of change were blowing in Minnesota; after a second straight disappointing season head coach Jerry Burns retired. Stanford head coach Dennis Green was named as his replacement on January 10, 1992 and began a house cleaning process. "The New Sheriff in Town" released stalwarts like RB Herschel Walker and QB Wade Wilson and traded DT Keith Millard to the Seattle Seahawks. The Vikings returned to NFL prominence in 1992, posting an 11-5 record and capturing their first NFC Central Division title since 1989. With Rich Gannon and Sean Salisbury playing musical chairs at QB, Carter remained the team's primary aerial weapon—leading the team with 53 receptions, 681 yards, and 6 touchdowns despite missing the final four games of the season with a broken collar bone. The Vikings season ended in disappointment, however, as the defending Super Bowl champions Washington Redskins upended them 24-7 in the Wild Card round. In 1993, veteran QB Jim McMahon acted as the team's primary signal caller and Carter had a breakout season. He posted career highs in receptions, 86, and yards, 1,071, while catching 9 touchdowns — all team highs, and appeared in his first Pro Bowl. The Vikings finished the season 9-7, good enough for a playoff berth, but fell 17–10 to the New York Giants in the Wild Card round. Veteran quarterback Warren Moon was acquired before the 1994 season and immediately developed a rapport with Carter. The veteran helped Carter set the NFL single season record for receptions with 122 (the record was broken in 1995 by Detroit's Herman Moore and then topped by the Colts' Marvin Harrison in 2002). Carter also led the team with 1256 yards and 7 receiving touchdowns, which earned him First-team All Pro honors. Moon and Carter carried the team to a 10–6 record and the NFC Central title, but couldn't stop the Vikings from a third straight first round playoff exit — a 35–18 home loss to the Chicago Bears. Carter teamed up with Moon in 1995 to post his finest statistical season. He caught 122 passes for a career high 1,371 yards and led the NFL with 17 touchdown receptions. Carter received Second-team All Pro honors for his efforts. The Vikings, however, finished 8–8 and missed the playoffs for the first time under Green. Midway through the 1996 season Brad Johnson took over at QB for the Vikings. Carter didn't miss a beat, catching 96 passes for 1,163 yards and 10 touchdowns. The Vikings returned to the playoffs with a 9-7 record, but were routed by the Dallas Cowboys 40–15 in the Wild Card round. Carter appeared in his fourth straight Pro Bowl following the season. Carter continued to be the focal point of the Vikings' offense in 1997. He was named to his fifth consecutive Pro Bowl, leading the NFL with 13 touchdown receptions while pacing the team with 89 catches and 1069 yards. Even though he had more impressive seasons statistically, 1997 may have been Carter's finest hour, as week after week he dazzled with one spectacular catch after another. With Randall Cunningham at QB (he replaced the injured Johnson late in the season) the Vikings finally broke through in the playoffs, defeating the Giants 23–22 in a last-minute miracle comeback. The playoff success was fleeting, however, as the team fell to the San Francisco 49ers 38–22 the following week. In 1998 the Vikings drafted Marshall wide receiver Randy Moss with 21st pick in the first round. Suddenly, the Vikings possessed the NFL's most dangerous weapon. They cruised through the regular season, posting a 15–1 record while scoring a then-league record 556 points. Carter, who made the Pro Bowl for the fifth time, caught 78 passes for 1,011 yards and 12 touchdowns. Led by Moss, Carter, and Miller Lite Player of the Year Randall Cunningham, the Vikings entered the playoffs as heavy favorites to reach the Super Bowl. They easily defeated the Arizona Cardinals 41–21 in the Divisional Round, advancing to the NFC Championship Game for the first time since 1987. The Vikings entered that game as 13 and a half point favorites over the Atlanta Falcons, but lost in overtime 30–27 to become the biggest favorite to ever lose a home playoff game. Carter later said losing that game was the lone regret of his time in Minnesota, and that he didn't even know if he wanted to play anymore afterwards. The following year, Carter had his finest individual season since 1995— the First-team All Pro caught 90 passes for 1241 yards and an NFL-best 13 touchdowns. The Vikings easily defeated the Dallas Cowboys 27–10 in the Wild Card round and headed to St. Louis to face the NFL's new hottest offense. Minnesota led the eventual Super Bowl champions 17-14 at the half, but a second-half flurry led to a 49–37 Rams win. Carter finished the decade of the '90s with 835 receptions, second only to Jerry Rice's 860, and was named to the NFL's All Decade team. In 2000, led by Daunte Culpepper, the Vikings won the NFC Central division, and Carter finished the season with 96 receptions, 1274 yards, 9 touchdowns, and an eighth Pro Bowl. On November 30, Carter became only the second player in NFL history to reach the 1,000 reception plateau when he caught a 4-yard touchdown pass against Detroit. In 2001, the Vikings floundered with a record of 5–11, their first losing season since 1990. Carter's production dipped to its lowest point since 1992 (mostly because of QB Spergon Wynn's ineffectiveness in the last three games) — 73 catches, 871 yards, 6 touchdowns — and his streak of eight straight Pro Bowls came to an end. Following the season, the longest-tenured Viking exercised an out clause in his contract that ended his career in Minnesota. Cris Carter left the Vikings as their all- time leader in, among other things, receptions (1,004), receiving yards (12,383), and touchdowns (110). Carter spent the spring of 2002 looking for a team. Although he talked with the Rams, Browns, and Dolphins, he was unable to complete a deal and joined HBO's Inside the NFL team as an analyst on May 21. He served in that capacity until October 21 when the Miami Dolphins lured the veteran back onto the playing field to bolster their injury-riddled receiving corps. The Boca Raton resident started in his first game as a Dolphin at Lambeau Field in Week 9. Carter showed signs of rust, catching just three passes for 31 yards and fumbling once. During the week that followed, he checked into the hospital with a kidney ailment and was sidelined for the next four weeks. Carter returned in Week 14, but struggled to get back into the Dolphins receiver rotation. In Week 15, however, he caught a one handed touchdown pass as the Dolphins beat the Raiders 23–17. The following week against the Vikings, however, he made a key drop in the end zone that cost Miami a touchdown. The Dolphins wound up losing that game and then lost to the Patriots the following week, missing the playoffs. Even though he put up respectable numbers for the number of games that he played, he retired after the season. At the time of his retirement, Carter's 1,101 career receptions and 130 touchdowns as a receiver placed him second in NFL history behind Jerry Rice, although his totals have since been surpassed by Marvin Harrison (receptions) and by Randy Moss and Terrell Owens (touchdown receptions). He is one of 14 players in NFL history with 1,000 or more receptions. He was named to the NFL 1990s All-Decade Team. Carter was one of fifteen finalists for the Pro Football Hall of Fame class of 2008, but was not elected in a surprise to some commentators. Carter was once again excluded in 2009 and again in 2010 as receivers Jerry Rice and Tim Brown became eligible for the first time, though Brown did not make it. Additionally, Andre Reed was another possible candidate that diminished Carter's chance for enshrinement in 2010. In 2011, he also did not make it despite not having a single wide receiver in the class. NFL Network's NFL's Top 10 placed him atop the list of wide receivers with the best hands. On February 2, 2013, Carter was announced as an inductee into the Hall of Fame Class of 2013 along with Bill Parcells, Larry Allen, Jonathan Ogden, Warren Sapp, Curley Culp, and Dave Robinson. One of three players to record 120+ receptions in a season twice, 1994 and 1995. (Wes Welker, Antonio Brown), Most touchdown receptions on Thursday games (9), Most 12+ reception games in a single season (4) in 1995, One of 3 players (Clarke Gaines and Jerry Rice) to record 12+ receptions in back to back games, Most 1-yard touchdown receptions in NFL history (9) - tied with Jeremy Shockey, Most touchdown receptions 2 yards or less in NFL history (16) – tied with Jerry Rice, Most touchdown receptions 4 yards or less in NFL history (28), Most touchdown receptions 5 yards or less in NFL history (36) – tied with Jerry Rice, Most touchdown receptions 6 yards or less in NFL history (44), Most touchdown receptions 7 yards or less in NFL history (48), Most consecutive games with 2 touchdown receptions (4) – tied with Calvin Johnson and Doug Baldwin, Most consecutive seasons with 5+ touchdown receptions (11) – Terrell Owens, Jerry Rice, Marvin Harrison, Don Hutson, and Tim Brown, Most consecutive seasons with 5+ touchdowns (11) – Terrell Owens, Jerry Rice, Marvin Harrison, Don Hutson, Tim Brown, and Frank Gore, First player to record a 150-yard receiving game in 3 different decades (Jerry Rice and Terrell Owens are the only other players to do so), Member of 2013 Hall of Fame Class Carter was one of the hosts of HBO's Inside the NFL and also was an NFL Analyst for Yahoo Sports and ESPN. He is also a faculty member and assistant coach at St. Thomas Aquinas High School, where his son played wide receiver in 2008. He is the owner of Cris Carter's FAST Program, a sports training center in South Florida and is an ordained minister. He also appeared in the 2005 sports video game NFL Street 2 as a wide receiver for the NFL Gridiron Legends team along with former teammate, safety Joey Browner, and a few other historical NFL legends. Carter was a speaker at the 2008 NFL rookie symposium and again at the 2009 NFL Rookie Symposium. He also spoke at the 2014 NFL rookie symposium, where he encouraged players to get a fall guy they can trust to take the blame if they get in trouble. The comments were revealed in 2015 in an ESPN The Magazine story about Chris Borland. The NFL took the video of the speech down from its website and released a statement saying in part: "The comment was not representative of the message of the symposium or any other league program...The comment was not repeated in the 2014 AFC session or this year's symposium." Carter apologized on Twitter, saying he realized it was bad advice, and everyone should take responsibility for their own actions. ESPN also released a statement saying Carter's comments do not reflect the company's views. Carter was chosen to be a coach for a team in the 2015 Pro Bowl, along with former Dallas Cowboys wide receiver Michael Irvin. In December 2016, Carter was hired by Fox Sports as a football analyst. In May 2017, his role was expanded as it was announced that Carter would co-host a morning show, First Things First, on Fox Sports 1 with radio personality Nick Wright and moderator Jenna Wolfe. The show premiered on September 5, 2017. His tenure ended in November 2019 following a suspension. Carter has two children. His daughter, Monterae works in philanthropy. His son, Duron Carter, played wide receiver at Ohio State in 2009 and Coffeyville Community College in 2010. Professionally, he played for the Montreal Alouettes, a Canadian Football League (CFL) team, in 2013-2014 and 2016, spending 2015 on the practice squad of the Indianapolis Colts of the NFL. In Montreal, Duron was described as being a terrible teammate among the players on the Alouettes team. In 2017, he signed on with the Saskatchewan Roughriders, also in the CFL, where he served primarily as a receiver and occasionally played cornerback. Duron was released by the Roughriders in August 2018, in the midst of the 2018 CFL season. He subsequently signed on with the Toronto Argonauts a few weeks later, and now currently plays for the B.C Lions. Cris is the younger brother of ex-NBA player and coach Butch Carter.

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The 2022 FIFA World Cup is scheduled to be the 22nd edition of the FIFA World Cup, the quadrennial international men's association football championship contested by the national teams of the member associations of FIFA. It is scheduled to take place in Qatar in 2022. This will be the first World Cup ever to be held in the Arab world and the first in a Muslim-majority country. This will be the second World Cup held entirely in Asia after the 2002 tournament in South Korea and Japan. In addition, the tournament will be the last to involve 32 teams, with an increase to 48 teams scheduled for the 2026 tournament in North America. The reigning World Cup champions are France. This will also mark the first World Cup not to be held in May, June, or July; the tournament is instead scheduled for late November until mid-December. It is to be played in a reduced timeframe of around 28 days, with the final being held on 18 December 2022, which is also Qatar National Day. Accusations of corruption have been made relating to how Qatar won the right to host the event. A FIFA internal investigation and report cleared Qatar of any wrongdoing, but the chief investigator Michael J. Garcia has since described FIFA's report on his inquiry as "materially incomplete and erroneous". On 27 May 2015, Swiss federal prosecutors opened an investigation into corruption and money laundering related to the awarding of the 2018 and 2022 World Cups. On 6 August 2018, former FIFA president Sepp Blatter claimed that Qatar had used "black ops", suggesting that the bid committee had cheated to win the hosting rights. Additionally, Qatar has faced strong criticism due to the treatment of foreign workers involved in preparation for the World Cup, with Amnesty International referring to "forced labour" and stating that workers have been suffering human rights abuses, despite worker welfare standards being drafted in 2014. The bidding procedure to host the 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cups began in January 2009, and national associations had until 2 February 2009 to register their interest. Initially, eleven bids were made for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, but Mexico later withdrew from proceedings, and Indonesia's bid was rejected by FIFA in February 2010 after the Indonesian Football Association failed to submit a letter of Indonesian government guarantee to support the bid. Indonesian officials had not ruled out a bid for the 2026 FIFA World Cup, until Qatar took the 2022 cup. During the bidding process, all non-UEFA nations gradually withdrew their 2018 bids, thus guaranteeing that a UEFA nation would host the 2018 cup and thereby making UEFA nations ineligible for the 2022 bid. In the end, there were five bids for the 2022 FIFA World Cup: Australia, Japan, Qatar, South Korea and the United States. The twenty-two member FIFA Executive Committee convened in Zürich on 2 December 2010 to vote to select the hosts of both tournaments. Two FIFA executive committee members were suspended before the vote in relation to allegations of corruption regarding their votes. The decision to host the 2022 World Cup in Qatar, which was graded as having "high operational risk", generated criticism from media commentators. It has been criticised as many to be part of the FIFA corruption scandals. The voting patterns were as follows: There have been allegations of bribery and corruption in the selection process involving members of FIFA's executive committee. These allegations are being investigated by FIFA . Qatar is the smallest nation by area ever to have been awarded a FIFA World Cup – the next smallest by area is Switzerland, host of the 1954 FIFA World Cup, which is more than three times as large as Qatar and only needed to host 16 teams instead of the current 32. On 12 April 2018, CONMEBOL requested that FIFA expand the 2022 FIFA World Cup from 32 to 48 teams, four years before the 2026 FIFA World Cup as initially planned. FIFA President Gianni Infantino expressed willingness to consider the request. However, the FIFA congress rejected the request shortly before the beginning of the 2018 FIFA World Cup. Infantino said the global football governing body would not discuss the possibility of having a 48-team World Cup, and that they would first discuss the matter with the host country. In March 2019, a "FIFA feasibility study" concluded that it was possible to expand the tournament to 48 teams, albeit with the assistance of "one or more" neighbouring countries and "two to four additional venues." FIFA also said that "while it cannot rule out legal action from losing bidders by changing the format [of the tournament], the study said it 'concluded that the risk was low.'" FIFA and Qatar would have explored possible joint proposals to submit to the FIFA Council and the FIFA Congress in June 2019. Had a joint proposal been submitted, FIFA's member associations would have voted on the final decision at the 69th FIFA Congress in Paris, France by 5 June 2019. However, on 22 May 2019, FIFA announced it will not expand the tournament. FIFA's six continental confederations organise their own qualifying competitions. All FIFA member associations, of which there are currently 211, are eligible to enter qualification. Qatar, as hosts, qualified automatically for the tournament. However, Qatar is obliged by the AFC to participate in the Asian qualifying stage as the first two rounds also act as qualification for the 2023 AFC Asian Cup. If the Qataris reach the final stage as winners in their group or as one of the four best runners-up, the fifth-best team will advance instead. The reigning World Cup champions France will also go through qualifying stages as normal. The allocation of slots for each confederation was discussed by the FIFA Executive Committee on 30 May 2015 in Zürich after the FIFA Congress. The committee decided that the same allocation as 2006 would be kept for the 2010, 2014, 2018 and 2022 tournaments: CAF (Africa): 5, AFC (Asia): 4.5 (not including host nation), UEFA (Europe): 13, CONCACAF (North and Central America and Caribbean): 3.5, OFC (Oceania): 0.5, CONMEBOL (South America): 4.5 A qualifying draw was scheduled to take place in July 2019; this was later cancelled to allow each confederation to hold their own draws for their individual qualifying tournaments. The first qualifying matches were played in June 2019 in the Asian qualifying tournament, with Mongolia defeating Brunei 2–0 on 6 June, in which Mongolian player Norjmoogiin Tsedenbal scored the first goal of qualifying. On 9 December 2019, the World Anti-Doping Agency handed Russia a four-year ban from all major sporting events, after RUSADA was found non-compliant for handing over manipulating lab data to investigators. However, the Russia national team could still enter qualification, as the ban only applies to the final tournament to decide the world champions. If Russia were to qualify, Russian footballers could still potentially compete at the tournament, pending a decision from FIFA. However, a team representing Russia which uses the Russian flag and anthem cannot participate under the WADA decision. The first five proposed venues for the World Cup were unveiled at the beginning of March 2010. The stadiums aim to employ cooling technology capable of reducing temperatures within the stadium by up to , and the upper tiers of the stadiums will be disassembled after the World Cup and donated to countries with less developed sports infrastructure. The country intends for the stadiums to reflect the historical and cultural aspects of Qatar. Each stadium will incorporate four priorities, which are legacy, comfort, accessibility and sustainability. Qatar aims to build the stadiums with the highest sustainability and environmental standards. The stadiums will be equipped with cooling systems that are environmentally friendly overcoming the challenging environmental nature of the country. The plan is to build Zero Waste stadiums using environmentally friendly materials, harmless equipment, and ecologically sustainable solutions through the implementation of renewable and low energy solutions. Qatar aspires to be compliant and certified by the Global Sustainability Assessment System (GSAS) for all the world cup stadiums. All of the five stadium projects launched have been designed by German architect Albert Speer & Partners. Leading football clubs in Europe wanted the World Cup to take place from 28 April to 29 May rather than the typical June and July staging, due to concerns about the heat. A report released on 9 December 2010 quoted FIFA President Sepp Blatter as stating that other nations could host some matches during the World Cup. However, no specific countries were named in the report. Blatter added that any such decision must be taken by Qatar first and then endorsed by FIFA's executive committee. Prince Ali bin Al Hussein of Jordan told the Australian Associated Press that holding games in Bahrain, United Arab Emirates, and possibly Saudi Arabia would help to incorporate the people of the region during the tournament. According to a report released in April 2013 by Merrill Lynch, the investment banking division of Bank of America, the organisers in Qatar have requested FIFA to approve a smaller number of stadiums due to the growing costs. Bloomberg.com said that Qatar wishes to cut the number of venues to eight or nine from the twelve originally planned. Although as of April 2017, FIFA had yet to finalise the number of stadiums Qatar must have ready in five years' time, Qatar's Supreme Committee for Delivery & Legacy said it expected there would be eight. In January 2019, Infantino said that FIFA was exploring the possibility of having neighbouring countries host matches during the tournament, in order to reduce political tensions. The final draw is scheduled to take place in April 2022. The official emblem was unveiled on 3 September 2019 during simultaneous events at the Doha Tower, Katara Cultural Village Amphitheatre, Msheireb Downtown Doha, and Zubarah. It is designed to resemble the infinity symbol and the number "8", reflecting upon the "interconnected" event and the eight host stadiums. It also evokes the tournament trophy, imagery of shawls to signify the tournament's winter scheduling, and waves resembling desert dunes. The typography of the emblem's wordmark incorporates kashida—the practice of enlongating certain parts of characters in Arabic script to provide typographical emphasis. A number of groups and media outlets have expressed concern over the suitability of Qatar to host the event, with regard to interpretations of human rights, particularly worker conditions, the rights of fans in the LGBT community because of the illegality of homosexuality in Qatar, climatic conditions and accusations of Qatar for supporting terrorism both diplomatically and financially. Hassan Abdulla al Thawadi, chief executive of the Qatar 2022 World Cup bid, said the Muslim state would also permit alcohol consumption during the event, however drinking in public is not permitted as Qatar's legal system is based on Sharia. The selection of Qatar as the host country has been controversial; FIFA officials were accused of corruption and allowing Qatar to "buy" the World Cup, the treatment of construction workers was called into question by human rights groups, and the high costs needed to make the plans a reality were criticised. The climate conditions caused some to call hosting the tournament in Qatar infeasible, with initial plans for air-conditioned stadiums giving way to a potential date switch from summer to winter. In May 2014, Sepp Blatter, who was FIFA President at the time of the selection but later banned for illegal payments, remarked that awarding the World Cup to Qatar was a "mistake" because of the extreme heat. However, while addressing delegates from African and Asian confederations, Blatter said allegations of corruption and some of the criticism, including those from sponsors, were "very much linked to racism and discrimination". The issue of migrant workers' rights has also attracted attention, with an investigation by The Guardian newspaper claiming that many workers are denied food and water, have their identity papers taken away from them, and that they are not paid on time or at all, making some of them in effect slaves. The Guardian has estimated that up to 4,000 workers may die due to lax safety and other causes by the time the competition is held. These claims are based upon the fact that 522 Nepalese workers and over 700 Indian workers have died since 2010, when Qatar's bid as World Cup's host was won, about 250 Indian workers dying each year. Given that there are half a million Indian workers in Qatar, the Indian government says that is quite a normal number of deaths. In the United Kingdom, in any group of half a million 25- to 30-year-old men, an average of 300 die each year, a higher rate than among Indian workers in Qatar. In 2015, a crew of four journalists from the BBC were arrested and held for two days after they attempted to report on the condition of workers in the country. The reporters had been invited to visit the country as guests of the Government of Qatar. The Wall Street Journal reported in June 2015 the International Trade Union Confederation's claim that over 1,200 workers had died while working on infrastructure and real-estate projects related to the World Cup, and the Qatar Government's counter-claim that none had. The BBC later reported that this often-cited figure of 1,200 workers having died in World Cup construction in Qatar between 2011 and 2013 is not correct, and that the 1,200 number is instead representing deaths from all Indians and Nepalese working in Qatar, not just of those workers involved in the preparation for the World Cup, and not just of construction workers. Most Qatar nationals avoid doing manual work or low-skilled jobs; additionally, they are given preference at the workplace. Michael van Praag, president of Royal Dutch Football Association, requested the FIFA Executive Committee to pressure Qatar over those allegations to ensure better workers' conditions. He also stated that a new vote on the attribution of the World Cup to Qatar would have to take place if the corruption allegations were to be proved. In March 2016, Amnesty International accused Qatar of using forced labour and forcing the employees to live in poor conditions and withholding their wages and passports. It accused FIFA of failing to stop the stadium being built on "human right abuses". Migrant workers told Amnesty about verbal abuse and threats they received after complaining about not being paid for up to several months. Nepali workers were even denied leave to visit their family after the 2015 Nepal earthquake. In October 2017, the International Trade Union Confederation said that Qatar has signed an agreement to improve the situation of more than 2 million migrant workers in the country. According to the ITUC, the agreement provided for establishing substantial reforms in labour system, including ending the Al-Kafala system. The ITUC also stated that the agreement would positively affect the general situation of workers, especially of those who work on the 2022 FIFA World Cup infrastructure projects. The workers will no longer need their employer's permission to leave the country or change their jobs. In July 2019 it was reported that more than 1,400 migrants had died since work commenced due to poor conditions and human rights groups forecast the death toll could rise to 4,000 by 2022. In February 2019, Amnesty International questioned whether they would be able to complete the promised labour reforms before the start of the World Cup, a sentiment that was backed by FIFA. Amnesty International found that abuses were still occurring despite the nation taking some steps to improve labour rights. In May 2019, an investigation by the UK's Daily Mirror newspaper discovered some of the 28,000 workers on the stadiums are being paid 750 Qatari Riyal per month, which is equivalent to £190 per month or 99p an hour for a typical 48-hour week. Owing to the climate in Qatar, concerns were expressed over holding the World Cup in its traditional timeframe of June and July. In October 2013, a task force was commissioned to consider alternative dates and report after the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil. On 24 February 2015, the FIFA Task Force proposed that the tournament be played from late November to late December 2022, to avoid the summer heat between May and September and also avoid clashing with the 2022 Winter Olympics in February and Ramadan in April. The notion of staging the tournament in November is controversial since it would interfere with the regular season schedules of some domestic leagues around the world. Commentators have noted the clash with the Western Christmas season is likely to cause disruption, whilst there is concern about how short the tournament is intended to be. FIFA executive committee member Theo Zwanziger said that awarding the 2022 World Cup to Qatar's desert state was a "blatant mistake". Frank Lowy, chairman of Football Federation Australia, said that if the 2022 World Cup were moved to November and thus upset the schedule of the A-League, they would seek compensation from FIFA. Richard Scudamore, chief executive of the Premier League, stated that they would consider legal action against FIFA because a move would interfere with the Premier League's popular Christmas and New Year fixture programme. On 19 March 2015, FIFA sources confirmed that the 2022 World Cup final would be played on 18 December. Qatar has faced growing pressure over its hosting of the World Cup in relation to allegations over the role of former top football official Mohammed bin Hammam played in securing the bid. A former employee of the Qatar bid team alleged that several African officials were paid $1.5 million by Qatar. She retracted her claims, but later said she was coerced to do so by Qatari bid officials. In March 2014 it was discovered that disgraced former CONCACAF president Jack Warner and his family were paid almost $2 million from a firm linked to Qatar's successful campaign. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) is investigating Warner and his alleged links to the Qatari bid. Five of FIFA's six primary sponsors, Sony, Adidas, Visa, Hyundai and Coca-Cola, have called upon FIFA to investigate the claims. The Sunday Times published bribery allegations based on a leak of millions of secret documents. Jim Boyce, Vice President of FIFA, has gone on record stating he would support a re-vote to find a new host if the corruption allegations are proven. FIFA completed a lengthy investigation into these allegations and a report cleared Qatar of any wrongdoing. Despite the claims, the Qataris insist that the corruption allegations are being driven by envy and mistrust while Sepp Blatter said it is fueled by racism in the British media. In the 2015 FIFA corruption case, Swiss officials, operating under information from the United States Department of Justice, arrested many senior FIFA officials in Zurich, Switzerland. They also seized physical and electronic records from FIFA's main headquarters. The arrests continued in the United States where several FIFA officers were arrested and FIFA buildings raided. The arrests were made on the information of at least a $150 million (USD) corruption and bribery scandal. On 7 June 2015, Phaedra Almajid, the former media officer for the Qatar bid team, claimed that the allegations would result in Qatar not hosting the World Cup. In an interview published on the same day, Domenico Scala, the head of FIFA's Audit and Compliance Committee, stated that "should there be evidence that the awards to Qatar and Russia came only because of bought votes, then the awards could be cancelled." – RTSH, – ARMTV, – SBS, – ORF, – İTV, – BTRC, – VRT, RTBF, – BHRT, – Rede Globo, SporTV, – BNT, – CTV, TSN, RDS, Caribbean – International Media Content, SportsMax, – CCTV, – HRT, – CyBC, – ČT, – ERR, Europe – European Broadcasting Union (37 countries), France – TF1, beIN Sports, – ARD, ZDF, – GPB, – MTVA, – RÚV, – Sony Pictures Network, – RTÉ, – IPBC, – RTK, – LTV, – LRT, – RTL Group, – PBS, – Televisa, TV Azteca, Middle East and North Africa – beIN Sports, – TRM, – RTCG, – NOS, – Sky Sport, – MRT, – TVP, – RTP, – TVR, – Perviy Kanal, VGTRK, Match TV, – RTS, – RTVS, – SVT, TV4, \- SRF, – TRT, –, – BBC, ITV, – Fox, Telemundo 2026 FIFA World Cup FIFA.com 2022 World Cup website, Qatar 2022 official website The 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification process is a series of tournaments organised by the six FIFA confederations to decide 31 of the 32 teams which would play in the 2022 FIFA World Cup, with Qatar qualifying automatically as hosts. All 210 remaining FIFA member associations are eligible to enter the qualifying process. Qualifiers opened in June 2019 with Mongolian player Norjmoogiin Tsedenbal scoring the first goal of qualification on 6 June. Unlike previous tournaments, it was agreed that there will be no general preliminary draw, with various draws to be held separately due to "a different timeline" for various confederations. The 2022 FIFA World Cup qualifiers began in June 2019 and are expected to finish in March 2022. Not all regional federations have announced their qualification process for the 2022 World Cup. All FIFA member associations, of which there are currently 211, are eligible to enter qualification. Qatar, as hosts, qualified automatically for the tournament. However, Qatar is obliged by the AFC to participate in the Asian qualifying stage as the first two rounds also act as qualification for the 2023 AFC Asian Cup. If they finish as winners or runners-up in their group, the fifth-best group runners-up will advance instead. For the first time after the initial two tournaments of 1930 and 1934, the World Cup will be hosted by a country whose national team has never played a finals match before. The reigning World Cup champions France will also go through qualifying stages as normal. The allocation of slots for each confederation was discussed by the FIFA Executive Committee on 30 May 2015 in Zürich after the FIFA Congress. The committee decided that the same allocation used in 2006, 2010 and 2014 would be kept for the 2018 and 2022 tournaments: AFC (Asia): 4 or 5, CAF (Africa): 5, CONCACAF (North, Central America and Caribbean): 3 or 4, CONMEBOL (South America): 4 or 5, OFC (Oceania): 0 or 1, UEFA (Europe): 13, Hosts: 1 On 9 December 2019, the World Anti-Doping Agency handed Russia a four-year ban from all major sporting events, after RUSADA was found non-compliant for handing over manipulating lab data to investigators. However, the Russia national team could still enter qualification, as the ban only applies to the final tournament to decide the world champions. If Russia were to qualify, Russian footballers could still potentially compete at the tournament, pending a decision from FIFA. However, a team representing Russia which uses the Russian flag and anthem cannot participate under the WADA decision. The formats of the qualifying competitions depended on each confederation (see below). Each round might be played in either of the following formats: League format, where more than two teams formed groups to play home-and-away round-robin matches, or in exceptions permitted by the FIFA Organising Committee, single round-robin matches hosted by one of the participating teams or on neutral territory., Knockout format, where two teams played home-and-away two-legged matches. In league format, the ranking of teams in each group is based on the following criteria (regulations Articles 20.4 and 20.6): 1. Points (3 points for a win, 1 point for a draw, 0 points for a loss) 2. Overall goal difference 3. Overall goals scored 4. Points in matches between tied teams 5. Goal difference in matches between tied teams 6. Goals scored in matches between tied teams 7. Away goals scored in matches between tied teams (if the tie is only between two teams in home-and-away league format) 8. Fair play points * first yellow card: minus 1 point * indirect red card (second yellow card): minus 3 points * direct red card: minus 4 points * yellow card and direct red card: minus 5 points 9. Drawing of lots by the FIFA Organising Committee In cases where teams finishing in the same position across different groups are compared for determining which teams advance to the next stage, the criteria are dependent on the competition format and require the approval of FIFA (regulations Article 20.8). In knockout format, the team that has the higher aggregate score over the two legs progresses to the next round. In the event that aggregate scores finish level, the away goals rule is applied, i.e. the team that scored more goals away from home over the two legs progresses. If away goals are also equal, then thirty minutes of extra time are played, divided into two fifteen-minutes halves. The away goals rule is again applied after extra time, i.e. if there are goals scored during extra time and the aggregate score is still level, the visiting team qualifies by virtue of more away goals scored. If no goals are scored during extra time, the tie is decided by penalty shoot-out (regulations Article 20.10). The opening two rounds of qualifying also serve as qualification for the 2023 AFC Asian Cup. Therefore, Qatar, the 2022 FIFA World Cup host, only participates in these first two rounds of qualifying. The qualification structure is as follows: First round: 12 teams (ranked 35–46) played home-and-away over two legs. The six winners advanced to the second round., Second round: 40 teams (ranked 1–34 (including Qatar as the host) and six first round winners) were divided into eight groups of five teams to play home-and-away round-robin matches. The eight group winners and the four best group runners-up advance to the third round of FIFA World Cup qualification as well as qualify for the 2023 AFC Asian Cup. If Qatar finish as winners in their group or as one of the four best runners-up, the fifth-best runners-up will go to the third round in their stead., Third round: The 12 teams which will have advanced from the second round will be divided into two groups of six teams to play home-and-away round-robin matches. The top two teams of each group will qualify for the World Cup, and the third-placed teams will play against each other over two legs. The winner will advance to the inter-confederation play-offs, playing a team from a confederation to be determined. CAF announced on 10 July 2019 a reversion to the format used for its 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification competition. First round: 28 teams (ranked 27–54) played home-and-away over two legs. The 14 winners advanced to the second round., Second round: 40 teams (teams ranked 1–26 and 14 first round winners) will be divided into 10 groups of four teams to play home-and-away round-robin matches. The 10 group winners will advance to the third round., Third round: The 10 teams which will have advanced from the second round will play home-and-away over two legs. The five winners will qualify for the World Cup. CONCACAF announced on 10 July 2019 a restructured format for the qualifiers of the 2022 FIFA World Cup. It will commence in September 2020. Top-seeded Hexagonal group: The top 6 ranked CONCACAF teams based on the FIFA rankings of June 2020 will play home-and-away round-robin matches in one single group (often referred to as the "Hexagonal"). The top three teams will qualify for the World Cup, and the fourth-placed team will advance to the CONCACAF play-off round., Lower-seeded group stage and knockout stage: The remaining CONCACAF teams (ranked 7 to 35 based on the FIFA rankings of June 2020) will be divided into eight groups (five groups of four teams and three groups of three teams) to play home-and-away round-robin matches. The winners of each group will advance to a knockout stage, consisting of the quarter-finals, semi-finals and final to be played in a two-legged home-and-away series. The winner of the knockout stage will advance to the CONCACAF play-off round., Play-off round: The fourth-placed team of the Hexagonal group will face the winner of the knockout stage in order to advance to the inter-confederation play-offs. The CONMEBOL Council decided on 24 January 2019 to maintain the same qualification structure used for the previous six tournaments. From March 2020 to November 2021, all of ten CONMEBOL teams will play in a league of home-and- away round-robin matches. The top four teams qualify for the World Cup, and the fifth-placed team advances to the inter-confederation play-offs. Qualifying is expected to begin in September 2020, but the structure and the schedule have yet to be confirmed. The qualification format was confirmed by the UEFA Executive Committee during their meeting in Nyon, Switzerland on 4 December 2019, pending validation from FIFA. The qualification will depend, in part, on results from the 2020–21 UEFA Nations League, although to a lesser degree than UEFA Euro 2020. The structure will maintain UEFA's usual 'group stage/playoff stage' structure, with only the specific format of the play-offs amended. First Round (Group stage): 10 groups of 5 or 6 teams (with the 4 teams that make the 2021 UEFA Nations League Finals put into the smaller groups) with group winners qualifying for the World Cup finals., Second Round (Play-off stage): The 10 group runners-up would be joined by the best 2 Nations League group winners based on the Nations League overall ranking which have not yet directly qualified or reached the play-offs. These 12 teams will be drawn into three play-off paths, playing two rounds of single-match play-offs (semi-finals and finals, with the home team to be drawn), with the 3 path winners qualifying for the World Cup. There will be two inter-confederation playoffs to determine the final two qualification spots for the finals. They are scheduled to be played in March 2022. The bidding process for the 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cups was the process by which the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) selected locations for the 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cups. The process began officially in March 2009; eleven bids from thirteen countries were received, including one which was withdrawn and one that was rejected before FIFA's executive committee voted in November 2010. Two of the remaining nine bids applied only to the 2022 World Cup, while the rest were initially applications for both. Over the course of the bidding, all non-European bids for the 2018 event were withdrawn, resulting in the exclusion of all European bids from consideration for the 2022 edition. By the time of the decision, bids for the 2018 World Cup included England, Russia, a joint bid from Belgium and Netherlands, and a joint bid from Portugal and Spain. Bids for the 2022 World Cup came from Australia, Japan, Qatar, South Korea, and the United States. Indonesia's bid was disqualified due to lack of governmental support, and Mexico withdrew its bid for financial reasons. On 2 December 2010, Russia and Qatar were selected as the locations for the 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cups respectively. The selection process involved several controversies. Two members of the FIFA Executive Committee had their voting rights suspended following allegations that they would accept money in exchange for votes. More allegations of vote buying arose after Qatar's win was announced. Eleven of the 22 committee members who voted on the 2018 and 2022 tournaments have been fined, suspended, banned for life or prosecuted for corruption. In October 2007, FIFA ended its continental rotation policy. Instead countries that are members of the same confederation as either of the last two tournament hosts are ineligible, leaving Africa ineligible for 2018 and South America ineligible for both 2018 and 2022. Other factors in the selection process include the number of suitable stadiums, and their location across candidate nations. Voting is done using a multiple round exhaustive ballot system whereby the candidate receiving the fewest votes in each round is eliminated until a single candidate is chosen by the majority. Following the selection of the 2006 World Cup hosts, FIFA had decided on a policy for determining the hosts of future editions. The six world confederations—roughly corresponding to continents—would rotate in their turn of providing bids, for a specific edition, from within their member national associations. This system was used only for the selection of the 2010 (South Africa) and 2014 World Cup (Brazil) hosts, open only to CAF and CONMEBOL members, respectively. In September 2007, the rotation system came under review, and a new system was proposed which renders ineligible for bidding only the last two World Cup host confederations. This proposal was adopted on 29 October 2007, in Zurich, Switzerland by FIFA's Executive Committee. Under this policy, a 2018 bid could have come from CONCACAF, AFC, UEFA, or OFC, as Africa and South America are ineligible. Likewise, no CONMEBOL member could have made a 2022 bid, and candidates from the same confederation as the successful 2018 applicant would be disregarded in the 2022 selection procedure. The United States, the last non-European candidate in the 2018 bidding cycle, withdrew its bid for that year; hence the 2018 tournament will have to be held in UEFA. This in turn meant that CONMBEBOL and UEFA were ineligible for 2022. For both the 2018 and 2022 editions of the World Cup, the FIFA Executive Committee voted to decide which candidate should host the tournament. The multiple round exhaustive ballot system was used to determine the tournament host. All eligible members of the FIFA Executive Committee had one vote. The candidate country that received the fewest votes in each round was eliminated until a single candidate was chosen by the majority. In the event of a tied vote, FIFA President Sepp Blatter would have had the deciding vote. There are twenty-four members on the Committee, but two of those were suspended due to accusations of selling votes. Eleven bids were submitted in March 2009 covering thirteen nations, with two joint bids: Belgium-Netherlands and Portugal-Spain. Mexico also submitted a bid, but withdrew theirs on 28 September 2009, while Indonesia had their bid rejected for lack of government support on 19 March 2010. Five of the remaining nine bids, South Korea, Qatar, Japan, Australia and United States were only for the 2022 World Cup, while all the others bid for both the 2018 and 2022 World Cups. However, since all of the bids for the 2018 World Cup were from European nations, and FIFA's rules dictate that countries belonging to confederations that hosted either of the two preceding tournaments are not eligible to host, all UEFA bids were forced to be for 2018 only. Four bids came from the Asian Football Confederation (AFC), four from Europe's UEFA, and one from CONCACAF. It had also been reported on the FIFA website that Egypt was entering a bid, but the president of the Egyptian Football Association denied that any more than an inquiry in principle had been made. Alain Courtois, a Belgian Member of Parliament, announced in October 2006 that a formal bid would be made on behalf of the three Benelux countries: Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. In June 2007 the three countries launched their campaign not as a joint bid in the manner of the Korea-Japan World Cup in 2002, but emphasising it as a common political organisation. Luxembourg would not host any matches or automatically qualify for the finals in a successful Benelux bid, but would host a FIFA congress. Belgium and the Netherlands registered their intention to bid jointly in March 2009. A delegation led by the presidents of the Belgian and Dutch national football associations met FIFA president Sepp Blatter on 14 November 2007, officially announcing their interest in submitting a joint bid. On 19 March 2008 the delegation also met with UEFA President Michel Platini to convince him that it was a serious offer under one management. Afterwards they claimed to have impressed Platini, who supports the idea of getting the World Cup to Europe. Former French football international Christian Karembeu was presented as official counselor for the joint bid on 23 June 2009. A factor that was against the Benelux bid was the lack of an 80,000 capacity stadium to host the final. However, the city council of Rotterdam gave permission in March 2009 for development of a new stadium with a capacity of around 80,000 seats to be completed in time for the possible World Cup in 2018. In November 2009, the venues were presented. In Belgium, matches would have been played in 7 venues: Antwerp, Bruges, Brussels, Charleroi, Genk, Ghent and Liège. In the Netherlands, only five cities would host matches: Amsterdam, Eindhoven, Enschede, Heerenveen and Rotterdam, but both Amsterdam and Rotterdam would provide two stadiums. Eindhoven would function as the 'capital city' of the World Cup. Euro 2000 was also jointly hosted by Belgium and the Netherlands. On 31 October 2007, The Football Association officially announced its bid to host the event. On 24 April 2008 England finalised a 63-page bid to host the 2018 World Cup, focusing on the development of football worldwide. On 27 January 2009, England officially submitted their bid to FIFA. Richard Caborn led England's bid to stage the event after stepping down as Sports Minister. On 24 October 2008 the Football Association named the Executive Board to prepare the bid, with David Triesman as the bid chairman. Triesman resigned on 16 May 2010 after comments were published where he suggested that Spain would drop their bid if Russia helped bribe referees in the 2010 FIFA World Cup, and was then replaced by Geoff Thompson. The British government backed the England 2018 bid. In November 2005, Chancellor Gordon Brown and Sport Minister Tessa Jowell first announced that they were to investigate the possibility of bidding. That month, Adrian Bevington, the Football Association's Director of Communications, announced the support of the Government and the Treasury in the bid, but put off definite proposals. Brown reiterated his support for a bid in March 2006, before England's 2006 World Cup campaign, and again in May 2006. The UK government launched its official report on 12 February 2007, in which it was made clear that its support was for an England-only bid and that all games would be played at English grounds. The venues selected on 16 December 2009 to form the bid were: London (three stadiums), Manchester (two stadiums), Birmingham, Bristol, Leeds, Liverpool, Milton Keynes, Newcastle, Nottingham, Plymouth, Sheffield and Sunderland. FIFA officials also expressed interest in an English bid. David Will, a vice-president of FIFA, noted England's World Cup proposal as early as May 2004. Franz Beckenbauer, leader of Germany's successful bid for the 2006 World Cup and a member of FIFA's Executive Committee, twice publicly backed an English bid to host the World Cup, in January and July 2007. FIFA President Sepp Blatter said he would welcome a 2018 bid from "the homeland of football." Blatter met David Cameron on two occasions to discuss the bid while paying visits to England. The British Prime Minister showed much support for the bid and was hopeful that the "home of football" would host the tournament. In an interview the leader of Russia's bid, Alexei Sorokin, criticised England's bid citing London's high crime rate, alcohol consumption among young people and English fans "inciting ethnic hatred." England filed a complaint, though the complaint was withdrawn following Russia's apology. The President of the Portuguese Football Federation (FPF), Gilberto Madail, first proposed a joint bid with Spain in November 2007. The bid intent was confirmed by FIFA president, Sepp Blatter, on 18 February 2008. However, the president of the Royal Spanish Football Federation (RFEF), Angel Villar, announced in July 2008 that it was Spain's intention to submit an individual World Cup bid, and that positive contacts had already taken place with the government, through the secretary of sports, Jaime Lissavetzky. No specifications were made then regarding a joint bid with Portugal. On 23 November 2008, after his re-election for the RFEF presidency, Villar pledged that one of the fundamental objectives of his term was to bring a World Cup to Spain. While he did not mention whether Spain would present a joint bid with Portugal, he did not rule it out when asked about it. On 23 December 2008, Angel Villar restated "We need to present a strong, consistent and winning bid for the 2018 World Cup." He further confessed "Personally, I think it should be with Portugal." Subsequently, in the aftermath of a RFEF meeting board, Spain and Portugal announced their intention to bid together. Spanish sports newspaper Marca advanced some details about the potential bid: Spain would lead a twelve-stadium project with eight of the venues, and the opening and final games would be held in Lisbon and Madrid, respectively. Spain has previously hosted the 1982 World Cup, while Portugal organised the Euro 2004. Russia announced its intent to bid in early 2009, and submitted its request to FIFA in time. Russia's President Vladimir Putin took a keen interest in the bid and ordered Vitaly Mutko, the Minister of Sports, to "prepare a bid for Russia to hold the 2018 World Cup". According to a report earlier submitted by Vitaly Mutko, who also served that time as President of the Russian Football Union (RFU), the country was ready to spend some $10.1 billion on the tournament. The bid committee also included RFU CEO Alexey Sorokin and Alexander Djordjadze as the Director of Bid Planning and Operations. Fourteen cities were included in the proposal, which divided them into five different clusters: one in the north, centered on Saint Petersburg, a central cluster, centered on Moscow, a southern cluster, centered on Sochi, and the Volga River cluster. Only one city beyond the Ural Mountains was cited, Yekaterinburg. The other cities were: Kaliningrad in the north cluster, Rostov-on-Don and Krasnodar in the south cluster and Yaroslavl, Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Saransk, Samara and Volgograd in the Volga River cluster. At the time of bidding, Russia did not have a stadium with 80,000 capacity, but the bid called for the expansion of Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow, already a UEFA Elite stadium, from a capacity of slightly over 78,000 to over 89,000. Russia hoped to have five stadiums fit to host World Cup matches ready by 2013 – two in Moscow and one stadium each in Saint Petersburg, Kazan and Sochi, which at the time was due to host the 2014 Winter Olympics. In September 2007, the Football Federation Australia confirmed that Australia would bid for the 2018 World Cup finals. Previously, in late May 2006, the Victorian sports minister, Justin Madden, said that he wanted his state to drive a bid to stage the 2018 World Cup. Frank Lowy, the FFA chairman, stated that they aimed to use 16 stadiums for the bid. Former Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd announced the Federal Government's support for the bid, and in December 2008, Federal minister for sport Kate Ellis announced that the federal government would give the FFA $45.6 million to fund its World Cup bid preparation. Rudd met with Sepp Blatter to discuss the Commonwealth Government's support of the bid in Zurich in July 2009. At the 2008 FIFA Congress, held in Sydney, FIFA president Sepp Blatter suggested that Australia concentrate on hosting the 2022 tournament, but Lowy responded by recommitting Australia to its 2018 bid. However, Australia ultimately withdrew from the bidding for the 2018 FIFA World Cup in favour of the 2022 FIFA World Cup on 10 June 2010, following comments from the chief of the Asian Football Confederation that the 2018 tournament should be held in Europe. Australia's largest stadiums are currently used by other major Australian sports whose domestic seasons overlap with the World Cup. The Australian Football League and National Rugby League claimed that loss of access to these major venues for eight weeks would severely disrupt their seasons and impact the viability of their clubs. The AFL in particular had previously advised it would not relinquish Etihad Stadium in Melbourne for the entire period required. On 9 May 2010 the AFL, NRL, and FFA announced a Memorandum of Understanding guaranteeing that the AFL and NRL seasons would continue, should the bid be successful. Compensation for the rival football codes would be awarded as a result of any disruptions caused by hosting the World Cup. AFL CEO Andrew Demetriou came out in support of the bid, despite initially not supporting the bid. Franz Beckenbauer indicated that the issue of factional disputes between the FFA, NRL and, AFL were not considered by the FIFA Executive Committee. Although initially Australia seemed to be a popular contender to host the tournament, the final Australian World Cup bid received only one vote astonishing Franz Beckenbauer and experts alike. Japan bid to become the first Asian country to host the World Cup twice; however, the fact that they were co-hosts so recently in 2002 was expected to work against them in their bid. Although Japan did not have an 80,000-seat capacity stadium, its plan was based on a proposed 100,000-seat stadium that would have gone on to be a centrepiece of 2016 Olympics, for which Tokyo was bidding. Japan also pledged that if it had been granted the rights to host the 2022 World Cup games, it would develop technology enabling it to provide a live international telecast of the event in 3D, which would allow 400 stadiums in 208 countries to provide 360 million people with real-time 3D coverage of the games projected on giant screens, captured in 360 degrees by 200 HD cameras. Furthermore, Japan will broadcast the games in holographic format if the technology to do so is available by that time. Beyond allowing the world's spectators to view the games on flat screens projecting 3D imaging, holographic projection would project the games onto stadium fields, creating a greater illusion of actually being in the presence of the players. Microphones embedded below the playing surface would record all sounds, such as ball kicks, in order to add to the sense of realism. The Olympic bid was unsuccessful, coming third in the bidding process that concluded in October 2009. The Vice-President of the Japan Football Association, Junji Ogura, had previously admitted that if Tokyo were to fail in its bid, its chances of hosting either the 2018 or 2022 World Cup would not be very good. On 4 May 2010, Japan announced that it was withdrawing its bid for the 2018 tournament to focus on 2022, amidst rising speculation that the 2018 edition will be held in Europe. Qatar made a bid for only the 2022 World Cup. Qatar was attempting to become the first Arab country to host the World Cup. Failed bids from other Arab countries include Morocco (1994, 1998, 2006 and 2010), Egypt and a Libya- Tunisia joint bid withdrew in the 2010 World Cup bidding process. Sheikh Mohammed bin Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, son of the former Emir of Qatar, was the chairman of the bid committee. Qatar planned to promote the bid as an Arab unity bid and hoped to draw on support from the entire Arab world and were positioning this as an opportunity to bridge the gap between the Arab and Western worlds. The bid launched an advertising campaign across the nation in November 2009. Some concerns with Qatar's bid deal with the extreme temperatures. The World Cup is always held in the European off-season in June and July and during this period the average daytime high in most of Qatar is in excess of 40 °C (104 °F), with the average daily low temperatures not dropping below 30 °C (86 °F). Sheikh Mohammed bin Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani, the 2022 Qatar bid chairman, responded saying "the event has to be organised in June or July. We will have to take the help of technology to counter the harsh weather. We have already set in motion the process. A stadium with controlled temperature is the answer to the problem. We have other plans up our sleeves as well." The first five proposed stadiums are planned to employ cooling technology capable of reducing temperatures within the stadium by up to 20 degrees Celsius. Additionally, the upper tiers of the stadiums will be dis-assembled after the World Cup and donated to countries with less developed sports infrastructure. President of FIFA Sepp Blatter endorsed the idea of having a World Cup in the Middle East, saying in April 2010, "The Arabic world deserves a World Cup. They have 22 countries and have not had any opportunity to organise the tournament." Blatter also praised Qatar's progress, "When I was first in Qatar there were 400,000 people here and now there are 1.6 million. In terms of infrastructure, when you are able to organise the Asian Games (in 2006) with more than 30 events for men and women, then that is not in question." Qatar's bid to host the 2022 World Cup received a huge boost on 28 July 2010 when Asian Football Confederation (AFC) President Mohammed Bin Hammam threw his weight behind his country's campaign. Speaking in Singapore, Bin Hammam said: "I have one vote and, frankly speaking, I will vote for Qatar but if Qatar is not in the running I will vote for another Asian country." Qatar has already hosted the AFC Asian Cup in 1988, FIFA U-20 World Cup 1995 and the 2011 AFC Asian Cup. South Korea bid only for the 2022 World Cup. They were bidding to become the first Asian country to host the World Cup twice; however, the fact that they were co-hosts so recently in 2002 was expected to work against them in their bid. Han Seung-joo, a former South Korean Minister of Foreign Affairs, was appointed as the Chairman of the Bidding Committee in August 2009. He met with FIFA President Sepp Blatter in Zürich, Switzerland. In January 2010, President Lee Myung-bak visited the headquarters of FIFA in Zurich, Switzerland to meet Sepp Blatter in support of the South Korean bid. Although South Korea did not have an 80,000 capacity stadium, it planned to upgrade an existing venue to meet that capacity. There are three grounds which can seat over 60,000 people—Seoul Olympic Stadium, Seoul World Cup Stadium and Daegu Stadium. Another 70,000 seat stadium is scheduled to be built in Incheon as the main stadium for the 2014 Asian Games. Other venues meet hosting requirements as they were built for the 2002 World Cup. The 12 cities selected to hold the finals were South Korea to win the bid were selected in March 2010 and were Busan, Cheonan, Daegu, Daejeon, Goyang, Gwangju, Incheon (2 venues), Jeonju, Seogwipo, Seoul (2venues), Suwon and Ulsan. U.S. Soccer first said in February 2007 that it would bid for the 2018 World Cup. On 28 January 2009, U.S. Soccer then announced that it would submit bids for both the 2018 and 2022 Cups. David Downs, president of Univision Sports, was executive director of the bid. Other committee members included president of U.S. Soccer Sunil Gulati, U.S. Soccer chief executive officer Dan Flynn, Major League Soccer Commissioner Don Garber, and Phil Murphy, the former national finance chairman for the Democratic National Committee. The vice president of FIFA, Jack Warner, who is also the president of CONCACAF, originally said he would try to bring the World Cup back to the CONCACAF region. However, Warner also stated that he preferred the USSF change their plans to make a bid for the 2022 FIFA World Cup. In April 2009, the bid committee identified 70 stadiums in 50 communities as possible venues for the tournament, with 58 confirming their interest. The list of stadiums was trimmed two months later to 45 in 37 cities, and then in August 2009 to 32 stadiums in 27 cities. In January 2010, 18 cities and 21 stadiums were selected for the final bid. The cities were Atlanta, Baltimore, Boston (Foxboro), Dallas, Denver, Houston, Indianapolis, Kansas City, Los Angeles, Miami, Nashville, New York, Philadelphia, Phoenix, San Diego, Seattle, Tampa, and Washington, D.C. The cities with multiple qualifying stadiums were Los Angeles, Seattle, Dallas and Washington. With several large American football stadiums, the 21 venues were to have an average capacity of 77,000; none seated fewer than 65,000. Seven of the stadiums seat at least 80,000. Two proposed stadiums would be used by Major League Soccer during the summer. In October 2010, the United States withdrew from the 2018 bid process, to focus solely on the 2022 competition. Two countries had to cancel bids for the 2018 or 2022 FIFA World Cups before individual evaluations began. Mexico cancelled its bid for both cups, while Indonesia was only bidding for the 2022 World Cup. In January 2009 the Football Association of Indonesia (PSSI) confirmed their intention to bid for the 2022 FIFA World Cup, with government support. In February 2009, PSSI launched the "Green World Cup Indonesia 2022" campaign. This campaign included a $1 billion plan to upgrade supporting infrastructure beside stadiums to meet FIFA's requirements. The funds to construct stadiums were to come from regional governments. Indonesia had previously made World Cup history when it became the first Asian nation to play in a World Cup, at the 1938 tournament in France under its colonial name of the Dutch East Indies. Indonesia also had tournament hosting experience as the co-host of 2007 AFC Asian Cup. In the campaign presentation, PSSI president Nurdin Halid said he believed Indonesia stood a chance to win FIFA's approval to host the 2022 World Cup, despite the relatively poor infrastructure, coupled with the low quality of the national squad compared to other candidates. He said Indonesia had proposed a "Green World Cup 2022", hoping to capitalise on the current green and global warming movement worldwide: "Our deforestation rate has contributed much to world pollution. By hosting the World Cup, we wish to build infrastructure and facilities that are environmentally friendly so we can give more to the planet." The bid was launched at a moment when there were strong pressures from Indonesian football fans for Halid to step down from his position as chairman of PSSI. There was no official support from the government of Indonesia until 9 February 2010, the deadline for the country's government to file a letter of support for the bid. Secretary General of PSSI Nugraha Besoes did not deny that Indonesia could be disqualified from the bidding process because the Indonesian government did not support the bid. On 19 March 2010, FIFA rejected Indonesia's bid to host the 2022 World Cup because the government stated that their concern is for the people of the country and so could not support the bid as FIFA requested. As a consequence, PSSI threw their support behind Australia's bid for the 2022 tournament. Former Mexican Football Federation President, Alberto de la Torre, announced their intention to bid for the cup in 2005, but was ineligible because of the rotation policy at that time. FIFA President Sepp Blatter (banned in 2015 for eight years by FIFA Ethics Committee, amid a sweeping corruption investigation led by the U.S. in the 2015 FIFA corruption case) Senior Vice President Julio Grondona (died on 30 July 2014) Vice Presidents Issa Hayatou, Chung Mong-joon, Jack Warner (indicted for corruption in 2015 FIFA corruption case), Angel Maria Villar, Michel Platini, Geoff Thompson Members Michel D'Hooghe, Ricardo Teixeira (indicted on 3 December 2015 by the U.S. Department of Justice), Mohamed Bin Hammam, Senes Erzik, Chuck Blazer (plead guilty to corruption charges in 2015 FIFA corruption case), Worawi Makudi, Nicolas Leoz (indicted for corruption in 2015 FIFA corruption case), Junji Ogura, Marios Lefkaritis, Jacques Anouma, Franz Beckenbauer, Rafael Salguero (indicted on 3 December 2015 by the U.S. Department of Justice), Hany Abo Rida, Vitaly Mutko Prevented from voting Reynald Temarii, Amos Adamu On 2 December 2010, FIFA president Sepp Blatter announced the winning bids at FIFA's headquarters in Zurich. Russia was chosen to host the 2018 World Cup, and Qatar was chosen to host the 2022 World Cup. This made Russia the first Eastern European country to host the World Cup, while Qatar would be the first Middle Eastern country to host the World Cup. Blatter noted that the committee had decided to "go to new lands" and reflected a desire to "develop football" by bringing it to more countries. In each round a majority of twelve votes was needed. If no bid received 12 votes in a round, the bid with the fewest votes in that round was eliminated, and accordingly each remaining bid should receive no fewer votes in subsequent rounds than in preceding rounds. The actual votes cast were as follows: As can be observed from multiple bids that received fewer votes in voting round 2 compared to voting round 1 (Netherlands/Belgium, Qatar and Japan), at least 2 voting members in each of the 2018 and 2022 votes changed their votes between voting rounds despite their initial bid not being eliminated in voting round 1 (see 'Allegations of vote-buying', below). In reaction to the announcement there were celebrations on the streets of Doha. The Qatar Stock Exchange responded strongly with increased participation in trading following the announcement. Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad told his Qatari counterpart that hosting the tournament "is a big athletic event which can promote football in the Persian Gulf area and Middle East region." He also said Iran was ready to help Qatar in hosting the event, while saying he hoped its neighbours "could achieve a reasonable share to attend the games." al-Thani "underlined [a] necessity of cooperation between regional countries to use and take advantage of the sport opportunity." He also added that Qatar's initiative would motivate its neighbours to "promote and develop their football." Roger Burden, who had been acting chairman of England's Football Association, withdrew his application for the permanent post days after the vote, saying he could not trust FIFA members due to their actions. England's bid executive Andy Anson said "I think it has to [change] because otherwise why would Australia, the United States, Holland, Belgium, England ever bother bidding again?" There was also a backlash from the media in the losing countries; the majority of British newspapers alleged that the World Cup had been "sold" to Russia, and the Spanish El Mundo, Dutch Algemeen Dagblad, and the Japanese Nikkei made comments about the financial power of Russia and Qatar's commodity and energy reserves. American newspapers the Seattle Times and Wall Street Journal alleged collusion and corruption. Shortly after the voting, ESPN.com, the Internet arm of American sports broadcasting giant ESPN, published a piece that partially linked Qatar's successful bid to Football Dreams, a youth development program that the country has bankrolled since 2005. At the time of bidding, Football Dreams operated in 15 countries in sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and Southeast Asia—six of which had representatives on the FIFA executive committee. Bayern Munich President Uli Hoeneß said that Blatter "has lost control" of FIFA and that "It's a scandal how things run there (at FIFA). Apparently, a bid nowadays can only be successful if payments are additionally made under the table. One scandal comes on the heels of another." On 10 May 2011, the former England 2018 bid chief Lord Treisman told a House of Commons select committee that four FIFA committee members approached him asking for various things in exchange for votes. Among the accused are FIFA Vice President Jack Warner, who is accused of asking for £2.5 million to be used for projects, and Nicolas Leoz, who allegedly asked to be knighted. In November 2010, a documentary broadcast by the BBC had alleged that FIFA officials voting on the World Cup bids had received large bribes between 1989 and 1999, which FIFA had not investigated. Also on 10 May 2011, The Sunday Times reported that two committee members, Issa Hayatou and Jacques Anouma were given $1.5 million in exchange for their votes in favor of Qatar. FIFA requested to see the evidence of the allegations. On 30 May 2011, FIFA President Sepp Blatter rejected the evidence in a press conference, while Jack Warner, who had been suspended that day for a separate ethics violations pending an investigation, leaked an email from FIFA General Secretary Jérôme Valcke which suggested that Qatar had "bought" the rights to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup. Valcke subsequently issued a statement denying he had suggested it was bribery, saying instead that the country had "used its financial muscle to lobby for support". Qatar officials denied any impropriety. Theo Zwanziger, President of the German Football Association, also called on FIFA to re-examine the awarding of the Cup to Qatar. In February 2011, Blatter admitted that the Spanish and Qatari bid teams did try to trade votes, "but it didn't work". FIFA 2018/2022 site

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Star Wars: The Clone Wars is an American computer-animated television series created by George Lucas and produced by Lucasfilm Animation, Lucasfilm and CGCG Inc. The series began with that was released on August 15, 2008, and debuted on Cartoon Network two months later on October 3, 2008. It is set in the fictional Star Wars galaxy during the three years between the prequel films and , the same time period as the previous 2D 2003 TV series . Each episode has a running time of 22 minutes to fill a half-hour time slot. Dave Filoni is the supervising director of the series. In early 2013, Lucasfilm announced that The Clone Wars would be "winding down". Super RTL, a German TV network, began airing the episodes on February 15, 2014. The sixth-season episodes were made available in the U.S. for streaming on Netflix, along with the entirety of the series, beginning March 7, 2014. A project known as The Clone Wars Legacy adapted unproduced story arcs into other formats, such as comics and novels. The series was revived for a seventh and final season of 12 new episodes, to be released on Disney+ on February 17, 2020. After viewing some of the completed footage of the early episodes on a big screen, the production team decided to weave the first few planned episodes together to form . This decision helped convince Time Warner to distribute the movie, and to encourage its subsidiary Cartoon Network to air the series. Christopher Lee, Anthony Daniels, and Samuel L. Jackson reprised their roles as Count Dooku, C-3PO, and Mace Windu, respectively, from the live-action films (although Lee and Jackson did not reprise their roles in the series). The series aired out of chronological order, with the story order being released retroactively on the official Star Wars website. Season 1 shows a wide variety of battles and adventures with Grievous and Dooku as the lead antagonists. Many of the episodes are stand-alone, but a common thread throughout the season is that the Republic and the Separatists attempt to convince various planets and races to side with them. In Season 2, the Sith resort to hiring bounty hunters and mercenaries to steal objects and intel or to assassinate targets for them. Meanwhile, the Jedi lead the Republic forces in an assault on the primary battle droid manufacturing facility. The first half of both Season 3 and Season 4 are diplomatic in nature; Season 3, in particular, has many stories that take place away from the battlefield. How different races and planets are affected by the galaxy-wide war are shown, as well as how the Republic Senate can make a bigger difference than even the Jedi Council at times. The first half of Season 3 is used mainly to make the Clone Wars series more cohesive as these first episodes created better chronology, setting themselves in and among the previous two seasons' episodes. The second half of both seasons, Anakin steps a little closer to the dark side. Meanwhile, the Sith experience turmoil among themselves. Season 5 is unique in that it consists of 5 four-part story arcs, 3 of which center on Ahsoka's character development. Meanwhile, the Separatists gain more ground, and the story of an old villain who has returned is further explored. Season 6 explores topics that are crucial in Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith, namely the creation of the clones and the details behind Order 66. Chancellor Palpatine gains even more power, and Yoda delves deeper into the nature of the Force. On December 5, 2011, a full-length feature cut of one of the Season 3 trilogies of episodes (the one composed by "Nightsisters," "Monster," and "Witches of the Mist") was released for download on iTunes as an uninterrupted movie that was previously shown at selected screenings in 2010. The three episodes were written by Katie Lucas, who had previously written the Season 1 episode "Jedi Crash" as well as the Season 3 episodes "Sphere of Influence" and "Assassin." A repeat of season one aired in "decoded" episode format. Each installment contained unobtrusive text windows giving supplemental information about the characters and events playing out on screen. On July 19, 2018, Lucasfilm announced at San Diego Comic-Con that The Clone Wars would return with 12 new episodes in a Season 7 to be released on Disney+. A trailer for the season was released on April 14, 2019 at Star Wars Celebration Chicago. On August 23, 2019, Filoni announced at the D23 Expo that it will be the final season, and it is scheduled to be released on February 17, 2020. Matt Lanter as Anakin Skywalker, Additional voices, James Arnold Taylor as Obi-Wan Kenobi, Plo Koon, Additional voices, Ashley Eckstein as Ahsoka Tano, Additional voices, Dee Bradley Baker as Clone Troopers, Saesee Tiin, Onaconda Farr, Bossk, Arok the Hutt, Additional voices, Tom Kane as Narrator, Yoda, Admiral Wullf Yularen, Additional voices, Matthew Wood as General Grievous, Battle Droids, Poggle the Lesser, Wat Tambor, Additional voices Ian Abercrombie (Seasons 1-5) / Tim Curry (Seasons 5–6) as Chancellor Palpatine / Darth Sidious, B.J. Hughes (Season 1) / Ahmed Best (Seasons 1-6) as Jar Jar Binks, Clancy Brown as Savage, Corey Burton as Count Dooku / Darth Tyranus, Cad Bane, Ziro the Hutt, Chairman Papanoida, Additional voices, Terrence C. Carson as Mace Windu, Jim Cummings as Hondo Ohnaka, Olivia d'Abo as Luminara Unduli, Anthony Daniels as C-3PO, Robin Atkin Downes as Castas, Cham Syndulla, Cin Drallig, Ima-Gun Di, Rush Clovis, Jon Favreau as Pre Vizsla, Dave Filoni as Embo, Jakoli, Nika Futterman as Asajj Ventress, Chi Eekway Papanoida, Gardulla the Hutt, Sy Snootles, TC-70, Jaime King as Aurra Sing, Cassie Cryar, Additional Voices, Brian George as King Katuunko, Chi Cho, Ki-Adi-Mundi, Anna Graves as Duchess Satine, Sugi, Meena Tills, Tiplar, Tiplee, Additional voices, Jennifer Hale as Aayla Secura, Riyo Chuchi, Tom Kenny as Nute Gunray, Phil LaMarr as Bail Organa, Kit Fisto, Orn Free Taa, Daniel Logan as Boba Fett, Clone Cadets, James C. Mathis III as Gregar Typho, Angelique Perrin as Adi Gallia, Mama the Hutt, Meredith Salenger as Barriss Offee, Che Amanwe Papanoida, Ione Marcy, Pluma Sodi, Kath Soucie as Mon Mothma, Jek Lawquane, Mina Bonteri, Jason Spisak as Lux Bonteri, Zinn Paulness, Stephen Stanton as Mas Amedda, Tarkin, Colonel Meebur Gascon, Moralo Eval, Additional voices, Catherine Taber as Padmé Amidala, Additional voices, Tasia Valenza as Shaak Ti, Sam Witwer as Darth Maul At April 2005's Star Wars Celebration III, Lucas stated that "we are working on a 3-D continuation of the that was on the Cartoon Network; we probably won't start that project for another year." In July 2005, pre-production had begun on the series, according to Steve Sansweet, head of Lucasfilm fan relations. Sansweet referred to the series as "the next generation of the Star Wars saga, a cutting edge 30-minute, 3-D computer-animation series based on the Clone Wars that take place between ... and ." Sansweet described the look of the new series as "a melding of Asian anime with unique 3-D animation styling." Primary production took place at the Lucasfilm Animation facility in Singapore. According to another statement by Sansweet, "Lucasfilm Animation will be hiring a total of about 300 digital artists and others in both California and Singapore locations to produce not only the series, but animated feature films in the years ahead." He said about the series, "to get the series underway, Lucasfilm Animation has hired key production and creative talent to lead the development of its first animation project." Sansweet has said that "a large component of the future of Star Wars and Lucasfilm is CGI animation." Lucasfilm Animation used Autodesk software to animate both the film and the series. The Maya 3D-modeling program was used to create the highly detailed worlds, characters and creatures. Character designer Kilian Plunkett referred to the character designs from Genndy Tartakovsky's , and animators reviewed designs from the 2D series when creating the animation style. Tartakovsky was not involved with the production, and criticized Lucas's decision to revisit the era. In 2007, Rob Coleman divulged that one episode was complete, with 15 more in production, and that he was going to direct 5 of the first 22 episodes. He revealed that the reaction from licensees was very positive, and that the final assembly of shows is done at Skywalker Ranch. Speaking at PaleyFest on March 3, 2007, Lucas revealed that the series would be episodic, and as such would not focus on Anakin Skywalker's story; with episodes dedicated to clone troopers and other characters. Lucas revealed further information in a fan interview, including a new character named Ahsoka Tano, over 100 episodes and a possible appearance by Boba Fett. The first trailer for the series was released on the official Star Wars website on May 8, 2007. In an interview in the September 24, 2007 issue of TV Guide, Lucas confirmed that 39 episodes of the series have been completed. On April 8, 2007, Ain't It Cool News reported that musician Eric Rigler had recorded music for the series. Rigler disclosed that each planet in the Star Wars galaxy would have its own theme music. The episode Mr. Rigler performed on was based on Bulgarian music and played on Uilleann pipes. Kevin Kiner composed the original score for each episode. Stuart Snyder, who oversaw Cartoon Network and other Turner Broadcasting System cable networks from 2007 to 2014, said he became interested in the new Clone Wars series immediately upon starting the job in May 2007. Snyder flew out to San Francisco, California to screen several episodes, and told Lucas the only place he wanted to see the show was on Cartoon Network. Snyder wished to create an action/adventure block of shows on Friday night in an attempt to rejuvenate Cartoon Network. Snyder expressed confidence that the shows would help boost ratings: "You catch me at a time where I have a smile on my face because of our internal results. I can say there's a little bit of bragging on the third quarter for us." The "Young Padawans" arc from Season 5 was intended to be aired separately from The Clone Wars as a feature-length pilot for a spin-off series that never materialized. Seasons 6, 7, and 8, were in some form of production at the time of the show's cancellation in March 2013, shortly after Lucasfilm was purchased by Disney. An online comic released alongside the series depicts story snippets between episodes. The Clone Wars premiered on October 3, 2008 at 9 p.m. on Cartoon Network. The Clone Wars on Cartoon Network is shown in a 16:9 (1.77:1) aspect ratio, cropped from its original aspect ratio (OAR) of 2.35:1 (as seen in the UK Sky Premiere screenings). The show began airing on their Adult Swim block on March 14, 2009, making the series the first Cartoon Network series to simultaneously air on both Cartoon Network and Adult Swim. The series also aired from January 15 to March 26, 2009 on TNT, making it the first form of animation to air on that channel in over a decade. On March 11, 2013, it was announced that The Clone Wars would be "winding down" to focus on the Star Wars sequel trilogy and a new series, Star Wars Rebels. On February 13, 2014, Netflix announced that starting on March 7, 2014 they would begin the US distribution of the entire TV series, including some previously unreleased director's cuts, and the previously unaired new season dubbed "The Lost Missions". The latter also became available for purchase on digital video stores, such as iTunes, in . The Netflix distribution of the series, along with the Blu-rays, included versions of some episodes with previously censored material deemed too inappropriate for the demographic of Cartoon Network. One of the most well- known edits was the removal of the character Ventress kissing a clone after she had stabbed him with her lightsaber. The show was removed from Netflix on April 7, 2019. For the upcoming revival and final season, the remaining episodes of the series will be exclusively available on Disney+. The first episode will be released on February 17, 2020. Warner Home Video distributed the videodisc releases of the first five seasons, while Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment handled the videodisc release of the sixth season as Star Wars: The Clone Wars – The Lost Missions. Apart from the season-by-season videodisc sets, there were also three special DVD releases consisting of four episodes from a particular season that reflected a certain story arc or theme: A Galaxy Divided, an early DVD release of the series which included the four season 1 episodes ("Ambush", "Shadow of Malevolence", "Destroy Malevolence", "Downfall of a Droid"), Clone Commandos, another DVD compilation that includes episode five "Rookies" as well as episodes 19 through 21 ("Storm over Ryloth", "Innocents of Ryloth" and "Liberty on Ryloth")., Darth Maul Returns, a feature-length "director's cut" edited together from Season 4 episodes "Massacre", "Bounty", "Brothers" and "Revenge" and was initially available exclusively at Target. According to the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, 79% of critics have given the first season a positive review based on 19 reviews, with an average rating of 6.04/10. The site's critics consensus reads, "With an agreeably entertaining first season, Star Wars: The Clone Wars opens a fun, kid-friendly chapter of the franchise's sprawling mythology." 100% of critics have given the third and fifth seasons a positive review based on 5 reviews each, with an average rating of 8/10 and 7.85/10 respectively. 100% of critics have given the sixth season a positive review based on 13 reviews, with an average rating of 8.92/10. The site's critics consensus reads, "Sophisticated storytelling and quality animation make the sixth season of Star Wars: The Clone Wars a fitting end to the series." At Metacritic, the first season has a weighted average score of 64 out of 100 based on 9 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". On July 11, 2008, television critics were shown a completed episode of the series. The Hollywood Reporters Live Feed blog called the footage "likely the most photo-realistic animated TV series ever produced." On August 31, 2008, a sneak peek of the new series was shown on Cartoon Network. IGN named it the 89th best animated series. They specifically praised the episodes "Rookies", "Cloak of Darkness", and "Lair of Grievous" saying that their storylines stood out as some of the best in the Star Wars expanded universe. Star Wars: The Clone Wars became the most-watched series premiere in Cartoon Network history. The series averaged 3 million total viewers in its debut, according to Nielsen Media Research. Cartoon Network said the Star Wars spin-off ranked as the number one channel among all major animated networks in the time slot among total viewers (the largest in the demographic for any premiere telecast of an original Cartoon series). On July 23, 2010, at the San Diego Comic-Con, Craig Glenday, editor of the Guinness World Records, presented Star Wars: The Clone Wars supervising director Dave Filoni, CG supervisor Joel Aron, and lead designer Kilian Plunkett a certificate proclaiming the cartoon series "the highest rated sci-fi animation currently on television". Tech Times said that, "while the Star Wars prequel films fail to make audiences care about characters like Anakin Skywalker, The Clone Wars succeeds." At the time of cancellation in March 2013, 65 more episodes were in development. Thirteen of these episodes were finished to become part of Season 6: The Lost Missions, but there were still additional arcs that were never released. In September 2014, StarWars.com released details of three story arcs from the unfinished episodes. A four-episode arc continued the story of Darth Maul following the events from the season 5 episode "The Lawless". The story gave reason as to why Darth Maul was resurrected in the season 4 episode "Brothers". The four episodes were titled: "The Enemy of My Enemy", "A Tale of Two Apprentices", "Proxy War", and "Showdown on Dathomir". The arc was adapted into a four-part limited comic book series, Darth Maul: Son of Dathomir, which debuted in May 2014. The comic was the last Star Wars comic published by Dark Horse Comics before Lucasfilm transferred the license to Marvel Comics in 2014. The comic was collected into a trade paperback by Marvel in 2018. The comic utilized completed scripts and designs from the cancelled episodes of The Clone Wars. The Clone Wars supervising director Dave Filoni wrote on Facebook that the four completed source scripts "came out of one of our story conferences with George Lucas." The plot follows Darth Maul, who has been captured by Darth Sidious. He is tortured by Count Dooku for information about the Shadow Collective and the allies Maul has made. Maul escapes and heads to Zanbar to command the Death Watch army, but is followed by General Grievous and his droids. They battle Maul and the Mandalorians, who are soon overwhelmed by the droids. Maul flees and confers with Mother Talzin, who is revealed to be his biological mother, and plots to draw out Sidious by capturing Dooku and Grievous. The scheme works, and Talzin is able to restore herself to her physical form, but sacrifices herself to save Maul and is killed by Grievous. Although Maul escapes with a company of loyal Mandalorians, the Shadow Collective has fallen apart due to the conflict with Sidious, as the Hutts, Pykes, and Black Sun have all abandoned Maul. An 8-episode arc with Asajj Ventress and Jedi Quinlan Vos was adapted into Dark Disciple, a novel by Christie Golden released on July 7, 2015. The story follows Jedi Quinlan Vos partnering up with Nightsister Asajj Ventress, hoping to execute Count Dooku. Eric Goldman of IGN gave the book an 8 out of 10, saying it was great. Two arcs consisting each of 4 episodes were released on the official Star Wars website for free in the form of complete animatics, albeit with unfinished animation as those episodes only went through the earliest stages of production. Both were fully voiced by the cast. In September 2014, four unfinished episodes were released on the official Star Wars website. The arc took place on Utapau with Obi-Wan and Anakin investigating an arms deal involving the Separatists and a Kyber crystal. The arc also dealt with Anakin's feelings after the departure of Ahsoka. It was also included in the season 6 Blu-ray. The unfinished animatics for Bad Batch, a four-episode arc, were screened at the Star Wars Celebration convention in Anaheim, California on April 17, 2015. Scripted by Brent Friedman, it is a four-part story arc focusing on a ragtag unit of clone commandos of the same name. The arc was subsequently released on StarWars.com for free shortly after on April 29, 2015. The trailer released for the seventh season of The Clone Wars features a member of the Bad Batch. Seven video games have been released, which are based on the style and character designs of the series. , a fighting game released on November 11, 2008 for Wii., , an action-adventure game released on November 11, 2008 for Nintendo DS., , another action-adventure game taking place between Season 1 and Season 2, released on October 9, 2009 for Microsoft Windows, Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, Wii, PlayStation Portable, PlayStation 2 and Nintendo DS., Clone Wars Adventures, an online PC game launched on September 15, 2010 online by Sony Online Entertainment and shut down on March 31, 2014., , released in March 2011 by TT Games for PlayStation 3, PlayStation Portable, Xbox 360, Wii, Nintendo DS, PC, Mac, and Nintendo 3DS, which further stylizes the characters as part of the Lego Star Wars theme and is mostly based on the first two seasons., Star Wars: The Clone Wars Pinball, a virtual pinball adaptation of the series' original run, released in 2013 as a purchaseable add-on for Zen Studios' Star Wars Pinball collection for most seventh- and eighth-generation home video game systems, computers and mobile devices., Disney Infinity 3.0, released in September 2015 by Disney Interactive for PlayStation 4, PlayStation 3, Xbox One, Xbox 360, Wii U, Microsoft Windows, iOS and Android, which stylizes select major characters from the show as action figures that become playable only via a toys-to-life NFC system. Each copy of the game comes with the playset, "Twilight of the Republic", which is an alternate storyline set during the Clone Wars era, along with two starting characters, Anakin and Ahsoka. Other characters from the show also appear, although most of them are not playable or are fought as bosses. Characters and/or locations from the show have also appeared in the following Star Wars games listed below: Star Wars: Galactic Defense, a now-defunct tower defense game released on iOS and Android by DeNA, in which a number of playable champions include characters from the show. Several levels in the main campaign also take place on the planet Felucia, a major Clone Wars hotspot featured in some episodes., , a turn-based RPG also released on iOS and Android by Electronic Arts, where some levels take place on planets depicted in the show (such as Dathomir) and a number of collectible, playable characters are from the show., , an online MOBA game released on iOS and Android by Netmarble, where an August 2017 update allowed players to recruit characters, vehicles and battle units from the series, as well as battle on planets like Felucia., Star Wars Battlefront II, a video game available on Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One, in which players can battle on or directly above planets like Ryloth and Kamino, where some battles in the series were fought. Wood, Taylor, Lanter and Burton also reprise their voice roles for four new playable heroes (General Grievous, Obi-Wan Kenobi, Anakin Skywalker and Count Dooku, respectively) being added to the game's third season in late 2018, themed after the Clone Wars. Footnotes Citations at, at, at The Clone Wars, occasionally referred to in the singular as the Clone War, is a series of fictional conflicts in the Star Wars franchise by George Lucas. Though mentioned briefly in the first Star Wars film (1977), the war itself was not depicted until Attack of the Clones (2002) and Revenge of the Sith (2005). The Clone Wars are also the setting for three eponymous projects: (2003–2005), (2008), and (2008–2014 & 2020). They have featured in numerous Star Wars books and games. Within the Star Wars narrative, the Clone Wars involve a three-year war fought to prevent thousands of planetary systems from seceding from the Galactic Republic and forming the "Confederacy of Independent Systems", often referred to as "the Separatists". The Republic uses an army of clone troopers, the namesake of the conflict, led by the Jedi Order against the Separatist battle droid army. The conflict was manufactured as a scheme for the Republic's Supreme Chancellor Palpatine, secretly an evil Sith lord, to gain power and ultimately to convert the democratic Galactic Republic into the autocratic Galactic Empire, which was controlled through means of a military–industrial complex and featured in the original trilogy. Lucas used the Clone Wars narrative to answer questions about the original trilogy, such as how the Empire originated and how Anakin Skywalker became Darth Vader. The political and military events of the Clone Wars draw inspiration from real-world conflicts and historical events, such as World War II and the American Civil War. The first reference to the Clone Wars is in Star Wars creator George Lucas' third draft of the first film, which mentions the grizzled cyborg General Kenobi's "diary of the Clone Wars". The wars were mentioned twice briefly in the final version of the film, referring to Obi-Wan Kenobi as a general who served Leia Organa's father during the conflict. In drafting The Empire Strikes Back (1980), Lucas considered introducing a clone character who had been involved with the Clone Wars. Leigh Brackett's first draft of the film initially developed Lando Calrissian as a clone from a planet of clones involved in the Clone Wars mentioned in A New Hope and were nearly made extinct by the war. Boba Fett was also considered as from a group of shocktroopers nearly wiped out by Jedi during the Clone Wars. However, these concepts were not included in the final version of the film. Lucas was more guarded about the details of the Clone Wars than any other element of Star Wars, even making them off-limits to licensed products and books. Lucas has noted that Palpatine's rise to power is similar to that of Adolf Hitler in Nazi Germany; as Chancellor of Germany, the latter was granted "emergency powers", as is Palpatine. Lucas has also said that one of the primary influences for the political backdrop behind the Clone Wars, and all of Star Wars, was the Vietnam War and Watergate scandal era, when leaders embraced corruption for what they thought was the best course of action. In 2002, Lucas said: The clone forces shown at the conclusion of Attack of the Clones comprised the largest digital army created for a film at that point. Lucas proposed to concept artists that Revenge of the Sith would open with a montage of seven battles on seven planets. Lucas then radically re-organized the plot; instead of opening the film with various Clone Wars battles, Lucas decided instead to focus on Anakin Skywalker. The absence of the "seven battles on seven planets" in part led to Lucas's decision to launch the CGI-animated Clone Wars television series; Lucas said the cartoon could "do better" at depicting the conflict. The Clone Wars was first depicted in Attack of the Clones, the release of which brought an end to Lucas's embargo on licensed material set during the era. Numerous novels, comic books, and video games exploring the conflict have been sanctioned by Lucas Licensing. Attack of the Clones, set at the beginning of the wars, opens with the Galactic Republic's rising concern about the secession of thousands of star systems to the Confederacy of Independent Systems, which is led by Count Dooku. Chancellor Palpatine manipulates Jar Jar Binks and the rest of the Galactic Senate into granting him emergency powers. Investigating two attempted assassinations of Senator Padmé Amidala, Obi-Wan Kenobi discovers Dooku used the identity of a dead Jedi master to secretly arrange the creation of a massive clone army on the Republic's behalf. Yoda leads the clone army to rescue Obi-Wan, Padmé, and Anakin Skywalker from the Separatists on Geonosis, and the first battle of the war ensues. At the battle's conclusion, Yoda declares: "Begun, the Clone Wars have." Revenge of the Sith shows the waning days of the three-year Clone Wars, in which clone soldiers and their Jedi generals have fought against the Separatist droid army. After killing Dooku and rescuing Palpatine from the Separatists during their assault on Coruscant, Anakin learns Padmé is pregnant. He becomes troubled by visions of her death in childbirth, and Palpatine lures Anakin to the dark side of the Force by promising to teach him how to prevent her premature demise. Meanwhile, Yoda is dispatched to Kashyyyk to stave off a Separatist invasion, and Obi-Wan Kenobi is dispatched to Utapau where he kills General Grievous. Anakin discovers Palpatine is a Sith Lord, but he defends him against Mace Windu because he needs Palpatine's knowledge to save Padmé. After Palpatine murders Windu, he dubs Anakin his new apprentice Darth Vader. Palpatine orders the clone troopers to execute Order 66, and clones kill their Jedi generals across the galaxy. Palpatine then dispatches Vader to kill the Separatist leaders on Mustafar and to issue a "shutdown command" to their droid army. With their demise, Palpatine declares an end to the Clone Wars and the Republic's reformation into the Galactic Empire. The series (2003–2005) depicts several Clone Wars battles and was meant to generate interest in Revenge of the Sith. It also depicts the prelude to the opening battle of Revenge of the Sith and Palpatine's capture by General Grievous. Several years later, Lucas chose to reboot the series as a 3D CGI series developed by Dave Filoni. After several years of production on the new television series, Lucas decided to spin off the first four episodes as . The film, released in 2008, introduces Ahsoka Tano as Anakin's apprentice and depicts the Republic and the Separatists battling and attempting to gain permission to travel through Jabba the Hutt's territory. The (2008–2014) is likewise set against the backdrop of the Clone Wars. The show offers additional details about the clone army's creation, depicts numerous confrontations and developments from the conflict, and portrays the interaction between the clone troopers and their Jedi commanders. The series reveals that each clone has an "inhibitor chip" in his body that makes most of them obey Order 66. The series is set to return for another 12 episodes on Disney+ in February 2020. The 2008 by Karen Traviss begins a series of five novels by Traviss and Karen Miller published by Del Rey Books between 2008 and 2010. The Clone Wars: Wild Space (2008) was written by Miller and focuses on Obi-Wan and Bail Organa. Traviss returned to write The Clone Wars: No Prisoners (2009), in which Ahsoka is temporarily assigned to Captain Rex. Finally, Miller wrote the two-part Clone Wars Gambit (2010), subtitled Stealth and Siege, which deals with a bioweapon threat by Neimoidian general Lok Durd. Dark Disciple (2015) novelizes a story arc about Asajj Ventress and Quinlan Vos from eight unfinished episodes of The Clone Wars. (2016) is set during the Clone Wars and the subsequent couple of years. (2018) features flashbacks to the last year of the war featuring Anakin, Padmé, and Thrawn. Dark Horse Comics published various comics set during the era, many of which were collected in a series of trade paperbacks over nine volumes. Dark Horse also published a ten-volume graphic novella series titled Clone Wars – Adventures (2004–07), utilizing the style of the 2D animated series and depicting original stories set during the era. A series of comics tying into the 3D animated series was released from 2008 to 2010, collected in three volumes, and was supplemented by an series of graphic novellas released between 2008 and 2013. The Kanan (sometimes subtitled The Last Padawan) comic series depicts the Star Wars Rebels character Kanan Jarrus as Jedi Padawan Caleb Dume during the conflict. LucasArts also produced video games like and that depict the Clone Wars. Comparisons have been made between the political aspects of the Clone Wars and the events leading up to World War II. Radio host Clyde Lewis' article on historical similarities in Star Wars claims that Palpatine's tactics parallel those of Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany; both leaders used wars and scapegoats to manipulate society's emotional state, thus providing the leadership with support and power. Another writer compares the Clone Wars with World War II in general, basing his argument on the fact that Lucas was born during the baby boomer generation, and the dark times featured in the original trilogy rival the dark, uncertain Cold War. Referring to Lucas's statements that the conflict in Star Wars was inspired by the cultural backdrop of the Vietnam War, journalist Chris Taylor said the Clone Wars are a parallel to World War II. Anne Lancashire from the University of Toronto also points out some similar nomenclature between the Clone Wars and the American Civil War. Several publications compared the political context of the Clone Wars to the Iraq War. In claiming that the Star Wars galaxy under the deceitful Palpatine parallels the modern issues of the United States, an editorial on Antiwar.com states that Star Wars "establishes first the generally agreeable premise that it's right to overthrow oppressive government, before bringing into focus something more discomforting – that the corrupt tyranny referred to is our own". Additionally, an article from Wiretap claims that "like Palpatine, the Bush administration has been able to feed on people's fears to gain more power". Lucas stated that the Iraq war "didn't exist" when he developed the Clone Wars, but he did see parallels between the Vietnam War that inspired Star Wars and the war in Iraq. Star Wars producer Rick McCallum corroborated that the Clone Wars was developed before the Iraq War, adding that Lucas "is a product of Vietnam". The author of How Star Wars Conquered the Universe, Chris Taylor, calls the Clone Wars "a major part of Star Wars lore". In its attempt to keep its Star Wars line of toys active after Return of the Jedi (1983), Kenner devised a storyline that would involve the return of an exiled "genetic terrorist" and his Clone Warriors. Timothy Zahn said the clones' unexpected appearance fighting for "the good guys" in Attack of the Clones—despite many years of fan speculation that the clones were an invading force—was "wonderfully blindsid[ing]". After seeing the CGI Clone Wars television show, Zahn was grateful that Lucasfilm rejected his initial Heir to the Empire draft, which involved an insane clone of Obi-Wan created during the conflict. List of Star Wars Clone Wars characters, Galactic Civil War (Star Wars) Footnotes Citations Sword Fighting in the Star Wars Universe: Historical Origins, Style and Philosophy by Nick Jamilla (McFarland & Company, 2008), Star Wars and History by Nancy Reagin & Janice Liedl (John Wiley & Sons, 2012), The Science Fiction Reboot: Canon, Innovation and Fandom in Refashioned Franchises by Heather Urbanski (McFarland & Company, 2013), Star wars: the essential chronology by Kevin J. Anderson & Daniel Wallace (Ballantine Books, 2000), Culture, identities, and technology in the Star wars films: essays on the two trilogies by Carl Silvio & Tony M. Vinci (McFarland & Company, 2007), The Star Wars Heresies by Paul F. McDonald (McFarland & Company, 2013) Star Wars: Clone Wars is an American animated television micro-series set in the Star Wars universe and developed and drawn by Genndy Tartakovsky. Produced and released between the films and , it is amongst the first of many works to explore the conflict known as the Clone Wars, and directly leads to the events of Revenge of the Sith. The show follows the actions of various characters from the Star Wars prequel trilogy, notably Jedi and clone troopers, in their war against the battle droid armies of the Confederacy of Independent Systems and the Sith. The series is notable for introducing Revenge of the Sith villain General Grievous. The series aired on Cartoon Network for three seasons consisting of 25 episodes altogether from 2003 to 2005, and was the first Star Wars television series since Ewoks (1985–1986). The first two seasons of Clone Wars, released on DVD as "Volume One", were produced in episodes ranging from two to three minutes, while the third season consisted of five 15-minute episodes comprising "Volume Two". Since its release, the series has received critical acclaim and won multiple awards, including the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program for both volumes. Its success led to it being spun off as the half-hour CGI series . After The Walt Disney Company acquired Lucasfilm and the rights to the Star Wars franchise in 2012, the 2003 animated series was declared to be non-canonical and placed under the Star Wars Legends banner. Clone Wars is part of the Star Wars prequel storyline, surrounding the fall of esteemed Jedi Anakin Skywalker and his subsequent transformation into the Sith lord Darth Vader. The series begins shortly after Attack of the Clones, as the failing Galactic Republic and the Jedi Order are under siege from the Separatist Confederacy of Independent Systems and the Sith. As the war rages, more and more planets slip from Republic control. The main storyline of Volume One features the Jedi Knight Obi-Wan Kenobi leading an assault on the planet Muunilinst, home of the Intergalactic Banking Clan, benefactors of the Separatists wishing to break away from the Republic. His apprentice, Anakin, is personally appointed to lead the space forces by Supreme Chancellor Palpatine, the secret alter ego of Sith Lord Darth Sidious. Meanwhile, Separatist leader Count Dooku takes in the Force-sensitive Asajj Ventress as his Sith apprentice and sends her to eliminate Anakin. Anakin diverts his attention in the middle of the space battle to pursue Ventress to Yavin 4, where he manages to defeat her in a lightsaber duel by drawing on his anger. Surrounding this storyline are various battles focusing on other Jedi and their wartime exploits: Master Mace Windu faces a droid army unarmed on Dantooine, Master Yoda travels to the ice world Ilum to save two imperiled Jedi, the amphibious Kit Fisto leads an aquatic regiment of clone troopers on the waterworld Mon Calamari, and a team of Jedi encounter the dreaded General Grievous on Hypori. Volume Two picks up at the conclusion to the Hypori battle: Obi-Wan sends his team of ARC troopers to Hypori to rescue the Jedi from Grievous. The Republic is desperate, and after much consideration, the Jedi Council decides to promote Anakin to the rank of Jedi Knight. The series then jumps ahead to nearly the end of the war, when Anakin has become a more powerful Jedi. He aids Obi-Wan in capturing a fortress, saves Saesee Tiin in space battle, and rescues Jedi from crab droids. Anakin and Obi-Wan are assigned to search for Grievous on the planet Nelvaan, but instead end up liberating a group of Nelvaanians who had been enslaved and mutated by the Separatist Techno Union. While rescuing the Nelvaan warriors, Anakin sees a cryptic vision of his eventual transformation into Darth Vader. Meanwhile, Grievous leads an assault on Coruscant and, despite the best efforts of Yoda, Windu, Shaak Ti, and others, kidnaps Palpatine for his master, Dooku. Anakin and Obi-Wan then set out to rescue the Chancellor over Coruscant, leading directly into the beginning of Revenge of the Sith. Several attempts were made to maintain continuity with the overall saga, most notably bridging Episode II – Attack of the Clones and Episode III – Revenge of the Sith. Anakin appears with his new lightsaber (as it appears in Episode III) after his first was destroyed in the previous film. In "Chapter 21", makes his first appearance in gold plating and Anakin is knighted; he sends his Padawan braid to Padmé, who stores it with the necklace he gave her in The Phantom Menace. It is implied that Anakin and Padmé may conceive the Skywalker twins on Naboo in "Chapter 22". General Grievous' cough in Revenge of the Sith was intended to emphasize his organic nature as well as the flaws of having cyborg prosthetics. Grievous had previously appeared in Clone Wars before many of his personality traits had been finalized. To reconcile the differences between the two presentations, the Clone Wars production crew inserted a scene in "Chapter 25" of Mace Windu Force-crushing the chestplate housing Grievous's internal organs. Volume Two shares aspects of its storyline with the novel Labyrinth of Evil, which was created at the same time. In the series, Anakin and Obi-Wan investigate a possible base for Grievous on Nelvaan prior to returning to Coruscant, but in the novel, they pursue Count Dooku on Tythe; Dooku briefly pauses at Nelvaan when escaping to Coruscant. According to The New Essential Chronology, the events on Nelvaan occurred before those on Tythe, with the final scene of Obi-Wan and Anakin getting the message from Mace on the cruiser taking place afterwards. Clone Wars served as a pilot for the half-hour CGI . The character designer for the latter series attempted to translate aspects of the character designs from the 2D series to 3D. The canonicity of Clone Wars was superseded by the later series after The Walt Disney Company purchased Lucasfilm and announced that The Clone Wars was considered one of the franchise's "immovable objects" along with the episodic films. The series was produced and directed by Genndy Tartakovsky, the creator of Dexter's Laboratory and Samurai Jack, and employs a similar animation style to the latter. Tartakovsky stated that he purposely animated with moveable expressive eyes to pay homage to his animated appearances in Star Wars Holiday Special and . Additionally, the planet Nelvaan's name was a nod to Nelvana, the production company that produced all previous Star Wars animated series. In "Chapter 21", a Dulok appears, a species introduced in Ewoks. According to art director Paul Rudish, the Banking Clan planet of Muunilinst was designed to look like a U.S. dollar bill. Anakin Skywalker (Mat Lucas), Obi-Wan Kenobi (James Arnold Taylor), Yoda (Tom Kane), Mace Windu (Terrence "T.C." Carson), C-3PO (Anthony Daniels), San Hill (Corey Burton), Count Dooku (Corey Burton), Asajj Ventress (Grey DeLisle), Palpatine / Darth Sidious (Nick Jameson), Clones (André Sogliuzzo), Padmé Amidala (Grey DeLisle), General Grievous (John DiMaggio (Seasons 1 & 2) and Richard McGonagle (Season 3)), Capitain Typho (André Sogliuzzo), Saesee Tiin (Terrence T.C. Carson), Ki-Adi-Mundi (Daran Norris), Shaak Ti (Grey DeLisle), Kit Fisto (Richard McGonagle) The series, produced primarily with traditional animation, originally ran on Cartoon Network. In addition to being shown on television, the episodes were released online simultaneously on the Star Wars and Cartoon Network websites. It was heavily advertised by the channel, and was originally shown immediately before their popular Friday-night programming block, 'Fridays'. The first season consisted of 10 episodes, lasting three minutes each. Along with the second season, it was released on DVD as Volume One. The second season consisted of 10 episodes, lasting three minutes each. Along with the first season, it was released on DVD as Volume One. The third and final season consisted of five episodes, lasting 12 minutes each. These episodes were released on DVD as Volume Two. According to the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, 80% of critics have given season 1 a positive review based on 5 reviews. In 2009, Clone Wars was ranked 21 on IGN's Top 100 Animated Series list. Both volumes were distributed by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment (current subsidiary of Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment), making it one of the few Cartoon Network original shows not to have their Home Media releases released through Warner Home Video. A series of Hasbro action figures was released in the years of the series' run, including four Walmart-exclusive "Commemorative DVD Collection" 3-packs (which did not include a DVD). Dark Horse Comics also published a ten-volume comic series titled Clone Wars – Adventures, which utilized the style of the 2D animated series and depicts original stories set during the era; the last issue was published in 2007. Footnotes Citations

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The following is a list of the most populous incorporated places of the United States. As defined by the United States Census Bureau, an "incorporated place" includes a variety of designations, including city, town, village, borough, and municipality. A few exceptional census-designated places (CDPs) are also included in the Census Bureau's listing of incorporated places. Consolidated city-counties represent a distinct type of government that includes the entire population of a county, or county equivalent. Some consolidated city-counties, however, include multiple incorporated places. This list presents only that portion (or "balance") of such consolidated city-counties that are not a part of another incorporated place. This list refers only to the population of individual municipalities within their defined limits; the populations of other municipalities considered suburbs of a central city are listed separately, and unincorporated areas within urban agglomerations are not included. Therefore, a different ranking is evident when considering U.S. metropolitan area populations. The following table lists the 314 incorporated places in the United States with a population of at least 100,000 on July 1, 2018, as estimated by the United States Census Bureau. A city is displayed in bold if it is a state or federal capital, and in italics if it is the most populous city in the state. Five states—Delaware, Maine, Vermont, West Virginia and Wyoming—have no cities with populations of 100,000 or more. The table below contains the following information: 1. The city rank by population as of July 1, 2018, as estimated by the United States Census Bureau 2. The city name 3. The name of the state in which the city lies 4. The city population as of July 1, 2018, as estimated by the United States Census Bureau 5. The city population as of April 1, 2010, as enumerated by the 2010 United States Census 6. The city percent population change from April 1, 2010, to July 1, 2018 7. The city land area as of January 1, 2016 8. The city population density as of July 1, 2016 (residents per unit of land area) 9. The city latitude and longitude coordinates For cities with populations of 100,000 or more, the following distributions hold. Smaller incorporated places are not included. The mean density is . The median is . The following table lists the five municipalities (municipios) of Puerto Rico with a population greater than 100,000 on July 1, 2017, as estimated by the United States Census Bureau. The table below contains the following information: 1. The municipio rank by population as of July 1, 2017, as estimated by the United States Census Bureau 2. The municipio 3. The municipio population as of July 1, 2017, as estimated by the United States Census Bureau 4. The municipio population as of April 1, 2010, as enumerated by the 2010 United States Census 5. The municipio percent population change from April 1, 2010, to July 1, 2017 6. The municipio land area as of January 1, 2016 7. The municipio population density as of July 1, 2017 (residents per land area) 8. The municipio latitude and longitude coordinates The following table lists U.S. census-designated places (CDPs) with populations of at least 100,000 according to the 2010 Census. A CDP is a concentration of population identified by the United States Census Bureau for statistical purposes. CDPs are delineated for each decennial census as the statistical counterparts of incorporated places such as cities, towns and villages. CDPs are populated areas that lack separate municipal government, but which otherwise physically resemble incorporated places. Unlike the incorporated cities in the main list, the US Census Bureau does not release annual population estimates for CDPs. The table below contains the following information: 1. The city 2. The state 3. The city population as of April 1, 2010, as enumerated by the 2010 United States Census 4. The city population as of April 1, 2000, as enumerated by the 2010 United States Census 5. The city percent population change from April 1, 2000, to April 1, 2010 6. The city land area as of January 1, 2010 7. The city population density as of April 1, 2010 (residents per land area) 8. The city ANSI INCITS 446–2008 geographic code 9. The city latitude and longitude coordinates The following table lists U.S. cities that, in past censuses, have had populations of at least 100,000 but have since decreased beneath this threshold or have been consolidated with or annexed into a neighboring city. The table below contains the following information: 1. Name of city 2. Name of state 3. The city population as of July 1, 2018, as estimated by the United States Census Bureau 4. The city's peak population based on highest official enumeration recorded by the Census (and the year of that particular Census) 5. The numeric decline in population from its peak Census count to the most recent Census estimate in 2018. 6. The percent decline in population from its peak Census count to the most recent Census estimate in 2018. 7. Any additional notes of significant importance. Demographics of the United States, United States Census Bureau, List of U.S. states and territories by population, List of metropolitan areas in the United States, List of United States counties and county equivalents United States Office of Management and Budget, The OMB has defined 1098 statistical areas comprising 388 MSAs, 541 μSAs, and 169 CSAs, Primary statistical area – List of the 574 PSAs, Combined Statistical Area – List of the 169 CSAs, Core Based Statistical Area – List of the 929 CBSAs, Metropolitan Statistical Area – List of the 388 MSAs, Micropolitan Statistical Area – List of the 541 μSAs, Largest cities in the United States by population by decade, List of U.S. states' largest cities by population, List of cities proper by population (most populous cities in the world), List of United States cities by area, List of United States cities by elevation, List of United States cities by population density, Lists of populated places in the United States United States Government, United States Census Bureau, 2010 United States Census, USCB population estimates, United States Office of Management and Budget Detroit (, ; ) is the largest and most populous city in the U.S. state of Michigan, the largest American city on the United States–Canada border, and the seat of Wayne County. The municipality of Detroit had a 2018 estimated population of 672,662, making it the 23rd-most populous city in the United States. The metropolitan area, known as Metro Detroit, is home to 4.3 million people, making it the second-largest in the Midwest after the Chicago metropolitan area. Regarded as a major cultural center, Detroit is known for its contributions to music and as a repository for art, architecture and design. Detroit is a major port on the Detroit River, one of the four major straits that connect the Great Lakes system to the Saint Lawrence Seaway. The Detroit Metropolitan Airport is among the most important hubs in the United States. The City of Detroit anchors the second-largest regional economy in the Midwest, behind Chicago and ahead of Minneapolis–Saint Paul, and the 13th- largest in the United States. Detroit and its neighboring Canadian city Windsor are connected through a highway tunnel, railway tunnel, and the Ambassador Bridge, which is the second busiest international crossing in North America, after San Diego–Tijuana. Detroit is best known as the center of the U.S. automobile industry, and the "Big Three" auto manufacturers General Motors, Ford, and Fiat Chrysler are all headquartered in Metro Detroit. In 1701, Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac founded Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit, the future city of Detroit. During the 19th century, it became an important industrial hub at the center of the Great Lakes region. The city became the 4th-largest in the nation in 1920, after only New York City, Chicago and Philadelphia, with the influence of the booming auto industry. With expansion of the auto industry in the early 20th century, the city and its suburbs experienced rapid growth, and by the 1940s, the city had become the fourth- largest in the country. However, due to industrial restructuring, the loss of jobs in the auto industry, and rapid suburbanization, Detroit lost considerable population from the late 20th century to the present. Since reaching a peak of 1.85 million at the 1950 census, Detroit's population has declined by more than 60 percent. In 2013, Detroit became the largest U.S. city to file for bankruptcy, which it successfully exited in December 2014, when the city government regained control of Detroit's finances. Detroit's diverse culture has had both local and international influence, particularly in music, with the city giving rise to the genres of Motown and techno, and playing an important role in the development of jazz, hip-hop, rock, and punk music. The erstwhile rapid growth of Detroit left a globally unique stock of architectural monuments and historic places, and since the 2000s conservation efforts managed to save many architectural pieces and allowed several large- scale revitalizations, including the restoration of several historic theatres and entertainment venues, high-rise renovations, new sports stadiums, and a riverfront revitalization project. More recently, the population of Downtown Detroit, Midtown Detroit, and various other neighborhoods has increased. An increasingly popular tourist destination, Detroit receives 19 million visitors per year. In 2015, Detroit was named a "City of Design" by UNESCO, the first U.S. city to receive that designation. Paleo-Indian people inhabited areas near Detroit as early as 11,000 years ago including the culture referred to as the Mound-builders. In the 17th century, the region was inhabited by Huron, Odawa, Potawatomi and Iroquois peoples. The first Europeans did not penetrate into the region and reach the straits of Detroit until French missionaries and traders worked their way around the League of the Iroquois, with whom they were at war, and other Iroquoian tribes in the 1630s. The Huron and Neutral peoples held the north side of Lake Erie until the 1650s, when the Iroquois pushed both and the Erie people away from the lake and its beaver-rich feeder streams in the Beaver Wars of 1649–1655. By the 1670s, the war-weakened Iroquois laid claim to as far south as the Ohio River valley in northern Kentucky as hunting grounds, and had absorbed many other Iroquoian peoples after defeating them in war. For the next hundred years, virtually no British, colonist, or French action was contemplated without consultation with, or consideration of the Iroquois' likely response. When the French and Indian War evicted the Kingdom of France from Canada, it removed one barrier to British colonists migrating west. British negotiations with the Iroquois would both prove critical and lead to a Crown policy limiting the west of the Alleghenies settlements below the Great Lakes, which gave many American would-be migrants a casus belli for supporting the American Revolution. The 1778 raids and resultant 1779 decisive Sullivan Expedition reopened the Ohio Country to westward emigration, which began almost immediately, and by 1800 white settlers were pouring westwards. The city was named by French colonists, referring to the Detroit River (, meaning the strait of Lake Erie), linking Lake Huron and Lake Erie; in the historical context, the strait included the St. Clair River, Lake St. Clair and the Detroit River. On July 24, 1701, the French explorer Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac, along with more than a hundred other settlers, began constructing a small fort on the north bank of the Detroit River. Cadillac would later name the settlement Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit, after Louis Phélypeaux, comte de Pontchartrain, Minister of Marine under Louis XIV. France offered free land to colonists to attract families to Detroit; when it reached a population of 800 in 1765, it was the largest European settlement between Montreal and New Orleans, both also French settlements. By 1773, the population of Detroit was 1,400. By 1778, its population was up to 2,144 and it was the third-largest city in the Province of Quebec. The region's economy was based on the lucrative fur trade, in which numerous Native American people had important roles. The flag of Detroit reflects its French colonial heritage. Descendants of the earliest French and French-Canadian settlers formed a cohesive community, who gradually were replaced as the dominant population after more Anglo-American settlers came to the area in the early 19th century. Living along the shores of Lakes St. Clair, and south to Monroe and downriver suburbs, the French Canadians of Detroit, also known as Muskrat French, remain a subculture in the region today. During the French and Indian War (1754–63), the North American front of the Seven Years' War between Britain and France, British troops gained control of the settlement in 1760, shortening its name to Detroit. Several Native American tribes launched Pontiac's Rebellion (1763), and conducted a siege of Fort Detroit, but failed to capture it. In defeat, France ceded its territory in North America east of the Mississippi to Britain following the war. Following the American Revolutionary War and United States independence, Britain ceded Detroit along with other territory in the area under the Jay Treaty (1796), which established the northern border with Canada. In 1805, fire destroyed most of the Detroit settlement, which consisted mostly of wooden buildings. One stone fort, a river warehouse, and brick chimneys of former wooden homes were the sole structures to survive. Of the 600 Detroiters who populated the area, none died in the fire. From 1805 to 1847, Detroit was the capital of Michigan (first the territory, then the state). Detroit surrendered without a fight to British troops during the War of 1812 in the Siege of Detroit. The Battle of Frenchtown (January 18–23, 1813) was part of a U.S. effort to retake the city, and U.S. troops suffered their highest fatalities of any battle in the war. This battle is commemorated at River Raisin National Battlefield Park south of Detroit in Monroe County. Detroit was finally recaptured by the United States later that year. It was incorporated as a city in 1815. As the city expanded, a geometric street plan developed by Augustus B. Woodward was followed, featuring grand boulevards as in Paris. Prior to the American Civil War, the city's access to the Canada–US border made it a key stop for refugee slaves gaining freedom in the North along the Underground Railroad. Many went across the Detroit River to Canada to escape pursuit by slave catchers. There were estimated to be 20,000 to 30,000 African-American refugees who settled in Canada. George DeBaptiste was considered to be the "president" of the Detroit Underground Railroad, William Lambert the "vice president" or "secretary" and Laura Haviland the "superintendent". Numerous men from Detroit volunteered to fight for the Union during the American Civil War, including the 24th Michigan Infantry Regiment (part of the legendary Iron Brigade), which fought with distinction and suffered 82% casualties at the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863. When the First Volunteer Infantry Regiment arrived to fortify Washington, D.C., President Abraham Lincoln is quoted as saying "Thank God for Michigan!" George Armstrong Custer led the Michigan Brigade during the Civil War and called them the "Wolverines". During the late 19th century, several Gilded Age mansions reflecting the wealth of industry and shipping magnates were built east and west of the current downtown, along the major avenues of the Woodward plan. Most notable among them was the David Whitney House at 4421 Woodward Avenue, which became a prime location for mansions. During this period some referred to Detroit as the Paris of the West for its architecture, grand avenues in the Paris style, and for Washington Boulevard, recently electrified by Thomas Edison. The city had grown steadily from the 1830s with the rise of shipping, shipbuilding, and manufacturing industries. Strategically located along the Great Lakes waterway, Detroit emerged as a major port and transportation hub. In 1896, a thriving carriage trade prompted Henry Ford to build his first automobile in a rented workshop on Mack Avenue. During this growth period, Detroit expanded its borders by annexing all or part of several surrounding villages and townships. In 1903, Henry Ford founded the Ford Motor Company. Ford's manufacturing—and those of automotive pioneers William C. Durant, the Dodge Brothers, Packard, and Walter Chrysler—established Detroit's status in the early 20th century as the world's automotive capital. The growth of the auto industry was reflected by changes in businesses throughout the Midwest and nation, with the development of garages to service vehicles and gas stations, as well as factories for parts and tires. With the rapid growth of industrial workers in the auto factories, labor unions such as the American Federation of Labor and the United Auto Workers fought to organize workers to gain them better working conditions and wages. They initiated strikes and other tactics in support of improvements such as the 8-hour day/40-hour work week, increased wages, greater benefits and improved working conditions. The labor activism during those years increased influence of union leaders in the city such as Jimmy Hoffa of the Teamsters and Walter Reuther of the Autoworkers. The city became the 4th-largest in the nation in 1920, after only New York City, Chicago and Philadelphia, with the influence of the booming auto industry. The prohibition of alcohol from 1920 to 1933 resulted in the Detroit River becoming a major conduit for smuggling of illegal Canadian spirits. Detroit, like many places in the United States, developed racial conflict and discrimination in the 20th century following rapid demographic changes as hundreds of thousands of new workers were attracted to the industrial city; in a short period it became the 4th-largest city in the nation. The Great Migration brought rural blacks from the South; they were outnumbered by southern whites who also migrated to the city. Immigration brought southern and eastern Europeans of Catholic and Jewish faith; these new groups competed with native-born whites for jobs and housing in the booming city. Detroit was one of the major Midwest cities that was a site for the dramatic urban revival of the Ku Klux Klan beginning in 1915. "By the 1920s the city had become a stronghold of the KKK," whose members opposed Catholic and Jewish immigrants, as well as black Americans. The Black Legion, a secret vigilante group, was active in the Detroit area in the 1930s, when one-third of its estimated 20,000 to 30,000 members in Michigan were based in the city. It was defeated after numerous prosecutions following the kidnapping and murder in 1936 of Charles Poole, a Catholic Works Progress Administration organizer. 49 men of the Black Legion were convicted of numerous crimes, with many sentenced to life in prison for murder. In the 1940s the world's "first urban depressed freeway" ever built, the Davison, was constructed in Detroit. During World War II, the government encouraged retooling of the American automobile industry in support of the Allied powers, leading to Detroit's key role in the American Arsenal of Democracy. Jobs expanded so rapidly that 400,000 people were attracted to the city from 1941 to 1943, including 50,000 blacks in the second wave of the Great Migration, and 350,000 whites, many of them from the South. Some European immigrants and their descendants feared black competition for jobs and housing. The federal government prohibited discrimination in defense work but when in June 1943, Packard promoted three blacks to work next to whites on its assembly lines, 25,000 whites walked off the job. The Detroit race riot of 1943 took place three weeks after the Packard plant protest. Over the course of three days, 34 people were killed, of whom 25 were African American. Approximately another 600 were injured, 75% of which were black people. Industrial mergers in the 1950s, especially in the automobile sector, increased oligopoly in the American auto industry. Detroit manufacturers such as Packard and Hudson merged into other companies and eventually disappeared. At its peak population of 1,849,568, in the 1950 Census, the city was the 5th- largest in the United States, after New York City, Chicago, Philadelphia and Los Angeles. In this postwar era, many African Americans from the South viewed the North as the pinnacle of freedom and opportunity distinct from the strict Jim Crow laws and racial discrimination policies in the South, inspiring the Great Migration. With this huge influx of individuals moving into the city, competition arose for employment, housing, and land. Racial discrimination took place in employment keeping the work force intentionally predominantly white. Unequal opportunities in employment created unequal housing opportunities for the majority of the black community. The surge in Detroit's black population with the Great Migration augmented the strain on housing scarcity. Black people were often turned away from bank loans to obtain housing and interest rates and rent were unfairly inflated to keep them from moving into white neighborhoods. These racist policies were further reinforced with the concept of redlining which encouraged white people to further guard the racial divide that defined their neighborhoods. This marginalized the agency of black Detroiters—another important aspect in the history of postwar Detroit. As in other major American cities in the postwar era, construction of an extensive highway and freeway system around Detroit and pent-up demand for new housing stimulated suburbanization; highways made commuting by car easier. However, this construction had negative implications for the residents involved. Many of these highways intentionally tore through black neighborhoods (mostly low income or blighted neighborhoods) displacing these individuals without considering the repercussions this would bring them. In 1956, Detroit's last heavily used electric streetcar line along the length of Woodward Avenue was removed and replaced with gas-powered buses. It was the last line of what had once been a 534-mile network of electric streetcars. In 1941 at peak times, a streetcar ran on Woodward Avenue every 60 seconds. All of these changes in the area's transportation system favored low-density, auto-oriented development rather than high-density urban development, and industry also moved to the suburbs. The metro Detroit area developed as one of the most sprawling job markets in the United States by the 21st century, and combined with poor public transport, resulted in many jobs beyond the reach of urban low-income workers. In 1950, the city held about one-third of the state's population, anchored by its industries and workers. Over the next sixty years, the city's population declined to less than 10 percent of the state's population. During the same time period, the sprawling Detroit metropolitan area, which surrounds and includes the city, grew to contain more than half of Michigan's population. The shift of population and jobs eroded Detroit's tax base. In June 1963, Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. gave a major speech in Detroit that foreshadowed his "I Have a Dream" speech in Washington, D.C., two months later. While the civil rights movement gained significant federal civil rights laws in 1964 and 1965, longstanding inequities resulted in confrontations between the police and inner city black youth wanting change. Longstanding tensions in Detroit culminated in the Twelfth Street riot in July 1967. Governor George W. Romney ordered the Michigan National Guard into Detroit, and President Johnson sent in U.S. Army troops. The result was 43 dead, 467 injured, over 7,200 arrests, and more than 2,000 buildings destroyed, mostly in black residential and business areas. Thousands of small businesses closed permanently or relocated to safer neighborhoods. The affected district lay in ruins for decades. It was the most costly riot in the United States. On August 18, 1970, the NAACP filed suit against Michigan state officials, including Governor William Milliken, charging de facto public school segregation. The NAACP argued that although schools were not legally segregated, the city of Detroit and its surrounding counties had enacted policies to maintain racial segregation in public schools. The NAACP also suggested a direct relationship between unfair housing practices and educational segregation, which followed segregated neighborhoods. The District Court held all levels of government accountable for the segregation in its ruling. The Sixth Circuit Court affirmed some of the decision, holding that it was the state's responsibility to integrate across the segregated metropolitan area. The U.S. Supreme Court took up the case February 27, 1974. The subsequent Milliken v. Bradley decision had nationwide influence. In a narrow decision, the Supreme Court found schools were a subject of local control and suburbs could not be forced to solve problems in the city's school district. "Milliken was perhaps the greatest missed opportunity of that period," said Myron Orfield, professor of law at the University of Minnesota. "Had that gone the other way, it would have opened the door to fixing nearly all of Detroit's current problems." John Mogk, a professor of law and an expert in urban planning at Wayne State University in Detroit, says, "Everybody thinks that it was the riots [in 1967] that caused the white families to leave. Some people were leaving at that time but, really, it was after Milliken that you saw mass flight to the suburbs. If the case had gone the other way, it is likely that Detroit would not have experienced the steep decline in its tax base that has occurred since then." In November 1973, the city elected Coleman Young as its first black mayor. After taking office, Young emphasized increasing racial diversity in the police department. Young also worked to improve Detroit's transportation system, but tension between Young and his suburban counterparts over regional matters was problematic throughout his mayoral term. In 1976, the federal government offered $600 million for building a regional rapid transit system, under a single regional authority. But the inability of Detroit and its suburban neighbors to solve conflicts over transit planning resulted in the region losing the majority of funding for rapid transit. Following the failure to reach an agreement over the larger system, the city moved forward with construction of the elevated downtown circulator portion of the system, which became known as the Detroit People Mover. The gasoline crises of 1973 and 1979 also affected Detroit and the U.S. auto industry. Buyers chose smaller, more fuel-efficient cars made by foreign makers as the price of gas rose. Efforts to revive the city were stymied by the struggles of the auto industry, as their sales and market share declined. Automakers laid off thousands of employees and closed plants in the city, further eroding the tax base. To counteract this, the city used eminent domain to build two large new auto assembly plants in the city. As mayor, Young sought to revive the city by seeking to increase investment in the city's declining downtown. The Renaissance Center, a mixed-use office and retail complex, opened in 1977. This group of skyscrapers was an attempt to keep businesses in downtown. Young also gave city support to other large developments to attract middle and upper-class residents back to the city. Despite the Renaissance Center and other projects, the downtown area continued to lose businesses to the automobile dependent suburbs. Major stores and hotels closed and many large office buildings went vacant. Young was criticized for being too focused on downtown development and not doing enough to lower the city's high crime rate and improve city services. Long a major population center and site of worldwide automobile manufacturing, Detroit has suffered a long economic decline produced by numerous factors. Like many industrial American cities, Detroit reached its population peak in the 1950 census. The peak population was 1.8 million people. Following suburbanization, industrial restructuring, and loss of jobs (as described above), by the 2010 census, the city had less than 40 percent of that number, with just over 700,000 residents. The city has declined in population in each census since 1950. High unemployment was compounded by middle-class flight to the suburbs, and some residents leaving the state to find work. The city was left with a higher proportion of poor in its population, reduced tax base, depressed property values, abandoned buildings, abandoned neighborhoods, high crime rates and a pronounced demographic imbalance. On August 16, 1987, Northwest Airlines Flight 255 crashed near Detroit, killing all but one of the 155 people on board, as well as two people on the ground. In 1993 Young retired as Detroit's longest-serving mayor, deciding not to seek a sixth term. That year the city elected Dennis Archer, a former Michigan Supreme Court justice. Archer prioritized downtown development and easing tensions with Detroit's suburban neighbors. A referendum to allow casino gambling in the city passed in 1996; several temporary casino facilities opened in 1999, and permanent downtown casinos with hotels opened in 2007–08. Campus Martius, a reconfiguration of downtown's main intersection as a new park was opened in 2004. The park has been cited as one of the best public spaces in the United States. The city's riverfront has been the focus of redevelopment, following successful examples of other older industrial cities. In 2001, the first portion of the International Riverfront was completed as a part of the city's 300th anniversary celebration, with miles of parks and associated landscaping completed in succeeding years. In 2011, the Port Authority Passenger Terminal opened with the riverwalk connecting Hart Plaza to the Renaissance Center. Since 2006, $9 billion has been invested in downtown and surrounding neighborhoods; $5.2 billion of which has come in 2013 and 2014. Construction activity, particularly rehabilitation of historic downtown buildings, has increased markedly. The number of vacant downtown buildings has dropped from nearly 50 to around 13. Among the most notable redevelopment projects are the Book Cadillac Hotel and the Fort Shelby Hotel; the David Broderick Tower; and the David Whitney Building. Little Caesars Arena, a new home for the Detroit Red Wings and the Detroit Pistons with attached residential, hotel, and retail use opened on September 5, 2017. The plans for the project call for mixed-use residential on the blocks surrounding the arena and the renovation of the vacant 14-story Eddystone Hotel. It will be a part of The District in Detroit, a group of places owned by Olympia Entertainment Inc., including Comerica Park and the Detroit Opera House, among others. Detroit's protracted decline has resulted in severe urban decay with thousands of empty buildings around the city referred to as greyfield. Some parts of Detroit are so sparsely populated the city has difficulty providing municipal services. The city has considered various solutions, such as demolishing abandoned homes and buildings; removing street lighting from large portions of the city; and encouraging the small population in certain areas to move to more populated locations. Roughly half of the owners of Detroit's 305,000 properties failed to pay their 2011 tax bills, resulting in about $246 million in taxes and fees going uncollected, nearly half of which was due to Detroit; the rest of the money would have been earmarked for Wayne County, Detroit Public Schools, and the library system. In September 2008, Mayor Kwame Kilpatrick (who had served for six years) resigned following felony convictions. In 2013, Kilpatrick was convicted on 24 federal felony counts, including mail fraud, wire fraud, and racketeering, and was sentenced to 28 years in federal prison. The former mayor's activities cost the city an estimated $20 million. In 2013, felony bribery charges were brought against seven building inspectors. In 2016, further corruption charges were brought against 12 principals, a former school superintendent and supply vendor for a $12 million kickback scheme. Law professor Peter Henning argues Detroit's corruption is not unusual for a city its size, especially when compared with Chicago. The city's financial crisis resulted in Michigan taking over administrative control of its government. The state governor declared a financial emergency in March 2013, appointing Kevyn Orr as emergency manager. On July 18, 2013, Detroit became the largest U.S. city to file for bankruptcy. It was declared bankrupt by U.S. District Court on December 3, 2013, in light of the city's $18.5 billion debt and its inability to fully repay its thousands of creditors. On November 7, 2014 the city's plan for exiting bankruptcy was approved. The following month on December 11 the city officially exited bankruptcy. The plan allowed the city to eliminate $7 billion in debt and invest $1.7 billion into improved city services. One of the largest post-bankruptcy efforts to improve city services has been work to fix the city's broken street lighting system. At one time it was estimated that 40% of lights were not working. The plan calls for replacing outdated high pressure sodium lights with 65,000 LED lights. Construction began in late 2014 and finished in December 2016 making Detroit the largest U.S city with all LED street lighting. In the 2010s, several initiatives were taken by Detroit's citizens and new inhabitants to improve the cityscape by renovating and revitalizing neighborhoods. Such include the Motor City Blight Busters and various urban gardening movements. The well-known symbol of the city's decades-long demise, the Michigan Central Station, has been renovated with new windows, elevators and facilities since 2015. Several other landmark buildings were fully renovated and transformed into condominiums, hotels, offices or for cultural uses. Detroit is mentioned as a city of renaissance and has reversed many of the trends of the prior decades . Detroit is the center of a three-county urban area (with a population of 3,734,090 within an area of according to the 2010 United States Census), six- county metropolitan statistical area (population of 4,296,250 in an area of as of the 2010 census), and a nine-county combined statistical area (population of 5.3 million within ). According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water. Detroit is the principal city in Metro Detroit and Southeast Michigan situated in the Midwestern United States and the Great Lakes region. The Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge is the only international wildlife preserve in North America, uniquely located in the heart of a major metropolitan area. The Refuge includes islands, coastal wetlands, marshes, shoals, and waterfront lands along of the Detroit River and Western Lake Erie shoreline. The city slopes gently from the northwest to southeast on a till plain composed largely of glacial and lake clay. The most notable topographical feature in the city is the Detroit Moraine, a broad clay ridge on which the older portions of Detroit and Windsor sit, rising approximately above the river at its highest point. The highest elevation in the city is directly north of Gorham Playground on the northwest side approximately three blocks south of 8 Mile Road, at a height of . Detroit's lowest elevation is along the Detroit River, at a surface height of . Belle Isle Park is a island park in the Detroit River, between Detroit and Windsor, Ontario. It is connected to the mainland by the MacArthur Bridge in Detroit. Belle Isle Park contains such attractions as the James Scott Memorial Fountain, the Belle Isle Conservatory, the Detroit Yacht Club on an adjacent island, a half-mile (800 m) beach, a golf course, a nature center, monuments, and gardens. The city skyline may be viewed from the island. Three road systems cross the city: the original French template, with avenues radiating from the waterfront, and true north–south roads based on the Northwest Ordinance township system. The city is north of Windsor, Ontario. Detroit is the only major city along the Canada–US border in which one travels south in order to cross into Canada. Detroit has four border crossings: the Ambassador Bridge and the Detroit–Windsor Tunnel provide motor vehicle thoroughfares, with the Michigan Central Railway Tunnel providing railroad access to and from Canada. The fourth border crossing is the Detroit–Windsor Truck Ferry, near the Windsor Salt Mine and Zug Island. Near Zug Island, the southwest part of the city was developed over a salt mine that is below the surface. The Detroit salt mine run by the Detroit Salt Company has over of roads within. Detroit and the rest of southeastern Michigan have a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfa) which is influenced by the Great Lakes; the city and close-in suburbs are part of USDA Hardiness zone 6b, with farther-out northern and western suburbs generally falling in zone 6a. Winters are cold, with moderate snowfall and temperatures not rising above freezing on an average 44 days annually, while dropping to or below on an average 4.4 days a year; summers are warm to hot with temperatures exceeding on 12 days. The warm season runs from May to September. The monthly daily mean temperature ranges from in January to in July. Official temperature extremes range from on July 24, 1934 down to on January 21, 1984; the record low maximum is on January 19, 1994, while, conversely the record high minimum is on August 1, 2006, the most recent of five occurrences. A decade or two may pass between readings of or higher, which last occurred July 17, 2012. The average window for freezing temperatures is October 20 thru April 22, allowing a growing season of 180 days. Precipitation is moderate and somewhat evenly distributed throughout the year, although the warmer months such as May and June average more, averaging annually, but historically ranging from in 1963 to in 2011. Snowfall, which typically falls in measurable amounts between November 15 through April 4 (occasionally in October and very rarely in May), averages per season, although historically ranging from in 1881–82 to in 2013–14. A thick snowpack is not often seen, with an average of only 27.5 days with or more of snow cover. Thunderstorms are frequent in the Detroit area. These usually occur during spring and summer. Seen in panorama, Detroit's waterfront shows a variety of architectural styles. The post modern Neo-Gothic spires of the One Detroit Center (1993) were designed to blend with the city's Art Deco skyscrapers. Together with the Renaissance Center, they form a distinctive and recognizable skyline. Examples of the Art Deco style include the Guardian Building and Penobscot Building downtown, as well as the Fisher Building and Cadillac Place in the New Center area near Wayne State University. Among the city's prominent structures are United States' largest Fox Theatre, the Detroit Opera House, and the Detroit Institute of Arts. While the Downtown and New Center areas contain high-rise buildings, the majority of the surrounding city consists of low-rise structures and single-family homes. Outside of the city's core, residential high-rises are found in upper-class neighborhoods such as the East Riverfront extending toward Grosse Pointe and the Palmer Park neighborhood just west of Woodward. The University Commons-Palmer Park district in northwest Detroit, near the University of Detroit Mercy and Marygrove College, anchors historic neighborhoods including Palmer Woods, Sherwood Forest, and the University District. The National Register of Historic Places lists 42 sites in the city. Neighborhoods constructed prior to World War II feature the architecture of the times, with wood-frame and brick houses in the working-class neighborhoods, larger brick homes in middle-class neighborhoods, and ornate mansions in upper-class neighborhoods such as Brush Park, Woodbridge, Indian Village, Palmer Woods, Boston-Edison, and others. Some of the oldest neighborhoods are along the Woodward and East Jefferson corridors. Some newer residential construction may also be found along the Woodward corridor, the far west, and northeast. Some of the oldest extant neighborhoods include West Canfield and Brush Park, which have both seen multimillion-dollar restorations and construction of new homes and condominiums. The city has one of United States' largest surviving collections of late 19th- and early 20th-century buildings. Architecturally significant churches and cathedrals in the city include St. Joseph's, Old St. Mary's, the Sweetest Heart of Mary, and the Cathedral of the Most Blessed Sacrament. The city has substantial activity in urban design, historic preservation, and architecture. A number of downtown redevelopment projects—of which Campus Martius Park is one of the most notable—have revitalized parts of the city. Grand Circus Park stands near the city's theater district, Ford Field, home of the Detroit Lions, and Comerica Park, home of the Detroit Tigers. Other projects include the demolition of the Ford Auditorium off of Jefferson Street. The Detroit International Riverfront includes a partially completed three-and-one-half mile riverfront promenade with a combination of parks, residential buildings, and commercial areas. It extends from Hart Plaza to the MacArthur Bridge accessing Belle Isle Park (the largest island park in a U.S. city). The riverfront includes Tri-Centennial State Park and Harbor, Michigan's first urban state park. The second phase is a extension from Hart Plaza to the Ambassador Bridge for a total of of parkway from bridge to bridge. Civic planners envision the pedestrian parks will stimulate residential redevelopment of riverfront properties condemned under eminent domain. Other major parks include River Rouge (in the southwest side), the largest park in Detroit; Palmer (north of Highland Park) and Chene Park (on the east river downtown). Detroit has a variety of neighborhood types. The revitalized Downtown, Midtown, and New Center areas feature many historic buildings and are high density, while further out, particularly in the northeast and on the fringes, high vacancy levels are problematic, for which a number of solutions have been proposed. In 2007, Downtown Detroit was recognized as the best city neighborhood in which to retire among the United States' largest metro areas by CNN Money Magazine editors. Lafayette Park is a revitalized neighborhood on the city's east side, part of the Ludwig Mies van der Rohe residential district. The development was originally called the Gratiot Park. Planned by Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig Hilberseimer and Alfred Caldwell it includes a landscaped, park with no through traffic, in which these and other low-rise apartment buildings are situated. Immigrants have contributed to the city's neighborhood revitalization, especially in southwest Detroit. Southwest Detroit has experienced a thriving economy in recent years, as evidenced by new housing, increased business openings and the recently opened Mexicantown International Welcome Center. The city has numerous neighborhoods consisting of vacant properties resulting in low inhabited density in those areas, stretching city services and infrastructure. These neighborhoods are concentrated in the northeast and on the city's fringes. A 2009 parcel survey found about a quarter of residential lots in the city to be undeveloped or vacant, and about 10% of the city's housing to be unoccupied. The survey also reported that most (86%) of the city's homes are in good condition with a minority (9%) in fair condition needing only minor repairs. To deal with vacancy issues, the city has begun demolishing the derelict houses, razing 3,000 of the total 10,000 in 2010, but the resulting low density creates a strain on the city's infrastructure. To remedy this, a number of solutions have been proposed including resident relocation from more sparsely populated neighborhoods and converting unused space to urban agricultural use, including Hantz Woodlands, though the city expects to be in the planning stages for up to another two years. Public funding and private investment have also been made with promises to rehabilitate neighborhoods. In April 2008, the city announced a $300-million stimulus plan to create jobs and revitalize neighborhoods, financed by city bonds and paid for by earmarking about 15% of the wagering tax. The city's working plans for neighborhood revitalizations include 7-Mile/Livernois, Brightmoor, East English Village, Grand River/Greenfield, North End, and Osborn. Private organizations have pledged substantial funding to the efforts. Additionally, the city has cleared a section of land for large-scale neighborhood construction, which the city is calling the Far Eastside Plan. In 2011, Mayor Dave Bing announced a plan to categorize neighborhoods by their needs and prioritize the most needed services for those neighborhoods. In the 2010 United States Census, the city had 713,777 residents, ranking it the 18th most populous city in the United States. Of the large shrinking cities in the United States, Detroit has had the most dramatic decline in population of the past 60 years (down 1,135,791) and the second largest percentage decline (down 61.4%). While the drop in Detroit's population has been ongoing since 1950, the most dramatic period was the significant 25% decline between the 2000 and 2010 Census. The population collapse has resulted in large numbers of abandoned homes and commercial buildings, and areas of the city hit hard by urban decay. Detroit's 713,777 residents represent 269,445 households, and 162,924 families residing in the city. The population density was 5,144.3 people per square mile (1,895/km²). There were 349,170 housing units at an average density of 2,516.5 units per square mile (971.6/km²). Housing density has declined. The city has demolished thousands of Detroit's abandoned houses, planting some areas and in others allowing the growth of urban prairie. Of the 269,445 households, 34.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 21.5% were married couples living together, 31.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 39.5% were non-families, 34.0% were made up of individuals, and 3.9% had someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. Average household size was 2.59, and average family size was 3.36. There is a wide distribution of age in the city, with 31.1% under the age of 18, 9.7% from 18 to 24, 29.5% from 25 to 44, 19.3% from 45 to 64, and 10.4% 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 89.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.5 males. According to a 2014 study, 67% of the population of the city identified themselves as Christians, with 49% professing attendance at Protestant churches, and 16% professing Roman Catholic beliefs, while 24% claim no religious affiliation. Other religions collectively make up about 8% of the population. The loss of industrial and working-class jobs in the city has resulted in high rates of poverty and associated problems. From 2000 to 2009, the city's estimated median household income fell from $29,526 to $26,098. the mean income of Detroit is below the overall U.S. average by several thousand dollars. Of every three Detroit residents, one lives in poverty. Luke Bergmann, author of Getting Ghost: Two Young Lives and the Struggle for the Soul of an American City, said in 2010, "Detroit is now one of the poorest big cities in the country." In the 2010 American Community Survey, median household income in the city was $25,787, and the median income for a family was $31,011. The per capita income for the city was $14,118. 32.3% of families had income at or below the federally defined poverty level. Out of the total population, 53.6% of those under the age of 18 and 19.8% of those 65 and older had income at or below the federally defined poverty line. Oakland County in Metro Detroit, once rated amongst the wealthiest US counties per household, is no longer shown in the top 25 listing of Forbes magazine. But internal county statistical methods—based on measuring per capita income for counties with more than one million residents—show Oakland is still within the top 12, slipping from the 4th-most affluent such county in the U.S. in 2004 to 11th- most affluent in 2009. Detroit dominates Wayne County, which has an average household income of about $38,000, compared to Oakland County's $62,000. Much of Detroit's history is racially-charged and rooted in the effects of structural and individualized racism. Beginning with the rise of the automobile industry, the city's population increased more than sixfold during the first half of the 20th century as an influx of European, Middle Eastern (Lebanese, Assyrian/Chaldean), and Southern migrants brought their families to the city. With this economic boom following World War I, the African American population grew from a mere 6,000 in 1910 to more than 120,000 by 1930. This influx of thousands of African Americans in the 20th century became known as the Great Migration. Many of the original white families in Detroit saw this increase in diversity as a threat to their way of life and made it their mission to isolate black people from their neighborhoods, workplaces, and public institutions. Perhaps one of the most overt examples of neighborhood discrimination occurred in 1925 when African American physician, Ossian Sweet found his home surrounded by an angry mob of his hostile white neighbors violently protesting his new move into a traditionally white neighborhood. Sweet and ten of his family members and friends were put on trial for murder as one of the mob members throwing rocks at the newly purchased house was shot and killed by someone firing out of a second floor window. Many middle-class families experienced the same kind of hostility as they sought the security of homeownership and the potential for upward mobility. Detroit has a relatively large Mexican-American population. In the early 20th century, thousands of Mexicans came to Detroit to work in agricultural, automotive, and steel jobs. During the Mexican Repatriation of the 1930s many Mexicans in Detroit were willingly repatriated or forced to repatriate. By the 1940s much of the Mexican community began to settle what is now Mexicantown. After World War II, many people from Appalachia also settled in Detroit. Appalachians formed communities and their children acquired southern accents. Many Lithuanians also settled in Detroit during the World War II era, especially on the city's Southwest side in the West Vernor area, where the renovated Lithuanian Hall reopened in 2006. By 1940, 80% of Detroit deeds contained restrictive covenants prohibiting African Americans from buying houses they could afford. These discriminatory tactics were successful as a majority of black people in Detroit resorted to living in all black neighborhoods such as Black Bottom and Paradise Valley. At this time, white people still made up about 90.4% of the city's population. From the 1940s to the 1970s a second wave of black people moved to Detroit in search of employment and with the desire to escape the Jim Crow laws enforcing segregation in the south. However, they soon found themselves once again excluded from many opportunities in Detroit—through violence and policy perpetuating economic discrimination (e.g., redlining). White residents attacked black homes: breaking windows, starting fires, and detonating bombs. An especially grueling result of this increasing competition between black and white people was the Riot of 1943 that had violent ramifications. This era of intolerance made it almost impossible for African Americans to be successful without access to proper housing or the economic stability to maintain their homes and the conditions of many neighborhoods began to decline. In 1948, the landmark Supreme Court case of Shelley v Kraemer outlawed restrictive covenants and while racism in housing did not disappear, it allowed affluent black families to begin moving to traditionally white neighborhoods. Proving their persistent prejudice and unwillingness to integrate, many white families with the financial ability moved to the suburbs of Detroit taking their jobs and tax dollars with them. By 1950, much of the city's white population had moved to the suburbs as macrostructural processes such as "white flight" and "suburbanization" led to a complete population shift. The Detroit Rebellion of 1967 is considered to be one of the greatest racial turning points in the history of the city. The ramifications the uprising were widespread as there were many allegations of white police brutality towards African Americans and over $36 million of insured property was lost. Discrimination and deindustrialization in tandem with racial tensions that had been intensifying in the previous years boiled over and led to an event considered to be the most damaging in Detroit's history. The population of Latinos significantly increased in the 1990s due to immigration from Jalisco. By 2010 Detroit had 48,679 Hispanics, including 36,452 Mexicans: a 70% increase from 1990. While African Americans previously comprised only 13% of Michigan's population, by 2010 they made up nearly 82% of Detroit's population. The next largest population groups were white people, at 10%, and Hispanics, at 6%. In 2001,103,000 Jews, or about 1.9% of the population, were living in the Detroit area, in both Detroit and Ann Arbor. According to the 2010 Census, segregation in Detroit has decreased in absolute and relative terms and in the first decade of the 21st century, about two-thirds of the total black population in the metropolitan area resided within the city limits of Detroit. The number of integrated neighborhoods increased from 100 in 2000 to 204 in 2010. Detroit also moved down the ranking from number one most segregated city to number four. A 2011 op-ed in The New York Times attributed the decreased segregation rating to the overall exodus from the city, cautioning that these areas may soon become more segregated. This pattern already happened in the 1970s, when apparent integration was actually a precursor to white flight and resegregation. Over a 60-year period, white flight occurred in the city. According to an estimate of the Michigan Metropolitan Information Center, from 2008 to 2009 the percentage of non- Hispanic White residents increased from 8.4% to 13.3%. As the city has become more gentrified, some empty nesters and many young white people have moved into the city, increasing housing values and once again forcing African Americans to move. Gentrification in Detroit has become a rather controversial issues as reinvestment will hopefully lead to economic growth and an increase in population; however, it does infiltrate the original culture of the city and has already forced many black families to relocate to the suburbs. Despite revitalization efforts, Detroit remains one of the most racially segregated cities in the United States. One of the implications of racial segregation, which correlates with class segregation, may correlate to overall worse health for some populations. As of 2002, of all of the municipalities in the Wayne County-Oakland County- Macomb County area, Detroit had the second largest Asian population. As of that year Detroit's percentage of Asians was 1%, far lower than the 13.3% of Troy. By 2000 Troy had the largest Asian American population in the tricounty area, surpassing Detroit. There are four areas in Detroit with significant Asian and Asian American populations. Northeast Detroit has population of Hmong with a smaller group of Lao people. A portion of Detroit next to eastern Hamtramck includes Bangladeshi Americans, Indian Americans, and Pakistani Americans; nearly all of the Bangladeshi population in Detroit lives in that area. Many of those residents own small businesses or work in blue collar jobs, and the population is mostly Muslim. The area north of Downtown Detroit; including the region around the Henry Ford Hospital, the Detroit Medical Center, and Wayne State University; has transient Asian national origin residents who are university students or hospital workers. Few of them have permanent residency after schooling ends. They are mostly Chinese and Indian but the population also includes Filipinos, Koreans, and Pakistanis. In Southwest Detroit and western Detroit there are smaller, scattered Asian communities including an area in the westside adjacent to Dearborn and Redford Township that has a mostly Indian Asian population, and a community of Vietnamese and Laotians in Southwest Detroit. Several major corporations are based in the city, including three Fortune 500 companies. The most heavily represented sectors are manufacturing (particularly automotive), finance, technology, and health care. The most significant companies based in Detroit include General Motors, Quicken Loans, Ally Financial, Compuware, Shinola, American Axle, Little Caesars, DTE Energy, Lowe Campbell Ewald, Blue Cross Blue Shield of Michigan, and Rossetti Architects. About 80,500 people work in downtown Detroit, comprising one-fifth of the city's employment base. Aside from the numerous Detroit-based companies listed above, downtown contains large offices for Comerica, Chrysler, Fifth Third Bank, HP Enterprise, Deloitte, PricewaterhouseCoopers, KPMG, and Ernst & Young. Ford Motor Company is in the adjacent city of Dearborn. Thousands more employees work in Midtown, north of the central business district. Midtown's anchors are the city's largest single employer Detroit Medical Center, Wayne State University, and the Henry Ford Health System in New Center. Midtown is also home to watchmaker Shinola and an array of small and startup companies. New Center bases TechTown, a research and business incubator hub that is part of the WSU system. Like downtown and Corktown, Midtown also has a fast-growing retailing and restaurant scene. A number of the city's downtown employers are relatively new, as there has been a marked trend of companies moving from satellite suburbs around Metropolitan Detroit into the downtown core. Compuware completed its world headquarters in downtown in 2003. OnStar, Blue Cross Blue Shield, and HP Enterprise Services are at the Renaissance Center. PricewaterhouseCoopers Plaza offices are adjacent to Ford Field, and Ernst & Young completed its office building at One Kennedy Square in 2006. Perhaps most prominently, in 2010, Quicken Loans, one of the largest mortgage lenders, relocated its world headquarters and 4,000 employees to downtown Detroit, consolidating its suburban offices. In July 2012, the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office opened its Elijah J. McCoy Satellite Office in the Rivertown/Warehouse District as its first location outside Washington, D.C.'s metropolitan area. In April 2014, the United States Department of Labor reported the city's unemployment rate at 14.5%. The city of Detroit and other private-public partnerships have attempted to catalyze the region's growth by facilitating the building and historical rehabilitation of residential high- rises in the downtown, creating a zone that offers many business tax incentives, creating recreational spaces such as the Detroit RiverWalk, Campus Martius Park, Dequindre Cut Greenway, and Green Alleys in Midtown. The city itself has cleared sections of land while retaining a number of historically significant vacant buildings in order to spur redevelopment; even though it has struggled with finances, the city issued bonds in 2008 to provide funding for ongoing work to demolish blighted properties. Two years earlier, downtown reported $1.3 billion in restorations and new developments which increased the number of construction jobs in the city. In the decade prior to 2006, downtown gained more than $15 billion in new investment from private and public sectors. Despite the city's recent financial issues, many developers remain unfazed by Detroit's problems. Midtown is one of the most successful areas within Detroit to have a residential occupancy rate of 96%. Numerous developments have been recently completed or are in various stages of construction. These include the $82 million reconstruction of downtown's David Whitney Building (now an Aloft Hotel and luxury residences), the Woodward Garden Block Development in Midtown, the residential conversion of the David Broderick Tower in downtown, the rehabilitation of the Book Cadillac Hotel (now a Westin and luxury condos) and Fort Shelby Hotel (now Doubletree) also in downtown, and various smaller projects. Downtown's population of young professionals is growing and retail is expanding. A study in 2007 found out that Downtown's new residents are predominantly young professionals (57% are ages 25 to 34, 45% have bachelor's degrees, and 34% have a master's or professional degree), a trend which has hastened over the last decade. John Varvatos is set to open a downtown store in 2015, and Restoration Hardware is rumored to be opening a store nearby. On July 25, 2013, Meijer, a midwestern retail chain, opened its first supercenter store in Detroit,; this was a $20 million, 190,000-square-foot store in the northern portion of the city and it also is the centerpiece of a new $72 million shopping center named Gateway Marketplace. On June 11, 2015, Meijer opened its second supercenter store in the city. On May 21, 2014, JPMorgan Chase announced it was injecting $100 million over five years into Detroit's economy, providing development funding for a variety of projects that would increase employment. It is the largest commitment made to any one city by the nation's biggest bank. Of the $100 million, $50 million will go toward development projects, $25 million will go toward city blight removal, $12.5 million will go for job training, $7 million will go for small businesses in the city, and $5.5 million will go toward the M-1 light rail project (Qline). On May 19, 2015, JPMorgan Chase announced it has invested $32 million for two redevelopment projects in the city's Capitol Park district, the Capitol Park Lofts (the former Capitol Park Building) and the Detroit Savings Bank building at 1212 Griswold. Those investments are separate from Chase's five-year, $100-million commitment. On May 10, 2017, J.P. Morgan Chase & Co. announced a $50 million increase in the $100 million investment the firm committed to economic development and neighborhood stabilization in Detroit by 2019. Half of the $150 million will be grants and the other half is going to toward a variety of loan funds for small business growth, mixed-use real estate development and residential housing projects. In the central portions of Detroit, the population of young professionals, artists, and other transplants is growing and retail is expanding. This dynamic is luring additional new residents, and former residents returning from other cities, to the city's Downtown along with the revitalized Midtown and New Center areas. A desire to be closer to the urban scene has also attracted some young professionals to reside in inner ring suburbs such as Ferndale and Royal Oak, Michigan. Detroit's proximity to Windsor, Ontario, provides for views and nightlife, along with Ontario's minimum drinking age of 19. A 2011 study by Walk Score recognized Detroit for its above average walkability among large U.S. cities. About two-thirds of suburban residents occasionally dine and attend cultural events or take in professional games in the city of Detroit. Known as the world's automotive center, "Detroit" is a metonym for that industry. Detroit's auto industry, some of which was converted to wartime defense production, was an important element of the American "Arsenal of Democracy" supporting the Allied powers during World War II. It is an important source of popular music legacies celebrated by the city's two familiar nicknames, the Motor City and Motown. Other nicknames arose in the 20th century, including City of Champions, beginning in the 1930s for its successes in individual and team sport; The D; Hockeytown (a trademark owned by the city's NHL club, the Red Wings); Rock City (after the Kiss song "Detroit Rock City"); and The 313 (its telephone area code). Live music has been a prominent feature of Detroit's nightlife since the late 1940s, bringing the city recognition under the nickname 'Motown'. The metropolitan area has many nationally prominent live music venues. Concerts hosted by Live Nation perform throughout the Detroit area. Large concerts are held at DTE Energy Music Theatre and The Palace of Auburn Hills. The city's theatre venue circuit is the United States' second largest and hosts Broadway performances. The city of Detroit has a rich musical heritage and has contributed to a number of different genres over the decades leading into the new millennium. Important music events in the city include: the Detroit International Jazz Festival, the Detroit Electronic Music Festival, the Motor City Music Conference (MC2), the Urban Organic Music Conference, the Concert of Colors, and the hip-hop Summer Jamz festival. In the 1940s, Detroit blues artist John Lee Hooker became a long-term resident in the city's southwest Delray neighborhood. Hooker, among other important blues musicians migrated from his home in Mississippi bringing the Delta blues to northern cities like Detroit. Hooker recorded for Fortune Records, the biggest pre-Motown blues/soul label. During the 1950s, the city became a center for jazz, with stars performing in the Black Bottom neighborhood. Prominent emerging Jazz musicians of the 1960s included: trumpet player Donald Byrd who attended Cass Tech and performed with Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers early in his career and Saxophonist Pepper Adams who enjoyed a solo career and accompanied Byrd on several albums. The Graystone International Jazz Museum documents jazz in Detroit. Other, prominent Motor City R&B; stars in the 1950s and early 1960s was Nolan Strong, Andre Williams and Nathaniel Mayer – who all scored local and national hits on the Fortune Records label. According to Smokey Robinson, Strong was a primary influence on his voice as a teenager. The Fortune label, a family-operated label on Third Avenue in Detroit, was owned by the husband and wife team of Jack Brown and Devora Brown. Fortune, which also released country, gospel and rockabilly LPs and 45s, laid the groundwork for Motown, which became Detroit's most legendary record label. Berry Gordy, Jr. founded Motown Records which rose to prominence during the 1960s and early 1970s with acts such as Stevie Wonder, The Temptations, The Four Tops, Smokey Robinson & The Miracles, Diana Ross & The Supremes, the Jackson 5, Martha and the Vandellas, The Spinners, Gladys Knight & the Pips, The Marvelettes, The Elgins, The Monitors, The Velvelettes and Marvin Gaye. Artists were backed by in-house vocalists The Andantes and The Funk Brothers, the Motown house band that was featured in Paul Justman's 2002 documentary film Standing in the Shadows of Motown, based on Allan Slutsky's book of the same name. The Motown Sound played an important role in the crossover appeal with popular music, since it was the first African American owned record label to primarily feature African-American artists. Gordy moved Motown to Los Angeles in 1972 to pursue film production, but the company has since returned to Detroit. Aretha Franklin, another Detroit R&B; star, carried the Motown Sound; however, she did not record with Berry's Motown Label. Local artists and bands rose to prominence in the 1960s and 70s including: the MC5, The Stooges, Bob Seger, Amboy Dukes featuring Ted Nugent, Mitch Ryder and The Detroit Wheels, Rare Earth, Alice Cooper, and Suzi Quatro. The group Kiss emphasized the city's connection with rock in the song Detroit Rock City and the movie produced in 1999. In the 1980s, Detroit was an important center of the hardcore punk rock underground with many nationally known bands coming out of the city and its suburbs, such as The Necros, The Meatmen, and Negative Approach. In the 1990s and the new millennium, the city has produced a number of influential hip hop artists, including Eminem, the hip-hop artist with the highest cumulative sales, hip-hop producer J Dilla, rapper and producer Esham and hip hop duo Insane Clown Posse. The city is also home to rappers Big Sean and Danny Brown. The band Sponge toured and produced music, with artists such as Kid Rock and Uncle Kracker. The city also has an active garage rock genre that has generated national attention with acts such as: The White Stripes, The Von Bondies, The Detroit Cobras, The Dirtbombs, Electric Six, and The Hard Lessons. Detroit is cited as the birthplace of techno music in the early 1980s. The city also lends its name to an early and pioneering genre of electronic dance music, "Detroit techno". Featuring science fiction imagery and robotic themes, its futuristic style was greatly influenced by the geography of Detroit's urban decline and its industrial past. Prominent Detroit techno artists include Juan Atkins, Derrick May, Kevin Saunderson, and Jeff Mills. The Detroit Electronic Music Festival, now known as "Movement", occurs annually in late May on Memorial Day Weekend, and takes place in Hart Plaza. In the early years (2000–2002), this was a landmark event, boasting over a million estimated attendees annually, coming from all over the world to celebrate Techno music in the city of its birth. Major theaters in Detroit include the Fox Theatre (5,174 seats), Music Hall (1,770 seats), the Gem Theatre (451 seats), Masonic Temple Theatre (4,404 seats), the Detroit Opera House (2,765 seats), the Fisher Theatre (2,089 seats), The Fillmore Detroit (2,200 seats), Saint Andrew's Hall, the Majestic Theater, and Orchestra Hall (2,286 seats) which hosts the renowned Detroit Symphony Orchestra. The Nederlander Organization, the largest controller of Broadway productions in New York City, originated with the purchase of the Detroit Opera House in 1922 by the Nederlander family. Motown Motion Picture Studios with produces movies in Detroit and the surrounding area based at the Pontiac Centerpoint Business Campus for a film industry expected to employ over 4,000 people in the metro area. Because of its unique culture, distinctive architecture, and revitalization and urban renewal efforts in the 21st century, Detroit has enjoyed increased prominence as a tourist destination in recent years. The New York Times listed Detroit as the 9th-best destination in its list of 52 Places to Go in 2017, while travel guide publisher Lonely Planet named Detroit the second-best city in the world to visit in 2018. Many of the area's prominent museums are in the historic cultural center neighborhood around Wayne State University and the College for Creative Studies. These museums include the Detroit Institute of Arts, the Detroit Historical Museum, Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History, the Detroit Science Center, as well as the main branch of the Detroit Public Library. Other cultural highlights include Motown Historical Museum, the Ford Piquette Avenue Plant museum (birthplace of the Ford Model T and the world's oldest car factory building open to the public), the Pewabic Pottery studio and school, the Tuskegee Airmen Museum, Fort Wayne, the Dossin Great Lakes Museum, the Museum of Contemporary Art Detroit (MOCAD), the Contemporary Art Institute of Detroit (CAID), and the Belle Isle Conservatory. In 2010, the G.R. N'Namdi Gallery opened in a complex in Midtown. Important history of America and the Detroit area are exhibited at The Henry Ford in Dearborn, the United States' largest indoor-outdoor museum complex. The Detroit Historical Society provides information about tours of area churches, skyscrapers, and mansions. Inside Detroit, meanwhile, hosts tours, educational programming, and a downtown welcome center. Other sites of interest are the Detroit Zoo in Royal Oak, the Cranbrook Art Museum in Bloomfield Hills, the Anna Scripps Whitcomb Conservatory on Belle Isle, and Walter P. Chrysler Museum in Auburn Hills. The city's Greektown and three downtown casino resort hotels serve as part of an entertainment hub. The Eastern Market farmer's distribution center is the largest open-air flowerbed market in the United States and has more than 150 foods and specialty businesses. On Saturdays, about 45,000 people shop the city's historic Eastern Market. The Midtown and the New Center area are centered on Wayne State University and Henry Ford Hospital. Midtown has about 50,000 residents and attracts millions of visitors each year to its museums and cultural centers; for example, the Detroit Festival of the Arts in Midtown draws about 350,000 people. Annual summer events include the Electronic Music Festival, International Jazz Festival, the Woodward Dream Cruise, the African World Festival, the country music Hoedown, Noel Night, and Dally in the Alley. Within downtown, Campus Martius Park hosts large events, including the annual Motown Winter Blast. As the world's traditional automotive center, the city hosts the North American International Auto Show. Held since 1924, America's Thanksgiving Parade is one of the nation's largest. River Days, a five-day summer festival on the International Riverfront lead up to the Windsor–Detroit International Freedom Festival fireworks, which draw super sized-crowds ranging from hundreds of thousands to over three million people. An important civic sculpture in Detroit is The Spirit of Detroit by Marshall Fredericks at the Coleman Young Municipal Center. The image is often used as a symbol of Detroit and the statue itself is occasionally dressed in sports jerseys to celebrate when a Detroit team is doing well. A memorial to Joe Louis at the intersection of Jefferson and Woodward Avenues was dedicated on October 16, 1986. The sculpture, commissioned by Sports Illustrated and executed by Robert Graham, is a long arm with a fisted hand suspended by a pyramidal framework. Artist Tyree Guyton created the controversial street art exhibit known as the Heidelberg Project in 1986, using found objects including cars, clothing and shoes found in the neighborhood near and on Heidelberg Street on the near East Side of Detroit. Guyton continues to work with neighborhood residents and tourists in constantly evolving the neighborhood-wide art installation. Detroit is one of 13 U.S. metropolitan areas that are home to professional teams representing the four major sports in North America. Since 2017, all of these teams play in the city limits of Detroit itself, a distinction shared with only three other U.S. cities. Detroit is the only U.S. city to have its four major sports teams play within its downtown district. There are three active major sports venues in the city: Comerica Park (home of the Major League Baseball team Detroit Tigers), Ford Field (home of the NFL's Detroit Lions), and Little Caesars Arena (home of the NHL's Detroit Red Wings and the NBA's Detroit Pistons). A 1996 marketing campaign promoted the nickname "Hockeytown". The Detroit Tigers have won four World Series titles. The Detroit Red Wings have won 11 Stanley Cups (the most by an American NHL franchise). The Detroit Lions have won 4 NFL titles. The Detroit Pistons have won three NBA titles. With the Pistons' first of three NBA titles in 1989, the city of Detroit has won titles in all four of the major professional sports leagues. Two new downtown stadiums for the Detroit Tigers and Detroit Lions opened in 2000 and 2002, respectively, returning the Lions to the city proper. In college sports, Detroit's central location within the Mid-American Conference has made it a frequent site for the league's championship events. While the MAC Basketball Tournament moved permanently to Cleveland starting in 2000, the MAC Football Championship Game has been played at Ford Field in Detroit since 2004, and annually attracts 25,000 to 30,000 fans. The University of Detroit Mercy has a NCAA Division I program, and Wayne State University has both NCAA Division I and II programs. The NCAA football Quick Lane Bowl is held at Ford Field each December. The local soccer team is called the Detroit City Football Club and was founded in 2012. The team plays in the National Premier Soccer League, and its nickname is Le Rouge. The city hosted the 2005 MLB All-Star Game, 2006 Super Bowl XL, 2006 and 2012 World Series, WrestleMania 23 in 2007, and the NCAA Final Four in April 2009. The city hosted the Detroit Indy Grand Prix on Belle Isle Park from 1989 to 2001, 2007 to 2008, and 2012 and beyond. In 2007, open-wheel racing returned to Belle Isle with both Indy Racing League and American Le Mans Series Racing. In the years following the mid-1930s, Detroit was referred to as the "City of Champions" after the Tigers, Lions, and Red Wings captured the three major professional sports championships in existence at the time in a seven-month period of time (the Tigers won the World Series in October 1935; the Lions won the NFL championship in December 1935; the Red Wings won the Stanley Cup in April 1936). In 1932, Eddie "The Midnight Express" Tolan from Detroit won the 100- and 200-meter races and two gold medals at the 1932 Summer Olympics. Joe Louis won the heavyweight championship of the world in 1937. Detroit has made the most bids to host the Summer Olympics without ever being awarded the games: seven unsuccessful bids for the 1944, 1952, 1956, 1960, 1964, 1968 and 1972 games. The city is governed pursuant to the Home Rule Charter of the City of Detroit. The government of Detroit, Michigan is run by a mayor, the nine-member Detroit City Council, the eleven-member Board of Police Commissioners, and a clerk. All of these officers are elected on a nonpartisan ballot, with the exception of four of the police commissioners, who are appointer by the mayor. Detroit has a "strong mayoral" system, with the mayor approving departmental appointments. The council approves budgets, but the mayor is not obligated to adhere to any earmarking. The city clerk supervises elections and is formally charged with the maintenance of municipal records. City ordinances and substantially large contracts must be approved by the council. The Detroit City Code is the codification of Detroit's local ordinances. The city clerk supervises elections and is formally charged with the maintenance of municipal records. Municipal elections for mayor, city council and city clerk are held at four-year intervals, in the year after presidential elections. Following a November 2009 referendum, seven council members will be elected from districts beginning in 2013 while two will continue to be elected at-large. Detroit's courts are state-administered and elections are nonpartisan. The Probate Court for Wayne County is in the Coleman A. Young Municipal Center in downtown Detroit. The Circuit Court is across Gratiot Avenue in the Frank Murphy Hall of Justice, in downtown Detroit. The city is home to the Thirty-Sixth District Court, as well as the First District of the Michigan Court of Appeals and the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan. The city provides law enforcement through the Detroit Police Department and emergency services through the Detroit Fire Department. Detroit has struggled with high crime for decades. The number of homicides peaked in 1974 at 714 and again in 1991 with 615. The Murder rate for the city have gone up and down throughout the years averaging over 400 murders with a population of over 1,000,000 residents. The crime rate however has been above the nation average since the 1970s Crime has since decreased and, in 2014, the murder rate was 43.4 per 100,000, lower than in St. Louis. About half of all murders in Michigan in 2015 occurred in Detroit. Although the rate of violent crime dropped 11% in 2008, violent crime in Detroit has not declined as much as the national average from 2007 to 2011. The violent crime rate is one of the highest in the United States. Neighborhoodscout.com reported a crime rate of 62.18 per 1,000 residents for property crimes, and 16.73 per 1,000 for violent crimes (compared to national figures of 32 per 1,000 for property crimes and 5 per 1,000 for violent crime in 2008). Annual statistics released by the Detroit Police Department for 2016 indicate that while the city's overall crime rate declined that year, the murder rate rose from 2015. In 2016 there were 302 homicides in Detroit, a 2.37% increase in the number of murder victims from the preceding year. The city's downtown typically has lower crime than national and state averages. According to a 2007 analysis, Detroit officials note about 65 to 70 percent of homicides in the city were drug related, with the rate of unsolved murders roughly 70%. Areas of the city closer to the Detroit River are also patrolled by the United States Border Patrol. In 2012, crime in the city was among the reasons for more expensive car insurance. Beginning with its incorporation in 1802, Detroit has had a total of 74 mayors. Detroit's last mayor from the Republican Party was Louis Miriani, who served from 1957 to 1962. In 1973, the city elected its first black mayor, Coleman Young. Despite development efforts, his combative style during his five terms in office was not well received by many suburban residents. Mayor Dennis Archer, a former Michigan Supreme Court Justice, refocused the city's attention on redevelopment with a plan to permit three casinos downtown. By 2008, three major casino resort hotels established operations in the city. In 2000, the city requested an investigation by the United States Justice Department into the Detroit Police Department which was concluded in 2003 over allegations regarding its use of force and civil rights violations. The city proceeded with a major reorganization of the Detroit Police Department. Detroit is sometimes referred to as the sanctuary city because it has "anti- profiling ordinances that generally prohibit local police from asking about the immigration status of people who are not suspected of any crime." In March 2013, Governor Rick Snyder declared a financial emergency in the city, stating the city has a $327 million budget deficit and faces more than $14 billion in long-term debt. It has been making ends meet on a month-to- month basis with the help of bond money held in a state escrow account and has instituted mandatory unpaid days off for many city workers. Those troubles, along with underfunded city services, such as police and fire departments, and ineffective turnaround plans from Mayor Bing and the City Council led the state of Michigan to appoint an emergency manager for Detroit on March 14, 2013. On June 14, 2013 Detroit defaulted on $2.5 billion of debt by withholding $39.7 million in interest payments, while Emergency Manager Kevyn Orr met with bondholders and other creditors in an attempt to restructure the city's $18.5 billion debt and avoid bankruptcy. On July 18, 2013, the City of Detroit filed for Chapter 9 bankruptcy protection. It was declared bankrupt by U.S. judge Stephen Rhodes on December 3, with its $18.5 billion debt; he said in accepting the city's contention it is broke and negotiations with its thousands of creditors were infeasible. The city levies an income tax of 2.4 percent on residents and 1.2 percent on nonresidents. Detroit is home to several institutions of higher learning including Wayne State University, a national research university with medical and law schools in the Midtown area offering hundreds of academic degrees and programs. The University of Detroit Mercy, in Northwest Detroit in the University District, is a prominent Roman Catholic co-educational university affiliated with the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits) and the Sisters of Mercy. The University of Detroit Mercy offers more than a hundred academic degrees and programs of study including business, dentistry, law, engineering, architecture, nursing and allied health professions. The University of Detroit Mercy School of Law is Downtown across from the Renaissance Center. Sacred Heart Major Seminary, founded in 1919, is affiliated with Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum in Rome and offers pontifical degrees as well as civil undergraduate and graduate degrees. Sacred Heart Major Seminary offers a variety of academic programs for both clerical and lay students. Other institutions in the city include the College for Creative Studies, Marygrove College and Wayne County Community College. In June 2009, the Michigan State University College of Osteopathic Medicine which is based in East Lansing opened a satellite campus at the Detroit Medical Center. The University of Michigan was established in 1817 in Detroit and later moved to Ann Arbor in 1837. In 1959, University of Michigan–Dearborn was established in neighboring Dearborn. many K-12 students in Detroit frequently change schools, with some children having been enrolled in seven schools before finishing their K-12 careers. There is a concentration of senior high schools and charter schools in the Downtown Detroit area, which had wealthier residents and more gentrification relative to other parts of Detroit: Downtown, northwest Detroit, and northeast Detroit have 1,894, 3,742, and 6,018 students of high school age each, respectively, while they have 11, three, and two high schools each, respectively. With about 66,000 public school students (2011–12), the Detroit Public Schools (DPS) district is the largest school district in Michigan. Detroit has an additional 56,000 charter school students for a combined enrollment of about 122,000 students. there are about as many students in charter schools as there are in district schools. DPS continues to have the majority of the special education pupils. In addition, some Detroit students, as of 2016, attend public schools in other municipalities. In 1999, the Michigan Legislature removed the locally elected board of education amid allegations of mismanagement and replaced it with a reform board appointed by the mayor and governor. The elected board of education was re-established following a city referendum in 2005. The first election of the new 11-member board of education occurred on November 8, 2005. Due to growing Detroit charter schools enrollment as well as a continued exodus of population, the city planned to close many public schools. State officials report a 68% graduation rate for Detroit's public schools adjusted for those who change schools. Traditional public and charter school students in the city have performed poorly on standardized tests. Circa 2009 and 2011, while Detroit traditional public schools scored a record low on national tests, the publicly funded charter schools did even worse than the traditional public schools. there were 30,000 excess openings in Detroit traditional public and charter schools, bearing in mind the number of K-12-aged children in the city. In 2016, Kate Zernike of The New York Times stated school performance did not improve despite the proliferation of charters, describing the situation as "lots of choice, with no good choice." Detroit public schools students scored the lowest on tests of reading and writing of all major cities in the United States in 2015. Among eighth-graders, only 27% showed basic proficiency in math and 44% in reading. Nearly half of Detroit's adults are functionally illiterate. Detroit is served by various private schools, as well as parochial Roman Catholic schools operated by the Archdiocese of Detroit. there are four Catholic grade schools and three Catholic high schools in the City of Detroit, with all of them in the city's west side. The Archdiocese of Detroit lists a number of primary and secondary schools in the metro area as Catholic education has emigrated to the suburbs. Of the three Catholic high schools in the city, two are operated by the Society of Jesus and the third is co- sponsored by the Sisters, Servants of the Immaculate Heart of Mary and the Congregation of St. Basil. In the 1964–1965 school year there were about 110 Catholic grade schools in Detroit, Hamtramck, and Highland Park and 55 Catholic high schools in those three cities. The Catholic school population in Detroit has decreased due to the increase of charter schools, increasing tuition at Catholic schools, the small number of African-American Catholics, White Catholics moving to suburbs, and the decreased number of teaching nuns. The Detroit Free Press and The Detroit News are the major daily newspapers, both broadsheet publications published together under a joint operating agreement called the Detroit Newspaper Partnership. Media philanthropy includes the Detroit Free Press high school journalism program and the Old Newsboys' Goodfellow Fund of Detroit. In March 2009, the two newspapers reduced home delivery to three days a week, print reduced newsstand issues of the papers on non-delivery days and focus resources on Internet-based news delivery. The Metro Times, founded in 1980, is a weekly publication, covering news, arts & entertainment. Also founded in 1935 and based in Detroit the Michigan Chronicle is one of the oldest and most respected African-American weekly newspapers in America. Covering politics, entertainment, sports and community events. The Detroit television market is the 11th largest in the United States; according to estimates that do not include audiences in large areas of Ontario, Canada (Windsor and its surrounding area on broadcast and cable TV, as well as several other cable markets in Ontario, such as the city of Ottawa) which receive and watch Detroit television stations. Detroit has the 11th largest radio market in the United States, though this ranking does not take into account Canadian audiences. Nearby Canadian stations such as Windsor's CKLW (whose jingles formerly proclaimed "CKLW-the Motor City") are popular in Detroit. Hardcore Pawn, a U.S. documentary reality television series produced for truTV, features the day-to-day operations of American Jewelry and Loan, a family-owned pawn shop on Greenfield Road. Within the city of Detroit, there are over a dozen major hospitals which include the Detroit Medical Center (DMC), Henry Ford Health System, St. John Health System, and the John D. Dingell VA Medical Center. The DMC, a regional Level I trauma center, consists of Detroit Receiving Hospital and University Health Center, Children's Hospital of Michigan, Harper University Hospital, Hutzel Women's Hospital, Kresge Eye Institute, Rehabilitation Institute of Michigan, Sinai-Grace Hospital, and the Karmanos Cancer Institute. The DMC has more than 2,000 licensed beds and 3,000 affiliated physicians. It is the largest private employer in the City of Detroit. The center is staffed by physicians from the Wayne State University School of Medicine, the largest single-campus medical school in the United States, and the United States' fourth largest medical school overall. Detroit Medical Center formally became a part of Vanguard Health Systems on December 30, 2010, as a for profit corporation. Vanguard has agreed to invest nearly $1.5 B in the Detroit Medical Center complex which will include $417 M to retire debts, at least $350 M in capital expenditures and an additional $500 M for new capital investment. Vanguard has agreed to assume all debts and pension obligations. The metro area has many other hospitals including William Beaumont Hospital, St. Joseph's, and University of Michigan Medical Center. In 2011, Detroit Medical Center and Henry Ford Health System substantially increased investments in medical research facilities and hospitals in the city's Midtown and New Center. In 2012, two major construction projects were begun in New Center, the Henry Ford Health System started the first phase of a $500 million, 300-acre revitalization project, with the construction of a new $30 million, 275,000-square-foot, Medical Distribution Center for Cardinal Health, Inc. and Wayne State University started construction on a new $93 million, 207,000-square-foot, Integrative Biosciences Center (IBio). As many as 500 researchers, and staff will work out of the IBio Center. With its proximity to Canada and its facilities, ports, major highways, rail connections and international airports, Detroit is an important transportation hub. The city has three international border crossings, the Ambassador Bridge, Detroit–Windsor Tunnel and Michigan Central Railway Tunnel, linking Detroit to Windsor, Ontario. The Ambassador Bridge is the single busiest border crossing in North America, carrying 27% of the total trade between the U.S. and Canada. On February 18, 2015, Canadian Transport Minister Lisa Raitt announced Canada has agreed to pay the entire cost to build a $250 million U.S. Customs plaza adjacent to the planned new Detroit–Windsor bridge, now the Gordie Howe International Bridge. Canada had already planned to pay for 95% of the bridge, which will cost $2.1 billion, and is expected to open in 2022 or 2023. "This allows Canada and Michigan to move the project forward immediately to its next steps which include further design work and property acquisition on the U.S. side of the border," Raitt said in a statement issued after she spoke in the House of Commons. Mass transit in the region is provided by bus services. The Detroit Department of Transportation (DDOT) provides service within city limits up to the outer edges of the city. From there, the Suburban Mobility Authority for Regional Transportation (SMART) provides service to the suburbs and the city regionally with local routes and SMART's FAST service. FAST is a new service provided by SMART which offers limited stops along major corridors throughout the Detroit metropolitan area connecting the suburbs to downtown. The new high-frequency service travels along three of Detroit's busiest corridors, Gratiot, Woodward, and Michigan, and only stops at designated FAST stops. Cross border service between the downtown areas of Windsor and Detroit is provided by Transit Windsor via the Tunnel Bus. An elevated rail system known as the People Mover, completed in 1987, provides daily service around a loop downtown. The QLINE serves as a link between the Detroit People Mover and Detroit Amtrak station via Woodward Avenue. The SEMCOG Commuter Rail line will extend from Detroit's New Center, connecting to Ann Arbor via Dearborn, Wayne, and Ypsilanti when it is opened. The Regional Transit Authority (RTA) was established by an act of the Michigan legislature in December 2012 to oversee and coordinate all existing regional mass transit operations, and to develop new transit services in the region. The RTA's first project was the introduction of RelfeX, a limited-stop, cross-county bus service connecting downtown and midtown Detroit with Oakland county via Woodward avenue. Amtrak provides service to Detroit, operating its Wolverine service between Chicago and Pontiac. The Amtrak station is in New Center north of downtown. The J. W. Westcott II, which delivers mail to lake freighters on the Detroit River, is a floating post office. The city of Detroit has a higher than average percentage of households without a car. In 2016, 24.7 percent of Detroit households lacked a car, much higher than the national average of 8.7. Detroit averaged 1.15 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8. Freight railroad operations in the city of Detroit are provided by Canadian National Railway, Canadian Pacific Railway, Conrail Shared Assets, CSX Transportation and Norfolk Southern Railway, each of which have local yards within the city. Detroit is also served by the Delray Connecting Railroad and Detroit Connecting Railroad shortlines. Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport (DTW), the principal airport serving Detroit, is in nearby Romulus. DTW is a primary hub for Delta Air Lines (following its acquisition of Northwest Airlines), and a secondary hub for Spirit Airlines. The airport is connected to Downtown Detroit by the Suburban Mobility Authority for Regional Transportation (SMART) FAST Michigan route. Coleman A. Young International Airport (DET), previously called Detroit City Airport, is on Detroit's northeast side; the airport now maintains only charter service and general aviation. Willow Run Airport, in far-western Wayne County near Ypsilanti, is a general aviation and cargo airport. Metro Detroit has an extensive toll-free network of freeways administered by the Michigan Department of Transportation. Four major Interstate Highways surround the city. Detroit is connected via Interstate 75 (I-75) and I-96 to Kings Highway 401 and to major Southern Ontario cities such as London, Ontario and the Greater Toronto Area. I-75 (Chrysler and Fisher freeways) is the region's main north–south route, serving Flint, Pontiac, Troy, and Detroit, before continuing south (as the Detroit–Toledo and Seaway Freeways) to serve many of the communities along the shore of Lake Erie. I-94 (Edsel Ford Freeway) runs east–west through Detroit and serves Ann Arbor to the west (where it continues to Chicago) and Port Huron to the northeast. The stretch of the I-94 freeway from Ypsilanti to Detroit was one of America's earlier limited-access highways. Henry Ford built it to link the factories at Willow Run and Dearborn during World War II. A portion was known as the Willow Run Expressway. The I-96 freeway runs northwest–southeast through Livingston, Oakland and Wayne counties and (as the Jeffries Freeway through Wayne County) has its eastern terminus in downtown Detroit. I-275 runs north–south from I-75 in the south to the junction of I-96 and I-696 in the north, providing a bypass through the western suburbs of Detroit. I-375 is a short spur route in downtown Detroit, an extension of the Chrysler Freeway. I-696 (Reuther Freeway) runs east–west from the junction of I-96 and I-275, providing a route through the northern suburbs of Detroit. Taken together, I-275 and I-696 form a semicircle around Detroit. Michigan state highways designated with the letter M serve to connect major freeways. Detroit has a floating post office. In 1948, The J. W. Westcott II became a floating post office servicing the Port of Detroit. Its zip code is 48222. Originally established in 1874 as a maritime reporting agency to inform other vessels about port conditions, the J. W. Westcott II is still in operation today. Graz, Austria, Chongqing, China, Dubai, United Arab Emirates, Kitwe, Zambia, Minsk, Belarus, Bucharest, Romania, Nassau, Bahamas, Toyota, Aichi Prefecture, Japan, Turin, Piedmont, Italy Decline of Detroit, History of Detroit Barrow, Heather B. Henry Ford's Plan for the American Suburb: Dearborn and Detroit. DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 2015., Bates, Beth Tompkins. The Making of Black Detroit in the Age of Henry Ford. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2012., Farmer, Silas. (1884) (July 1969) The history of Detroit and Michigan, or, The metropolis illustrated: a chronological cyclopaedia of the past and present: including a full record of territorial days in Michigan, and the annuals of Wayne County, in various formats at Open Library., Galster, George. (2012). Driving Detroit: The Quest for Respect in the Motor City University of Pennsylvania Press, Philp, Drew (2017). A $500 house in Detroit: rebuilding an abandoned home and an American city. Scribner., Powell, L. P (1901). "Detroit, the Queen City," Historic Towns of the Western States (New York). Official website, Detroit Metro Convention & Visitors Bureau, Detroit Regional Chamber Detroit Entertainment District, Detroit Historical Museums & Society, Detroit Riverfront Conservancy, Experience Detroit, Labor, Urban Affairs and Detroit History archival collections at the Walter P. Reuther Library, Virtual Motor City Collection at Wayne State University Library, contains over 30,000 images of Detroit from 1890 to 1980, In Energized Detroit, Savoring an Architectural Legacy — New York Times, March 26, 2018 Jacksonville is the most populous city in Florida and the largest city by area in the contiguous United States. It is the seat of Duval County, with which the city government consolidated in 1968. Consolidation gave Jacksonville its great size and placed most of its metropolitan population within the city limits. As of 2018, Jacksonville's population was estimated to be 903,889. The Jacksonville metropolitan area has a population of 1,523,615 and is the fourth largest metropolitan area in Florida. Jacksonville is centered on the banks of the St. Johns River in the First Coast region of northeast Florida, about south of the Georgia state line and north of Miami. The Jacksonville Beaches communities are along the adjacent Atlantic coast. The area was originally inhabited by the Timucua people, and in 1564 was the site of the French colony of Fort Caroline, one of the earliest European settlements in what is now the continental United States. Under British rule, a settlement grew at the narrow point in the river where cattle crossed, known as Wacca Pilatka to the Seminole and the Cow Ford to the British. A platted town was established there in 1822, a year after the United States gained Florida from Spain; it was named after Andrew Jackson, the first military governor of the Florida Territory and seventh President of the United States. Harbor improvements since the late 19th century have made Jacksonville a major military and civilian deep-water port. Its riverine location facilitates Naval Station Mayport, Naval Air Station Jacksonville, the U.S. Marine Corps Blount Island Command, and the Port of Jacksonville, Florida's third largest seaport. Jacksonville's military bases and the nearby Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay form the third largest military presence in the United States. Significant factors in the local economy include services such as banking, insurance, healthcare and logistics. As with much of Florida, tourism is important to the Jacksonville area, particularly tourism related to golf. People from Jacksonville may be called "Jacksonvillians" or "Jaxsons" (also spelled "Jaxons"). The area of the modern city of Jacksonville has been inhabited for thousands of years. On Black Hammock Island in the national Timucuan Ecological and Historic Preserve, a University of North Florida team discovered some of the oldest remnants of pottery in the United States, dating to 2500 BC. In the 16th century, the beginning of the historical era, the region was inhabited by the Mocama, a coastal subgroup of the Timucua people. At the time of contact with Europeans, all Mocama villages in present-day Jacksonville were part of the powerful chiefdom known as the Saturiwa, centered around the mouth of the St. Johns River. One early French map shows a village called Ossachite at the site of what is now downtown Jacksonville; this may be the earliest recorded name for that area. In 1562 French Huguenot explorer Jean Ribault charted the St. Johns River, calling it the River of May because that was the month of his discovery. Ribault erected a stone column at his landing site near the river's mouth, claiming the newly discovered land for France. In 1564, René Goulaine de Laudonnière established the first European settlement on the St. Johns River, Fort Caroline, near the main village of the Saturiwa. Philip II of Spain ordered Pedro Menéndez de Avilés to protect the interests of Spain by attacking the French at Fort Caroline. On September 20, 1565, a Spanish force from the nearby Spanish settlement of St. Augustine attacked Fort Caroline, and killed nearly all the French soldiers defending it. The Spanish renamed the fort as San Mateo and, following the expulsion of the French, St. Augustine became the most important European settlement in Florida. The location of Fort Caroline is subject to debate, but a reconstruction of the fort was established in 1964 along the St. Johns River. Spain ceded Florida to the British in 1763 after its victory against the French in the Seven Years' War (known as the French and Indian War on the North American front). The British soon constructed the King's Road connecting St. Augustine to Georgia. The road crossed the St. Johns River at a narrow point, which the Seminole called Wacca Pilatka and the British called the Cow Ford; these names reflected the use of the ford for moving cattle across the river there. The British introduced the cultivation of sugar cane, indigo and fruits as commodity crops, in addition to exporting lumber. These crops were labor- intensive and the British imported more enslaved Africans to work the plantations that were developed. The planters in northeastern Florida began to prosper economically. After being defeated in the American Revolutionary War, Britain returned control of this territory to Spain in 1783. The settlement at the Cow Ford continued to grow. After Spain ceded the Florida Territory to the United States in 1821, American settlers on the north side of the Cow Ford decided to plan a town, laying out the streets and plats. They named the town Jacksonville, after President Andrew Jackson. Led by Isaiah D. Hart, residents wrote a charter for a town government, which was approved by the Florida Legislative Council on February 9, 1832. During the American Civil War, Jacksonville was a key supply point for hogs and cattle being shipped from Florida to feed the Confederate forces. The city was blockaded by Union forces, who gained control of nearby Fort Clinch. Though no battles were fought in Jacksonville proper, the city changed hands several times between Union and Confederate forces. In the Skirmish of the Brick Church in 1862, Confederates won their first victory in the state. However, Union forces captured a Confederate position at the Battle of St. Johns Bluff, and occupied Jacksonville in 1862. Slaves escaped to freedom in Union lines. In February 1864 Union forces left Jacksonville and confronted a Confederate Army at the Battle of Olustee, going down to defeat. Union forces retreated to Jacksonville and held the city for the remainder of the war. In March 1864 a Confederate cavalry confronted a Union expedition in the Battle of Cedar Creek. Warfare and the long occupation left the city disrupted after the war. During Reconstruction and the Gilded Age, Jacksonville and nearby St. Augustine became popular winter resorts for the rich and famous. Visitors arrived by steamboat and later by railroad. President Grover Cleveland attended the Sub-Tropical Exposition in the city on February 22, 1888, during his trip to Florida. This highlighted the visibility of the state as a worthy place for tourism. The city's tourism, however, was dealt major blows in the late 19th century by yellow fever outbreaks. Extending the Florida East Coast Railway further south drew visitors to other areas. From 1893 to 1938, Jacksonville was the site of the Florida Old Confederate Soldiers and Sailors Home; it operated a nearby cemetery. On May 3, 1901, downtown Jacksonville was ravaged by a fire that started as a kitchen fire. Spanish moss at a nearby mattress factory was quickly engulfed in flames and enabled the fire to spread rapidly. In merely eight hours, it swept through 146 city blocks, destroyed over 2,000 buildings, left about 10,000 homeless and killed seven residents. The Confederate Monument in Hemming Park was one of the few landmarks to survive the fire. Governor William Sherman Jennings declared martial law and sent the state militia to maintain order; on May 17, municipal authority resumed. It is said the glow from the flames could be seen in Savannah, Georgia, and the smoke plumes seen in Raleigh, North Carolina. Known as the "Great Fire of 1901", it was one of the worst disasters in Florida history and the largest urban fire in the southeastern United States. Architect Henry John Klutho was a primary figure in the reconstruction of the city. The first multi-story structure built by Klutho was the Dyal-Upchurch Building in 1902. The St. James Building, built on the previous site of the St. James Hotel that burned down, was built in 1912 as Klutho's crowning achievement. In the 1910s, New York–based filmmakers were attracted to Jacksonville's warm climate, exotic locations, excellent rail access, and cheap labor. Over the course of the decade, more than 30 silent film studios were established, earning Jacksonville the title of "Winter Film Capital of the World". However, the emergence of Hollywood as a major film production center ended the city's film industry. One movie studio site, Norman Studios, remains in Arlington; it has been converted to the Jacksonville Silent Film Museum at Norman Studios. During this time, Jacksonville also became a banking and insurance center, with companies such as Barnett Bank, Atlantic National Bank, Florida National Bank, Prudential, Gulf Life, Afro-American Insurance, Independent Life and American Heritage Life thriving in the business district. During World War II, The U.S. Navy became a major employer and economic force, constructing two Navy bases in the city, while the U.S. Marine Corps established Blount Island Command. Jacksonville, like most large cities in the United States, suffered from negative effects of rapid urban sprawl after World War II. The construction of federal highways essentially subsidized development of suburban housing, and wealthier, better established residents moved to newer housing in the suburbs. After World War II, the government of the city of Jacksonville began to increase spending to fund new public building projects in the postwar economic boom. Mayor W. Haydon Burns' Jacksonville Story resulted in the construction of a new city hall, civic auditorium, public library and other projects that created a dynamic sense of civic pride. Development of suburbs led to a growing middle class who lived outside the urban core. An increasing proportion of residents in Jacksonville's urban core had a higher than average rate of poverty, especially as businesses and jobs also migrated to the suburbs. Given the postwar migration of residents, businesses, and jobs, the city's tax base declined. It had difficulty funding education, sanitation, and traffic control within the city limits. In addition, residents in unincorporated suburbs had difficulty obtaining municipal services, such as sewage and building code enforcement. In 1958, a study recommended that the city of Jacksonville begin annexing outlying communities in order to create the needed larger geographic tax base to improve services throughout the county. Voters outside the city limits rejected annexation plans in six referendums between 1960 and 1965. In 1962 a federal court ordered the city to prepare a plan for integration of public schools, in accordance with the ruling of the Supreme Court in Brown v. Board of Education (1954). A study found that schools were in poor condition and poorly equipped. On December 29, 1963 the Hotel Roosevelt fire killed 22 people, the highest one-day death toll in Jacksonville. On September 10, 1964, Hurricane Dora made landfall near St. Augustine, causing major damage to buildings in North Florida. Hurricane Dora was the first hurricane to make a direct hit to North Florida. In the mid-1960s, corruption scandals arose among city and some county officials, who were mainly part of a traditional white, conservative Democratic network that had dominated politics for the decades since the disenfranchisement of most African Americans since the turn of the century. After a grand jury was convened to investigate, 11 officials were indicted and more were forced to resign. In 1963 the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools threatened to withdraw accreditation of area schools in a year because of "instructional deficiencies." But voters refused to approve new taxes to improve school conditions. In late 1963, Duval County was spending $299 per student compared to the state average spending of $372 per student. In 1964 all 15 of Duval County's public high schools lost their accreditation. This added momentum to proposals for government reform. Jacksonville Consolidation, led by J. J. Daniel and Claude Yates, began to win more support during this period, from both inner-city blacks, who wanted more involvement in government after passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, that provided federal oversight and enforcement of their right to vote, and whites in the suburbs, who wanted more services and more control over the central city. Lower taxes, increased economic development, unification of the community, better public spending, and effective administration by a more central authority were all cited as reasons for a new consolidated government. When a consolidation referendum was held in 1967, voters approved the plan. On October 1, 1968, the city and county governments merged to create the Consolidated City of Jacksonville. Fire, police, health & welfare, recreation, public works, and housing & urban development were all combined under the new government. In honor of the occasion, then-Mayor Hans Tanzler posed with actress Lee Meredith behind a sign marking the new border of the "Bold New City of the South" at Florida 13 and Julington Creek. The consolidation created a 900-square-mile entity. Tommy Hazouri supported passage of environmental regulations and reduced pollution odor during his single term as mayor, which began in 1987. Ed Austin was elected as mayor in 1991. His most lasting contribution is the River City Renaissance program, a $235 million bond issued in 1993 by the city of Jacksonville which funded urban renewal and revamped the city's historic downtown neighborhoods. Austin oversaw the city's purchase and refurbishing of the St. James Building, which is now used as Jacksonville's city hall. He was mayor in 1993 when Jacksonville was awarded its National Football League franchise, the Jacksonville Jaguars. The Better Jacksonville Plan, promoted as a blueprint for Jacksonville's future and approved by Jacksonville voters in 2000, authorized a half-penny sales tax. This generated most of the revenue required for the $2.25 billion package of major projects, which have included road & infrastructure improvements, environmental preservation, targeted economic development, and new or improved public facilities. In 2005, Jacksonville hosted Super Bowl XXXIX, which was seen by an estimated 86 million viewers. The city has suffered damage in natural disasters. In October 2016, Hurricane Matthew caused major flooding and damage to Jacksonville, Jacksonville Beach, Atlantic Beach and Neptune Beach, the first such damage in the area since 2004. In September 2017, Hurricane Irma caused record-breaking floods in Jacksonville, with a severity not seen since 1846. As has been typical of other metropolitan areas across the country, suburban growth has continued around Jacksonville, where large areas of land were available for development, drawing more residents, businesses and jobs from the city. This has resulted in further demographic changes. The city's largest ethnic group, non-Hispanic white, declined from 75.8% of the population in 1970 to 55.1% by 2010. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , making Jacksonville the largest city in land area in the contiguous United States; of this, 86.66% () is land and 13.34% () is water. Jacksonville surrounds the town of Baldwin. Nassau County lies to the north, Baker County lies to the west, and Clay and St. Johns counties lie to the south; the Atlantic Ocean lies to the east, along with the Jacksonville Beaches. The city developed along both sides of the St. Johns River. The Trout River, a major tributary of the St. Johns River, is located entirely within Jacksonville. Just south of Jacksonville and north of Saint Augustine is the boundary of where the Floridian Peninsula ends and Continental North America begins; Jacksonville is north of that line. While still in the North American Coastal plain, the topograpy begins to take on slight Piedmont characteristics. Like the Central Florida ridge and the Piedmont, the area begins sloping several miles inland. On the west side of Jacksonville, a series of low ridges predominate. The high point of Jacksonville rises to 190 feet above sea level on Trail Ridge, along the boundary with Baker County. Soil composition is primarily sand and clay rather than limestone, so few sinkholes develop; however, deep, large diameter sinkholes do occur. The architecture of Jacksonville varies in style. Few structures in the city center predate the Great Fire of 1901. The city is home to one of the largest collections of Prairie School style buildings outside the Midwest. following the Great Fire of 1901, Henry John Klutho would come to influence generations of local designers with his works by both the Chicago School, championed by Louis Sullivan, and the Prairie School of architecture, popularized by Frank Lloyd Wright. Jacksonville is also home to a notable collection of Mid-Century modern architecture. Local architects Robert C. Broward, Taylor Hardwick, and William Morgan adapted a range design principles, including International style, Brutalism, Futurism and Organicism, all applied with an American interpretation generally referred to today as Mid-century modern design. The architecture firms of Reynolds, Smith & Hills (RS&H;) and Kemp, Bunch & Jackson (KBJ) have also contributed a number of important works to the city's modern architectural movement. Jacksonville's early predominant position as a regional center of business left an indelible mark on the city's skyline. Many of the earliest skyscrapers in the state were constructed in Jacksonville, dating to 1902. The city last held the state height record from 1974 to 1981. The tallest building in Downtown Jacksonville's skyline is the Bank of America Tower, constructed in 1990 as the Barnett Center. It has a height of and includes 42 floors. Other notable structures include the 37-story Wells Fargo Center (with its distinctive flared base making it the defining building in the Jacksonville skyline), originally built in 1972–74 by the Independent Life and Accident Insurance Company, and the 28-floor Riverplace Tower. When this tower was completed in 1967, it was the tallest precast, post-tensioned concrete structure in the world. There are more than 500 neighborhoods within Jacksonville's vast area. These include Downtown Jacksonville and its surrounding neighborhoods, including LaVilla, Brooklyn, Riverside and Avondale, Springfield, Eastside, Mandarin, and San Marco. Additionally, greater Jacksonville is traditionally divided into several amorphous areas, comprising large parts of Duval County. These are Northside, Westside, Southside, and Arlington, as well as the Jacksonville Beaches. There are four municipalities that have retained their own governments since consolidation; these are Baldwin and the three Jacksonville Beaches towns of Atlantic Beach, Neptune Beach, and Jacksonville Beach. Four of Jacksonville's neighborhoods, Avondale, Ortega, Springfield, and Riverside, have been identified as U.S. historic districts and are in the National Register of Historic Places. According to the Köppen climate classification, Jacksonville has a humid subtropical climate, with hot humid summers, and warm to mild and drier winters. Seasonal rainfall is concentrated in the warmest months from May through September, when brief but intense downpours with thunder and lightning are common, while the driest months are from November through April. Rainfall averages around a year. Normal monthly mean temperatures range from in January to in July; high temperatures average throughout the year. High heat indices are common for the summer months in the area, with indices above possible. The highest temperature recorded was on July 11, 1879 and July 28, 1872. The city of Jacksonville averages only about 10 to 15 nights at or below freezing. Such cold weather is usually short lived. The coldest temperature recorded at Jacksonville International Airport was on January 21, 1985. Jacksonville has recorded three days with measurable snow since 1911, most recently a one-inch (2.5 cm) snowfall in December 1989 and flurries in December 2010. Jacksonville has only received one direct hit from a hurricane since 1871. The rarity of direct strikes is attributed to chance. However, the city has experienced hurricane or near-hurricane conditions more than a dozen times due to storms crossing the state from the Gulf of Mexico to the Atlantic Ocean, or passing to the north or south in the Atlantic and brushing past the area. The strongest effect on Jacksonville was from Hurricane Dora in 1964, the only recorded storm to hit the First Coast with sustained hurricane-force winds. The eye crossed St. Augustine with winds that had just barely diminished to , making it a strong Category 2 on the Saffir-Simpson Scale. In 1979, Hurricane David passed offshore by , bringing winds around . Hurricane Floyd in 1999 caused damage mainly to Jacksonville Beach; the Jacksonville Beach pier was severely damaged and later demolished. In 2004, Jacksonville was inundated by Hurricane Frances and Hurricane Jeanne, which made landfall south of the area, and suffered minor damage from Tropical Storm Bonnie, which spawned a minor tornado. Jacksonville also suffered damage from 2008's Tropical Storm Fay which crisscrossed the state, bringing parts of Jacksonville under darkness for four days. Fay damaged, but did not destroy, the Jacksonville Beach pier that had been rebuilt after Floyd. On May 28, 2012, Jacksonville was hit by Tropical Storm Beryl, packing winds up to which made landfall near Jacksonville Beach. Hurricane Matthew passed to the east with winds of 110 miles per hour. It caused storm surge, extensive flooding of the Atlantic Ocean and St. Johns River, and wind damage; the storm knocked out power for 250,000 people. In 2017, Hurricane Irma passed to the west with winds. It caused severe storm surge and flooding, passing the flood record of Hurricane Dora in 1964. The City of Jacksonville has a unique park system, with various lands operated by the National Park Service, Florida State Parks and the City of Jacksonville Department of Parks and Recreation. Jacksonville operates the largest urban park system in the United States, providing facilities and services at more than 337 locations on more than located throughout the city. A number of parks provide access for people to boat, swim, fish, sail, jetski, surf and waterski. Several parks around the city have received international recognition. The Timucuan Preserve is a U.S. National Preserve comprising over of wetlands and waterways. It includes natural and historic areas such as the Fort Caroline National Memorial and the Kingsley Plantation, the oldest standing plantation in the state. There are several state parks within the city limits of Jacksonville, these include Amelia Island State Park, Big Talbot Island State Park, Fort George Island Cultural State Park, George Crady Bridge Fishing Pier State Park, Little Talbot Island State Park, Pumpkin Hill Creek Preserve State Park and Yellow Bluff Fort Historic State Park. Confederate Park is a public park on the southern bounds of the historic neighborhood of Springfield, and is part of a network of parks that parallel Hogans Creek. The park opened in 1907 as Dignan Park, named for a former chairman of the city's Board of Public Works. In 1914, the park hosted the annual reunion of the United Confederate Veterans, a gathering of former Confederate soldiers. Five months after the reunion the city renamed the park "Confederate Park." A Confederate monument was erected in 1915 honoring the Women of the Southland. Friendship Fountain is a large fountain in St. Johns River Park at the west end of Downtown Jacksonville's Southbank Riverwalk. It opened in 1965 as the world's largest and tallest fountain, and has been one of Jacksonville's most recognizable and popular attractions. The fountain's three pumps could push of water per minute up to in height. Designed by Jacksonville architect Taylor Hardwick in 1963 and, in 2011 the city completed a $3.2 million renovation to the fountain and the surrounding park. It features a light show and music each evening., Hanna Park is a public beach and city park near Mayport in the Jacksonville Beaches area. It consists of of mature coastal hammock, and was known as Manhattan Beach, Florida's first beach community for African Americans during the period of segregation in the United States. Hemming Park is a public park in the heart of the government center in downtown. Originally a village green, it was the first and is the oldest park in the city. The area was established as a public square in 1857 by Isaiah Hart, founder of Jacksonville. The first Wednesday of every month, Hemming Park is converted into the centerpiece of Jacksonville's Downtown Art Walk. The third Thursday of every month Hemming Park hosts a night market called Jaxsons Night Market., Klutho Park is an public park, between downtownand the historic neighborhood of Springfield. It is part of a network of parks that parallel Hogans Creek, Klutho Park being the largest. Created between 1899 and 1901 on land donated by the Springfield Company. The park also housed the City's first zoo, opening at the park in 1914. The Hogans Creek Improvement Project of 1929–30, designed by architect Henry J. Klutho, turned much of the park grounds into a Venetian-style promenade., Jacksonville-Baldwin Rail Trail is a Rail Trail that extends northwest to Baldwin, Florida. It includes three separate paths; a multi-use asphalt trail for hiking, jogging, in-line skating or cycling; an off-road bike trail; and a horseback riding trail., Jessie Ball DuPont Park is a park, home to Treaty Oak, a massive 250-year-old tree in the Southbank., Metropolitan Park is a waterfront park on the St. Johns River, in the Sports Complex area of downtown. The multi-purpose facility contains an exhibition area, picnic and playground area, and a performance pavilion which has a capacity of 10,000 persons. Memorial Park is a public park, on the St. Johns River in the historic neighborhoods Riverside. Completed in 1924, it is the third oldest park in the city. Built to honor of the 1,200 Floridians who died serving during World War I, the notable Olmsted Brothers were commissioned to design the park, along with local architect Roy A. Benjamin. Charles Adrian Pillars designed the bronze sculpture, 'Life', prominently showcased in the park., Riverside Park is an public park, in the historic neighborhood of Riverside. It is the second oldest park in the city., Riverwalk along the St. Johns from Berkman Plaza to I-95 at the Fuller Warren Bridge while the Southbank Riverwalk stretches from the Radisson Hotel to Museum Circle. The Jacksonville Landing is a popular riverfront dining and shopping venue, accessible by River Taxi from the Southbank Riverwalk. Adjacent to Museum Circle is St. Johns River Park, also known as Friendship Park. It is the location of Friendship Fountain, one of the most recognizable and popular attractions in Jacksonville. This landmark was built in 1965 and promoted as the "World's Tallest and Largest" fountain at the time., Veterans Memorial Wall is a tribute to local servicemen and women killed while serving in US armed forces. A ceremony is held each Memorial Day recognizing any service woman or man from Jacksonville who died in the previous year. Evergreen Cemetery is a large historic cemetery added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 8, 2011., Jacksonville Arboretum & Gardens broke ground on a new center in April 2007 and held their grand opening on November 15, 2008., Jacksonville Zoo and Gardens, Jacksonville National Cemetery, Old City Cemetery, Tree Hill Nature Center is a nature preserve and environmental education center located five minutes from Downtown Jacksonville. Jacksonville is the most populous city in Florida, and the twelfth most populous city in the United States. , there were 821,784 people and 366,273 households in the city. Jacksonville has the country's tenth-largest Arab population, with a total population of 5,751 according to the 2000 United States Census. Jacksonville has Florida's largest Filipino American community, with 25,033 in the metropolitan area as of the 2010 Census. Much of Jacksonville's Filipino community served in or has ties to the United States Navy. , those of Hispanic or Latino ancestry accounted for 7.7% of Jacksonville's population. Of these, 2.6% identified as of Puerto Rican ancestry, 1.7% as Mexican, and 0.9% were Cuban. , those of African ancestry accounted for 30.7% of Jacksonville's population, which includes African Americans. Out of the 30.7%, 1.8% identified as Sub-Saharan African, 1.4% as West Indian or Afro-Caribbean American (0.5% Haitian, 0.4% Jamaican, 0.1% Other or Unspecified West Indian, 0.1% Bahamian, 0.1% Barbadian), and 0.6% as Black Hispanics. , those of (non-Hispanic white) European ancestry accounted for 55.1% of Jacksonville's population. Of these, 10.4% identified as ethnic German, 10.2% as Irish, 8.8% as English, 3.9% as Italian, 2.2% as French, 2.0% as Scottish, 2.0% as Scotch-Irish, 1.7% Polish, 1.1% Dutch, 0.6% Russian, 0.5% Norwegian, 0.5% Swedish, 0.5% Welsh, and 0.5% as French Canadian. , those of Asian ancestry accounted for 4.3% of Jacksonville's population. Out of the 4.3%, 1.8% were Filipino, 0.9% were Indian, 0.6% Other Asian, 0.5% Vietnamese, 0.3% Chinese, 0.2% Korean, and 0.1% were Japanese. In 2010, 6.7% of the population identified as of American ancestry (regardless of race or ethnicity.) Some 0.9% were of Arab ancestry, . , there were 366,273 households out of which 11.8% were vacant. 23.9% of households had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.8% were married couples, 15.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.4% were non-families. 29.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.55 and the average family size was 3.21. In the city, the population was spread out with 23.9% under the age of 18, 10.5% from 18 to 24, 28.5% from 25 to 44, 26.2% from 45 to 64, and 10.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35.5 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.3 males. In 2010, the median income for a household in the county was $48,829, and the median income for a family was $59,272. Males had a median income of $42,485 versus $34,209 for females. The per capita income for the county was $25,227. About 10.5% of families and 14.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 20.4% of those under age 18 and 9.9% of those aged 65 or over. In 2010, 9.2% of the county's population was foreign born, with 49.6% being naturalized American citizens. Of foreign born residents, 38.0% were born in Latin America, 35.7% born in Asia, 17.9% were born in Europe, 5.9% born in Africa, 1.9% in North America, and 0.5% were born in Oceania. , 87.1% of Jacksonville's population age five and over spoke only English at home while 5.8% of the population spoke Spanish at home. About 3.3% spoke other Indo-European languages at home. About 2.9% spoke Asian languages or Pacific Islander languages/Oceanic languages at home. The remaining 0.9% of the population spoke other languages at home. In total, 12.9% spoke another language other than English. As of 2000, speakers of English as a first language accounted for 90.60% of all residents, while those who spoke Spanish made up 4.13%, Tagalog 1.00%, French 0.47%, Arabic 0.44%, German 0.43%, Vietnamese at 0.31%, Russian was 0.21% and Italian made up 0.17% of the population. Jacksonville has a diverse religious population. The largest religious group is Protestant. According to the Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA), in 2010 the Jacksonville metropolitan area had an estimated 365,267 Evangelical Protestants, 76,100 Mainline Protestants, and 56,769 Black Protestants, though figures for the latter were incomplete. There were around 1200 Protestant congregations in various denominations. Notable Protestant churches include Bethel Baptist Institutional Church and First Baptist Church, whose congregations separated after the Civil War and which are the city's oldest Baptist churches. Each has become very large. The Episcopal Diocese of Florida has its see at St. John's Cathedral; the current building was completed in 1906. Jacksonville is part of the Roman Catholic Diocese of St. Augustine, which covers seventeen counties in North Florida. ARDA estimated 133,155 Catholics attending 25 parishes in the Jacksonville metropolitan area in 2010. The Basilica of the Immaculate Conception in Jacksonville, defined as a minor basilica in 2013, was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1992. There are also two Eastern Catholic parishes, one of the Syriac Catholic Church and one of the Maronite Church. In 2010 there were 2520 Eastern Orthodox Christians, representing four churches in the Eastern Orthodox communion, as well as congregations of Syriac Orthodox, Armenian Apostolic, Ethiopian Orthodox, and Coptic Orthodox Christians. ARDA estimated 14,886 members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) and 511 Unitarian Universalists in 2010. There were an estimated 8,581 Muslims attending seven mosques, the largest being the Islamic Center of Northeast Florida. The Jewish community, which numbered 6,028 in 2010, is largely centered in the neighborhood of Mandarin. There are five Orthodox, two Reform, two Conservative, and one Reconstructionist synagogues. The Rohr Jewish Learning Institute teaches courses for the community. ARDA also estimated 4,595 Hindus, 3,530 Buddhists and 650 Bahá'ís in the Jacksonville area in 2010. Jacksonville's location on the St. Johns River and the Atlantic Ocean proved instrumental to the growth of the city and its industry. Jacksonville has a sizable deepwater port, which helps make it a leading port in the U.S. for automobile imports, as well as the leading transportation and distribution hub in the state. The strength of the city's economy lies in its broad diversification. While the area once had many thriving dairies, such as Gustafson's Farm and Skinner Dairy, this aspect of the economy has declined over time. The area's economy is balanced among distribution, financial services, biomedical technology, consumer goods, information services, manufacturing, insurance, and other industries. Jacksonville is home to the headquarters of four Fortune 500 companies: CSX Corporation, Fidelity National Financial, Fidelity National Information Services and Southeastern Grocers. Interline Brands is based in Jacksonville and is owned by The Home Depot. Other notable companies based in Jacksonville or with a large presence include Florida Blue, Swisher International Group, BOA Merrill Lynch, Fanatics, Crowley Maritime, Web.com, Firehouse Subs and Deutsche Bank. Naval Air Station Jacksonville, located SW of downtown, employs more than 25,000 people. In 2008, Jacksonville had 2.8 million visitors who stayed overnight, spending nearly $1 billion. A study by Research Data Services of Tampa quantified the importance of tourism. The total economic impact was $1.6 billion and supported nearly 43,000 jobs, 10% of the local workforce. Jacksonville has long had a regional legacy in banking and finance. Locally headquartered Atlantic National Bank, Florida National Bank and Barnett Bank dominated the industry in Florida from the turn of the 20th century through the 1980s, before all being acquired in a national wave of mergers and acquisitions throughout the entire financial sector. Acquired by NationsBank in 1997, Barnett Bank was the last of these banks to succumb to acquisition, and at the time was the largest banking merger in U.S. history. The city still holds distinction nationally and internationally, boosting two Fortune 500 financial services companies, Fidelity National Financial and FIS, FIS being well recognized as a global leader in financial technology. Headquartered on the banks of the St. Johns River in Downtown Jacksonville, EverBank holds the title of largest bank in the state by deposits. The city is home to other notable financial services institutions including Ameris Bancorp, Atlantic Coast Financial, Black Knight Financial Services, MedMal Direct Insurance Company, US Assure, and VyStar Credit Union. The city is also home to the Jacksonville Branch of the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta. Jacksonville's financial sector has benefited from a rapidly changing business culture, as have other Sunbelt cities such as Atlanta, Tampa, and Charlotte. In a concept known as nearshoring, financial institutions are shifting operations away from high-cost addresses such as Wall Street, and have shifted some trading functions to Jacksonville. With relatively low-cost real estate, easy access by planes to New York City, high quality of life, and 19,000 financial sector employees, Jacksonville has become an option for relocating staff. Deutsche Bank's growth in the city is an example of such change. Jacksonville is the site of Deutsche Bank's second largest US operation; only New York is larger. They also are an example of a business that has moved operations to the suburbs. Other institutions with a notable presence in Jacksonville include Macquarie Group, Bank of America, Wells Fargo, JPMorgan Chase, Citi, Citizens Property Insurance, Fidelity Investments, Ally Financial and Aetna. Jacksonville is a rail, air, and highway focal point and a busy port of entry, with Jacksonville International Airport, ship repair yards and extensive freight-handling facilities. Lumber, phosphate, paper, cigars and wood pulp are the principal exports; automobiles and coffee are among imports. The city's manufacturing base provides 4.5% of local jobs, versus 8.5% nationally. According to Forbes magazine in 2007, Jacksonville ranked 3rd among the top ten U.S. cities as destinations for jobs. Jacksonville was ranked as the 10th- fastest growing city in the U.S. To emphasize the city's transportation business and capabilities, the Jacksonville Regional Chamber of Commerce filed Jacksonville America's Logistics Center as a trademark on November 9, 2007. It was formally registered on August 4, 2009. Cornerstone began promoting the city as "Jacksonville: America's Logistics Center" in 2009. Signs were added to the existing city limit markers on Interstate 95. The Port of Jacksonville, a seaport on the St. Johns River, is a large component of the local economy. Approximately 50,000 jobs in Northeast Florida are related to port activity and the port has an economic impact of $2.7 billion in Northeast Florida: The three maritime shippers who ship to Puerto Rico are all headquartered in Jacksonville: TOTE Maritime, Crowley Maritime, and Trailer Bridge. Cecil Commerce Center is located on the site of the former Naval Air Station Cecil Field, which closed in 1999 following the 1993 Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) decision. Covering a total area of , it was the largest military base in the Jacksonville area. The parcel contains more than 3% of the total land area in Duval County (). The industrial and commercial-zoned center offers mid to large-size parcels for development; it has excellent transportation and utility infrastructure, including the third-longest runway in Florida. The Florida Times-Union is the major daily newspaper in Jacksonville and the First Coast. Jacksonville.com is its official website. The Financial News & Daily Record is a daily paper focused on the business and legal communities. Weekly papers include the Jacksonville Business Journal, an American City Business Journals publication focused on business news, Folio Weekly, the city's chief alternative weekly, and The Florida Star and the Jacksonville Free Press, two weeklies catering to African Americans. Jax4Kids, a monthly newspaper, caters to parents. EU Jacksonville is a monthly entertainment magazine. The Coastal is a local online magazine that also publishes a quarterly paper edition. Jacksonville is the 47th-largest local television market in the United States. Despite its large population, Jacksonville has always been a medium-sized market because the surrounding suburbs and rural areas are not much larger than the city itself. It is served by television stations affiliated with major American networks including WTLV 12 (NBC) and its sister station WJXX 25 (ABC), WJAX-TV 47 (CBS) and WFOX-TV 30 (Fox; with MyNetworkTV/MeTV on DT2), which operates WJAX-TV under a joint sales and shared services agreement, WJCT 7 (PBS), and WCWJ 17 (CW). WJXT 4, WCWJ's sister station, is a former longtime CBS affiliate that turned independent in 2002. Jacksonville is the 46th-largest local radio market in the U.S., and is dominated by the same two large ownership groups that dominate the radio industry across it: Cox Radio and iHeartMedia. The dominant AM radio station in terms of ratings is WOKV 690AM, which is also the flagship station for the Jacksonville Jaguars. In May 2013, WOKV began simulcasting on 104.5 FM as WOKV FM. There are two radio stations broadcasting a primarily contemporary hits format; WAPE 95.1 has dominated this niche for over twenty years, and more recently has been challenged by WKSL 97.9 FM (KISS FM). WJBT 93.3 (The Beat) is a hip-hop/R&B; station, 96.9 The Eagle WJGL operates a Classic Hits format while its HD subchannel WJGL-HD2 operates an Urban CHR format under the moniker Power 106.1, WWJK 107.3 is a Mainstream Rock station under the moniker "107.3 Planet Radio. WEZI 102.9 is an adult contemporary station branded as "Easy 102.9" along with 96.1 WEJZ branded as "96.1 WEJZ" WXXJ X106.5 is an alternative station, WQIK 99.1 is a country station as well as WGNE-FM 99.9, and WJCT 89.9 is the local National Public Radio affiliate. WJKV 90.9 FM is an Educational Media Foundation K-LOVE outlet. The NPR and PRX radio show, , hosted by performance poet and playwright, Al Letson, is headquartered and produced in Jacksonville. Jacksonville is home to three US naval facilities. Together with the nearby Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay, Jacksonville is the third-largest naval complex in the country. Only Norfolk, Virginia and San Diego, California are bigger. The United States military is the largest employer in Jacksonville and its total economic impact is approximately $6.1 billion annually. Several veterans' service organizations are also headquartered in Jacksonville, including Wounded Warrior Project. Naval Air Station Jacksonville is a military airport located south of the central business district. Approximately 23,000 civilian and active-duty personnel are employed on the base. There are 35 operational units/squadrons assigned there. Support facilities include an airfield for pilot training, and a maintenance depot capable of tasks ranging from changing a tire to intricate micro-electronics, or total engine disassembly. Also on-site is a Naval Hospital, a Fleet Industrial Supply Center, a Navy Family Service Center, and recreational facilities. Naval Station Mayport is a Navy Ship Base that is the third-largest fleet concentration area in the U.S. Mayport has a busy harbor capable of accommodating 34 ships, and an runway capable of handling any aircraft used by the Department of Defense. Until 2007, it was home to the aircraft carrier , which locals called "Big John". In January 2009, the Navy committed to stationing a nuclear-powered carrier at Mayport when the official Record of Decision was signed. The port will require approximately $500 million in facility enhancements to support the larger vessel, which would take several years to complete. The carrier was projected to arrive in 2019; however, an amphibious group was sent before the carrier. Blount Island Command is a Marine Corps Logistics Base whose mission is to support the Maritime Prepositioning Force (MPF). This provides for rapid deployment of personnel to link up with pre-positioned equipment and supplies embarked aboard forward- deployed Maritime Prepositioning Ships (MPS). , a nuclear-powered , is a U.S. Navy ship named for the city. The ship's nickname is The Bold One and Pearl Harbor is her home port. The Florida Air National Guard is based at Jacksonville International Airport. Coast Guard Sector Jacksonville is located on the St. Johns River next to Naval Station Mayport. Sector Jacksonville controls operations from Kings Bay, Georgia, south to Cape Canaveral, Florida. CGC Kingfisher, CGC Maria Bray, and CGC Hammer are stationed at the Sector. Station Mayport is co-located with Sector Jacksonville and includes response boats, and motor lifeboats. Throughout the year, many annual events of various types are held in Jacksonville. In sports, the annual Gate River Run has been held annually since March 1977. It has been the US National road race Championship since 1994 and is the largest race of its distance in the country with over 13,000 runners, spectators, and volunteers, making it Jacksonville's largest participation sporting event. In college football, the Gator Bowl is held on January 1. It has been continuously held since 1946. Also, the Florida–Georgia game (also known as the "World's Largest Outdoor Cocktail Party"), the annual college football game between the rival Florida Gators and Georgia Bulldogs has been held in Jacksonville almost yearly since 1933. For six days in July the Jacksonville Kingfish Tournament is held for fishermen of all skills. With $500,000 of prizes up for grabs, up to 1000 boats participate with almost 30,000 spectators watching. Jacksonville is also home of River City Pride which is Northeast Florida's largest Gay Pride parade. The parade and festivities usually take place over the course of the weekend usually the first or second weekend in October in Jacksonville's Riverside neighborhood. The first pride parade was held in 1978. A number of cultural events are also held in Jacksonville. The Jacksonville Jazz Festival, held downtown, is the second-largest jazz festival in the nation, while Springing the Blues, one of the oldest and largest blues festivals, has been held in Jacksonville Beach since 1990. The World of Nations Celebration has been held in Metropolitan Park since 1993, and features a number of events, food and souvenirs from various countries. The Art Walk, a monthly outdoor art festival on the first Wednesday of each month, is sponsored by Downtown Vision, Inc, an organization which works to promote artistic talent and venues on the First Coast. Jacksonville is home to many breweries and a growing number of distilleries. Other events include the Blessing of the Fleet held in March since 1985 and the Greater Jacksonville Agricultural Fair in November at the Jacksonville Fairgrounds and Exposition Center featuring games, rides, food, entertainment and livestock exhibition. One Spark is an annual and the largest crowdfunding event held for creators to showcase their ideas for a chance to win part of $300,000 in funding. Riverside Arts Market (RAM), an outdoor arts-and-crafts market on the Riverwalk, occurs every Saturday from March to December under the canopy of the Fuller Warren Bridge. Holiday celebrations include the Freedom, Fanfare & Fireworks celebration on July 4, the lighting of Jacksonville's official Christmas tree at the Jacksonville Landing on the day after Thanksgiving and the Jacksonville Light Parade of boats the following day. The VyStar Veterans Memorial Arena, which opened in 2003, is a 16,000-seat performance venue that attracts national entertainment, sporting events and also houses the Jacksonville Sports Hall of Fame. It replaced the outdated Jacksonville Coliseum that was built in 1960 and demolished on June 26, 2003. The Jacksonville Zoo and Gardens boasts the second largest animal collection in the state. The zoo features elephants, lions, and jaguars, with an exhibit, Range of the Jaguar, hosted by the former owners of the Jacksonville Jaguars, Delores and Wayne Weaver. It also has a multitude of reptile houses, free flight aviaries, and many other animals. Adventure Landing is an amusement park with locations in Jacksonville and Jacksonville Beach. The Jacksonville Beach location contains Shipwreck Island, Duval County's only waterpark. Theatre Jacksonville was organized in 1919 as the Little Theatre and is one of the oldest continually producing community theatres in the United States. The Alhambra Dinner Theatre, located on the Southside near the University of North Florida, has offered professional productions that frequently starred well-known actors since 1967. There are also a number of popular community theatres such as Players by the Sea located in Jacksonville Beach. The Murray Hill Art Center was reopened in February 2012 through a partnership of the Jacksonville Parks and Recreation (JaxParks) and the Art League of Jacksonville, a nonprofit dedicated to arts education. The center is located in the historic Murray Hill area and offers community arts classes as well as shared studio space for aspiring artists. Visitors are welcomed year around for events and classes. Jacksonville has two fully enclosed shopping malls. The oldest is the Regency Square Mall, which opened in 1967 and is located on former sand dunes in the Arlington area. The other is The Avenues Mall. It opened in 1990 on the Southside at the intersection of I-95 and US 1. There is a 3rd indoor mall in the metropolitan area, The Orange Park Mall. But it's just outside of Jacksonville in Orange Park, Florida, in Clay County. The St. Johns Town Center opened in 2005. On the north side of Jacksonville, the River City Marketplace opened in 2006. Both of these are "open air" malls, with a mix of stores but not contained under the same roof. A handful of significant literary works and authors are associated with Jacksonville and the surrounding area. Perhaps the most important is James Weldon Johnson, who moved North and was influential in the Harlem Renaissance. In 1920 he also became the first African American to lead the NAACP civil rights organization. His first success as a writer was the poem "Lift Ev'ry Voice and Sing" (1899), which his brother Rosamond Johnson set to music; the song became unofficially known as the "Negro National Anthem." Already famous for having written Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852), northern writer Harriet Beecher Stowe published Palmetto Leaves in 1873. A travel guide and memoir about her winters in the town of Mandarin, Florida, it was one of the first guides written about Florida and stimulated the state's first boom in the 1880s of tourism and residential development. Jacksonville embraced the movies. Sun-Ray Cinema, also known as the 5 Points Theatre and Riverside Theatre, opened in 1927. It was the first theater in Florida equipped to show the new "talking pictures" and the third nationally. It is located in the Five Points section of town and was renamed as the Five Points Theater in 1949. The Florida Theatre, also opened in 1927, is located in downtown Jacksonville and is one of only four remaining high-style movie palaces that were built in Florida during the Mediterranean Revival architectural boom of the 1920s. Since that time, Jacksonville has been chosen by a number of film and television studios for location shooting. Notable motion pictures that have been partially or completely shot in Jacksonville since the silent film era include the classic thriller, Creature from the Black Lagoon (1954). Since the late 20th century, the city has attracted numerous film companies, which shot The New Adventures of Pippi Longstocking (1988), Brenda Starr (1989), G.I. Jane (1997), The Devil's Advocate (1997), Ride (1998), Why Do Fools Fall In Love (1998), Forces of Nature (1999), Tigerland (2000), Sunshine State (2002), Basic (2003), The Manchurian Candidate (2004), Lonely Hearts (2006), Moving McAllister (2007), The Year of Getting to Know Us (2008), The Ramen Girl and Like Dandelion Dust. Notable television series or made-for-television films that have been partially or completely shot in Jacksonville include Inherit the Wind (1988), Orpheus Descending (1990), Saved by the Light (1995), The Babysitter's Seduction (1996), First Time Felon (1997), Safe Harbor (2009), Recount (2008), American Idol (2009), and Ash vs Evil Dead (2015). The Cummer Museum of Art and Gardens is an art museum in Jacksonville's Riverside neighborhood. It was founded in 1961, following the death of Ninah Mae Holden Cummer, who bequeathed her art collection, house and gardens to the museum. Its galleries display one of the world's three most comprehensive collections of Meissen porcelain, as well as large collections of American, European, and Japanese art. The grounds contain two acres of Italian and English gardens begun by Ninah Cummer. The Museum of Contemporary Art Jacksonville (MOCA Jacksonville) is a contemporary art museum funded and operated as a "cultural resource" of the University of North Florida. Tracing its roots to the formation of Jacksonville's Fine Arts Society in 1924, it opened its current facility in 2003 next to the Main Library downtown. The museum features eclectic permanent and traveling exhibitions, and a collection of over 700 works. The Museum of Science & History (MOSH), located in downtown's Southbank Riverwalk, specializes in science and local history exhibits. It features a main exhibit that changes quarterly, plus three floors of nature exhibits, an extensive exhibit on the history of Northeast Florida, a hands-on science area, and the area's only astronomy theater, the Bryan Gooding Planetarium. Kingsley Plantation is a historic plantation built in 1798. The house of Zephaniah Kingsley, barn, kitchen, and slave cabins have been preserved. Alexander Brest, founder of Duval Engineering and Contracting Co., was the benefactor for the Alexander Brest Museum and Gallery on the campus of Jacksonville University. The exhibits are a diverse collection of carved ivory, Pre-Columbian artifacts, Steuben glass, Chinese porcelain and cloisonné, Tiffany glass, Boehm porcelain, and rotating exhibits of the work of local, regional, national and international artists. Three other art galleries are located at educational institutions in town. Florida State College at Jacksonville has the Kent Gallery on their westside campus and the Wilson Center for the Arts at their main campus. The University Gallery is located on the campus of the University of North Florida. The Jacksonville Karpeles Manuscript Library Museum is a branch of the world's largest private collection of original manuscripts and documents. The museum in Jacksonville is in a 1921 neoclassical building on the outskirts of downtown. In addition to document displays, an antique-book library has numerous volumes dating from the late 19th century. The Catherine Street Fire Station building is on the National Register of Historic Places; it was relocated to Metropolitan Park in 1993. It houses the Jacksonville Fire Museum and features more than 500 artifacts, including an 1806 hand pumper. The LaVilla Museum opened in 1999 and features a permanent display of African-American history. In addition, the art exhibits are changed periodically. The city has several outstanding historical properties, some of which have been adapted to new uses. These include the Klutho Building, the Old Morocco Temple Building, the Palm and Cycad Arboretum, and the Prime F. Osborn III Convention Center, originally built as Union Station train depot. The Jacksonville Historical Society showcases two restoration projects: the 1887 St. Andrews Episcopal Church and the 1879 Merrill House, both located near the sports complex. The Ritz Theatre, opened in 1929, is located in the LaVilla neighborhood of the northern part of Jacksonville's downtown. The Jacksonville music scene was active in the 1930s in LaVilla, which was known as "Harlem of the South". Black musicians from across the country visited Jacksonville to play standing room only performances at the Ritz Theatre and the Knights of Pythias Hall. Cab Calloway, Duke Ellington, Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Armstrong were a few of the legendary performers who appeared. After his mother died when he was 15, Ray Charles lived with friends of his mother while he played piano at the Ritz for a year, before moving on to fame and fortune. The Ritz Theatre was rebuilt and opened in October 1999. Jacksonville native Pat Boone was a popular 1950s singer and teen idol. During the 1960s, the Classics IV was the most successful pop rock band from Jacksonville. Southern Rock was defined by the Allman Brothers Band, which formed in 1969 in Jacksonville. Lynyrd Skynyrd achieved near cult status and inspired Blackfoot, Molly Hatchet and .38 Special, all successful in the 1970s. The 1980s were a quiet decade for musical talent in Jacksonville. The Times-Union Center for the Performing Arts consists of three distinct halls: the Jim & Jan Moran Theater, a venue for touring Broadway shows; the Jacoby Symphony Hall, home of the Jacksonville Symphony Orchestra; and the Terry Theater, intended for small shows and recitals. The building was originally erected as the Civic Auditorium in 1962 and underwent a major renovation and construction in 1996. The next local group to achieve national success was the nu metal band Limp Bizkit, formed in 1994. Other popular Hip Hop acts in the 1990s included 95 South, 69 Boyz and the Quad City DJ's. The bands Inspection 12, Cold and Yellowcard were also well known and had a large following. Following the millennium, Fit For Rivals, Burn Season, Evergreen Terrace, Shinedown, The Red Jumpsuit Apparatus, and Black Kids became notable bands from the city. Jacksonville is home to one major league sports team, the Jacksonville Jaguars of the National Football League (NFL). The Jaguars joined the NFL as an expansion team in the 1995 season; they play their home games at TIAA Bank Field. In 2005, Jacksonville hosted Super Bowl XXXIX. The PGA Tour, which organizes the main professional golf tournaments in the U.S., is headquartered in the suburb of Ponte Vedra Beach, where it holds The Players Championship every year. Jacksonville is also home to several minor league-level teams. The Jacksonville Jumbo Shrimp, a class Double-A baseball team, have played in Jacksonville continuously since 1970, longer than any other Double-A team has been in its city, and are the top-selling franchise in the Southern League. The Jacksonville Sharks, who began play in 2010, were the champions of the Arena Football League's ArenaBowl XXIV in 2011 and now play in the National Arena League. The Jacksonville Axemen are a semi-professional rugby league team founded in 2006, and now play in the USA Rugby League. The Jacksonville Giants basketball team started play in the new American Basketball Association in December 2010. The Giants won the 2012 ABA Championship in March 2012 in Tampa, Florida. The Jacksonville Armada FC is a soccer team that began play in the North American Soccer League (NASL) in 2015. The Jacksonville Icemen is a minor league ice hockey team in the ECHL that began play in the 2017–18 season. The team plays its home games at VyStar Veterans Memorial Arena. All Elite Wrestling (AEW) is a professional wrestling promotion based in Jacksonville and a competitor of WWE. College sports, especially college football, are popular in Jacksonville. The city hosts the Florida–Georgia game, an annual college football game between the University of Florida and the University of Georgia and the TaxSlayer Gator Bowl, a post-season college football bowl game. Jacksonville's two universities compete in NCAA Division I: the University of North Florida Ospreys and the Jacksonville University Dolphins, both in the Atlantic Sun Conference. In 1968 Jacksonville and Duval County consolidated their governments in the Jacksonville Consolidation. This eliminated a separate county executive or legislature, and supplanted these positions with the Mayor of Jacksonville and the City Council of the City of Jacksonville, respectively. Because of this, voters who live outside of the city limits of Jacksonville but inside Duval County may vote in elections for these positions and run for them. In 1995, John Delaney, a resident of Neptune Beach within Duval County, was elected as mayor of the city of Jacksonville. Jacksonville is organized under the city charter and provides for a "strong" mayor–council form of city government. The Mayor of Jacksonville is elected to four-year terms and serves as the head of the government's executive branch. The Jacksonville City Council comprises nineteen members, fourteen representing single-memberelectoral districts of roughly equal populations, and five elected for at-large seats. The mayor oversees most city departments, though some are independent or quasi- independent. Law enforcement is provided by the Jacksonville Sheriff's Office, headed by an elected sheriff; public schools are overseen by Duval County Public Schools, and several services are provided by largely independent authorities. The mayor holds veto power over all resolutions and ordinances made by the city council and also has the power to hire and fire the head of various city departments. As before the consolidation, some government services are operated independently of city and county authority. In accordance with Florida law, the elected school board has nearly complete autonomy. Jacksonville also has several quasi-independent government agencies which only nominally answer to the consolidated authority, including electric authority, port authority, transportation authority, housing authority and airport authority. The main environmental and agricultural body is the Duval County Soil and Water Conservation District, which works closely with other area, state, and federal agencies. The Jacksonville Housing Authority (JHA) is the quasi-independent agency responsible for public housing and subsidized housing in Jacksonville. The Mayor and City Council of Jacksonville established the JHA in 1994 to create a community service-oriented, public housing agency with innovative ideas and a different attitude. The primary goal was to provide safe, clean, affordable housing for eligible low and moderate income families, the elderly, and persons with disabilities. The secondary goal was to provide effective social services, work with residents to improve their quality of life, encourage employment and self-sufficiency, and help residents move out of assisted housing. To that end, JHA works with HabiJax to help low and moderate income families to escape the public housing cycle and become successful, productive, homeowners and taxpayers. The present mayor is Lenny Curry, who assumed office on July 1, 2015. The past mayor was Alvin Brown. Most of the city is in the Florida's 4th congressional district, and is represented by Republican John Rutherford. Most of central Jacksonville is in the 5th district, represented by Democrat Al Lawson. The 4th and 5th districts have been characterized by analysts as some of the most gerrymandered districts in the country In 2014, the Florida Supreme Court ordered the state legislature to redraw at least eight of the congressional districts to correct inequities. In 2010, Duval County's crime rate was 5,106 per 100,000 people, according to the Florida Department of Law Enforcement. The county's murder rate had been the highest among Florida's counties with a population of 500,000 or more for eleven years in 2009, leading to widespread discussion in the community about how to deal with the problem. In 2010 Duval County's violent crime rate decreased by 9.3% from the previous year, with total crime decreasing 7.3%, putting the murder rate behind that of Miami-Dade County. Jacksonville and Duval County historically maintained separate police agencies: the Jacksonville Police Department and Duval County Sheriff's Office. As part of consolidation in 1968, the two merged, creating the Jacksonville Sheriff's Office (JSO). The JSO is headed by the elected Sheriff of Jacksonville, currently Mike Williams. It is responsible for law enforcement and corrections in the county. Public primary and secondary schools in Jacksonville and Duval County are administered by Duval County Public Schools, which is governed by an elected, seven-member Duval County School Board. In the 2009–2010 school year the district enrolled 123,000 students. It administers 172 total schools, including 103 elementary schools, 25 middle schools, 19 high schools, 3 K–8 schools, and 1 6–12 school, as well as 13 charter schools and a juvenile justice school program. Of these, 62 are designated magnet schools. Three of Jacksonville's high schools, Stanton College Preparatory School, Darnell- Cookman School of the Medical Arts and Paxon School for Advanced Studies regularly appear at the top of Newsweek magazine's annual list of the country's top public high schools, coming in respectively at #3 #7, and #8 in the 2010 edition. Five other schools, Douglas Anderson School of the Arts (#33), Mandarin High School (#97), Duncan U. Fletcher High School (#205) Sandalwood High School (#210), and Englewood High School (#1146) were also included in the list. The Roman Catholic Diocese of St. Augustine operates a number of Catholic schools in Jacksonville, including two high schools, Bishop Kenny High School and Bishop John J. Snyder High School. Other private schools in Jacksonville include Arlington Country Day School, the Bolles School, Trinity Christian Academy, and the Episcopal School of Jacksonville. Jacksonville is home to a number of institutions of higher education. The University of North Florida (UNF), opened in 1972, is a public institution and a member of the State University System of Florida. Former mayor John Delaney has been president of UNF since 2003. Jacksonville University (JU) is a private institution founded in 1934. Edward Waters College, established in 1866, is the oldest college in Jacksonville and the state's oldest historically black college. Florida State College at Jacksonville is a state college and a member of the Florida College System, offering two-year associate's degrees as well as some four-year bachelor's degrees. The University of Florida has its second campus of the J. Hillis Miller Health Science Center in Jacksonville. Other colleges and universities in Jacksonville include Florida Coastal School of Law and Jones College. Also in the area are St. Johns River State College, a state college with campuses in Clay, St. Johns, and Putnam Counties, and Flagler College in St. Augustine. The Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science also offers educational programs from its Mayo Clinic Jacksonville campus. The Jacksonville Public Library had its beginnings when May Moore and Florence Murphy started the "Jacksonville Library and Literary Association" in 1878. The Association was populated by various prominent Jacksonville residents and sought to create a free public library and reading room for the city. Over the course of 127 years, the system has grown from that one room library to become one of the largest in the state. The Jacksonville library system has 20 branches, ranging in size from the West Regional Library to smaller neighborhood libraries like Westbrook and Eastside. The Library annually receives nearly 4 million visitors and circulates over 6 million items. Nearly 500,000 library cards are held by area residents. On November 12, 2005, the new Main Library opened to the public, replacing the 40-year-old Haydon Burns Library. The largest public library in the state, the opening of the new main library marked the completion of an unprecedented period of growth for the system under the Better Jacksonville Plan. The new Main Library offers specialized reading rooms, public access to hundreds of computers and public displays of art, an extensive collection of books, and special collections ranging from the African-American Collection to the recently opened Holocaust Collection. There are seven bridges over the St. Johns River at Jacksonville. They include (starting from furthest downstream) the Napoleon Bonaparte Broward Bridge (Dames Point) (which carries Interstate 295 Eastern Beltway traffic), the John E. Mathews Bridge, the Isaiah D. Hart Bridge, the John T. Alsop Jr. Bridge (Main Street), the St. Elmo W. Acosta Bridge, the Fuller Warren Bridge (which carries I-95 traffic) and the Henry Holland Buckman Bridge (which carries I-295 North/South traffic). Also, next to the Acosta Bridge is a large jackknife railroad bridge built in the 1920s by Henry flagler's FEC railroad. Beginning in 1953, tolls were charged on the Hart, Mathews, Fuller Warren and the Main Street bridges to pay for bridge construction, renovations and many other highway projects. As Jacksonville grew, toll plazas created bottlenecks and caused delays and accidents during rush hours. In 1988, Jacksonville voters chose to eliminate toll collection and replace the revenue with a ½ cent local sales tax increase. In 1989, the toll booths were removed. Interstate 10 (I-10) and I-95 intersect in Jacksonville, forming the busiest intersection in the region with 200,000 vehicles each day. I-10 ends at this intersection (the other end being in Santa Monica, California). Additionally, State Road 202 (SR 202, J. Turner Butler Boulevard) connects Jacksonville to the beaches. I-95 has a bypass route, I-295, which encircles the downtown area. The major interchange at I-295 and SR 202 was finally completed on December 24, 2008. SR 9B is under construction and will connect I-295's southeast corner to the Bayard Area. SR 9B will be called I-795 when it is completed. U.S. Highway 1 (US 1) and US 17 travel through the city from the south to the north, and US 23 enters the city running concurrently with US 1\. In downtown, US 23 splits from US 1 and quickly runs to its southern terminus. The eastern terminus of US 90 is in nearby Jacksonville Beach near the Atlantic Ocean. US 23's other end is in Mackinaw City, Michigan. Several regional transportation projects have been undertaken in recent years to deal with congestion on Jacksonville freeways. A $152 million project to create a high-speed interchange at the intersection of Interstates 10 and 95 began in February 2005, after the conclusion of Super Bowl XXXIX. Construction was expected to take nearly six years with multiple lane flyovers and the requirement that the interchange remain open throughout the project. The previous configuration utilized single lane, low speed, curved ramps which created backups during rush hours and contributed to accidents. Also, construction of 9B, future Interstate 795, is currently underway. The Jacksonville Skyway is an automated people mover connecting Florida State College at Jacksonville downtown campus, the Northbank central business district, Convention Center, and Southbank locations. The system includes 8 stops connected by two lines. The existing train is a UMIII monorail built by Bombardier. The guideway consists of concrete beams which rest atop an unusually large support structure not used in most monorail systems. Maximum speed for the train is . A monorail was first proposed in the 1970s as part of a mobility plan hoping to attract interest from the Urban Mass Transit Administration's Downtown Peoplemover Program. The initial study was undertaken by the Florida Department of Transportation and Jacksonville's planning department, who took the Skyway project to the Jacksonville Transportation Authority (JTA) in 1977. Following further development and a final 18-month feasibility study, the UMTA selected Jacksonville as one of seven cities to receive federal funding for an automated people mover. Two other related projects are Miami's Metromover and Detroit's People Mover. UMTA's approved plan called for the construction of a Phase I system to be built in three segments. In 2014, the Jacksonville was among the top large cities ranked by percentage of commuters who drove to work alone (80 percent). According to the 2016 American Community Survey, 80 percent of city of Jacksonville residents commuted in single-occupancy vehicles, 8.6 percent carpooled, 2.6 percent used public transportation, and 2.7 percent walked. All other forms of transportation combined for 1.7 percent of the commuter modal share, while 4.5 percent worked out of the home. Some patterns of car ownership are similar to national averages. In 2015, 8.3 percent of city of Jacksonville households lacked a car, which increased slightly to 8.7 percent in 2016. The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016. Jacksonville averaged 1.62 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8. Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides daily service from the Jacksonville Amtrak Station on Clifford Lane in the northwest section of the city. Two trains presently stop there, the Silver Meteor and Silver Star. Jacksonville was also served by the thrice-weekly Sunset Limited and the daily Silver Palm. Service on the Silver Palm was cut back to Savannah, Georgia in 2002. The Sunset Limited route was truncated at San Antonio, Texas as a result of the track damage in the Gulf Coast area caused by Hurricane Katrina on August 28, 2005. Service was restored as far east as New Orleans by late October 2005, but Amtrak has opted not to fully restore service into Florida. Jacksonville is the headquarters of two significant freight railroads. CSX Transportation, owns a large building on the downtown riverbank that is a significant part of the skyline. Florida East Coast Railway and RailAmerica also call Jacksonville home. Jacksonville is served by Jacksonville International Airport , 13 miles north of downtown, with 82 departures a day to 27 nonstop destination cities. Airports in Jacksonville are managed by the Jacksonville Aviation Authority (JAA). Smaller aircraft use Jacksonville Executive at Craig Airport in Arlington, Herlong Recreational Airport on the Westside, and Cecil Airport , at Cecil Commerce Center. The state of Florida has designated Cecil Airport a space port, allowing horizontal lift spacecraft to use the facility. Public seaports in Jacksonville are managed by the Jacksonville Port Authority, known as JAXPORT. Four modern deepwater () seaport facilities, including America's newest cruise port, make Jacksonville a full-service international seaport. In FY2006, JAXPORT handled 8.7 million tons of cargo, including nearly 610,000 vehicles, which ranks Jacksonville 2nd in the nation in automobile handling, behind only the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. The 20 other maritime facilities not managed by the Port Authority move about 10 million tons of additional cargo in and out of the St. Johns River. In terms of total tonnage, the Port of Jacksonville ranks 40th nationally; within Florida, it is 3rd behind Tampa and Port Everglades. In 2003, the JAXPORT Cruise Terminal opened, providing cruise service for 1,500 passengers to Key West, Florida, the Bahamas, and Mexico via Carnival Cruise Lines ship, Celebration, which was retired in April 2008. For almost five months, no cruises originated from Jacksonville until September 20, 2008, when the cruise ship Fascination departed with 2,079 passengers. In Fiscal year 2006, there were 78 cruise ship sailings with 128,745 passengers. A JaxPort spokesperson said in 2008 that they expect 170,000 passengers to sail each year. Jacksonville Fire and Rescue operates a fleet of three fireboats. Its vessels are called on to fight approximately 75 fires per year. The Mayport Ferry connects the north and south ends of State Road A1A between Mayport and Fort George Island, and is the last active ferry in Florida. The state of Florida transferred responsibility for ferry operations to JAXPORT on October 1, 2007. Basic utilities in Jacksonville (water, sewer, electric) are provided by JEA (formerly the Jacksonville Electric Authority). According to Article 21 of the Jacksonville City Charter, JEA is authorized to own, manage and operate a utilities system within and outside the City of Jacksonville. JEA is created for the express purpose of acquiring, constructing, operating, financing and otherwise have plenary authority with respect to electric, water, sewer, natural gas and such other utility systems as may be under its control now or in the future. People's Gas is Jacksonville's natural gas provider. Comcast is Jacksonville's local cable provider. AT&T; (formerly BellSouth) is Jacksonville's local phone provider, and their U-Verse service offers TV, internet, and VoIP phone service to customers served by fiber-to-the-premises or fiber-to-the-node using a VRAD. The city has a successful recycling program with separate pickups for garbage, yard waste and recycling. Collection is provided by several private companies under contract to the City of Jacksonville. Major players in the Jacksonville health care industry include St. Vincent's HealthCare, Baptist Health and UF Health Jacksonville for local residents. Additionally, Nemours Children's Clinic and Mayo Clinic Jacksonville each draw patients regionally. The TaxExemptWorld.com website, which compiles Internal Revenue Service data, reported that in 2007, there are 2,910 distinct, active, tax exempt/non-profit organizations in Jacksonville which, excluding Credit Unions, had a total income of $7.08 billion and assets of $9.54 billion. There are 333 charitable organizations with assets of over $1 million. The largest share of assets was tied to Medical facilities, $4.5 billion. The problems of the homeless are addressed by several non-profits, most notably the Sulzbacher Center and the Clara White Mission. Jacksonville has eight sister cities. They are: In 2000, The Sister Cities International awarded Jacksonville the Innovation Arts & Culture Award for the city's program with Nantes. Duval County, Florida, Greater Jacksonville, List of people from Jacksonville, Florida, National Register of Historic Places listings in Duval County, Florida Bartley, Abel A., and Jon L. WakelynKeeping the Faith: Race, Politics, and Social Development in Jacksonville, Florida, 1940–1970, Greenwood Publishing, 2000., Cassanello, Robert. To Render Invisible: Jim Crow and Public Life in New South Jacksonville. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2013., Cowart, John Wilson. Crackers and Carpetbaggers: Moments in the History of Jacksonville, Florida., Cowart, John Wilson. Heroes all: a history of firefighting in Jacksonville., Crooks, James B. Jacksonville: The Consolidation Story, from Civil Rights to the Jaguars, University Press of Florida, 2004., Foley, Bill; Wood, Wayne (2001). The great fire of 1901 (1st ed.). Jacksonville, Florida: The Jacksonville Historical Society., Jackson, David H., Jr., "'Industrious, Thrifty, and Ambitious': Jacksonville's African American Businesspeople during the Jim Crow Era," Florida Historical Quarterly, 90 (Spring 2012), 453–87., Mason, Jr., Herman. African-American Life in Jacksonville, Arcadia Publishing, 1997., Oehser, John. Jags to Riches: The Cinderella Season of the Jacksonville Jaguars, St. Martins Press, 1997., Schaefer, Daniel. From scratch pads and dreams: A ten year history of the University of North Florida, University of North Florida, 1982., Wagman, Jules. Jacksonville and Florida's First Coast, Windsor Publishing, 1989., Williams, Caroyln. Historic Photos of Jacksonville, Turner Publishing Company, 2006. Visit Jacksonville, official tourism website of Jacksonville

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16 and Pregnant is an American reality television series that aired from June 11, 2009, to July 1, 2014, on MTV. It followed the stories of pregnant teenage girls in high school dealing with the hardships of teenage pregnancy. Each episode featured a different teenage girl, with the episode typically beginning when she is – 8 months into her pregnancy. The episode typically ends when the baby is a few months old. The series is produced in a documentary format, with an animation on notebook paper showing highlights during each episode preceding the commercial breaks. 16 and Pregnant has spawned four spin-off series: Teen Mom, Teen Mom 2, Teen Mom 3 and . Each series follows the lives of four girls from their respective season of 16 and Pregnant as they navigate their first years of motherhood. The fifth season premiered on April 14, 2014. Based on a preview of the show's first three episodes, The New York Times called the series a "documentary-style series about real-life Junos who are not scoring in the 99th percentile on the verbal portion of their SATs... despite its showcasing of the grim, hard work of single mothering." In 2011, the Social Security Administration reported that the names of one of the featured mothers and her son, "Maci" and "Bentley", were the names that saw the greatest increase in frequency over the past year. In 2016, a The New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that "similar to Teen Mom, 16 and Pregnant is more popular in rural parts of the country". In 2014, the National Bureau of Economic Research conducted and published a study suggesting a correlation between the premiere of the show in 2009 and a 5.7% decrease in teen births in the 18 months following the premiere. At the time, it was unknown whether this was due to the premiere of 16 and Pregnant or the recent economic decline. Research conducted in 2016 suggests that 16 and Pregnant was unlikely to have had any effect on teenage birth rates and prior research to be "problematic." The latest study reveals, through a series of placebo and other tests, that the assumption of common trends in birth rates between low and high MTV-watching areas is not met. 16 and Pregnant on TV.com, Casting Call Teen Mom 2 is an American reality television series that premiered January 11, 2011, on MTV. It follows the lives of Jenelle Evans, Chelsea DeBoer, Kailyn Lowry, and Leah Messer from the second season of 16 and Pregnant as they navigate their first years of motherhood. The series also focuses on the themes of their changing relationships between family, friends, and boys, while highlighting the struggles of young mothers raising children. In June 2017, it was announced that former Teen Mom 3 star Briana DeJesus would join the cast of Teen Mom 2. In May 2019, following Evans' firing from the show, it was announced that star Jade Cline will be joining the cast. Jenelle Evans (from Oak Island, North Carolina) Jenelle continues to reconcile the responsibilities of motherhood with her love of partying. With her son Jace's father out of the picture, Jenelle relies heavily on her mother Barbara. The two have an explosive relationship, which is amplified by the fact that Barbara now has permanent custody of Jace, while Jenelle has limited visitation. Through it all, Jenelle struggles to prove herself as a mom and responsible adult, but her party-girl ways keep leading her down the wrong path. When Jenelle and Kieffer got arrested, she had to choose between changing her ways or continuing on a downward spiral that could quickly hit rock bottom. Mother and daughter have long been fighting over custody of the little boy, as documented on Teen Mom 2. On December 4, 2012, Jenelle married Courtland Rogers. The couple got engaged in November 2012 and were expecting her second child. Jenelle stated that she missed a few days of taking her birth control pills and was notified of the pregnancy while at a doctor's appointment. It was announced on January 25, 2013 that she and Courtland had split and that she had suffered a miscarriage. It was later revealed in the fifth season that Jenelle lied about the miscarriage (having posted photos of fake blood on social media before going out to drink with an ex-boyfriend) and chose instead to abort and to divorce Courtland. Courtland was made aware by social media that Jenelle had lied about the miscarriage and instead aborted their child. In June 2013, Jenelle started dating Nathan Griffith, a former model she met on Tinder. Within months of dating they moved in together and she became pregnant with their first child. On December 14, 2013, Evans was arrested for disturbing the peace after an argument with Griffith. She was booked at 5:11 p.m. and released on bond at 6:14 p.m. that day. Having just recently aborted Courtland Rogers' baby, Jenelle was confused about whether that abortion had failed and she was still pregnant, or she was now pregnant by Nathan. In a clip from Teen Mom 2, Jenelle laughs while telling Nathan "I don't know if I have a dead fetus inside me." Nathan has a daughter named Emery from a previous relationship. On June 29, 2014 she gave birth to her second child, son Kaiser Orion Griffith. In January 2015 Jenelle and Nathan got engaged, but they broke off the engagement that August. After their breakup, the former couple became engaged in a custody battle over Kaiser. In January 2017, Jenelle and Nathan reached a joint custody agreement in court. In September 2015, Jenelle started dating David Eason, a pipewelder she met on Tinder and they quickly moved in together. David had previously met Jenelle's ex-husband, Courtland Rogers, when they were cellmates. David has two children from previous relationships: daughter Maryssa Rose and son Kaden David. David does not have custody of Kaden, as his ex (the child's mother) was granted a no-contact order against him following allegations of domestic violence. David can be seen on Teen Mom 2 verbally and physically disciplining Kaiser, Nathan's son, in inappropriate ways. David also posted a photo of Kaiser to social media in which Kaiser had his hand in the front of his diaper. David captioned the photo with a reference to the boy's penis. Jenelle gave birth to their first child together, daughter Ensley Jolie Eason, on January 24, 2017. Ensley tested positive for THC at her birth and has obvious neglect-related deformities, most notably a skull deformity. In February 2017, Jenelle announced on Instagram that she and David are engaged. The couple got married on September 23, 2017. On October 13, 2018, police were called to Evans' house for a physical assault with Eason. Eason slammed her to the ground and sprained her collarbone. Evans went to the hospital following the incident. Evans claimed that Eason had been drinking which contributed to the assault. Evans decided to not press charges and no police report was filed. In April 2019, it was reported that Eason beat and shot Evans's dog, Nugget. As a result of the incident, MTV decided to forgo filming any future seasons with Jenelle. Jenelle announced in October of 2019 that she was filing for divorce with David And had taken the kids. It’s rumored she may return to Teen Mom 2 in wake of her divorce. Chelsea DeBoer (née Houska) (from Sioux Falls, South Dakota) Since giving birth to Aubree, Chelsea's life has been consumed with taking care of her daughter and trying to make her tumultuous relationship with Aubree's father, Adam, succeed. She obtained her GED after years of working towards it and has begun attending beauty school. As her emotional tug-of-war with Adam escalates, she finally gets the strength to call it quits, trying to move forward and focus on what's best for her and her daughter. Her friends and family just hope she can stay away from Adam for good this time. During the sixth season, Chelsea was in a bitter custody battle with Adam over Aubree. He wanted joint custody and even filed for it, while Chelsea wanted to keep the current custody arrangement. In March 2015, the court ruled that Chelsea will retain full custody of Aubree. Adam will still be able to see her, but his parents will continue to supervise his visits; they were due back in court in six months for the judge to re-evaluate the case. As of February 2016, Adam is no longer seeking joint custody of Aubree, as he hasn't done anything for a year to get more time with her. In late 2014, Chelsea met a new guy named Cole DeBoer. The two hit it off and dated for nearly a year. Chelsea introduced Cole in the season six premiere of Teen Mom 2 and eventually, they moved in together. The couple became engaged on November 17, 2015, and married on October 1, 2016. On January 25, 2017, Chelsea and Cole welcomed their first child, a son named Watson Cole DeBoer. On August 29, 2018 (her 27th birthday), Chelsea welcomed her third child, a girl named Layne Ettie DeBoer. Kailyn Lowry (previously Marroquin) (from Whitehall Township, Pennsylvania) Kailyn is Isaac's mother. Her relationship with Isaac's father, Jo, crumbled under the stress of balancing their lives and raising their child, and Kailyn moved out amidst their constant fighting. A romance with coworker Jordan got more serious as she turned to him for emotional support during a bitter custody battle with Jo. Through it all, Kailyn was determined to better her situation for her son while she navigated her complicated relationship with Jo and struggled to finally move out on her own. She also had to deal with custody issues when her ex-boyfriend started seeing a new girl and was accused of getting drunk when he was watching Isaac. Since then, Kailyn and Jo have made amends, as they are getting along for Isaac's sake. During the fourth season of Teen Mom 2, she developed a relationship with Javi Marroquin that escalated quite quickly. The two got engaged after a few months of dating, and married on September 4, 2012. Kailyn gave birth to their first child, son Lincoln Marshall Marroquin, on November 16, 2013. In May 2016, Kailyn filed for divorce from Javi after nearly three years of marriage. They were seen going through a rough patch during the sixth season of the show, which started after she endured a miscarriage that he blamed her for. On December 5, 2016, it was announced that the couple's divorce has been finalized, with Kailyn and Javi being granted 50/50 custody of Lincoln. As of May 2017, Kailyn and Javi's relationship has been getting better, with them being able to co-parent Lincoln. Javi plans to continue to be in Isaac's life, as he has stated on several occasions that he thinks of his former stepson as his own. On August 5, 2017, Kailyn gave birth to her third son, Lux Russell. The father is her longtime friend Chris Lopez. Leah Messer(previously Simms and Calvert) (from Elkview, West Virginia) Former cheerleader Leah is the teen mother of twins Aliannah "Ali" and Aleeah "Gracie". From a small town outside of Charleston, West Virginia, Leah sacrificed everything her senior year in order to graduate, take care of her girls, and try to make things work with their father, her ex-husband Corey Simms. However, because Leah cheated on him with her ex-boyfriend, the two broke up and had a turbulent relationship. Leah is a country girl who wears her heart on her sleeve and when she discovers that Ali is developing at a slower rate than her sister, she reaches out to Corey. Leah and Corey eventually learn that Ali suffers from Titin muscular dystrophy, a very rare form of the disorder that has only ever been found in adults. In October 2015, it was reported that Leah lost primary custody of the twins to Corey. This was due to the girls being repeatedly late for school, as claimed by her ex-husband. She could only see their daughters on the weekends. Four months later, in February 2016, Leah and Corey reached a custody agreement without a judge, ending their long custody battle. They now share custody of Ali and Aleeah, and are on good terms with one another. In August 2011, Leah started dating Jeremy Calvert. They married on April 4, 2012, after eight months of dating. After a miscarriage, they had their first child, daughter Adalynn Faith "Addie" Calvert, on February 4, 2013. In April 2015, Jeremy filed for divorce from Leah after three years of marriage. On June 8, 2015, the couple finalized their divorce. Leah was given custody of Addie, while Jeremy received visitation rights. Since April 2018, Leah has been dating Jason Jordan, a medical salesman she met through his cousin, who is a friend of hers. Jason is 39-years-old, has a two-year-old son from a previous marriage, and lives near Leah's home. They split up in 2019. Briana DeJesus (from Orlando, Florida) Briana got pregnant by her ex- boyfriend, Devoin Austin II. Her daughter Nova Star DeJesus was born on September 10, 2011. Previously one-fourth of the cast for Teen Mom 3 and a participant on Family Therapy with Dr. Jenn, DeJesus' casting for Teen Mom 2 was announced on June 5, 2017. Briana gave birth to her second daughter, Stella Star, on July 2, 2017. The father is Luis Hernández but they are not together. Jade Cline (from Indianapolis, Indiana) Jade is the mother of Kloie Kenna Austin. The father is her ex-boyfriend Sean Austin. Previously one-fourth of the cast of , Cline's casting was confirmed in May 2019, replacing Jenelle Eason. Farrah Abraham (born May 31, 1991) is an American reality television personality, singer, and writer. Born in Omaha, Nebraska, and raised in Council Bluffs, Iowa, she received public attention after being cast in the reality television series 16 and Pregnant in 2009, which documented the pregnancies and first months of motherhood for several young women. Later that year, she was cast in the spin-off series Teen Mom, and appeared in each of its four seasons until its conclusion in 2012. That August, she released her debut studio album and first memoir, both of which were titled My Teenage Dream Ended. The book made it onto The New York Times bestseller list. Farrah Abraham was born on May 31, 1991, in Omaha, Nebraska and raised in Council Bluffs, Iowa. Her father, Michael Abraham, is of Syrian and Italian descent. Her mother, Debra Danielsen, is of Danish and Sicilian ancestry. Her parents separated and divorced; through her mother's marriage in 2017, Abraham has a stepfather. In 2008, Abraham, then 17, was selected to appear on the MTV show, 16 and Pregnant, a reality series that aimed to document the lives of pregnant teenagers across the United States. News of her pregnancy caused issues between her and her mother, Debra Danielsen, with Danielsen calling her daughter a whore and preventing her from obtaining an abortion; being pregnant, Abraham was forced to discontinue her cheerleading. Furthermore, during filming, Derek Underwood, the father of her child, died in a car accident. Abraham gave birth to the couple's child, a daughter named Sophia Laurent Abraham, on February 23, 2009. Abraham's episode of 16 and Pregnant aired in 2009. Later that year she was cast in the spin-off series Teen Mom; it followed Abraham, in addition to Maci Bookout, Catelynn Lowell and Amber Portwood, who also appeared on episodes of 16 and Pregnant, during their first years of motherhood. The series premiere was broadcast on December 8, 2009. In 2011 she began attending the Art Institute of Fort Lauderdale in Florida, where she got an associate degree in culinary arts and management. She later launched the "Mom & Me" pasta sauce line. On August 1, 2012, Abraham ventured into the music industry with the release of her debut studio album My Teenage Dream Ended. It received overwhelmingly negative reviews from contemporary music critics. Abraham released a memoir by the same title on August 14. After airing four seasons, the series finale of Teen Mom aired on August 29, 2012. In January 2014, Abraham was cast for the fourth season of Couples Therapy. However, Brian Dawe claimed that he was hired by Abraham to appear as her on- screen boyfriend and ultimately did not appear on the program alongside her. Abraham consequently became the only cast member in series history to continue therapy without a partner, and was refocused on repairing her relationship with her mother. With her previous allegations of rape placing a strain on her partnership with Vivid Entertainment, a press release announcing her second sex tape Farrah 2: Backdoor and More in February stated "it's no 'fake' 'leak'—it's the real, raw, ridiculous deal, and it suits Farrah's underhanded personality herself." Farrah reportedly earned 1 million dollars after selling her sex tape with James Deen. Later that month, Abraham appeared in the TV special Being Farrah, which acted as a continuation of Teen Mom; Bookout, Lowell, and Portwood were respectively featured in the specials Being Maci, Being Catelynn, and Being Amber. Their successes prompted MTV to consider reviving the series without Abraham, who the other women were concerned was an inappropriate influence on their children. In March, Abraham returned to the music industry with the release of the song "Blowin'" and the simultaneous premiere of its accompanying music video. She stated that she treats music as a "hobby, not my career move." In August of that year she signed a contract with Palazio's Gentleman's Club in Austin, Texas, for $544,000 to have a residency there until New Year's Eve. In 2015, Abraham appeared on the sixteenth season of the British television series Celebrity Big Brother, representing the United States. On September 18, she became the fifth housemate to be evicted. She was not in the top four highest-voted housemates, and her fellow housemate, Austin Armacost, chose to evict her. She had spent 23 days in the house. On 22 September 2015, she appeared as a panelist on the Celebrity Big Brother's Bit on the Side after- show and got into a heated argument with fellow panelist, Aisleyne Horgan- Wallace. The show was taken off air 10 minutes early after a "clash" between panelists. Abraham and Janice Dickinson were given police cautions. Album My Teenage Dream Ended (2012) Single "Blowin" (2014) My Teenage Dream Ended (2012), Passy Perfume (2012), Celebrity Sex Tape: In The Making (2014), Celebrity Sex Tape: The Secret's Out (2014), Celebrity Sex Tape: Love Through Limelight (2015)

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Kaa is a fictional character from The Jungle Book stories written by Rudyard Kipling. Kaa is one of Mowgli's trusted mentors and friends. First introduced in the story "Kaa's Hunting" in The Jungle Book, Kaa is a huge and powerful snake, more than 100 years old and still in his prime. In "Kaa's Hunting", Bagheera and Baloo enlist Kaa's help to rescue Mowgli when the man-cub is kidnapped by Bandar-log (monkeys) and taken to an abandoned human city called the Cold Lairs. Kaa breaks down the wall of the building in which Mowgli is imprisoned and uses his serpentine hypnosis to draw the monkeys toward his waiting jaws. Bagheera and Baloo are also hypnotized, but Mowgli is immune because he is human and breaks the spell on his friends. In The Second Jungle Book, Kaa appears in the first half of the story "The King's Ankus". After Kaa and Mowgli spend some time relaxing, bathing and wrestling, Kaa persuades Mowgli to visit a treasure chamber guarded by an old cobra beneath the same Cold Lairs. The cobra tries to kill Mowgli but its venom has dried up. Mowgli takes a jeweled item away as a souvenir, not realizing the trouble it will cause them, and Kaa departs. In "Red Dog", Mowgli asks Kaa for help when his wolf pack is threatened by rampaging dholes (the red dogs of the title). Kaa goes into a trance so that he can search his century-long memory for a stratagem to defeat the dogs: With Kaa's help Mowgli tricks the dholes into attacking prematurely. Kaa takes no part in the resulting battle (obliquely citing his loyalty to the boy rather than to the wolves, who often caused Mowgli grief) but Mowgli and the wolves finally kill all the dholes, though not without grievous losses. In "The Spring Running", as the teenage Mowgli reluctantly prepares to leave the jungle for the last time, Kaa tells Mowgli that "it is hard to cast the skin," but Mowgli knows he must cast the skin of his old life in order to grow a new one. Kaa, Baloo and Bagheera sing for Mowgli in "The Outsong", a poem and the ending of "The Spring Running". Kaa appears in the 1967 animated adaptation by Walt Disney Productions. This version of Kaa is recast as a villain, as Walt Disney felt audiences would not sympathize with a snake character. The voice of Kaa is provided by Sterling Holloway. Kaa notices Mowgli in a tree one night and, rather than a serpentine dance, uses his hypnotic eyes to lull Mowgli to sleep. Kaa nearly eats Mowgli before Bagheera awakens nearby, notices him, and slaps him, awakening Mowgli. Kaa retaliates by hypnotizing Bagheera, though Mowgli pushes Kaa out of the tree, making him unravel violently. Kaa encounters Mowgli again later in the film and quickly hypnotizes him again, though he has to hide him when Shere Khan asks him where the boy is. Shere Khan makes Kaa swear to tell him when he finds Mowgli and leaves, though Mowgli wakes up and pushes Kaa out of the tree again. Kaa is based on earlier characters from Disney films who comically and unsuccessfully attempt to eat the protagonist, including Tick-Tock the crocodile from Peter Pan and the wolf from The Sword in the Stone. Holloway provided Kaa with a hissing lisp while voicing him, which the Sherman Brothers incorporated into Kaa's song "Trust in Me". Kaa returns in The Jungle Book 2, now voiced by Jim Cummings. Kaa again tries and fails to eat Mowgli while he and Baloo are singing "The Bare Necessities". He angrily swears that he will "never again associate with mancubs" until he discovers Mowgli's human friend Shanti and tries to eat her. Mowgli's adoptive brother Ranjan thwarts him, causing him to fall down a cliff. Shere Khan finds Kaa again and asks him where Mowgli is, but Kaa lies that Mowgli is heading toward the swamp. Kaa appears in the prequel series Jungle Cubs, where he is voiced by Jim Cummings. Kaa is seen as a snakeling who is still trying to master his hypnotic abilities, though he is cowardly. He is shown as a protagonist as opposed to the 1967 film, being friendly with the other cubs. Kaa appears in the 1994 live-action adaptation as a large anaconda, though most of his appearances are created using both animatronics and computer- generated imagery. Kaa is depicted as a far more menacing predator who lives in Monkey City with King Louie, guarding the orangutan's treasure from intruders. Kaa attacks Mowgli and tries to drown him in a moat, but Mowgli wounds him with a bejeweled dagger, forcing him to flee in a cloud of blood. Louie summons Kaa again after Mowgli defeats Captain Boone and Boone begins stealing treasure; Kaa scares Boone into the moat, where the stolen treasure weighs him down to the bottom. Struggling to free himself, Boone sees the skeletal remains of Kaa's past victims moments before he meets his death by the python. Kaa appears in the 2016 remake of the 1967 film. This version of Kaa is female and voiced by Scarlett Johansson. As in the 1967 film, Kaa is a villain desiring to hypnotize and eat Mowgli. While Mowgli is hypnotized, Kaa reveals that he came to live in the jungle after Shere Khan killed his father and Bagheera found him, then describes to him the power of the dangerous "red flower", fire. Kaa tries to devour Mowgli, but Baloo discovers her and rescues Mowgli. Johansson described Kaa in an interview as a "window into Mowgli's past" who uses storytelling to seduce and entrap Mowgli, noting that the way Kaa moves is "very alluring" and "almost coquettish". Johansson also recorded a new version of "Trust in Me" for the film, saying the song was "a strange melody. We wanted it to be a lullaby, but it has a very mysterious sound." In the 1967 Adventures of Mowgli Soviet cartoons, Kaa was voiced by Vladimir Ushakov in the Russian version and by Sam Elliott in the English dub. This version of the serpent, like the cartoons in general, is faithful to the original books., In the 1989 Japanese anime series Jungle Book Shōnen Mowgli, Kaa's personality is closer to the books than the Disney series. He is voiced by Keaton Yamada in the Japanese and Terrence Scammell in the English dub., A snake-like character resembling Kaa made a cameo during the final scene of Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988) with the other Disney characters., Kaa also made an appearance in the 1997 live-action film . He appears as the snake charmer Karait's pet female python., In the 2010 CGI animated television series, Kaa is given a more ferocious personality than in the books, but at the same time he is friends and allies with Mowgli, Bagheera, and Baloo., Kaa appears , where like the 2016 film she is female, being voiced by Cate Blanchett. This version is closer to the Kipling books, being a seer who takes a mentor-like role toward Mowgli. The Jungle Book is a 2016 British-American fantasy adventure film directed and produced by Jon Favreau, produced by Walt Disney Pictures, and written by Justin Marks. Based on Rudyard Kipling's eponymous collective works and inspired by Walt Disney's 1967 animated film of the same name, The Jungle Book is a live-action/CGI film that tells the story of Mowgli, an orphaned human boy who, guided by his animal guardians, sets out on a journey of self- discovery while evading the threatening Shere Khan. The film introduces Neel Sethi as Mowgli, along with voice and motion capture performances from Bill Murray, Ben Kingsley, Idris Elba, Lupita Nyong'o, Scarlett Johansson, Giancarlo Esposito, and Christopher Walken. Favreau, Marks, and producer Brigham Taylor developed the film's story as a balance between Disney's animated adaptation and Kipling's original works, borrowing elements from both into the film. Principal photography commenced in 2014, with filming taking place entirely in Los Angeles. The film required extensive use of computer- generated imagery to portray the animals and settings. The Jungle Book was released in the United States in Disney Digital 3-D, RealD 3D, IMAX 3D, D-Box, and premium large formats, on April 15, 2016. It became a critical and commercial success, grossing over $966 million worldwide, making it the fifth- highest-grossing film of 2016 and the 30th-highest-grossing film of all time. The film received praise for its visual effects, vocal performances, direction, musical score, and its faithfulness to the original animated film. It won accolades for achievements in visual effects at the 89th Academy Awards, 22nd Critics' Choice Awards and 70th British Academy Film Awards. A sequel is in development, with Favreau and Marks set to return as director/producer and writer, respectively. Mowgli is a "man-cub" raised by the Indian wolf Raksha and her pack, led by Akela, in an Indian jungle ever since he was brought to them as an infant by the black panther Bagheera. Bagheera trains Mowgli to learn the ways of the wolves, but the boy faces certain challenges and falls behind his wolf siblings, while Akela objects to him using human "tricks", like building tools, instead of learning the ways of the pack. One day, during the dry season, the jungle animals gather to drink the water that remains as part of a truce during a drought that enables the jungle's wildlife to drink without fear of their predators. The truce is disrupted when a fire-scarred bengal tiger named Shere Khan arrives, detecting Mowgli's scent in the crowd. Consumed by a vendetta against humans for scarring him with fire, he threatens to kill Mowgli at the end of the drought. After the drought ends, the wolves debate whether or not they should keep Mowgli. Mowgli decides to leave the jungle for the safety of his pack. Bagheera volunteers to guide him to the nearby man-village. En route, Shere Khan ambushes them, but Mowgli manages to escape amidst a water buffalo stampede. Later, Mowgli meets an enormous reticulated python named Kaa, who hypnotizes him. While under her influence, Mowgli sees a vision of his father being killed by Shere Khan while protecting him. Kaa attempts to devour Mowgli, but she is attacked by a himalayan brown bear named Baloo who rescues the unconscious Mowgli. Mowgli later awakens and retrieves some difficult-to-access honey for Baloo as repayment, with the two bonding in the process. Mowgli agrees to stay with Baloo until the winter season arrives. Meanwhile, upon learning that Mowgli has left the jungle, Shere Khan kills Akela and threatens the pack to lure Mowgli out. Bagheera eventually finds Mowgli and Baloo and is shocked that Mowgli has not joined the humans as he had agreed, but Baloo calms him down and persuades both of them to sleep on it. During the night, Mowgli finds a herd of Indian elephants gathered around a ditch and uses vines to save their baby. Although Baloo and Bagheera are impressed, Baloo realizes that he cannot guarantee Mowgli's safety after learning that he is being hunted by Shere Khan. Baloo agrees to push Mowgli away to get him to continue onward to the man village. Mowgli is kidnapped by a gang of monkeys known as the "Bandar-log", who present him to their leader, a deranged giant ape named King Louie. Assuming that all humans can make "the red flower" (fire), King Louie offers Mowgli protection from Shere Khan in exchange for it. Baloo distracts King Louie while Bagheera tries to sneak Mowgli out, but their ruse is uncovered. As King Louie chases Mowgli through his temple, he informs Mowgli of Akela's death. King Louie's rampage eventually causes his temple to collapse on top of him. Furious that Baloo and Bagheera neglected to tell him about Akela's death, Mowgli goes to confront Shere Khan. He steals a lit torch from the man village and heads back to the jungle, accidentally starting a wildfire in the process. He confronts Shere Khan, who claims that Mowgli has made himself the enemy of the jungle by causing the wildfire. Seeing the wolves' fear of him, Mowgli throws the torch into a river. Baloo, Bagheera, and the wolf pack hold off Shere Khan, giving Mowgli enough time to flee into the burning jungle. He lures Shere Khan up a dead tree and onto a branch, which breaks under the tiger's weight, and Shere Khan falls into the fire to his death. Mowgli then directs the elephants to divert the river and put out the fire. In the aftermath, Raksha becomes the new leader of the wolf pack. Mowgli decides to utilize his equipment and tricks for his own use, having found his true home and calling with his wolf family, Baloo, and Bagheera. Neel Sethi as Mowgli: A young boy who was raised by wolves. The search for casting Mowgli was extensive, with thousands of children auditioning from the United States, the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and Canada. Eventually, newcomer Neel Sethi was confirmed for the role, with casting director Rebecca Williams describing him as embodying "the heart, humor, and daring of the character. He's warm and accessible, yet also has an intelligence well beyond his years and impressed us all with his ability to hold his own in any situation". Sethi underwent parkour training in preparation for the role., Kendrick Reyes as toddler Mowgli., Ritesh Rajan as Mowgli's father. Bill Murray as Baloo: A Himalayan brown bear who encounters and befriends Mowgli. Favreau had Murray in mind to voice Baloo since the beginning of the project. “He’s perfect", says the director. “Bill just exudes all the charm and humor that you need and expect from Baloo. He has a certain dryness and a rebellious quality”. He had also always wanted to work with Murray, having been a huge fan of his work, though he has been aware of how hard it is to contact him. Fortunately for Favreau, he was able to get a hold of Murray, and he agreed to come on board, with Favreau going on to comment that “Once he came aboard, he was incredibly passionate. He has a very high standard”. “I just couldn’t say no to playing Baloo", says Murray. “Jon [Favreau] is a terrific storyteller and I’m such a huge fan of the original stories. Kipling wrote a lot of amazing stuff. I read that book when I was about 22 and I’ve always thought that it was just extraordinary writing"., Ben Kingsley as Bagheera: A black panther who is Mowgli's mentor and protector. Favreau said that Kingsley "brought this elegance and refinement to the character, yet with great firmness. He's an interesting dude with crazy range". Kingsley said that Bagheera's "role in Mowgli's life is to educate, to protect and to guide". Kingsley said that "[Bagheera] is instantly recognizable by the way he talks, how he acts and what his ethical code is", and stated that "Rudyard Kipling’s stories of Mowgli’s adventures with these extraordinary, beautifully defined characters introduce many around the world to the Indian subcontinent and its culture" through he felt that both the film and the book's story was ultimately about Mowgli's search for a family. "There are many wonderful stories that are based on the struggle of an orphan to find a family — to create a family around him, which is a very poignant part of Jon Favreau’s version of the film. It will have its beautiful, thrilling, exciting, joyous moments of celebration. But must also quite rightly have its darker moments, because we’re dealing with a very isolated child who triumphs over enormous odds"., Idris Elba as Shere Khan: A fearsome, scarred Bengal tiger with a blinded left eye who wishes to kill Mowgli. Favreau felt that Elba's voice "wields tremendous presence in a room", and that "[Elba]'s got such gravity and brings his steely presence, a deep timbre that echoes in a larger-than-life way. He understands this scarred, imposing tiger in a way the character demands". Elba said that "Shere Khan reigns with fear. He terrorizes everyone he encounters because he comes from a place of fear". Elba was highly impressed with the film's effects, stating that "[w]hen Jon [Favreau] showed [Elba] Shere Khan's expressions and how he moves, [he] had to ask, ‘Is that a real tiger?’ The technology is incredible"., Lupita Nyong'o as Raksha: A female Indian wolf who is Mowgli's adoptive mother. Favreau and Marks decided to give the character of Raksha a more predominant role in the film similar to Kipling's original tales. Favreau chose Nyong’o because he believed her voice imbued the emotion required for the role, commenting "Lupita has tremendous depth of emotion in her performance. There's an emotional underpinning she brings, and a strength, and we wanted that for this surrogate mother. Much of that comes from her voice". Along with saying that she was a fan of the original Disney animated film, Nyong’o also commented, “I really enjoyed preparing for this and learning about wolves and how social they are, how they stick together", continues Nyong’o. “There’s such an order - a hierarchy to a wolf pack. Mowgli tries to fit in with the other wolf pups. He has his challenges, but he is very much a part of the pack as far as Raksha is concerned"., Scarlett Johansson as Kaa: A gigantic reticulated python. Favreau decided to cast Johansson, a recurrent collaborator of Favreau's, to play Kaa, originally a male character, as he felt the original film was "a little too male-oriented". On Kaa's role in the film, Favreau said that "Mowgli is exploring different regions of the jungle — mistier, darker, more mysterious parts of the jungle. That’s where Kaa lives. That’s where she gets ahold of him — till Baloo rescues him and brings him back to his cave". Johansson said that "For [her], the opportunity to play Kaa as envisioned by Jon [Favreau] was so exciting", and described Kaa as "the mirror into Mowgli’s past"., Giancarlo Esposito as Akela: A male Indian wolf who leads the pack. Producer Brigham Taylor praised Esposito, claiming that "Giancarlo is an esteemed actor who absolutely embodies the nature of the character". Along with commenting that he's a fan of both the animated film and Kipling's books, Giancarlo described his character as “...a fierce patriarch of the wolf pack. He believes that the strength of the pack lies in what each and every wolf offers. He knows if they stick together, they can survive. He’s a great leader, a wise teacher. I aspire to be like him”., Christopher Walken as King Louie: A giant ape who rules the Bandar-log. Favreau decided to change King Louie from an orangutan to a Gigantopithecus due to the fact that orangutans are not native to India, where the story takes place. His character was given a slight alteration from the 1967 film and was partly inspired by Marlon Brando's character Colonel Kurtz in Apocalypse Now, as well as incorporating Walken's own physical mannerisms. In regards to Louie's changes, Favreau stated, "We created this looming figure that was trying to extract the secret of fire from Mowgli. And also this gave Mowgli the idea that if he had fire, he could have power over Shere Khan, whether it was good or bad. So there was Lord of the Rings aspect to that; the fire was almost like the ring in that was going to give someone ultimate power, but corrupt them as well as create destruction"., Garry Shandling as Ikki, an Indian porcupine that observes the Water Truce, a character not featured in the original film. The film would go on to be Shandling's final film, having died of pulmonary embolism before the film's release., Brighton Rose as Grey Brother, an Indian wolf pup who is the youngest of Mowgli's adoptive siblings., Jon Favreau as Fred, a pygmy hog. A character not featured in the original film., Sam Raimi as an Indian giant squirrel., Russell Peters as Rocky, an Indian rhinoceros. This character was originally meant to appear in the 1967 film, but Walt Disney scrapped the character., Madeleine Favreau as Raquel, an Indian rhinoceros., Sara Arrington as a Nilgai. Emjay Anthony, Max Favreau, Chloe Hechter, Asher Blinkoff, Knox Gagnon, Sasha Schrieber, and Kai Schrieber voice the Young Wolves. Dee Bradley Baker, Artie Esposito, Sean Johnson, and Allan Trautman provide additional animal voices. On July 9, 2013, Walt Disney Pictures announced that a live-action adaptation of Rudyard Kipling's short story collection The Jungle Book was in development, with Justin Marks set to write the script. The film would be Disney's third live-action adaptation of Kipling's works, following the 1994 film and the 1998 direct-to-video film ; and the studio's fourth overall after the 1967 animated film. Jon Favreau was confirmed as director on November. Favreau as a child used to watch Disney's 1967 animated film. He felt the need to strike a balance between the two films by retaining the buoyant spirit of the 1967 film, including some of its memorable songs while crafting a film with more realism and peril. He also stressed the importance of nature and realized how things have shifted during Kipling's time and now, "In Kipling's time, nature was something to be overcome. Now nature is something to be protected". He was encouraged by Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan Horn to take advantage of the film's setting and story as an opportunity to use the latest advancements in photorealistic rendering, computer-generated imagery, and motion capture technologies. The story of the film is not independently taken from Kipling's works, but also borrows cinematic inspirations from other films, including the child-mentor relationship in Shane (1953), the establishment of rules in a dangerous world from Goodfellas (1990) and the use of a shadowy jungle figure in Apocalypse Now (1979). Pixar Animation Studios assisted in the development of the story, as well as providing suggestions for the film's end credits sequence. John Lasseter, Pixar and Walt Disney Animation Studios' then-chief creative officer, suggested the end the film with the original physical book featured in the 1967 film opening. Principal photography took place entirely on sound stages at L.A. Center Studios in downtown Los Angeles. The animal characters were created entirely in computer animation, with the assistance of footage of real animal movement, the actors recording their lines, and performance capture for reference. The production team underwent a thorough process to realistically convey the animals' speaking, while still making them perceptually believable to the audience. Favreau researched earlier films featuring anthropomorphic animals, including Walt Disney's animated features, such as Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and Bambi, as well as modern films such as Babe and adopted certain techniques from those films into The Jungle Book. Nearly 70 separate species of animals native to India are featured in the film, with several species being portrayed as "150% larger" than their actual counterparts. Jim Henson's Creature Shop was brought in to provide animal puppet figures for Sethi to act against, although none appear in the finished film. The animal puppets were performed by Artie Esposito, Sean Johnson, Allan Trautman, and April Warren. Favreau utilized motion capture with certain actors, expressing a desire to avoid overusing the technology in order to prevent evoking an uncanny valley effect. For instance, Bill Murray's lifted eyebrow was incorporated into Baloo's facial gestures. The Moving Picture Company (MPC) and Weta Digital created the film's visual effects. MPC developed new software for animating muscular structure in the animals. Around 1,000 remote jungle locations in India were photographed and used as a reference in post-production. Weta was responsible for animating the King Louie sequence, with visual effects supervisor Keith Miller adding that, "It was important for Jon to see Christopher Walken in the creature. So we took some of the distinctive Walken facial features—iconic lines, wrinkles and folds—and integrated them into the animated character". Favreau expressed desire in wanting the film's 3D shots to imbue the abilities of the multiplane camera system utilized in Disney's earlier animated films. At Favreau's behest, the idea was extended into the film's version of the Walt Disney Pictures opening production logo, which was recreated as "a hand-painted, cel-animated multi-plane logo" in homage to the animated films of that era, also incorporating the word "Presents" in the same font as the 1967 film's opening credits. The film's ending also features the original physical book that opened the 1967 film. Director Jon Favreau and composer John Debney sought to recreate the Fantasound experience Walt Disney, himself, had in mind. When mixing the soundtrack in Dolby Atmos, as Favreau said, "we isolated instruments when we could. And in the sound mix, we created a Fantasound mix. If you see the film in Atmos, you will feel that there are instruments that move around the theater". A mention for Fantasound appears in the film's closing credits. The musical score for The Jungle Book was composed and conducted by frequent Favreau collaborator John Debney, mostly drawing from George Bruns' original music. According to Debney, “Jon [Favreau] wanted a timeless sound to the score and I embraced that". Debney created a theme for Mowgli that "[i]t's not overly emotional. It has an elegance and majesty to it. He’s becoming a man through this whole experience and that’s what [Debney and Favreau] wanted to say with his theme". Shere Khan's theme was conformed of a three or four-note motif, while Baloo's "called for quirky strings and bass" that is "frolicking and emotional". While Bagheera doesn't have a theme of his own, he's represented by French horns and strings, and Kaa's music features snake-like sounds, while King Louie's features many instruments, like percussion instruments, bass marimbas, etc. While Richard M. Sherman, who originally co- wrote songs for the 1967 film with his brother Robert, was originally reported to be writing new songs for the remake, Favreau decided not to make the film a musical. Still, he and Debney incorporated several songs from the 1967 animated film. "The Bare Necessities", written by Terry Gilkyson, is performed by Murray and Sethi, and a cover version by Dr. John is featured in the end credits. "I Wan'na Be Like You" and "Trust in Me" — written by the Sherman Brothers - are performed by Walken and Johansson, respectively; Richard M. Sherman wrote revised lyrics for Walken's version of "I Wan'na Be Like You". Johansson's rendition of "Trust in Me" was produced by Mark Ronson and appears in the end credits only. Walt Disney Records released the film's soundtrack on April 15, 2016. Note 1. Original "When You Wish Upon a Star" melody composed by Leigh Harline; Walt Disney Pictures logo melody composed by Mark Mancina; "The Jungle Book Overture" written by George Bruns. The film was originally scheduled for October 9, 2015, but the film's release date was later postponed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures to April 15, 2016. The film was released in the Dolby Vision format in Dolby Cinema in the United States, and is the first film to be released in Dolby Vision 3D (in a few select theaters in New York City and Chicago). The Jungle Book held its world premiere at the El Capitan Theatre on April 4, 2016. It was released on April 8 in 15 countries, including Argentina, Australia, Russia, Malaysia, and most notably in India a week ahead of its U.S. debut on April 15. The release date in India was strategic for the film as it coincided with the Indian New Year and was a holiday in most parts of the country. The film had a special Hindi version with famous actors giving their voices to the main characters, including Irrfan Khan as Baloo, Om Puri as Bagheera, Priyanka Chopra as Ka, Nana Patekar as Sher Khan and Shefali Shah as Raksha. As the Japanese anime series Jungle Book Shōnen Mowgli had been immensely popular in India in the 1990s, Disney India also commissioned a contemporary recording of "Jungle Jungle Baat Chali Hai" (originally used for the popular Indian version of Jungle Book Shōnen Mowgli), overseen by the original Hindi song's composers Vishal Bhardwaj and Gulzar, and released it as part of the film's promotional campaign in India. The film was released digitally on August 23, 2016, and on DVD and Blu-ray on August 30 (August 22 in the UK). A 3D Blu-ray was said to be coming by the end of the year. The film topped the NPD VideoScan overall disc sales chart for two consecutive weeks. In the United States, the DVD and Blu-ray releases sold 2,027,137 units by December 2016 and have grossed as of August 2018. The film became a huge financial success and a sleeper hit. It briefly held the record for the biggest remake of all time until the studio's own Beauty and the Beast surpassed it the following year. It grossed $364 million in the United States and Canada and $602.5 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $966.6 million, against a budget of $175 million. Worldwide, the film was released across 28,000 RealD 3D screens and had an IMAX worldwide opening of $20.4 million from 901 IMAX screens, a new record for a PG film. It grossed a total of $39 million in IMAX screens worldwide. On May 13, it became the second film of 2016 (after the studio's own Zootopia) to pass the $800 million mark. On June 10, it became the third film of 2016 after Zootopia and to pass the $900 million mark. Deadline Hollywood calculated the net profit of the film to be $258 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film, making it the sixth-most profitable release of 2016. Projections for its opening weekend in the United States and Canada were continuously revised upwards, starting from $60 million to as high as $88 million, with female and older male quadrants being the prime draw. The Jungle Book was shown across 4,028 theaters of which 3,100 theaters (75%) were in 3D, including 376 IMAX screens, 463 premium large format screens, and 145 D-Box locations. It opened Friday, April 15, 2016, on around 9,500 screens across 4,028 theaters, and earned $32.4 million, the fourth-biggest April Friday. This includes $4.2 million from Thursday previews, the biggest preview number for a Disney live-adaptation film (tied with Maleficent), an almost unheard-of for a PG title which rarely attracts many ticketbuyers later in the night. In total, it earned $103.3 million in its opening weekend, exceeding expectations by 40% and recorded the biggest PG-rated April opening (breaking Hop's record), the second-biggest Disney live-action adaptation opening (behind Alice in Wonderland), and the second-biggest April opening (behind Furious 7). It also performed exceptionally well in both 3D and IMAX formats, where they both generated an income of $44 million and $10.4 million of the film's opening-weekend gross, respectively, the later broke the record for the biggest April Disney release IMAX opening. Notably, it also became the only second PG-rated release to ever open above $100 million (following Alice in Wonderland) and the third film of 2016 overall to open above $100 million (following Deadpool and ). It earned $130.7 million in its first full week, the second-biggest for a Disney live-action adaptation, behind only Alice in Wonderlands $146.6 million seven-day gross. Buoyed by excellent word of mouth and benefiting from spring break, it fell only by 40% in its second weekend earning $61.5 million, still maintaining the top position and far surpassing newcomer . That puts The Jungle Book in the top fifteen-second weekends of all time and in terms of films that opened above $100 million, it scored the fourth-smallest drop behind Shrek 2 (−33%), Spider-Man (−39%), and (−39%). Of those numbers, $5.6 million came from IMAX shows for a two weekend cumulative total of $18.4 million which represents about 10% of its entire North American box office gross. It crossed $200 million on its twelfth day of release and managed to hold the top spot for the third consecutive weekend with $43.7 million from 4,041 theaters (an addition of 13 more theaters), a fall of only 29%, outgrossing the next six pictures combined (including the openings of three newcomers) and recorded the sixth-biggest third weekend of all time. Moreover, the 29% drop is the smallest third-weekend drop (from its second weekend) for a $100 million opener ever. Disney added an additional 103 theaters for the film's fourth weekend of release which propelled its theater count to 4,144 theaters, but nevertheless, it was overtaken by Disney's own Captain America: Civil War after experiencing a 50% decline. It passed $300 million on its thirtieth day of release, on May 14, as it continued to witness marginal declines in the wake of several new releases weekend after weekend. It made 3.53 times its opening weekend numbers, which is one of the biggest of all time for a film opening above $100 million. It became one of the few surprise hits and one of the highest-grossing films of the year, alongside Finding Dory, The Secret Life of Pets, and Zootopia, centered around talking animals to dominate the year-end chart. The film was released in approximately 70 countries. Outside the US and Canada, it opened across 15 markets and 69 IMAX screens a week ahead of its US debut, and faced notable competition from newcomer The Huntsman: Winter's War and holdover Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, the latter of which was entering its third weekend. The reason behind the divided release pattern was because Disney wanted to get some space before Captain America: Civil War releases in early May, as well as availing school holidays and avoiding local competitors. It eventually grossed $31.7 million, debuting at first place in all markets and second overall at the international box office, behind Dawn of Justice, which was playing across 67 markets. In its second weekend, it expanded to an additional 49 countries (88% of its total marketplace) and grossed $138.6 million from 64 countries, easily topping the international box office, a bulk of it came from China. Approximately 63% or $85 million of that came from 3D screenings, with the largest 3D opening haul represented by China (98%), Germany (83%), Brazil (73%), Russia (60%), Mexico (47%), and the UK (39%). $10 million alone came from 525 IMAX screens, a record for a PG and April release. It further continued to hold the top spot in its third weekend after adding another $98.9 million from 53 territories, falling only by a marginal 32%. IMAX generated another $6.1 million from 484 IMAX theaters for a three-weekend total of $20.6 million. After three straight No. 1 runs, it was finally dethroned by the studio's Captain America: Civil War in its fourth weekend. In India, it scored the second-biggest opening day for a Hollywood film, earning $1.51 million (behind ) from around 1,500 screens and went on to score the second-biggest Hollywood opening weekend of all time, with $8.4 million from 1,600 screens, behind only Furious 7 in terms of local as well as U.S. currency, performing better than expected and its initial $5–6 million opening projection. Its opening weekend in India alone surpassed the entire lifetime total of Disney's other live-fantasy adaptations—Cinderella, Maleficent, Oz the Great and Powerful, and Alice in Wonderland—in the country. It then went on to score the biggest opening and single week for a Hollywood film with $15.1 million. In its second weekend, it dropped just by a mere 40% to $4.97 million. In just ten days, it became the fourth-highest-grossing Hollywood film there with $21.2 million. On Wednesday, April 19—its twelfth day of release—it surpassed Furious 7 to become the highest-grossing Hollywood/foreign release of all time there. By the end of its theatrical run, the film made an estimated $38.8 million with half of its revenue—58%—coming from local dubbed versions, compared to , which saw 45% of its revenue from dubbed versions. In China, where the film was locally known as Fantasy Forest, expectations were high, with projections going as high $154–200 million or more. Ultimately, it was unable to hit these marks. Before the release of the film in the state, Disney had a very successful run at the box office with Zootopia the previous month, in which anthropomorphic animals were the central figure. Forbes noted that The Jungle Book was precisely the sort of film that Chinese audiences love with its 3D visuals, heartwarming story, and talking animal cast. It earned around $12 million on its opening day, including $300,000 worth of previews from 65,000 screenings. Buoyed by good word of mouth and positive reception (albeit mostly from audiences with polarized reception from Chinese critics), it rose 72% on its second day to $20 million. Through its opening weekend it grossed $48.5 million, including $5.1 million from 279 IMAX screens, a new record for April release. Its opening marked the biggest Walt Disney Pictures film opening ever, the second-biggest for a family film (behind Kung Fu Panda 3), the second-biggest April debut (behind Furious 7), and the fourth-biggest Disney opening (behind Avengers: Age of Ultron, Iron Man 3, and Star Wars: The Force Awakens). It topped the daily box office through the whole opening week and went on to remain at the top of the box office for a second weekend, after dropping by a mere 20% to $29.8 million, despite facing some competitions. It ended its run there with a total of $150.1 million after thirty days of playing in theaters, adding $1.2 million on its last day. Albeit falling just below expectations, it nevertheless emerged as a huge financial success and becoming the fourth- biggest Disney release there. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, it had an opening weekend total of £9.9 million ($14.1 million) from 594 theaters and in France with $8.1 million. Elsewhere, the highest openings were recorded in Russia and the CIS ($7.4 million), Germany ($5.1 million), Spain ($3.9 million), Australia ($2.8 million), Argentina ($2.3 million), and in Malaysia, where it scored the biggest opening weekend for a live-action Disney film with $2.3 million. In the UK, it became the first film of 2016 to earn over £5 million in three straight weekends and the first film since Jurassic World, Spectre, and Star Wars: The Force Awakens (all 2015 films) to achieve such an accomplishment, and the first film of 2016 to earn above £40 million ($58 million). In South Korea, it faced competition with Warcraft, but ended up debuting atop the charts with $6.2 million. It has so far grossed a total of $18 million there. It opened in Japan on August 11, alongside the superhero film and delivered a four-day opening of $6.2 million from 676 screens ($3 million in two days), debuting at second place behind The Secret Life of Pets. Although the opening figure was considered mediocre, Deadline Hollywood noted that Japan is a market that can see big multiples. It fell just 30% in its second weekend earning $2.1 million for an eleven-day total of $13.7 million. In total earnings, its biggest markets outside of the US and Canada were China ($150.1 million), the United Kingdom ($66.2 million) and India ($38.8 million). It was the highest-grossing film of 2016 in Europe with a total of $209 million, the United Kingdom and Ireland, and in India (although it was later surpassed by Sultan, in terms of Hollywood/imported films, it is still the biggest). The film garnered critical acclaim from film critics and audiences. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 95% based on 315 reviews, with an average rating of 7.72/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "As lovely to behold as it is engrossing to watch, The Jungle Book is the rare remake that actually improves upon its predecessors - all while setting a new standard for CGI". On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 77 out of 100, based on 49 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported moviegoers gave it an overall positive score of 92%. Ninety-seven percent of the audience gave the film an A or a B, and it got A's from both the under- and over-25 crowd and A+ among those under 18 years of age and also for the over-50 audience. Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter wrote, "Exceptionally beautiful to behold and bolstered by a stellar vocal cast, this umpteenth film rendition of Rudyard Kipling's tales of young Mowgli's adventures amongst the creatures of the Indian jungle proves entirely engaging, even if it's ultimately lacking in subtext and thematic heft". Andrew Barker of Variety felt that this version "can't rival the woolly looseness of Disney's 1967 animated classic, of course, but it succeeds on its own so well that such comparisons are barely necessary". Robbie Collin of The Telegraph gave the film four stars out of five, and deemed it "a sincere and full-hearted adaptation that returns to Kipling for fresh inspiration". Alonso Duralde of The Wrap says "This 'Book' might lack the post-vaudeville razzamatazz of its predecessor, but director Jon Favreau and a team of effects wizards plunge us into one of the big screen's most engrossing artificial worlds since Avatar." Peter Bradshaw, writing for The Guardian, gave the film four out of five stars and felt that the film had a touch of Apocalypto in it, finding the plot elements to be similar to those in The Lion King. He wrote that the film was "spectacular, exciting, funny and fun" and that it "handsomely revives the spirit of Disney's original film". Pete Hammond of Deadline Hollywood wrote that the film had laughs, excitement, an exceptional voice cast and, most importantly, a lot of heart, calling it a cinematic achievement like no other. He particularly praised Murray's performance and the visual effects, deeming it "simply astonishing". Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly graded the film an "A–", calling it one of the biggest surprises of 2016. He, however, felt the two songs were rather unnecessary and distracting, and believed the film to be a little too frightening for children. Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun- Times awarded the film three-and-a-half stars, pointing out the CGI as the apex achievement of the film. He labelled it "a beautifully rendered, visually arresting take on Rudyard Kipling's oft-filmed tales" but found the musical numbers to be trivial, saying that without the musical numbers, the film might have been a more exhilarating streamlined adventure. Los Angeles Times Kenneth Turan remarked that "The Jungle Book is the kind of family film calculated to make even those without families wish they had one to take along". Peter Travers of Rolling Stone awarded the film three-and-a-half stars out of four, labeling it scary and thrilling, yet unique and unforgettable, and adding that it "fills us with something rare in movies today—a sense of wonder". The Village Voices Bilge Ebiri hailed the film as fast and light and that it "manages to be just scary enough to make us feel the danger of solitude in the middle of a massive jungle, but never indulgent or gratuitous". Cath Clarke of Time Out compared Elba's character of Shere Khan to Scar from The Lion King, calling him "baddie of the year". Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com also had high praise for Elba's portrayal of Shere Khan stating: "His loping menace is envisioned so powerfully that he'd be scary no matter what, but the character becomes a great villain through imaginative empathy. We understand and appreciate his point-of-view, even though carrying it out would mean the death of Mowgli". The film's visual effects and 3D photography were compared to those of Avatar, Gravity, Hugo, and Life of Pi. Sarah Ward of Screen International wrote that the level of detail on display in the film "is likely to evoke the same jaw-dropping reaction as James Cameron's box office topper". Entertainment Weekly called it "one of the few 3D movies that actually benefit from being in 3D". The film also had a positive reception from Indian contemporary critics and publications, such as The Times of India, The Hindu, India Today, The Indian Express, and The Economic Times. The film also had its share of criticism with most reviewers criticizing the inconsistent tone of the film and the director's indecision to stick to one vision. The New York Timess Manohla Dargis was less enthusiastic. Sam C. Mac of Slant Magazine wrote, "Jon Favreau draws heavily on his film's animated predecessor for plot, characterizations, songs, and set pieces, but doesn't know how to fit these familiar elements into his own coherent vision". Josh Spiegel of Movie Mezzanine also echoed these feelings, saying that the film "stumbles because the people involved aren't willing to fully commit to either making a near- shot-for-shot remake or going in a completely different direction". Rene Rodriguez of the Miami Herald felt that the movie was soulless, writing that "The better these talking beasts look, the more the film resembles a gorgeous screen saver. You admire The Jungle Book, but you can't lose yourself in it". Following the film's financial and critical success, the studio has begun working on a sequel. Jon Favreau is confirmed to return as director, while screenwriter Justin Marks will also return for the film. Shortly after the release of the film, Favreau and Marks initially signed on to direct and write the sequel, and the sequel could potentially have a release sometime in fall 2019 and will be shot back-to-back with Favreau's remake of The Lion King, But in March 2017, the sequel was on hold so that Favreau would have to focus mainly on The Lion King instead. By January 2018, Marks ended an early draft for the sequel, which he said will "go further through" Kipling's material, as well as feature elements of Bill Peet's rejected drafts for the 1967 film. On October 17, 2018 Neel Sethi confirmed that he will return as Mowgli in the sequel. The Jungle Book is a 1967 American animated musical comedy film produced by Walt Disney Productions. Based on Rudyard Kipling's book of the same name, it is the 19th Disney animated feature film. Directed by Wolfgang Reitherman, it was the last film to be produced by Walt Disney, who died during its production. The plot follows Mowgli, a feral child raised in the Indian jungle by wolves, as his friends Bagheera the panther and Baloo the bear try to convince him to leave the jungle before the evil tiger Shere Khan arrives. The early versions of both the screenplay and the soundtrack followed Kipling's work more closely, with a dramatic, dark, and sinister tone which Disney did not want in his family film, leading to writer Bill Peet and composer Terry Gilkyson being replaced. The casting employed famous actors and musicians Phil Harris, Sebastian Cabot, George Sanders and Louis Prima, as well as Disney regulars such as Sterling Holloway, J. Pat O'Malley and Verna Felton, and the director's son, Bruce Reitherman, as Mowgli. The Jungle Book was released on October 18, 1967, to positive reception, with acclaim for its soundtrack, featuring five songs by the Sherman Brothers and one by Gilkyson, "The Bare Necessities". The film initially became Disney's second-highest-grossing animated film in the United States and Canada, and was also successful during its re-releases. The film was also successful throughout the world, becoming Germany's highest-grossing film by number of admissions. Disney released a live-action adaptation in 1994 and an animated sequel, The Jungle Book 2, in 2003; a live-action remake directed by Jon Favreau was released in 2016. Mowgli, a young orphan boy, is found in a basket in the deep jungles of India by Bagheera, a black panther who promptly takes him to Raksha, a mother wolf who has just had cubs. She and her mate, Rama, raise him along with their own cubs and after ten years, Mowgli becomes well acquainted with jungle life and plays with his wolf siblings. Bagheera is pleased with how happy Mowgli now is but also worries that Mowgli may eventually need to return to his own kind. One night, the wolf pack parents meet at Council Rock, having learned that Shere Khan, a man-eating Bengal tiger, has returned to the pack's part of the jungle. Pack leader Akela decides that Mowgli can no longer stay with the pack and must be deported from the jungle for his own safety. Bagheera volunteers to escort him to a "Man-Village." They leave that very night, but Mowgli is determined to stay in the jungle. He and Bagheera rest in a tree for the night, where Kaa, a hungry Indian python, tries to devour Mowgli, but Bagheera intervenes. The next morning, Mowgli tries to join the elephant patrol led by Colonel Hathi and his wife Winifred. Bagheera finds Mowgli, but after a fight decides to leave Mowgli on his own. Mowgli soon meets up with the laid-back, fun-loving sloth bear Baloo, who promises to raise Mowgli himself and never take him back to the Man-Village. Shortly afterward, a group of monkeys kidnap Mowgli and take him to their leader, King Louie the orangutan. King Louie offers to help Mowgli stay in the jungle if he will tell Louie how to make fire like other humans. However, since he was not raised by humans, Mowgli does not know how to make fire. Bagheera and Baloo arrive to rescue Mowgli and in the ensuing chaos, King Louie's palace is demolished to rubble. Bagheera speaks to Baloo that night and convinces him that the jungle will never be safe for Mowgli so long as Shere Khan is there. In the morning, Baloo reluctantly explains to Mowgli that the Man-Village is best for the boy, but Mowgli accuses him of breaking his promise and runs away. As Baloo sets off in search of Mowgli, Bagheera rallies the help of Hathi and his patrol. However, Shere Khan himself, who was eavesdropping on Bagheera and Hathi's conversation, is now determined to hunt and kill Mowgli himself. Meanwhile, Mowgli has encountered Kaa once again, but thanks to the unwitting intervention of the suspicious Shere Khan, Mowgli escapes. As a storm gathers, a depressed Mowgli encounters a group of friendly vultures who accept Mowgli as a fellow outcast. Shere Khan appears shortly after, scaring off the vultures and confronting Mowgli. Baloo rushes to the rescue and tries to keep Shere Khan away from Mowgli, but is nearly killed. When lightning strikes a nearby tree and sets it ablaze, the vultures swoop in to distract Shere Khan while Mowgli grabs a large flaming branch and ties it to Shere Khan's tail. Terrified of fire, the tiger panics and runs off. Bagheera and Baloo take Mowgli to the edge of the Man-Village, but Mowgli is still hesitant to go there. However, his mind abruptly changes when he is smitten by a beautiful young girl from the village who is coming down by the riverside to fetch water. After noticing Mowgli, she "accidentally" drops her water pot. Mowgli retrieves it for her and follows her into the Man-Village. After Mowgli shrugs to Baloo and Bagheera as a way of saying that he has made up his mind and chosen to go into the Man-Village, Baloo and Bagheera decide to head home, content that Mowgli is safe and happy with his own kind. Bruce Reitherman as Mowgli, an orphaned boy, commonly referred to as "man-cub" by the other characters., Phil Harris as Baloo, a sloth bear who leads a carefree life and believes in letting the good things in life come by themselves., Sebastian Cabot as Bagheera, a serious black panther who is determined to take Mowgli back to the village and disapproves of Baloo's carefree approach to life., Louis Prima as King Louie, an orangutan who wants to be a human, and wants Mowgli to teach him how to make fire., George Sanders as Shere Khan, an intelligent and sophisticated yet merciless Bengal tiger who hates all humans for fear of their guns and fire and wants to kill Mowgli., Sterling Holloway as Kaa, an Indian python who also seeks Mowgli as prey, but comically fails each time he attempts to eat him., J. Pat O'Malley as Colonel Hathi the Indian elephant/Buzzie the Vulture, Verna Felton as Winifred, Colonel Hathi's wife., Clint Howard as Junior, Colonel Hathi's son., Chad Stuart as Flaps the Vulture, Lord Tim Hudson as Dizzie the Vulture, John Abbott as Akela the Indian wolf, Ben Wright as Rama the Father Wolf, Darleen Carr as the Human Girl, Leo De Lyon as Flunkey the Langur, , Hal Smith as The Slob Elephant, , Ralph Wright as The Gloomy Elephant, , Digby Wolfe as Ziggy the Vulture, , Bill Skiles and Pete Henderson as Monkeys* Asterisks mark actors listed in the opening credits as "Additional Voices". After The Sword in the Stone was released, storyman Bill Peet claimed to Walt Disney that "we [the animation department] can do more interesting animal characters" and suggested that Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book could be used for the studio's next film. Disney agreed and Peet created an original treatment, with little supervision, as he had done with One Hundred and One Dalmatians and The Sword in the Stone. However, after the disappointing reaction to The Sword in the Stone, Walt Disney decided to become more involved in the story than he had been with the past two films, with his nephew Roy E. Disney saying that "[he] certainly influenced everything about it. (...) With Jungle Book, he obviously got hooked on the jungle and the characters that lived there". Peet decided to follow closely the dramatic, dark, and sinister tone of Kipling's book, which is about the struggles between animals and man. However, the film's writers decided to make the story more straightforward, as the novel is very episodic, with Mowgli going back and forth from the jungle to the Man-Village, and Peet felt that Mowgli returning to the Man-Village should be the ending for the film. Following suggestions, Peet also created the character of Louie, king of the monkeys. Louie was a less comical character, enslaving Mowgli trying to get the boy to teach him to make fire. The orangutan would also show a plot point borrowed from The Second Jungle Book, gold and jewels under his ruins. The ending also was very different from the final film's: after Mowgli got to the man village, he would get into an argument with Buldeo the hunter which would cause him to return to the jungle with a torch, which he would use to scare those who attacked or mocked him through the journey, before being dragged back to the ruins by Buldeo in search for the treasure. After recovering a great part of the treasure, Buldeo would declare his intentions to burn the jungle to avoid the threat of Shere Khan, only for the tiger to attack and kill him, before being killed by Mowgli with the hunter's gun. Due to his actions, Mowgli would be hailed as a hero in both the jungle and the village, and declared the first human to be part of the wolves' council. Disney was not pleased with how the story was turning out, as he felt it was too dark for family viewing and insisted on script changes. Peet refused, and after a long argument, Peet left the Disney studio in January 1964. Disney then assigned Larry Clemmons as his new writer and one of the four story men for the film, giving Clemmons a copy of Kipling's book, and telling him: "The first thing I want you to do is not to read it". Clemmons still looked at the novel and thought it was too disjointed and without continuity, needing adaptations to fit a film script. Clemmons wanted to start in medias res, with some flashbacks afterward, but then Disney said to focus on doing the storyline more straight: "Let's do the meat of the picture. Let's establish the characters. Let's have fun with it". Although much of Bill Peet's work was discarded, the personalities of the characters remained in the final film. This was because Disney felt that the story should be kept simple, and the characters should drive the story. Disney took an active role in the story meetings, acting out each role and helping to explore the emotions of the characters, help create gags and develop emotional sequences. Clemmons also created the human girl for which Mowgli falls in love, as the animators considered that falling in love would be the best excuse for Mowgli to leave the jungle. Clemmons would write a rough script with an outline for most sequences. The story artists then discussed how to fill the scenes, including the comedic gags to employ. The script also tried to incorporate how the voice actors molded their characters and interacted with each other. The Jungle Book also marks the last animated film from the company to have Disney's personal touches, before his death on December 15, 1966. Many familiar voices inspired the animators in their creation of the characters and helped them shape their personalities. This use of familiar voices for key characters was a rarity in Disney's past films. The staff was shocked to hear that a wise cracking comedian, Phil Harris was going to be in a Kipling film. Disney suggested Harris after meeting him at a party. Harris improvised most of his lines, as he considered the scripted lines "didn't feel natural". After Harris was cast, Disneyland Records president Jimmy Johnson suggested Disney to get Louis Prima as King Louie, as he "felt that Louis would be great as foil". Walt also cast other prominent actors such as George Sanders as Shere Khan and Sebastian Cabot as Bagheera. Additionally, he cast regular Disney voices such as Sterling Holloway as Kaa, J. Pat O'Malley as Colonel Hathi and Buzzie the Vulture and Verna Felton as Hathi's wife. Felton had previously worked many years with Phil Harris on radio's The Jack Benny Program. This was her last film before she died. David Bailey was originally cast as Mowgli, but his voice changed during production, leading Bailey to not fit the "young innocence of Mowgli's character" at which the producers were aiming. Thus director Wolfgang Reitherman cast his son Bruce, who had just voiced Christopher Robin in Winnie the Pooh and the Honey Tree. The animators shot footage of Bruce as a guide for the character's performance. Child actress Darlene Carr was going around singing in the studio when composers Sherman Brothers asked her to record a demo of "My Own Home". Carr's performance impressed Disney enough for him to cast her as the role of the human girl. In the original book, the vultures are grim and evil characters who feast on the dead. Disney lightened it up by having the vultures bearing a physical and vocal resemblance to The Beatles, including the signature mop-top haircut. It was also planned to have the members of the band to both voice the characters and sing their song, "That's What Friends Are For". However, at the time, The Beatles' John Lennon refused to work on animated films which led to the idea being discarded. The casting of the vultures still brought a British Invasion musician, Chad Stuart of the duo Chad & Jeremy. In earlier drafts of the scene the vultures had a near-sighted rhinoceros friend named Rocky, who was to be voiced by Frank Fontaine. However, Walt decided to cut the character for feeling that the film had already much action with the monkeys and vultures. Animation on The Jungle Book commenced on May 2, 1966. While many of the later Disney feature films had animators being responsible for single characters, in The Jungle Book the animators were in charge of whole sequences, since many have characters interacting with one another. The animation was done by xerography, with character design, led by Ken Anderson, employing rough, artistic edges in contrast to the round animals seen in productions such as Dumbo. Anderson also decided to make Shere Khan resemble his voice actor, George Sanders. Backgrounds were hand-painted — with exception of the waterfall, mostly consisting of footage of the Angel Falls - and sometimes scenery was used in both foreground and bottom to create a notion of depth. Following one of Reitherman's trademarks of reusing animation of his previous films, the wolf cubs are based on dogs from 101 Dalmatians. Animator Milt Kahl based Bagheera and Shere Khan's movements on live-action felines, which he saw in two Disney productions, A Tiger Walks and the "Jungle Cat" episode of True- Life Adventures. Baloo was also based on footage of bears, even incorporating the animal's penchant for scratching. Since Kaa has no limbs, its design received big expressive eyes, and parts of Kaa's body did the action that normally would be done with hands. The monkeys' dance during "I Wan'na Be Like You" was partially inspired by a performance Louis Prima did with his band at Disney's soundstage to convince Walt Disney to cast him. The instrumental music was written by George Bruns and orchestrated by Walter Sheets. Two of the cues were reused from previous Disney films. The scene where Mowgli wakes up after escaping King Louie used one of Bruns' themes for Sleeping Beauty; and the scene where Bagheera gives a eulogy to Baloo when he mistakenly thinks the bear was killed by Shere Khan used Paul J. Smith's organ score from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. The score features eight original songs: seven by the Sherman Brothers and one by Terry Gilkyson. Longtime Disney collaborator Gilkyson was the first songwriter to bring several complete songs that followed the book closely but Walt Disney felt that his efforts were too dark. The only piece of Gilkyson's work which survived to the final film was his upbeat tune "The Bare Necessities", which was liked by the rest of the film crew. The Sherman Brothers were then brought in to do a complete rewrite. Disney asked the siblings if they had read Kipling's book and they replied that they had done so "a long, long time ago" and that they had also seen the 1942 version by Alexander Korda. Disney said the "nice, mysterious, heavy stuff" from both works was not what he aimed for, instead going for a "lightness, a Disney touch". Disney frequently brought the composers to the storyline sessions. He asked them to "find scary places and write fun songs" for their compositions that fit in with the story and advanced the plot instead of being interruptive. The Jungle Book was released in October 1967, just 10 months after Walt's death. Some copies were in a double feature with Charlie, the Lonesome Cougar. Produced on a budget of $4 million, the film was a massive success, grossing domestic rentals of $11.5 million by 1968. By 1970, the film had grossed $13 million in domestic rentals becoming the second highest-grossing animated film in the United States and Canada. The film earned over $23.8 million worldwide becoming the most successful animated film released during its initial run. The Jungle Book was re-released theatrically in North America three times, 1978, 1984, and 1990, and also in Europe throughout the 1970s and 1980s. A re- issue in the United Kingdom in 1976 generated rentals of $1.8 million. The 1978 re-release increased its North American rentals to $27.3 million, which surpassed Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs making it the highest grossing animated film of all-time in the United States and Canada until Snow White was re-released in 1983. The film's total lifetime gross in the U.S. and Canada is $141 million. When adjusted for inflation, it is estimated to be equivalent to $671,224,000 in 2018, which would make it the 32nd highest-grossing film of all time in the United States and Canada. The Jungle Book is Germany's biggest film of all time in terms of admissions with 27.3 million tickets sold, nearly 10 million more than Titanics 18.8 million tickets sold. It has grossed an estimated $108 million in Germany making it the third highest-grossing film of all time in Germany behind only Avatar ($137 million) and Titanic ($125 million). The film was the seventh most popular sound film of the twentieth century in the UK with admissions of 19.8 million. The film is France's ninth biggest film of all time in terms of admissions with 14.8 million tickets sold. The film's 1993 re-release set an overseas record for a re-issue, grossing overseas during that year. The Jungle Book was released in the United States on VHS in 1991 as part of the Walt Disney Classics product line and in the United Kingdom in 1993. In the United States, the VHS release sold 7.4million units and grossed in 1991, making it the year's third best-selling home video release, behind only Fantasia and Home Alone. By 1994, The Jungle Book sold 9.5million units in the United States. Home video sales outside North America reached 14million units and grossed by December 1993. Overseas sales reached 14.8 million units by January 1994, becoming the best-selling international VHS release in overseas markets, including sales of 4.9million units in the United Kingdom, 4.3million in Germany, and 1.2million in France. By August 1994, it had sold 15million units in international overseas markets, bringing worldwide sales to 24.5million units by 1994. As of 2002, The Jungle Book held the record for the best-selling home video release in the United Kingdom, ahead of Titanic which sold 4.8million units. It was reissued on video in 1997 as part of the Walt Disney Masterpiece Collection for the film's 30th anniversary. A Limited Issue DVD was released by Buena Vista Home Entertainment in 1999. The film was released once again as a 2-disc Platinum Edition DVD on October 2, 2007 to commemorate its 40th anniversary. Its release was accompanied by a limited 18-day run at Disney's own El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, with the opening night featuring a panel with composer Richard Sherman and voice actors Bruce Reitherman, Darlene Carr, and Chad Stuart. The Platinum DVD was put on moratorium in 2010. The film was released in a Blu-Ray/DVD/Digital Copy Combo pack on February 11, 2014 as part of Disney's Diamond Edition line. The Diamond Edition release went back into the Disney Vault on January 31, 2017. In the United States, the DVD and Blu-ray releases sold 12 million units between 2007 and 2016, and have grossed as of August 2018. The Jungle Book received positive reviews upon release, undoubtedly influenced by a nostalgic reaction to the death of Walt Disney. Time noted that the film strayed far from the Kipling stories, but "[n]evertheless, the result is thoroughly delightful...it is the happiest possible way to remember Walt Disney". Howard Thompson of The New York Times praised the film as "simple, uncluttered, straight-forward fun, as put together by the director, Wolfgang Reitherman, four screen writers and the usual small army of technicians. Using some lovely exotic pastel backgrounds and a nice clutch of tunes, the picture unfolds like an intelligent comic-strip fairy tale". Richard Schickel, reviewing for Life magazine, referred to it as "the best thing of its kind since Dumbo, another short, bright, unscary and blessedly uncultivated cartoon". Variety gave the film a favorable review while noting that "the story development is restrained" and that younger audiences "may squirm at times". The song "The Bare Necessities" was nominated for Best Original Song at the 40th Academy Awards, losing to "Talk to the Animals" from Doctor Dolittle. Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences president Gregory Peck lobbied extensively for this film to be nominated for Best Picture, but was unsuccessful. Retrospective reviews were also positive, with the film's animation, characters and music receiving much praise throughout the years. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film received an approval rating of 87% based on 38 reviews, with an average rating of 7.2/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "With expressive animation, fun characters, and catchy songs, The Jungle Book endures as a crowd-pleasing Disney classic". In 1990, when the film had its last theatrical re-release, Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly considered that The Jungle Book "isn't a classic Walt Disney film on the order of, say, Cinderella or Pinocchio, but it's one of Disney's liveliest and funniest". Charles Solomon, reviewing for the Los Angeles Times, thought the film's crew was "near the height of their talents" and the resulting film "remains a high-spirited romp that will delight children—and parents weary of action films with body counts that exceed their box-office grosses". In 2010, Empire described the film as one that "gets pretty much everything right", regarding that the vibrant animation and catchy songs overcame the plot deficiencies. In 1968, Disneyland Records released the album More Jungle Book, an unofficial sequel also written by screenwriter Larry Simmons, which continued the story of the film, and included Phil Harris and Louis Prima voicing their film roles. In the record, Baloo (Harris) is missing Mowgli (Ginny Tyler), so he teams up with King Louie (Prima) and Bagheera (Dal McKennon) to take him from the man village. On February 14, 2003, DisneyToon Studios in Australia released a film sequel, The Jungle Book 2, in which Mowgli runs away from the man village to see his animal friends, unaware that Shere Khan is more determined to kill him than ever. In 2005, screenwriter Robert Reece pitched Jungle Book 3 to Disney execs., but the project never materialized. Elements of The Jungle Book were recycled in the later Disney feature film Robin Hood, such as Baloo being inspiration for Little John (who not only was a bear, but also voiced by Phil Harris). In particular, the dance sequence between Baloo and King Louie was simply rotoscoped for Little John and Lady Cluck's dance. It has been widely acclaimed by animators, with Eric Goldberg declaring The Jungle Book "boasts possibly the best character animation a studio has ever done". The animators of Aladdin, The Lion King and Lilo & Stitch took inspiration from the design and animation of the film, and four people involved with Disney's animations, director Brad Bird and animators Andreas Deja, Glen Keane and Sergio Pablos, have declared the film to be their inspiration for entering the business. Many characters appear in the 1990–91 animated series TaleSpin. Between 1996 and 1998, the TV series Jungle Cubs told the stories of Baloo, Hahti, Bagheera, Louie, Kaa, and Shere Khan when they were children. Disney later made a live-action adaptation of the film, which was more of a realistic action-adventure film with somewhat-more adult themes. The film, released in 1994, differs even more from the book than its animated counterpart, but was still a box-office success. In 1998, Disney released a direct to video film entitled . A new live-action version of The Jungle Book was released by Disney in 2016, which even reused most of the songs of the animated movie, with some lyrical reworking by original composer Richard M. Sherman. There are two video games based on the film: The Jungle Book was a platformer released in 1993 for Master System, Mega Drive, Game Gear, Super NES, Game Boy and PC. A version for the Game Boy Advance was later released in 2003. The Jungle Book Groove Party was a dance mat game released in 2000 for PlayStation and PlayStation 2. Kaa and Shere Khan have also made cameo appearances in another Disney video game, Quackshot. A world based on the film was intended to appear more than once in the Square Enix-Disney Kingdom Hearts video game series, but was omitted both times, first in the first game because it featured a similar world based on Tarzan, and second in , although areas of the world are accessible via hacking codes. Since the film's release, many of the film's characters appeared in House of Mouse, The Lion King 1½, Who Framed Roger Rabbit, and Aladdin and the King of Thieves. In December 2010, a piece of artwork by British artist Banksy featuring The Jungle Book characters which had been commissioned by Greenpeace to help raise awareness of deforestation went on sale for the sum of £80,000. 1967 in film, List of American films of 1967, List of animated feature films of the 1960s, List of highest-grossing films, List of highest-grossing animated films, List of highest-grossing films in France, List of Walt Disney Pictures films, List of Disney theatrical animated features 1. In 2003, Variety listed the worldwide gross for The Jungle Book at $378 million. It also listed the North American gross at $128 million, which is lower than the reported estimate at $141 million.

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Drunk driving is the act of operating a motor vehicle with the operator's ability to do so impaired as a result of alcohol consumption, or with a blood alcohol level in excess of the legal limit. For drivers 21 years or older, driving with a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.08% or higher is illegal. For drivers under 21 years old, the legal limit is lower, with state limits ranging from 0.00 to 0.02. Lower BAC limits apply when operating boats, airplanes, or commercial vehicles. Among other names, the criminal offense of drunk driving may be called driving under the influence (DUI), driving while intoxicated or impaired (DWI), operating [a] vehicle under the influence of alcohol (OVI), or operating while impaired (OWI). According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, approximately 1.5 million drunk driving arrests were made nationwide in 1996. In 2012, 29.1 million people admitted to driving under the influence of alcohol. In 1997 an estimated 513,200 DUI offenders were under correctional supervision, down from 593,000 in 1990 and up from 270,100 in 1986. The Bureau of Justice Statistics estimated that in 1996 local law enforcement agencies made 1,467,300 arrests nationwide for driving under the influence of alcohol, 1 out of every 10 arrests for all crimes in the U.S., compared to 1.9 million such arrests during the peak year in 1983, accounting for 1 out of every 80 licensed drivers in the U.S. This represented a 220% increase in DUI arrests from 1970 to 1986, while the number of licensed drivers increased by just 42% in the same period. The arrest rate for alcohol-related offenses among Native Americans was more than double that for the total population during 1996, and almost 4 in 10 Native Americans held in local jails had been charged with a public order offense, most commonly driving while intoxicated. In 2012, 29.1 million people admitted to driving under the influence of alcohol. Recent analysis have shown cities in which ride sharing services operate show mixed results as to whether the availability of those services affects rates of impaired driving. The risk of having a traffic collision increases with a higher BAC. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) estimates that about 18,000 people died in 2006 from alcohol-related collisions, representing 40% of total traffic deaths in the US. Over the decade 2001-2010, this rate showed only a 3% variation, and no trend. Drivers with a BAC of 0.10% are 6 to 12 times more likely to get into a fatal collision or injury than drivers without positive blood alcohol. The NHTSA states 275,000 were injured in alcohol- related collisions in 2003. Approximately 60% of the BAC values for motor vehicle collisions are missing or unknown. To analyze what they believe is the complete data, statisticians estimate BAC information. The NHTSA defines fatal collisions as "alcohol-related" if they believe the driver, a passenger, or non-motorist (such as a pedestrian or pedal cyclist) had a blood alcohol content (BAC) of 0.01% or greater. The NHTSA defines nonfatal collisions as alcohol-related if the crash report indicates evidence of alcohol present, even if no driver or occupant was tested for alcohol. The NHTSA specifically notes that alcohol-related does not necessarily mean a driver or non-occupant was tested for alcohol and that the term does not indicate a collision or fatality was caused by the presence of alcohol. If anyone involved in the crash (even a passenger) has a BAC of 0.01% of greater, then the NTHSA classifies the crash as alcohol-related. Alcohol-related injuries were estimated at 275,000 in 2003. For the most part, DUI or DWI are synonymous terms that represent the criminal offense of operating (or in some jurisdictions merely being in physical control of) a motor vehicle while being under the influence of alcohol or drugs or a combination of both. The key inquiry focuses on whether the driver's faculties were impaired by the substance that was consumed. The detection and successful prosecution of drivers impaired by prescription medication or illegal drugs can therefore be difficult. Breathalyzers have been developed for the purpose of administering roadside or laboratory tests that can detect the actual level of a controlled substance in an individual's body. New Jersey enacted the first law that specifically criminalized driving an automobile while intoxicated, in 1906. The New Jersey statute provided that "[n]o intoxicated person shall drive a motor vehicle." Violation of this provision was punishable by a fine of up to $500, or a term of up to 60 days in county jail. Early laws, such as that enacted in New Jersey, required proof of a state of intoxication with no specific definition of what level of inebriation qualified. The first generally accepted legal BAC limit was 0.15%. New York, for example, which had enacted a prohibition on driving while intoxicated in 1910, amended this law in 1941 to provide that it would constitute prima facie evidence of intoxication when an arrested person was found to have a BAC of .15 percent or higher, as ascertained through a test administered within two hours of arrest. In 1938, the American Medical Association created a "Committee to Study Problems of Motor Vehicle Accidents". At the same time, the National Safety Council set up a "Committee on Tests for Intoxication". In the US, most of the laws and penalties were greatly enhanced starting in the late 1970s, and through the 1990s, largely due to pressure from groups like Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) and Students Against Destructive Decisions (SADD) and activists like Candy Lightner whose 13-year old daughter Cari was killed by a drunk driver. Zero tolerance laws were enacted which criminalized driving a vehicle with 0.01% or 0.02% BAC for drivers under 21. This is true even in Puerto Rico, despite maintaining a legal drinking age of 18. Research in the American Economic Review suggests that sanctions imposed at BAC thresholds are effective in reducing repeat drunk driving. On May 14, 2013, the National Transportation Safety Board recommended that all 50 states lower the benchmark for determining when a driver is legally drunk from 0.08 blood-alcohol content to 0.05. The idea is part of an initiative to eliminate drunk driving, which accounts for about a third of all road deaths. After the passage of federal legislation, the legal limit for commercial drivers is now set at 0.04%. The Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA) regulation prohibits those who hold a commercial driver's license from driving with an alcohol concentration of 0.04 or greater. A commercial driver with an alcohol concentration of 0.02 or greater, but less than 0.04, must be removed from duty for 24 hours. In construing the terms DUI, DWI, OWI and OVI, some states make it illegal to drive a motor vehicle while under the influence or driving while intoxicated while others indicate that it is illegal to operate a motor vehicle. There is a split of authority across the country regarding this issue. Some states permit enforcement of DUI, DWI, and OWI/OVI statutes based on "operation and control" of a vehicle, while others require actual "driving". "The distinction between these terms is material, for it is generally held that the word 'drive,' as used in statutes of this kind, usually denotes movement of the vehicle in some direction, whereas the word 'operate' has a broader meaning so as to include not only the motion of the vehicle, but also acts which engage the machinery of the vehicle that, alone or in sequence, will set in motion the motive power of the vehicle." (State v. Graves (1977) 269 S.C. 356 [237 S.E.2d 584, 586-588, 586. fn. 8] All states in the U.S. designate a "per se" blood or breath alcohol level as the threshold point for an independent criminal offense. This is often referred to as the "legal limit". It is a permissive presumption of guilt where the person's BAC is 0.08% or greater (units of milligrams per deciliter, representing 8 g of alcohol in 10 liters of blood). Some states (e.g., Colorado) include a lesser charge, sometimes referred to as "driving while ability impaired" that may apply to individuals with a 0.05% or above, but less than the 0.08% per se limit for the more serious charge. All states have a "catch-all" provision designed to cover those circumstances where the person is below 0.08%, but the person still appears impaired by definition of law. These types of "catch-all" statutes cover situations involving a person under the influence of drugs or under the combined influence of alcohol and drugs. With the advent of the legalization of marijuana, these catch-all provisions cover those prosecutions pursuing those charged with driving under the influence of drugs or even drugs and alcohol. All US states have implied consent laws which state that a licensed driver has given their consent to an evidential Breathalyzer or similar manner of determining blood alcohol concentration; however, in order to sustain a conviction based on evidence from a chemical test, probable cause for arrest must be demonstrated. In 2016, the Supreme Court of the United States in Birchfield v. North Dakota held that both breath tests and blood tests constitute a search under the Fourth Amendment, concluding that requiring breath tests is constitutional without a search warrant; however, requiring more intrusive blood tests involving piercing the skin is not, as the goal of traffic safety can be obtained by less invasive means. Every state has enhanced penalties for refusing to submit to an Implied Consent Test pursuant to the State's Implied Consent Laws. In California, refusing to submit to a test of one's breath or blood upon being arrested for driving under the influence carries an additional punishment of a one-year license suspension pursuant to California Vehicle Code Section 13558(c)(1). Arizona has a 0.08% BAC limit for standard DUI, but drivers can also face more severe DUI charges like an Extreme DUI (§ 28-1382(A)(1)) for having a BAC over 0.15% or Super Extreme DUI (§ 28-1382(A)(2)) for a BAC over 0.20%. Like every other state, California has a "per se" BAC limit of 0.08% pursuant to California Vehicle Code Section 23152(b), amended 1-01-1990; and based on the aforementioned federal legislation, a lower limit of 0.04% for drivers holding commercial drivers licenses (CDL), along with rideshare drivers having a limit of 0.04%. California also has a limit of 0.01% for drivers who are under 21 or on probation for previous DUI offenses pursuant to California Vehicle Code Sections 23136 and 23140. California also makes it illegal for persons who are on probation for a DUI conviction to drive with a blood or breath alcohol concentration of 0.01% or greater pursuant to Vehicle Code Section 23154. While the existence of a BAC of 0.01% or greater may not always result in prosecution for driving under the influence, it will expose such drivers to a one or two-year suspension through an administrative action by the California Department of Motor Vehicles. If that same person has a BAC of 0.08% or greater, it will prompt what is referred to as a "dual action", meaning a suspension for driving with a BAC of 0.08% or greater and a suspension for driving with a BAC of 0.01% or greater while on DUI Probation. In California, in Mercer v. DMV (1991) 53 Cal.3d 753, the California State Supreme Court contrasted the term "drive," commonly understood to require volitional movement of the vehicle, with the term "driver," defined in California Vehicle Code § 305 as one who is either driving or in actual physical control. The court pointed out that the phrase "actual physical control" does not appear anywhere in the drunk driving offense statutes. Further, the court noted that since "driver" is defined as one who drives or is in actual physical control, the two terms (drive vs. actual physical control) must have different meanings. Construing these penal statutes strictly, rather than broadly, as is required by Keeler v. Superior Court of Amador County (1970) 2 Cal.3d 619, 631, the court held that mere actual physical control is not enough to constitute driving. Therefore, the term: "drive", at least for purposes of the drunk driving statutes, requires volitional movement of the vehicle. In coming to this conclusion, the California Supreme Court held that in everyday usage the phrase, "to drive a vehicle," is understood as requiring evidence of volitional movement of a vehicle. Numerous dictionary definitions-including Webster's Third New International Dictionary (1981), cited by the Court of Appeal in the case that led to the California Supreme Court's review of this case, support a definition of "drive" that includes movement. (See, e.g., Id., at p. 692.) fn. 5. The Mercer Court held that it believed that these definitions are consistent with the usual and ordinary understanding of that term, and suggest the sense in which the word was intended by the Legislature in the present context. California's "catch-all" provision was previously found in California Vehicle Code Section 23152(a); however new statutes that were made effective on January 1, 2014, two new sections were created to make sections specifically addressing those charged with driving under the influence of drugs, (which includes prescription medications if it can be shown that those medications impaired the driver), and driving under the influence of alcohol and drugs. CVC 23152(a): It is unlawful for any person who is under the influence of any alcoholic beverage or drug, or under the combined influence of any alcoholic beverage and drug, to drive a vehicle, CVC 23152(b): It is unlawful for any person who has 0.08 percent or more, by weight, of alcohol in his or her blood to drive a vehicle., CVC 23152(e): It is unlawful for a person who is under the influence of any drug to drive a vehicle, CVC 23152(f): It is unlawful for a person who is under the combined influence of any alcoholic beverage and drug to drive a vehicle. Nevada has an implied consent law, an agreement every operator of a motor vehicle accepts by operating on state roads, that makes breath or blood testing mandatory if an officer has reasonable suspicion of impairment. Refusal is grounds for arrest and law enforcement may use reasonable force to obtain blood samples. Nevada has a per se impaired driving offense, triggered by chemical tests that show a blood alcohol level of 0.08% or more or, for drivers under the age of 21, 0.02% or greater. If a driver's ability to operate a motor vehicle is impaired as a result of the consumption of alcohol, the driver may be convicted of impaired driving without regard to their measured blood alcohol level. North Carolina has a general 0.08% BAC limit, a lower limit of 0.04% for drivers holding commercial drivers licenses (CDL) while operating a commercial vehicle. Additionally, it is illegal for anyone under the age of twenty-one (21) to possess or consume alcohol. New Jersey has a general 0.08% BAC limit, but people can be convicted of drunk driving even when the BAC is under that limit. First offenders in Ohio have their driver's licenses suspended for one year. They may begin driving again only halfway through this period if they use an ignition interlock device that tests their blood alcohol before it will allow the car to start. Judges may look at up to ten years of driving records during sentencing. These enhancements took effect in April 2017. Wisconsin regards first offense drunk driving as a municipal offense, and New Jersey treats all drunk driving cases without serious injury or death as traffic violations. The amount of alcohol intake to reach a BAC of 0.08% may vary with the individual's body composition and state of health. Prior to increased emphasis on drinking and driving in the 1980s, standards of 0.10%-0.15% were in place. Approximately 20-30 states criminalized impaired riding a bicycle, whereas others have no sanctions relevant to cycling. Most such laws extend driving laws to all vehicles ("all vehicles" as opposed to "motor vehicles"), but a few address impaired bike riding separately. In some states, enhanced penalties are automobile-specific. Some states, notably Oregon, do not extend the implied consent law to cyclists. While police activities targeting impaired cyclists are rare, a cyclist could encounter police in a circumstance where the cyclist would otherwise be ticketed. Six states require physicians to report patients who drive while impaired. Another 25 states permit physicians to violate doctor-patient confidentiality to report impaired drivers, if they so choose. The American Medical Association endorsed physician reporting in 1999, but deferred to the states on whether such notification should be mandatory or permissive. Medical bioethicist Jacob Appel of New York University says physician reporting may deter some patients from seeking care, writing "Reporting may remove some dangerous drivers from the roads, but if in doing so it actually creates other dangerous drivers, by scaring them away from treatment, then society has sacrificed confidentiality for no tangible return in lives saved." The consequences of an impaired driving charge include both criminal and administrative penalties. Criminal penalties are imposed as a result of criminal prosecution. Administrative penalties are imposed by a state agency, and in some cases may apply even if a person stopped for impaired driving is not convicted of the offense. The penalties for drunk driving vary among states and jurisdictions. It is not uncommon for the penalties to be different from county to county within any given state depending on the practices of the individual jurisdiction. Some jurisdictions require jail time and larger fines, even on a first offense. For instance, Ohio requires a mandatory 72-hour jail sentence for a first offense conviction; however, the jail time component is satisfied by attendance of the Ohio A.W.A.R.E. Program, which is a 72-hour alcohol-education program. Compared to many other countries, such as Sweden, penalties for drunk driving in the United States are considered less severe unless alcohol is involved in an incident causing injury or death of another, such DUI, DWI or OWI with Great Bodily Injury (GBI) or Vehicular Manslaughter. The State of Washington used to permit those charged with a first offense drunk driving to complete a diversion program that resulted in the charges being dismissed upon the completion of a Diversion Program. In 1975, under the revised code of Washington or RCW Section 10.05, the Washington State Legislature established a deferred prosecution option for offenders arrested for driving under the influence of alcohol or impairing drugs (DUI). It was intended to encourage individuals to seek appropriate treatment and, under this option, defendants with a significant alcohol or drug dependence problem could petition a court to defer disposition of their charge until they have completed intensive substance dependence treatment and met other conditions required by the court. If the defendant successfully completed the terms of the program, the charge was dismissed; for those who failed, the deferred status was revoked and the defendant was prosecuted for the original DUI charge. (RCW 10.05.010 and 10.05.020) In 1992, the University of Washington Alcohol and Drug Abuse Institute evaluated DUI deferred prosecution and concluded the program reduced DUI recidivism. In 1998, the legislature modified the DUI statutes. Among other things, the length of deferred prosecution supervision was increased from two to five years and defendants were restricted to one deferred prosecution per lifetime. These innovative courts use substance abuse intervention with repeat offenders who plead guilty to driving while intoxicated. Those accepted into the diversionary program are required to abstain from alcohol. Some are required to wear a device that monitors and records any levels of alcohol detected in their bloodstreams. The federal Assimilative Crimes Act, which makes state law applicable on lands reserved or acquired by the Federal government when the act or omission is not made punishable by an enactment of Congress, recognizes collateral actions related to DUI convictions as punishments. According to : An SR-22 is an addendum to an insurance policy. It is an administrative form that attests to an insurance company's coverage, or the posting of a personal public bond in the amount of the state's minimum liability coverage for the licensed driver or vehicle registration. The SR in SR-22 stands for Safety Responsibility, and it is needed to reinstate a suspended driver's license after a DUI conviction in 49 states and the District of Columbia. It is submitted to the State's DMV by an auto insurance company to serve as proof that a driver has the minimum liability insurance that the states requires. They are essentially an agreement between a driver's insurance company and the respective State's DMV that requires the driver's insurance company to notify the respective State's DMV that the driver's insurance has either been terminated or lapsed; thus instituting a suspension of the driver's driving privileges until proof of insurance is re-filed with the State's DMV. While SR-22s are typically filed with the respective State's DMV, some States require the driver to carry proof of the SR-22 or to carry it in the registered vehicle, (particularly if the driver has been cited for coverage lapses or other administrative infractions). SR-22s may attest coverage for a vehicle regardless of operator (owner liability coverage), or cover a specific person regardless of the specific vehicle operated (operator liability coverage). As stated, the form is required in 49 states and the US District of Columbia in order to register a vehicle for usage on public roads. It is also required to redeem a license which has been suspended due to coverage lapse in these required states. These states also, generally, require that the issuing insurance company provide the relevant state's DMV with timely updates as to the status of such coverage. If the policy with the SR22 cancels, a form called an SR26 is issued and sent to the state DMV. Upon notice that there has been a lapse in coverage, the state will suspend the driver's license again. Another SR-22 filing will need to be submitted to regain driving privileges. Every jurisdiction imposes the completion of alcohol education programs, commonly known as DUI programs, subsequent to a DUI/DWI/OWI conviction. Additionally, some states impose an additional requirement that a person attend a Victim Impact Panel (VIP) administered by Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD), which was established in 1982. Both DUI classes and Victim Impact Panels are available in some states for first offense DUIs dependent on the judge's decision. In 1967, Ohio began to issue special license plates to DUI offenders who are granted limited driving privileges such as work-related driving until a court can rule that they can have full privileges back. In 2004, the plates became mandated by state law to all DUI offenders. Unlike Ohio's standard-issue plates (which as of 2008 have a picture of the Ohio country side), the DUI plates are yellow with red writing with no registration stickers or graphics. They are commonly referred to as "party plates". Minnesota has a similar program, where the plates are white with either blue or black text. The plate number is a "W", followed by a letter and four numbers. These plates may be issued to drivers with at least 2 offenses in a five-year period; three offenses in a ten-year period; having a BAC twice the legal limit; or having a child in the car at the time of arrest. In Minnesota, DUI plates are referred to as "whiskey plates", whiskey being the name of the letter W in the NATO phonetic alphabet. Most states impose the installation of ignition interlock devices (IID), with varying thresholds for installation requirements. Criminal process thresholds for installation requirements vary between minimum BAC levels (e.g., 0.20%, or 0.15%) or repeat offense, with about half of the states requiring installation on first offense. These ignition interlock sanctions are meant as punishment, but also as a deterrence. When required under a high BAC level or multiple offense threshold, ignition interlock requirements address a strong tendency of repeat offense by drivers with alcoholic use disorder (AUD or alcoholism). Ignition interlock requirements are also imposed in some instances after positive chemical blood alcohol tests, as a physical deterrent for drivers with alcoholic use disorder, or as a pseudo-civil punishment. Ignition interlock requirements are also imposed in some instances after an implied consent refusal under similar forensic procedures. In most US implementations, IIDs are set to a "zero tolerance" level (set to either levels consistent with culinary alcohol or measurement errors). Violations can occur from a driver exceeding the "zero tolerance" level, but can also occur from use by other drivers within legal limits, or from test anomalies. In some states, anomalies are routinely discounted, for example as not consistent with patterns of BAC levels or at levels incompatible with life (e.g., significant mouth alcohol - which as BAC would be fatal). In some states, "fail" readings not consistent with actual alcohol use can be cleared by a routine process, but other states automatically deem these "fail" readings as violations. In operation, the driver blows into the IIDs to enable the car's starter. After a variable time period of approximately 20–40 minutes, the driver is required to re-certify (blow again) within a time period consistent with safely pulling off the roadway. If the driver fails to re-certify within the time period, the car will alarm in a manner similar to setting off the car's immobilzer (but mechanically independent of the immobilizer). Various US states have different penalties for disabling IIDs. In some cases, the driver may be penalized if a family member or mechanic disables the IID when not in use by the sanctioned individual, or temporarily for servicing the vehicle. In some implementations, disabling by mechanics and others is either permitted or authorisation easily obtained, but some jurisdictions restrict or deny authorisation. (Such restrictions on mechanics can be problematic, for example, if limited to designated "licensed mechanics" or as applied to routine repair procedures requiring operation of the ignition and starter systems.) Some jurisdictions criminalize such temporary bypass of IIDs. Proposals (none official) have been made to install IIDs on all new vehicles, set to the legal limit for the driver. Issues to be solved, besides consumer and voter acceptance, include difficulty in obtaining accurate measurements without inconvenience, and a need to achieve Six Sigma (6σ) reliability, in order to not interfere with vehicle usability. There are no present plans to introduce universal IID installation in the US. Some states, such as California, allow for the impoundment and forfeiture of vehicles under certain conditions. A drunk driving charge is a type of police arrest process, so a basic understanding of the process of police engagement is essential to understanding how that process applies to that process as applied to a drunk driving charge. Following are common procedures when a law enforcement officer has reason to suspect a driver is intoxicated. While local procedures vary under the 10s of thousands of courts in the US having traffic jurisdiction, the basic procedure is: The legal stages are relevant because of the degree of evidence required at each stage. (For example, the police need not demonstrate guilt "beyond a reasonable doubt" in order to execute a traffic stop.) The investigation and NHTSA "phases" are distinct from the legal stages of the police arrest process. Instead, the investigation has, as its purpose, to take the process from initial contact through all of the evidence stages, through to prosecution. The primary goals are to: Identify impaired drivers;, Establish clear probable cause for arrest, which is necessary to sustain the use of chemical test results in court. Without probable cause, the chemical test results are subject to the exclusionary rule, Proceed to obtain proof of intoxication, typically using chemical test results. According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, police officers should conduct DUI Investigations according to a specific protocol called phases. According to the NHTSA training, DUI Investigations are categorized by these phases: Phase 1 - "Vehicle in Motion", Phase 2 - "Personal Contact", Phase 3 - "Pre-Arrest Screening" The "Vehicle in Motion" Phase deals with the law enforcement officers' observations of the suspect's driving maneuvers. The "Personal Contact" Phase is where the officer actually comes into contact with the suspected impaired driver. The "Pre-Arrest Screening" Phase is portion of the DUI Investigation that encompasses the Pre-Field Sobriety Test Questioning and the Field Sobriety Testing, including a Preliminary Alcohol Screening Test where applicable. This Phase also includes the post-arrest evidentiary chemical test despite that it occurs subsequent to a DUI arrest, not prior to a DUI arrest. The officer will typically approach the driver's window and ask some preliminary questions. During this phase of the stop, the officer will note if they detect any of the following indicators of intoxication: Odor of an alcoholic beverage on the driver's breath or in the car generally, Slurred speech in response to the questioning, Watery, blood shot, or reddish eyes, Flushed face, Droopy eyelids, Difficulty in understanding and responding intelligently to question, Fumbling with his or her driver's license and registration, The plain-view presence of containers of alcoholic beverages in the vehicle, Admission of consumption of alcoholic beverage If the officer observes enough to have a reasonable suspicion to legally justify a further detention and investigation, they will ask the driver to step out of the vehicle, and request that the driver submit to voluntary field sobriety tests. Note: Local terminology will vary, but these general classifications fall under US Supreme Court guidelines. Each stage has different requirements for establishing a basis for police or prosecutorial action. Without establishing that basis, the process is illegal and can cause a prosecution to fail under the exclusionary rule. The police must have a reason to engage in a traffic stop. This typically involves either observing a traffic violation or observing behavior, such as weaving or lane departure, that would raise a "reasonable suspicion" of driving while impaired. The police must have an articulable reason for the stop, but does not need probable cause for an arrest. One exception is a roadblock (where legal). Roadblocks do not involve reasonable suspicion, but must meet particular legal standards to avoid arbitrariness while still assuring randomness. During the traffic stop, the police will attempt to obtain sufficient evidence to support "probable cause". This includes asking questions, and requesting further evidence or confession. There are several situations in which the officer will come into contact with a driver, some examples are: The officer on patrol has observed erratic, suspicious driving, or a series of traffic infractions indicating the possibility that the driver may be impaired. This is by far the most common reason for stopping a suspect., A police officer has stopped a vehicle for a lesser traffic offense, notices the signs of intoxication, and begins the DUI investigation., The driver has been involved in an automobile collision; the officer has responded to the scene and is conducting an investigation., The driver has been stopped at a sobriety checkpoint (also known as roadblocks)., The police have received a report, possibly from an anonymous citizen, that a described car has been driving erratically. The officer should verify the erratic driving before pulling the driver over. In some cases, the driver will no longer be in the vehicle. The following list of DUI symptoms, from a publication issued by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (DOT HS-805-711), is widely used in training officers to detect drunk drivers. After each symptom is a percentage figure which, according to NHTSA, indicates the statistical chances through research that a driver is over the legal limit. If the officer observes enough evidence to have a "Reasonable Suspicion" to legally justify a further detention and investigation, they will ask the driver to step out of the vehicle. "Probable cause" is established by obtaining evidence from the police encounter sufficient to meet the "probable cause" standard for arrest. "Probable cause" is not necessarily sufficient to obtain a conviction, but is a prerequisite for arrest. Examples of "probable cause" for a drunk driving arrest includes: One of the most controversial aspects of a DUI stop is the field sobriety test (FSTs). The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) has developed a model system for managing Standardized Field Sobriety Test (SFST) training. The NHTSA have published numerous training manuals associated with FSTs. As a result of the NHTSA studies, the walk-and-turn test was determined to be 68% accurate, and the one-leg stand test is only 65% accurate when administered to people within the study parameters. The tests were not validated for people with medical conditions, injuries, 65 years or older, and 50 pounds or greater overweight. The officer will administer one or more field sobriety tests. FSTs are considered "divided attention tests" that test the suspect's ability to perform the type of mental and physical multitasking that is required to operate an automobile. However, these tests can be problematic for people with non-obvious disabilities affecting proprioception (the awareness of the body's movement), such as Ehlers-Danlos syndrome. The three validated tests by NHTSA are: 1. The Horizontal Gaze Nystagmus Test, which involves following an object with the eyes (such as a pen) to determine characteristic eye movement reaction. 2. The Walk-and-Turn Test (heel-to-toe in a straight line). This test is designed to measure a person's ability to follow directions and remember a series of steps while dividing attention between physical and mental tasks. 3. The One-Leg-Stand Test According to NHTSA, these tests were not designed to measure impairment, but rather to give a probability that a driver is at or above a 0.08% BAC. However, studies have shown that there are reasons to doubt the tests' usefulness in helping an officer to make such a determination. In 1991, Dr. Spurgeon Cole of Clemson University conducted a study of the accuracy of FSTs. His staff videotaped people performing six common field sobriety tests, then showed the tapes to 14 police officers and asked them to decide whether the suspects had "had too much to drink and drive" (sic). The blood-alcohol concentration of each of the 21 DUI subjects was 0.00, unknown to the officers. The result: the officers gave their opinion that 46% of these innocent people were too drunk to be able to drive. This study showed the possible inaccuracy of FSTs. Alternative tests, which have not been scientifically validated, include: Romberg test, or the Modified-Position-of-Attention Test, (feet together, head back, eyes closed for thirty seconds)., The Finger-to-Nose Test (tip head back, eyes closed, touch the tip of nose with tip of index finger)., The Alphabet Test (recite all or part of the alphabet)., The Finger Count Test (touch each finger of hand to thumb counting with each touch (1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 3, 2, 1))., The Counting Test (counting backwards from a number ending in a number other than 5 or 0 and stopping at a number ending other than 5 or 0. The series of numbers should be more than 15)., The Preliminary Alcohol Screening Test, PAS Test or PBT, (breathe into a "portable or preliminary breath tester", PAS Test or PBT). FSTs and SFSTs are promoted as, "used to determine whether a subject is impaired", but FST tests are widely regarded having, as their primary purpose, establishing tangible evidence of "probable cause for arrest". Probable cause is necessary under US law (4th Amendment) to sustain an arrest and (significantly) to invoke the implied consent law. A secondary purpose is to provide supporting corroborative tangible evidence for use against the suspect for use at trial in jurisdictions that permit such evidence. In all US jurisdictions, participation in a Field Sobriety Test is voluntary, and not required under implied consent laws. (Police are not obliged to advise the suspect that participation in a FST or other pre-arrest procedures is voluntary. In contrast, formal evidentiary tests given under implied consent requirements are considered mandatory.) A suspect requested to participate in a Field Sobriety Test is likely to be told that the purpose is to determine whether the suspect is impaired; however, FST tests are widely regarded having, as their primary purpose, gaining tangible evidence for use against the suspect in the establishment of probable cause for arrest. An increasingly used field sobriety test involves having the suspect breathe into a small, handheld breath testing device. These are often referred to as PAS Tests, or "Preliminary Alcohol Screening" Tests", or a PBT, "Preliminary Breath Test" and precede the actual arrest and subsequent requirement to submit to an evidentiary chemical test of the suspect's breath or blood. These breath testing devices used are smaller, inexpensive versions of the larger, more sophisticated instruments at the police stations, commonly known as an Evidentiary Breath Test using an EBT device, or Evidentiary Breath Test device. An increasing number jurisdictions began using Portable Evidentiary Breath Test devices, or PEBT devices, that are more sophisticated versions of the smaller, inexpensive versions of the larger, larger instruments at the police stations. Another distinction is that, while the larger EBTs usually employ infrared spectroscopy, the PEBT and PAS devices use a relatively simple electrochemical (fuel cell) technology. When used for purposes of a Preliminary Alcohol Screening Test, or PAS Test, their purpose, along with the other FSTs, is to assist the officer in determining whether he/she has probable cause for arrest. The Preliminary Breath Test (PBT) or Preliminary Alcohol Screening test (PAS) is sometimes categorised as part of field sobriety testing, although it is not part of the series of performance tests. The PBT (or PAS) uses a portable breath tester. While the tester provides numerical blood alcohol content (BAC) readings, its primary use is for screening and establishing probable cause for arrest, to invoke the implied consent requirements. In US law, this is necessary to sustain a conviction based on evidential testing (or implied consent refusal). Regardless of the terminology, in order to sustain a conviction based on evidential tests, probable cause must be shown (or the suspect must volunteer to take the evidential test without implied consent requirements being invoked). Police are not obliged to advise the suspect that participation in a FST or other pre-arrest procedures is voluntary. In contrast, formal evidentiary tests given under implied consent requirements are considered mandatory. Refusal to take a preliminary breath test (PBT) in Michigan subjects a non-commercial driver to a "civil infraction" penalty, with no violation "points", but is not considered to be a refusal under the general "implied consent" law. In some states, the state may present evidence of refusal to take a field sobriety test in court, although this is of questionable probative value in a drunk driving prosecution. Different requirements apply in many states to drivers under DUI probation, in which case participation in a preliminary breath test (PBT) may be a condition of probation, and for commercial drivers under "drug screening" requirements. Some US states, notably California, have statutes on the books penalizing PBT refusal for drivers under 21; however the Constitutionality of those statutes has not been tested. (As a practical matter, most criminal lawyers advise not engaging in discussion or "justifying" a refusal with the police.) If the officer has sufficient probable cause that the suspect has been driving under the influence of alcohol, they will make the arrest, handcuff the suspect and transport them to the police station. En route, the officer may advise them of their legal implied consent obligation to submit to an evidentiary chemical test of blood, breath or possibly urine depending on the jurisdiction. Laws relating to what exactly constitutes probable cause vary from state to state. In California it is a refutable presumption that a person with a BAC of 0.08% or higher is driving under the influence. However, section 23610(a)(2) of the California Vehicle Code states that driving with a BAC between 0.05% and 0.08% "shall not give rise to any presumption that the person was or was not under the influence of an alcoholic beverage". An arrestee will be offered a chemical test of breath, blood or, much less frequently, urine. Breath test results are usually available immediately; urine and blood samples are sent to a lab for later analysis to determine the BAC or possible presence of drugs. Some states sought to impose criminal punishment for a refusal to submit to a chemical test of his/her breath or blood; however, in Birchfield v. North Dakota, the United States Supreme Court visited the issue of whether states can criminalize a refusal to submit to a chemical test. The United States Supreme Court decided that states may criminalize a refusal to submit to a breath test; but not a refusal to submit to a blood test absent a McNeely warrant, named after Missouri v. McNeely (2013). This was a case decided by United States Supreme Court, on appeal from the Supreme Court of Missouri, regarding exceptions to the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution under exigent circumstances. The United States Supreme Court ruled that police must generally obtain a warrant before subjecting a drunken-driving suspect to a blood test, and that the natural metabolism of blood alcohol does not establish a per se exigency that would justify a blood draw without consent. Regarding blood tests, some commentators, such as Brown University's Jacob Appel, have criticized the role of medical personnel in this process. According to Appel, "If physicians acquiesce today in the removal of a resistant patient's blood, soon they may be called upon to pump the contents of an unwilling patient's stomach or even to perform involuntary surgery to retrieve an evidential bullet". While chemical tests are used to determine the driver's BAC, they do not determine the driver's level of impairment. However, state laws usually provide for a rebuttable legal presumption of intoxication at a BAC of 0.08% or higher (see blood alcohol test assumptions). If it is determined after arrest that the person's BAC is not at or above the legal limit of 0.08%, they will probably be released without any charges. One may, however, still be charged with driving under the influence of alcohol on the basis of driving symptoms, observed impairment, admissions or performance on the field sobriety tests. And if there is suspicion of drug usage, a blood or urine test is likely, or at least the testimony of a specially trained officer called a Drug Recognition Expert (DRE). Assuming sufficient evidence of impaired driving from drugs, the arrested may face charges of driving under the influence of drugs or the combined influence of alcohol and drugs. Most of the time, the driver will either be kept in a holding cell (sometimes referred to as the "drunk tank") until they are deemed sober enough to be released on bail or on his "own recognizance" (OR). A date to appear in court for an arraignment will be given to them. If they cannot make bail or is not granted OR, they will be kept in jail to wait for the arraignment on remand. In the United States, paying the DUI ticket, court costs, and attorney fees is just the start of a person's financial obligations after a DUI conviction. Additional costs of a DUI conviction will often involve the installation and maintenance fees of a vehicle Ignition Interlock Device, which serves the same function as a Breathalyzer to enable the vehicle to start. A person convicted of a driving under the influence charge, can also expect to pay higher insurance rates and premiums. In addition, DUI records prevent entry into Canada without proper documentation. Drunk driving is a public health concern in the United States, and reducing its frequency may require an integrated community-based approach utilizing sanctions and treatments. Several intervention programs have been developed, such as the Paradigm Developmental Model of Treatment (PDMT), a program encouraging a paradigm shift in the offender's view of oneself and the world. The National Institute for Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism suggests environmental interventions to help eliminate drinking and driving all together. Federal Aviation Regulation 91.17 () prohibits pilots from flying aircraft with an alcohol level of 0.04% or more, or within eight hours of consuming alcohol ("eight hours, bottle to throttle"), or while under the impairing influence of any drug. The same prohibition applies to any other crew members on duty aboard the aircraft (flight attendants, etc.). Some airlines impose additional restrictions, and many pilots also impose stricter standards upon themselves. Commercial pilots found to be in violation of regulations are typically fired or resign voluntarily, and they may lose their pilot certificates and be subject to criminal prosecution under Federal or State laws, effectively ending their careers. Similar laws apply to other activities involving transportation; Michigan prohibits intoxicated use of motorized farm implements, or boating, the latter whether a pilot or passenger, with much the same threshold of intoxication. In the case of boating, the laws extend to include kayaks, canoes, sailboats—any flotation device that needs to be steered in water. Different states have different laws and classifications on the level of transgression attached to a citation for boating under the influence. For example, Virginia has very similar penalties for a BUI as it does for a DUI. Those convicted of boating while intoxicated face penalties including, fines of up to $2,500, jail time of up to one year, loss of one's operator's license for up to three years and mandatory enrollment and completion of a Virginia Alcohol Safety Action Program. Alcohol use was the number one contributing factor in U.S. recreational boating deaths between 2003 and 2012, accounting for 15 percent of the fatalities in 2003, and 17 percent in 2012. A Canadian study published in 2011 examined 18 years of data on recreational boating, and concluded that a "true figure" of alcohol-related deaths in that country "may lie between 46% and 56%". In countries such as the United Kingdom and Australia drunk driving and deaths caused by drunk driving are considerably lower than in the USA. Drunk driving deaths in the UK (population 61 million, 31 million cars) were 380 in 2010 (21% of all fatal accidents). In California (population 36 million, 32 million cars) there were 950 deaths from traffic accidents involving drivers with a Blood Alcohol Content (BAC) of 0.08 or greater) in 2009 (31% of all fatal accidents). Alcohol consumption per capita in the UK and Australia is higher than in the USA and the legal age for drinking lower. Research in the United Kingdom has shown that the danger group for drunk driving is young men in their early 20s rather than teenagers. It is not uncommon for police forces in Australia to randomly stop motorists and submit them to a random breath test. This test involves speaking or blowing into a hand held device to give a reading. Refusing a roadside test is an offense, and is subject to the same penalty as high range drunk driving. This detection method is not employed in the UK, and it is not an offence in England or Wales for a fully licensed driver to drive with a BAC of less than 0.08% (Australia and Scotland have limits of 0.05%). Also in Australia it is an offence for any person driving on Learner or probationary ('P1 or P2') plates (aged under 20 years) to drive with any alcohol at all in their system. The BAC must be 0.00% and still remains under 0.05% for an "instructing a learner". Unlike the USA, these countries do not see restricting access to alcohol as having any useful role to play in reducing drunk driving. Their experience is that random breath tests, severe penalties, including imprisonment for a first offense (in UK), combined with blanket public service broadcasting are a more effective strategy. Also, Australian and British law do not recognize the crime of DUI manslaughter, and sentences for causing death by drunk driving are much lower than the USA. In the UK, a judge makes a sentencing decision based on the amount of alcohol present. This can lead to imprisonment for a first offence. In Germany, a legal limit of 0.05% lowers to 0.03% if a driver is found to be at fault in a traffic accident. 0.00% is the standard for those who are under 21 years of age. Carrollton bus disaster, about a 1988 bus accident in Kentucky caused by a drunk driver that resulted in 27 deaths, America West Airlines Flight 556: pilots arrested in 2002 for attempting to fly while drunk, DUI laws in California Rubenzer, S. (2011). Judging intoxication. "Behavioral Sciences & The Law, 29" (1), 116-137. doi:10.1002/bsl.935 Barron H. Lerner, One for the Road: Drunk Driving Since 1900. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011. Impaired driving is the term used in Canada to describe the criminal offence of operating, having care or the control of a motor vehicle while the person's ability to operate the motor vehicle is impaired by alcohol or a drug. Impaired driving is punishable under multiple offences in the Criminal Code, with greater penalties depending on the harm caused by the impaired driving. It can also result in various types of driver's licence suspensions. There is a related, parallel offence of driving with a blood alcohol level which exceeds eighty milligrams of alcohol in one hundred millilitres of blood (.08). The penalties are identical for impaired driving and driving with a BAC greater than .08. The Criminal Code gives the police and peace officers a number of powers to assist in the enforcement of the applicable laws, and there are a number of presumptions that assist in the prosecution of offences. One of the first reported criminal cases regarding drinking and driving in Canada was an Alberta decision in 1920 called R. v. Nickle. In that case, the appeal court found that the act of driving while intoxicated was an unlawful act that could support a manslaughter conviction. In 1921, the Parliament of Canada first created a summary conviction offence for drinking and driving, called "driving while intoxicated". At the time, the courts interpreted intoxication to mean substantial inebriation, and more than just being under the influence of alcohol. The minimum penalty for the first offence was seven days in jail. The minimum penalty for the second offence was one month in jail. The minimum penalty for a third offence was three months in jail. In 1925, Parliament amended the Criminal Code to include a new offence of driving while intoxicated by a narcotic. The offences were also amended to include "care or control" of a motor vehicle, not just driving. (See below.) In 1930, Parliament changed the offence to a hybrid offence, giving the Crown the option to proceed with the more serious indictable offence procedure. Difficulties arose regarding how to prove someone was in care or control of a motor vehicle, and what the test should be. In 1947, Parliament amended the Criminal Code again, adding a presumption of care or control when a person was found sitting in the driver's seat of a motor vehicle. This did not answer all of the problems regarding the test (i.e. when a person is not found in the driver's seat of a motor vehicle). Many of the court's answers to those questions remain in conflict today. In 1951, Parliament re-worded the law, making it an offence to operate or have care or control of a motor vehicle while the driver's ability to operate the motor vehicle was impaired by alcohol or other drugs. The breathalyzer was made into a practical police tool by Robert Frank Borkenstein in 1952, which allowed for the police to measure a person's blood alcohol concentration. The first Canadian test of the breathalyzer was in Ontario in 1954. By 1962, police were using the breathalyzer for "mass testing". However, the test was voluntary, and could only be used as confirmatory evidence. In 1969 (fifteen years after the introduction of the breathalyzer into Canada), Parliament created an offence of driving while "over 80" (over 80 milligrams of alcohol per 100 millilitres of blood). In 1976, Parliament made the penalty the same as driving while impaired, created the offence of refusing to provide a breath sample (with the same penalties), and created laws allowing the police to use roadside screening devices. Both offences are now set out in the same section of the Criminal Code, section 253. After 1976, there were additional changes to the minimum penalties, and the introduction of new offences (impaired driving causing bodily harm and impaired driving causing death). By 2008, drinking and driving cases made up 12 per cent of all criminal charges, making it the largest single offence group. In 2008, it was estimated that 53,000 drinking and driving cases are heard every year in Canada. The conviction rate was 73 per cent, which exceeded the rate for all criminal convictions by 13 per cent. Notwithstanding the higher rate of conviction, drinking and driving cases are more likely to go to trial than any other criminal offence, and are often fought on both technical issues and alleged police violations of section 8, section 9, and section 10(b) of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. 2008 also saw the most recent amendments by Parliament to the law on drinking and driving. The Tackling Violent Crime Act came into force on July 2, 2008. The changes included adding new evidentiary restrictions on defendants trying to raise "evidence to the contrary" regarding the presumption of a person's blood alcohol concentration, created mandatory standard field sobriety tests that can be requested by a police officer, created additional means to allow police officers to test for the possible presence of drugs in a driver's body, increased the minimum sentences to their current level ($1000 fine for the first offence, 30 days in jail for the second offence, and 120 days in jail for the third offence), and created new offences for "over 80" causing death or bodily harm and refusing to provide a sample where operation caused death or bodily harm. If a police officer has reasonable grounds that a person has committed an offence under section 253 within the past three hours due to alcohol, they can demand that a person provide suitable breath samples into an approved instrument. The results of those samples may be introduced as evidence at a later trial. If it is later determined that the officer did not have reasonable grounds, then the taking of the breath samples violated the protection against unreasonable searches and seizures under section 8 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the person can apply to have them excluded as evidence under section 24(2) of the Charter. Police officers can obtain reasonable grounds from observations they make and information they receive, including the results of the other demands listed below. These breath samples are typically taken at a police station by a qualified technician, after a person has been arrested. If a person is unable to give breath samples (usually due to injuries suffered from a traffic collision), a police officer can make a demand for blood samples, under the direction of a medical doctor, and performed by the same doctor or a nurse. If a police officer has a reasonable suspicion that a person has alcohol in his or her body, and that he or she has been operating or has had care or control of a vehicle within the past three hours, the police officer can demand that person provide a suitable sample into an approved screening device. These devices are usually calibrated to display fail if a person has a BAC above 0.1 percent, warn or caution if a person has a BAC between 0.05 and 0.1 percent, and a numerical value if the person has a BAC below 0.05 percent. These breath samples are typically taken at the roadside by an investigating police officer. Typical observations supporting a reasonable suspicion is if a driver has an odour of an alcoholic beverage on their breath, or if they admit they had a drink. If a police officer has a reasonable suspicion that a person has alcohol or drugs in their body, and that they have been operating or have had care or control of a vehicle within the past three hours, they can demand that that person perform physical coordination tests, referred to as Standardized Field Sobriety Tests (SFSTs). SFSTs are requested in order to allow the officer to establish "reasonable grounds" for making an approved instrument demand, by establishing that there is reasonable and probable cause which lies at the point where "point where credibly-based probability replaces suspicion". "Reasonable grounds" is necessary to sustain the use of evidence obtained from the approved instrument demand, blood demand, or drug evaluation demand, and thereby support a conviction based on that demand. Commentary varies on whether a suspect can refuse taking SFSTs in Canada. Some sources, especially official ones, indicate that the SFSTs are mandatory, whereas other sources are silent on FST testing.. Canada Criminal Code § 254(2)(a) provides that, "If a peace officer has reasonable grounds to suspect that a person has alcohol or a drug in their body and that the person has, within the preceding three hours, operated a motor vehicle ... the peace officer may, by demand, require the person ... to perform forthwith physical coordination tests". The assertion regarding mandatory compliance with an SFST demand is based on "failure to comply with a demand", as an offence under § 254(5) of the Criminal Code, but it is unclear whether § 254(5) applies to refusal of SFSTs (provided the suspect agrees to take an approved instrument chemical test). There are some reports that refusal to submit to an SFST can result in the same penalties as impaired driving. Nevertheless, it is unclear whether there has ever been a prosecution under this interpretation of "failure to comply with a demand" as applied to SFSTs. Canada Criminal Code § 254(1) and (5) addresses this, but only with respect to chemical testing (breath, blood, etc.) Of note, it is generally advised to comply with a demand to submit to the approved instrument chemical test. A legal challenge to sufficiency of "reasonable grounds" to submit to the approved instrument demand, blood demand, or drug evaluation demand, is typically addressed in court, under the Exclusionary Rule. If a police officer has reasonable grounds that a person has committed an offence under § 253 within the past three hours due to drugs or a combination of drugs and alcohol, they can demand that the person submit to an evaluation by an evaluating officer to determine if the person is impaired by drugs or a combination of drugs and alcohol. If the evaluating officer has reasonable grounds that the person is impaired by alcohol, they can make an approved instrument demand. If the evaluating officer has reasonable grounds that the person is impaired by drugs or a combination of drugs and alcohol, they can make a demand for blood or urine samples. Fatigue toxins and effects due to illness have been held to be drugs for the purposes of the statute. If any of the above demands are lawfully made, it is a criminal offence to fail or refuse to comply with them, unless the person can show they had a reasonable excuse. The penalties are identical to the penalties for other drinking and driving offences. When a person gives a breath sample into an approved instrument by a qualified technician, a determination still needs to be made of what the person's BAC was at the time of the offence. That requires evidence of two things: The person's BAC at the time of giving the breath samples, and, Based on the person's BAC at the time of giving the breath samples, the person's BAC at the time of the offence. To work out the person's BAC at the time of giving the breath samples, the prosecutor can rely on a Certificate of a Qualified Technician, which states what the results were of the analysis of the breath samples, and is evidence of its contents. This is commonly referred to as the presumption of accuracy. It is still open for the defence to call evidence showing why the results are not accurate, leaving it for the court to weigh the evidence. If there is no Certificate, or the Certificate is flawed, the prosecutor can always call the qualified technician to give evidence about the accuracy of the results. The prosecutor may still call the qualified technician if there is a Certificate in order to counter the defence's evidence. Typically, the Certificate will round the BAC results down to a hundredth of a percentage (e.g. 0.116 percent is truncated to 0.11 percent). To work out the person's BAC at the time of the offence, the prosecutor generally needs to show the following: The breath samples were taken as soon as practicable,, The first breath sample was taken within two hours of the offence, and, A second breath sample was taken 15 minutes or more after the first sample. If the three criteria are met, then the lower of the two results is presumed to be the person's BAC at the time of the offence. This is commonly referred to as the presumption of identity. The presumption can be rebutted two ways, depending on whether the defence is challenging the accuracy of the results. If defence is challenging the accuracy of the results, they need call evidence that shows: the approved instrument was malfunctioning or not being operated properly,, the malfunction or improper operation resulted in a reading of a BAC in excess of 0.08 percent, and, the person's BAC would not have been in excess of 0.08 at the time of the offence. The last criteria is typically met by calling reliable evidence of how much the person had to drink prior to the offence, and expert evidence of what their BAC would have been at the time of the offence as a result of the drinking evidence. If defence is not challenging the accuracy of the results, they only need to call evidence on the last criteria, and have the expert give evidence why it would not be inconsistent with the breath sample readings. (This is typically called the "bolus drinking" scenario, primarily in Canadian jurisprudence.) If the prosecutor is unable to rely on the presumption of identity (usually because the first reading was taken outside of the two hours), they can still "read-back" the readings by calling their own expert evidence. A person convicted for any drinking and driving offence (which includes a refuse to comply offence) faces an automatic Canada-wide driving prohibition, and either a fine or jail sentence and the possibility of probation. The minimum sentences are: For a first offence, a $1000 fine and a 12-month driving prohibition,, For a second offence, 30 days of jail and a 24-month driving prohibition, and, For a third or subsequent offence, 120 days of jail and a 36-month driving prohibition. Drinking and driving offences are prior offences for refuse to comply offences, and vice versa. If no one is hurt or killed, and the prosecutor is proceeding by summary conviction, the maximum sentence is 18 months of jail. If no one is hurt or killed, and the prosecutor is proceeding by indictment, the maximum sentence is 5 years of jail. If another person suffers bodily harm because of the offence, the maximum sentence is 10 years in jail. If another person is killed because of the offence, the maximum sentence is a life sentence. If a person is convicted of both impaired operation/care or control and operation/care or control with a BAC in excess of 0.08 percent, the defendant can only be sentenced for one of the offences (the prosecutor chooses which one). The same does not apply if a person is also convicted of a refuse to comply offence. A province is allowed to set up special ignition interlock device programs specifically to limit criminal driving prohibitions. Not all provinces have such specific programs, but if they do, and a person is enrolled in one, then they can drive during their prohibition period with an interlock device, beginning as follows: For a first offence, 3 months after the day of sentence,, For a second offence, 6 months after the day of sentence, and, For a third offence or subsequent offence, 12 months after the day of sentence. Driving otherwise while on a driving prohibition is a criminal offence. Canada is a federal state, and responsibility for road safety with respect to drunk driving falls on both Parliament and the provincial legislatures. Typically after an impaired driving offence is committed, the accused will be subject to both a prohibition imposed under federal law (criminal law) and a driver's licence suspension under provincial law. It is important to note that while Parliament may prohibit an accused from driving, in the absence of provincial legislation, this does not affect the validity of the driver's licence of the accused. Nonetheless the accused may be charged with driving while prohibited under criminal law despite possessing a valid driver's licence. Often the provincial suspensions are more severe than the criminal prohibition. For instance many jurisdictions require the accused to complete a remedial program and participate in the ignition interlock program, failing which will result in an indefinite suspension until the conditions are met. Also an accused may be suspended from driving for medical reasons if a physician reports that the accused has a serious alcohol problem likely to result in an unacceptable risk to the public should the accused operate a motor vehicle. The Criminal Code provides that an accused may be prosecuted for either driving while prohibited or driving while disqualified. The former refers to driving in contravention of a criminal court order of prohibition while the latter refers to driving while suspended under provincial legislation relating to a suspension for an impaired driving offence. Administrative licence suspensions are separate from the driving prohibitions that are ordered as part of a criminal sentence. While drinking and driving are criminal offences, which is the jurisdiction of the Canadian Parliament, the provinces have jurisdiction to regulate their roads and highways (see Canadian federalism). Therefore, the provinces have the ability to administratively suspend a person's driver's licence separately from any criminal proceedings. Licence suspensions can occur in three ways: 1) having a high BAC, but not enough to commit a criminal offence, 2) a police officer having reasonable grounds that a drinking and driving offence has occurred, and 3) being found guilty of a drinking and driving offence. Driving with a suspended licence can result in being charged with either criminal or provincial offences. When a person blows into an approved screening device, they might not register a BAC high enough for a fail, but they will still register a significantly high BAC. The provinces deal with that situation in different ways. There may also be different type of suspensions for novice drivers who are not allowed any BAC above zero. Alberta - Length: 24 hours; Reason: a police officer reasonably suspects the person's ability to operate a vehicle is impaired by alcohol or drug, but does not charge them with a criminal offence. While the 24 hour suspension remains on the books, drivers may also receive a 3-day non-criminal suspension and other penalties should their blood alcohol concentration test 0.05 or over (warning), but not above the criminal 0.08 (failure). New drivers will receive a 30-day non-criminal suspension for a blood alcohol concentration of greater than zero., British Columbia - Length: 12 hours; Reason: BAC over zero when a licence restriction is in place. Length: 3–30 days depending on prior offences; Reason: BAC over 0.05 percent., Manitoba, New Brunswick - Length: 24 hours; Reason: BAC over 0.05 percent., Newfoundland and Labrador - Length: 24 hours for the first and second suspension, 2 months for the third suspension, 4 months for the fourth suspension, 6 months for the fifth or subsequent suspension; Reason: BAC over 0.05 percent., Nova Scotia - Length: 7 days for the first suspension within 10 years, 15 days for the second, 30 days for the third and subsequent; Reason: BAC over 0.05 percent., Ontario - Length: 3 days for the first suspension, 7 days for the second suspension, 30 days for the third or subsequent suspension; Reason: BAC over 0.05 percent., Prince Edward Island - Length: 24 hours for the first suspension, 30 days for a second suspension within 2 years, 90 days for the third suspension within 2 years; Reason: BAC over 0.05 percent., Quebec does not suspend a person's licence if their BAC is below 0.08 percent (except for novice drivers)., Saskatchewan - Length: 24 hours for the first suspension, 24 hours & 15 days for the second suspension, 24 hours & 90 days for the third or subsequent suspension; Reason: BAC over 0.04 percent., Northwest Territories and Nunavut - Length: 24 hours for the first suspension, 30 days for a subsequent suspension; Reason: BAC over 0.05 percent., Yukon - Length: 24 hours; Reason: a police officer has reasonable grounds the driver is impaired. If an officer has reasonable grounds to believe a person has committed a drinking and driving offence, besides being allowed to arrest the person, the provinces will suspend the person's driver's licence for a period of time. The same suspensions apply if the person refuses to comply with a breath demand. Alberta - 90 days generally; 6 months if bodily harm or death is caused., British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, Saskatchewan, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Yukon - 90 days. Provinces will suspend a person's driver's licence for a lengthy period of time if they have been found guilty of a drinking and driving offence, and will usually require various types of programs to be completed before or after a licence is reinstated. When programs are required to be completed, the driver is also required to pay the cost. Alberta - 1 year for the first offence, 3 years for a second offence, 5 years for the third or subsequent offence. A rehabilitative course may be required., British Columbia - 1 year for the first offence, 3 years for the second offence, indefinitely for the third or subsequent offence. A rehabilitative program, which may include an interlock device program, must be completed., Manitoba - 1 year for the first offence (2 years for refusing to comply and no other offences), 5 years for the second offence (7 years for refusing to comply and no other offences), 10 years for the third offence, life for the fourth or subsequent offence; If the offence was committed while there was a passenger in the car 16 years old or younger, or caused death or bodily harm, 5 years for the first offence, 10 years for the second offence, life for the third or subsequent offence. If it is a subsequent offence, or if it had a passenger in the car 16 years old or younger, or death or bodily harm was caused, an interlock device will be required., New Brunswick - 1 year. A drinking driving course is required., Newfoundland and Labrador - 1 year for the first offence, 3 years for the second offence, 5 years for the third offence, life for the fourth or subsequent offence; 10 years if bodily harm or death was caused. Rehabilitative programs, interlock programs, and alcohol/drug screenings may be required., Nova Scotia - 1 year for the first offence, 3 years for the second offence, indefinitely for the third or subsequent offence. For the second and subsequent offences, a driver must have an interview with Drug Dependency Services., Ontario - 1 year for the first offence, 3 years for the second offence, and indefinitely for the third or subsequent offence. They may have to complete a remedial program before have their licence re-issued. The driver will need to have an interlock device for a prescribed period of time., Prince Edward Island - 1 year for the first offence, 3 years for the second offence, 5 years for the third or subsequent offence. A rehabilitation program may be required., Quebec - 1 year for the first offence, 3 years for the second offence, 5 years for the third or subsequent offence. If the licence suspension is longer than the driving prohibition, a driver may be able to drive after the prohibition is completed with an interlock device. A rehabilitative course is required., Saskatchewan - 1 for the first offence, 3 years for the second offence, 5 years for the third or subsequent offence., Northwest Territories and Nunavut - 1 year for the first offence, 3 years for the second offence, 5 years for the third offence, indefinite for the fourth or subsequent offence. If death is caused, the period is indefinite. A number of rehabilitative programs may be required., Yukon - 1 year for the first offence, 3 years for the second offence, indefinitely for the third or subsequent offence. Driving under the influence, MADD Canada Field Sobriety Tests (FSTs), also referred to as Standardized Field Sobriety Tests (SFSTs), are a battery of tests used by police officers to determine if a person suspected of impaired driving is intoxicated with alcohol or other drugs. FSTs (and SFSTs) are primarily used in the US, to meet "probable cause for arrest" requirements (or the equivalent), necessary to sustain an alcohol- impaired driving (DWI or DUI) conviction based on a chemical blood alcohol test. Impaired driving, referred to as Driving under the influence (DUI), or Driving while intoxicated (DWI), is the crime of driving a motor vehicle while impaired by alcohol or other drugs (including recreational drugs and those prescribed by physicians), to a level that renders the driver incapable of operating a motor vehicle safely. People who receive multiple DUI offenses are often people struggling with alcoholism or alcohol dependence. Traffic accidents are predominantly caused by driving under the influence; for people in Europe between the age of 15 and 29, DUI is one of the main causes of mortality. According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration alcohol-related crashes cause approximately $37 billion in damages annually. DUI and alcohol-related crashes produce an estimated $45 billion in damages every year. With alcohol, a drunk driver's level of intoxication is typically determined by a measurement of blood alcohol content or BAC; but this can also be expressed as a breath test measurement, often referred to as a BrAC. A BAC or BrAC measurement in excess of the specific threshold level, such as 0.08%, defines the criminal offense with no need to prove impairment. In some jurisdictions, there is an aggravated category of the offense at a higher BAC level, such as 0.12%, 0.15% or 0.20%. In many jurisdictions, police officers can conduct field tests of suspects to look for signs of intoxication. The US state of Colorado has a maximum blood content of THC for drivers who have consumed cannabis. In most countries, driver's licence suspensions, fines and prison sentences for DUI offenders are used as a deterrent. Anyone who is convicted of driving while under the influence of alcohol or other drugs can be heavily fined and/or given a prison sentence. In some jurisdictions, impaired drivers who injure or kill another person while driving may face heavier penalties. In addition, many countries have prevention campaigns that use advertising to make people aware of the danger of driving while impaired and the potential fines and criminal charges, discourage impaired driving, and encourage drivers to take taxis or public transport home after using alcohol or drugs. In some jurisdictions, the bar that served an impaired driver may face civil liability. In some countries, non-profit advocacy organizations, a well-known example being Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) run their own publicity campaigns against drunk driving. The US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) began research in 1975 on how to test suspects for impaired driving. The NHTSA developed a series of tests that police officers could use when evaluating suspected impaired drivers. By 1981, officers in the United States began using the organization's battery of standardized sobriety tests to help make decisions about whether to arrest suspected impaired drivers. The tests were designed to indicate intoxication associated with a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.10%. An early NHTSA report described a 6-test battery. A 1981 report became the basis of SFTs used in the United States, including the NHTSA's Standardized Field Sobriety Test (SFST) battery published Mar-1999. After some US states began lowering their BAC limits to 0.08%, a study was done to see if the battery could be used to detect BACs at or above 0.08% and above and below 0.04%. This was done to deal with the changes in the laws that led to lower legal BAC limits across the US. One of the most controversial aspects of a DUI stop is the use of Field Sobriety Tests (FST). The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) has developed a model system for managing Standardized Field Sobriety Test (SFST) training. They have published several training manuals associated with FSTs. As a result of the NHTSA studies, the walk-and-turn test was determined to be 68% accurate, and the one-leg stand test is only 65% accurate when administered to people within the study parameters. The tests were not validated for people with medical conditions, injuries, 65 years or older, and 50 pounds or greater overweight. The officer will administer one or more field sobriety tests. FSTs are considered "divided attention tests" that test the suspect's ability to perform the type of mental and physical multitasking that is required to operate an automobile. Nevertheless, these tests can be problematic for people with non-obvious disabilities affecting proprioception, such as Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (EDS). FSTs and SFSTs are promoted as, "used to determine whether a subject is impaired", but FST tests are widely regarded having, as their primary purpose, establishing tangible evidence of "probable cause for arrest" ("reasonable grounds" in Canada). A secondary purpose, is to provide supporting corroborative tangible evidence for use against the suspect for use at trial. Probable cause is necessary under US law (4th Amendment) to sustain an arrest and invocation of the implied consent law. Similar considerations apply under the Canadian requirement to establish "reasonable grounds" for making an approved instrument demand, by establishing that there is reasonable and probable cause which lies at the point where "point where credibly-based probability replaces suspicion". It is likely that, if FSTs are being used, some equivalent to probable cause is necessary to sustain a conviction based on a demand for a chemical test. While the primary purpose of FSTs is to document probable cause or the equivalent, in some jurisdictions, FST performance can be introduced as corroborating evidence of impairment. According to the NHTSA, a suspect does not "pass" or "fail" a field sobriety test, but rather the police determine whether "clues" are observed during the test. Nevertheless, some of the literature will still include comments that a suspect "fails" one or more of these tests. The three validated tests by NHTSA are: The Horizontal Gaze Nystagmus Test, which involves following an object with the eyes (such as a pen) to determine characteristic eye movement reaction., The Walk-and-Turn Test (heel-to-toe in a straight line). This test is designed to measure a person's ability to follow directions and remember a series of steps while dividing attention between physical and mental tasks., The One-Leg-Stand Test Alternative tests, which have not been "scientifically" validated by the NHTSA, include: Romberg test, or the Modified-Position-of-Attention Test, (feet together, head back, eyes closed for thirty seconds)., The Finger-to-Nose Test (tip head back, eyes closed, touch the tip of nose with tip of index finger)., The Alphabet Test (recite all or part of the alphabet)., The Finger Count Test (touch each finger of hand to thumb counting with each touch (1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 3, 2, 1))., The Counting Test (counting backwards from a number ending in a number other than 5 or 0 and stopping at a number ending other than 5 or 0. The series of numbers should be more than 15)., The Preliminary Alcohol Screening Test, PAS Test or PBT, (breathe into a "portable or preliminary breath tester", PAS Test or PBT). There were three tests chosen to constitute the "Standardized Field Sobriety Tests", which are: (1) the Horizontal Gaze Nystagmus Test; (2) the Walk & Turn Test; and (3) the One-Leg Stand Test. Although most law enforcement agencies continue to use a variety of these FSTs, most use the three-test battery of validated field sobriety tests, referred to as the Standardized Field Sobriety Test (SFST). The NHTSA-approved battery of tests consists of the Horizontal Gaze Nystagmus Test (HGN Test), the Walk-and-Turn Test (WAT), and the One-Leg- Stand Test (OLS). In some states, e.g., Ohio, only the standardized tests will be admitted into evidence, provided they were administered and objectively scored "in substantial compliance" with NHTSA standards (ORC 4511.19(D)(4)(b)). The first test that is typically administered is the Horizontal Gaze Nystagmus or HGN test, which is administered by the police officer checking the test subject's eyes. During this test, the officer looks for involuntary jerking of the suspect's eyes as they gaze toward the side. The officer checks for three clues in each eye, which gives six clues for this test. The clues are: lack of smooth pursuit of the eyes, distinct and sustained nystagmus at the eyes' maximum deviation and nystagmus starting before the eyes reach 45 degrees. 1. I am going to check your eyes. (Please remove your glasses) 2. Keep your head still and follow the stimulus with your eyes only. 3. Do not move your head. 4. Do you understand the instructions? 1. Lack of smooth pursuit 2. Distinct and sustained nystagmus and maximum deviation 3. Onset of nystagmus prior to 45 degrees While the original research indicated that 6 out of 6 clues (or cues) meant that a person was more likely above 0.08% at the time of the test, subsequent research conducted by the NHTSA has indicated that a "Hit" occurred when the number of reported signs for a given BAC fell within the range: a > 0.06% at 4–6 clues; a 0.05 – 0.059% at 2–4 clues; a 0.03 – 0.049% at 0–4 clues and a < 0.03% at 0–2 cues or clues. The police may also then check for Vertical Gaze Nystagmus, which is used to test for high blood alcohol levels and/or the presence of certain drugs. While the purpose is obtaining probable cause support for an arrest and possibly screening, in some jurisdictions, the HGN test may be used as corroborating evidence at the trial stage. US jurisdictions differ on whether trial use of the HGN test requires that an expert establish a reliable foundation, as required under the Daubert standard The second test that is usually administered is the Walk and Turn Test, or WAT Test. This test measures the suspect's ability to maintain their balance, walk in a straight line, and follow directions. To perform the test, the suspect will take nine heel-to-toe steps along a straight line during which time they must keep their arms to their side and count each step out loud. While the suspect performs this test, the officer is attempting to observe if the suspect fails to follow instructions; is having difficulty keeping their balance; stops walking in order to regain their balance; takes an incorrect number of steps; or fails to walk the line heel-to-toe. The walk-and-turn test is composed of two phases: the Instruction Phase and Walking Phase. During the test, the individual is directed to take nine steps along a straight line. The individual is supposed to walk heel to toe, and while looking down at a real or imaginary line, count the steps out loud. The test subject's arms must remain at their side. Reaching the ending point, the individual must turn around using a series of small steps, and return to the starting point. The proper instruction, according to the NHTSA Guidelines, is as follows: 1. Put your left foot on the line, then place your right foot on the line ahead of your left, with the heel of your right foot against the toe of your left foot. 2. Do not start until I tell you to do so. 3. Do you understand? (must receive affirmative response) 4. When I tell you to begin, take 9 heel-to-toe steps on the line (demonstrate) and take 9 heel-to-toe steps back down the line. 5. When you turn on the ninth step, keep your front foot on the line and turn taking several small steps with the other foot (demonstrate) and take 9 heel-to-toe steps back down the line. 6. Ensure you look at your feet, count each step out loud, keep your arms at your side, ensure you touch heel-to-toe and do not stop until you have completed the test. 7. Do you understand the instructions? 8. You may begin. 9. If the suspect does not understand some part of the instructions, only the part in which the suspect does not understand should be repeated 1. Can’t keep balance during instructions 2. Starts too soon 3. Stops walking 4. Misses heel-to-toe 5. Steps off line 6. Uses arms for balance 7. Improper turn 8. Incorrect number of steps The other standardized test is the One Leg Stand (OLS). The OLS test requires the suspect to stand on one leg for 30 seconds and also measures balance, coordination, and similar to the WAT test, divides the suspect's attention. The officer is looking for any of the four possible clues: Sways while balancing, uses arms for balance, hopping and puts their foot down. The One- Leg Stand test is composed of two stages: the Instruction Phase and Balancing Phase. The proper instruction, according to the NHTSA Guidelines, is as follows: 1. Stand with your feet together and your arms at your side (demonstrate). 2. Maintain position until told otherwise. 3. When I tell you to, I want you to raise one leg, either one, approximately 6 inches off the ground, foot pointed out, both legs straight and look at the elevated foot. Count out loud in the following manner: 1001, 1002, 1003, 1004 and so on until told to stop. 4. Do you understand the instructions? 5. You may begin the test. 1. Sways while balancing 2. Uses arms to balance 3. Hops 4. Puts foot down The term "non-standardized" references the NTSA SFSTs, sometimes referenced by the NHTSA as "other sobriety tests". The NHTSA indicates that the non- standardized tests are either "not scientifically reliable", with some assertions that SFSTs can be used to estimate 0.08% BAC. Nevertheless, these tests are common in North America, because the primary purpose of FSTs is to establish probable cause to sustain an arrest and invoke the implied consent law. "Non-standardized tests" include sequentially touching fingertips while counting forward and backward, touching the nose, alphabet recitals and Romberg's test (stationary balance, test for Romberg's sign). The Preliminary Breath Test (PBT) or Preliminary Alcohol Screening test (PAS) is sometimes categorised as part of field sobriety testing, although it is not part of the series of performance tests. The PBT (or PAS) uses a portable breath tester, but its primary use is for screening and establishing probable cause for arrest, to invoke the implied consent requirements or to establish "reasonable grounds" for making an approved instrument demand in Canada. Different requirements apply in many states to drivers under DUI probation, in which case participation in a preliminary breath test (PBT) may be a condition of probation, and for commercial drivers under "drug screening" requirements. Some US states, notably California, have statutes on the books penalizing PBT refusal for drivers under 21; however the Constitutionality of those statutes has not been tested. (As a practical matter, most criminal lawyers advise not engaging in discussion or "justifying" a refusal with the police.) In Canada, PBT refusal may be considered a refusal offense under Canada Criminal Code § 254\. The status of PBT refusal in Australia is unclear, although in Western Australia it appears to mandate submission to PBTs under the Road Traffic Act 1974. (National states without probable cause or "reasonable grounds" requirements are of course likely to be less restrictive on PBT/PAS requirements.) FSTs are considered subjective. Additionally, their applicability to large segments of the population is limited. Critics of standardized field sobriety tests often question the statistical evidence behind them, and the ability of the officers to administer the tests and actually judge for impairments related to alcohol. According to Barone, one study involved completely sober individuals who were asked to perform the standardized field sobriety tests, and their performances were videotaped. "After viewing the 21 videos of sober individuals taking the standardized field tests, the police officers believed that forty-six percent of the individuals had 'too much to drink'". It should not be out of the question for the standardized field sobriety tests to be re- examined for reliability and validity. A standardized test that claims to have scientific support should be able to be repeated. Along with that, the standardized field sobriety tests do not have a specific standard for grading, and it is left up to the discretion of the officer to determine whether what he/she see observes is actually a cue sufficient to count against the test subject. The NHTSA's 1977 study had an error rate of 47 percent, and the 1981 study had an error rate of 32 percent, which is considered unusually high for a scientific study. One of the main criticisms of field sobriety tests is that the judgment is left up to the discretion of the police officer. An officer may have some bias towards a suspect and judge the test more critically than necessary. Additionally, it is almost impossible to tell whether or not a police officer used proper procedures for administering the field sobriety test when a case is brought to court. The original research conducted by the NHTSA is often disputed because of the manner in which they were conducted and the conclusions that were reported. One author alleges that FSD analysis reports do not meet scientific peer review standards: "The reports for all three studies issued by NHTSA are lacking much of the material and analysis expected in a scientific paper, and none have been published in peer-reviewed journals" (Rubenzer 2008; Rubenzer 2011). These tests can be problematic for people with non-obvious disabilities affecting proprioception, such as Ehlers- Danlos syndrome (EDS). Conditions affecting mobility, physical ailments and age adversely affect performance on FSTs. One of the main problems with the walk-and-turn test is that some of the signs of alcohol impairment may stem from other physical problems. Along with that, there are other signs of physical impairment that can stem from various causes, including fatigue, an injury or illness, and nervousness. Those who are physically inactive, elderly, or obese may have trouble completing the walk-and-turn test without flaw. The NTSA used to say that those who are 50 pounds or more overweight may have difficulty performing the test, and that the suspect must walk along a real line. "Later NHTSA manuals removed the weight comment, and also inserted the phrase 'imaginary line' at the instruction phase, even though original research always used a visible line". The fact that officers are no longer required to provide a line for the suspect to walk along may affect the outcome of the test, and often adds to the scrutiny received from critics. In all US jurisdictions, participation in a Field Sobriety Test is voluntary. (Police are not obliged to advise the suspect that participation in a FST or other pre-arrest procedures is voluntary. In contrast, formal evidentiary tests given under implied consent requirements are considered mandatory.) A suspect requested to participate in a Field Sobriety Test is likely to be told that the purpose is to determine whether the suspect is impaired; however, FST tests are widely regarded as having, as their primary purpose, gaining tangible evidence for use against the suspect. The evidence is important in the establishment of probable cause for arrest. Since probable cause is necessary under US law (4th Amendment) to sustain an arrest and invocation of the implied consent law, it is important that the police document probable cause. "HGN first" The NHTSA recommends administering the HGN test as the first of the SFSTs, but does not state the reason. FSTs are voluntary, so consideration is given to encourage suspects to comply with requests to participate in the tests. The HST is characterized by the tester performing a visible activity, so the suspect is less likely to decline at that stage. The completion of one test increases the likelihood that the suspect will participate in follow-up FSTs. The suspect may also perceive the HGN (as administered) as having a scientific foundation. In cases in which a PBT (or PST) is administered first, the HGN may be administered after completion of other SFSTs, as the purpose of administering the HGN first is obviated by the PBT/PST. FSTs are primarily used in national states that require the police establish probable cause for arrest (reasonable grounds in Canada) as a prerequisite for requiring a chemical blood alcohol test. FSTs are generally regarded as a curiosity elsewhere. To determine impairment in countries such as Australia, a simple breath or urine test is often taken. If police suspect that a driver is under the influence of a substance such as alcohol, then the driver will undergo a breath test. If over the legal limit of 0.05g per 100 milliltres of blood, then a second breath test will be taken and used as evidence against the driver when charged with the offence. If a person is suspected to be under the influence of an illegal drug, they will be required to supply a urine sample. If the urine sample is positive, then the urine is sent for more testing to determine the exact drug taken (confirmation of being illegal or prescribed). A similar process to being over the legal BAC level is undertaken using the evidence to penalise the user. Commentary varies on taking SFSTs in Canada. Some sources, especially official ones, indicate that the SFSTs are mandatory, and required under § 254(2)(a) of the Criminal code, whereas other sources are silent on FST testing. The assertion regarding mandatory compliance with SFSTs is based on "failure to comply with a demand", as an offence under § 254(5) of the Criminal Code, but it is unclear how refusal of SFSTs under § 254(2)(a) are treated (provided the suspect agrees to take a chemical test). N.B.: There are some reports that refusal to submit to an SFST can result in the same penalties as impaired driving. Nevertheless, it is unclear whether there has ever been a prosecution under this interpretation of "failure to comply with a demand" as applied to SFSTs. Canada Criminal Code § 254(1) and (5) addresses this, but only with respect to chemical testing (breath, blood, etc.) United States law on DUI, primarily falls under state law, but are still subject to federal Constitutional requirements. Thus, in all jurisdictions, participation in FSTs is voluntary. In the US, the legal procedure is police stop (Police stop requiring "reasonable suspicion" or another qualified reason for a police stop), probable cause, and arrest. FSTs are requested in the police stop phase, and are used to provide tangible evidence sufficient to meet the requirements for probable cause for an arrest. Evidential tests are performed in the arrest stage, although the terminology may vary. Regardless of the terminology, in order to sustain a conviction based on evidential tests, probable cause must be shown (or the suspect must volunteer to take the evidential test without implied consent requirements being invoked). Police are not obliged to advise the suspect that participation in a FST or other pre-arrest procedures is voluntary. In contrast, formal evidentiary tests given under implied consent requirements are considered mandatory. Pseudoscience

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The Appalachian National Scenic Trail, generally known as the Appalachian Trail or simply the A.T., is a marked hiking trail in the Eastern United States extending between Springer Mountain in Georgia and Mount Katahdin in Maine. The trail is about long, though the exact length changes over time as parts are modified or rerouted. The Appalachian Trail Conservancy describes the Appalachian Trail as the longest hiking-only trail in the world. More than 2 million people are said to take a hike on part of the trail at least once each year. The idea of the Appalachian Trail came about in 1921. The trail itself was completed in 1937 after more than a decade of work, although improvements and changes continue. It is maintained by 31 trail clubs and multiple partnerships, and managed by the National Park Service, United States Forest Service, and the nonprofit Appalachian Trail Conservancy. Most of the trail is in forest or wild lands, although some portions traverse towns, roads and farms. It passes through 14 states: Georgia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine. Thru-hikers attempt to hike the trail in its entirety in a single season. The number of thru-hikes per year has increased steadily, with 715 northbound and 133 southbound thru-hikes reported for 2017. Many books, documentaries, websites, and fan organizations are dedicated to the pursuit. Some hike from one end to the other, then turn around and thru-hike the trail the other way, known as a "yo-yo". An extension known as the International Appalachian Trail continues northeast, crossing Maine and cutting through Canada to Newfoundland, with sections continuing in Greenland, through Europe, and into Morocco. The Pinhoti National Recreation Trail is a long distance approach to the AT starting at Flagg Mountain Alabama and ending on the Benton McKaye Trail on the Chattahoochee National Forest in Georgia. Other separate extensions continue the southern end of the Appalachian range in Alabama and continue south into Florida, creating what is known as the Eastern Continental Trail. The Appalachian Trail, the Continental Divide Trail, and the Pacific Crest Trail form what is known as the Triple Crown of Hiking in the United States. The trail was conceived by Benton MacKaye, a forester who wrote his original plan—called "An Appalachian Trail, A Project in Regional Planning"—shortly after the death of his wife in 1921. MacKaye's idea detailed a grand trail that would connect a series of farms and wilderness work/study camps for city- dwellers along the Appalachian Mountains from the highest point in the North (Mt. Washington in New Hampshire) to the highest in the South (Mt. Mitchell in North Carolina). Hiking was an incidental focus of his plan. In 1922, at the suggestion of Major William A. Welch, director of the Palisades Interstate Park Commission, his idea was publicized by Raymond H. Torrey with a story in the New York Evening Post under a full-page banner headline reading "A Great Trail from Maine to Georgia!" On October 7, 1923, the first section of the trail, from Bear Mountain west through Harriman State Park to Arden, New York, was opened. MacKaye then called for a two-day Appalachian Trail conference to be held in March 1925 in Washington, D.C. This meeting inspired the formation of the Appalachian Trail Conference (now called the Appalachian Trail Conservancy) (ATC). A retired judge named Arthur Perkins and his younger associate Myron Avery took up the cause. In 1929, Perkins, who was also a member of the Connecticut Forest and Park Association and its Blue Blazed Trails committee, found Ned Anderson, a farmer in Sherman, Connecticut, who took on the task of mapping and blazing the Connecticut leg of the trail (1929–1933). It ran from Dog Tail Corners in Webatuck, New York, which borders Kent, Connecticut, at Ashley Falls, through the northwest corner of the state, up to Bear Mountain at the Massachusetts border. (A portion of the Connecticut trail has since been rerouted (1979–1983) to be more scenic, adhering less to highways and more to wilderness, and includes a Ned K. Anderson Memorial Bridge.) Anderson's efforts helped spark renewed interest in the trail, and Avery (who led the charge after Perkins' death in 1932) was able to bring other states on board. Upon taking over the ATC, Avery adopted the more practical goal of building a simple hiking trail. He and MacKaye clashed over the ATC's response to a major commercial development along the trail's path; MacKaye left the organization, while Avery was willing to simply reroute the trail. Avery reigned as Chairman of the ATC from 1932 to 1952 (he died that same year). Avery became the first to walk the trail end-to-end, though not as a thru-hike, in 1936. In August 1937, the trail was completed to Sugarloaf Mountain in Maine, and the ATC shifted its focus toward protecting the trail lands and mapping the trail for hikers. Paul M. Fink was honored in 1977 by the Appalachian Trail Conference as "the guiding influence" in establishing the Trail in Tennessee and North Carolina in the 1920s. Fink was inducted into the Appalachian Trail Hall of Fame in 2019. In 1922, only a year after Benton MacKaye's famous article proposing an Appalachian Trail was written, Fink began corresponding with hiking leaders in New England about building the Trail. When Myron Avery began planning the route of the AT in the south, Fink was the first person he contacted. Many of the trail's present highlights were not part of the trail in 1937: Roan Mountain, North Carolina and Tennessee; the Mount Rogers high country, including Grayson Highlands, Virginia; the Pochuck Creek swamp, New Jersey; Nuclear Lake, New York; Thundering Falls, Vermont; and Saddleback Mountain, Maine. Except for places where the Civilian Conservation Corps was brought in (mostly in Shenandoah National Park, the Great Smoky Mountains, and Maine), the original trail often climbed straight up and down mountains, creating rough hiking conditions and a treadway prone to severe erosion. The ATC's trail crews and volunteer trail-maintaining clubs have relocated or rehabilitated miles of trail since that time. In 1936, a 121-day Maine to Georgia veteran's group funded and supported thru-hike was reported to have been completed, with all but three miles of the new trail cleared and blazed, by six Boy Scouts from New York City and their guides. The completed thru-hike was much later recorded and accepted by the Appalachian Long Distance Hikers Association. In 1938, the trail sustained major damage from a hurricane that went through the New England area. This happened right before the start of World War II and many of the people working on the trail were called to active duty. In 1948, Earl Shaffer of York, Pennsylvania, brought a great deal of attention to the project by publicizing the first claimed thru-hike. The claim was later criticized for the hike's omission of significant portions due to short-cuts and car rides. Shaffer later claimed the first north-to-south thru-hike, the first to claim to do so in each direction. Chester Dziengielewski was later to be named the first south bound thru-hiker. In 1998, Shaffer, nearly 80 years old, hiked the trail, making him the oldest person to claim a completed thru-hike. The first woman to walk the trail in a single season was Peace Pilgrim in 1952, while the first solo woman to complete the hike was 67-year old Emma Gatewood who completed the northbound trek in 1955, taking 146 days. She repeated the achievement two years later. In the 1960s, the ATC made progress toward protecting the trail from development, thanks to efforts of politicians and officials. The National Trails System Act of 1968 designated the Pacific Crest Trail and Appalachian Trail as the first national scenic trails and paved the way for a series of National Scenic Trails within the National Park and National Forest systems. Trail volunteers worked with the National Park Service to map a permanent route for the trail, and by 1971 a permanent route had been marked (though minor changes continue to this day). By the close of the 20th century, the Park Service had completed the purchase of all but a few miles of the trail's span. The International Appalachian Trail is a extension running northeast from Maine into New Brunswick and Quebec's Gaspé Peninsula, where it ends at Forillon National Park. It is a separate trail and not an official extension of the Appalachian Trail. Other branches are designated in parts of Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and along the western shore of Newfoundland, to the northern end of the Appalachian Mountain range, where it enters the Atlantic Ocean, near L'Anse aux Meadows National Historic Site. The route has since been extended to Greenland, Europe, and Morocco. Although the Appalachian Trail ends in Georgia, the Appalachian Mountains continue south to Flagg Mountain in Alabama. In 2008, the Pinhoti National Recreation Trail in Alabama and Georgia, which terminates at Flagg Mountain, was connected to the southern terminus of the Appalachian Trail via the Benton MacKaye Trail. Promoters of the Southern extension refer to MacKaye's statement at the 1925 conference that the Georgia to New Hampshire trail should, in the future, extend to Katahdin, and "then to Birmingham, Alabama". , The Pinhoti Trail terminates at the base of Flagg Mountain, near Weogufka in Coosa County, east of Birmingham. In 2010, the Alabama state legislature formed the Alabama Appalachian Mountain Trail Commission to provide state resources for trail improvements, although officially designating Pinhoti as part of the Appalachian Trail would require an act of the United States Congress. The Appalachian Approach Trail begins at Amicalola Falls State Park's visitor center and ends at Springer Mountain. Because Springer Mountain is in a remote area, the Approach Trail is often the beginning of North bound thru-hike attempts. Much of the Approach Trail was originally built as part of the Appalachian Trail, before the southern terminus was relocated from Mount Oglethorpe to Springer Mountain. The Appalachian Trail is home to thousands of species of plants and animals, including 2,000 rare, threatened, endangered, and sensitive plant and animal species. The American black bear (Ursus americanus), among the largest animals along the Appalachian Trail, rarely confronts people. The black bear is the largest omnivore that may be encountered on the trail, and it inhabits all regions of the Appalachians. Bear sightings on the trail are uncommon, except in certain sections, especially Shenandoah National Park and portions of New Jersey, New York, Connecticut, and Massachusetts sections, where bear populations have increased steadily since 1980; confrontations are rarer still. Other hazards include venomous snakes, including the Eastern timber rattlesnake and copperhead, which are common along the trail. Both snakes are generally found in drier, rockier sections of the trail; the copperhead's range extends north to around the New Jersey–New York state line, while rattlesnakes are commonly found along the trail in Connecticut and have been reported, although rarely, as far north as New Hampshire. Other large mammals commonly sighted include deer; elk, reintroduced in the Smoky Mountains; and moose, which may be found in the vicinity of Massachusetts and northward. Small mammal species that inhabit along the trails are beaver, squirrel, river otter, chipmunk, porcupine, bobcat, two species of fox, boar, woodchuck, raccoon, and coyote. Bird species that reside in the trails are wild turkey, ruffed grouse, mourning dove, raven, two species of eagle, wood duck, three species of owl, and three species of hawk as well as warblers. There are different kinds of squirrels along the Appalachian Trail as well, especially in Maine. They are generally smaller and very territorial and will make a loud call if you come close to their home. For most hikers, the most persistent pests along the trail are ticks, mosquitos, and black flies along with the mice that inhabit shelters. Plant life along the trail is varied. The trail passes through several different biomes from south to north, and the climate changes significantly, particularly dependent upon elevation. In the south, lowland forests consist mainly of second-growth; nearly the entire trail has been logged at one time or another. There are, however, a few old growth locations along the trail, such as Sages Ravine straddling the Massachusetts-Connecticut border and atop higher peaks along the trail on either side of the same border, the Hopper (a glacial cirque westward of the trail as it traverses Mt. Greylock in Massachusetts), and "The Hermitage", near Gulf Hagas in Maine. In the south, the forest is dominated by hardwoods, including oak and tulip trees, also known as yellow poplar. Farther north, tulip trees are gradually replaced by maples and birches. Oaks begin to disappear in Massachusetts. By Vermont, the lowland forest is made up of maples, birch and beech, with colorful foliage displays in September and October. While the vast majority of lowland forest south of the White Mountains is hardwood, many areas have some coniferous trees as well, and in Maine, these often grow at low elevations. There is a drastic change between the lowland and subalpine, evergreen forest, as well as another, higher break, at tree line, above which only hardy alpine plants grow. The sub-alpine region is far more prevalent along the trail than true alpine conditions. While it mainly exists in the north, a few mountains in the south have subalpine environments, which are typically coated in an ecosystem known as the Southern Appalachian spruce-fir forest. Southern ranges and mountains where sub-alpine environments occur include the Great Smoky Mountains, where sub-alpine environments only begin around in elevation, Roan Highlands on the North Carolina-Tennessee border, where sub-alpine growth descends below , and Mount Rogers and the Grayson Highlands in Virginia, where there is some alpine growth above . Appalachian balds are also found in the Southern highlands, and are believed to occur due to fires or grazing in recent centuries, or in some cases due to thin, sandy soils. Several balds are sprouting trees, and on some, the National Forest service actually mows the grasses periodically in order to keep the balds free of trees. No sub-alpine regions exist between Mount Rogers in Virginia and Mount Greylock in Massachusetts, mainly because the trail stays below from Shenandoah National Park in Virginia to Mount Greylock. Mount Greylock, however, has a large subalpine region, the only such forest in Massachusetts, extending down to , which in the south would be far from the sub-alpine cutoff. This is especially low because Greylock is exposed to prevailing westerly winds, as the summits along its ridgeline rise approximately higher than any other peak in Massachusetts. Farther north, several peaks in Vermont reach into the sub-alpine zone, the bottom of which steadily descends as one proceeds northward, so that by the White Mountains in New Hampshire, it often occurs well below . At Mount Moosilauke, which summits at , the first alpine environment on the trail is reached, where only thin, sporadic flora is interspersed with bare rocks. Between the two regions is the krummholz region, where stunted trees grow with their branches oriented away from the winter's prevailing northwest wind, thus giving the appearance of flags (they are often called "flag trees"). This region resembles lowland terrain hundreds of miles north in Canada. It also contains many endangered and threatened species. The trail has been rerouted over New Hampshire's Presidential Range so the Appalachian Mountain Club can protect certain plant life. The alpine cutoff in the Whites is generally between . Mountains traversed by the A.T. above treeline include Mount Moosilauke, several miles along the Franconia Range and along the Presidential Range. In the Presidentials, the trail climbs as high as on Mount Washington and spends about continuously above treeline, in the largest alpine environment in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. The segments of the trail through Pennsylvania are so rocky that hikers refer to the region as "Rocksylvania". These small rocks—the result of erosion that has worn away the dirt along the trails—can be tough to walk on for extended periods of time without proper hard-soled shoes. In Maine, the trail extends into even harsher environments, and sub-alpine and alpine growth descends to lower elevations. Alpine growth in the state ranges from around in the Mahoosuc Range to below in parts of the Hundred-Mile Wilderness, where nearly every area higher than is evergreen forest. These forests include more species of evergreen, as well. In addition to the white pine, spruce and hemlock prevalent further south, Maine has many cedar trees along the trail. Near the northern terminus, there are even some tamarack (larch), a coniferous, pine- needled deciduous tree, which provides displays of yellow in the late fall after the birches and maples have gone bare. The hemlocks in Maine are also notable, as the woolly adelgid, which has ravaged populations further south, has not come into the state yet, and may be unable to make it so far north due to the cold climate. Maine also has several alpine regions. In addition to several areas of the Mahoosuc Range, the Baldpates and Old Blue in southern Maine have alpine characteristics despite elevations below . Saddleback Mountain and Mount Bigelow, further north, each only extend a bit above , but have long alpine areas, with no tree growth on the summits and unobstructed views on clear days. From Mount Bigelow, the trail extends for with only a small area of alpine growth around on the summit of White Cap Mountain. Mount Katahdin, the second largest alpine environment in the eastern United States, has several square miles of alpine area on the flat "table land" summit as well as the cliffs and aretes leading up to it. Treeline on Mount Katahdin is only around . This elevation in Massachusetts would barely be a sub-alpine region, and, south of Virginia, consists of lowland forest. This illustrates the drastic change in climate over . Despite the alpine environments well below in New Hampshire and Maine, some higher places farther south are not alpine. Examples include Wayah Bald in North Carolina and Clingmans Dome in Great Smoky Mountains National Park . Bicycles are prohibited from most of the trail, except for the sections which follow the C&O; Canal in Maryland and the Virginia Creeper Trail in Virginia. Horses and pack animals are prohibited except horses on the C&O; Canal and in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Several short segments of the trail, in towns and scenic natural areas, were built to ADA accessibly standards for wheelchair use. Throughout its length, the AT is marked by white paint blazes that are . Side trails to shelters, viewpoints and parking areas use similarly shaped blue blazes. In past years, some sections of the trail also used metal diamond markers with the AT logo, few of which survive. Most hikers carry a lightweight tent, tent hammock or tarp. The trail has more than 250 shelters and campsites available for hikers. The shelters, sometimes called lean-tos (in Maine, Massachusetts, and Connecticut), huts (in Shenandoah National Park), or Adirondack shelters, are generally open, three- walled structures with a wooden floor, although some shelters are much more complex in structure. Shelters are usually spaced a day's hike or less apart, most often near a water source (which may be dry) and with a privy. They generally have spaces for tent sites in the vicinity as the shelters may be full. The Appalachian Mountain Club (AMC) operates a system of eight huts along of New Hampshire's White Mountains. These huts are significantly larger than standard trail shelters and offer full-service lodging and meals during the summer months. The Fontana Dam Shelter in North Carolina is more commonly referred to as the Fontana Hilton because of amenities (e.g. flush toilets) and its proximity to an all-you-can-eat buffet and post office. Several AMC huts have an extended self-service season during the fall, with two extending self-service seasons through the winter and spring. The Potomac Appalachian Trail Club maintains trail cabins, shelters, and huts throughout the Shenandoah region of Virginia. Shelters are generally maintained by local volunteers. Almost all shelters have one or more pre-hung food hangers (generally consisting of a short nylon cord with an upside-down tuna can suspended halfway down its length) where hikers can hang their food bags to keep them out of the reach of rodents. In hiker lingo, these are sometimes called "mouse trapezes." Most shelters also contain “unofficial registries”, which are known as shelter logs. These logs usually come in the form spiral- bound notebooks that are kept in containers in shelters all along the trail, and signing in them is not required. These logs give hikers a way to leave day-to-day messages while they are on the trail to document where they have been, where they are going, and who/what they have seen. The logs provide a space for informal writing and can also be used to keep track of people on the trail. Most of all, they provide a system of communication for a network of hikers along the trail. Shelter logs can provide proof of who summits certain mountains and can warn about dangerous animals or unfriendly people in the area. Hikers may cite when a certain water source is dried up, thus providing crucial information to other hikers. In addition to official shelters, many people offer their homes, places of business, or inns to accommodate AT hikers. One example is the Little Lyford Pond camps maintained by the Appalachian Mountain Club. Inns are more common in sections of the trail that coincide with national parks, most notably Virginia's Shenandoah National Park. The trail crosses many roads, thus providing ample opportunity for hikers to hitchhike into town for food and other supplies. Many trail towns are accustomed to hikers passing through, and thus many have hotels and hiker- oriented accommodations. Some of the most well-known trail towns are Hot Springs, North Carolina; Erwin, Tennessee; Damascus, Virginia; Harpers Ferry, West Virginia; Duncannon, Pennsylvania; Port Clinton, Pennsylvania; Wingdale, New York; Kent, Connecticut; Salisbury, Connecticut; Great Barrington, Massachusetts; Hanover, New Hampshire; Lincoln, New Hampshire; Gorham, New Hampshire and Monson, Maine. In the areas of the trail closer to trail towns, many hikers have experienced what is sometimes called "trail magic," or assistance from strangers through kind actions, gifts, and other forms of encouragement. Trail magic is sometimes done anonymously. In other instances, persons have provided food and cooked for hikers at a campsite. The Appalachian Trail is relatively safe. Most injuries or incidents are consistent with comparable outdoor activities. Most hazards are related to weather conditions, human error, plants, animals, diseases, and hostile humans encountered along the trail. Many animals live around the trail, with bears, snakes, and wild boars posing the greatest threat to human safety. Several rodent- and bug-borne illnesses are also a potential hazard. In scattered instances, foxes, raccoons, and other small animals may bite hikers, posing risk of rabies and other diseases. There has been one reported case (in 1993) of hantavirus (HPS), a rare but dangerous rodent-borne disease affecting the lungs. The afflicted hiker recovered and hiked the trail the following year. The section of the trail that runs through the Mid-Atlantic and New England states has a very high population of deer ticks carrying Lyme and other tick- borne diseases, and corresponds to the highest density of reported Lyme Disease in the country. Poison ivy is common the length of the trail, and more plentiful in the South. The weather is another major consideration of hikers on the trail. Hiking season of the trail generally starts in mid-to-late spring, when conditions are much more favorable in the South. However, this time may also be characterized by extreme heat, sometimes in excess of . Under such conditions, hydration is imperative. Farther north and at higher elevations, the weather can be cold, characterized by low temperatures, strong winds, hail or snow storms and reduced visibility. Prolonged rain, though not typically life-threatening, can undermine stamina and ruin supplies. In March 2015, a hiker was killed on the trail in Maryland when a large tree blew over and fell onto him. Violent crime, including murder, has occurred on the trail in a few instances. Most have been crimes by non-hikers who crossed paths relatively randomly with victims. The official website of the Appalachian Trail Conservancy points out that the number of violent crimes is extremely low when compared against the number of people (3 to 4 million) who hike on the trail every year. The first reported homicide on the trail was in 1974 in Georgia. In 1981, the issue of violence on the Appalachian Trail received national attention when Robert Mountford, Jr. and Laura Susan Ramsay, both social workers in Ellsworth, Maine, were murdered by Randall Lee Smith. Another homicide occurred in May 1996, when two women were abducted, bound and murdered near the trail in Shenandoah National Park. The primary suspect was later discovered harassing a female cyclist in the vicinity, but charges against him were dropped, and the case remains unsolved. In May 2019, Oklahoman Ronald S. Sanchez Jr., 43 years old, was murdered at a campsite near Mount Rogers National Recreation Area in western Virginia Jefferson National Forest. A female hiker who has not been identified was also injured by an assailant there. James L. Jordan, 30, of West Yarmouth, Massachusetts was charged with murder and assault with intent to commit murder in the Western District of Virginia Court. Human error can lead to casualties as well. In July 2013, 66-year-old lone hiker Geraldine Largay disappeared on the trail in Maine. Largay became lost and survived 26 days before dying. Her remains were found two years later in October 2015. In October 2015, a hiker visiting from England was killed on the trail by falling while taking photos at the Annapolis Rocks overlook in Maryland. Trail hikers who attempt to complete the entire trail in a single season are called "thru-hikers"; those who traverse the trail during a series of separate trips are known as "section-hikers". Rugged terrain, weather extremes, illness, injury, and the time and effort required make thru-hiking difficult to accomplish. As of 2017, the Appalachian Trail Conservancy estimated that 3,839 hikers set out from Springer Mountain, northbound, 497 from Mount Katahdin, southbound, and reported 1,186 completions of hiking the entire trail, which includes those by both section and through hikers. Most thru- hikers walk northward from Georgia to Maine, and generally start out in early spring and follow the warm weather as it moves north. These "north-bounders" are also called NOBO (NOrthBOund) or GAME (Georgia(GA)-to-Maine(ME)), while those heading in the opposite direction are termed "south-bounders" (also SOBO or MEGA). A thru-hike generally requires five to seven months, although some have done it in three months, and several trail runners have completed the trail in less time. Trail runners typically tackle the AT with automobile support teams, without backpacks, and without camping in the woods. Thru- hikers are classified into many informal groups. "Purists" are hikers who stick to the official AT trail, follow the white blazes, except for side trips to shelters and camp sites. "Blue Blazers" cut miles from the full route by taking side trails marked by blue blazes. The generally pejorative name "Yellow Blazers," a reference to yellow road stripes, is given to those who hitchhike to move either down or up the trail. Part of hiker subculture includes making colorful entries in logbooks at trail shelters, signed using pseudonyms called "trail names". The Appalachian Trail Conservancy gives the name "2000 Miler" to anyone who completes the entire trail. The ATC's recognition policy for "2000 Milers" gives equal recognition to thru-hikers and section-hikers, operates on the honor system, and recognizes blue-blazed trails or officially required roadwalks as substitutes for the official, white-blazed route during an emergency such as a flood, forest fire, or impending storm on an exposed, high-elevation stretch. As of 2018, more than 19,000 people had reported completing the entire trail. The northbound completion rate of hiking the trail in twelve months or fewer varied from 19% to 27% from 2011 to 2018. The southbound completion rate varied between 27% and 30% during the same period. The Appalachian Trail, the Continental Divide Trail, and the Pacific Crest Trail form what is known as the Triple Crown of long-distance hiking in the United States. In 2001, Brian Robinson became the first one to complete all three trails in a year. In 2018, Heather Anderson (trail name "Anish") became the first woman to complete the three Triple Crown trails in a calendar year. Fastest known times for self-supported attempts (meaning no vehicle or crew support, like a traditional through-hiker): Joe McConaughy completed the trail northbound on August 31, 2017, in 45 days, 12 hours and 15 minutes., Heather "Anish" Anderson completed the trail southbound on September 24, 2015, in 54 days, 7 hours and 48 minutes. Fastest known times for supported attempts (the athletes travel light, relying on a support crew with food, shelter, medical treatment, etc.): Karel Sabbe completed the trail northbound on August 29, 2018, in 41 days, 7 hours and 39 minutes., Karl Meltzer completed the trail southbound on September 18, 2016, in 45 days, 22 hours, and 38 minutes. On October 26, 2017, Dale "Grey Beard" Sanders became the oldest person to hike the entire Appalachian Trail at age 82. The trail is protected along more than 99% of its course by federal or state ownership of the land or by right-of-way. The trail is maintained by a variety of citizen organizations, environmental advocacy groups, governmental agencies and individuals. Annually, more than 4,000 volunteers contribute over 175,000 hours of effort on the Appalachian Trail, an effort coordinated largely by the Appalachian Trail Conservancy (ATC) organization. In total, the AT passes through eight national forests and two national parks. In the course of its journey, the trail follows the ridge line of the Appalachian Mountains, crossing many of its highest peaks, and running, with only a few exceptions, almost continuously through wilderness. The trail used to traverse many hundreds of miles of private property; 99% of the trail is on public land. Georgia has of the trail, including the southern terminus at Springer Mountain at an elevation of . At , Blood Mountain is the highest point on the trail in Georgia. The AT and approach trail, along with many miles of blue blazed side trails, are managed and maintained by the Georgia Appalachian Trail Club. See also: Georgia Peaks on the Appalachian Trail. North Carolina has of the trail, not including more than along the Tennessee Border. Altitude ranges from . The trail enters from Georgia at Bly Gap, ascending peaks such as Standing Indian Mountain, Mt. Albert, and Wayah Bald. It then goes by Nantahala Outdoor Center at the Nantahala River Gorge and the Nantahala River crossing. Up to this point, the trail is maintained by the Nantahala Hiking Club. Beyond this point, it is maintained by the Smoky Mountains Hiking Club. further north, Fontana Dam marks the entrance to Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Tennessee has of the trail, not including more than along or near the North Carolina Border. The section that runs just below the summit of Clingmans Dome in Great Smoky Mountains National Park is along the North Carolina and Tennessee border and is the highest point on the trail at . The Smoky Mountains Hiking Club (Knoxville, TN) maintains the trail throughout the Great Smoky Mountains National Park to Davenport Gap. North of Davenport Gap, the Carolina Mountain Club (Asheville, NC) maintains the trail to Spivey Gap. Then the remaining Tennessee section is maintained by the Tennessee Eastman Hiking & Canoeing Club (Kingsport, TN). Virginia has of the trail (one-fourth of the entire trail) including more than along the West Virginia border. With the climate, and the timing of northbound thru-hikers, this section is wet and challenging because of the spring thaw and heavy spring rainfall. Substantial portions of the trail closely parallel Skyline Drive in Shenandoah National Park and, further south, the Blue Ridge Parkway. The Appalachian Trail Conservancy considers as excellent for beginning hikers a well-maintained section of the trail that the Civilian Conservation Corps constructed in Shenandoah National Park. Climbs in this section rarely exceed . In the southwestern portion of the state, the trail goes within one half mile of the highest point in Virginia, Mount Rogers, which is a short side-hike from the AT. West Virginia has of the trail, not including about along the Virginia border. Here the trail passes through the town of Harpers Ferry, headquarters of the Appalachian Trail Conservancy. Harpers Ferry is what many consider to be the mental midpoint of the entire A.T., although the actual midpoint is further north in southern Pennsylvania. (The exact midpoint moves due to trail rerouting.) Maryland has of the trail, with elevations ranging from . Most of the trail runs along the ridgeline of South Mountain in South Mountain State Park. Hikers are required to stay at designated shelters and campsites. The trail runs through the eastern edge of Greenbrier State Park. This can serve as a luxurious stop point for a hot shower and a visit to the camp store. The trail runs along the C&O; Canal Towpath route for . Hikers will also pass High Rock, which offers extensive views and is also used as a hang-gliding site. The section ends at Pen Mar Park, which sits on the border of Maryland and Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania has of the trail. The trail extends from the Pennsylvania – Maryland line at Pen Mar, a tiny town straddling the state line, to the Delaware Water Gap, at the Pennsylvania – New Jersey border. The Susquehanna River is generally considered the dividing line between the northern and southern sections of the Pennsylvania AT. South of the Susquehanna, the trail passes through Pine Grove Furnace State Park. The Pennsylvania section of the trail north of the Susquehanna, from Duncannon until the Delaware Water Gap, is noted for its eroded and rocky terrain which can slow hiking. New Jersey is home to of the trail. The trail enters New Jersey from the south on a pedestrian walkway along the Interstate 80 bridge over the Delaware River, ascends from the Delaware Water Gap to the top of Kittatinny Mountain in Worthington State Forest, passes Sunfish Pond (right), continues north through the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area and Stokes State Forest and eventually reaches High Point State Park, the highest peak in New Jersey (a side trail is required to reach the actual peak). It then turns in a southeastern direction along the New York border for about , passing over long sections of boardwalk bridges over marshy land, then entering Wawayanda State Park and then the Abram S. Hewitt State Forest just before entering New York near Greenwood Lake. In New Jersey the New York - New Jersey Trail Conference maintains and updates the Appalachian Trail. Black bear activity along the trail in New Jersey increased rapidly starting in 2001. Hence, metal bear- proof trash boxes are in place at all New Jersey shelters. New York's of trail contain very little elevation change compared to other states. From south to north, the trail summits many small mountains under in elevation, its highest point in New York being Prospect Rock at , and only from the border with New Jersey. The trail continues north, climbing near Fitzgerald Falls, passing through Sterling Forest, and then entering Harriman State Park and Bear Mountain State Park. The lowest point on the entire Appalachian Trail is in the Bear Mountain Zoo . It crosses the Hudson River on the Bear Mountain Bridge. It then passes through Fahnestock State Park, and continues northeast and crosses the Metro-North Railroad's Harlem Line. This track crossing is the site of the only train station along the trail's length. It enters Connecticut via the Pawling Nature Reserve. The section of the trail that passes through Harriman and Bear Mountain State Parks is the oldest section of the trail, completed in 1923. A portion of this section was paved by 700 volunteers with 800 granite-slab steps followed by over a mile of walkway supported by stone crib walls with boulders lining the path. The project took four years, cost roughly $1 million, and opened in June 2010. The project was done by the New York–New Jersey Trail Conference, which maintains and updates the Appalachian Trail in New York. Connecticut's of trail lie almost entirely along the ridges to the west above the Housatonic River valley. The state line is also the western boundary of a Connecticut reservation inhabited by Schaghticoke Indians. Inside it, the AT roughly parallels its northern boundary, crossing back outside it after . The trail proceeds northward through the Housatonic River valley and hills to its west, veering northwesterly and, at Salisbury, ascending the southern Taconic mountains, at Lion's Head affording a view northeasterly towards Mt. Greylock and other points in Massachusetts, and at Bear Mountain, reaching over in elevation for the first time since Pennsylvania and yielding views across the Hudson River valley to the Catskills and across the broad expanse of the Housatonic valley and the Berkshire and Litchfield Hills to the east. Just north of Bear, the trail, as it crosses into Massachusetts, descends into Sages Ravine, a deep gorge in the eastern Taconic ridgeline which is home to a fragile old growth forest. As the trail crosses the brook in the ravine, it leaves the area maintained by the Connecticut section of the Appalachian Mountain Club. Massachusetts has of trail. The entire section of trail is in western Massachusetts' Berkshire County. It summits the highest peak in the southern Taconic Range, Mount Everett (), then descends to the Housatonic River valley and skirts the town of Great Barrington. The trail passes through the towns of Dalton and Cheshire, and summits the highest point in the state at , Mount Greylock. It then quickly descends to the valley within of North Adams and Williamstown, before ascending again to the Vermont state line. The trail throughout Massachusetts is maintained by the Berkshire Chapter of the Appalachian Mountain Club. Vermont has of the trail. Upon entering Vermont, the trail coincides with the southernmost sections of the generally north/south-oriented Long Trail. It follows the ridge of the southern Green Mountains, summitting such notable peaks as Stratton Mountain, Glastenbury Mountain, and Killington Peak. After parting ways with the Long Trail at Maine Junction, the AT turns in a more eastward direction, crossing the White River, passing through Norwich, and entering Hanover, New Hampshire, as it crosses the Connecticut River. The Green Mountain Club maintains the AT from the Massachusetts state border to Route 12. The Dartmouth Outing Club maintains the trail from VT Route 12 to the New Hampshire state line. New Hampshire has of the trail. The New Hampshire AT is nearly all within the White Mountain National Forest. For northbound thru-hikers, it is the beginning of the main challenges that go beyond enduring distance and time: in New Hampshire and Maine, rough or steep ground are more frequent and alpine conditions are found near summits and along ridges. The trail reaches 17 of the 48 four-thousand footers of New Hampshire, including Mount Washington, the highest point of the AT north of Tennessee and most topographically prominent peak in eastern North America. The trail passes within half a mile of 7 additional 4000-footer peaks in the Whites. Entering the alpine zone on the summit of Mount Pierce, from the south, the trail continues in alpine or near- alpine scrub continuously along the high Presidential ridge until descending the southeast flank of Mount Madison into the Great Gulf Wilderness over 12 miles northward. This region is subject to extremes of weather with little natural shelter and only occasional man-made shelter from the elements. Though greatest from November to May, the threat of severe and cold conditions in the Presidentials and across the New Hampshire Section is present year-round and requires hikers' careful attention to weather forecasts and planning, provisions and gear. The Dartmouth Outing Club maintains the AT from the Vermont border past Mount Moosilauke to Kinsman Notch, northwest of Woodstock, New Hampshire, Randolph Mountain Club maintains 2.2 miles from Osgood Trail near Madison Hut to Edmands Col, with the AMC maintaining the remaining miles through the state. Maine has of the trail. The northern terminus of the Appalachian Trail is on Mount Katahdin's Baxter Peak in Baxter State Park. In some parts of the trail in Maine, even the strongest hikers may only average , with places where hikers must hold on to tree limbs and roots to climb or descend, which is especially hazardous in wet weather. The western section includes a mile-long (1.6 km) stretch of boulders, some of which hikers must pass under, at Mahoosuc Notch, sometimes called the trail's hardest mile. Although there are dozens of river and stream fords on the Maine section of the trail, the Kennebec River is the only one on the trail that requires a boat crossing. The most isolated portion of the Appalachian Trail, known as the "Hundred-Mile Wilderness", occurs in Maine. It heads east-northeast from the town of Monson and ends outside Baxter State Park just south of Abol Bridge. Park management strongly discourages thru-hiking within the park before May 15 or after October 15. The AMC maintains the AT from the New Hampshire state line to Grafton Notch, with the Maine Appalachian Trail Club responsible for maintaining the remaining miles to Mt. Katahdin. The international extension, called the International Appalachian Trail begins at Mt. Katahdin. Listed from south to north. Southern terminus: Springer Mountain, Georgia US 76 in Northeast Georgia, US 64 near Nantahala River, North Carolina, US 19/US 74 near Fontana Lake, North Carolina, U.S. Route 441 along the North Carolina/Tennessee state line, I-40 along the North Carolina/Tennessee state line, US 25/US 70 in Hot Springs, North Carolina, I-26/US 23 along the North Carolina/Tennessee state line, US 19W along the North Carolina/Tennessee state line, US 19E near Roan Mountain, Tennessee, US 321 at Watauga Lake, Tennessee, US 421 near South Holston Lake, Tennessee, near Sugar Grove, Virginia, US 58 in Damascus, Virginia, I-81 near Marion, Virginia, I-77/U.S. Route 52 near Wytheville, Virginia, US 460 in Pearisburg, Virginia, I-81 near Roanoke, Virginia, US 501 along the James River in Virginia, US 60 near Buena Vista, Virginia, I-64 near Waynesboro, Virginia, US 250 near Waynesboro, Virginia, U.S. Route 33 in Shenandoah National Park, US 211 near Luray, Virginia, US 522 near Front Royal, Virginia, I-66 in Front Royal, Virginia, US 17/US 50 near Waterloo, Virginia, US 340 in Harpers Ferry, West Virginia, US 340 in Sandy Hook, Maryland, I-70/US 40 near Hagerstown, Maryland, US 30 near Fayetteville, Pennsylvania, I-76 in Middlesex Township, Pennsylvania, US 11 in Middlesex Township, Pennsylvania, I-81 in Middlesex Township, Pennsylvania, US 11/US 15 in Duncannon, Pennsylvania, US 22/US 322 in Duncannon, Pennsylvania, I-81 near Fort Indiantown Gap, Pennsylvania, I-476 near Slatington, Pennsylvania, I-80 along the Pennsylvania/New Jersey state line, US 206 near Frankford Township, New Jersey, I-87/New York State Thruway near Harriman, New York, US 6/US 9W/US 202 near Fort Montgomery, New York, Us 9 near Garrison, New York, Taconic State Parkway near Shenandoah, New York, I-84 near Whaley Lake, New York, US 7 near Falls Village, Connecticut, US 44 near Salisbury, Connecticut, US 7 near Great Barrington, Massachusetts, I-90 near Lee, Massachusetts, US 20 near Lee, Massachusetts, US 4 near Rutland, Vermont, I-89 near West Hartford, Vermont, US 5 in Norwich, Vermont, I-91 in Norwich, Vermont, I-93/US 3 near Franconia, New Hampshire, US 302 in the White Mountain National Forest, at Pinkham Notch in the White Mountain National Forest, US 2 near Gorham, New Hampshire, US 201 in Caratunk, Maine Northern terminus: Mount Katahdin, Maine The Appalachian Trail Conservancy (originally, Appalachian Trail Conference) and the National Park Service oversee the entire length of the Appalachian National Scenic Trail via memoranda of understanding with other public agencies through whose land the trail runs, including the U.S. Forest Service, national parks, national forests, the Tennessee Valley Authority, state parks, and others, who help administer portions of the trail corridor. The estimated annual contribution of volunteer services for trail upkeep is $3 million. The Appalachian Trail has been a resource for researchers in a variety of disciplines. Portions of the trail in Tennessee were used on a study on trail maintenance for the trail's "uniform environmental conditions and design attributes and substantial gradient in visitor use." Beginning in 2007, various citizen groups, including the Appalachian Trail Conservancy and the American Hiking Society, began a study to monitor environmental changes that have resulted from higher ozone levels, acid rain, smog, and other air quality factors. Such research has been supported by the National Park Service, U.S. Forest Service, Cornell University, the National Geographic Society, and Aveda Corporation. Behavioral studies have also been conducted on hikers themselves. A 2007 study on hikers found that most persons hike the trail "for fun and enjoyment of life and for warm relationships with others" and that "environmental awareness, physical challenge, camaraderie, exercise, and solitude" were chief results among hikers. Since the highest single demographic of thru-hikers are males between the ages of 18–29, one informal study sought to find the correlation between this group and male college drop- outs. Appalachian Development Highway System, Appalachian Trail by state, International Appalachian Trail, Trans Canada Trail Additional U.S. long-distance trails American Discovery Trail, East Coast Greenway, North Country Trail, Pacific Northwest Trail Connected U.S. long-distance trails Allegheny Trail, Benton MacKaye Trail, Horse Shoe Trail, International Appalachian Trail, Long Path, Long Trail, Mason-Dixon Trail, Mountains-to-Sea Trail, Pinhoti National Recreation Trail, Tuscarora Trail, Virginia Creeper Trail Connected National Historic Trails Overmountain Victory National Historic Trail Online ATC's official annual Appalachian Trail guide is the Appalachian Trail Thru-Hiker's Companion, compiled and updated by volunteers of the Appalachian Long Distance Hikers Association (ALDHA) (available at AppalachianTrail.org). Individual state guides and maps are also available via the ATC., The Official AT Databook, an annually updated compilation of trail mileages, water sources, road crossings, shelter locations, and other information. The 2018 DataBook is the 40th annual edition, is considered indispensable by many AT hikers, and the data published within is used by many other hiking guides., A smartphone guidebook app with crowdsourced information (Wikipedia style) is available. Non-fiction print Mittlefehldt, Sarah (2013). Tangled Roots: The Appalachian Trail and American Environmental Politics. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. Official sites Official site of the Appalachian Trail Conservancy, National Park Service Trail information, with maps Emma Rowena Gatewood, known as Grandma Gatewood, (October 25, 1887-June 4, 1973), was an extreme hiker and ultra-light hiking pioneer who was the first woman to hike the Appalachian Trail from Springer Mountain in Georgia to Mount Katahdin in Maine solo, and in one season. After this feat, she continued to forge new fronts in the hiking world and became the first person to hike the A.T. three times, with her last venture completed in sections. Gatewood was born to a family of 15 children in Guyan Township, Gallia County, Ohio. Her father, a farmer, turned to a life of drinking and gambling after his leg was amputated in the Civil War. The child-rearing of the family, who slept four to a bed in their log cabin, was left to her mother, Evelyn (Trowbridge) Caldwell. At the age of 19 she married 27-year-old P. C. Gatewood, a college educated primary school teacher, and later tobacco farmer, with whom she had 11 children. Almost immediately he sent her to work burning tobacco beds, building fences, and mixing cement in addition to her expected housework duties. Within months of the marriage, he started to beat her, a vicious pattern that continued for the entirety of their marriage. She recalled being beaten nearly to death on several occasions. She survived broken ribs, broken teeth, and other injuries during the abusive marriage. When her husband became violent, she would, on occasion, run from the house into the woods where she found peace and solitude. She eventually successfully divorced P. C. Gatewood in 1940; at a time when divorce was more difficult, and after her husband had repeatedly threatened to have her committed to an insane asylum as a means of maintaining control over her. She had 24 grandchildren, 30 greatgrandchildren, and one great-greatgrandchild living at the time of her death at 85. In 1955, at the age of 67, Gatewood told her grown children that she was going for a walk. They did not ask where or for how long, as they knew she was resilient and would take care of herself. About 5 years earlier, Gatewood read an article in National Geographic about the A.T. and thought "it would be a nice lark," though in retrospect considering the difficulty she added "It wasn't." The magazine gave her the impression of easy walks and clean cabins at the end of each day's expedition. Thus she took little in the way of outdoor gear. She wore Keds shoes and carried an army blanket, a raincoat, and a plastic shower curtain in a homemade denim bag slung over one shoulder. She would later say "For some fool reason, they always lead you right up over the biggest rock to the top of the biggest mountain they can find." Local newspapers picked up on her story in the southern states, then the Associated Press did a national profile of her while in Maryland, leading to an article in Sports Illustrated when she had reached Connecticut. After the hike she was invited on the Today Show. These appearances made her a celebrity even before the hike was over and she was often recognized and received "trail magic" (assistance from strangers) in the form of friends, food and places to sleep. She hiked the AT again in 1960, and then again at age 75 in 1963, making her the first person to hike the trail three times (though her final hike was completed in sections). She was also credited with being the oldest female thru-hiker by the Appalachian Trail Conference. In addition, she walked of the Oregon Trail from Independence, Missouri, to Portland, Oregon, averaging a day. She traveled to every state of the continental United States. In 1970, at age 83, while visiting Appalachian Outfitters in Oakton, Virginia she was asked what she thought about the latest lightweight backpacking gear. Emma advised: "Make a rain cape, and an over the shoulder sling bag, and buy a sturdy pair of Keds tennis shoes. Stop at local groceries and pick up Vienna sausages... most everything else to eat you can find beside the trail... and by the way those wild onions are not called "Ramps"... they are "Rampions" ... a ramp is an inclined plane." Gatewood was a life member of the National Campers and Hikers Association and the Roanoke Appalachian Trail Club. She was Director Emeritus and a lifetime member of the Buckeye Trail Association. Her legacy lives on through various tributes, artistic works, and other commemorative projects. In fact, the A.T. recognized her by including her odyssey in exhibits in The Appalachian Trail Museum. Additionally, in June 2012, she was inducted into the Appalachian Trail Hall of Fame. Other trails in the industry recognized her feats including Hocking Hills State Park in Ohio, where the North Country Trail, Buckeye Trail, and the American Discovery Trail coincide and a six-mile section is designated as the Grandma Gatewood Trail. It connects Old Man's Cave to Cedar Falls to Ash Cave. She has been the subject of projects, songs, and films, including a story-telling program and one act play designed by Eden Valley Enterprises. Additionally,Trail Magic, a 60-minute documentary by Put-in-Bay filmmaker Peter Huston, is about Emma Gatewood. Jeff & Paige, a children's music duo based in Boulder, Colorado, released a song in her honor, titled "Grandma Gatewood", on their 2015 album "Mighty Wolf".In 2018, her story was revived by her feature in the New York Times Overlooked series, which adds stories of remarkable people whose deaths went unreported in the historically male-dominated obituaries of the Times. The piece, a belated obituary, details her hiking accomplishments and abusive family life. Trail Magic: The Grandma Gatewood Story (PBS documentary). Eden Valley Enterprises and FilmAffects. Hiking in Hocking Hills, Ohio Wild is a 2014 American biographical adventure drama film directed by Jean- Marc Vallée. The screenplay by Nick Hornby is based on Cheryl Strayed's 2012 memoir . The film stars Reese Witherspoon as Strayed, alongside Laura Dern (as Strayed's mother), with Thomas Sadoski, Michiel Huisman and Gaby Hoffmann. The film premiered at the Telluride Film Festival on August 29, 2014, and was released theatrically on December 3, 2014, in North America. Wild opened to positive reviews, with praise for the performances of Reese Witherspoon and Laura Dern. Both actresses received Oscar nominations for their performances, in the categories of Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress, respectively. In June 1995, despite a lack of hiking experience, recent divorcée Cheryl Strayed (Reese Witherspoon) leaves Minneapolis, Minnesota, to hike 1,100 miles of the 2,650-mile Pacific Crest Trail on a journey of self-discovery and healing. During the hike, Strayed reflects in flashbacks on her childhood in Minnesota and memories of her mother, Bobbi Grey (Laura Dern). Bobbi's death from cancer sent Cheryl into a deep depression that she tried to numb with heroin and anonymous sex, which eventually destroyed her marriage to her husband Paul (Thomas Sadoski). After finding out she was pregnant, Strayed got an abortion and resolved to hike the trail to redeem herself. Strayed begins her trek in the Mojave Desert in Southern California with her backpack. On the first night, she discovers she has brought the wrong type of gas for her stove and is therefore unable to cook food. After a few more days, Strayed meets Frank (W. Earl Brown), a farmer and construction worker who takes her in for the night and with his wife offers her a home-cooked meal and a warm shower. Strayed meets a hiker named Greg (Kevin Rankin) who agrees to meet her at Kennedy Meadows, California. Upon arrival, she meets a camper named Ed (Cliff DeYoung) who helps Strayed strategically lighten her overweight backpack and convinces her to replace her undersized hiking boots with a new pair, to be delivered to a future stop on the trail. Strayed continues her hike into Northern California despite Greg's warnings of deep snowfall. After removing a boot to remove a loose toenail, the boot accidentally falls down an inaccessibly deep slope, forcing her to continue the journey wearing sandals reinforced with duct tape. Strayed's best friend Aimee (Gaby Hoffmann) sends her provisions to stops along the trail, including letters that congratulate her on her progress. Strayed also receives letters from her ex-husband Paul along the way. On the morning of Day 58, Strayed is out of water and desperately licks the dew off her tent. Dehydrated and near exhaustion, she siphons water from a muddy puddle. While she waits for her water to disinfect, two hunters approach, one making suggestive remarks that leave Strayed feeling threatened and vulnerable. This causes her to quickly leave and run away. Strayed makes her way out of California and arrives in Ashland, Oregon, where she meets a man named Jonathan (Michiel Huisman), with whom she attends a tribute concert to Jerry Garcia and later spends the night. Days later, Strayed arrives at Mount Hood National Forest and encounters a friendly group of young hikers who share their experiences. The hikers recognize her from the signatures she's been leaving in the hiker's record books along the PCT. Strayed frequently leaves quotes or poems that are meaningful to her along her journey. One rainy day, Strayed finds a llama that escaped from a young boy hiking with his grandmother (Anne Gee Byrd). Strayed chats with the boy, who asks her about her parents. After she mentions her mother's death, the boy sings "Red River Valley" to Strayed, saying it is a song his mother used to sing to him. After the boy and his grandmother carry on down the trail, Strayed breaks down and cries. On September 15, after hiking for 94 days, Strayed reaches the Bridge of the Gods on the Columbia River between Oregon and Washington, ending her journey. At various points along the trail, including at the end of the bridge, Strayed encounters a red fox, which she interprets as carrying the spirit of her mother watching over her. She reflects that, four years in the future, she will remarry at a spot in view of the bridge, five years after that have a son and one year after that have a daughter named Bobbi, after Strayed's mother. Reese Witherspoon as Cheryl Strayed, Laura Dern as Bobbi Grey, Cheryl's mother, Thomas Sadoski as Paul, Cheryl's ex-husband (based on Cheryl's ex-husband Marco Littig), Keene McRae as Leif, Cheryl's brother, Michiel Huisman as Jonathan, a man Cheryl has sex with after meeting him in Ashland, Oregon, W. Earl Brown as Frank, a construction worker whom Cheryl asks for food, Jan Hoag as Annette, wife of Frank who serves Cheryl dinner, Gaby Hoffmann as Aimee, Cheryl's best friend in Minnesota, Kevin Rankin as Greg, a hiker Cheryl meets on the trail who ends up quitting (based on Roger Carpenter), Brian Van Holt as the ranger in Mount Hood National Forest who opens the store for Cheryl after it was closed, Cliff DeYoung as Ed, a man at Kennedy Meadows trail stop who helps Cheryl, Mo McRae as Jimmy Carter, a reporter who interviews Cheryl for the "Hobo Times" (he mistakes her for a hobo drifter despite her denial), Charles Baker as TJ, one of two threatening hunters Cheryl meets on the trail, Jason Newell as Ronald Nylund, Cheryl's father, Ray Buckley as Joe, Cheryl's drug-addicted boyfriend who got her pregnant resulting in an abortion, Cathryn de Prume as Stacy Johnson, a female hiker Cheryl meets on the trail, Evan O'Toole as Kyle, a young boy Cheryl meets on the trail, Anne Gee Byrd as Vera, Kyle's grandmother, Randy Schulman as Cheryl's therapist, Anne Sorce as Bobbi's nurse in the hospital, Matt Pascua as Wayne, Leif's friend, Art Alexakis as the tattoo artist, Cheryl Strayed makes an appearance at the beginning as the woman who drops off Reese at the motel. On March 8, 2012, Reese Witherspoon announced that she would make a movie from Cheryl Strayed's memoir , through her new production company, Pacific Standard, as well as star as Strayed in the film. In July 2013, Fox Searchlight Pictures acquired the rights to the project, with Nick Hornby writing and Witherspoon, Bruna Papandrea and Bill Pohlad producing. In August 2013, Canadian Jean-Marc Vallée signed on to direct. Principal photography began on October 11, 2013, with shooting occurring on location in Oregon and California. Strayed was available to the production during their time in Oregon. On the rigors of shooting, Witherspoon stated: By far, this is the hardest movie I've ever made in my life. I didn't hike a thousand miles, of course, but it was a different kind of physical rigor. I'd run up a hill with a 45-pound backpack on, and they'd say, 'Wait, that backpack doesn't look heavy enough. Put this 65-pound backpack on and run up the hill nine or ten times.' We literally didn't stop shooting in those remote locations—we wouldn't break for lunch, we'd just eat snacks. No bathroom breaks. It was crazy, but it was so wonderful. It was complete immersion, and I've never felt closer to a crew. We literally pulled each other up the mountains and carried each others' equipment. The film's soundtrack, supervised by Susan Jacobs, was released by Sony's Legacy Recordings on November 10, 2014. It contains 15 tracks from various eras of music. "The main direction with music was to use it only during flashbacks," said Vallée. "What Cheryl is listening to in her life, is the music that we hear during the film." A prominent song featured throughout the film is the Simon & Garfunkel cover "El Cóndor Pasa (If I Could)", which was used primarily to evoke Cheryl's memory of her mother. Jacobs explained, "This isn't about reality. This is about keeping the essence of the mother there." Wild premiered on August 29, 2014, at the Telluride Film Festival, and was featured at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 8 and the San Diego Film Festival on September 24. It was released in North America on December 3, 2014. The Bridge of the Gods, where Strayed's journey ends, enjoyed increased popularity and traffic that led to an increase in its toll. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 89% based on 267 reviews, with an average rating of 7.5/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Powerfully moving and emotionally resonant, Wild finds director Jean-Marc Vallée and star Reese Witherspoon working at the peak of their respective powers." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 76 out of 100 based on 47 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A–" on an A+ to F scale. A.O. Scott of The New York Times wrote that Witherspoon, who appears in nearly every frame of the film, portrayed Strayed "with grit, wit and unblinking honesty." Scott added that the "most audacious" element of the film was its respect for the "free-associative, memory-driven narrative" in Strayed's written memoir, asserting that the film exhibits a "thrilling disregard" for conventions of commercial cinematic storytelling to demonstrate that images and emotions can carry meaning more effectively than "neatly packaged scenes or carefully scripted character arcs." Stephen Farber of The Hollywood Reporter praised Witherspoon and Dern's performances, as well as Vallée, saying he "has crafted a vivid wilderness adventure film that is also a powerful story of family anguish and survival" and Hornby for adapting "the book with finesse." Justin Chang of Variety said, "It's no surprise that the versatile Vallée, who recently directed two Oscar-winning performances in Dallas Buyers Club, has elicited from Witherspoon an intensely committed turn that, in its blend of grit, vulnerability, physical bravery and emotional immediacy, represents easily her most affecting and substantial work in the nine years since Walk the Line... Nor is it a surprise that Vallée, whose bracingly sharp editing on Dallas Buyers Club was one of that film's more unsung virtues, has applied similarly bold cutting-room strategies here." Pete Hammond of Deadline Hollywood echoed these statements, feeling Witherspoon "nails it" and that she "delivers her best screen work since her Oscar-winning turn in Walk the Line, and this three-dimensional portrayal of a woman searching for herself... is certain to put her back in the thick of the Best Actress race". My Film Habit critic Allison M. Lyzenga said "It was trying to be a lot of things, and don't think it really accomplished all of them, but it was still interesting enough. So, it's worth a rental." Strayed, the author of the novel, stated that the film was snubbed from the Best Picture category at the Academy Awards due to "Hollywood sexism." Seven of the eight nominees for the 2014 Best Picture revolve almost entirely around male characters.

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This is a list of third party performances in United States presidential elections. In the United States it is rare for third party and independent candidates, other than those of the six parties which have succeeded as major parties (Federalist Party, Democratic-Republican Party, National Republican Party, Democratic Party, Whig Party, Republican Party), to take large shares of the vote in elections, unless in a realigning election. Occasionally, a third party becomes one of the two major parties through a presidential election (the last time it happened was in 1856, when the Republicans supplanted the Whigs, who had withered and endorsed the ticket of the American Party): such an election is called a realigning election, as it causes a realignment in the party system; according to scholars, there have been six party systems so far. Only once one of the two major parties came third in an election, but that did not cause a realignment (in 1912 the Progressive Party surpassed the Republicans, but the party quickly disappeared and the Republicans re-gained their major party status). In the 58 presidential elections since 1788, third party or independent candidates have won at least 5.0% of the vote or garnered electoral votes 12 times (21%); this does not count George Washington, who was elected as an independent in 1788–1789 and 1792, but who largely supported Federalist policies and was supported by Federalists. The last third party candidate to win a state was George Wallace of the American Independent Party in 1968, while the last third party candidate to win more than 5.0% of the vote was Ross Perot, who ran as an independent and as the standard-bearer of the Reform Party in 1992 and 1996, respectively; the closest since was Gary Johnson in 2016, who gained 3.3% of the vote running as the Libertarian nominee. The most recent third party candidates to receive an electoral vote were Libertarian Ron Paul and Yankton Sioux Nation independent Faith Spotted Eagle who received a vote each from faithless electors in 2016. The list includes the third party candidates that captured at least 1 electoral vote and/or more than 5% of the popular vote. The list includes the third-party candidates that captured less than 5% but more than (or reasonably close to) 1% of the popular vote and no electoral votes. The list includes the Statewide performance of third party candidates who accrued (or reasonably close to) 5% or more of a States' popular vote. Many third party candidates also have run under different affiliations in different States. They do this for many reasons, including laws restricting ballot access, cross endorsements by other established parties, etc. In the list below, the party column shows which affiliation(s) appeared on the ballot in which corresponding States. The list includes the Statewide performance of major party candidates on party ballot lines other than their own, either through electoral fusion or having to run in opposition to their state party. This does not include those cases, such as found in present-day Connecticut or California, where a third party shares the same ballot line as the main party. The vote totals and percentages listed are those they received under that particular party label. Once widespread, fusion as conventionally practiced remains legal in only eight states, and is most recognized by its use in New York. In 1856 the two-party system of Democrats and Whigs collapsed. The Whigs, who had been one-half of the two-party system since 1832 and had won the presidency in 1840 and 1848, disintegrated. Southern Whigs and a minority of northern Whigs coalesced around the anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic American Party, better known as the "Know Nothing" movement. Their candidate was former President Millard Fillmore, who won 22% but carried only one state, Maryland, thus winning 8 electoral votes. Many Northern Whigs, such as Abraham Lincoln, joined the newly formed Republican Party. The Republicans ran John C. Frémont, who finished second with 33.1% and 114 electoral votes. Democrat James Buchanan won the election. John C. Breckinridge, the third party candidate of southern Democrats, got 18.2% of the popular vote and won 72 electoral votes from several south states. John Bell of the Constitutional Union Party finished with 12.6% of the popular vote, but only won 39 electoral votes from three states. Though both Bell and Breckinridge were unable to capture as many popular votes as the two main presidential candidates (Republican Abraham Lincoln and Democrat Stephen A. Douglas), this election would mark the first time any third party received more electoral votes than one of the major candidates in a US presidential election. Douglas finished with 29.5% of the popular vote, but only won 12 electoral votes from two states. In 1864 Abraham Lincoln ran his re-election campaign as a third party, known as National Union party, consisting of both Democrats, and Republicans. In the 1872 election, newspaper publisher and former Congressman Horace Greeley was nominated by the Liberal Republicans to oppose incumbent Republican President Ulysses S. Grant. The Liberal Republicans were a breakaway faction of the Republican Party that was dissatisfied with Grant's presidency. Determined to defeat Grant, the Democratic Party also nominated Greeley, making Greeley both a third party nominee and a major party nominee. Greeley won six states and 43.8% of the popular vote, but died shortly after election day, so most of the electoral votes that were pledged to Greeley instead went to Democrat Thomas Hendricks or Greeley's running mate, Liberal Republican Benjamin Gratz Brown. James B. Weaver, the Greenback Labor nominee in 1880, ran as presidential candidate for the Populist Party. The Populist Party won 22 electoral votes and 8.51 percent of the popular vote . The Democratic Party eventually adopted many Populist Party positions after this election, notably the Populist call for the free coinage of silver, making this contest a prominent example of a delayed vote for change. Republican Theodore Roosevelt ran as the "Bull Moose Party" (Progressive Party) nominee in the 1912 election. Roosevelt won 27.4% of the popular vote and carried six states totaling 88 electoral votes. Overall, Roosevelt's effort was the most successful third-party candidacy in American history. It was also the only third-party effort to finish higher than third in the popular votes and only the second to do so in electoral votes. Instead incumbent Republican President William Howard Taft finished third, taking only 23% of the popular vote and 8 electoral votes. The split in the Republican vote gave Democrat Woodrow Wilson victory with 42% of the popular vote, but 435 electoral votes. Eugene V. Debs, running in his fourth consecutive Presidential election as the Socialist Party candidate, won 6% of the vote, an all-time high for the Socialists. The elections of 1824, 1860 and 1912 are the only three times that four candidates each cleared 5% of the popular vote in a Presidential election. Erstwhile Republican Robert M. La Follette ran as a Progressive. After the Democrats nominated conservative John W. Davis, many liberal Democrats turned to La Follette. He received 4,831,706 votes for 16.6% of the popular vote and won his home state of Wisconsin receiving 13 electoral votes. With the Democrats split, incumbent President Calvin Coolidge won election by a wide margin. Democrat Strom Thurmond ran on the segregationist States' Rights ("Dixiecrat") ticket. Former Vice President Henry A. Wallace ran on the liberal left as the candidate of a new Progressive Party. Thus the Democratic vote was split three ways, between Thurmond on the right, Wallace on the left, and incumbent President Harry S. Truman in the center. Thurmond received 1,175,930 votes (2.4%) and 39 votes in the electoral college from Southern states. Wallace earned 1,157,328 votes for an identical 2.4% of the popular vote, but no votes in the Electoral College due to his support being mostly concentrated in the more populous states of New York and California. With the Democratic party becoming more amenable to the Civil Rights Movement, the numerous southern Democrats split from the party and started putting up slates of unpledged electors to compete with the national Democratic ticket. During the 1952, 1956, and 1960 elections these received a substantial percentage of votes, most notably coming in second in South Carolina in 1956 ahead of President Eisenhower, and actually winning Mississippi and splitting the electoral vote in Alabama in 1960, giving segregationist Senator Harry F. Byrd of Virginia 14 electoral votes. In 1964 Alabama members of the movement refused to put President Johnson on the ballot, leaving the electors unpledged. Former Democratic Governor of Alabama George Wallace ran on the American Independent Party line. Wallace received 9,901,118 votes for 13.5% of the popular vote, receiving 45 electoral votes in the South and many votes in the North. Wallace remains the only third party candidate since 1948 to win a state. Despite only garnering 3,674 votes (roughly 0.005% of the actual electorate), John G. Hospers of the Libertarian Party secured one electoral vote in this election due to Virginia faithless elector, Roger MacBride. In addition, the results of the faithless elector made the Libertarian vice-presidential nominee Theodora "Tonie" Nathan the first woman in U.S. history to receive an electoral vote. Congressman John B. Anderson received 5,719,850 votes, for 6.6% of the vote, as an independent candidate for President. Libertarian Party candidate Ed Clark won 921,128 votes, or 1.1% of the total. No other Libertarian candidate has ever gotten more than 0.5% in a presidential election until Gary Johnson won 1% in 2012. Ross Perot, an independent, won 18.9% of the popular vote (but no electoral votes). His was the best popular vote showing ever for an independent candidate who stood alone on no third party ticket. Not until four years later would Perot seek to run for the first time on a third party ticket. As an independent, however, Perot finished second in two states: in Utah ahead of election winner Bill Clinton, and in Maine ahead of incumbent President George H. W. Bush. Ross Perot ran for president again, this time as the candidate of the newly founded Reform Party. He won 8% of the popular vote. Ralph Nader received almost 3% of the vote nationwide, and his individual state totals were in some cases much higher, exceeding the margin between the two main candidates, including Florida and New Hampshire, the latter of which some could argue flipped the election from Gore to Bush. The national total for third party candidates and write-ins was well over 5%. In Utah, Evan McMullin received over 20% of the vote, while in Vermont Bernie Sanders received over 5% of the vote despite not appearing on the ballot. Green candidate Jill Stein and Libertarian Gary Johnson received over a million votes each nationwide. In a mini-revolt against the top two candidates, a record number of ten faithless electors cast their votes for other candidates, three of which were disallowed. Most of these went to other Republicans and Democrats, but one vote went to Libertarian Ron Paul and Yankton Sioux Nation independent Faith Spotted Eagle. The Democratic-Republican Party was an American political party founded by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison in the early 1790s that championed republicanism, political equality, and expansionism. The Democratic- Republicans became increasingly dominant after the 1800 elections as the opposing Federalist Party collapsed, and the party splintered during the 1824 presidential election. One faction of the Democratic-Republicans eventually coalesced into the modern Democratic Party, while the other faction ultimately formed the core of the Whig Party. The Democratic-Republican Party originated as a faction in Congress that opposed the centralizing policies of Alexander Hamilton, who served as Secretary of the Treasury under President George Washington. The Democratic-Republicans and the opposing Federalist Party each became more cohesive during Washington's second term, partly as a result of the debate over the Jay Treaty. Though he was defeated by Federalist John Adams in the 1796 presidential election, Jefferson and his Democratic- Republican allies came into power following the 1800 elections. As president, Jefferson presided over a reduction in the national debt and government spending, and completed the Louisiana Purchase with France. Madison succeeded Jefferson as president in 1809 and led the country during the largely- inconclusive War of 1812 with Britain. After the war, Madison and his congressional allies established the Second Bank of the United States and implemented protective tariffs, marking a move away from the party's earlier emphasis on states' rights and a strict construction of the United States Constitution. The Federalists collapsed after 1815, beginning a period known as the Era of Good Feelings. Lacking an effective opposition, the Democratic- Republicans split into groups after the 1824 presidential election; one faction supported President John Quincy Adams, while the other faction backed General Andrew Jackson. Jackson's faction eventually coalesced into the Democratic Party, while supporters of Adams became known as the National Republican Party, which itself later merged into the Whig Party. Democratic- Republicans were deeply committed to the principles of republicanism, which they feared were threatened by the supposed monarchical tendencies of the Federalists. During the 1790s, the party strongly opposed Federalist programs, including the national bank. After the War of 1812, Madison and many other party leaders came to accept the need for a national bank and federally-funded infrastructure projects. In foreign affairs, the party advocated western expansion and tended to favor France over Britain, though the party's pro- French stance faded after Napoleon took power. The Democratic-Republicans were strongest in the South and the western frontier, and weakest in New England. In the 1788–89 presidential election, the first such election following the ratification of the United States Constitution in 1788, George Washington won the votes of every member of the Electoral College. His unanimous victory in part reflected the fact that no formal political parties had formed at the national level in the United States prior to 1789, though the country had been broadly polarized between the Federalists, who supported ratification of the Constitution, and the Anti-Federalists, who opposed ratification. Washington selected Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State and Alexander Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury, and he relied on James Madison as a key adviser and ally in Congress. Hamilton implemented an expansive economic program, establishing the First Bank of the United States, and convincing Congress to assume the debts of state governments. Hamilton pursued his programs in the belief that they would foster a prosperous and stable country. His policies engendered an opposition, chiefly concentrated in the Southern United States, that objected to Hamilton's anglophilia and accused him of unduly favoring well-connected wealthy Northern merchants and speculators. Madison emerged as the leader of the congressional opposition while Jefferson, who declined to publicly criticize Hamilton while both served in Washington's Cabinet, worked behind the scenes to stymie Hamilton's programs. Jefferson and Madison established the National Gazette, a newspaper which recast national politics not as a battle between Federalists and Anti-Federalists, but as a debate between aristocrats and republicans. In the 1792 election, Washington effectively ran unopposed for president, but Jefferson and Madison backed New York Governor George Clinton's unsuccessful attempt to unseat Vice President John Adams. Political leaders on both sides were reluctant to label their respective faction as a political party, but distinct and consistent voting blocs emerged in Congress by the end of 1793. Ultimately, Jefferson's followers became known as the Republicans (or the Democratic-Republicans) and Hamilton's followers became known as the Federalists. While economic policies were the original motivating factor in the growing partisan split, foreign policy also became a factor as Hamilton's followers soured on the French Revolution and Jefferson's allies continued to favor it. In 1793, after Britain entered the French Revolutionary Wars, several Democratic-Republican Societies were formed in opposition to Hamilton's economic policies and in support of France. Partisan tensions escalated as a result of the Whiskey Rebellion and Washington's subsequent denunciation of the Democratic- Republican Societies, a group of local political societies that favored democracy and generally supported the Democratic-Republican Party. The ratification of the Jay Treaty further inflamed partisan warfare, resulting in a hardening of the divisions between the Federalists and the Democratic- Republicans. By 1795–96, election campaigns—federal, state and local—were waged primarily along partisan lines between the two national parties, although local issues continued to affect elections, and party affiliations remained in flux. As Washington declined to seek a third term, the 1796 presidential election became the first contested president election. Having retired from Washington's Cabinet in 1793, Jefferson had left the leadership of the Democratic-Republicans in Madison's hands. Nonetheless, the Democratic- Republican congressional nominating caucus chose Jefferson as the party's presidential nominee on the belief that he would be the party's strongest candidate; the caucus chose Senator Aaron Burr of New York as Jefferson's running mate. Meanwhile, an informal caucus of Federalist leaders nominated a ticket of John Adams and Thomas Pinckney. Though the candidates themselves largely stayed out of the fray, supporters of the candidates waged an active campaign; Federalists attacked Jefferson as a francophile and atheist, while the Democratic-Republicans accused Adams of being an anglophile and a monarchist. Ultimately, Adams won the presidency by a narrow margin, garnering 71 electoral votes to 68 for Jefferson, who became the vice president. Shortly after Adams took office, he dispatched a group of envoys to seek peaceful relations with France, which had begun attacking American shipping after the ratification of the Jay Treaty. The failure of talks, and the French demand for bribes in what became known as the XYZ Affair, outraged the American public and led to the Quasi-War, an undeclared naval war between France and the United States. The Federalist-controlled Congress passed measures to expand the army and navy and also pushed through the Alien and Sedition Acts. The Alien and Sedition Acts restricted speech that was critical of the government, while also implementing stricter naturalization requirements. Numerous journalists and other individuals aligned with the Democratic-Republicans were prosecuted under the Sedition Act, sparking a backlash against the Federalists. Meanwhile, Jefferson and Madison drafted the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, which held that state legislatures could determine the constitutionality of federal laws. In the 1800 presidential election, the Democratic-Republicans once again nominated a ticket of Jefferson and Burr. Shortly after a Federalist caucus re-nominated President Adams on a ticket with Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Adams dismissed two Hamilton allies from his Cabinet, leading to an open break between the two key figures in the Federalist Party. Though the Federalist Party united against Jefferson's candidacy and waged an effective campaign in many states, the Democratic-Republicans won the election by winning most Southern electoral votes and carrying the crucial state of New York. Jefferson and Burr both finished with 73 electoral votes, more than Adams or Pinckney, necessitating a contingent election between Jefferson and Burr in the House of Representatives. Burr declined to take his name out of consideration, and the House deadlocked as most Democratic-Republican congressmen voted for Jefferson and most Federalists voted for Burr. Preferring Jefferson to Burr, Hamilton helped engineer Jefferson's election on the 36th ballot of the contingent election. Jefferson would later describe the 1800 election, which also saw Democratic-Republicans gain control of Congress, as the "Revolution of 1800", writing that it was "as real of a revolution in the principles of our government as that of [1776] was in its form." In the final months of his presidency, Adams reached an agreement with France to end the Quasi-War and appointed several Federalist judges, including Chief Justice John Marshall. Despite the intensity of the 1800 election, the transition of power from the Federalists to the Democratic-Republicans was peaceful. In his inaugural address, Jefferson indicated that he would seek to reverse many Federalist policies, but he also emphasized reconciliation, noting that "every difference of opinion is not a difference of principle". He appointed a geographically balanced and ideologically moderate Cabinet that included Madison as Secretary of State and Albert Gallatin as Secretary of the Treasury; Federalists were excluded from the Cabinet, but Jefferson appointed some prominent Federalists and allowed many other Federalists to keep their positions. Gallatin persuaded Jefferson to retain the First Bank of the United States, a major part of the Hamiltonian program, but other Federalist policies were scrapped. Jefferson and his Democratic-Republican allies eliminated the whiskey excise and other taxes, shrank the army and the navy, repealed the Alien and Sedition Acts, and pardoned all ten individuals who had been prosecuted under the acts. With the repeal of Federalist laws and programs, many Americans had little contact with the federal government in their daily lives, with the exception of the postal service. Partly as a result of these spending cuts, Jefferson lowered the national debt from $83 million to $57 million between 1801 and 1809. Though he was largely able to reverse Federalist policies, Federalists retained a bastion of power on the Supreme Court; Marshall Court rulings continued to reflect Federalist ideals until Chief Justice Marshall's death in the 1830s. In the Supreme Court case of Marbury v. Madison, the Marshall Court established the power of judicial review, through which the judicial branch had the final word on the constitutionality of federal laws. By the time Jefferson took office, Americans had settled as far west as the Mississippi River. Many in the United States, particularly those in the west, favored further territorial expansion, and especially hoped to annex the Spanish province of Louisiana. In early 1803, Jefferson dispatched James Monroe to France to join ambassador Robert Livingston on a diplomatic mission to purchase New Orleans. To the surprise of the American delegation, Napoleon offered to sell the entire territory of Louisiana for $15 million. After Secretary of State James Madison gave his assurances that the purchase was well within even the strictest interpretation of the Constitution, the Senate quickly ratified the treaty, and the House immediately authorized funding. The Louisiana Purchase nearly doubled the size of the United States, and Treasury Secretary Gallatin was forced to borrow from foreign banks to finance the payment to France. Though the Louisiana Purchase was widely popular, some Federalists criticized it; Congressman Fisher Ames argued that "We are to spend money of which he have too little for land of which we already have too much." By 1804, Vice President Burr had thoroughly alienated Jefferson, and the Democratic-Republican presidential nominating caucus chose George Clinton as Jefferson's running mate for the 1804 presidential election. That same year, Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel after taking offense to a comment allegedly made by Hamilton; Hamilton died in the subsequent duel. Bolstered by a superior party organization, Jefferson won the 1804 election in a landslide over Federalist candidate Charles Cotesworth Pinckney. In 1807, as the Napoleonic Wars continued, the British announced the Orders in Council, which called for a blockade on the French Empire. In response to subsequent British and French attacks on American shipping, the Jefferson administration passed the Embargo Act of 1807, which cut off trade with Europe. The embargo proved unpopular and difficult to enforce, especially in Federalist-leaning New England, and expired at the end of Jefferson's second term. Jefferson declined to seek a third term in the 1808 presidential election, but helped Madison triumph over George Clinton and James Monroe at the party's congressional nominating caucus. Madison won the general election in a landslide over Pinckney. As attacks on American shipping continued after Madison took office, both Madison and the broader American public moved towards war. Popular anger towards Britain led to the election of a new generation of Democratic- Republican leaders, including Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun, who championed high tariffs, federally-funded internal improvements, and a belligerent attitude towards Britain. On June 1, 1812, Madison asked Congress for a declaration of war. The declaration was passed largely along sectional and party lines, with intense opposition coming from the Federalists and some other congressmen from the Northeast. For many who favored war, national honor was at stake; John Quincy Adams wrote that the only alternative to war was "the abandonment of our right as an independent nation." George Clinton's nephew, DeWitt Clinton, challenged Madison in the 1812 presidential election. Though Clinton assembled a formidable coalition of Federalists and anti- Madison Democratic-Republicans, Madison won a close election. Madison initially hoped for a quick end to the War of 1812, but the war got off to a disastrous start. The United States had more military success in 1813, and a force under William Henry Harrison crushed Native American and British resistance in the Old Northwest with a victory in the Battle of the Thames. The British shifted soldiers to North America in 1814 following the abdication of Napoleon, and a British detachment burned Washington in August 1814. In early 1815, Madison learned that his negotiators in Europe had reached the Treaty of Ghent, ending the war without major concessions by either side. Though it had no effect on the treaty, General Andrew Jackson's victory in the January 1815 Battle of New Orleans ended the war on a triumphant note. Napoleon's defeat at the June 1815 Battle of Waterloo brought a final end to the Napoleonic Wars and attacks on American shipping. With Americans celebrating a successful "second war of independence" from Britain, the Federalist Party party slid towards national irrelevance. The subsequent period of virtually one-party rule by the Democratic-Republican Party is known as the "Era of Good Feelings." In his first term, Madison and his allies had largely hewed to Jefferson's domestic agenda of low taxes and a reduction of the national debt, and Congress allowed the national bank's charter to expire during Madison's first term. The challenges of the War of 1812 led many Democratic-Republicans to reconsider the role of the federal government. When the 14th Congress convened in December 1815, Madison proposed the re- establishment of the national bank, increased spending on the army and the navy, and a tariff designed to protect American goods from foreign competition. Madison's proposals were strongly criticized by strict constructionists like John Randolph, who argued that Madison's program "out- Hamiltons Alexander Hamilton." Responding to Madison's proposals, the 14th Congress compiled one of the most productive legislative records up to that point in history, enacting the Tariff of 1816 and establishing the Second Bank of the United States. At the party's 1816 congressional nominating caucus, Secretary of State James Monroe defeated Secretary of War William H. Crawford in a 65-to-54 vote. The Federalists offered little opposition in the 1816 presidential election and Monroe won in a landslide election. Monroe believed that the existence of political parties was harmful to the United States, and he sought to usher in the end of the Federalist Party by avoiding divisive policies and welcoming ex-Federalists into the fold. Monroe favored infrastructure projects to promote economic development and, despite some constitutional concerns, signed bills providing federal funding for the National Road and other projects. Partly due to the mismanagement of national bank president William Jones, the country experienced a prolonged economic recession known as the Panic of 1819. The panic engendered a widespread resentment of the national bank and a distrust of paper money that would influence national politics long after the recession ended. Despite the ongoing economic troubles, the Federalists failed to field a serious challenger to Monroe in the 1820 presidential election, and Monroe won re- election essentially unopposed. During the proceedings over the admission of Missouri Territory as a state, Congressman James Tallmadge, Jr. of New York "tossed a bombshell into the Era of Good Feelings" by proposing amendments providing for the eventual exclusion of slavery from Missouri. The amendments sparked the first major national slavery debate since the ratification of the Constitution, and instantly exposed the sectional polarization over the issue of slavery. Northern Democratic-Republicans formed a coalition across partisan lines with the remnants of the Federalist Party in support of the amendments, while Southern Democratic-Republicans were almost unanimously against such the restrictions. In February 1820, Congressman Jesse B. Thomas of Illinois proposed a compromise, in which Missouri would be admitted as a slave state, but slavery would be excluded in the remaining territories north of the parallel 36°30′ north. A bill based on Thomas's proposal became law in April 1820. By 1824, the Federalist Party had largely collapsed as a national party, and the 1824 presidential election was waged by competing members of the Democratic-Republican Party. The party's congressional nominating caucus was largely ignored, and candidates were instead nominated by state legislatures. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, former Speaker of the House Henry Clay, Secretary of the Treasury William Crawford, and General Andrew Jackson emerged as the major candidates in the election. The regional strength of each candidate played an important role in the election; Adams was popular in New England, Clay and Jackson were strong in the West, and Jackson and Crawford competed for the South. As no candidate won a majority of the electoral vote in the 1824 election, the House of Representatives held a contingent election to determine the president. Clay personally disliked Adams but nonetheless supported him in the contingent election over Crawford, who opposed Clay's nationalist policies, and Jackson, whom Clay viewed as a potential tyrant. With Clay's backing, Adams won the contingent election. After Clay accepted appointment as Secretary of State, Jackson's supporters claimed that Adams and Clay had reached a "Corrupt Bargain" in which Adams promised Clay the appointment in return for Clay's support in the contingent election. Jackson, who was deeply angered by the result of the contingent election, returned to Tennessee, where the state legislature quickly nominated him for president in the 1828 election. Adams shared Monroe's goal of ending partisan conflict, and his Cabinet included individuals of various ideological and regional backgrounds. In his 1825 annual message to Congress, Adams presented a comprehensive and ambitious agenda, calling for major investments in internal improvements as well as the creation of a national university, a naval academy, and a national astronomical observatory. His requests to Congress galvanized the opposition, spurring the creation of an anti-Adams congressional coalition consisting of supporters of Jackson, Crawford, and Vice President Calhoun. Following the 1826 elections, Calhoun and Martin Van Buren (who brought along many of Crawford's supporters) agreed to throw their support behind Jackson in the 1828 election. In the press, the two major political factions were referred to as "Adams Men" and "Jackson Men". The Jacksonians formed an effective party apparatus that adopted many modern campaign techniques and emphasized Jackson's popularity and the supposed corruption of Adams and the federal government. Though Jackson did not articulate a detailed political platform in the same way that Adams did, his coalition was united in opposition to Adams's reliance on government planning and tended to favor the opening of Native American lands to white settlement. Ultimately, Jackson won 178 of the 261 electoral votes and just under 56 percent of the popular vote. Jackson won 50.3 percent of the popular vote in the free states and 72.6 percent of the vote in the slave states. The election marked the permanent end of the Era of Good Feelings and the start of the Second Party System. The dream of non- partisan politics, shared by Monroe, Adams, and many earlier leaders, was shattered, replaced with Van Buren's ideal of partisan battles between legitimated political parties. In the 1790s, political parties were new in the United States and people were not accustomed to having formal names for them. There was no single official name for the Democratic-Republican Party, but party members generally called themselves Republicans and voted for what they called the "Republican party", "republican ticket" or "republican interest". Jefferson and Madison often used the terms "republican" and "Republican party" in their letters. As a general term (not a party name), the word republican had been in widespread usage from the 1770s to describe the type of government the break-away colonies wanted to form: a republic of three separate branches of government derived from some principles and structure from ancient republics; especially the emphasis on civic duty and the opposition to corruption, elitism, aristocracy and monarchy. The term "Democratic-Republican" was used by contemporaries only occasionally, but is used by some modern sources, partly to distinguish this party from the present-day Republican Party. Some present-day sources describe the party as the "Jeffersonian Republicans". Other sources have labeled the party as the "Democratic Party", though that term was often used pejoratively, and the party is not to be confused with the present-day Democratic Party. The Democratic-Republican Party saw itself as a champion of republicanism and denounced the Federalists as supporters of monarchy and aristocracy.James Roger Sharp, American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis (1993). Ralph Brown writes that the party was marked by a "commitment to broad principles of personal liberty, social mobility, and westward expansion." Political scientist James A. Reichley writes that "the issue that most sharply divided the Jeffersonians from the Federalists was not states rights, nor the national debt, nor the national Bank... but the question of social equality." In a world in which few believed in democracy or egalitarianism, Jefferson's belief in political equality for white men stood out from many of the other Founding Fathers of the United States, who held that the rich and powerful should lead society. Jefferson advocated a philosophy that historians would later call Jeffersonian democracy, which was marked by his belief in agrarianism and strict limits on the national government. Influenced by the Jeffersonian belief in equality, by 1824 all but three states had removed property-owning requirements for voting. Though open to some redistributive measures, Jefferson saw a strong centralized government as a threat to freedom. Thus, the Democratic-Republicans opposed Federalist efforts to build a strong, centralized state, and resisted the establishment of a national bank, the build-up of the army and the navy, and passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts. Jefferson was especially averse to a national debt, which he believed to be inherently dangerous and immoral. After the party took power in 1800, Jefferson became increasingly concerned about foreign intervention and more open to programs of economic development conducted by the federal government. In an effort to promote economic growth and the development of a diversified economy, Jefferson's Democratic-Republican successors would oversee the construction of numerous federally-funded infrastructure projects and implement protective tariffs. While economic policies were the original catalyst to the partisan split between the Democratic-Republicans and the Federalists, foreign policy was also a major factor that divided the parties. Most Americans supported the French Revolution prior to the Execution of Louis XVI in 1793, but Federalists began to fear the radical egalitarianism of the revolution as it became increasingly violent. Jefferson and other Democratic- Republicans defended the French Revolution. until Napoleon ascended to power between 1797 and 1803. Democratic-Republican foreign policy was marked by support for expansionism, as Jefferson championed the concept of an "Empire of Liberty" that centered on the acquisition and settlement of western territories. Under Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe, the United States completed the Louisiana Purchase, acquired Spanish Florida, and reached a treaty with Britain providing for shared sovereignty over Oregon Country. In 1823, the Monroe administration promulgated the Monroe Doctrine, which reiterated the traditional U.S. policy of neutrality with regard to European wars and conflicts, but declared that the United States would not accept the recolonization of any country by its former European master. The Monroe Doctrine would be the cornerstone of American foreign policy for several decades. From the foundation of the party, slavery divided the Democratic-Republicans. Many Southern Democratic-Republicans, especially from the Deep South, defended the institution. Jefferson and many other Democratic-Republicans from Virginia held an ambivalent view on slavery; Jefferson believed it was an immoral institution, but he opposed the immediate emancipation of all slaves on economic grounds. Meanwhile, Northern Democratic-Republicans often took stronger anti-slavery positions than their Federalist counterparts, supporting measures like the abolition of slavery in Washington. In 1807, with President Jefferson's support, Congress outlawed the international slave trade, doing so at the earliest possible date allowed by the Constitution. After the War of 1812, Southerners increasingly came to view slavery as a beneficial institution rather than an unfortunate economic necessity, further polarizing the party over the issue. Anti-slavery Northern Democratic-Republicans. meanwhile, held that slavery was incompatible with the equality and individual rights promised by the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. They further held that slavery had been permitted under the Constitution only as a local and impermanent exception, and thus, slavery should not be allowed to spread outside of the original thirteen states. The anti-slavery positions developed by Northern Democratic-Republicans would influence later anti- slavery parties, including the Free Soil Party and the Republican Party. Some Democratic-Republicans from the border states, including Henry Clay, continued to adhere to the Jeffersonian view of slavery as a necessary evil; many of these leaders joined the American Colonization Society, which proposed the voluntary recolonization of Africa as part of a broader plan for the gradual emancipation of slaves. Madison and Jefferson formed the Democratic-Republican Party from a combination of former Anti-Federalists and supporters of the Constitution who were dissatisfied with the Washington administration's policies. Nationwide, Democratic-Republicans were strongest in the South, and many of party's leaders were wealthy Southern slaveowners. The Democratic-Republicans also attracted middle class Northerners, such as artisans, farmers, and lower-level merchants, who were eager to challenge the power of the local elite. Every state had a distinct political geography that shaped party membership; in Pennsylvania, the Republicans were weakest around Philadelphia and strongest in Scots-Irish settlements in the west. The Federalists had broad support in New England, but in other places they relied on wealthy merchants and landowners. After 1800, the Federalists collapsed in the South and West, though the party remained competitive in New England and in some Mid-Atlantic states. Historian Sean Wilentz writes that, after assuming power in 1801, the Democratic-Republicans began to factionalize into three main groups: moderates, radicals, and Old Republicans. The Old Republicans, led by John Randolph, were a loose group of influential Southern plantation owners who strongly favored states' rights and denounced any form of compromise with the Federalists. The radicals consisted of a wide array of individuals from different sections of the country who were characterized by their support for far-reaching political and economic reforms; prominent radicals include William Duane and Michael Leib, who jointly led a powerful political machine in Philadelphia. The moderate faction consisted of many former supporters of the ratification of the Constitution, including James Madison, who were more accepting of Federalist economic programs and sought conciliation with moderate Federalists. After 1810, a younger group of nationalist Democratic- Republicans, led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun, rose to prominence. These nationalists favored federally-funded internal improvements and high tariffs, positions that would form the basis for Clay's American System. In addition to its base among the leaders of Clay and Calhoun's generation, nationalist policies also proved attractive to many older Democratic-Republicans, including James Monroe. The Panic of 1819 sparked a backlash against nationalist policies, and many of those opposed to the nationalist policies rallied around William H. Crawford until he had a major stroke in 1823. After the 1824 election, most of Crawford's followers, including Martin Van Buren, gravitated to Andrew Jackson, forming a major part of the coalition that propelled Jackson to victory in the 1828 election. The Democratic-Republican Party invented campaign and organizational techniques that were later adopted by the Federalists and became standard American practice. It was especially effective in building a network of newspapers in major cities to broadcast its statements and editorialize its policies. Fisher Ames, a leading Federalist, used the term "Jacobin" to link members of Jefferson's party to the radicals of the French Revolution. He blamed the newspapers for electing Jefferson and wrote they were "an overmatch for any Government... The Jacobins owe their triumph to the unceasing use of this engine; not so much to skill in use of it as by repetition". As one historian explained: "It was the good fortune of the Republicans to have within their ranks a number of highly gifted political manipulators and propagandists. Some of them had the ability... to not only see and analyze the problem at hand but to present it in a succinct fashion; in short, to fabricate the apt phrase, to coin the compelling slogan and appeal to the electorate on any given issue in language it could understand". Outstanding propagandists included editor William Duane (1760–1835) and party leaders Albert Gallatin, Thomas Cooper and Jefferson himself. Just as important was effective party organization of the sort that John J. Beckley pioneered. In 1796, he managed the Jefferson campaign in Pennsylvania, blanketing the state with agents who passed out 30,000 hand-written tickets, naming all 15 electors (printed tickets were not allowed). Beckley told one agent: "In a few days a select republican friend from the City will call upon you with a parcel of tickets to be distributed in your County. Any assistance and advice you can furnish him with, as to suitable districts & characters, will I am sure be rendered". Beckley was the first American professional campaign manager and his techniques were quickly adopted in other states. The emergence of the new organizational strategies can be seen in the politics of Connecticut around 1806, which have been well documented by Cunningham. The Federalists dominated Connecticut, so the Republicans had to work harder to win. In 1806, the state leadership sent town leaders instructions for the forthcoming elections. Every town manager was told by state leaders "to appoint a district manager in each district or section of his town, obtaining from each an assurance that he will faithfully do his duty". Then the town manager was instructed to compile lists and total the number of taxpayers and the number of eligible voters, find out how many favored the Republicans and how many the Federalists and to count the number of supporters of each party who were not eligible to vote but who might qualify (by age or taxes) at the next election. These highly detailed returns were to be sent to the county manager and in turn were compiled and sent to the state manager. Using these lists of potential voters, the managers were told to get all eligible people to town meetings and help the young men qualify to vote. The state manager was responsible for supplying party newspapers to each town for distribution by town and district managers. This highly coordinated "get-out-the-vote" drive would be familiar to modern political campaigners, but was the first of its kind in world history. The coalition of Jacksonians, Calhounites, and Crawfordites built by Jackson and Van Buren would become the Democratic Party, which dominated presidential politics in the decades prior to the Civil War. Supporters of Adams and Clay would form the main opposition to Jackson as the National Republican Party. The National Republicans in turn eventually formed part of the Whig Party, which was the second major party in the United States between the 1830s and the early 1850s. The diverse and changing nature of the Democratic-Republican Party allowed both major parties to claim that they stood for Jeffersonian principles. Historian Daniel Walker Howe writes that Democrats traced their heritage to he "Old Republicanism of Macon and Crawford", while the Whigs looked to "the new Republican nationalism of Madison and Gallatin." The Whig Party fell apart in the 1850s due to divisions over the expansion of slavery into new territories. The modern Republican Party was formed in 1854 to oppose the expansion of slavery, and many former Whig Party leaders joined the newly formed anti-slavery party. The Republican Party sought to combine Jefferson's ideals of liberty and equality with Clay's program of using an active government to modernize the economy. The Democratic-Republican Party inspired the name and ideology of the Republican Party, but is not directly connected to that party. Fear of a large debt is a major legacy of the party. Andrew Jackson believed the national debt was a "national curse" and he took special pride in paying off the entire national debt in 1835. Politicians ever since have used the issue of a high national debt to denounce the other party for profligacy and a threat to fiscal soundness and the nation's future. The affiliation of many Congressmen in the earliest years is an assignment by later historians. The parties were slowly coalescing groups; at first there were many independents. Cunningham noted that only about a quarter of the House of Representatives up until 1794 voted with Madison as much as two- thirds of the time and another quarter against him two-thirds of the time, leaving almost half as fairly independent. American Enlightenment, Anti-Federalism, History of the United States Democratic Party, History of U.S. foreign policy, 1801–1829, Jacksonian democracy, Liberal-Conservative Party, List of political parties in the United States Banning, Lance. The Jeffersonian Persuasion: Evolution of a Party Ideology (1980)., Cunningham, Noble E., Jr. Jeffersonian Republicans: The formation of Party Organization: 1789–1801 (1957)., Cunningham, Noble E., Jr. The Jeffersonian Republicans in Power: Party Operations 1801–1809 (1963)., Gould, Lewis. Grand Old Party: A History of the Republicans (2003) () concerns the party founded in 1854., Rutland, Robert A. The Presidency of James Madison (Univ. Press of Kansas, 1990). ., Tinkcom, Harry M. The Republicans and Federalists in Pennsylvania, 1790–1801 (1950)., Wills, Garry. James Madison: The American Presidents Series: The 4th President, 1809-1817 (Times Books, 2002). Adams, Henry, History of the United States during the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson (1889; Library of America ed. 1987)., Adams, Henry, History of the United States during the Administrations of James Madison (1891; Library of America ed. 1986)., Beard, Charles A. Economic Origins of Jeffersonian Democracy (1915)., Brown, Stuart Gerry. The First Republicans: Political Philosophy and Public Policy in the Party of Jefferson and Madison 1954., Chambers, Wiliam Nisbet. Political Parties in a New Nation: The American Experience, 1776–1809 (1963)., Cornell, Saul. The Other Founders: Anti-Federalism and the Dissenting Tradition in America, 1788–1828 (1999) ()., Cunningham, Noble E., Jr. The Process of Government Under Jefferson (1978)., Dawson, Matthew Q. Partisanship and the Birth of America's Second Party, 1796–1800: Stop the Wheels of Government. Greenwood, 2000., Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric McKitrick. The Age of Federalism (1995), detailed political history of 1790s., Ferling, John. Adams Vs. Jefferson: The Tumultuous Election of 1800 (2004) ()., Gammon, Samuel Rhea. The Presidential Campaign of 1832 (1922)., Klein, Philip Shriver. Pennsylvania Politics, 1817–1832: A Game without Rules 1940., Onuf, Peter S., ed. Jeffersonian Legacies. (1993) ()., Pasley, Jeffrey L. et al. eds. Beyond the Founders: New Approaches to the Political History of the Early American Republic (2004)., Ray, Kristofer. "The Republicans Are the Nation? Thomas Jefferson, William Duane, and the Evolution of the Republican Coalition, 1809–1815." American Nineteenth Century History 14.3 (2013): 283–304., Risjord, Norman K.; The Old Republicans: Southern Conservatism in the Age of Jefferson (1965) on the Randolph faction., Sharp, James Roger. American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis (1993) detailed narrative of 1790s., Smelser, Marshall. The Democratic Republic 1801–1815 (1968), survey of political history., Van Buren, Martin. Van Buren, Abraham, Van Buren, John, ed. Inquiry Into the Origin and Course of Political Parties in the United States (1867) ()., Wiltse, Charles Maurice. The Jeffersonian Tradition in American Democracy (1935)., Wills, Garry. Henry Adams and the Making of America (2005), a close reading of Henry Adams (1889–1891). Cunningham, Noble E. In Pursuit of Reason The Life of Thomas Jefferson () (1987)., Cunningham, Noble E., Jr. "John Beckley: An Early American Party Manager", William and Mary Quarterly, 13 (January 1956), 40–52, in JSTOR., Miller, John C. Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox (1959), full-scale biography., Peterson; Merrill D. Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography (1975), full-scale biography., Remini, Robert. Henry Clay: Statesman for the Union (1991), a standard biography., Rutland, Robert A., ed. James Madison and the American Nation, 1751–1836: An Encyclopedia (1994)., Schachner, Nathan. Aaron Burr: A Biography (1961), full-scale biography., Unger, Harlow G.. "The Last Founding Father: James Monroe and a Nation's Call to Greatness" (2009), Wiltse, Charles Maurice. John C. Calhoun, Nationalist, 1782–1828 (1944). Beeman, Richard R. The Old Dominion and the New Nation, 1788–1801 (1972), on Virginia politics., Formisano, Ronald P. The Transformation of Political Culture. Massachusetts Parties, 1790s–1840s (1984) ()., Gilpatrick, Delbert Harold. Jeffersonian Democracy in North Carolina, 1789–1816 (1931)., Goodman, Paul. The Democratic-Republicans of Massachusetts (1964)., Prince, Carl E. New Jersey's Jeffersonian Republicans: The Genesis of an Early Party Machine, 1789–1817 (1967)., Risjord; Norman K. Chesapeake Politics, 1781–1800 (1978) on Virginia and Maryland., Young, Alfred F. The Democratic Republicans of New York: The Origins, 1763–1797 (1967). Humphrey, Carol Sue The Press of the Young Republic, 1783–1833 (1996)., Knudson, Jerry W. Jefferson And the Press: Crucible of Liberty (2006) how 4 Republican and 4 Federalist papers covered election of 1800; Thomas Paine; Louisiana Purchase; Hamilton-Burr duel; impeachment of Chase; and the embargo., Jeffrey L. Pasley. "The Tyranny of Printers": Newspaper Politics in the Early American Republic (2003) ()., Stewart, Donald H. The Opposition Press of the Federalist Era (1968), highly detailed study of Republican newspapers., National Intell & Washington Advertister. January 16, 1801. Issue XXXIII COl. B., The complete text, searchable, of all early American newspapers are online at Readex America's Historical Newspapers, available at research libraries. Adams, John Quincy. Memoirs of John Quincy Adams: Comprising Portions of His Diary from 1795 to 1848 Volume VII (1875) edited by Charles Francis Adams; (). Adams, son of the Federalist president, switched and became a Republican in 1808., Cunningham, Noble E., Jr., ed. The Making of the American Party System 1789 to 1809 (1965) excerpts from primary sources., Cunningham, Noble E., Jr., ed. Circular Letters of Congressmen to Their Constituents 1789–1829 (1978), 3 vol; reprints the political newsletters sent out by congressmen., Kirk, Russell ed. John Randolph of Roanoke: A study in American politics, with selected speeches and letters, 4th ed., Liberty Fund, 1997, 588 pp. ; Randolph was a leader of the "Old Republican" faction., Smith, James Morton, ed. The Republic of Letters: The Correspondence of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, 1776–1826 Volume 2 (1994). A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787–1825 An independent or nonpartisan politician is a politician not affiliated with any political party. There are numerous reasons why someone may stand for office as an independent. Independents may support policies which are different from those of the major political parties., Independents may support a party's platform, but choose to stand as an independent because they don't feel the party adequately follows their platform., In some parts of the world, electors may have a tradition of electing independents, so standing for a political party is a disadvantage., In some countries (such as Russia), a political party can only be registered if it has many members in more than one region, but in certain regions only a minority of electors support the major parties., In some countries (such as Kuwait), political parties are illegal and all candidates thus stand as independents., In some countries where politics are otherwise traditionally partisan, such as the United States, subnational bodies and offices such as the Nebraska State Legislature and various directly-elected judicial and executive positions are nonpartisan and require politicians to abstain from running for office as part of a political party, even if they may be a member of one., In some countries where politics is otherwise traditionally partisan (such as Mongolia), the incumbent President must always be an independent and cannot run for reelection as a member of a political party. Some independent politicians may be associated with a political party, perhaps as former members of it, or else have views that align with it, but choose not to stand in its name, or are unable to do so because the party in question has selected another candidate. Others may belong to or support a political party at the national level but believe they should not formally represent it (and thus be subject to its policies) at another level. In running for public office, independents sometimes choose to form a party or alliance with other independents, and may formally register their party or alliance. Even where the word "independent" is used, such alliances have much in common with a political party, especially if there is an organization which needs to approve the "independent" candidates. Independents are a recurrent feature of the federal Parliament of Australia, and they are more commonly elected to state parliaments. There have been up to five independents in every federal parliament since 1990, and independents have won twenty-eight times during national elections in that time. A large proportion of independents are former members of one of Australia's four main parties, the Australian Labor Party, the Liberal Party of Australia, the Australian Greens, or the National Party of Australia. In 2013 a political party named the Australian Independents was registered with the Australian Electoral Commission. At the dissolution of parliament before the 2019 federal election, four independents sat in the Australian House of Representatives: Andrew Wilkie (Member for Denison), Cathy McGowan (Member for Indi), Kerryn Phelps (Member for Wentworth), and Julia Banks (Member for Chisholm). Of these, Wilkie had previously been a Greens candidate, McGowan had been a Liberal staffer, and Banks was elected as a Liberal MP before resigning from the party in November 2018. At the 2019 election, Wilkie was re-elected as the Member for Clark, while McGowan retired, and both Phelps and Banks lost their seats. However, two new independents entered parliament: Zali Steggall (Member for Warringah) and Helen Haines (Member for Indi). Independent Senators are quite rare. In modern politics, independent Brian Harradine served from 1975 to 2005 with considerable influence at times. Nick Xenophon has been the only elected independent Senator since his election to the Senate at the 2007 federal election. Xenophon was re-elected for another six-year term at the 2013 federal election. DLP Senator John Madigan became an independent Senator in September 2014, while PUP Senators Jacqui Lambie and Glenn Lazarus became independent Senators in November 2014 and March 2015. The independent politicians are not allowed to run for offices in Brazil. The Constitution of 1988, in its Article 14, §3rd, item V, says that "Are conditions for eligibility: V - party affiliation." However, the Proposal Amendment to the Constitution (PEC) no. 6/2015, authored by independent senator José Reguffe, would allow the independent candidacy of individuals who have the support of at least 1% of the electors able to vote in the region (city, state or country, depending on the election) in which the candidate is running. Currently, members of the legislative and executive can leave their respective parties after elected, as is the case of senator Reguffe, who left the Democratic Labour Party (PDT) in 2016. The President of Bulgaria Rumen Radev is an independent with support from the Bulgarian Socialist Party. Radev was elected in the 2016 election. Independent Members of Parliament were numerous in the last decades of the 19th century but diminished as the party system solidified. It remained common, however, to have a small number of Independent Liberal or Independent Conservative MPs into the 1950s. Independent politicians have held considerable sway in the House of Commons of Canada in recent years as Canada has been governed by successive minority governments with independent Members of Parliament (MPs) sometimes sharing in the balance of power. In the 2004 federal election, Chuck Cadman was elected to federal parliament as an independent MP representing the British Columbia riding of Surrey North. Cadman had previously represented that riding on behalf of the Reform Party of Canada and Canadian Alliance, but after the Canadian Alliance merged with the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada to form the new Conservative Party of Canada in 2003, Cadman lost the nomination to represent the Conservative Party in that riding to Jasbir Singh Cheema. Cadman then stood in the subsequent election as an independent and defeated Cheema, as well as the candidates of other Canadian parties, by a significant margin. In the spring of 2005, Cadman cast the tying vote in favour of a budget supported by the Liberal Party government of Paul Martin as well as the New Democratic Party (NDP), but opposed by the opposition Conservatives and Bloc Québécois. Two other independents also voted on that budget. Carolyn Parrish, independent MP for Mississauga—Erindale, had recently been kicked out of the Liberal Party for criticizing US president George W Bush, but nonetheless sided with the Liberals on the budget vote. David Kilgour independent MP for Edmonton—Mill Woods—Beaumont, had previously quit the Liberal caucus and voted with the opposition parties against the budget. The tie vote required the Speaker of the House Peter Milliken to cast the deciding vote, and he did so in favor of the budget, allowing the government to survive. Cadman was terminally ill with cancer at the time he cast his crucial vote, and he died later in 2005. In the 2006 federal election, his riding was won by NDP candidate Penny Priddy. Neither Parrish nor Kilgour (nor Pat O'Brien, MP for London—Fanshawe, who quit the Liberal Party to sit as an independent after the 2005 budget vote) stood for re-election in 2006. Another independent candidate, André Arthur, was elected in the Quebec riding of Portneuf—Jacques-Cartier in 2006, and was the only independent to win a seat in that election. He was re-elected in the October 14, 2008 federal election. Former Progressive Conservative and Conservative MP Bill Casey, who was expelled from the Conservative Party for voting against the 2007 Federal Budget, also ran as an independent in the 2008 election, easily retaining his seat. In the federal election of October 21, 2019,Jody Wilson-Raybould ran as an independent candidate in the riding of Vancouver-Granville after being expelled from the Liberal Party caucus over the SNC-Lavalin affair. She defeated Liberal Party candidate Taleeb Noormohamed. Candidates in federal elections who are not affiliated with a party have two options: independent or no affiliation. In the former case, they appear on the ballot with "Independent" following their name; in the second case, they appear with their name only. The two options are otherwise equivalent. The territorial legislatures of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut are consensus governments with no political parties, so that all members sit as independents. There are a few independent members of the other subnational legislatures, which are similar in principle to the federal House of Commons; for example, in the 2009 election in British Columbia, independent candidate Vicki Huntington narrowly defeated incumbent Attorney General Wally Oppal as MLA for Delta South. True independents should not be confused with members of parties without official party status in a legislature. Most legislatures provide that a party must hold a certain number of seats to enjoy certain advantages in staffing, budget, ability to ask questions in Question Period, and the like. Although members whose parties do not hold this status may have no more privileges than independent members, they remain representatives of political parties. As of May 25, 2019, the most number of members sitting in the House of Commons without being a part of a party with official party status is 21. Also, members who are expelled from or choose to leave their party caucus may sit as "Independent" with some designation, e.g., "Independent Liberal" or "Independent Conservative", to indicate their affiliation to that party even if it is not officially recognized. Election as an independent is far more common at the municipal level. Many municipalities have no tradition of political parties. More than half of Hong Kong's Legislative Council is made up of independents, or members whose political groups are represented by one sole member in the legislature. They are common in functional constituencies, and are not rare among geographical constituencies. After an inconclusive election in 2015, Tihomir Orešković was named the first non-partisan Prime Minister of Croatia. After serving six years on his first term as President of Finland in the National Coalition Party from 2012 to 2018, Sauli Niinistö was elected for his second term in 2018 after running as an independent candidate. In France, independent politicians are frequently categorised as sans étiquette ("without label") in municipal or district elections. In the nineteenth-century and first half of the twentieth century, most French national politicians were independents. The first modern French political parties date from the early 1900s (foundation of Action Libérale and the Radical-Socialist Republican Party). The first legislation on political parties dates from 1911, though it was not until 1928 that parliamentarians were required to select a political party for the parliamentary register (either by formally joining a group, or by loosely working with one as an apparenté, or associate), and not until after 1945 that structured political parties came to dominate parliamentary work. Once elected, independents tended to attach themselves to a parliamentary party. In some cases independen deputies banded together to form a technical group of their own. In 1932, for instance, there were four technical groups created: the left-of-centre Independent Left, with 12 deputies; the centre-right liberal Independents of the Left, with 26 deputies; the right-wing agrarian Independents for Economic, Social and Peasant Action, with six deputies; and the far-right monarchist Independent Group, with 12 deputies - these four technical groups thus accounted for one-tenth of deputies. In addition, the larger parliamentary parties, including the socialist SFIO, centre-left PRRRS, centre-right ARD and conservative FR all included a greater or lesser number of independents who sat with their group for parliamentary work (apparentés). In 1920, Alexandre Millerand was elected president of the Republic under the banner "without label". However, it is nowadays rare to have independent politicians at national level, if only because independents usually affiliate themselves to an existing political grouping. Noteworthy independents include José Bové in the 2007 presidential election. Emmanuel Macron was an independent politician as Minister, but formed his own party to stand in the 2016 presidential election. From 2001 to 2008 "without label" was no longer used in the nomenclature of the Ministry of the Interior. Candidates and lists presenting themselves as "without label" are classified in DVG (various left), DVD (various right), DVC (various center) or AUT (other) according to their political sensitivity. Therefore, from 2008 onwards, the DIV (miscellaneous) or the LDIV code for the "miscellaneous" list has been created to group unclassifiable or categorical interests and, by default, mayors without a declared label claiming no political sensitivity, be it left, center or right. The AUT (other) grade replaces the DIV grade without changing its definition. Salome Zourabichvili won the 2018 Georgian presidential election as an independent candidate, becoming the first-ever female President of Georgia. Joachim Gauck, President of Germany from March 2012 to March 2017 and the first Federal President without party affiliation, was to date the most prominent independent politician. In the German presidential election of 2010 he was the candidate of the Social Democrats and Greens, in 2012 the candidate of all major parties except The Left. His presidency—though his powers are limited—constitutes an exception, as Independent politicians have rarely held high office in German history, at least not since World War II. It has nevertheless happened that a presidential candidate without any chances of election by the Federal Convention was not a party member: for example, when in 1984 the Greens came up with the writer Luise Rinser. In the Bundestag parliament nearly all deputies belong to a political party. The voting system of personalized proportional representation (since 1949) allows any individual holding the passive right to vote to stand for a direct mandate in the electoral districts—half of the seats in parliament are distributed by districts according to a plurality voting system. Such a candidate has to present 200 signatures in favor of his candidacy, the same as a candidate of a party that had no parliamentary presentation previously. The first Bundestag election in 1949 saw three independents elected; since then, no party- independent candidate has won a seat. At state level, the situation is more or less the same: only party members have a real chance to be elected to a Landtag legislature, and state ministers without party membership are just as rare as at the federal level. However, in local elections it may occur that an independent politician is elected deputy to districts', cities' and municipalities' assemblies, as well as member of a city council or even mayor, especially in Northern Germany. In recent years, independents have formed Free Voters associations to enter Landtag parliaments, so far only successful in Bavaria. An independent member of parliament, who also is not a member of a voters' association, holds the status of a non-inscrit () not affiliated to any parliamentary group. A representative who leaves his party (and his parliamentary group) and does not join another becomes an independent and non- inscrit. In 1989 the Bundestag MP Thomas Wüppesahl, who had left the Green Party in 1987 and was excluded from the Green parliamentary group the next year, obtained more rights as a non-inscrit, for example more talking time and representation in a subcommittee, when the Federal Constitutional Court decided partially in his favor. After the German unification of 1871, the first Reich Chancellors (heads of government) de jure served as executive officers of the German Imperial states as non-partisans, usually recruited from the traditional bureaucratic, aristocratic and/or military elites. In the fierce political conflicts during the Weimar period after World War I, several chancellors and Reich Ministers also had no party affiliation: these chancellors were Wilhelm Cuno (1922–1923), Hans Luther (1925–1926), the former Centre politician Franz von Papen (1932), and Kurt von Schleicher (1932–1933). The last two cabinets appointed by Reich President Paul von Hindenburg, a non- partisan (though strongly Conservative) himself, were regarded as apolitical cabinets of experts with regard to the rise of the Nazi Party; many of the ministers were not party members. Since World War II, only two ministers of (West) German cabinets have not been party members, though "on the ticket" of the major party in the coalition, the Social Democrats: Education Minister Hans Leussink (1969–1972), and Minister of Economy Werner Müller (1998–2002). Minister of Justice Klaus Kinkel only shortly after his appointment joined the Free Democrats in 1991. A special case is the former Federal Minister and Chancellor Ludwig Erhard, whose affiliation with the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) has not been conclusively established: although he served as Minister of Economics from 1949 to 1963 and as Federal Chancellor from 1963 to 1966, and was even elected CDU party chairman in 1966, it seems that he never signed a membership form or paid contributions. Researches by Der Stern magazine have revealed a record at the CDU party archives created only in 1968, with the faked date of entry of early March 1949. The President of Iceland (currently Guðni Th. Jóhannesson) is independent. Independent candidate contest elections on the basis of their personal appeal or to promote an ideology different from any party. In Ireland, proportional representation, the comparative looseness of formal parties, and strong local sentiment have meant that independents have formed a significant part of the parliamentary landscape since the foundation of the state: in the early elections to Dáil Éireann (parliament), independents accounted for 7% of seats in 1922, 8.5% in 1923, 10.5% in 1927, and 9% in 1932, though with the development of relatively more structured parties their numbers declined thereafter. These were similar proportions to the number of independents elected to other interwar European democracies such as France (see above). It was not until the 2010s that independents would see a similar electoral success, with record scores for independents surpassing the previous interwar highs. After the Irish general election in 2016, there were 19 independent TDs (parliamentary deputies) in the Dáil (the lower house of the Irish parliament), representing 12% of the total. Two technical groups were formed by independent deputies to coordinate their activities: the Independents4Change, with four deputies, opposed the government, while the Independent Alliance formed part of the minority government's working majority. A number of other individual independents similarly supported the government, and received cabinet positions. There are fourteen independent senators in the 25th Seanad (the upper house of the Irish parliament), representing 23% of the total. Three of these are elected by the graduates of the National University of Ireland and two from Dublin University. There are also five independent senators who were nominated by the Taoiseach and four elected by the technical panels. The Prime Ministers Carlo Azeglio Ciampi (1993–1994), Lamberto Dini (1995–1996), Giuliano Amato (2000–2001), Mario Monti (2011–2013) and Giuseppe Conte (2018–present) were independent when they were in office. Ciampi was also the President of the Italian Republic between 1999 and 2006. President Sergio Mattarella, despite being a former member of the Christian Democracy and of the Democratic Party, was elected President in 2015 as an independent. Independents have rarely been elected to the Dewan Rakyat and state legislative assemblies. In Malaysian elections, many independent candidates lose their election deposit because they had failed to secure at least 12.5% or one-eighth of the total votes cast. Independent Senators are quite rare. In 2010, a group of independent MPs who were sacked from the People's Justice Party formed a political block called . The members were Zahrain Mohamed Hashim (Bayan Baru), Wee Choo Keong (Wangsa Maju), Zulkifli Noordin (Kulim- Bandar Bharu), Tan Tee Beng (Nibong Tebal) dan Mohsin Fadzli Samsuri (Bagan Serai). It did not last beyond the 12th General Elections. , three independent MPs were elected in GE14, but later joining Pakatan Harapan (PKR), thus causing no representation for independent MP for that time. However, as of June 2018 and December 2018, the number increased to 13 independent Members of Parliament that now currently sit in the Dewan Rakyat as of December 2018. At the same time in December 2018, almost all member from Sabah UMNO quit the party and became independent politicians. Jaime Heliodoro Rodríguez Calderón (born in 1957), sometimes referred to by his nickname "El Bronco", is a Mexican politician who is the current governor for the northern state of Nuevo León and holds no political party affiliation. elected Governor for Nuevo León, making history as the first independent candidate to win in the country. Originally, there were no recognised parties in the New Zealand parliament, although loose groupings did exist informally (initially between supporters of central government versus provincial governments, and later between liberals and conservatives). The foundation of formal political parties, starting at the end of the 19th century, considerably diminished the number of unaffiliated politicians, although a smaller number of independent candidates continued to be elected up until the 1940s. Since then, however, there have been relatively few independent politicians in Parliament. No independent candidate has won or held a seat in a general election since 1943, although two independent candidates have been successful in by-elections (in all cases after having held the seats in question as partisan candidates up until that point). Other politicians have become independents in the course of a parliamentary term, but not been voted into office as such. The last person to be directly elected to Parliament as an independent in New Zealand was Winston Peters, who won the in electorate as an independent after having previously held it a member of the National Party. By the time of the next general election, he had formed his own party (New Zealand First), and thus was no longer standing as an independent. Since that time, the only independents in Parliament have been people who quit or were expelled from their original party but retained their seats without going through a by-election. Some have gone on to found or co-found their own parties, with varying levels of success — examples include Peter Dunne, Taito Phillip Field, Gordon Copeland, Tau Henare, and Alamein Kopu. Others have joined parties which were then outside Parliament, such as Frank Grover and Tuariki Delamere. There were two independent MPs in the 49th New Zealand Parliament; Chris Carter and Hone Harawira. Carter became an independent after his criticisms of the Labour Party's leadership resulted in his being expelled from the Labour caucus, while Harawira resigned from the Māori Party and, after a short period as an independent, also resigned as an MP in order to force the when he was re- elected as representative of his new political party, Mana and retained the seat in the 2011 General Election. There were also two other parties which had only a single MP: United Future with Peter Dunne and ACT with David Seymour. Neither Dunne nor Seymour was classed as an independent — Dunne's presence in Parliament was due to personal votes in his home electorate, and Seymour's presence was as the sole elected MP of ACT because of a collapse in their support in the . In the 50th New Zealand Parliament there was one independent MP: Brendan Horan, a former New Zealand First MP who was expelled from his party because of allegations of misappropriation of family assets. Peter Dunne effectively became an Independent MP for a short period after his United Future political party was deregistered on 25 June 2013 by the Electoral Commission, as the party no longer had the required minimum of 500 members. The party was subsequently re-registered. In Niue, there have been no political parties since 2003, when the Niue People's Party disbanded, and all politicians are de facto independents. The government depends on an informal coalition. Pakistan is an Islamic republic and also has independent politician standing in elections. Pakistan's Parliament has General Elections, 2008 elected 30 Members. In the 2011 four candidates won seats in the National Assembly. In the 2013 General Election nine seats were won by independents. Noli de Castro, the Philippines' former vice president, ran as senator in 2001 with no political party affiliation. He was a guest candidate of the opposition Pwersa ng Masa coalition but he never joined their campaign rallies. He won in the senate race with the highest votes (then) in Philippine history. In 2004, he ran as vice president as a guest candidate of the administration K-4 coalition and won with just under majority of the vote. Starting in 2001, several senators had also resigned from their respective parties to become independents; at the start of the 15th Congress, there were more independent senators than any other single political party. However, in contesting elections, all elected independents had been members of either the administration or the opposition coalition, until in the 2007 Senate election when Gregorio Honasan (a former senator) was elected as an independent while not a being member of any coalition. Honasan was earlier elected in 1995 as an independent candidate and being adopted by the Nationalist People's Coalition- led coalition to become the first elected independent senator since Magnolia Antonino in 1967, although Antonino was a guest candidate of the Liberal Party then. In the local level, former priest Eddie Panlilio was elected as governor of Pampanga in 2007, defeating two administration candidates. When Panlilio eventually transferred to the Liberal Party in time for the 2010 election, it was ruled that he was beaten in the 2007 election; in 2010, he was defeated. In the 2010 House of Representatives elections, seven independents were elected, although all but two joined a political party after the elections. In contesting elections, independent candidates are required by law to spend less than candidates nominated by a party. The Polish Sejm is elected by party-list ordination, which does not allow lone candidates to run, although since 2001 there has been a possibility to create non-partisan Voters' Electoral Committee (pol. KWW, komitet wyborczy wyborców); they are by almost any means party lists, but no officially registered party is behind them. They can be unregistered parties, e.g. Kukiz'15, or non-partisan movements, although the latter never reached the 5% threshold. National minorities candidates also form Voters' Electoral Committees (like German Minority Electoral Committee, represented in Sejm since 1991), but they do not have to reach the nationwide threshold. However, during a Sejm term many members switch parties or become independents. Tickets such as Civic Platform during the 2001 election were formally non-partisan, Civic Platform was widely viewed as a de facto political party, as it is now. The situation in the Senate is different, as the voting system allows independents to run as single candidates and some are elected in their own right. In the last parliamentary election (2015) four independents won seats in the Senate. Three Presidents since 1990 have technically been independents. Lech Wałęsa was not an endorsed candidate of any party, but the chairman of the Solidarity and he was elected without full support of this union (Solidarity votes split between him and Prime Minister Tadeusz Mazowiecki). Aleksander Kwaśniewski was a leader of the Social Democracy of the Republic of Poland, but formally resigned from the party after he was elected, as did Lech Kaczyński, who was the first leader of Law and Justice, Bronisław Komorowski (PO) and Andrzej Duda (PiS). The resignation is required because the Constitution says that the president shall hold no other offices nor discharge any public functions. The aforementioned presidents often participated in their party's campaigns (e.g. Andrzej Duda in the Law and Justice campaign three months after his resignation from the party). Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa, the current president of Portugal since 6 March 2016, was elected on 24 January 2016 while being a leading member of the Social Democratic Party, but suspended his political affiliation on the day of his swearing-in. All of Russia's Presidents have been independents. Former president Dmitry Medvedev declined an offer to join United Russia, saying that he believes the President should be an independent so that he serves the interests of the country rather than his political party. Vladimir Putin, the current president of Russia, was the head of the United Russia party until 26 May 2012, but even then was not its member, thus formally was and still is independent. The Swedish election system is based on parties nominating candidate MPs for their party ballots, and each party has to receive 4% or more of the national vote (or 12% in one region, which has never happened). This makes running as an independent MP impossible. Once elected, the seat is personal; MPs may resign their party membership, or be stripped of it, while retaining their Riksdag seats to become independent to become what is commonly referred to as a politisk vilde (political savage). In the executive branch, there is no requirement for ministers to be MPs, or even have a political affiliation (though this has overwhelmingly been the case in modern times). This means that even the prime minister could technically be an independent if chosen by the Riksdag. After the 2018 Taiwanese local elections, there is only one independent local head: Ko Wen-je, Mayor of Taipei. In 2019, Ko Wen-je founded the Taiwan People's Party, so there is no independent local head at the moment. The Registration of Political Parties Act 1998 laid down the first specific rules in the United Kingdom relating to the use of the term 'independent' by election candidates. That Act was repealed with most of its contents covered by Part II of the Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000. Candidates standing for United Kingdom local elections and United Kingdom parliamentary elections, including the devolved assemblies, can use the name of a registered political party, or the term 'Independent' (or its Welsh language equivalent annibynol) or no ballot paper description at all (this latter choice was used, for example, by David Icke at the 2008 Haltemprice and Howden by-election). Some groups in the United Kingdom who are not affiliated to any national or regional party have registered locality-based political parties. Some English examples are the Independent Kidderminster Hospital and Health Concern, the Epsom and Ewell Residents Association, the Devizes Guardians, the Derwentside Independents, and the East Yorkshire Independents. Before the twentieth century it was fairly common for independents to be elected to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, but there have been very few since 1945. S. O. Davies, a veteran Labour MP, held his Merthyr Tydfil seat in the General Election of 1970, standing as an independent, after he had been deselected by the Labour Party. Journalist Martin Bell was elected at Tatton in the general election of 1997, having stood on an anti-corruption platform, defeating incumbent Neil Hamilton. He was the first independent to be newly elected to the Commons since 1951. He stood unsuccessfully in a different constituency in 2001. At the 2001 General Election, Dr Richard Taylor of the Independent Kidderminster Hospital and Health Concern party was elected for the constituency of Wyre Forest. Taylor was re-elected for Wyre Forest at the 2005 General Election, becoming the only independent in recent times to have been elected for a second term. Two independent (or local party) members of parliament were elected in the 2005 election, although both were defeated five years later. In the same election, Peter Law was elected as an independent at Blaenau Gwent. Law died on 25 April 2006: the resulting by- election elected Dai Davies of the local party Blaenau Gwent People's Voice. The by-election was unusual as it was the first time in over eighty years that an independent had held a seat previously occupied by another independent. Only one independent was elected to the Commons in the 2010, 2015 and 2017 elections: Sylvia Hermon, the member for North Down, a Unionist who left the Ulster Unionist Party because of its links with the Conservatives. There have also been several instances of politicians being elected to the Commons as representatives of a political party, then resigning the party's whip, or having it withdrawn. Examples in this in the 2010-2015 parliament included Mike Hancock (formerly a Liberal Democrat), Eric Joyce (formerly Labour) and Nadine Dorries, a Conservative who had the whip withdrawn for part of the parliament and thus sat as an independent during that time. Independent candidates often stand in British parliamentary elections, often with platforms about specific local issues, but usually without success. An example from the 2001 general election was Aston Villa supporter Ian Robinson, who stood as an independent in the Sutton Coldfield constituency in protest at the way chairman Doug Ellis ran the football club. Another example an independent candidate, in the Salisbury constituency, is Arthur Uther Pendragon, a local activist and self-declared reincarnation of King Arthur. Other independent candidates are associated with a political party and may be former members of it, but cannot stand under its label. For instance, after being expelled from the Labour Party but before the Respect Coalition was founded, British Member of Parliament (MP) George Galloway described himself as "Independent Labour". On 23 March 2005 the Independent Network was set up to support independent candidates in the General Election. The Independent Network still supports Independent candidates in local, regional, national and European elections. It has an organic set of principles which are known as the Bell Principles and are very closely related to Lord Nolan's Standards of Public Life. The Independent Network does not impose any ideology or political influence on their candidates. In March 2009, the multi-millionaire Paul Judge established the Jury Team, an umbrella organisation dedicated to increasing the number of independent candidates standing in Britain, in both national and European elections. Part II of the Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000 allows individuals who wish to stand as a candidate to all parliaments and assemblies in the UK, including the House of Commons, the right to use one of three ballot paper descriptions. Those descriptions are the name of a registered political party; the word "independent" or the Welsh equivalent; or no description at all, leaving the ballot paper description box blank. Unless a candidate stands as "independent" or as a "No Description" candidate leaving the ballot paper description box blank, their candidature must be confirmed by a signed certificate from the relevant officer from a registered political party, as set out in Section 52 of the Electoral Administration Act 2006. The House of Lords includes many peers independent from political parties. Some are simply not affiliated with any grouping, whilst another, larger, grouping is given the official designation of crossbenchers. Additionally the Lords Spiritual (bishops of the Church of England) do not have party affiliations. In the 2003 Scottish Parliamentary elections, three MSPs were elected as Independents: Dennis Canavan (Falkirk West), Dr Jean Turner (Strathkelvin and Bearsden) and Margo MacDonald (Lothians). In 2004 Campbell Martin (West of Scotland region) left the Scottish National Party to become an independent and in 2005 Brian Monteith (Mid Scotland and Fife) left the Conservative Party to become an independent. At the 2007 Scottish Parliamentary elections Margo MacDonald was again returned as an independent MSP and was elected as an independent for the third time four years later. She died in 2014 while still serving as member of the Parliament. As she was elected as an independent regional MSP, there could be no by-election and her seat remained vacant until the 2016 election. Peter Law was expelled from the Labour Party after standing against an official Labour candidate in Blaenau Gwent at the 2005 UK general election and became an independent in the National Assembly and UK Parliament. In 2006 Peter Law died from a brain tumour and his wife, Trish Law campaigned and took the seat as an independent candidate at the sequent by-election and held onto the seat again in the 2007 Welsh Assembly elections. In 2016, Nathan Gill as the then leader of UKIP Wales defected from the group to sit as an independent after a falling out with Neil Hamilton who was elected UKIP Assembly group leader. Dafydd Elis-Thomas left the Plaid Cymru group later in 2016 after multiple fallings out with Plaid Cymru leader Leanne Wood. Elis- Thomas said his reason for leaving Plaid Cymru was that it not serious about working with the Welsh Labour Government. Neil McEvoy Was expelled from Plaid Cymru on 16 January 2018 and is now sitting as an independent AM. Nathan Gill stood down on 27 December 2017 and was replaced by Mandy Jones. Mandy Jones left the UKIP group on 9 January 2018 over a fallout over her staff. The introduction of directly elected mayors in several parts of England has witnessed the election of independents to run councils in Stoke-on-Trent, Middlesbrough, Bedford, Hartlepool and Mansfield. The first Mayor of London, Ken Livingstone, was first elected as an independent, having run against the official Labour candidate Frank Dobson. He was subsequently re-admitted to the Labour Party in December 2003 before his first re-election campaign. Independent candidates frequently stand and are elected to local councils. There is a special Independent group of the Local Government Association to cater for them. A number of local authorities have been entirely or almost entirely composed of independent members, such as the City of London Corporation, the Isles of Scilly Council, Orkney Islands Council, Shetland Islands Council and Comhairle nan Eilean Siar (Western Isles Council) in the Outer Hebrides. Roughly a quarter of the police and crime commissioners elected in England and Wales in the 2012 election were independents. George Washington was the only president elected as an independent. While he did not formally affiliate with any party during his two terms in office, it has been widely acknowledged that Washington broadly favored the Hamiltonian Federalist Party over the Jeffersonian Republicans. John Tyler was expelled from the Whig Party in September 1841, and effectively remained an independent for the remainder of his presidency. He later returned to the Democrats and briefly sought re-election in 1844 as a National Democrat, but withdrew over fear he would split the Democratic vote. Since 1900, notable candidates running as independents for U.S. president have included Republican Congressman John Anderson in 1980, Ross Perot in 1992, and former Green Party candidate Ralph Nader in the 1996 and 2000 elections. Independent Senator Bernie Sanders ran for the Democratic nomination, but ultimately did not appear on the ballot in the 2016 election, though he did receive 5% of the vote as a write-in candidate in his home state of Vermont. In 2008, Nader formed Independent Parties in New Mexico, Delaware, and elsewhere to gain ballot access in several states. This strategy has been pursued by several other candidates for federal races, including Joe Lieberman (Connecticut for Lieberman). Illinois, Maine, Oregon, Rhode Island, Texas, Alaska and Minnesota have elected formally independent candidates as governor: Illinois's first two governors, Shadrach Bond and Edward Coles; James B. Longley in 1974 as well as Angus King in 1994 and 1998 from Maine; Lincoln Chafee in 2010 from Rhode Island; Julius Meier in 1930 from Oregon; Sam Houston in 1859 from Texas; and Bill Walker in 2014 from Alaska. Lowell P. Weicker Jr. is sometimes mentioned as an independent governor, though this is not technically correct; he ran as an A Connecticut Party candidate (which gave him better ballot placement than an unaffiliated candidate would receive), defeating the Democratic and Republican party nominees. Another former governor who is sometimes mentioned as an independent is Jesse Ventura, who actually ran as a member of the Reform Party's Minnesota affiliate, which later disaffiliated from the party and reverted to their original name the Independence Party of Minnesota. In 1971, State Senator Henry Howell of Virginia, a former Democrat, was elected lieutenant governor as an independent. Two years later, he campaigned for governor as an independent, but lost by 15,000 votes. There were several unsuccessful independent gubernatorial candidates in 2006 who impacted their electoral races. In Maine, state legislator Barbara Merrill (formerly a Democrat) received 21% of the vote. In Texas, country music singer and mystery novelist Kinky Friedman received 12.43% of the vote, and State Comptroller Carole Keeton Strayhorn received 18.13%. Strayhorn and Friedman's presence in the race resulted in a splitting of the ballot four ways between themselves and the two major parties. In 2010, Florida governor Charlie Crist left the Republican party and became Independent (He later became a Democrat.) rather than face former state house Speaker Marco Rubio in the Republican primary (Rubio won, though Crist came in ahead of Democratic nominee Kendrick Meek). In 2014, former Honolulu mayor Mufi Hannemann ran as an independent candidate for the governorship of the State of Hawaii after previously campaigning in the state's Democratic primary. As a result, Democratic candidate David Ige was elected as governor with a plurality of 49%. There have been several independents elected to the United States Senate throughout history. Notable examples include David Davis of Illinois (a former Republican) in the 19th century, and Harry F. Byrd Jr. of Virginia (who had been elected to his first term as a Democrat) in the 20th century. Some officials have been elected as members of a party but became independent while in office (without being elected as such), such as Wayne Morse of Oregon. Nebraska senator George W. Norris was elected for four terms as a Republican before changing to an independent after the Republicans lost their majority in Congress in 1930. Norris won re-election as an independent in 1936, but later lost his final re-election attempt to Republican Kenneth S. Wherry in 1942. Vermont senator Jim Jeffords left the Republican Party to become an independent in 2001. Jeffords's change of party status was especially significant because it shifted the Senate composition from 50-50 between the Republicans and Democrats (with a Republican Vice President, Dick Cheney, who would presumably break all ties in favor of the Republicans), to 49 Republicans, 50 Democrats, and one Independent. Jeffords agreed to vote for Democratic control of the Senate in exchange for being appointed chairman of the Senate Environment and Public Works Committee, and the Democrats held control of the Senate until the Congressional elections in 2002, when the Republicans regained their majority. Jeffords retired at the end of his term in 2007. Wayne Morse after two years as an independent became a Democrat. Dean Barkley of the Independence Party of Minnesota was appointed a day before the 2002 elections to fill the senate seat of Paul Wellstone who, while running for re-election, died weeks prior. Barkley refused to caucus with either party. Senator Bernie Sanders is the longest-serving independent member of Congress in American history. He was an independent member of the United States House of Representatives for Vermont-at-large from 1991 to 2007. Sanders later won the open Senate seat of Jim Jeffords as an independent. Joe Lieberman is a former Democrat who, like Lowell P. Weicker Jr., ran under a third party (Connecticut for Lieberman Party) in the 2006 election. Though both representatives are technically independent politicians, they often caucus with the Democrats. In 2006, Sanders and Lieberman were the only two victorious independent candidates for Congress, both caucusing with the Democrats. In 2012 Angus King was elected to the US Senate as an Independent from Maine. , he has typically caucused with the Democrats. The United States House of Representatives has also seen a handful of independent members. Examples include Bernie Sanders of Vermont, Virgil Goode of Virginia, Frazier Reams of Ohio, Victor Berger of Wisconsin, and Justin Amash of Michigan. In August 2008, there were 12 independents who held offices in state legislatures. There were four state senators, one from Kentucky, one from Oregon, one from Tennessee, and one from New Mexico. The representatives came from the states of Louisiana (two), Maine (two), Vermont (two), and Virginia (two). In the 2008 general elections, Wisconsin State Assemblyman Jeffrey Wood left the Republican Party and won reelection as an independent. After the 2008 primary election, New Mexico State Senator Joseph Carraro left the Republican Party and registered as an Independent. He did not run for reelection. In November 2005, Manny Diaz was elected Mayor of Miami, Florida as an independent. On June 19, 2007, New York Mayor Michael Bloomberg switched his party affiliation from Republican to independent. Oscar Goodman, Mayor of Las Vegas, Nevada switched his affiliation to Independent from Democrat in December 2009. Dan Hollingsworth has won four consecutive elections as an Independent since 1998 for mayor of the small city of Ruston, Louisiana, the home of Louisiana Tech University. In 2017, Maine State Representative Ralph Chapman, a Democrat, changed his registration to Maine Green Independent Party, which is the Maine chapter of the Green Party of the United States, giving the Green Party a seat in Maine's State Legislature. The Nebraska Legislature is unique in that it is the only nonpartisan state legislature. In the Legislature (which is additionally unique in that it is also the only state legislature that is unicameral), there are no formal party alignments or groups and the members are nominated in nonpartisan primary elections. Members are allowed to register with political parties but choose not to reveal their affiliation while seated, as a professional courtesy. However, the political affiliation of party-affiliated members are considered open secrets and the parties exist in the legislature on an unofficial basis. Some members, such as Ernie Chambers of Omaha, are independent of party officially, while others have not publicly disclosed their affiliation. Backbencher, Benjamin Franklin, Centrism, Electoral reform, Independence Party (disambiguation page), Independent Party (disambiguation page), Independent voter, Non-partisan democracy, Nonpartisanism, Radical centrism, Swing vote, Syncretic politics, Third party (United States) Notes: References: Independent Political Candidate Directory

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King Arthur: Legend of the Sword is a 2017 epic fantasy action adventure film directed by Guy Ritchie who co-wrote the film with Joby Harold and Lionel Wigram from a story by Harold and David Dobkin, inspired by Arthurian legends. The film stars Charlie Hunnam as the title character and Jude Law as the tyrannical king Vortigern who is attempting to kill him, with Àstrid Bergès- Frisbey, Djimon Hounsou, Aidan Gillen, and Eric Bana in supporting roles. King Arthur premiered at the TCL Chinese Theater on 8 May 2017 and was theatrically released in 2D and RealD 3D on 12 May 2017 in the United States and 19 May 2017 in the United Kingdom. The film grossed $148 million worldwide against its $175 million production budget, with critics "warning audiences to stay away". Originally, the film was meant to be the first in a six-film franchise, but the planned sequels were cancelled after it underperformed at the box office and lost Warner Bros. and Village Roadshow Pictures over $150 million. Mordred, an iron-fisted warlock, and his armies lay siege to Camelot, seeking to establish the dominance of mages over humankind. Uther Pendragon, king of the Britons, infiltrates Mordred's lair and beheads him, saving Camelot. Uther's treacherous younger brother Vortigern, who covets the throne, orchestrates a coup and sacrifices his wife Elsa to moat hags to become a demon knight, who kills Uther's wife Igraine and slays Uther in combat. The only survivor is Uther's son Arthur, who drifts away in a boat and ends up in Londinium, where he is found and raised by prostitutes. Arthur grows into a skilled fighter and man of the streets. Arthur and his friends confront a group of Vikings who had mistreated one of the prostitutes, forcing them to pay her restitution. Afterwards, the brothel is raided by the Blacklegs, Vortigern's minions, and Arthur learns that the Vikings were under the king's protection. Arthur tries to escape the city but is caught and put on a ship with hundreds of other men; the Blacklegs have been forcing all men of Arthur's age to try to pull a sword that has appeared near the castle from the surrounding stone. Arthur is able to remove the sword but is quickly overwhelmed by its power and passes out. Vortigern meets with him in the dungeon, revealing his true lineage. Meanwhile, a mage identifying herself as an acolyte of Merlin presents herself to Uther's former general, Sir Bedivere. At Arthur's planned execution, the mage uses her magic to stage a diversion while Bedivere's men rescue Arthur. Taken to Bedivere's hideout, Arthur initially refuses to help them. The mage persuades Bedivere to take Arthur to a realm called the "Darklands," where he's given a vision of how Uther sacrificed himself to save Arthur and entomb the sword in stone. Arthur learns Vortigern was responsible for persuading Mordred to rebel against humanity, and he returns determined to destroy Vortigern. With his friends and Bedivere's men, Arthur stages a series of ambushes against Vortigern, culminating in an assassination attempt in Londinium. The rebels sense a trap but attack anyway, fleeing to a fighters' school run by Arthur's mentor George, where they are overrun by the Blacklegs. Seeing the mage held at knifepoint, Arthur unleashes Excalibur's potential, single-handedly killing all of the soldiers and allowing most of the rebels to escape the city. However in the ensuing chaos, Arthur's close friend Back Lack is wounded and murdered by Vortigern in front of Arthur and Back Lack's son later that night. Ashamed of his failures, Arthur tries to throw away the sword, but the Lady of the Lake returns it and shows him a vision of England's future under Vortigern's rule. Coming to terms with his responsibility, Arthur reunites with Bedivere. When they return to the rebel hideout, however, they discover all of their allies dead, Vortigern having found them and delivered an ultimatum: if Arthur does not surrender himself, the captured mage will die. Arthur surrenders himself, but as Vortigern is about to execute his nephew, a giant snake summoned by the mage attacks and devours Vortigern's men. While Bedivere and the others lead an attack on the castle, a desperate Vortigern sacrifices his only daughter and is transformed into the demon knight, confronting Arthur in a separate dimension. Despite his fighting skill, Arthur is beaten, and he is about to submit when he witnesses a vision of his father, convincing him to accept the sword and his character as his own. Arthur violently slays Vortigern but blesses him as he dies. In the aftermath, Arthur dissolves Vortigern's pact with the Vikings and begins building a Round Table where his knighted friends will meet. Blue and the prostitutes arrive with the crown of Uther, which Arthur accepts, holding the sword aloft. Charlie Hunnam as King Arthur, Uther's son, Vortigern's nephew and the would-be king of Britain who was raised by prostitutes., Àstrid Bergès-Frisbey as the Mage, a woman working for Merlin who supports Arthur and the resistance., Djimon Hounsou as Sir Bedivere, the leader of the resistance and a former knight of Uther., Aidan Gillen as Goosefat Bill Wilson, a skilled archer, Bedivere's friend, former knight of Uther and member of the resistance., Mikael Persbrandt as Greybeard, a Viking who has deals with Vortigern., Jude Law as Vortigern, Uther's brother, Elsa's husband, Catia's father, Arthur's uncle and the tyrannical ruthless king of Britain. He is able to transform himself into a demonic knight., Eric Bana as Uther Pendragon, Vortigern's brother, Arthur's father and the king of Britain., Annabelle Wallis as Maggie, a member of Vortigern's Court who helps the resistance., Kingsley Ben-Adir as Sir Tristan "Wet Stick", Arthur and Back Lack's childhood friend who is later knighted by Bedivere., Neil Maskell as Back Lack, Arthur and Tristan's childhood friend and Blue's father, who helps the resistance., Tom Wu as George, Arthur's Chinese friend and teacher who owns a martial arts school., Freddie Fox as Rubio, a member of the resistance who later betrays them under torture and helps Vortigern., Katie McGrath as Elsa, Vortigern's wife., Lorraine Bruce, Eline Powell and Hermione Corfield as the three Syrens. David Beckham makes a cameo appearance as Trigger, a guard who oversees the prisoners who attempt to pull Excalibur from the stone. After 2004's King Arthur, Warner Bros. made multiple attempts to make a new film based on Arthurian legend: one was a remake of Excalibur, helmed by Bryan Singer, while the other was a film titled Arthur & Lancelot, which would have starred Kit Harington and Joel Kinnaman in the title roles respectively. Warner Bros. worried that neither names were big enough, and attempted to replace both actors with more profitable ones, before eventually dropping the project altogether. Warner's next attempt to create a new King Arthur film was an attempt to create an Arthurian cinematic universe which would span six films, following different characters before their eventual team up. For this endeavour they hired director Guy Ritchie, who has himself attempted to make a King Arthur movie prior to that. According to The Guardian, the script soon became "a strange Frankenstein's Monster-style screenplay" incorporating elements from several of the unproduced Arthurian scripts. In August 2014, Charlie Hunnam, Ritchie's choice for the role, was cast to play King Arthur. Elizabeth Olsen was in talks for the female lead, but on 18 September, Àstrid Bergès-Frisbey landed the role instead. On 14 November, Jude Law was in talks to play the lead villain role in the film. On 11 February 2015, Eric Bana was added to the cast to play Uther, the father of King Arthur. Mikael Persbrandt joined the film on 6 March 2015, to play a villainous role. Although there were reports Idris Elba had been cast, he would confirm, in a Reddit AMA, this was a rumour. Filming in Windsor Great Park was underway in February 2015, then later in North Wales from 2 March 2015. Later on 10 March 2015, Ritchie tweeted a photo and confirmed the first day of shooting. In April 2015, filming took place in Snowdonia, where locations used were Tryfan, Nant Gwynant near Beddgelert and Capel Curig. Early in July filming continued in the Shieldaig, Loch Torridon and Applecross areas of Wester Ross in the Scottish Highlands. One day of filming also took place at The Quiraing on the Isle of Skye. Filming also took place at Warner Bros. Studios, Leavesden. In April 2014, Warner Bros. set the film for a 22 July 2016 release, alongside Lights Out, but it was then moved by Warner Bros. to 17 February 2017, alongside . Warner Bros. moved the release date to 24 March 2017. The title was changed to King Arthur: Legend of the Sword in July 2016. In December 2016 the release date was again moved, this time to 12 May 2017, possibly so as not to compete with CHiPs. The trailer was released on 23 July 2016, during the 2016 San Diego Comic-Con and was attached to screenings of , Don't Breathe, Shut In and Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them. It was originally planned for an IMAX release on 22 July 2016, as evident in the Comic-Con trailer, but was cancelled due to it being postponed and only received non-IMAX presentations. The first extended TV spot was released on 22 January 2017, and was shown on the 2017 NFC Championship Game on Fox Broadcasting Company between the Atlanta Falcons and the Green Bay Packers and the 2017 AFC Championship Game on CBS between the Pittsburgh Steelers and the New England Patriots. A second trailer was released on 20 February 2017 and was attached to Logan, , Power Rangers and Ghost in the Shell. The third and final trailer was released on 1 April 2017 and was attached to The Fate of the Furious, The Lost City of Z (which also starred Hunnam) and Free Fire. All in all, Warner Bros. spent $135 million on marketing the film. The film was shown at select AMC Theatres in a special preview on 27 April 2017, in a promotional event titled "King for a Day." Demand for tickets led AMC to expand the event to 200 theatres. King Arthur: Legend of the Sword was released on DVD, Blu-ray, 3D Blu-ray and Ultra HD on 8 August 2017. King Arthur: Legend of the Sword grossed $39.2 million in the United States and Canada and $107 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $146.2 million, against a production budget of $175 million. Deadline Hollywood calculated the film lost the studio $153.2 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues. In North America, the film was released alongside Snatched and was initially projected to gross around $25 million from 3,702 theatres during its opening weekend. It made $1.15 million from Thursday night previews at about 3,200 theatres, but after making just $5.3 million on Friday, weekend projections were lowered to $15 million. It ended up debuting to $15.4 million, finishing third at the box office. Deadline Hollywood noted that due to the film's $175 million production budget, as well as at least an additional $100 million spent on marketing, the film was destined to be a box office bomb. Regarding the cost of the film, the site quoted one finance expert as saying: "Make original IP [intellectual property] for a cost effective price. If it works then spend more if necessary on the sequel. King Arthur should have been done for $60–80 [million]. Warner Bros. had no reason to spend $175M-plus on this picture." Comparing its opening to cost, IndieWire called the film's failings "historic". The Hollywood Reporter noted that the film would likely lose about $150 million. In its second weekend the film grossed $7.2 million (a drop of 53.5%), finishing 5th at the box office. The film debuted at No. 1 in an estimated 29 countries, including Russia, with openings to follow in the United Kingdom, France, South Korea and Australia. Over its opening weekend, it made only $29.1 million worldwide, in 51 non-American countries. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 31% based on 258 reviews and an average rating of 4.67/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "King Arthur: Legend of the Sword piles mounds of modern action flash on an age-old tale – and wipes out much of what made it a classic story in the first place." On Metacritic, the film has a score 41 out of 100 based on 45 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reporter filmgoers gave it an overall positive score of 78%; 56% of the opening weekend filmgoers were under the age of 35, and 59% were men. Writing for The Guardian, Peter Bradshaw gave the film a generally positive review: "Guy Ritchie’s cheerfully ridiculous Arthur is a gonzo monarch, a death-metal warrior-king. Ritchie’s film is at all times over the top, crashing around its digital landscapes in all manner of beserkness, sometimes whooshing along, sometimes stuck in the odd narrative doldrum. But it is often surprisingly entertaining, and whatever clunkers he has delivered in the past, Ritchie again shows that a film-maker of his craft and energy commands attention, and part of his confidence in reviving King Arthur resides here in being so unselfconscious and unconcerned about the student canon that has gone before." In a pan of the film for the Chicago Tribune, Michael Phillips questioned the long-term longevity of the projected series of six Arthur films from Ritchie: "I'm no businessman, but plans for a six-film franchise may be optimistic. Optimism is nowhere to be found in Ritchie's movie itself. It is a grim and stupid thing, from one of the world's most successful mediocre filmmakers, and if Shakespeare's King Lear were blogging today, he'd supply the blurb quote: 'Nothing will come of nothing.'." Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com gave the film one-and-a-half out of four stars, stating that despite the potential for a revisionist King Arthur story with "[t]he Ritchie sense of style", the overall problem is the film's lack of modulation: "Ritchie keeps rushing us along for two hours, as if to make absolutely certain that we never have time to absorb any character or moment, much less revel in the glorious, cheeky ridiculousness of the whole thing." Alissa Wilkinson of Vox writes that the film is "surprisingly good, and surprisingly political" in relation to the British withdrawal from the European Union, and "occasionally, it's even pretty great". Chris Hartwell of The Hollywood Reporter expressed disappointment in the film's lackluster box office performance denying a sequel for the introduction of Merlin, stating it would have been more successful as a solo film instead of setting up a franchise. The Lady of the Lake (French: Dame du Lac, Damoisele del Lac) is an enchantress in the Matter of Britain, the body of medieval literature and legend associated with King Arthur. She plays a pivotal role in many stories, including giving Arthur his sword Excalibur, enchanting Merlin, and raising Lancelot after the death of his father. At least two different sorceresses bearing the title "the Lady of the Lake" appear as separate characters in some versions and adaptations since the Post-Vulgate Cycle and consequently Le Morte d'Arthur. Although today the Lady of the Lake is best known as Nimue, Vivian[e], and Vivien, different medieval authors and copyists have also given the character various names, including Nimane (Vulgate Merlin, in addition to "Viviane"), Nimanne / Niv[i]en[n]e / Vivienne (Huth Merlin), Nimian[/m]e (Arthour and Merlin, English Merlin), Nymenche (Lancelot Propre), Nin[i]eve (Post-Vulgate Suite du Merlin), Niniane (Livre d'Artus), Niviana (Baladro), and Ui[n/ui]ane (Estoire de Merlin), among other variations, including alternate spellings with the letter i written as y (such as Nymanne or Nynyane). The most primitive French form might be Niniane. The name Nimue, in which the letter e can be written as ë or è, has been popularized by Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur and itself has several variations: in William Caxton's edition, her name appears as Nymue, Nyneue and Nynyue, but it had been rather Nynyve (predominantly) and Nenyve in Malory's original Winchester Manuscript. Even though "Nymue", with the m, appears only in the Caxton text, Nimue is perhaps the most common name of the character as this was the only version of Le Morte d'Arthur published until 1947. Arthurian scholar A. O. H. Jarman, following suggestions first made by scholars of the 19th century, proposed that the name "Viviane" used in French Arthurian romances were ultimately derived from (and a corruption of) the Welsh word chwyfleian (also spelled hwimleian, chwibleian, et al. in medieval Welsh sources), meaning "a wanderer of pallid countenance", which was originally applied as an epithet to the famous prophetic "wild man" figure of Myrddin Wyllt (Merlin) in medieval Welsh poetry. Due to the relative obscurity of the word, it was misunderstood as "fair wanton maiden" and taken to be the name of Myrddin's female captor. Others have linked the name "Nymenche" with the Irish mythology's figure Niamh, or connected the name "Niniane" with the Welsh mythology's figure Rhiannon or the 5th-century saint Ninian. Chrétien de Troyes's Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart, the first known story featuring Lancelot as a prominent character, was also the first to mention his upbringing by a fairy in a lake. If to accept that the German Lanzelet by Ulrich von Zatzikhoven contains elements of a more primitive version of this tale than Chrétien's, the infant Lancelot was spirited away to a lake by a water fairy (merfeine in Old High German) known as the Lady of the Sea and then raised in her Land of Maidens (Meide lant). The fairy queen character and her paradise island in Lanzelet are reminiscent of Morgen (Morgan) of the Island of Avallon in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Vita Merlini. Guendoloena and Ganieda, respectively Merlin's one- time wife and his sister from Geoffrey's work, as well as the Roman goddess of the hunt and the nature, Diana, can also be considered prototypes. The Lady of the Lake began appearing in the French chivalric romances by the early 13th century, becoming Lancelot's fairy godmother-like foster mother. In the Lancelot-Grail (Vulgate) prose cycle, in which she is known for her connection to the color white, the Lady resides in an enchanted realm disguised as an illusion of a lake (the Post-Vulgate notes it as Merlin's work). There, she raises the child Lancelot after the death of his father King Ban, as well as his also orphaned cousins Lionel and Bors after having her damsel Seraide (Saraïde, later called Celise) rescue them from King Claudas. She then aids Lancelot in various ways during his early adventures, including with her magic item gifts and through her maidens serving as her agents and messengers, and restoring him to sanity on multiple occasions. The Vulgate Cycle provides a backstory for the Lady of the Lake in the Prose Merlin- derived section, which takes place before its main Vulgate Lancelot section but was written later. In the Vulgate Merlin, she refuses to give Merlin her love until he has taught her all his secrets, after which she uses her power to seal him forever, originally either in the trunk of a hawthorn tree or beneath a stone. Though Merlin knows beforehand that this will happen due to his power of foresight, he is unable to counteract her because of the 'truth' this ability of foresight holds. He decides to do nothing for his situation other than to continue to teach her his secrets until she takes the opportunity to entrap and entomb him within a tree, underneath a large stone, or inside a cave or a tomb, depending on the version of this story. In one version, in a nonviolent scene taking place under a blooming hawthorn, he is betrayed and placed inside an invisible and indestructible tower, but then she comes to him every day or night in a motif reminiscent that of Ganieda's visits of Merlin's house in Vita Merlini. According to her backstory in the Vulgate Merlin, she was the daughter of Dionas (Dyonas) and the niece of the Duke of Burgundy and it was an enchantment of Dionas' godmother Diana (Diane/Dyane) that caused her to be so alluring to Merlin. The Vulgate Lancelot informs the reader that, "in the time of Virgil", Diana was the Queen of Sicily that was considered a goddess by her subjects. The Post-Vulgate version of Merlin describes how Diana killed her partner Faunus to be with a man named Felix, but then she was herself killed by her lover at that lake, later called the Lake of Diana (Lac Diane/Dyane). This is the place at where Lancelot du Lac ("of the Lake") is raised, at first not knowing his real parentage. In the Post-Vulgate Suite du Merlin, she is a daughter of the king of Brittany who is initially also known as the Damsel Huntress in her introductory episode. The Livre d'Artus has its Lady of the Lake leaving Merlin for another lover; here, she is never actually molested by Merlin and rids herself of him only as a precaution. In the Prophéties de Merlin, she is proud of how Merlin had never taken her virginity, unlike what happened with his other students, and is especially cruel in the way she disposes of him. The Vulgate Lancelot explains that, with a spell, she put "on her groin which, as long as it lasted, prevented anyone from deflowering her and having relations with her." Another, unnamed Lady of the Lake appears to bestow the magic sword Excalibur to Arthur. In the Post-Vulgate tradition, she is presented as an early benefactor of King Arthur who grants him Excalibur when his original sword is damaged. She is later beheaded by Sir Balin as a result of a kin feud between them (she blames him for the death of her brother, while he blames her for the death of his mother, who had been burned at the stake, as well as for how, he says, "by enchantment and sorcery she has been the destroyer of many good knights") and a dispute over an enchanted sword. Modern retellings often omit that episode. According to Anne Berthelot, Morgan le Fay herself is "the Lady of the Lake", as compared to the "upstart magician" Viviane, in the French prose cycles. The 13th/14th-century English poem Arthour and Merlin casts Morgan herself in the role of the Lady of the Lake and residing near a town named Ninniane. The 15th-century Italian manuscript La Tavola Ritonda (The Round Table) makes the Lady a daughter of Uther Pendragon and a sister to both Morgan and Arthur; here she is a character villainous to the extent that her own brother Arthur swears to burn her. In the 14th-century French prose romance Perceforest, a lengthy prequel to the Post-Vulgate, the figures of the Lady of the Lake and of the enchantress Sebile have been merged to create the character of Sebile of the Castle of the Lake, an ancestor of Arthur. The Lady of the Lake who raised Lancelot also appears in Perceforest, which derives her ancestry line from the descendants of ancient fairy named Morgane, whose own source of power was the deity Zephir. In Thomas Malory's 15th-century compilation, the first Lady of the Lake remains unnamed besides this epithet. When Arthur and Merlin first meet this Lady of the Lake, she holds Excalibur out of the water and offers it to Arthur if he promises to fulfill a request from her later. He agrees and receives his famous sword. Later, the Lady of the Lake comes to Arthur's court to receive her end of the bargain; she asks for the head of Sir Balin, whom she blames for her brother's death. Arthur refuses this request, and Balin swiftly decapitates her instead with his own magic sword in front of Arthur and sends off his squire with her head, much to distress and shame of the king. Arthur gives the Lady a rich burial, has her slayer banished, and allows Sir Launcenor of Ireland to go after him to avenge this disgrace. The second Lady of the Lake is sometimes referred to by her title and sometimes referred to by name. Nimue, whom Malory describes as the "chief Lady of the Lake", plays a pivotal role in the Arthurian court throughout his story. The first time the character named Nimue appears is at the wedding of Arthur and Guinevere. She then proceeds to perform some of the same actions as the Lady of the Lake of his sources but is different in some ways. For instance, in the Post-Vulgate Suite du Merlin, Malory's source for the earlier parts of Le Morte d'Arthur, the Lady of the Lake traps Merlin in a tomb, which results in his death. She does this out of cruelty and a hatred of Merlin. In Le Morte d'Arthur, on the other hand, Nimue is still the one to trap Merlin, but Malory gives her a sympathetic reason: Merlin falls in love with her and will not leave her alone; Malory gives no indication that Nimue loves him back. Eventually, since she cannot get rid of him otherwise, she decides to trap him under rock and makes sure he cannot escape. She is tired of his sexual advances, and afraid of his power as "a devil's son", so she does not have much of a choice but to ultimately get rid of him. After enchanting Merlin, Malory's Nimue replaces him as Arthur's magician aide and adviser. She becomes the lover and eventual wife of Sir Pelleas and mother to his son Guivret. Nimue appears as the chivalric code changes; her appearance hints to the reader that something new will happen. This trend follows the logic that the author and the reader are in cahoots in order to achieve the wanted interpretation of the Arthurian legend. Each time the Lady reappears in Le Morte d'Arthur, it is at a pivotal moment of the episode, establishing the importance of her character within Arthurian literature, as she transcends any notoriety attached to her character by aiding Arthur and other knights to succeed in their endeavors. In Malory's text, Nimue is married to Pelleas and outwardly acts as an obedient wife, while at the same time subtly helping sway the court in the right direction. When Malory was looking at other texts to find inspiration, he chose the best aspects of all the other Lady of the Lake characters, making her a pragmatic, compassionate, clever, strong-willed character. When Arthur is in need in Malory's text, some incarnation of the Lady of the Lake, or her magic, or her agent, reaches out to help him. For instance, she saves Arthur from a magical attempt on his life made by his sister Morgan le Fay and from the death at the hands of Morgan's lover Accolon (a motif from the Post- Vulgate), and together with Tristan frees Arthur from the evil sorceress Annowre (a motif from the Prose Tristan). After the Battle of Camlann, she reclaims Excalibur when it is thrown into the water by Sir Bedivere. In the end, Malory's Nimue is named as one of the magical queens who bear the mortally wounded Arthur away to Avalon, a setting tied to the Lady of the Lake characters in some literary traditions. Walter Scott wrote an influential poem, The Lady of the Lake, in 1810, drawing on the romance of the legend, but with an entirely different story set around Loch Katrine in the Trossachs of Scotland. Scott's material furnished subject matter for La donna del lago, an 1819 opera by Gioachino Rossini. Franz Schubert set seven songs from Walter Scott's Lady of the Lake, including the three "Ellen songs" ("Ellens Gesang I", "Ellens Gesang II", and "Ellens Gesang III"), although Schubert's music to Ellen's third song has become far more famous in its later adaptation, known as "Ave Maria". The full French name of the University of Notre Dame, founded in 1842, is Notre Dame du Lac. This is translated as "Our Lady of the Lake", making reference to Mary, mother of Jesus as the Lady of the Lake, evidencing fusion between Arthurian legend and middle-Christian history. Alfred, Lord Tennyson adapted several stories of the Lady of the Lake for his 1859–1885 poetic cycle Idylls of the King. He too splits her into two characters; Viviane is a deceitful villain who ensnares Merlin, while the Lady of the Lake is a benevolent figure who raises Lancelot and gives Arthur his sword. Some other authors choose to emphasize a single character. Modern authors of Arthurian fiction adapt the Lady of the Lake legend in various ways, often using two or more bearers of the title. Versions of the Lady (or Ladies) of the Lake appear in many other works of Arthurian fiction, including novels, films, television series, stage musicals, comics, and games. Though her identity may change, her role as a significant figure in the lives of both Arthur and Merlin remains consistent. Some examples of such 20th and 21st century works are listed below. Nineue, "Tennyson's Vivien", is a character in John Cowper Powys's novel (1951)., Nimue appears in T. H. White's 1958 novel The Once and Future King as a water nymph and Merlin's enchantress. True to the legend she traps Merlin in a cave, but Merlin does not convey it as negative, and even refers to it as a holiday., The 1960 musical Camelot includes the character Nimue who has a song called "Follow Me" performed in Act I. In the play (and the later film adaptation), Arthur "tells Guinevere the story of how he pulled the sword from the stone and became king, and she finally agrees to marry him. The wizard Merlyn is amused by this development, but his joy turns to sorrow as his memories of the future begin to fade. He realizes that Nimue, a beautiful water nymph, has come to draw him into her cave for an eternal sleep. He begs Nimue for answers, as he has forgotten if he has warned Arthur about two important individuals, Lancelot and Mordred. His memories fade permanently, though, and he is led away.", The Lady of the Lake is satirized in the 1975 film Monty Python and the Holy Grail in which a peasant named Dennis says, "Strange women lying in ponds distributing swords is no basis for a system of government. Supreme executive power derives from a mandate from the masses, not from some farcical aquatic ceremony.", Mary Stewart's 1979 novel The Last Enchantment radically recasts the story of Merlin and Niniane, completely removing the aspect of malicious seduction and treachery dominant in the traditional version. In this depiction Merlin takes Niniane on as an apprentice, with her at first disguised as a boy, and willingly teaches her his magic. When her identity as a woman is discovered, they fall in love despite their age difference. As he gives her the secrets of his psychic abilities and how to control them, he seems to lose them himself - which Merlin does not mind. In a depleted, weakened condition, he takes ill and falls into a coma, and is believed to be dead. Niniane has him buried within his "crystal cave", where he awakes some time later. He escapes after a few weeks, through a combination of chance luck and ingenious planning, and travels incognito to let Arthur know he is still alive. Niniane takes Merlin's place as the court wizard-seer, while Merlin retires to the crystal cave and lives a quiet and happy life as a hermit., Marion Zimmer Bradley's 1983 novel The Mists of Avalon takes the tradition of multiple Ladies one step further. In Bradley's works, both the Lady of the Lake and the Merlin are names of offices in the pagan hierarchy. The Lady of the Lake is the title of the ruling priestess of Avalon, and the Merlin is a druid who has pledged his life to the protection of Britain. Various characters assume the title of the Lady, including Viviane, Niniane, Morgan le Fay (called "Morgaine" in this version), and Nimue, a sympathetic and tragic young priestess who falls in love with the Merlin but is duty bound to seduce and lure him to his death - following which she drowns herself. Even more Ladies of the Lake appear in Bradley's extended Avalon prequels., In Bernard Cornwell's 1990s novel series The Warlord Chronicles, Nimue is an Irish orphan adopted by the British druid Merlin. She becomes Merlin's most adept priestess and lover, but she eventually turns against him and imprisons him, torturing him to reveal the last of his magical secrets. She is a prominent character in the books, being a major love interest for, and finally an adversary to, the series' main protagonist Derfel., In the 1995-1996 animated series Princess Gwenevere and the Jewel Riders, the name of the first season's antagonist Lady Kale, here too a former student of Merlin who magically imprisons him, was created as an anagram of Lady of the Lake. However, a good Lady of the Lake herself briefly appears in the titular episode "Lady of the Lake" during the finale of the show's second and final season., In the 1998 miniseries Merlin, the characters of the Lady of the Lake (Miranda Richardson) and Nimue (Isabella Rossellini) are separated, with the former being a goddess-like fae who is the sister of Queen Mab (also Richardson in a dual role), and the latter being a noblewoman who is the object of Merlin's affections., In the 2006 pseudo-sequel Merlin's Apprentice, Richardson reprises her role as the Lady of the Lake, though she portrays a much different characterization. In this depiction, the Lady is the main antagonist who serves as an enchanter to an army of barbarians who seek to destroy Camelot. The Lady herself wishes to punish Camelot for the way they poisoned her streams and drained her lakes. This miniseries also depicts Merlin's sleep in the cave; as he slept, the Lady used her magic to conceive a son with Merlin (Sam Neill also reprising his role from the 1998 miniseries), and then enchanted him to sleep for 50 years., The BBC 2008–2012 drama series Merlin also features two characters based on the Lady of the Lake. Nimueh serves as the primary antagonist of the series 1. The character has no connection to Merlin beyond his opposition to her plans, and her only connection to a lake is her use of a location called the Isle of the Blessed. The ninth episode of the series 2 is titled "The Lady of the Lake", wherein a sorceress named Freya dies and vows to repay Merlin for his kindness to her. In the series 3 finale, Freya, now a water spirit, gives Excalibur to Merlin so that he can give it to Prince Arthur Pendragon. In the series 5 finale, which features the Battle of Camlann, a despondent Merlin casts the sword back into Lake Avalon, where a hand (presumably Freya's) catches it., In BBC Radio 4's 2013 Afternoon Drama Pilgrim, the antagonist Birdie (or Mrs Pleasance) is gradually revealed to be responsible for trapping Merlin ("The Drowned Mage") beneath a lake. Her story draws on that of Nimue., The 2017 film features the Lady of the Lake played by Jacqui Ainsley in a few scenes. She first appears in the flashbacks of the film as Bedivere tells Arthur how she bounded Excalibur to the Pendragon bloodline after Merlin used it to destroy the Mage Tower. She reappears in a later scene when she catches the sword underwater after Arthur throws it into the lake in shame of his failures; she pulls him underwater and shows him a vision of what his uncle Vortigan would do to England if he did not accept the sword and tells him that only he can prevent it. She then tells him that Vortigan must be met where sword meets tower and advises him to trust the Mage before returning the sword to Arthur., Vivienne is the Lady of the Lake in DC Comics, while Nimue is Madame Xanadu, her youngest sister, and their middle sister is Morgaine le Fey (given name Morgana), and their surname is Inwudu. The Lady of the Lake has appeared in Hellblazer, Aquaman, and her sister's series., In the 1983 DC Comics series Camelot 3000, the Lady of the Lake is referred to as Nyneve, and is depicted as a woman with a beautiful body wearing a golden sun-shaped mask. Morgan le Fay sends her to confront the heroes of Camelot. When Nyneve removes the mask, Merlin, upon seeing her face, is unable to resist her and departs, thus removing him from Morgan's path. Later, when he escapes her control, it is revealed that her only facial feature is a gigantic mouth with a long serpentine tongue which Merlin turns against her., Nimue appears as one of the primary antagonists in the Hellboy comic book series. She is driven mad after the powers she acquired from Merlin give her knowledge of the Ogdru Jahad, prompting the witches of Britain to dismember her and seal her away underground. Resurrected in the present day, she assumes the mantle of the Irish triple war goddess the Morrígan and assembles an army of legendary and folkloric beings to eradicate mankind., She is portrayed by Milla Jovovich in the 2019 film Hellboy., The 2010s anime series Seven Deadly Sins features Vivian as a supporting antagonist, taking her name without her position as Lady of the Lake. Vivian is a minion of Holy Knight Grand Master Hendrickson, and works toward his goals of unleashing the Demon Clan, mostly due to her obsession with Gilthunder, a handsome young Holy Knight. In the first season, Vivian is eventually defeated by her former master, a female Merlin who is one of the titular Seven Deadly Sins, after a surprise appearance by King Arthur. In the second season, Merlin berates Vivian for her stupidity, explaining that she and Hendrickson really did not know anything about how horrible demons are, and puts a geas on her so she will leave Gilthunder alone., Nimue is featured in the ABC 2010s fantasy series Once Upon a Time. She appears as the main antagonist in the first half of Season 5, portrayed by Caroline Ford. While fleeing from Vortigan, who sacked and burned her village, she meets Merlin and they fall in love. With Merlin being immortal, Nimue drinks from the Holy Grail so they can be together forever. Afterward, she kills Vortigan, which darkens her magic and turns her into the very first Dark One. Nimue breaks Excalibur and Merlin uses one of the pieces to make the Dark One dagger in order to control her. At some point, Nimue is killed and her power is taken. However, she manages to live on in all of the following Dark Ones, appearing to them as a vision. She forms an alliance with Captain Hook, manipulating him into casting the Dark Curse and reviving her and the Dark Ones. She then leads a Dark One invasion in Storybrooke, which ultimately leads to her demise at the hands of Hook, who betrays her to redeem himself. The Lady of the Lake is referenced several times as Lancelot's mother, but she never appears; the episode titled "The Lady of the Lake" does not feature her and instead refers to Prince Charming's mother., Nimue is featured as the main character of the book Cursed, who dies with the Sword of Power in a lake after being shot by an arrow. This prevents the church, the Ice King, or Uther Pendragon from getting it. A number of locations are traditionally associated with the Lady of the Lake's abode. Such places within Great Britain include Dozmary Pool and The Loe in Cornwall, Llyn Llydaw and Llyn Ogwen in Snowdonia, River Brue's Pomparles Bridge in Somerset, and Loch Arthur in Scotland. In France, she is also connected with Brittany's Paimpont forest which is often identified as the Arthurian Brocéliande. Grendel's mother, Gwragedd Annwn, Myddfai The Lady of the Lake and Vivien at The Camelot Project The Arthurian legend features many characters, including the Knights of the Round Table and members of King Arthur's family. Their names often differ from version to version and from language to language. The following is a list of characters with descriptions. The symbol indicates a Knight of the Round Table. List of characters named Ywain in Arthurian legend

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"More Than a Feeling" is a song by the American rock band Boston. Written by Tom Scholz, it was released as the lead single from their self-titled debut album on Epic Records in September 1976, with "Smokin' on the b-side. The single peaked at number five on the Billboard Hot 100. The track is now a staple of classic rock and in 1999 it was named the 39th best hard rock song of all time by VH1. It was included in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's list of the 500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll, and was also ranked at Number 500 on Rolling Stone's 2004 list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time, though it was dropped from the 2010 update. The song took Tom Scholz five years to complete. It is one of six songs (five of which eventually appeared on the Boston album) that he worked on in his basement in 1974 and 1975, before Boston got its record contract. The drum parts were originally developed by Jim Masdea, although Sib Hashian played the drums on the official release. The verses are in the key of D major while the chorus is in G major. The song is in compound AABA form. The Book of Rock Lists suggests that the chorus riff may itself be a subtle homage to the Kingsmen's classic, "Louie Louie." Scholz credits "Walk Away Renee" by The Left Banke as the song's main inspiration. Boston's website says the song is about "the power an old song can have in your life," with Scholz elaborating that "it was sort of a bittersweet ballad." Ultimate Classic Rock critic Michael Gallucci points out that this is a common theme in Boston songs. The lyrics express the author's discontent with the present and his yearning for a former love named Marianne, whose memory is strongly evoked by an old familiar song. In an interview Scholz was asked, "Who is Marianne?" He replied, "There actually is a Marianne. She wasn't my girlfriend." He explained that when he was 8 or 9 years old he had a much older cousin who he thought was the most beautiful girl he had ever seen and that he was "secretly in love" with her (laughs). But he has also stated that the lyrics were inspired by his emotions after a school love affair ended, and were influenced by the lyrics of the Left Banke song "Walk Away Renee." Maximum Guitar author Andy Aledort pointed out that the guitar chord progression of G-D/F#-Em7-D that follows the line "I see my Marianne walking away" also comes from "Walk Away Renee." Aledort also explains that the guitar solo is unusual in that it incorporates mordents and inverted mordents, which are more typically used in baroque music. Guitar World states that when the radio plays "More Than a Feeling", "few can resist indulging in fits of fleet-fingered air guitar and a spirited falsetto sing-along." Rolling Stone Album Guide critic Paul Evans states that "as slick as it sounds, 'More Than a Feeling' strikes an uncommonly resonant emotional note." Gallucci rated it Boston's greatest song. Ultimate Classic Rock critic Dave Swanson rated it the #28 all-time classic rock song. Epic released an edited version of the song for the single with the first chorus and second verse removed, clocking in at 3:30 versus the album track at 4:45. That single edit can be found on the Rock installment of Sony's box set from 1999. The American pop group No Mercy covered the song in 1999 charting on the German Singles Chart peaking at #94 staying 4 weeks in the chart. It also appeared in the band's 1999 album More., In 2005, Memphis, Tennessee-based rock band Ingram Hill covered the song for Disney’s “” starring Lindsay Lohan., Australian group the Stafford Brothers covered and released the track in 2006. It peaked at number 90 on the Australian ARIA Charts. In 2008 Republican presidential candidate Mike Huckabee used the song "More Than a Feeling" to promote his campaign. Former Boston band member Barry Goudreau made appearances with Huckabee both live and on YouTube. In February 2008, Scholz wrote to Huckabee requesting that he stop using the song, stating: While I'm flattered that you are fond of my song, I'm shocked that you would use it and the name Boston to promote yourself without my consent. Your campaign's use of "More Than a Feeling", coupled with the representation of one of your supporters as a member "of Boston" clearly implies that the band Boston, and specifically one of its members, has endorsed your candidacy, neither of which is true. Huckabee complied with Scholz's request, and videos featuring Barry Goudreau and the song were subsequently removed by the Huckabee campaign. "More Than a Feeling" has been extensively used in films and television: It was featured in the episode "My Half-Acre" of the comedy series Scrubs, in which it is performed by an air-band., The song was used in an episode of the crime drama web series Seven Seconds, in which the characters KJ and Fish sit on a car and comment on the song., It was used in the 2010 film Burlesque., American sitcom The Goldbergs featured the song on the final episode of its fifth season., The song appeared in the second trailer for the 2015 Disney-Pixar film Inside Out., It plays at the beginning of the first episode of season 3 of the romantic comedy series The Mindy Project, as Danny dances for Mindy to the song., The Walking Dead featured the song in the tenth episode of its sixth season, "The Next World"., UK motoring television series Top Gear briefly featured the song on episode 6 of its 22nd series., The riff of the Nirvana song Smells Like Teen Spirit has been compared to More than a Feeling and during the 1992 Reading Festival the band played around 18 seconds of the song before transitioning into Smells Like Teen Spirit., The song was also featured in season 2 on the Netflix show Mindhunter Tom Scholz – acoustic and electric rhythm guitar, lead guitar, bass, Brad Delp – vocals, Sib Hashian – drums, Barry Goudreau The song is a part of the soundtrack for the original Guitar Hero (video game) series released in 2005. The song was made available to download on March 1, 2011, for use in the Rock Band music video game series. The song is also available as downloadable content (DLC) for the Rocksmith guitar learning game. The song is available individually or as part of the 'Rock Hits 70s' Song Pack along with "Jessica" by The Allman Brothers Band and Deep Purple's "Smoke on the Water." Full lyrics of the song Boston is an American rock band from Boston, Massachusetts, which had its most notable successes during the 1970s and 1980s. Centered on multi- instrumentalist founder and leader Tom Scholz, who played the majority of instruments on the debut album, the band is a staple of classic rock. Boston's best-known works include the songs "More Than a Feeling", "Peace of Mind", "Foreplay/Long Time", "Rock and Roll Band", "Smokin'", "Don't Look Back", "A Man I'll Never Be", and "Amanda". The band has sold more than 75 million records worldwide, including 31 million albums in the United States, of which 17 million were from its self-titled debut album and seven million were for its second album, Don't Look Back, making the group one of the world's best- selling artists. Altogether, the band has released six studio albums over a career spanning over 40 years. Boston was ranked the 63rd best hard rock artist by VH1. Tom Scholz first started writing music in 1969 while he was attending Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he wrote an instrumental, titled "Foreplay". While attending MIT, Scholz joined the band Freehold, where he met guitarist Barry Goudreau and drummer Jim Masdea, who would later become members of Boston. Vocalist Brad Delp was added to the collective in 1970. After graduating with a master's degree, Scholz worked for Polaroid, where he used his salary to build a recording studio in his basement, and to finance demo tapes recorded in professional recording studios. These early demo tapes were recorded with (at various times) Delp on vocals, Goudreau on guitar, Masdea on drums, and Scholz on guitar, bass and keyboards. The demo tapes were sent to record companies, but received consistent rejections. In 1973 Scholz formed the band Mother's Milk with Delp, Goudreau, and Masdea. That group disbanded by 1974, but Scholz subsequently worked with Masdea and Delp to produce six new demos, including "More Than a Feeling", "Peace of Mind", "Rock and Roll Band", "Something About You" (then entitled "Life Isn't Easy"), "Hitch a Ride" (then entitled "San Francisco Day"), and "Don't Be Afraid". Scholz stated they finished four of the six by the end of 1974, and they finished "More Than a Feeling" and "Something About You" in 1975. Scholz played all the instruments on the demos, except for the drums, which were played by Masdea, and used self-designed pedals to create the desired guitar sounds. This final demo tape attracted the attention of promoters Paul Ahern and Charlie McKenzie. Masdea left the band around this time. According to Scholz, the managers insisted that Masdea had to be replaced before the band could get a recording deal. Years later, Delp told journalist Chuck Miller: "[Jim] actually told me he was losing interest in playing drums. I know Tom felt very bad when the whole thing happened. And then, of course, we started getting some interest." Scholz and Delp signed a deal with Epic Records after Masdea's departure, thanks to Ahern and McKenzie. Before the deal could be finalized, the band had to do a live audition for the record company executives. The duo recruited Goudreau on guitar, bassist Fran Sheehan and drummer Sib Hashian to create a performing unit which could replicate Scholz's richly layered recordings on stage. The showcase was a success and the band agreed to put out ten albums over the next six years. In addition to the firing of Masdea, the record label insisted that Scholz re-record the demo tapes in a professional studio. However, Scholz wanted to record them in his basement studio so that he could work at his own pace. Scholz and producer John Boylan hatched a plan to send the rest of the band to Los Angeles to make the record label happy, while Scholz recorded most of Boston's debut album at home, with Masdea playing drums on the track "Rock and Roll Band" and Scholz playing the other instruments. The multitrack tapes were then brought to Los Angeles, where Delp added vocals and the album was mixed by Boylan. It was then that the band was named "Boston", by suggestion of Boylan and engineer Warren Dewey. The debut album, Boston, released on August 25, 1976, ranks as one of the best-selling debut albums in U.S. history with over 17 million copies sold. During the late summer and early autumn of 1976, Boston attracted publicity due to the record sales. However, there was "a conscious effort to de- emphasize Scholz as the total mastermind behind Boston". After opening for Black Sabbath, Blue Öyster Cult, Foghat and others in the autumn, the band embarked on a headlining tour in the winter and spring of 1976–1977 to support the album. This helped establish Boston as one of rock's top acts within a short time, being nominated for a Grammy award as a "Best New Artist". Boston was the first band in history to make their New York City debut at Madison Square Garden. The album spawned three singles, "More Than a Feeling", "Long Time", and "Peace of Mind", all of which made the national charts. Additionally, the album peaked at No. 3 on the Billboard 200 and remained on the charts for 132 weeks. Despite having problems with manager Paul Ahern, being caught in the middle of a fight between Ahern and his business partner Charles McKenzie, and doing most of the recording work alone, Scholz completed the second Boston album two years after the debut album's release. The second album, Don't Look Back, was released by Epic in August 1978. At the time this was considered a long gap between albums, but Scholz still considered Don't Look Back to be a rush job and was unhappy with the album's second side in particular. Overall, Don't Look Back sold about half as well as the debut album, eventually selling over 7 million records. Another tour followed, and the album's title track became a top-5 hit. Additionally, two other singles, "A Man I'll Never Be" and "Feelin' Satisfied", went top 40 and top 50, respectively. Despite the success, Scholz's relationship with Ahern completely deteriorated. Delayed by technical renovations to his studio, Scholz eventually began the process of working on Boston's third album, determined to complete the album at his own pace and up to his demanding standard. In late 1979, Scholz began writing new material, but Boston's former co- manager, Paul Ahern, argued that, according to an agreement Scholz had signed years earlier with Ahern, Ahern owned a percentage of all songs Scholz wrote from that point on. Delayed further by the dispute, Scholz suggested that in the meantime the individual members should work on whatever other projects they might be considering. Goudreau then decided to record a solo album that featured Boston members Delp and Hashian, and which was recorded with the help of Paul Grupp, an engineer and producer familiar with Scholz's studio techniques. The album, released in 1980, was titled Barry Goudreau and featured the minor hit single "Dreams". There was tension when CBS's marketing connected Goudreau's solo album to Boston's signature guitar sound, despite Scholz not having played at all on this album. Scholz objected to the ad copy, but it became irrelevant when Epic dropped promotion on Goudreau's album citing lack of interest. Goudreau left the band in 1981 and formed Orion the Hunter. Delp contributed vocals and co-wrote songs on the debut album, but returned to Boston and recorded vocals on the third Boston album. While Scholz and Delp were recording new material for the third Boston album, CBS filed a $60 million lawsuit against Scholz, alleging breach of contract for failing to deliver a new Boston album on time. During this same period, Scholz founded his high-tech company Scholz Research & Development (SR&D;), which made amplifiers and other musical electronic equipment. Its most famous product, the Rockman amplifier, was introduced in 1982. The legal trouble slowed progress toward the completion of the next album, which took six years to record and produce. Joining Scholz in the album's development again were Delp and Jim Masdea. In 1985, guitarist Gary Pihl left Sammy Hagar's touring band to work with Scholz as both a musician and an SR&D; executive. As CBS v. Scholz played out in court, CBS opted to withhold royalty payments to Scholz, hoping to force him to settle on unfavorable terms. The lawsuit's first round was eventually decided in Scholz's favor, and Scholz moved the band to MCA Records. The CBS case took seven years to run its course, and in April 1990 Scholz won. Despite the adversity, progress continued to be made on the third Boston album. A tape of one of the songs, "Amanda", leaked out of the studio in 1984. The song became the lead single when Third Stage was finally released on September 23, 1986. The album and lead single "Amanda" both went to No. 1 on Billboard, and the subsequent singles "We're Ready" and "Can'tcha Say" were top 10 and top 30, respectively. The group headed off on tour to promote Third Stage in 1987 and 1988. Third Stage was played in sequence in its entirety during the shows, with expanded arrangements of some cuts. Boston opened with "Rock and Roll Band" and brought back the original drummer, Jim Masdea, to play drums for this one song. For the tour the group was joined by Doug Huffman and David Sikes, both of whom stayed with the band into the mid-1990s. By spring 1990, Scholz was back in the studio working on the band's fourth studio album. Later that year, Delp told Scholz he wanted to concentrate on other projects, and might not be available for some time. With Delp's departure, Scholz was then the last remaining original member. Before he left, Delp co-wrote with Scholz and David Sikes the song "Walk On", which eventually became the title track of the new album. Delp subsequently joined Barry Goudreau's new band, RTZ. Scholz eventually replaced him with Fran Cosmo, who had been in Goudreau's previous band Orion the Hunter. For the second album in a row, and for the second time in a decade, Scholz's work was delayed by renovations to his studio. In the end, eight years passed between Third Stage and Walk On, which was released in June 1994. Walk On was certified platinum by the RIAA, and reached No. 7 on the Billboard Top 200 Albums chart. Unlike Boston's previous albums, it failed to chart in the top 5. It produced one hit single, "I Need Your Love", which was widely played on some rock radio stations. Delp reunited with Boston at the end of 1994. Their first appearance was for two benefit shows at the House of Blues on December 12–13, 1994, in Cambridge. The band also handed a check of $5,000 to Globe Santa and another check of $5,000 to Operation Christmas in Fall River. The group, with Delp now back in the band, toured in the summer of 1995 with both Cosmo and Delp combining vocals. By that time drummer Huffman had been replaced by Curly Smith, who was previously with Jo Jo Gunne. Following the conclusion of the "Livin' For You" tour in 1995, Scholz announced that a greatest hits album would be released. Initially planned for release in August 1996, the album was pushed back to a 1997 release date. Boston released a compilation album in 1997, titled simply Boston: Greatest Hits. The album featured all of the band's hit singles except "We're Ready", "Can'tcha Say (You Believe In Me)/Still In Love", and "I Need Your Love" along with three new songs, "Higher Power", "Tell Me", and an instrumental version of the "Star Spangled Banner". Smith and Sikes left the band in late 1997 and recorded an album together. Scholz headed back to the studio in 1998 to begin work on a fifth album, which eventually turned out to be Corporate America. The title track of "Corporate America" was uploaded by Tom Scholz to MP3.com under the pseudonym of "Downer's Revenge" in early 2002 in order to test the album's appeal to a younger demographic. The song reached No. 2 on the progressive rock charts on the website for two weeks. November 2002 marked the release of Corporate America on the independent label Artemis Records. This album featured the largest Boston lineup ever; returning members included Delp and Cosmo on guitar and lead vocals, Scholz on lead guitar and organ, and Gary Pihl on guitar, along with new members Anthony Cosmo on rhythm guitar, Jeff Neal on drums and Kimberley Dahme on bass and vocals. Dahme, Delp, and Cosmo all contributed lead vocals to the album. The group embarked on a national tour in support of the album in 2003 and 2004. In 2006, the first two Boston albums appeared in remastered form. On March 9, 2007, lead singer Delp committed suicide at his home in Atkinson, New Hampshire. Police found him dead in his master bathroom, along with several notes for whoever would find him. In the bathroom where he committed suicide, two charcoal grills were found on the bathroom fixtures, and the door sealed with duct tape and a towel underneath. Police called the death "untimely" and said that no foul play was indicated. Delp was alone at the time of his death, according to the police report. He was found by his fiancée, who saw a dryer hose attached to his car. According to the New Hampshire medical examiner, his death was the result of suicide by carbon monoxide poisoning. Delp's last concert with Boston was performed at Boston Symphony Hall on November 13, 2006, at a concert honoring Doug Flutie. A concert in honor of Delp named "Come Together: A Tribute to Brad Delp" occurred on August 19, 2007, at the Bank of America Pavilion in Boston. The concert included Ernie and the Automatics, Beatlejuice, Farrenheit, Extreme, Godsmack, RTZ, Orion the Hunter, and finally the current version of Boston. All of the living members of Boston were invited to perform in the concert. The singers for Boston included Michael Sweet of Stryper, former band member Curly Smith, band member Kimberley Dahme, and a Boston fan from North Carolina named Tommy DeCarlo, who was chosen to sing based on his performances of Boston cover songs on his MySpace page. The ongoing conflicts among the surviving band members spilled over to the 2008 Presidential campaign. Barry Goudreau appeared with Mike Huckabee and played with him at some rallies in New Hampshire. Huckabee used "More Than a Feeling" as a campaign theme song. Scholz, a self-described "Obama supporter", sent an open letter to Huckabee in February 2008 stating that the band had never endorsed any candidate, and that he had never authorized the use of "More Than a Feeling" as Huckabee's theme song. Scholz made a point of saying that he, and not Goudreau or Sheehan, actually played all the guitars on "More Than a Feeling" as well as most of Boston’s songs. Huckabee did stop using "More Than a Feeling" as a theme song. In the spring of 2008, Scholz and Sweet introduced a new Boston lineup, which subsequently did a North American summer tour, playing 53 dates in 12 weeks (on a double bill with Styx). Scholz was the only founding member of Boston to play on the tour, although longtime member Gary Pihl was also part of the band, and Dahme and Neal returned on bass and drums, respectively. DeCarlo and Sweet shared lead vocals. In January 2009, Greatest Hits was re-released as a remastered disc. Michael Sweet left the band in August 2011 in order to focus on Stryper. In 2012, guitarist and vocalist David Victor joined the band, beginning in the studio, where he contributed vocals to several tracks on the album in progress. Scholz and Pihl led the band on a 2012 North American tour, beginning on June 28, 2012, at the Seminole Hard Rock Live arena in Hollywood, Florida and ending on September 8 at the U.S. Cellular Grandstand in Hutchinson, Kansas. Victor and DeCarlo shared lead vocals, with drummer Curly Smith returning for the first time in over a decade, and former Stryper member Tracy Ferrie on bass. Neither Dahme nor Neal played on the tour. Boston's sixth album, Life, Love & Hope, was released on December 3, 2013, by Frontiers Records; it includes lead vocals from Brad Delp, Tommy DeCarlo, Kimberley Dahme, David Victor, and Tom Scholz. Work on the album started in 2002. On December 11, 2013, Boston re-recorded a Christmas song, "God Rest Ye Metal Gentleman 2013" (previously released in 2002 as "God Rest Ye Merry Gentlemen"). In 2014 Boston embarked on the "Heaven on Earth Tour" spanning the United States and Japan with a lineup including Scholz, Pihl, DeCarlo, Victor and Ferrie. Dahme returned, this time performing rhythm guitar and vocals, and drumming duties were split between Neal and Smith, with Neal handling the first leg of the tour. Victor departed the lineup partway through the tour for unspecified reasons. In his stead, Siobhan Magnus joined the tour as a guest vocalist in July, performing lead vocals on 'Walk On'. In 2015, Boston launched another tour with a lineup consisting of Scholz, Pihl, DeCarlo, Ferrie and new member Beth Cohen, who performed keyboards, rhythm guitar and vocals. Cohen had previously recorded with the group on both Corporate America and Life, Love & Hope as a vocalist and flautist. Initially, the lineup was to include former Spock's Beard drummer and vocalist Nick D'Virgilio for its first month of shows, with Neal then returning, but D'Virgilio proved "not the right fit" and Smith rejoined in his place. This seven-person lineup proved Boston's most stable lineup in some time, touring as well in the summers of 2016 and 2017. The 2016 tour marked the group's 40th anniversary and included shows in Boston's Wang Theatre, their first full performances in their namesake town since 1994. On March 22, 2017, former drummer Sib Hashian died after collapsing on a Legends of Rock cruise ship. In April 2017, Scholz reported that he has been writing new material for the seventh Boston album. He told Sun Herald, "I find that I'm in a position that I really need to write things that we can play at the shows. We play basically everything that people expect to hear that we can fit into two hours. We also do a lot of things that aren't on any of the records by adding things and segues and instrumental parts, so I always have to come up with new stuff. It's quite a challenge. I have to write new things for the tour every year, which is what I wanted to do in the first place. But I got sidetracked in the studio, recording. Now, I'm actually a performing musician, and I have to tell you, it's much more fun." When asked the same month about a potential release date of the album, Scholz said, "Who knows? I'm only 70. I figure I've got 30 years." On June 25, 2019, The New York Times Magazine listed Boston among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire. One of the themes of Boston's album covers is the presence of a guitar-shaped spaceship, ostensibly a generation or colony ship carrying the city of Boston inside a clear dome, with the city's name emblazoned across the front. The original spaceship was designed in 1976 by Paula Scher and illustrated by Roger Huyssen with lettering by Gerard Huerta for Epic Records. Boston – Two long lines of guitar shaped starships flee a planet that is breaking apart. The ships all have blue flames coming out of the bottom., Don't Look Back – The Boston ship is flying low or perhaps hovering over a grassy, crystalline planet. The ship has searchlights on., Third Stage – The Boston ship is headed towards a large flat spaceship resembling a bank of pipe organ pipes over a blue planet., Walk On – The Boston ship is shown crashing through a rock outcropping., Greatest Hits – The Boston ship is flying low over a planet with turquoise rocks and a turquoise tower in the distance., Corporate America – The Boston ship is flying towards Earth and the United States., Life, Love & Hope – The Boston ship is flying in space, near a nebula. Their spaceship also appeared on their tours in the late 1980s, early 1990s, and early 2000s in the form of a giant lighting rig and accompanied on stage by their giant pipe-organ set piece, which is known to Boston insiders as Bertha because of its sheer size. Boston's genre is considered by most to be hard rock and arena rock, while combining elements of progressive rock into its music. Boston founder, guitarist, and primary songwriter Tom Scholz's blend of musical styles, ranging from classical to 1960s English pop, has resulted in a unique sound, most consistently realized on the first two albums (Boston and Don't Look Back). This sound is characterized by multiple lead and blended harmonies guitar work (usually harmonized in thirds), often alternating between and then mixing electric and acoustic guitars. The band's harmonic style has been characterized as being "violin-like" without using synthesizers. Scholz is well-regarded for the development of complex, multi-tracked guitar harmonies. Another contributing factor is the use of handmade, high tech equipment, such as the Rockman, used by artists such as Journey guitarist Neal Schon, the band ZZ Top, and Ted Nugent. Def Leppard's album Hysteria was created using only Rockman technology. Scholz's production style combines deep, aggressive, comparatively short guitar riffing and nearly ethereal, generally longer note vocal harmonies. A heavier, lower, and darker overall approach came in the next two albums (Third Stage and Walk On). The original track "Higher Power", on the Greatest Hits album, exhibits a near Germanic and almost techno influence with its sequencer-sounding keyboards, a sound most fully realized on Corporate America's title track. Tom Scholz also credited the late Brad Delp with helping to create Boston's sound with his signature vocal style. Delp, who was strongly influenced by the Beatles, was well known for his extended vocal range, shown on hits such as "More Than a Feeling". Current members Tom Scholz – lead and rhythm guitar, bass, keyboards, drums, percussion, backing vocals (1976–present), Gary Pihl – rhythm and lead guitar, keyboards, backing vocals (1985–present), Curly Smith – drums, percussion, harmonica, backing vocals (1994–1997, 2012–present), Jeff Neal – drums, percussion, backing vocals (2002–present), Tommy DeCarlo – lead vocals, keyboards, percussion (2008–present), Tracy Ferrie – bass guitar, backing vocals (2012–present), Beth Cohen – keyboards, vocals, rhythm guitar (2002, 2012, 2015–present) Boston (1976), Don't Look Back (1978), Third Stage (1986), Walk On (1994), Corporate America (2002), Life, Love & Hope (2013) Greatest Hits (1997) Official site, Official Facebook Page "Foreplay/Long Time" is a song written by Tom Scholz and first performed by the rock band Boston on the band's eponymous debut album, and as their second single, on Epic Records in 1976. It combines an instrumental introduction, "Foreplay", to the main song "Long Time", generally played as one on the radio and listed as one track on the album. "Long Time" peaked at No. 22 on the Billboard Hot 100 the week ending March 5, 1977. It reached the Top 10 in Canada, peaking at No. 9. The standalone "Foreplay" was released as the B-side of Boston's next single "Peace of Mind", which was released in April. In an interview for the Best of Boston CD, Scholz said that "Foreplay" was the first song he ever recorded, and he did this on a two-track machine in his basement. Scholz also stated that it was the first piece of music he ever wrote, and that he wrote it as far back as 1969. An alternate mix of the song is available on the Epic Records Promo LP It's a Knockout. It was a sampler LP of artists that had releases coming up in 1976. This version has various differences in the mix and effects and also includes extra lyrics towards the end of the song. This version has never been available officially anywhere else. "Foreplay" is a progressive instrumental prelude, primarily consisting of rapid triplet arpeggios on a Hammond M-3 organ (contrary to popular belief, the song was not recorded on a B-3, as Tom Scholz had a limited budget at the time and was unable to afford one) with a bass part doubled by a clavinet, and drums, with lead guitar joining at the end. According to Scholz, leader and producer of Boston, the synthesizer-like swoops were produced by scraping a pick across the strings of an electric guitar in conjunction with distortion and delay. The three guitar solos on "Long Time" are played by Barry Goudreau, rather than Scholz, who played most of the guitar parts on Boston. Goudreau also plays the solo in "Let Me Take You Home Tonight". Scholz played the solos in "More Than a Feeling", "Peace of Mind", "Rock & Roll Band", and "Something About You". Rolling Stone described "Foreplay/Long Time" as "a perfect marriage of Led Zeppelin and Yes that plays musical chairs with electric and acoustic sounds." In 2004, "Long Time" was used as the background music for a series of television commercials, titled "Timeless", for NASCAR, featuring a hypothetical race between drivers and cars of all eras of NASCAR competition. It was featured on YouTube on a Best of NASCAR 2013 video. In 2006, "Foreplay" is featured near the end of The Sopranos episode "The Fleshy Part of the Thigh" (Season 6, Episode 4). Tony Soprano is playing it to obscure a conversation in case a room is bugged. "Foreplay/Long Time" is featured as a playable track in the video game Rock Band. It is the final song in the Vocal Solo Tour. The track was played during Part 1 of the Season 2 finale of the television show Supernatural. "Foreplay/Long Time" was featured in an episode of the television series 24/7 Penguins/Capitals: Road to the NHL Winter Classic in 2010. "Foreplay/Long Time" was heard before a commercial break during NBC's coverage of Super Bowl XLVI on February 5, 2012. "Foreplay/Long Time" was featured in the 2018 film The Front Runner. Tom Scholz – Hammond organ, clavinet, lead guitar, Sib Hashian – drums, Barry Goudreau – rhythm guitars, Fran Sheehan – bass Tom Scholz – acoustic rhythm guitar, organ, clavinet, bass, Brad Delp – vocals, Sib Hashian – drums, Barry Goudreau – lead guitar and electric rhythm guitar Rascal Flatts played a cover version of "Foreplay/Long Time" in concert, which was released on the album Rascal Flatts LIVE., Phish celebrated their concert at Great Woods in Mansfield, Massachusetts by opening with "Foreplay/Long Time". They had covered a bluegrass arrangement earlier in their careers, but this was the first time they played the full electric version that is heard on the album., The Jay Sekulow Band recorded a cover of "Foreplay/Long Time" and posted it to the band's Facebook page.

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Oliver! is a British musical, with music and lyrics by Lionel Bart. The musical is based upon the novel Oliver Twist by Charles Dickens. It premiered in the West End in 1960, enjoying a long run, and successful long runs on Broadway, tours and revivals, after being brought to the US by producer David Merrick in 1963. Major London revivals played from 1977–80, 1994–98, 2008–11 and on tour in the UK from 2011–13. Additionally, its 1968 film adaptation, directed by Carol Reed, was highly successful, winning six Academy Awards including Best Picture. Oliver! received thousands of performances in British schools, becoming one of the most popular school musicals. In 1963 Lionel Bart received the Tony Award for Best Original Score. Many songs are well known to the public. Oliver! was one of eight UK musicals featured on Royal Mail stamps, issued in February 2011. Oliver! was the first musical adaptation of a famous Charles Dickens work to become a stage hit. There had been two previous Dickens musicals in the 1950s, both of them television adaptations of A Christmas Carol. The plot of Dickens' original novel is considerably simplified for the purposes of the musical, with Fagin being represented more as a comic character than as a villain, and large portions of the latter part of the story being completely left out. Although Dickens' novel has been called antisemitic in its portrayal of the Jew Fagin as evil, the production by Bart (himself a Jew) was more sympathetic and featured many Jewish actors in leading roles: Ron Moody (Ronald Moodnick), Georgia Brown (Lilian Klot), and Martin Horsey. The musical opens in the workhouse, as the half-starved orphan boys are entering the enormous dining room for dinner. They are fed only gruel, but find some solace by imagining a richer menu, ("Food Glorious Food"). Oliver gathers up the courage to ask for more. He is immediately apprehended and is told to gather his belongings by Mr. Bumble and the Widow Corney, the heartless and greedy caretakers of the workhouse ("Oliver!"). Mr. Bumble and Widow Corney are left alone, and Mr. Bumble begins to make amorous advances. Mrs. Corney pretends to resent his attentions, but ends up on Mr. Bumble's lap, as he eventually proposes to her ("I Shall Scream!"). Mr. Bumble then takes Oliver and sells him as an apprentice to an undertaker, Mr. Sowerberry ("Boy for Sale"). He and his wife taunt Oliver and Mr. Bumble ("That's Your Funeral"), causing Mr. Bumble to become angry and storm out. Oliver is sent to sleep in the basement with the coffins ("Where Is Love?"). The next morning Noah Claypole, another employee of Sowerberry, insults Oliver's dead mother, whereupon Oliver begins pummeling him. Mrs. Sowerberry and her daughter, Charlotte, also Noah's girlfriend, run in, and Mr. Bumble is sent for. He and the Sowerberrys lock Oliver in a coffin, but during all the commotion Oliver escapes. After a week on the run, he ends up in the city of London and meets a boy about his age known as the Artful Dodger. Dodger seems a kindly boy, and invites Oliver to join him and his friends ("Consider Yourself"). Dodger is, unknown to Oliver, a pickpocket, and he invites Oliver to come and live in Fagin's lair. Fagin is an elderly criminal, now too old to thieve himself, who now teaches young boys to pick pockets. Oliver is completely unaware of any criminality, and believes that the boys make handkerchiefs rather than steal them. Oliver is introduced to Fagin and his boys, and is taught their ways ("You've Got to Pick a Pocket or Two"). The next day, Oliver meets Nancy, an older member of Fagin's gang, and the live-in wife of Fagin's terrifying associate Bill Sikes, a brutal house-burglar whose abuse she endures because she loves him. Nancy, along with her younger sister Bet and the boys, sing about how they don't mind a bit of danger ("It's a Fine Life"). Oliver bows deeply to Nancy and Bet, trying to be polite. All the boys laugh and mimic Oliver. Nancy singles out Dodger to demonstrate the way the rich people treat each other ("I'd Do Anything"). Nancy and Bet leave and Oliver is sent out with the other boys on his first pickpocketing job ("Be Back Soon"). Dodger, another boy named Charley Bates, and Oliver decide to stick together, and when Dodger and Charley rob Mr. Brownlow, a wealthy old man, they run off, leaving the horrified Oliver to be arrested for the crime ("The Robbery"). In the Three Cripples pub, to help take her mind off of Sikes's neglect towards her, Nancy strikes up an old tavern song with the low-life ruffians, ("Oom-Pah-Pah"). Bill Sikes makes his first appearance, and disperses the crowd ("My Name"). Dodger runs in and tells Fagin about Oliver's capture and removal to the Brownlow household. Scared he will betray the gang's whereabouts, Fagin and Bill decide to abduct Oliver and bring him back to the den, with Nancy's help. Nancy, who has come to care for Oliver, at first refuses to help, but Bill physically abuses her and forces her into obedience. In spite of this, Nancy still loves Bill, and believes he loves her too ("As Long as He Needs Me"). The next morning, at Mr. Brownlow's house in Bloomsbury, Mrs. Bedwin the housekeeper sings to Oliver ("Where Is Love? [Reprise]"), and Oliver wakes up. Mr. Brownlow and Dr. Grimwig decide that Oliver is well enough to go outside, so Brownlow sends Oliver to return some books to the library. Oliver sees a group of street vendors and joins them in song ("Who Will Buy?"). As the vendors leave, Nancy and Bill appear and grab Oliver. They bring him back to Fagin's den, where Nancy saves Oliver from a beating from Sikes after the boy tries to flee. Nancy remorsefully reviews their dreadful life, but Bill maintains that any living is better than none. Fagin tries to act as an intermediary ("It's A Fine Life [Reprise]"). Left alone, Fagin wonders what his life might be like if he left London and began an honest life ("Reviewing the Situation"); however, after thinking of various excuses, he elects to remain a thief. Back at the workhouse, Mr. Bumble and the Widow Corney, now unhappily married, meet the dying pauper Old Sally and another old lady, who tell them that Oliver's mother, Agnes, left a gold locket when she died in childbirth. Old Sally stole the locket, which she gives to the Widow Corney. Mr. Bumble and Widow Corney, realizing that Oliver may have wealthy relatives, visit Mr. Brownlow, who has advertised in newspapers for news of him, hoping to profit from any reward given for information ("Oliver! [Reprise]"). Mr. Brownlow realises they are not interested in Oliver's welfare, but only money, and throws them out, but recognizes the picture inside the locket as a picture of his daughter, and realizes that Oliver is actually his grandson. Nancy visits Mr. Brownlow, explains how she and Bill abducted Oliver, and remorsefully promises to deliver Oliver to him safely that night on London Bridge. She ponders again about Bill ("As Long as He Needs Me [Reprise]"). Suspecting that Nancy is up to something, Bill follows her as she sneaks Oliver out of Fagin's den. At London Bridge, he confronts them, knocks Oliver unconscious, and clubs Nancy to death. He then grabs Oliver and runs off. Mr. Brownlow arrives and discovers Nancy's body. A large crowd forms, among them the distraught Bet. Bullseye, Bill's terrier, turns on his master and returns to the scene of the crime and the crowd prepares to follow him to the hideout. Fagin and his boys leave their hideout in panic. Not finding Bill at the hideout, the crowd returns to the Thames Embankment. Bill appears at the top of the bridge, holding Oliver as hostage and threatening to kill him. Two policemen sneak up on him. One of them shoots Bill and the other grabs Oliver. After Oliver is reunited with Mr. Brownlow, the mob disperses offstage in order to track down Fagin. He appears and decides that the time has never looked better for him to straighten out his life ("Reviewing the Situation [Reprise]"). Act I Prologue / Overture – Orchestra, "Food, Glorious Food" – Workhouse Boys, "Oliver!" – Mr Bumble, Widow Corney, Boys and Governors, "I Shall Scream" – Mr Bumble and Widow Corney, "Boy for Sale" – Mr Bumble, "That's Your Funeral" – Mr Sowerberry, Mrs Sowerberry, and Mr. Bumble, "Coffin Music" #– Orchestra, "Where Is Love?" – Oliver, "The Fight" #- Orchestra, "Oliver's Escape" #– Orchestra, "Consider Yourself" – The Artful Dodger, Oliver, and Chorus, "You've Got to Pick a Pocket or Two" – Fagin and Fagin's Gang, "It's a Fine Life" – Nancy, Bet, and Fagin's Gang, "I'd Do Anything" – The Artful Dodger, Nancy, Oliver, Bet, Fagin, and Fagin's Gang, "Be Back Soon" – Fagin, The Artful Dodger, Oliver and Fagin's Gang, "The Robbery"# – Orchestra Act II "Oom-Pah-Pah" – Nancy and Chorus, "My Name" – Bill Sikes, "As Long as He Needs Me" – Nancy, "Where Is Love?" (Reprise) #– Mrs Bedwin, "Who Will Buy?" – Oliver, Vendors, and Chorus, "It's a Fine Life" (Reprise) #– Bill Sikes, Nancy, Fagin, and The Artful Dodger, "Reviewing the Situation" – Fagin, "Oliver!" (Reprise) – Mr Bumble and Widow Corney, "As Long as He Needs Me" (Reprise) – Nancy, "London Bridge" #– Orchestra, "Reviewing the Situation" (Reprise) – Fagin, Finale ("Food, Glorious Food", "Consider Yourself" and "I'd Do Anything") – Company (Note: All songs with a # next to them are not on the original London recording. In addition, the Broadway recording drops "That's Your Funeral" and the Act Two reprise of "Oliver!".) The 1994 and 2009 London revival recordings include the Coffin Music, The Robbery, the reprises of "Where is Love" and "It's a Fine Life" and the London Bridge scene. Oliver! premiered in the West End at the New Theatre (now the Noël Coward Theatre) on 30 June 1960 and ran for 2,618 performances. Directed by Peter Coe, the choreographer was Malcolm Clare and costumes and scenery were by Sean Kenny. The original cast featured Ron Moody as Fagin, Georgia Brown as Nancy, and Barry Humphries in the supporting role of Mr. Sowerberry, the undertaker. Keith Hamshere (the original Oliver) is now a Hollywood still photographer (Star Wars etc.); Martin Horsey (the original Dodger) works as an actor/director and is the author of the play L'Chaim. Other boys alternated in the juvenile leads, including Phil Collins and Davy Jones as the Artful Dodger. The cast also included Tony Robinson as one of the Workhouse boys/Fagin's Gang, and John Bluthal (later famous as The Vicar of Dibley's Frank Pickle) as Fagin. Former professional boxer Danny Sewell (brother of television actor George Sewell) was the original Bill Sikes, and remained in the role (including the original Broadway and US touring productions) for the best part of six years. Danny Sewell's main competitor at audition for the role of Sikes was Michael Caine, who later stated he "cried for a week" after failing to secure the part. Steve Marriott, later a famous rock singer with the Small Faces and Humble Pie, played workhouse boys including The Artful Dodger, and is featured on the original soundtrack LP. The part of Nancy was originally written for Alma Cogan, who despite being unable to commit to the production, steered a great many producers to invest in it. Sid James turned down the part of Fagin as the timing of the production coincided with his own attempts to move away from the shady and roguish roles for which he was well known. In the U.S., the musical previewed beginning in Los Angeles with Edwin Lester's L.A (and San Francisco) Civic Light Opera Association, as a 1962 national tour. The Sean Kenny sets were duplicated. The sets built in London were shipped by sea and delivered to the Port of San Pedro, with the actual stage brick wall London mural painted as a scenic backing. Sean Kenny's design concept eliminated a house curtain, exposing the turntable stage set, the open lighting pipes rigged with lamp fixtures, electric cables, and an open loft to the arriving audience. The turntable, scenic set and elements duplicated the original garish stylistic "wood grained" painted finish. With lighting, the set was intended to take on each specific color mood and change atmosphere. Edwin Lester hated the set's paint job, ordering his scenic shop manager Phil Raiguel to send scenic artists to glaze down the red, green, blue, yellow, orange grain finish. During the company's rehearsal prior to that evening's 8:00 p.m. premiere audience, the two scenic artists (Wally Reid and Hub Braden) glazed over the scenery while the cast rehearsed on the turntable stair platform and bridge units. The scenic artists continued painting/glazing while the cast took their meal break prior to the overture. As the audience was seated, the open-to-view stage set painting continued, with the two scenic artists still painting and glazing as the musical was performed; continuing during the intermission, through the second act performance, and taking curtain calls with the company. Remaining on stage afterwards, the two continued their glazing throughout the night, finishing the set's repainting the following day at noon. Reviews noted that the stage direction included "two London house painters" atmosphere performance, later questioning where and why the house painters had been eliminated after the show's opening night. David Merrick brought Oliver! to the Broadway stage, where it premiered at the Imperial Theatre on January 6, 1963. It closed on November 14, 1964, after 774 performances. The cast featured child actor Bruce Prochnik in the title role alongside Georgia Brown and Barry Humphries, reprising their West End role as Nancy and Mr. Sowerberry, respectively, and Clive Revill as Fagin, replacing Ron Moody. The national tour featured Michael Goodman as The Artful Dodger, but on Broadway the role was played by future Monkee Davy Jones, another veteran of the London production. The Broadway production was a critical success and received ten Tony Award nominations, including Best Musical, Best Actor in a Musical, Best Actress in a Musical and Best Featured Actor in a Musical. It won the awards for Best Scenic Design, Best Original Score and Best Music Direction. The Broadway production was revived shortly after the original production closed. The revival opened in 1965 and was directed by Peter Coe. It ran at the Martin Beck Theatre for 64 performances, featuring Victor Stiles as Oliver, Robin Ramsay as Fagin, Maura K. Wedge as Nancy, Joey Baio as The Artful Dodger, Dominic Chianese as Mr. Sowerberry, Alan Crofoot as Mr. Bumble, Danny Sewell as Bill Sikes, Bram Nossen as Mr. Brownlow, and Dodi Protero as Mrs. Bedwin. Georgia Brown, Davy Jones, Ronnie Kroll, Joan Lombardo, and Robin Ramsay appeared performing two musical numbers from Oliver! ("I'd Do Anything" and the Act II reprise of "As Long as He Needs Me") on The Ed Sullivan Show on the evening of February 9, 1964, the same evening that the Beatles made their first U.S. television appearance on that show. Cameron Mackintosh revived Oliver! in London for the first time in 1977. It played at the Albery Theatre (the renamed New Theatre; now the Noël Coward Theatre), starring Roy Hudd as Fagin (later replaced by George Leyton), which ran for over two years. This production was totally faithful to the 1960 original version, using Sean Kenny's set. Indeed, the original production's sepia background painted on the rear stage wall was still extant. Mackintosh was asked to revive the show yet again in 1983 for a limited five- week Christmas season at the Aldwych Theatre, directed by Peter Coe. Ron Moody returned as Fagin, with Jackie Marks as Nancy, Linal Haft as Bill Sikes, Meg Johnson as Mrs Corney, Peter Bayliss as Mr Bumble, and Geoffrey Toone as Mr Brownlow. Oliver was played by Anthony Pearson, and the Artful Dodger by David Garlick. The original Sean Kenny sets were used. The last professional production to use Sean Kenny's original stage design was at the Queen's Theatre, Hornchurch, Essex, in 1986. This production starred Victor Spinetti as Fagin. The 1983 London revival of Oliver! transferred to Broadway in 1984. It opened at The Mark Hellinger Theatre and ran from April 29, 1984 through May 13, 1984, for 17 performances and 13 previews. Ron Moody reprised the role of Fagin and Patti LuPone played Nancy. David Garlick reprised his West End performance as The Artful Dodger, the first British youngster to appear on Broadway since Davy Jones, creating the Equity Exchange Program in the process. The original creative staff were used for this production, including director Peter Coe. For this production, the song "I Shall Scream" was eliminated. LuPone, in her memoirs, said that the production should have run longer, noting that this production utilized the original sets, costumes, blocking (staging), and direction, and commented: "Hmm...maybe 'that' was the problem". Moody was nominated for a Tony Award despite the short run. The show only received one negative review; it was from Frank Rich of The New York Times who called the production "likely to hold the attention of only the youngest and most obedient children" and "just dull." It prompted one of the main backers to pull out. The positive reviews were quoted in the ad for the show, including a Clive Barnes quote: "Oliver! is glorious food for Broadway". LuPone had asked the show's Musical Director to change her keys because they were too low for her, but was told she could not. She wrote that she "had major battles with the musical director", one concerning the term "vamp"; "he never waited for me to finish my dialogue." Cameron Mackintosh produced another revival of the show which opened at the London Palladium in the West End on 8 December 1994. The production team included a young Sam Mendes as director, with Anthony Ward as designer, Matthew Bourne as choreographer, Martin Koch as music supervisor and William David Brohn as orchestrator. The cast included Jonathan Pryce (after much persuasion) as Fagin, Sally Dexter as Nancy, Miles Anderson as Bill Sikes, James Villiers as Mr. Brownlow, James Saxon as Mr. Bumble, Jenny Galloway as Widow Corney, David Delve as Mr. Sowerberry and Julia Deakin as Mrs. Sowerberry. The role of Oliver was played by numerous child actors during the run of four years, including Gregory Bradley, James Daley, Ben Reynolds, Andrew James Michel, Jon Lee, David Watkins, Simon Schofield, Steven Webb, Justin Girdler, Steven Geller, Lee Honey-Jones, Brian O'Sullivan, Nathaniel Kelly, Adam Coleman, James Bourne, James Rowntree and Tom Fletcher, while the Artful Dodger was played by Adam Searles, Matt Johnson, Paul Bailey, Marcel McCalla, William Ullstein, Dax O'Callaghan, Sid Mitchell, Emory Ruegg, Adam Mead and Bronson Webb. The role of Bet was played by Danielle McCormack, Rosalind James, Francesca Jackson and Lindsey Fawcett. The musical closed on 21 February 1998. The role of Fagin was later played by many notable British actors and comedians including George Layton, Russ Abbot, Jim Dale and Robert Lindsay (who won an Olivier Award for his performance in 1997). Bill Sikes was later portrayed by Steven Hartley and Joe McGann, and Nancy by Sonia Swaby, Claire Moore and Ruthie Henshall. The show was a lavish affair and moved from its original intimate melodramatic feel to a more cinematic and symphonic feel that would accommodate an audience familiar with the 1968 motion picture. This production featured brand new music and lyrics written by Lionel Bart, and also additional dialogue not featured in the original script, added by Bart and Sam Mendes. Other updated elements include the addition of a prologue, in which the audience is witness to Oliver's harrowing birth. The dialogue was homage to both the 1948 and 1968 film versions of the story which were in turn based on the original novel. New music arrangements and dance sequences were added to various songs, most notably "Consider Yourself" and "Who Will Buy?". Tempos for some of the musical numbers were altered (notably "It's a Fine Life", "I'd Do Anything" and "You've Got to Pick a Pocket or Two"), while other incidental numbers were drastically rewritten, including the London Bridge chase sequence. A new intermediate scene was added just after "You've Got to Pick a Pocket or Two", in which Bill Sikes enters the Thieves' Kitchen and "negotiates" with Fagin. A production heavily based upon the 1994 Palladium production opened in London's West End on 14 January 2009. Produced once again by Cameron Mackintosh, this revival was directed by Shakespeare expert Rupert Goold and choreographed/co-directed by Matthew Bourne. Anthony Ward repeated his acclaimed scenic and costume designs while William David Brohn joined the team as orchestrator, revising some of the musical arrangements. The new production opened to rave reviews at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, receiving positive feedback from critics throughout London. Designer Anthony Ward created a new cobblestone effect for the entire stage while the orchestrations were expanded with new dance arrangements given to "Consider Yourself" and "Who Will Buy?" as well as new curtain call/exit music. The prologue from the Palladium production was removed, and the show now opens as it originally did in 1960, with the workhouse children entering, singing "Food, Glorious Food". British comedian Rowan Atkinson played Fagin. He had played the role in a school production but had turned it down in the Palladium revival. Burn Gorman played Bill Sikes, making his West End musical debut. Three actors shared the role of Oliver: Harry Stott, Laurence Jeffcoate and Gwion Wyn Jones. Robert Madge, Ross McCormack, Eric Dibb Fuller and Jack Glister played The Artful Dodger. Jodie Prenger won the role of Nancy, shared with Australian Tamsin Carroll, who played two performances each week. Sarah Lark, a runner-up on "I'd do Anything" understudied the role. Royal Shakespeare Company actor Julian Glover played Mr. Brownlow with Julian Bleach as Mr. Sowerberry/Dr. Grimwig, Louise Gold as Mrs. Sowerberry, Julius D'Silva as Mr. Bumble and Wendy Ferguson as Widow Corney. The revival was nominated for three 2010 Olivier Awards: Best Revival of a Musical, Best Actor in a Musical (Atkinson) and Best Theatre Choreography, but failed to win any. After the departure of the original Olivers, the role was passed on to Zac Hurst, Fanncesco Piancentini-Smith, Edward Cooke, Edward Holtom and Ethan Smith. Edward Holtom made a sad departure, one month before his scheduled leave and the date on his contract expired. No reason was given for this. When Rowan Atkinson fell ill in April 2009, Russ Abbot stepped in to the play the role. Abbot had starred in the 1997 Palladium run. In July 2009, British comedian Omid Djalili replaced Abbot as Fagin, receiving positive reviews. In December 2009, Griff Rhys Jones took over as Fagin, with Steven Hartley as Bill Sikes. Hartley had played Sikes in the 1997 Palladium production. In March 2010, Kerry Ellis took over the role of Nancy, also receiving positive reviews. At the same time, Bleach, D'Silva and Ferguson were replaced by Jason Morell, Christian Patterson and Claire Machin, respectively. In June 2010, Russ Abbot again took over as Fagin. Stephen Moore was a replacement for Mr. Brownlow. Ron Moody, the original Fagin, joined the cast at the end of the performance on 14 June 2010, in celebration of the show's 50th Anniversary. Griff Rhys Jones returned as Fagin in December 2010. The production closed on 8 January 2011, to be replaced at the theatre by the original London production of Shrek The Musical. After the 2009 revival closed in January 2011, Cameron Mackintosh announced that a new production with a new set and direction by Laurence Connor would embark on a 13-month UK and Ireland tour beginning at the Wales Millennium Centre, Cardiff in December 2011 and ending February 2013 at the Bristol Hippodrome. The tour was announced to star Neil Morrissey and Brian Conley as Fagin and Samantha Barks (who came third in the BBC reality show I'd Do Anything, which was won by Jodie Prenger to be cast in the 2009 revival as Nancy) as Nancy. Morrisey played Fagin while Conley was starring in a pantomime at the Birmingham Hippodrome, and left the production during the Birmingham run in April. He returned in October at the Newcastle Theatre Royal when Conley left to appear in I'm A Celebrity...Get Me Out Of Here! and another pantomime in Birmingham. In January 2012, Mackintosh made a surprise appearance at the curtain call of a performance to announce that Barks had been cast as Eponine in the movie adaptation of Les Misérables, causing her to leave the tour on 1 April in Birmingham, being replaced by Cat Simmons. Barks later returned for the final two weeks of the Edinburgh Playhouse run in June before returning with Morrissey. She once again left the production early to perform at the 2013 Oscars. In 1963, Dutch musician Seth Gaaikema translated the musical into Dutch. In 1968, Oliver was taken to Japan, by the Japanese film company Toho Productions. "Consider Yourself" was translated into Japanese. Australian actor Robin Ramsay played Fagin. Most of the cast were British, along with two London original Workhouse boys, Ray Millross and Terry Latham. The rest of the workhouse boys were American. In 1983, a new production of Oliver was the first musical produced by Philadelphia's Walnut Street Theatre as part of its inaugural season as a self-producing theatre. The Australian tour was a successful trip through Sydney, Melbourne, and Singapore from 2002 to 2004. The show, which mirrored Sam Mendes' production, was recreated by Graham Gill. John Waters played Fagin, Tamsin Carroll was Nancy, and the production also featured Stuart Wagstaff, Steve Bastoni and Madison Orr and Keegan Joyce in the title role, which was rotated between the two. The role of the Artful Dodger was shared between Mathew Waters and Tim Matthews, with Waters performing on the opening night. Waters declined the tour after the Sydney production to appear in the Hollywood movie Peter Pan. A North American tour began in 2003, produced by Cameron Mackintosh and Networks. It ran till March 2005 and played most major theatrical venues in the U.S. and one in Canada. The show was directed by the London team which managed the Sam Mendes version in London and the Australian tour, with Graham Gill as director. The cast included Mark McCracken as Fagin, Renata Renee Wilson as Nancy, and Justin S. Pereira Oliver Twist. In October 2008 Columbia Artists Theatricals mounted a new North American National tour directed by Clayton Philips. The production toured until March 2009. The first Estonian production of the show was presented in the early 1990s in Tartu. A revival ran in November–December 2003 with Aivar Tommingas as Fagin and Evelin Samuel as Nancy. The musical was performed also twice in Israel in 1966 and 2008 starring Shraga Fridman and Rivka Raz in the first production and Sasson Gabai and Ania Bukshtein in the second. In December 2010 a Dutch language version of the musical opened in Gent, Belgium, to be transferred at the end of the same month to Antwerp. In 2011 a Syrian production is to be performed at the Damascus Opera. In 2012 a new production was staged by Popular Productions in Dubai, UAE (First Group Theatre). It starred Philip Cox as Fagin and Lucy Hunter-James as Nancy. Oliver Twist, the main character of the story. He is a lonely orphan boy born in the workhouse who asks for more gruel., Fagin, a conniving career criminal, takes in homeless boys and teaches them to pick pockets for him., Nancy, Bill Sikes's wife. She takes a liking to Oliver and treats him and the pickpockets like her own children, but is eventually murdered for the steps she takes on Oliver's behalf., Mr. Brownlow, Oliver's grandfather, a kind man of wealth and breeding., Bill Sikes, Nancy's brutal and abusive husband, a burglar and her eventual murderer. One of Fagin's former successful pickpockets., Mr. Bumble, the pompous beadle of the workhouse in which Oliver was born., The Artful Dodger, the cleverest of Fagin's pickpockets, he introduces Fagin to Oliver. He is shown to be very close with Nancy., Bet, Nancy's best friend. She is sometimes depicted as her sister., Charley Bates, Dodger's friend and thief who is part of Fagin's gang. In the end of the book, he decides to change his morals and stop thieving., Mr. and Mrs. Sowerberry, the insensitive couple who take in Oliver and use him in their funeral business., Widow Corney, the matron of the workhouse where Oliver was born, later marries Mr. Bumble., Charlotte Sowerberry, the rude and often flirtatious daughter of Mr. and Mrs. Sowerberry. She enjoys a flirtatious relationship with Noah Claypole, Noah Claypole, The Sowerberrys' apprentice, he bullies Oliver about his mother and enjoys a flirtatious relationship with Charlotte., Dr. Grimwig, foppish doctor and friend of Mr. Brownlow. He assesses Oliver's condition at the beginning of Act II, deeming him fit to go outside., Mrs. Bedwin, house-servant to Mr. Brownlow and carer of Oliver., Old Sally, nurse at Oliver's birth. Old Sally steals Agnes's (Oliver's mother's) gold locket which is the only clue to Oliver's identity. Before she dies, she gives the locket to Mr. Bumble and Mrs. Corney. In 1968, the show was adapted for film, with a screenplay by Vernon Harris and direction by Carol Reed. It starred original Fagin Ron Moody with Jack Wild, Shani Wallis, Oliver Reed, Mark Lester, Harry Secombe and Leonard Rossiter. The 1968 motion picture won six Academy Awards including Best Picture, and received nominations for both Moody and Wild. It was first telecast in the United States by ABC-TV in 1975. The film went to cable in the US in 1982, and it is still regularly broadcast. On March 1, 2013, it was announced that a remake of Oliver! will possibly happen, aiming for a 2016 release. Cameron Mackintosh, the producer of the film version of the musical Les Misérables will be producing if it happens. He's aiming for Les Misérables' Samantha Barks, who played Nancy on the 2011-2013 UK Tour, to repeat her part and Stephen Daldry as the director. The score of Oliver! has been recorded numerous times. There are cast recordings (on compact disc) available for the original 1960 and 1963 productions as well as the 1968 film and the 1994 and 2009 London revivals. The 2009 London cast album was recorded live on opening night. There are several studio cast recordings of the show including one with Stanley Holloway and Alma Cogan and another with Josephine Barstow and Julian Forsyth. A new version with Julian Forsyth was issued recently, and Sally Ann Triplett replacing Barstow. The following table gives the principal casting information for the major productions (both original and revival) of Oliver!. Note Gwion Wyn Jones went on to perform on the Oliver! UK tour in Cardiff and Manchester, until he grew out of the role in February 2012. Dodger!, a sequel to Lionel Bart's Oliver! was composed by Andrew Fletcher with the book and lyrics written by David Lambert. It is set seven years after the events in the novel Oliver Twist by Charles Dickens where the Artful Dodger has been sentenced to an Australian penal colony and has a romantic involvement with the character Bet. When Lionel Bart faced severe financial difficulties several years later, he sold his past and future rights to Oliver! to the entertainer Max Bygraves for £350. Bygraves later sold them on for £250,000 August Rush Oliver! The Musical official site, Internet Broadway Database listing for all Broadway productions, Oliver! plot and production information, guidetomusicaltheatre, Theatre Royal Drury Lane London, justjohn productions taking Oliver! to the Edinburgh Fringe Festival 2009, Study notes can be found at the National Arts Centre (Canada) "Consider Yourself" is a song from the 1960 original West End and Broadway musical Oliver! and the 1968 film of the same name. It was introduced on Broadway by Davy Jones and the ensemble. In the 1968 film version, it is performed in the market and led by Jack Wild's Artful Dodger. In all versions, Dodger sings it when he first meets Oliver, after offering to get the destitute and alone boy food and lodging. Lyrically, it is an enthusiastic gift of friendship from Dodger and his as-yet-unseen gang to Oliver, assuring him warmly he can consider himself "our mate" and "one of the family" as "it's clear we're going to get along". The 1968 film builds it to a spectacular extended song-and-dance routine involving the street crowd, market workers, policemen and chimney sweep boys. This song was sung in the 1969 premiere episode of Sesame Street., In October 1975, this song was adapted into Japanese to welcome Emperor Hirohito at Central Park, New York City., In 1977, the song was sung by The Muppets on the seventh episode of the second season of The Muppet Show to its guest star Edgar Bergen and his dummy, Charlie McCarthy., A rearranged version of the song was used as the theme of the ITV sitcom Home to Roost., In World Expo 88, the cast of Young Talent Time performed a version of the song as a tribute to the movie., The Seven Network used this song as part of their 1993 campaign., In 2007, Richard Fleeshman and the cast of Avenue Q performed a cover version for the charity album Over The Rainbow., In Christmas 2011, BBC One used famous celebrities to sing the song for promotion., In a 2015 episode of Doctor Who entitled "Sleep No More", Elaine Tan's character, Nagata, begins to tell the Doctor, played by Peter Capaldi, to "consider yourself", to which he sings "part of the furniture", before being corrected and told to consider himself under her command., In the season one episode "M.E. Time" of the comedy series Brooklyn Nine-Nine, Charles sings to this song in the car when Jake lets him choose the music. "Every Sperm Is Sacred", written as a pastiche of this song and its style, H. R. Pufnstuf Oliver! Movie Clip of Consider Yourself, Consider Yourself Lyrics "Oliver's Army" is a song written by Elvis Costello and performed by Elvis Costello and the Attractions, from the former's third studio album Armed Forces (1979). The song is a new wave track that was lyrically inspired by the Troubles in Northern Ireland and includes lyrics critical of the socioeconomic components of war. Costello had traveled to Northern Ireland and was influenced by sights of British soldiers patrolling Belfast. Musically, the song features a glossy production and a keyboard performance inspired by ABBA, creating a juxtaposition between the lyrics and music that both critics and Costello himself have pointed out. Released as the first single from Armed Forces, "Oliver's Army" was Costello's most successful single in the United Kingdom, spending three weeks at number two on the UK Singles Chart and remaining on the chart for 12 weeks. The song also charted in New Zealand, the Netherlands, Ireland and Australia, and spawned a successful follow-up single, "Accidents Will Happen", that reached the top 30 in the UK. "Oliver's Army" has since been recognized by writers as one of the highlights of Armed Forces and has received critical acclaim for its melody, production, and lyrics. The song has appeared on numerous rankings of Costello's greatest songs, as well as on multiple compilation albums. It has been covered by multiple artists, including Blur and Frank Skinner. Costello wrote "Oliver's Army" as a comment on the Troubles in Northern Ireland during the 1970s. He was inspired to write the song after seeing British officers patrolling the streets of Belfast during a trip he took. He stated, "I made my first trip to Belfast in 1978 and saw mere boys walking around in battle dress with automatic weapons. They were no longer just on the evening news. These snapshot experiences exploded into visions of mercenaries and imperial armies around the world. The song was based on the premise 'they always get a working class boy to do the killing'". Costello's family had roots in the Northern Ireland conflict; as his father, Ross McManus, recalled, Oliver's Army' is an important track for me ... My grandfather was an Ulster Catholic, and as a child, I lived in an area where bigotry was rife". Costello's Irish grandfather, Pat McManus, had served as a British soldier during World War I and the Easter Rising. According to Sound on Sound, the title "Oliver" refers to English Parliamentarian leader Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658). In addition to the Troubles in Northern Ireland, the song references other "imperialist" conflicts in Hong Kong, Palestine and South Africa. However, Costello later explained that the song was not intended to be a comprehensive political piece; he said, "It wasn't supposed to read like a coherent political argument. It was pop music". He also pointed out that the opening lyrics "argued the absurdity of even trying to write about such a complex subject". The song lyrics contain the phrase "white nigger", a racial slur which usually remains uncensored on radio stations. The usage of the phrase came under scrutiny, particularly after Costello used racial slurs during a drunken argument with Stephen Stills and Bonnie Bramlett in 1979. That same year, Costello's father published a letter in Rolling Stone defending his son against accusations of racism, saying, "Nothing could be further from the truth. My own background has meant that I am passionately opposed to any form of prejudice based on religion or race. ... His mother comes from the tough multiracial area of Liverpool, and I think she would still beat the tar out of him if his orthodoxy were in doubt". In March 2013, the radio station BBC Radio 6 Music played the song with the phrase removed, despite BBC radio stations having played the song uncensored for over 30 years. This decision attracted public criticism, given the intended anti- racist and anti-war theme of the single. Dubbed "a 45 that radio could hardly refuse" by AllMusic's Mark Deming, "Oliver's Army" is a new wave song with a radio-friendly arrangement that has been described as "glossy". Deming noted the "pop-friendly production" and Costello's "almost jubilant-sounding vocal [distinct] from the traditionally dour (or threatening) Costello, who even embellished himself with some tight vocal harmony overdubs". The song was noted for keyboardist Steve Nieve's "buoyant" piano part, which was inspired by ABBA's 1976 hit single "Dancing Queen". Both Nieve and Costello have explicitly acknowledged the influence, with the latter calling "Dancing Queen" "manna from heaven". Many critics have made note of the juxtaposition between the song's music and lyrics; Jim Beviglia of American Songwriter said that Oliver's Army' heap[s] bucketfuls of the sweet stuff all over the instrumental arrangement to make sure his acerbic lyrics would get the audience they deserved", while Deming described the song as one of Costello's "most pungently political set of songs up to that time, but wrapped them in catchy melodies ... that gave Elvis the Menace a real chance at cracking the singles charts in America". Janet Maslin of Rolling Stone summed up the song's multiple dimensions, saying, "You can hear it one way, or the other way, or both. Elvis Costello doesn't seem to give a damn what you do, and that’s no small part of his charm". Costello later commented on this, saying, "I don't think [the song's] success was because of the lyrics. I always liked the idea of a bright pop tune that you could be singing along to for ages before you realize what it is you're actually singing. Of course, the downside of that is some people only hear the tune and never listen to the words. After a while, I got frustrated at that". "Oliver's Army" features the famous '50s progression, which is defined by an I–vi–IV–V progression common in doo-wop. The song also makes use of frequent key changes, beginning in A during the verses, changing briefly to C#7 at the end of the verse, and then changing to E in the pre-chorus before coming back to A in the chorus. "Oliver's Army" was first performed at the 1978 Roskilde Festival. At the time, the song was not seen as a potential hit. Bassist Bruce Thomas later said, "I wasn't particularly aware that that was going to be our anthemic song. ... It's hard to tell". Costello expected that the song would be used as a B-side. According to Costello, he was "about to scrap" the track until producer Nick Lowe convinced him to finish recording the song. However, the song was completed to be released on Costello's third album, Armed Forces (1979). "Oliver's Army" was released as the debut single from Armed Forces on 2 February 1979, backed with Costello's rendition of the 1937 show-tune "My Funny Valentine". The single was a commercial hit in the UK, reaching number two over a chart stay of 12 weeks. It was kept from the top position by "Tragedy" by the Bee Gees and "I Will Survive" by Gloria Gaynor. The single remains Costello's most successful UK single release, as he never reached number one in the UK. "Oliver's Army" was also a hit in other countries, reaching number four in Ireland, number 24 in Australia, and number 25 in New Zealand; however, the song failed to chart in the United States, despite radio airplay and the success of Armed Forces in the US. The follow-up single "Accidents Will Happen" also saw commercial success, charting at number 28 in the United Kingdom. A music video directed by Chuck Slatter for "Oliver's Army" was released in order to accompany the song. Filmed in Hawaii while Costello and the Attractions were on tour, the video was shot at 4 AM in a strip club after the band could not find another location. It aired on MTV's first US broadcast day on . As a result of the huge success of the single, Costello felt insecure about the relationship he had with his audience, particularly those who only recognized "Oliver's Army". As he later explained, "I saw people responding without any kind of understanding or consideration. We'd play a set where we'd play brilliantly all night and then we'd do our hit single and people would go crazy. Yet they would be bewildered by the rest of what we were doing". "Oliver's Army" has since been released on multiple compilation albums, including The Best of Elvis Costello and the Attractions, Girls Girls Girls, and The Very Best of Elvis Costello. "Oliver's Army" has attracted positive reviews from music critics. In 1979, Geoffrey Himes of The Washington Post praised the "compressed drama" of "Oliver's Army", along with all the other tracks on Armed Forces, and highlighted the song's lyrics, despite calling it "almost a direct steal from Spector's hit with the Ronettes, 'Baby, I Love You'". Maslin called the track the "pièce de résistance" of Armed Forces and praised the contrast between the song's music and lyrics. Douglas Wolk of Blender Magazine named the song as one of the key tracks from Armed Forces to download, while Matt LeMay of Pitchfork Media called the song "stunning". Author Graeme Thomson called the track the "pinnacle of Elvis' ability to be all things to all people" and praised the way Costello "melded serious lyrics to insanely catchy pop". The song has since been rated in numerous rankings as one of Costello's best songs. The Daily Telegraphs Martin Chilton ranked the song number one on his top 40 list of best Costello songs, calling it a "catchy tune with powerful lyrics". Jeremy Allen of The Guardian named the song one of the ten best Elvis Costello songs, describing the song as "so smart and subversive that many were unaware it was a protest song at all" and comparing it positively against his 1989 writing partner Paul McCartney's Irish protest song "Give Ireland Back to the Irish". Ryan J. Prado of Paste ranked the song Costello's ninth best and said that "the song is great no matter how thinly you spread its political agendas". Beviglia named the song Costello's 12th best, while Brian Hyatt of Entertainment Weekly named it one of his top 10 Costello songs. Throughout Costello's career, "Oliver's Army" has remained a mainstay of his live setlist; Thomson described the song as an "old crowd pleaser". Shortly after its release, Costello and the Attractions performed the song on television programs for promotion. In a piece for The Guardian, Costello mocked his dress from a performance of the song on the Kenny Everett Video Show, recalling, "During my 'Pop Star Period: 1978-79' I was a fashion disaster of checkerboard eyestrain. I wore powder-blue and pink suits, turquoise lamé jackets and pointy red leather Chelsea boots, but I usually appeared pretty glassy-eyed and shiny under the hot studio lights. No wonder the girls all swooned". Referencing his performance of "Oliver's Army" on Top of the Pops, Costello sardonically wrote, "Checkerboard jacket alert..." Costello performed "Oliver's Army", along with other political songs, as part of a 9 March 1984 protest concert against Margaret Thatcher during the 1984-85 mining strike. "Oliver's Army" was also performed at the 2013 Glastonbury Festival. Elvis Costello – guitar, vocals, Steve Nieve – piano, organ, synthesizer, Bruce Thomas – bass, Pete Thomas – drums Personnel per Armed Forces liner notes. Britpop band Blur recorded a version of the song for Peace Together, a compilation album released in 1993 to promote peace in Northern Ireland. OK Go released a cover on their 2014 rarity album The Compleat 12 Months of (Rare, Unreleased) OK Go, while Cannon and Ball released a version on their 1980 album Rock On Tommy. Comedian Frank Skinner performed the song when he impersonated Costello on a celebrity edition of Stars in Their Eyes in 1999, the mention of "nigger" replaced with "figure". Belle and Sebastian performed a live version of the song at a 2005 concert in Perth. "Oliver's Army" has also been performed by the original version's producer Nick Lowe, who sang the song at an event at the Great American Music Hall in 2010. The performance was part of an event titled "Costello Sings Lowe, Nick Sings Elvis – A Rare Bashing of Each Other's Songs", where Lowe and Costello performed each other's songs.

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"Spirit in the Sky" is a song written and originally recorded by Norman Greenbaum and released in late 1969. The single became a gold record, selling two million copies from 1969 to 1970, and reached number three on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart (April 18, 1970), where it lasted for 15 weeks in the Top 100, and #1 on WCFL on March 16, 1970 and on WLS on March 23, 1970, just before Easter. Billboard ranked the record the No. 22 song of 1970. It also climbed to number one on the UK, Australian and Canadian charts in 1970. Rolling Stone ranked "Spirit in the Sky" No. 333 on its list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. The song was featured on the 1969 album of the same name. Cover versions by Doctor and the Medics and Gareth Gates have also made the number 1 spot in the UK. "Spirit in the Sky" makes several religious references to Jesus, although Greenbaum is Jewish. In a 2006 interview with the New York Times, Greenbaum told a reporter he was inspired to write the song after watching Porter Wagoner singing a gospel song on TV. Greenbaum said: "I thought, 'Yeah, I could do that,' knowing nothing about gospel music, so I sat down and wrote my own gospel song. It came easy. I wrote the words in 15 minutes." Greenbaum had previously been a member of psychedelic jug band Dr. West's Medicine Show and Junk Band. When they split up he won a solo contract with producer Erik Jacobsen for Reprise Records. Jacobsen had previously worked with The Lovin' Spoonful and the song was included on Greenbaum's first solo album. The song's arrangement came together in the studio in San Francisco where lead guitarist Russell DaShiell, bass player Doug Killmer from the band Crowfoot and drummer Norman Mayell from the band Sopwith Camel worked with Greenbaum. According to the New York Times article, Greenbaum used a Fender Telecaster guitar with a fuzz box built into the body to generate the song's characteristic guitar sound. The resulting sound was an "oddly compelling" combination of gospel and hard rock music, with loud drums, distorted electric guitar, clapping hands, and tambourines. The production team brought in the Stovall Sisters, an Oakland-based gospel trio, to sing backing vocals. Because of the song's length and lyrics, the record company was initially reluctant to issue it, but was finally released as a single after two other singles from the album had poor sales. "Spirit in the Sky" became a worldwide hit, and was at the time the best-selling single ever for the Reprise label. There is a music video with Greenbaum singing the song. About the song, Greenbaum has been quoted as saying, "It sounds as fresh today as when it was recorded. I’ve gotten letters from funeral directors telling me that it's their second-most-requested song to play at memorial services, next to 'Danny Boy'." A version by Dorothy Combs Morrison reached #47 in Canada in November 1970. In 1986, Doctor and the Medics reached No. 1 in the UK singles chart with their version of the song, while the same year punk band Fuzzbox released their own less successful version. "Spirit in the Sky" served as the first single from Pop Idol runner-up Gareth Gates' second studio album, Go Your Own Way. The single was released on March 14, 2003, and was the official Comic Relief charity single for 2003. The song features guest vocals from The Kumars. The song peaked at number one on the UK Singles Chart, becoming Gates' fourth number one single. UK CD1 "Spirit in the Sky" – 3:29, "Dance Again" – 4:06, "Spirit in the Sky" (Gareth Only Version) – 3:25, "Spirit in the Sky" (Video) – 4:00 UK CD2 "Spirit in the Sky" – 3:29, "Will You Wait for Me?" – 4:13, "Interview With Gareth" – 5:00 UK DVD "Spirit in the Sky" (Video) – 4:00, "Dance Again" (Video) – 4:06, "Spirit in the Sky" (Making of the Video) – 3:25 Norman Joel Greenbaum (born November 20, 1942) is an American singer- songwriter. He is best known for writing and performing the 1969 song "Spirit in the Sky". Greenbaum was born in Malden, Massachusetts. He was raised in an Orthodox Jewish household and attended Hebrew school at Congregation Beth Israel. His initial interest in music was sparked by southern blues music and the folk music that was popular in the late 1950s and early 1960s. He performed with various bands in high school and studied music at Boston University for two years. In college he performed at local coffeehouses but eventually dropped out and moved to Los Angeles in 1965. Greenbaum is best known for his song "Spirit in the Sky". The song, with its combination of 'heavy' guitar, hand-clapping, and spiritual lyrics, was released by Reprise Records in 1969. It sold two million copies in 1969 and 1970, and received a gold disc from the RIAA. It has subsequently been used in many films, advertisements, and television shows. Although "Spirit in the Sky" has a clear Christian theme, Greenbaum was and remains an observant Jew. Greenbaum says he was inspired to write the song after watching country singers singing a song on television. In an interview Greenbaum stated that western movies were the real inspiration for "Spirit in the Sky": Norman Greenbaum: If you ask me what I based "Spirit In The Sky" on ... what did we grow up watching? Westerns! These mean and nasty varmints get shot and they wanted to die with their boots on. So to me that was spiritual, they wanted to die with their boots on. Ray Shasho: So that was the trigger that got you to write the song? Norman Greenbaum: Yes. The song itself was simple, when you're writing a song you keep it simple of course. It wasn't like a Christian song of praise it was just a simple song. I had to use Christianity because I had to use something. But more important it wasn't the Jesus part, it was the spirit in the sky. Funny enough ... I wanted to die with my boots on. Though Greenbaum is generally regarded as a one-hit wonder, several of his records placed prominently in the charts, including "Canned Ham" in 1970, which reached number 46 on the Billboard pop chart. In 1966, as the leader and composer of Dr. West's Medicine Show and Junk Band, he recorded the novelty hit "The Eggplant That Ate Chicago". In the 1960s Greenbaum also performed under the name Bruno Wolf with the Jim Kweskin Jug Band. Greenbaum has been a long-time resident of Santa Rosa, California. He was critically injured when the car in which he was a passenger made a left turn in the path of a motorcycle on Occidental Road on March 28, 2015, killing the motorcyclist and also injuring the motorcycle passenger. Greenbaum has since gone back to performing. Spirit in the Sky (1969), Norman Greenbaum with Dr. West's Medicine Show and Junk Band (1969), Back Home Again (1970), Petaluma (1972) Norway participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 2019. The Norwegian broadcaster Norsk rikskringkasting (NRK) organised the national final Melodi Grand Prix 2019 in order to select the Norwegian entry for the 2019 contest in Tel Aviv, Israel. Prior to the 2019 Contest, Norway had participated in the Eurovision Song Contest fifty-seven times since their first entry in . Norway had won the contest on three occasions: in 1985 with the song "La det swinge" performed by Bobbysocks!, in 1995 with the song "Nocturne" performed by Secret Garden and in 2009 with the song "Fairytale" performed by Alexander Rybak. Norway also had the two dubious distinctions of having finished last in the Eurovision final more than any other country and for having the most "nul points" (zero points) in the contest, the latter being a record the nation shared together with Austria. The country had finished last eleven times and had failed to score a point during four contests. Following the introduction of semi-finals in , Norway has only failed to qualify on three occasions. In 2018, Norway was represented by Alexander Rybak for the second time, with the song "That's How You Write a Song". The country placed 15th in the final with 144 points. The Norwegian national broadcaster, Norsk rikskringkasting (NRK), broadcasts the event within Norway and organises the selection process for the nation's entry. The broadcaster has traditionally organised the national final Melodi Grand Prix, which has selected the Norwegian entry for the Eurovision Song Contest in all but one of their participations. Melodi Grand Prix 2019 was the 57th edition of the Norwegian national final Melodi Grand Prix, and it selected Norway's entry for the Eurovision Song Contest 2019. A submission period was opened by NRK on 31 January 2018 and lasted until 9 September 2018, and more than 1000 entries were submitted. The submitted songs were reduced to about 60 songs which were then presented to various listening groups. Then the songs were reduced down to 10 finalists published by NRK during a press conference on 25 January 2019. The final songs were released for sale and streaming the same day. Carina Dahl (2011 and 2013 entrant) and Tom Hugo (2013 and 2018 entrant) are participants in the competition for the third time, while Erlend Bratland (2015 entrant), Alexandra Rotan (2018 entrant), Hank (von Hell) (2013 entrant) and Kjetil Mørland (2015 entrant and winner) participate for the second time. Project leader Stig Karlsen stated that he wanted a participatory field with "celebrities and artists that people know". At least two of the songs, respectively "We Try" by Chris Medina and "Mr. Unicorn" by D'Sound was asked internal to participate in the national final. Karlsen also stated that NRK would "do an even bigger job to bring forth some new talents as well". NRK has on several occasions said that Melodi Grand Prix 2019 seems to be "the largest MGP final". Ten songs competed during the final at the Oslo Spektrum on 2 March 2019, hosted by Heidi Ruud Ellingsen and Kåre Magnus Bergh. The ten finalist songs will first be performed once, before the viewers and ten international jury groups vote. In the first round, the votes of the viewers count 50 percent and the international jury's points the last 50 percent. The four best songs then go on to the gold final. In the gold final, the four gold finalists are set up in two pairs, where the winners of each pair then meet in a gold duel. Both in the gold finals and the gold duel, the Norwegian viewers choose the winner alone. First voting round In the first round, the international jury votes on the entries with points in the denominations 1–8, 10 and 12. There are ten international juries with five members in each group. In total, the ten juries will give a total of 580 points, and the TV viewers have as many points to distribute. If a song gets 10 percent of the votes, it also gets 10 percent of the viewers' 580 points - 58 points. The four songs with the most points advance to the gold final. The Gold Final and Duel In the gold final, the Norwegian viewers vote alone. After a short replay of the songs, the four gold finalists are put up in two pairs. The winners from each pair will then meet in a gold duel. The gold duelants takes with them the votes from the gold final's first part. According to Eurovision rules, all nations with the exceptions of the host country and the "Big 5" (France, Germany, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom) are required to qualify from one of two semi-finals in order to compete for the final; the top ten countries from each semi-final progress to the final. The European Broadcasting Union (EBU) split up the competing countries into six different pots based on voting patterns from previous contests, with countries with favourable voting histories put into the same pot. On 28 January 2019, a special allocation draw was held which placed each country into one of the two semi-finals, as well as which half of the show they would perform in. Norway was placed into the second semi-final, to be held on 16 May 2019, and was scheduled to perform in the second half of the show. Once all the competing songs for the 2019 contest had been released, the running order for the semi-finals was decided by the shows' producers rather than through another draw, so that similar songs were not placed next to each other. Norway was set to perform in position 15, following the entry from Albania and preceding the entry from Netherlands. Norway performed fifteenth in the second semi-final, following the entry from Albania and preceding the entry from Netherlands. At the end of the show, Norway was announced as having finished in the top 10 and subsequently qualifying for the grand final. It was later revealed that Norway placed seventh in the semi-final, receiving a total of 210 points: 170 points from the televoting and 40 points from the juries. Voting during the three shows involved each country awarding two sets of points from 1-8, 10 and 12: one from their professional jury and the other from televoting. Each nation's jury consisted of five music industry professionals who are citizens of the country they represent, with their names published before the contest to ensure transparency. This jury judged each entry based on: vocal capacity; the stage performance; the song's composition and originality; and the overall impression by the act. In addition, no member of a national jury was permitted to be related in any way to any of the competing acts in such a way that they cannot vote impartially and independently. The individual rankings of each jury member as well as the nation's televoting results were released shortly after the grand final. The following five members comprised the Norwegian jury: Knut Bjørnar Asphol – Chairperson – musician, music producer, songwriter, Finn-Ulrik Berntsen – music producer, Jenny Jenssen – artist, Kamilla Wigestrand – artist, songwriter, Maiken Kroken – musician, singer, vocal coach

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In medicine, venipuncture or venepuncture is the process of obtaining intravenous access for the purpose of intravenous therapy or for blood sampling of venous blood. In healthcare, this procedure is performed by medical laboratory scientists, medical practitioners, some EMTs, paramedics, phlebotomists, dialysis technicians, and other nursing staff. In veterinary medicine, the procedure is performed by veterinarians and veterinary technicians. It is essential to follow a standard procedure for the collection of blood specimens to get accurate laboratory results. Any error in collecting the blood or filling the test tubes may lead to erroneous laboratory results. Venipuncture is one of the most routinely performed invasive procedures and is carried out for any of five reasons: 1. to obtain blood for diagnostic purposes; 2. to monitor levels of blood components (Lavery & Ingram 2005); 3. to administer therapeutic treatments including medications, nutrition, or chemotherapy; 4. to remove blood due to excess levels of iron or erythrocytes (red blood cells); or 5. to collect blood for later uses, mainly transfusion either in the donor or in another person. Blood analysis is an important diagnostic tool available to clinicians within healthcare. Blood is most commonly obtained from the superficial veins of the upper limb. The median cubital vein, which lies within the cubital fossa anterior to the elbow, is close to the surface of the skin without many large nerves positioned nearby. Other veins that can be used in the cubital fossa for venipuncture include the cephalic, basilic, and median antebrachial. Minute quantities of blood may be taken by fingersticks sampling and collected from infants by means of a heel stick or from scalp veins with a winged infusion needle. Phlebotomy (incision into a vein) is also the treatment of certain diseases such as hemochromatosis and primary and secondary polycythemia. There are many ways in which blood can be drawn from a vein. The best method varies with the age of the patient, equipment available and tests required. Most blood collection in the US, UK, Canada and Hong Kong is done with an evacuated tube system, (two common systems are Vacutainer (Becton, Dickinson and company) and Vacuette (Greiner Bio-One). The equipment consists of a plastic adapter, a.k.a. tube or needle holder/ hub, a hypodermic needle and a vacuum tube. Under certain circumstances, a syringe may be used, often with a butterfly needle, which is a plastic catheter attached to a short needle. In the developing world, the evacuated tube system is the preferred method of drawing blood Greiner Bio-One manufactured the first ever plastic evacuated blood collection tube in 1985 under the VACUETTE brand name. Today, many companies sell vacuum tubes as the patent for this device is now in the public domain. These tubes are manufactured with a specific volume of gas removed from the sealed tube. When a needle from a hub or transfer device is inserted into the stopper, the tube's vacuum automatically pulls in the required volume of blood. The basic Evacuated Tube System (ETS) consists of a needle, a tube holder, and the evacuated tubes. The needle is attached to the tube holder by the phlebotomist prior to collection, or may come from the manufacturer as one unit. The needle protrudes through the end of the tube holder, and has a needle on each end. After first cleaning the venipuncture site and applying a tourniquet, the phlebotomist uncaps the needle attached to the tube holder, inserts the needle into the vein, then slides evacuated tubes into the tube holder, where the tube's stopper is pierced by the back end of the needle. The vacuum in the tube then automatically draws the needed blood directly from the patient's vein. Multiple vacuum tubes can be attached to and removed in turn from a single needle, allowing multiple samples to be obtained from a single procedure. This is possible due to the multiple sample sleeve, which is a flexible rubber fitting over the posterior end of the needle cannula which seals the needle until it is pushed out of the way. This keeps blood from freely draining out of the back of the needle inserted in the patient's vein, as each test tube is removed and the next impaled. OSHA safety regulations require that needles or tube holders come equipped with a safety device to cover the needle after the procedure to prevent accidental needle stick injury. Fittings and adapters used to fill evacuated tubes from butterfly needle kits and syringes are also available. There are several needle gauges for a phlebotomist to choose from. The most commonly used are as follows: a 21g (green top) needle, a 22g (black top) needle, a 21g (green label) butterfly needle, a 23g (light blue label) butterfly needle, and a 25g (orange or dark blue label) butterfly needle (however this needle is only used in pediatrics or extreme cases as it is so small that it can often result in hemolyzing the blood sample). There are also a variety of tube and bottle sizes and volumes for different test requirements. The test tubes in which blood is collected may contain one or more of several additives. In general, tests requiring whole blood call for blood samples collected in test tubes containing some form of the anticoagulant EDTA. EDTA chelates calcium to prevent clotting. EDTA is preferred for hematology tests because it does minimum damage to cell morphology. Sodium Citrate is the anticoagulant used in specimens collected for coagulation tests. The majority of chemistry and immunology tests are performed on serum, which is produced by clotting and then separating the blood specimen via centrifuge. These specimens are collected in either a non-additive tube or one containing a clotting activator. This clotting activator can interfere with some assays, and so a plain tube is recommended in these cases, but will delay testing. Tubes containing lithium heparin or sodium heparin are also commonly used for a variety of chemistry tests, as they do not require clotting and can be centrifuged immediately after collection. A combination of sodium fluoride and potassium oxalate is used for glucose tests, as these additives both prevent clotting and stop glycolosis, so that blood glucose levels are preserved after collection. Another specialty tube is an opaque amber colored tube used to collect blood for light sensitive analytes, such as bilirubin. Test tubes are labeled with the additive they contain, but the stopper on each tube is color coded according to additive as well. While colors vary between manufacturers, stopper colors generally are associated with each additive as listed below. Because the additives from each tube can be left on the needle used to fill the tubes, they must be drawn in a specific order to ensure that cross contamination will not negatively affect testing of the samples if multiple tubes are to be drawn at once. The "order of draw" varies by collection method. Below in the order of draw generally required for the Evacuated Tube System (ETS) collection method are the most common tubes, listing additive and color: 1. Blood cultures and sterile collections (culture bottles) 2. Sodium citrate (light blue) 3. No additive (red), Silica clot activator (red and black striped or gold SST) 4. Lithium Heparin (light green PST) 5. Sodium Heparin (green) 6. K2 EDTA, K3 EDTA (purple/lavender, pink, white PPT) 7. Sodium fluoride and potassium oxalate (grey) 8. Tube containing EDTA or clot activator or no additive used for testing trace elements (Navy/royal blue) 9. ACD (yellow) and any other tubes Use of lidocaine iontophoresis is effective for reducing pain and alleviating distress during venipuncture in pediatric patients. A needle-free powder lignocaine delivery system has been shown to decrease the pain of venipuncture in children. Rapid dermal anesthesia can be achieved by local anesthetic infiltration, but it may evoke anxiety in children frightened by needles or distort the skin, making vascular access more difficult and increasing the risk of needle exposure to health care workers. Dermal anesthesia can also be achieved without needles by the topical application of local anesthetics or by lidocaine iontophoresis. By contrast, noninvasive dermal anesthesia can be established in 5–15 min without distorting underlying tissues by lidocaine iontophoresis, where a direct electric current facilitates dermal penetration of positively charged lidocaine molecules when placed under the positive electrode. One study concluded that the iontophoretic administration of lidocaine was safe and effective in providing dermal anesthesia for venipuncture in children 6–17 years old. This technique may not be applicable to all children. Future studies may provide information on the minimum effective iontophoretic dose for dermal anesthesia in children and the comparison of the anesthetic efficacy and satisfaction of lidocaine iontophoresis with topical anesthetic creams and subcutaneous infiltration. Non-pharmacological treatments for pain associated with venipuncture in children includes hypnosis and distraction. These treatments reduced self reported pain and when combined with cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) the reduction of pain was even greater. Other interventions have not been found to be effective and these are suggestion, blowing out air, and distraction with parent coaching did not differ from control for pain and distress. Some health care workers prefer to use a syringe-needle technique for venipuncture. Sarstedt manufactures a blood-drawing system S-Monovette that uses this principle. This method can be preferred on elderly patients, oncology patients, severely burned patients, obese patients or patients with unreliable or fragile veins. Because syringes are manually operated, the amount of suction applied may be easily controlled. This is particularly helpful with patients who have small veins that collapse under the suction of an evacuated tube. In children or other circumstances where the quantity of blood gained may be limited it can be helpful to know how much blood can be obtained before distributing it amongst the various additives that the laboratory will require. There are times where a patient may require a blood culture collection. The culture will determine if the patient has pathogens in the blood. Normally blood is sterile. When drawing blood from cultures use a sterile solution such as Betadine rather than alcohol. This is done using sterile gloves, while not wiping away the surgical solution, touching the puncture site, or in any way compromising the sterile process. It is vital that the procedure is performed in as sterile a manner as possible as the persistent presence of skin commensals in blood cultures could indicate endocarditis but they are most often found as contaminants. It is encouraged to use an abrasive method of skin preparation. This removes the upper layers of dead skin cells along with their contaminating bacteria. Povidone-iodine has traditionally been used but in the UK a 2% chlorhexidine in 70% ethanol or isopropyl alcohol solution is preferred and time must be allowed for it to dry. The tops of any containers used when drawing a blood culture should also be disinfected using a similar solution. Some labs will actively discourage iodine use where iodine is thought to degrade the rubber stopper through which blood enters the bottle, thus allowing contaminates to enter the container. The blood is collected into special transport bottles, which are like vacuum tubes but shaped differently. The blood culture bottle contains transport media to preserve any microorganisms present while they are being transported to the laboratory for cultures. Because it is unknown whether the pathogens are anaerobic (living without oxygen) or aerobic (living with oxygen), blood is collected to test for both. The aerobic bottle is filled first, and then the anaerobic bottle is filled. However, if the collection is performed using a syringe, the anaerobic bottle is filled first. If a butterfly collection kit is used, the aerobic bottle is filled first, so that any air in the tubing is released into the oxygen-containing bottle. Specially designed blood culture collection bottles eliminate the need for either the syringe or butterfly collection method. These specially designed bottles have long necks that fit into the evacuated tubes holders that are use for regular venipuncture collection. These bottles also allow for collection of other blood specimens via evacuated tubes, to be collected without additional venipuncture. The amount of blood that is collected is critical for the optimal recovery of microorganisms. Up to 10mL of blood is typical, but can vary according to the recommends of the manufacturer of the collection bottle. Collection from infants and children are 1 to 5 mL. If too little blood is collected, the ratio of blood-to- nutrient broth will inhibit the growth of microorganisms. If too much blood is collected from the patient, the patient risks a hospital-induced anemia and the ratio of blood-to-nutrient broth will tilt in the opposite direction, which also is not conductive to optimal growth. The bottles are then incubated in specialized units for 24 hours before a lab technician studies and/or tests it. This step allows the very small numbers of bacteria (potentially 1 or 2 organisms) to multiply to a level which is sufficient for identification +/-antibiotic resistance testing. Modern blood culture bottles have an indicator in the base which changes color in the presence of bacterial growth and can be read automatically by machine. (For this reason the barcoded stickers found on these bottles should not be removed as they are used by the laboratory's automated systems.) Blood samples from living laboratory animals may be collected using following methods: Blood collection not requiring anesthesia:, Saphenous vein (rat, mice, guinea pig), Dorsal pedal vein (rat, mice), Blood collection requiring anesthesia (local/general anesthesia):, Tail vein (rat, mice), Tail snip (mice), Orbital sinus (rat, mice), Jugular vein (rat, mice), Temporary cannula (rat, mice), Blood vessel cannulation (guinea pig, ferret), Tarsal vein (guinea pig), Marginal ear vein or artery (rabbit), Terminal procedure:, Cardiac puncture (rat, mice, guinea pig, rabbit, ferret), Orbital sinus (rat, mice), Posterior vena cava (rat, mice) The volume of the blood sample collection is very important in experimental animals. All nonterminal blood collection without replacement of fluids is limited up to 10% of total circulating blood volume in healthy, normal, adult animals on a single occasion and collection may be repeated after three to four weeks. In case repeated blood samples are required at short intervals, a maximum of 0.6 ml/kg/day or 1.0% of an animal's total blood volume can be removed every 24 hours. The estimated blood volume in adult animals is 55 to 70 ml/kg body weight. Care should be taken for older and obese animals. If blood collection volume exceeds more than 10% of total blood volume, fluid replacement may be required. Lactated Ringer's solution (LRS) is recommended as the best fluid replacement by National Institutes of Health (NIH). If the volume of blood collection exceeds more than 30% of the total circulatory blood volume, adequate care should be taken so that the animal does not suffer from hypovolemia. It is generally not advisable to use isopropyl alcohol to cleanse the venipuncture site when obtaining a specimen for a blood alcohol test. This has been related largely to the potential legal implications associated with use of alcohol based cleaners that could theoretically impact analysis. Numerous police alcohol collection kits have been marketed that incorporate a sodium fluoride/potassium oxalate preservative and non-alcohol based cleansing agents to ensure proper collection. Using soap and hot water or a povidone iodine swab are advisable alternatives to isopropyl alcohol in this case. Arterial blood is taken from an artery instead of a vein., Blood donation, Fingerstick, Neonatal heel prick, Phlebotomist, Vacutainer Phlebotomy details A Vacutainer blood collection tube is a sterile glass or plastic test tube with a colored rubber stopper creating a vacuum seal inside of the tube, facilitating the drawing of a predetermined volume of liquid. Vacutainer tubes may contain additives designed to stabilize and preserve the specimen prior to analytical testing. Tubes are available with a safety-engineered stopper, with a variety of labeling options and draw volumes. The color of the top indicates the additives in the vial. Vacutainer tubes were invented by Joseph Kleiner and Becton Dickinson in 1949. Vacutainer is a registered trademark of Becton Dickinson, which manufactures and sells the tubes today. Vacutainer needle are double ended, with one side being encased in a thin rubber coating for safety. When the needle is screwed into the translucent plastic needle holder, the rubber needle is inside the holder, and the exposed needle will be inserted into the vein. When a Vacutainer tube is inserted into the holder, its rubber cap is punctured by the inner needle and the vacuum in the tube pulls blood through the needle and into the tube. The filled tube is then removed and another can be inserted and filled the same way. The amount of air evacuated from the tube predetermines how much blood will fill the tube before blood stops flowing. Each tube is topped with a color-coded plastic or rubber cap. Tubes often include additives that mix with the blood when collected, and the color of each tube's plastic cap indicates which additives it contains. Blood collection tubes expire because over time the vacuum is lost and blood will not be drawn into the tube when the needle punctures the cap. Vacutainer tubes may contain additional substances that preserve blood for processing in a medical laboratory. Using the wrong tube may make the blood sample unusable for the intended purpose. These additives are typically thin film coatings applied using an ultrasonic nozzle. The additives may include anticoagulants (EDTA, sodium citrate, heparin) or a gel with density between those of blood cells and blood plasma. Additionally, some tubes contain additives that preserve certain components of or substances within the blood, such as glucose. When a tube is centrifuged, the materials within are separated by density, with the blood cells sinking to the bottom and the plasma or serum accumulating at the top. Tubes containing gel can be easily handled and transported after centrifugation without the blood cells and serum mixing. The meanings of the various colors are standardized across manufacturers. The term order of draw refers to the sequence in which tubes should be filled. The needle which pierces the tubes can carry additives from one tube into the next, so the sequence is standardized so that any cross- contamination of additives will not affect laboratory results. Gold or "tiger" red/black top: clot activator and gel for serum separation, Red top (plastic, not glass): clot activator but no serum separation gel, Orange or grey/yellow "tiger" top: thrombin, a rapid clot activator, for stat serum testing Green: sodium heparin or lithium heparin used for plasma determinations in clinical chemistry (e.g. urea and electrolyte determination). Sodium heparin collection tubes are the classically preferred tube for peripheral blood or bone marrow for cytogenetic studies. Lithium heparin is considered suboptimal for cytogenetics., Light green or green/gray "tiger": for plasma determinations., Purple or lavender: K EDTA. This is a strong anticoagulant and these tubes are usually used for complete blood counts (CBC). Lavender top tubes are generally used when whole blood is needed for analysis. Can also be used for some blood bank procedures such as blood type and screen. EDTA tubes are preferred by most molecular genetics laboratories for molecular genetic studies (DNA or RNA)., Grey: sodium fluoride and oxalate. Fluoride prevents enzymes in the blood from working, by preventing glycolysis so a substrate such as glucose will not be gradually used up during storage. Oxalate is an anticoagulant., Light blue: sodium citrate. Citrate is a reversible anticoagulant, and these tubes are used for coagulation assays., Dark blue: EDTA. These tubes are used for trace metal analysis., Black: used for Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR). Red (glass): contains no additives., Light yellow: contains sodium polyanethol sulfonate (SPS). Used for blood culture specimens or acid-citrate-dextrose (ACD), used for blood bank studies, HLA phenotyping, and paternity testing., Tan (glass or plastic): contains either sodium heparin (glass) or KEDTA (plastic). Used for lead determinations. These tubes are certified to contain no lead. Vacutainer technology was developed in 1947 by Joseph Kleiner, and is currently marketed by Becton Dickinson (B-D). The Vacutainer was preceded by other vacuum-based phlebotomy technology such as the Keidel vacuum. The plastic tube version, known as Vacutainer PLUS, was developed at B-D in the early 1990s by E. Vogler, D. Montgomery and G. Harper amongst others of the Surface Science Group as US patents 5344611, 5326535, 5320812, 5257633 and 5246666. Vacutainers are widely used in phlebotomy in developed countries due to safety and ease of use. Vacutainers have the advantage of being prepared with additives, allowing easy multi-tube draws, and having a lower chance of hemolysis. In developing countries, it is still common to draw blood using a syringe or syringes. Animated Vacutainer Procedure with Order of Draw, Blood Collection Tube Coating Video In medicine, a catheter is a thin tube made from medical grade materials serving a broad range of functions. Catheters are medical devices that can be inserted in the body to treat diseases or perform a surgical procedure. By modifying the material or adjusting the way catheters are manufactured, it is possible to tailor catheters for cardiovascular, urological, gastrointestinal, neurovascular, and ophthalmic applications. Catheters can be inserted into a body cavity, duct, or vessel. Functionally, they allow drainage, administration of fluids or gases, access by surgical instruments, and also perform a wide variety of other tasks depending on the type of catheter. The process of inserting a catheter is "catheterization". In most uses, a catheter is a thin, flexible tube ("soft" catheter) though catheters are available in varying levels of stiffness depending on the application. A catheter left inside the body, either temporarily or permanently, may be referred to as an "indwelling catheter" (for example, a peripherally inserted central catheter). A permanently inserted catheter may be referred to as a "permcath" (originally a trademark). Placement of a catheter into a particular part of the body may allow: urinary catheter: draining urine from the urinary bladder as in urinary catheterization, e.g., the intermittent catheters or Foley catheter or even when the urethra is damaged as in suprapubic catheterisation., drainage of urine from the kidney by percutaneous (through the skin) nephrostomy, drainage of fluid collections, e.g. an abdominal abscess, pigtail catheter: used to drain air from around the lung (pneumothorax), administration of intravenous fluids, medication or parenteral nutrition with a peripheral venous catheter, angioplasty, angiography, balloon septostomy, balloon sinuplasty, cardiac electrophysiology testing, catheter ablation. Often the Seldinger technique is used., direct measurement of blood pressure in an artery or vein, direct measurement of intracranial pressure, administration of anaesthetic medication into the epidural space, the subarachnoid space, or around a major nerve bundle such as the brachial plexus, administration of oxygen, volatile anesthetic agents, and other breathing gases into the lungs using a tracheal tube, subcutaneous administration of insulin or other medications, with the use of an infusion set and insulin pump, A central venous catheter is a conduit for giving drugs or fluids into a large-bore catheter positioned either in a vein near the heart or just inside the atrium., A Swan-Ganz catheter is a special type of catheter placed into the pulmonary artery for measuring pressures in the heart., An embryo transfer catheter is designed to insert fertilized embryos from in vitro fertilization into the uterus. They may vary in length from approximately ., An umbilical line is a catheter used in neonatal intensive care units (NICU) providing quick access to the central circulation of premature infants., A Tuohy-Borst adapter is a medical device used for attaching catheters to various other devices., A Quinton catheter is a double or triple lumen, external catheter used for hemodialysis., An intrauterine catheter, such as a device known as a 'tom cat', may be used to insert specially 'washed' sperm directly into the uterus in artificial insemination. A physician is required to administer this procedure., A Whiz Catheter is a medical grade device that does not need to be inserted but is a conduit for the passing of urine in woman who are mobility impaired and can be connected to a drainage bag or bottle Ancient Chinese used onion stalks, the Romans, Hindus, and Greeks used tubes of wood or precious metals. The ancient Syrians created catheters from reeds. "Catheter" (from Greek καθετήρ kathetḗr) originally referred to any instrument that was inserted, such as a plug. It comes from the Greek verb καθίεμαι kathíemai, meaning "let down", because the catheter was 'let down' into the body. The earliest invention of the flexible catheter was during the 18th century. Extending his inventiveness to his family's medical problems, Benjamin Franklin invented the flexible catheter in 1752 when his brother John suffered from bladder stones. Franklin's catheter was made of metal with segments hinged together with a wire enclosed to provide rigidity during insertion. According to a footnote in his letter in Volume 4 of the Papers of Benjamin Franklin (1959), Benjamin Franklin credits Francesco Roncelli-Pardino from 1720 as the inventor of a flexible catheter. In fact, Benjamin Franklin claims the flexible catheter may have been designed even earlier. An early modern application of the catheter was employed by Claude Bernard for the purpose of cardiac catheterization in 1844. The procedure involved entering a horse's ventricles via the jugular vein and carotid artery. This appears to be an earlier and modern application of the catheter because this catheter approach technique is still performed by neurosurgeons, cardiologists, and cardiothoracic surgeons. David S. Sheridan was the inventor of the modern disposable catheter in the 1940s. In his lifetime he started and sold four catheter companies and was dubbed the "Catheter King" by Forbes magazine in 1988. He is also credited with the invention of the modern "disposable" plastic endotracheal tube now used routinely in surgery. Prior to his invention, red rubber tubes were used, sterilized, and then re-used, which had a high risk of infection and thus often led to the spread of disease. As a result, Mr Sheridan is credited with saving thousands of lives. In the early 1900s, a Dubliner named Walsh and a famous Scottish urinologist called Norman Gibbon teamed together to create the standard catheter used in hospitals today. Named after the two creators, it was called the Gibbon-Walsh catheter. The Gibbon and the Walsh catheters have been described and their advantages over other catheters shown. The Walsh catheter is particularly useful after prostatectomy for it drains the bladder without infection or clot retention. The Gibbon catheter has largely obviated the necessity of performing emergency prostatectomy. It is also very useful in cases of urethral fistula. A simple procedure such as dilatation of the urethra and passage of a Gibbon catheter often causes the fistula to close. This catheter is also of use in the treatment of urethral stricture and, as a temporary measure, in the treatment of retention of urine caused by carcinoma of the prostate. A range of polymers are used for the construction of catheters, including silicone rubber, nylon, polyurethane, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), latex, and thermoplastic elastomers. Silicone is one of the most common choices because it is inert and unreactive to body fluids and a range of medical fluids with which it might come into contact. On the other hand, the polymer is weak mechanically, and a number of serious fractures have occurred in catheters. For example, silicone is used in Foley catheters where fractures have been reported, often requiring surgery to remove the tip left in the bladder. Polyimides are used to manufacture vascular catheters for insertion into small vessels in the neck, head and brain. There are many different types of catheters for bladder problems. A typical modern intermittent catheter is made from polyurethane and comes in different lengths and sizes for men, women and children. The most advanced catheters have a thin hydrophilic surface coating. When immersed in water this coating swells to a smooth, slippery film making the catheter safer and more comfortable to insert. Some catheters are packed in a sterile saline solution. Different catheter tips can be used to guide the catheter into the target vessel. Cardiac catheterization (cardiac cath or heart cath) is a procedure to examine how well your heart is working. A thin, hollow tube called a catheter is inserted into a large blood vessel that leads to your heart. A cardiac cath provides information on how well your heart works, identifies problems and allows for procedures to open blocked arteries. The doctor will make a needle puncture through your skin and into a large blood vessel. A small straw-sized tube (called a sheath) will be inserted into the vessel. The doctor will gently guide a catheter (a long, thin tube) into your vessel through the sheath. A video screen will show the position of the catheter as it is threaded through the major blood vessels and to the heart. You may feel some pressure in your groin, but you shouldn’t feel any pain. Various instruments may be placed at the tip of the catheter. They include instruments to measure the pressure of blood in each heart chamber and in blood vessels connected to the heart, view the interior of blood vessels, take blood samples from different parts of the heart, or remove a tissue sample (biopsy) from inside the heart. The catheter used for hemodialysis is a tunneled catheter because it is placed under the skin. There are two types of tunneled catheters: cuffed or non-cuffed. Non-cuffed tunneled catheters are used for emergencies and for short periods (up to 3 weeks). Tunneled cuffed catheters, a type recommended by the NKF for temporary access, can be used for longer than 3 weeks when: \- An AV fistula or graft has been placed but is not yet ready for use. \- There are no other options for permanent access. For example, when a patient's blood vessels are not strong enough for a fistula or graft. Catheters have two openings inside; one is a red (arterial) opening to draw blood from your vein and out of your body into the dialysis pathway and the other is a blue (venous) opening that allows cleaned blood to return to your body. Hemodialysis is a treatment used when your kidneys fail (Stage 5 Kidney Disease) and can no longer clean your blood and remove extra fluid from your body. A hemodialysis access or vascular access is a way to reach your blood for hemodialysis. Catheters can be difficult to clean, and therefore harbor antibiotic resistant or otherwise pathogenic bacteria. Cannula, French catheter scale, Gastrostomy, G-Tube, Jejunostomy, Stent

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The Battle of Cantigny, fought May 28, 1918 was the first major American battle and offensive of World War I. The U.S. 1st Division, the most experienced of the five American divisions then in France and in reserve for the French Army near the village of Cantigny, was selected for the attack. The objective of the attack was both to reduce a small salient made by the German Army in the front lines but also to instill confidence among the French. At 06:45 [H Hour] on May 28, 1918, American soldiers of the 28th Infantry Regiment left their jump-off trenches following an hour-long artillery preparation. Part of the preparation was counter-battery fire directed at German artillery positions. A rolling barrage, advancing 100 meters every two minutes, was calculated to give the attacking troops time to keep up with it. The 28th Infantry Regiment (Colonel Hansen Ely, commanding) plus two companies of the 18th Infantry Regiment, three machine-gun companies and a company of engineers (3,564 men), captured Cantigny from units of the German Eighteenth Army. The village was situated on high ground surrounded by woods, making it an ideal observation post for German artillery. Because the Americans did not have them in sufficient quantity, the French provided air cover, 368 heavy artillery pieces, trench mortars, tanks, and flamethrowers. The French Schneider tanks were from the French 5th Tank Battalion. Their primary purpose was to eliminate German machine gun positions. With this massive support, and advancing on schedule behind the creeping artillery barrage, the 28th Infantry took the village in 30 minutes. It then continued on to its final objective roughly a half kilometer beyond the village. The first German counterattack, a small attack at 08:30 against the extreme right of the new American position, was easily repulsed, but German artillery bombarded the 28th Infantry for most of the day. At 17:10 the first large- scale counterattack took place, and a company of the 1st Battalion of the 26th Infantry Regiment commanded by Major Theodore Roosevelt, Jr. was used to reinforce a weak spot in the American line. Another German counterattack at 18:40 was also repulsed by a combination of artillery and infantry defensive fire. A series of counterattacks over the next two days were also defeated by both American regiments, and the position held. The Americans reduced the salient and expanded their front by approximately a mile. A minor success, its significance was overshadowed by the battle underway along the Aisne. The U.S. forces held their position with the loss of 1,603 casualties, including 199 killed in action; they captured 250 German prisoners. Matthew B. Juan, an American Indian, was killed during this battle. The American success at Cantigny assured the French that American divisions could be depended upon in the line against the German offensive to take Paris. The victory at Cantigny was followed by attacks at Château-Thierry and Belleau Wood in the first half of June. In 1923, The American Battle Monuments Commission (ABMC) erected 25 battle monuments, including one in the village of Cantigny that was dedicated on August 9, 1937. At the unveiling of this monument, a speech was given (at the invitation of General John J. Pershing) by Col. Robert R. McCormick, who had commanded the 1st Battalion of the 5th Field Artillery Regiment at the battle. On one side of the memorial appears the inscription: On another side of the memorial appears the inscription: French translations of these inscriptions appear on the opposite sides of the monument. A First Division Monument located along the road ½ mile southeast of Cantigny is one of five erected by the First Division itself in 1919. The names of the dead in the vicinity of Cantigny are engraved on the bronze plates. The monument is like a small concrete shaft, surmounted by a carved eagle of stone. In the center of Cantigny, a small monument was dedicated in 2005 by the McCormick Foundation to commemorate the participation of Colonel Robert R. McCormick in the historic 1st Battalion, 5th Field Artillery, the oldest American military unit on continuous active duty (dating back to the American Revolutionary War), then part of the First Division. In 1960, the McCormick Foundation opened the Cantigny War Memorial of the First Division, where materials from Chicago veterans were then collected. On May 28, 2008, the 90th anniversary of the Battle of Cantigny, the McCormick Foundation and the Association of the 28th Infantry Regiment dedicated the statue "The Lion of Cantigny," an original bronze work by Stephen Spears depicting a doughboy of the regiment advancing through the village. The 28th Infantry was the assault regiment in the First Division's attack, the first major US battle of World War I. The regimental coat of arms is based on the lions in the heraldic arms of Picardy, where Cantigny is; the regiment's nickname is Black Lions. Cantigny Park, Somme American Cemetery and Memorial Notes References Panel Discussion. The American entry into World War I came in April 1917, after more than two and a half years of efforts by President Woodrow Wilson to keep the United States out of the war. Apart from an Anglophile element urging early support for the British, American public opinion reflected that of the president: the sentiment for neutrality was particularly strong among Irish Americans, German Americans, and Scandinavian Americans, as well as among church leaders and among women in general. On the other hand, even before World War I had broken out, American opinion had been more negative toward Germany than toward any other country in Europe. Over time, especially after reports of atrocities in Belgium in 1914 and following the sinking of the passenger liner RMS Lusitania in 1915, American citizens increasingly came to see Germany as the aggressor in Europe. Wilson, as president, made virtually all the key decisions over foreign policy. While the country was at peace, American banks made huge loans to Britain and France, which were used mainly to buy munitions, raw materials, and food from across the Atlantic. Until 1917, Wilson made minimal preparations for a land war and kept the United States Army on a small peacetime footing, despite increasing demands for enhanced preparedness. He did, however, expand the United States Navy. In 1917, with Russia experiencing political upheaval, and with Britain and France low on credit, Germany appeared to have the upper hand in Europe, while the Ottoman Empire, Germany's ally, held on to its territory in modern-day Iraq, Syria and Palestine. At this point Germany decided to resume unrestricted submarine warfare; the aim was to starve Britain into surrender, although the German high command realized that sinking American-flagged ships would almost certainly bring the United States into the war. Germany also made a secret offer to help Mexico regain territories lost in the Mexican–American War in an encoded telegram known as the Zimmermann Telegram, which was intercepted by British intelligence. Publication of that communique outraged Americans just as German U-boats started sinking American merchant ships in the North Atlantic. Wilson then asked Congress for "a war to end all wars" that would "make the world safe for democracy", and Congress voted to declare war on Germany on April 6, 1917. U.S. troops began arriving on the Western Front in large numbers in 1918. Britain used its large navy to prevent cargo vessels entering German ports, mainly by intercepting them in the North Sea between the coasts of Scotland and Norway. The wider sea approaches to Britain and France, their distance from German harbours and the smaller size of the German surface fleet all made it harder for Germany to reciprocate. Instead, Germany used submarines to lie in wait for, and then sink, merchant ships heading for enemy ports. The United States insisted on maintaining the traditional rights of ships registered in neutral countries and protested strongly against American ships being intercepted or sunk: the British seized American ships for supposed violations, while the Germans sank them — often without warning, in violation of international law that said sailors must be allowed an opportunity to reach their lifeboats. After several violations, Germany stopped this practice but in early 1917 she decided to resume unrestricted submarine warfare, in the hope that this would starve out the British before the Americans could make any effective military retaliation. The British Royal Navy successfully stopped the shipment of most war supplies and food to Germany. Neutral American ships that tried to trade with Germany were seized or turned back by the Royal Navy who viewed such trade as in direct conflict with the Allies' war efforts. The strangulation came about very slowly, because Germany and its allies controlled extensive farmlands and raw materials. It was eventually successful because Germany and Austria- Hungary had decimated their agricultural production by taking so many farmers into their armies. By 1918, German cities were on the verge of starvation; the front-line soldiers were on short rations and were running out of essential supplies. Germany also considered a blockade. "England wants to starve us", said Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, the man who built the German fleet and who remained a key advisor to the Kaiser Wilhelm II. "We can play the same game. We can bottle her up and destroy every ship that endeavors to break the blockade". Unable to challenge the more powerful Royal Navy on the surface, Tirpitz wanted to scare off merchant and passenger ships en route to Britain. He reasoned that since the island of Britain depended on imports of food, raw materials, and manufactured goods, scaring off a substantial number of the ships would effectively undercut its long-term ability to maintain an army on the Western Front. While Germany had only nine long-range U-boats at the start of the war, it had ample shipyard capacity to build the hundreds needed. However, the United States demanded that Germany respect the international agreements upon "freedom of the seas", which protected neutral American ships on the high seas from seizure or sinking by either belligerent. Furthermore, Americans insisted that the drowning of innocent civilians was barbaric and grounds for a declaration of war. The British frequently violated America's neutral rights by seizing ships. Wilson's top advisor, Colonel Edward M. House commented that, "The British have gone as far as they possibly could in violating neutral rights, though they have done it in the most courteous way". When Wilson protested British violations of American neutrality, the British backed down. German submarines torpedoed ships without warning, causing sailors and passengers to drown. Berlin explained that submarines were so vulnerable that they dared not surface near merchant ships that might be carrying guns and which were too small to rescue submarine crews. Britain armed most of its merchant ships with medium calibre guns that could sink a submarine, making above-water attacks too risky. In February 1915, the United States warned Germany about misuse of submarines. On April 22, the German Imperial Embassy warned U.S. citizens against boarding vessels to Britain, which would have to face German attack. On May 7, Germany torpedoed the British passenger liner RMS Lusitania, sinking her. This act of aggression caused the loss of 1,198 civilian lives, including 128 Americans. The sinking of a large, unarmed passenger ship, combined with the previous stories of atrocities in Belgium, shocked Americans and turned public opinion hostile to Germany, although not yet to the point of war. Wilson issued a warning to Germany that it would face "strict accountability" if it sank more neutral U.S. passenger ships. Berlin acquiesced, ordering its submarines to avoid passenger ships. By January 1917, however, Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich Ludendorff decided that an unrestricted submarine blockade was the only way to achieve a decisive victory. They demanded that Kaiser Wilhelm order unrestricted submarine warfare be resumed. Germany knew this decision meant war with the United States, but they gambled that they could win before America's potential strength could be mobilized. However, they overestimated how many ships they could sink and thus the extent Britain would be weakened. Finally, they did not foresee that convoys could and would be used to defeat their efforts. They believed that the United States was so weak militarily that it could not be a factor on the Western Front for more than a year. The civilian government in Berlin objected, but the Kaiser sided with his military. The beginning of war in Europe coincided with the end of the Recession of 1913–1914 in America. Exports to belligerent nations rose rapidly over the first four years of the War from $824.8 million in 1913 to $2.25 billion in 1917. Loans from American financial institutions to the Allied nations in Europe also increased dramatically over the same period. Economic activity towards the end of this period boomed as government resources aided the production of the private sector. Between 1914 and 1917, industrial production increased 32% and GNP increased by almost 20%. The improvements to industrial production in the United States outlasted the war. The capital build-up that had allowed American companies to supply belligerents and the American army resulted in a greater long-run rate of production even after the war had ended in 1918. In 1913, J. P. Morgan, Jr. took over the House of Morgan, an American-based investment bank consisting of separate banking operations in New York, London, and Paris, after the death of his father, J. Pierpont Morgan. The House of Morgan offered assistance in the wartime financing of Britain and France from the earliest stages of the war in 1914 through America's entrance in 1917. J.P. Morgan & Co., the House of Morgan's bank in New York, was designated as the primary financial agent to the British government in 1914 after successful lobbying by the British ambassador, Sir Cecil Spring Rice. The same bank would later take a similar role in France and would offer extensive financial assistance to both warring nations. J.P. Morgan &Co.; became the primary issuer of loans to the French government by raising money from American investors. Morgan, Harjes, the House of Morgan's French affiliated bank, controlled the majority of the wartime financial dealings between the House of Morgan and the French government after primary issuances of debt in American markets. Relations between the House of Morgan and the French government became tense as the war raged on with no end in sight. France's ability to borrow from other sources diminished, leading to greater lending rates and a depressing of the value of the franc. After the war, in 1918, J.P. Morgan & Co. continued to aid the French government financially through monetary stabilization and debt relief. Because America was still a declared neutral state, the financial dealings of American banks in Europe caused a great deal of contention between Wall Street and the U.S. government. Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan strictly opposed financial support of warring nations and wanted to ban loans to the belligerents in August 1914. He told President Wilson that "refusal to loan to any belligerent would naturally tend to hasten a conclusion of the war." Wilson at first agreed, but then reversed himself when France argued that if it was legal to buy American goods then it was legal to take out credits on the purchase. J.P. Morgan issued loans to France including one in March 1915 and, following negotiations with the Anglo-French Financial Commission, another joint loan to Britain and France in October 1915, the latter amounting to US$500,000,000. Although the stance of the U.S. government was that stopping such financial assistance could hasten the end of the war and therefore save lives, little was done to insure adherence to the ban on loans, in part due to pressure from Allied governments and American business interests. The American steel industry had faced difficulties and declining profits during the Recession of 1913–1914. As war began in Europe, however, the increased demand for tools of war began a period of heightened productivity that alleviated many U.S. industrial companies from the low- growth environment of the recession. Bethlehem Steel took particular advantage of the increased demand for armaments abroad. Prior to American entrance into the war, these companies benefit from unrestricted commerce with sovereign customers abroad. After President Wilson issued his declaration of war, the companies were subjected to price controls created by the U.S. Trade Commission in order to insure that the U.S. military would have access to the necessary armaments. By the end of the war in 1918, Bethlehem Steel had produced 65,000 pounds of forged military products and 70 million pounds of armor plate, 1.1 billion pounds of steel for shells, and 20.1 million rounds of artillery ammunition for Britain and France. Bethlehem Steel took advantage of the domestic armaments market and produced 60% of the American weaponry and 40% of the artillery shells used in the war. Even with price controls and a lower profit margin on manufactured goods, the profits resulting from wartime sales expanded the company into the third largest manufacturing company in the country. Bethlehem Steel became the primary arms supplier for the United States and other allied powers again in 1939. Historians divide the views of American political and social leaders into four distinct groupings—the camps were mostly informal: The first of these were the Non-Interventionists, a loosely affiliated and politically diverse anti-war movement which sought to keep the United States out of the war altogether. Members of this group tended to view the war as a clash between British imperialism and German militarism, both of which they regarded as equally corrupt. Others were pacifists, who objected on moral grounds. Prominent leaders included Democrats like former Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan, industrialist Henry Ford and publisher William Randolph Hearst; Republicans Robert M. La Follette, Senator from Wisconsin and George W. Norris, Senator from Nebraska; and Progressive Party activist Jane Addams. At the far-left end of the political spectrum the Socialists, led by their perennial candidate for President Eugene V. Debs and movement veterans like Victor L. Berger and Morris Hillquit, were staunch anti-militarists and opposed to any US intervention, branding the conflict as a "capitalist war" that American workers should avoid. However, after the US did join the war in April, 1917 a schism developed between the anti-war Party majority and a pro- war faction of Socialist writers, journalists and intellectuals led by John Spargo, William English Walling and E. Haldeman-Julius. This group founded the rival Social Democratic League of America to promote the war effort among their fellow Socialists. Next were the more moderate Liberal- Internationalists. This bipartisan group reluctantly supported a declaration of war against Germany with the postwar goal of establishing collective international security institutions designed to peacefully resolve future conflicts between nations and to promote liberal democratic values more broadly. This groups' views were advocated by interest groups such as the League to Enforce Peace. Adherents included US President Woodrow Wilson, his influential advisor Edward M. House, former President William Howard Taft, famed inventor Alexander Graham Bell, Wall Street financier Bernard Baruch and Harvard University President Abbott Lawrence Lowell. Finally, there were the so-called Atlanticists. Ardently pro-Entente, they had strongly championed American intervention in the war since 1915. Their primary political motivation was to both prepare the US for war with Germany and to forge an enduring military alliance with Great Britain. This group actively supported the Preparedness Movement and was strong among the Anglophile political establishment of the northeast, boasting such luminaries as former President Theodore Roosevelt, Major General Leonard Wood, prominent attorney and diplomat Joseph Hodges Choate, former Secretary of War Henry Stimson, journalist Walter Lippman and Senators Henry Cabot Lodge, Sr. of Massachusetts and Elihu Root of New York. A cosmopolitan group of upper and upper-middle class businessmen based in the largest cities took the lead in promoting military preparedness and in defining how far America could be pushed around before it would fight back. Many public figures hated war—Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan was the most prominent, and he resigned when he thought Wilson had become too bellicose. Grassroots opposition to American entry came especially from German and Irish elements. A surprising factor in the development of American public opinion was how little the political parties became involved. Wilson and the Democrats in 1916 campaigned on the slogan "He kept us out of war!", saying a Republican victory would mean war with both Mexico and Germany. His position probably was critical in winning the Western states. Charles Evans Hughes, the GOP candidate, insisted on downplaying the war issue. The Socialist party talked peace. Socialist rhetoric declared the European conflict to be "an imperialist war". It won 2% of the 1916 vote for Eugene V. Debs, blamed the war on capitalism and pledged total opposition. "A bayonet", its propaganda said, "was a weapon with a worker at each end". When war began, however, about half the Socialists, typified by Congressman Meyer London, supported the decision and sided with the pro-Allied efforts. The rest, led by Debs, remained ideological and die-hard opponents. Many socialists came under investigation from the Espionage Act of 1917 and many suspected of treason were arrested, including Debs. This would only increase the Socialist's anti-war groups in resentment toward the American government. The working class was relatively quiet, and tended to divide along ethnic lines. At the beginning of the war, neither working men nor farmers took a large interest in the debates on war preparation. Samuel Gompers, head of the AFL labor movement, denounced the war in 1914 as "unnatural, unjustified, and unholy", but by 1916 he was supporting Wilson's limited preparedness program, against the objections of Socialist union activists. In 1916 the labor unions supported Wilson on domestic issues and ignored the war question. The war at first disrupted the cotton market; Britain blockaded shipments to Germany, and prices fell from 11 cents a pound to only 4 cents. By 1916, however, the British decided to bolster the price to 10 cents to avoid losing Southern support. The cotton growers seem to have moved from neutrality to intervention at about the same pace as the rest of the nation. Midwestern farmers generally opposed the war, especially those of German and Scandinavian descent. The Midwest became the stronghold of isolationism; other remote rural areas also saw no need for war. The African-American community did not take a strong position one way or the other. A month after congress declared war, W. E. B. Du Bois called on African-Americans to "fight shoulder to shoulder with the world to gain a world where war shall be no more". Once war began and black men were drafted, they worked to achieve equality. Many had hoped the community's help in the war efforts abroad would earn civil rights at home. When such civil liberties were still not granted, many African-Americans grew tired of waiting for recognition of their rights as American citizens. There was a strong antiwar element among poor rural whites in the South and border states. In rural Missouri for example, distrust of powerful Eastern influences focused on the risk that Wall Street would lead America into war. Across the South poor white farmers warned each other that "a rich man's war meant a poor man's fight," and they wanted nothing of it. Antiwar sentiment was strongest among Christians affiliated with the Churches of Christ, the Holiness movement and Pentecostal churches. Congressman James Hay, Democrat of Virginia was the powerful chairman of the House Committee on Military Affairs. He repeatedly blocked prewar efforts to modernize and enlarge the army. Preparedness was not needed because Americans were already safe, he insisted in January 1915: Educated, urban, middle class southerners generally supported entering the war, and many worked on mobilization committees. In contrast to this many rural southern whites opposed entering the war. Those with more formal education were more in favor of entering the war and those in the south with less formal education were more likely to oppose entering the war. Letters to newspapers with spelling or grammatical errors were overwhelmingly letters which opposed entry into the war, whereas letters with no spelling or grammatical errors were overwhelming those which supported entry into the war. When the war began Texas and Georgia led the southern states with volunteers. 1,404 from Texas, 1,397 from Georgia, 538 from Louisiana, 532 from Tennessee, 470 from Alabama, 353 from North Carolina, 316 from Florida, and 225 from South Carolina. Every southern Senator voted in favor of entering the war except for Mississippi firebrand James K. Vardaman. By coincidence, there were some regions of the south which were more heavily in favor of intervention than others. Georgia provided the most volunteers per capita out of any state in the union before conscription, and had the highest portion of overtly pro- British newspapers before America's entry into the war. There were five competing newspapers which covered the region of Southeast Georgia, all of whom were outspokenly Anglophilic during the decades preceding the war, and during the early phases of the war. All five of which also highlighted German atrocities during the rape of Belgium and the murder of Edith Cavell. Other magazines with nationwide distribution which were overtly pro-British such as The Outlook and The Literary Digest had a disproportionately high distribution throughout every region of the state of Georgia as well as the region of northern Alabama in the area around Huntsville and Decatur (when the war began there were 470 volunteers from the state of Alabama, of these, over 400 came from Huntsville-Decatur region). German Americans by this time usually had only weak ties to Germany; however, they were fearful of negative treatment they might receive if the United States entered the war (such mistreatment was already happening to German- descent citizens in Canada and Australia). Almost none called for intervening on Germany's side, instead calling for neutrality and speaking of the superiority of German culture. As more nations were drawn into the conflict, however, the English-languages press increasingly supporting Britain, while the German-American media called for neutrality while also defending Germany's position. Chicago's Germans worked to secure a complete embargo on all arms shipments to Europe. In 1916, large crowds in Chicago's Germania celebrated the Kaiser's birthday, something they had not done before the war. German Americans in early 1917 still called for neutrality, but proclaimed that if a war came they would be loyal to the United States. By this point, they had been excluded almost entirely from national discourse on the subject. Once war started, they were harassed in so many ways that historian Carl Wittke noted in 1936, it was "one of the most difficult and humiliating experiences suffered by an ethnic group in American history." German-American Socialists in Milwaukee, Wisconsin actively campaigned against entry into the war. Leaders of most religious groups (except the Episcopalians) tended to pacifism, as did leaders of the woman's movement. The Methodists and Quakers among others were vocal opponents of the war. President Wilson, who was a devout Presbyterian, would often frame the war in terms of good and evil in an appeal for religious support of the war. A concerted effort was made by pacifists including Jane Addams, Oswald Garrison Villard, David Starr Jordan, Henry Ford, Lillian Wald, and Carrie Chapman Catt. Their goal was to encourage Wilson's efforts to mediate an end of the war by bringing the belligerents to the conference table. Finally in 1917 Wilson convinced some of them that to be truly anti-war they needed to support what he promised would be "a war to end all wars". Once war was declared, the more liberal denominations, which had endorsed the Social Gospel, called for a war for righteousness that would help uplift all mankind. The theme—an aspect of American exceptionalism—was that God had chosen America as his tool to bring redemption to the world. American Catholic bishops maintained a general silence toward the issue of intervention. Millions of Catholics lived in both warring camps, and Catholic Americans tended to split on ethnic lines in their opinions toward American involvement in the war. At the time, heavily Catholic towns and cities in the East and Midwest often contained multiple parishes, each serving a single ethnic group, such as Irish, German, Italian, Polish, or English. American Catholics of Irish and German descent opposed intervention most strongly. Pope Benedict XV made several attempts to negotiate a peace. All of his efforts were rebuffed by both the Allies and the Germans, and throughout the war the Vatican maintained a policy of strict neutrality. Jewish American sympathies likewise broke along ethnic lines, with recently arrived Yiddish speaking Jews inclined to Zionism, and the established German- American Jewish community largely opposed to it. In 1914–1916, there were few Jewish forces in favor of American entry into the war. Many regarded Britain as hostile to Jewish interests. New York City, with its well-organized element numbering 1.5 million Jews, was the center of antiwar activism. The different Jewish communities worked together during the war years to provide relief to Jewish communities in Eastern Europe. Of greatest concern to Jews was the tsarist regime in Russia because it was notorious for tolerating pogroms and following anti-Semitic policies. As historian Joseph Rappaport reported through his study of Yiddish press during the war, "The pro-Germanism of America's immigrant Jews was an inevitable consequence of their Russophobia". The fall of the tsarist regime in March 1917 removed a major obstacle for many Jews who refused to support tsarism. The draft went smoothly in New York City, and left-wing opposition to the war largely collapsed when Zionists saw the possibility of using the war to demand a state of Israel. The most effective domestic opponents of the war were Irish-American Catholics. They had little interest in the continent, but were neutral about helping the United Kingdom because it had recently enacted the Government of Ireland Act 1914, allowing Irish Home Rule. However, the Act was suspended until the war ended. John Redmond and the Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP) declared that Irish Volunteers should support America's pro-Allied war efforts first; his political opponents argued that it was not the time to support Britain in its attempt to "strengthen and expand her empire". The attacks on the IPP and pro-Allied press showed a firm belief that a German victory would hasten the achievement of Irish independence. Yet rather than proposing intervention on behalf of the Germans, Irish American leaders and organizations focused on demanding American neutrality. But the increased contact between militant Irish nationalists and German agents in the United States only fueled concerns of where the primary loyalties of Irish Americans lay. Nevertheless, close to 1,000 Irish-born Americans died fighting with the U.S. armed forces in WWI. The Easter Rising in Dublin in April 1916 was crushed within a week and its leaders executed by firing squad. The mainstream American press treated the uprising as foolish and misguided, and theorized it was largely inspired by the Germans. Overall public opinion remained faithfully pro-British. Irish-Americans dominated the Democratic party in many large cities so Wilson had to take account of their views. They did not prevent him from being hostile to Germany, but they did force him to keep his distance from Britain. Indeed, Irish-American pressure influenced the United States into not accepting Britain's war aims as its own and define its own objectives, primarily self-determination. The Irish-American community thought they had Wilson's promise to promote Irish independence in exchange for their support of his war policies, but after the war they were bitterly disappointed by his refusal to support them in 1919. Wilson saw the Irish situation purely as an internal UK matter and did not perceive the dispute and the unrest in Ireland as comparable to the plight of the various nationalities in Europe as a fall-out from World War I. The progress of the Irish Race Conventions give a flavour of the differing and changing opinions during the war. Some British immigrants worked actively for intervention. London-born Samuel Insull, Chicago's leading industrialist, for example, enthusiastically provided money, propaganda, and means for volunteers to enter the British or Canadian armies. After the United States' entry, Insull directed the Illinois State Council of Defense, with responsibility for organizing the state's mobilization. Immigrants from eastern Europe usually cared more about politics in their homeland than politics in the United States. Spokesmen for Slavic immigrants hoped that an Allied victory would bring independence for their homelands. Large numbers of Hungarian immigrants who were liberal and nationalist in sentiment, and sought an independent Hungary, separate from the Austro-Hungarian Empire lobbied in favor of the war and allied themselves with the Atlanticist or Anglophile portion of the population. This community was largely pro-British and anti-German in sentiment. Albanian-Americans in communities such as Boston also campaigned for entry into the war and were overwhelmingly pro-British and anti-German, as well as hopeful the war would lead to an independent Albania which would be free from the Ottoman Empire. Henry Ford supported the pacifist cause by sponsoring a large-scale private peace mission, with numerous activists and intellectuals aboard the "Peace Ship' (the ocean liner Oscar II). Ford chartered the ship in 1915 and invited prominent peace activists to join him to meet with leaders on both sides in Europe. He hoped to create enough publicity to prompt the belligerent nations to convene a peace conference and mediate an end to the war. The mission was widely mocked by the press, which wrote about the "Ship of Fools." Infighting between the activists, mockery by the press contingent aboard, and an outbreak of influenza marred the voyage. Four days after the ship arrived in neutral Norway, a beleaguered and physically ill Ford abandoned the mission and returned to the United States; he had demonstrated that independent small efforts accomplished nothing. On July 24, 1915, the German embassy's commercial attaché, Heinrich Albert, left his briefcase on a train in New York City, where an alert Secret Service agent, Frank Burke, snatched it up. Wilson let the newspapers publish the contents, which indicated a systematic effort by Berlin to subsidize friendly newspapers and block British purchases of war materials. Berlin's top espionage agent, debonnaire Franz Rintelen von Kleist was spending millions to finance sabotage in Canada, stir up trouble between the United States and Mexico and to incite labor strikes. The British were engaged in propaganda too, though not illegal espionage, but they did not get caught. Germany took the blame as Americans grew ever more worried about the vulnerability of a free society to subversion. Indeed, one of the main fears Americans of all stations had in 1916–1919 was that spies and saboteurs were everywhere. This sentiment played a major role in arousing fear of Germany, and suspicions regarding everyone of German descent who could not "prove" 100% loyalty. By 1915, Americans were paying much more attention to the war. The sinking of the Lusitania had a strong effect on public opinion because of the deaths of American civilians. That year, a strong "Preparedness" movement emerged. Proponents argued that the United States needed to immediately build up strong naval and land forces for defensive purposes; an unspoken assumption was that America would fight sooner or later. General Leonard Wood (still on active duty after serving a term as Chief of Staff of the Army), former president Theodore Roosevelt, and former secretaries of war Elihu Root and Henry Stimson were the driving forces behind Preparedness, along with many of the nation's most prominent bankers, industrialists, lawyers and scions of prominent families. Indeed, there emerged an "Atlanticist" foreign policy establishment, a group of influential Americans drawn primarily from upper-class lawyers, bankers, academics, and politicians of the Northeast, committed to a strand of Anglophile internationalism. Representative was Paul D. Cravath, one of New York's foremost corporation lawyers. For Cravath, in his mid-fifties when the war began, the conflict served as an epiphany, sparking an interest in international affairs that dominated his remaining career. Fiercely Anglophile, he strongly supported American intervention in the war and hoped that close Anglo-American cooperation would be the guiding principle of postwar international organization. The Preparedness movement had a "realistic" philosophy of world affairs—they believed that economic strength and military muscle were more decisive than idealistic crusades focused on causes like democracy and national self-determination. Emphasizing over and over the weak state of national defenses, they showed that America's 100,000-man Army even augmented by the 112,000 National Guardsmen, was outnumbered 20 to one by Germany's army, which was drawn from a smaller population. Similarly in 1915, the armed forces of Great Britain and the British empire (the world's most powerful military and economic power at the time), France, Russia, the Austro-Hungarian empire, Ottoman empire, Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, Belgium, Japan and Greece were all larger and more experienced than the United States military, in many cases significantly so. Reform to them meant UMT or "universal military training". They proposed a national service program under which the 600,000 men who turned 18 every year would be required to spend six months in military training, and afterwards be assigned to reserve units. The small regular army would primarily be a training agency. Antimilitarists complained the plan would make America resemble Germany (which required two years' active duty). Advocates retorted that military "service" was an essential duty of citizenship, and that without the commonality provided by such service the nation would splinter into antagonistic ethnic groups. One spokesman promised that UMT would become "a real melting pot, under which the fire is hot enough to fuse the elements into one common mass of Americanism". Furthermore, they promised, the discipline and training would make for a better paid work force. Hostility to military service was strong at the time, and the program failed to win approval. In World War II, when Stimson as Secretary of War proposed a similar program of universal peacetime service, he was defeated. Underscoring its commitment, the Preparedness movement set up and funded its own summer training camps at Plattsburgh, New York, and other sites, where 40,000 college alumni became physically fit, learned to march and shoot, and ultimately provided the cadre of a wartime officer corps. Suggestions by labor unions that talented working- class youth be invited to Plattsburgh were ignored. The Preparedness movement was distant not only from the working classes but also from the middle-class leadership of most of small-town America. It had had little use for the National Guard, which it saw as politicized, localistic, poorly armed, ill trained, too inclined to idealistic crusading (as against Spain in 1898), and too lacking in understanding of world affairs. The National Guard on the other hand was securely rooted in state and local politics, with representation from a very broad cross section of American society. The Guard was one of the nation's few institutions that (in some northern states) accepted blacks on an equal footing. The Democratic party saw the Preparedness movement as a threat. Roosevelt, Root and Wood were prospective Republican presidential candidates. More subtly, the Democrats were rooted in localism that appreciated the National Guard, and the voters were hostile to the rich and powerful in the first place. Working with the Democrats who controlled Congress, Wilson was able to sidetrack the Preparedness forces. Army and Navy leaders were forced to testify before Congress to the effect that the nation's military was in excellent shape. In fact, neither the Army nor Navy was in shape for war. The Navy had fine ships but Wilson had been using them to threaten Mexico, and the fleet's readiness had suffered. The crews of the Texas and the New York, the two newest and largest battleships, had never fired a gun, and the morale of the sailors was low. In addition, it was outnumbered and outgunned by the British, German, French, and Italian navies. The Army and Navy air forces were tiny in size. Despite the flood of new weapons systems unveiled by the British, Germans, French, Austro-Hungarians, Italians, and others in the war in Europe, the Army was paying scant attention. For example, it was making no studies of trench warfare, poison gas, heavy artillery, or tanks and was utterly unfamiliar with the rapid evolution of aerial warfare. The Democrats in Congress tried to cut the military budget in 1915. The Preparedness movement effectively exploited the surge of outrage over the Lusitania in May 1915, forcing the Democrats to promise some improvements to the military and naval forces. Wilson, less fearful of the Navy, embraced a long-term building program designed to make the fleet the equal of the British Royal Navy by the mid-1920s, although this would not be achieved until World War II. "Realism" was at work here; the admirals were Mahanians and they therefore wanted a surface fleet of heavy battleships second to none—that is, equal to Britain. The facts of submarine warfare (which necessitated destroyers, not battleships) and the possibilities of imminent war with Germany (or with Britain, for that matter), were simply ignored. Wilson's program for the Army touched off a firestorm. Secretary of War Lindley Garrison adopted many of the proposals of the Preparedness leaders, especially their emphasis on a large federal reserve and abandonment of the National Guard. Garrison's proposals not only outraged the localistic politicians of both parties, they also offended a strongly held belief shared by the liberal wing of the Progressive movement. They felt that warfare always had a hidden economic motivation. Specifically, they warned the chief warmongers were New York bankers (like J. P. Morgan) with millions at risk, profiteering munition makers (like Bethlehem Steel, which made armor, and DuPont, which made powder) and unspecified industrialists searching for global markets to control. Antiwar critics blasted them. These special interests were too powerful, especially, Senator La Follette noted, in the conservative wing of the Republican Party. The only road to peace was disarmament, reiterated Bryan. Garrison's plan unleashed the fiercest battle in peacetime history over the relationship of military planning to national goals. In peacetime, War Department arsenals and Navy yards manufactured nearly all munitions that lacked civilian uses, including warships, artillery, naval guns, and shells. Items available on the civilian market, such as food, horses, saddles, wagons, and uniforms were always purchased from civilian contractors. Armor plate (and after 1918, airplanes) was an exception that has caused unremitting controversy for a century. After World War II, the arsenals and Navy yards were much less important than giant civilian aircraft and electronics firms, which became the second half of the "military-industrial complex" Peace leaders like Jane Addams of Hull House and David Starr Jordan of Stanford redoubled their efforts, and now turned their voices against the president because he was "sowing the seeds of militarism, raising up a military and naval caste". Many ministers, professors, farm spokesmen, and labor union leaders joined in, with powerful support from Claude Kitchin and his band of four dozen southern Democrats in Congress who took control of the House Military Affairs Committee. Wilson, in deep trouble, took his cause to the people in a major speaking tour in early 1916, a warmup for his reelection campaign that fall. Wilson seems to have won over the middle classes, but had little impact on the largely ethnic working classes and the deeply isolationist farmers. Congress still refused to budge, so Wilson replaced Garrison as Secretary of War with Newton Baker, the Democratic mayor of Cleveland and an outspoken opponent of preparedness (Garrison kept quiet, but felt Wilson was "a man of high ideals but no principles"). The upshot was a compromise passed in May 1916, as the war raged on and Berlin was debating whether America was so weak it could be ignored. The Army was to double in size to 11,300 officers and 208,000 men, with no reserve, and a National Guard that would be enlarged in five years to 440,000 men. Summer camps on the Plattsburg model were authorized for new officers, and the government was given $20 million to build a nitrate plant of its own. Preparedness supporters were downcast, the antiwar people were jubilant: America would now be too weak to go to war. The House gutted Wilson's naval plans as well, defeating a "big navy" plan by 189 to 183, and scuttling the battleships. However news arrived of the great sea battle between Britain and Germany, the Battle of Jutland. The battle was used by the navalists to argue for the primacy of seapower; they then took control in the Senate, broke the House coalition, and authorized a rapid three-year buildup of all classes of warships. A new weapons system, naval aviation, received $3.5 million, and the government was authorized to build its own armor plate factory. The very weakness of American military power encouraged Berlin to start its unrestricted submarine attacks in 1917. It knew this meant war with America, but it could discount the immediate risk because the U.S. Army was negligible and the new warships would not be at sea until 1919, by which time it believed the war would be over, with Germany victorious. The argument that armaments led to war was turned on its head: most Americans came to fear that failure to arm in 1916 made aggression against the U.S. more likely. The United States had remained aloof from the arms race in which the European powers had engaged during the decades leading up to the war. The American army numbered slightly more than 100,000 active duty soldiers in 1916; by that time the French, British, Russian and German armies had all fought battles in which more than 10,000 men had been killed in one day, and fought campaigns in which total casualties had exceeded 200,000. In other words, the entire United States Army, as it stood on the eve of intervention, could be wiped out in a single week of the fighting that had characterized the war to date. Americans felt an increasing need for a military that could command respect. As one editor put it, "The best thing about a large army and a strong navy is that they make it so much easier to say just what we want to say in our diplomatic correspondence." Berlin thus far had backed down and apologized when Washington was angry, thus boosting American self-confidence. America's rights and America's honor increasingly came into focus. The slogan "Peace" gave way to "Peace with Honor". The Army remained unpopular, however. A recruiter in Indianapolis noted that, "The people here do not take the right attitude towards army life as a career, and if a man joins from here he often tries to go out on the quiet". The Preparedness movement used its easy access to the mass media to demonstrate that the War Department had no plans, no equipment, little training, no reserve, a laughable National Guard, and a wholly inadequate organization for war. At a time when European generals were directing field armies that numbered several corps, on combat fronts that stretched for dozens or hundreds of miles, no active duty American general officer had commanded more than a division. Motion pictures like The Battle Cry of Peace (1915) depicted invasions of the American homeland that demanded action. The readiness and capability of the U.S. Navy was a matter of controversy. The press at the time reported that the only thing the military was ready for was an enemy fleet attempting to seize New York harbor—at a time when the German battle fleet was penned up by the Royal Navy. The Navy Secretary Josephus Daniels was a journalist with pacifist leanings. He had built up the educational resources of the Navy and made its Naval War College in Newport, Rhode Island an essential experience for would-be admirals. However, he alienated the officer corps with his moralistic reforms, including no wine in the officers' mess, no hazing at the Naval Academy, and more chaplains and YMCAs. Daniels, as a newspaperman, knew the value of publicity. In 1915 he set up the Naval Consulting Board headed by Thomas Edison to obtain the advice and expertise of leading scientists, engineers, and industrialists. It popularized technology, naval expansion, and military preparedness, and was well covered in the media. But according to Coletta he ignored the nation's strategic needs, and disdaining the advice of its experts, Daniels suspended meetings of the Joint Army and Navy Board for two years because it was giving unwelcome advice, chopped in half the General Board's recommendations for new ships, reduced the authority of officers in the Navy yards where ships were built and repaired, and ignored the administrative chaos in his department. Bradley Fiske, one of the most innovative admirals in American naval history, in 1914 was Daniels' top aide; he recommended a reorganization that would prepare for war, but Daniels refused. Instead he replaced Fiske in 1915 and brought in for the new post of Chief of Naval Operations an unknown captain, William Benson. Chosen for his compliance, Benson proved a wily bureaucrat who was more interested in preparing for an eventual showdown with Britain than an immediate one with Germany. Benson told Sims he "would as soon fight the British as the Germans". Proposals to send observers to Europe were blocked, leaving the Navy in the dark about the success of the German submarine campaign. Admiral William Sims charged after the war that in April 1917, only ten percent of the Navy's warships were fully manned; the rest lacked 43% of their seamen. Light antisubmarine ships were few in number, as if Daniels had been unaware of the German submarine menace that had been the focus of foreign policy for two years. The Navy's only warfighting plan, the "Black Plan" assumed the Royal Navy did not exist and that German battleships were moving freely about the Atlantic and the Caribbean and threatening the Panama Canal. Daniels' tenure would have been even less successful save for the energetic efforts of Assistant Secretary Franklin D. Roosevelt, who effectively ran the Department. His most recent biographer concludes that, "it is true that Daniels had not prepared the navy for the war it would have to fight." By 1916 a new factor was emerging—a sense of national self-interest and American nationalism. The unbelievable casualty figures in Europe were sobering—two vast battles caused over one million casualties each. Clearly this war would be a decisive episode in the history of the world. Every American effort to find a peaceful solution was frustrated. Kendrick Clements claims bureaucratic decision-making was one of the main sources pushing the United States to declaring war on Germany and aligning itself with the Allies. He cites the State Department's demand that Germany's submarines obey outdated 18th century sailing laws as one of the first missteps by the United States bureaucracy regarding the war. By doing so, the United States had essentially given Germany the choice of whether or not the U.S. would enter the war. Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan spent most of the fall of 1914 out of contact with the State Department, leaving the more conservative Robert Lansing with the ability to shape American foreign policy at the time. One of these decisions was made in response to British protests that the Germans were using U.S. radio towers to send messages to their warships. Immediately prior to the war starting in 1914, Britain had cut all cable communications leading out of Germany, including the trans-Atlantic cable. The US Government permitted German embassies to use the US cable lines for "proper" diplomatic business. Germany argued that usage of the towers was necessary to allow efficient contact between the U.S. and Germany. Lansing responded by requiring both sides to give the U.S. Navy copies of the messages they sent over the towers. The French and British were still able to use the cables, forcing Germany to be the only belligerent required to provide the U.S. with their messages. This and other seemingly small decisions made by Lansing during this time would eventually stack up, shifting American support towards the Allies. Once Germany had decided on unrestricted submarine warfare in January 1917 it tried to line up new allies, especially Mexico. Arthur Zimmermann, the German foreign minister, sent the Zimmermann Telegram to Mexico on January 16, 1917. Zimmermann invited Mexico (knowing their resentment towards America since the 1848 Mexican Cession) to join in a war against the United States if the United States declared war on Germany. Germany promised to pay for Mexico's costs and to help it recover the territory annexed by the U.S. in 1848. These territories included the present day states of California, Nevada, Utah, most of Arizona, about half of New Mexico and a quarter of Colorado. British intelligence intercepted and decoded the telegram and passed it to the Wilson administration. The White House would release it to the press on March 1. Anger grew further as the Germans began sinking American ships, even as isolationists in the Senate launched a filibuster to block legislation for arming American merchant ships to defend themselves. In early 1917 Berlin forced the issue. Its declared decision on 31 January 1917 to target neutral shipping in a designated war-zone became the immediate cause of the entry of the United States into the war. Five American merchant ships went down in March. Outraged public opinion now overwhelmingly supported Wilson when he asked Congress for a declaration of war on April 2, 1917. Historians such as Ernest R. May have approached the process of American entry into the war as a study in how public opinion changed radically in three years' time. In 1914 most Americans called for neutrality, seeing the war as a dreadful mistake and were determined to stay out. By 1917 the same public felt just as strongly that going to war was both necessary and wise. Military leaders had little to say during this debate, and military considerations were seldom raised. The decisive questions dealt with morality and visions of the future. The prevailing attitude was that America possessed a superior moral position as the only great nation devoted to the principles of freedom and democracy. By staying aloof from the squabbles of reactionary empires, it could preserve those ideals—sooner or later the rest of the world would come to appreciate and adopt them. In 1917 this very long-run program faced the severe danger that in the short run powerful forces adverse to democracy and freedom would triumph. Strong support for moralism came from religious leaders, women (led by Jane Addams), and from public figures like long-time Democratic leader William Jennings Bryan, the Secretary of State from 1913 to 1916. The most important moralist of all was President Woodrow Wilson—the man who dominated decision making so totally that the war has been labeled, from an American perspective, "Wilson's War". In 1917 Wilson won the support of most of the moralists by proclaiming "a war to make the world safe for democracy." If they truly believed in their ideals, he explained, now was the time to fight. The question then became whether Americans would fight for what they deeply believed in, and the answer turned out to be a resounding "Yes". Antiwar activists at the time and in the 1930s, alleged that beneath the veneer of moralism and idealism there must have been ulterior motives. Some suggested a conspiracy on the part of New York City bankers holding $3 billion of war loans to the Allies, or steel and chemical firms selling munitions to the Allies. The interpretation was popular among left-wing Progressives (led by Senator Robert La Follette of Wisconsin) and among the "agrarian" wing of the Democratic party—including the chairman of the tax-writing Ways and Means Committee of the House. He strenuously opposed war, and when it came he rewrote the tax laws to make sure the rich paid the most. (In the 1930s neutrality laws were passed to prevent financial entanglements from dragging the nation into a war.) In 1915, Bryan thought that Wilson's pro-British sentiments had distorted his policies, so he became the first Secretary of State ever to resign in protest. However, historian Harold C. Syrett argues that business supported neutrality. Other historians state that the pro-war element was animated not by profit but by disgust with what Germany actually did, especially in Belgium, and the threat it represented to American ideals. Belgium kept the public's sympathy as the Germans executed civilians, and English nurse Edith Cavell. American engineer Herbert Hoover led a private relief effort that won wide support. Compounding the Belgium atrocities were new weapons that Americans found repugnant, like poison gas and the aerial bombardment of innocent civilians as Zeppelins dropped bombs on London. Even anti-war spokesmen did not claim that Germany was innocent, and pro-German scripts were poorly received. Randolph Bourne criticized the moralist philosophy claiming it was a justification by American intellectual and power elites, like President Wilson, for going to war unnecessarily. He argues that the push for war started with the Preparedness movement, fueled by big business. While big business would not push much further than Preparedness, benefitting the most from neutrality, the movement would eventually evolve into a war-cry, led by war-hawk intellectuals under the guise of moralism. Bourne believes elites knew full well what going to war would entail and the price in American lives it would cost. If American elites could portray the United States' role in the war as noble, they could convince the generally isolationist American public war would be acceptable. Above all, American attitudes towards Germany focused on the U-boats (submarines), which sank the Lusitania in 1915 and other passenger ships "without warning". That appeared to Americans as an unacceptable challenge to America's rights as a neutral country, and as an unforgivable affront to humanity. After repeated diplomatic protests, Germany agreed to stop. But in 1917 the Germany military leadership decided that "military necessity" dictated the unrestricted use of their submarines. The Kaiser's advisors felt America was enormously powerful economically but too weak militarily to make a difference. On April 2, 1917, Wilson asked a special joint session of Congress to declare war on the German Empire, stating, "We have no selfish ends to serve". To make the conflict seem like a better idea, he painted the conflict idealistically, stating that the war would "make the world safe for democracy" and later that it would be a "war to end war". The United States had a moral responsibility to enter the war, Wilson proclaimed. The future of the world was being determined on the battlefield, and American national interest demanded a voice. Wilson's definition of the situation won wide acclaim, and, indeed, has shaped America's role in world and military affairs ever since. Wilson believed that if the Central Powers won, the consequences would be bad for the United States. Germany would have dominated the continent and perhaps would gain control of the seas as well. Latin America could well have fallen under Berlin's control. The dream of spreading democracy, liberalism, and independence would have been shattered. On the other hand, if the Allies had won without help, there was a danger they would carve up the world without regard to American commercial interests. They were already planning to use government subsidies, tariff walls, and controlled markets to counter the competition posed by American businessmen. The solution was a third route, a "peace without victory", according to Wilson. On April 6, 1917, Congress declared war. In the Senate, the resolution passed 82 to 6, with Senators Harry Lane, William J. Stone, James Vardaman, Asle Gronna, Robert M. La Follette, Sr., and George W. Norris voting against it. In the House, the declaration passed 373 to 50, with Claude Kitchin, a senior Democrat, notably opposing it. Another opponent was Jeannette Rankin, who alone voted against entry into both World War I and World War II. Nearly all of the opposition came from the West and the Midwest. The United States Senate, in a 74 to 0 vote, declared war on Austria-Hungary on December 7, 1917, citing Austria-Hungary's severing of diplomatic relations with the United States, its use of unrestricted submarine warfare and its alliance with Germany. The declaration passed in the United States House of Representatives by a vote of 365 to 1. President Wilson also came under pressure from Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, and from former President Theodore Roosevelt, who demanded a declaration of war on the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria, as Germany's allies. President Wilson drafted a statement to Congress in December 1917 which said "I... recommend that Congress immediately declare the United States in a state of war with Austria-Hungary, with Turkey and with Bulgaria". But after further consultations decision on war against Germany's other allies was postponed. 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How Maine viewed the war, 1914–1917, (1940), Crighton, John C. Missouri and the World War, 1914–1917: a study in public opinion (University of Missouri, 1947), Coffman, Edward M. The War to End All Wars: The American Military Experience in World War I (1998), Cummins, Cedric Clisten. Indiana public opinion and the World War, 1914–1917, (1945), Davis, Allen F. American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams. (Oxford University Press, 1973), Doenecke, Justus D. Nothing Less Than War: A New History of America's Entry into World War I (2011) 433 pages; comprehensive history online, Doenecke, Justus D. "Neutrality Policy and the Decision for War." in Ross Kennedy ed., A Companion to Woodrow Wilson (2013) pp. 243–69 Online; covers the historiography, Early, Frances H. A World without War: How U.S. Feminists and Pacifists Resisted World War I. (Syracuse University Press, 1997), Esposito, David M. The Legacy of Woodrow Wilson: American War Aims in World War I. (Praeger, 1996) 159pp online edition, Finnegan, John P. Against the Specter of a Dragon: The Campaign for American Military Preparedness, 1914–1917. (1975)., Floyd, M. Ryan (2013). Abandoning American Neutrality: Woodrow Wilson and the Beginning of the Great War, August 1914-December 1915. New York: Palgrave Macmillan., Fordham, Benjamin O. "Revisionism reconsidered: exports and American intervention in World War I." International Organization 61#2 (2007): 277-310., Gibbs, Christopher C. The Great Silent Majority: Missouri's Resistance to World War I. 1988., Grubbs, Frank L. The Struggle for Labor Loyalty: Gompers, the A. F. of L., and the Pacifists, 1917–1920. 1968., Hannigan, Robert E. The Great War and American Foreign Policy, 1914-24 (2016) excerpt; online at Questia, Herman, Sondra. Eleven Against War: Studies in American Internationalist Thought, 1898–1921. 1969., Higham, Robin and Dennis E. Showalter, eds. Researching World War I: A Handbook. 2003. , 475pp; highly detailed historiography, online edition, Hodgson, Godfrey. Woodrow Wilson's Right Hand: The Life of Colonel Edward M. House. 2006. 335pp, Kazal, Russell A. Becoming Old Stock: The Paradox of German-American Identity. 2004. 390, pp. German Americans in Philadelphia ponder the war., Kazin, Michael. War Against War: The American Fight for Peace, 1914-1918 (2017)., Keene, Jennifer D. "Remembering the "Forgotten War": American Historiography on World War I." Historian 78#3 (2016): 439–468., Keene, Jennifer D. "Americans Respond: Perspectives on the Global War, 1914-1917." Geschichte und Gesellschaft 40.2 (2014): 266-286. online, Kennedy, David M. Over Here: The First World War and American Society (1982), covers politics & economics & society online edition, Kennedy, Ross A. "Preparedness," in Ross A. Kennedy ed., A Companion to Woodrow Wilson 2013. pp. 270–86, Kennedy, Ross A. Woodrow Wilson, World War I, and America’s Strategy for Peace and Security (2009)., Koistinen, Paul. Mobilizing for Modern War: The Political Economy of American Warfare, 1865–1919 Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1997., Knock, Thomas J. To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order New York : Oxford University Press, 1992., Lemnitzer, Jan Martin. "Woodrow Wilson’s Neutrality, the Freedom of the Seas, and the Myth of the 'Civil War Precedents'." Diplomacy & Statecraft 27.4 (2016): 615-638., Link, Arthur S. Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910–1917. 1972., Link, Arthur S. Wilson: The Struggle for Neutrality: 1914–1915 (1960); Wilson: Confusions and Crises: 1915–1916 (1964); Wilson: Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace: 1916–1917 (1965) all 3 volumes are online at ACLS e-books, Link, Arthur S. Wilson the Diplomatist: A Look at His Major Foreign Policies Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1957. online edition, Link, Arthur S. Woodrow Wilson and a Revolutionary World, 1913–1921. 1982. online edition, Link, Arthur S. Woodrow Wilson: Revolution, War, and Peace. Arlington Heights, IL: AHM Pub. Corp., 1979. online edition, Livermore, Seward W. Politics Is Adjourned: Woodrow Wilson and the War Congress, 1916–1918. 1966., Luebke, Frederick C. Bonds of Loyalty: German-Americans and World War I. Dekalb : Northern Illinois University Press, 1974., McCallum, Jack. Leonard Wood: Rough Rider, Surgeon, Architect of American Imperialism. New York : New York University Press, 2006., McDonald, Forrest. Insull: The Rise and Fall of a Billionaire Utility Tycoon (2004), May, Ernest R. The World War and American Isolation, 1914–1917 (1959) online at ACLS e-books, highly influential study, Nash, George H. Life of Herbert Hoover: The Humanitarian, 1914–1917 (Life of Herbert Hoover, Vol. 2) (1988), O'Toole, Patricia. When Trumpets Call: Theodore Roosevelt after the White House. New York : Simon & Schuster, 2005., Perkins, Bradford. The Great Rapprochement: England and the United States, 1895–1914 1968., Peterson, H. C. Propaganda for War: The Campaign Against American Neutrality, 1914–1917. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1968., Rothwell, V. H. British War Aims and Peace Diplomacy, 1914–1918. 1971., Safford, Jeffrey J. Wilsonian Maritime Diplomacy, 1913–1921. 1978., Smith, Daniel. The Great Departure: The United States and World War I, 1914–1920. 1965., Sterba, Christopher M. Good Americans: Italian and Jewish Immigrants during the First World War. 2003. 288 pp. online edition, Tucker, Robert W. Woodrow Wilson and the Great War: Reconsidering America's Neutrality, 1914–1917. 2007., Unger, Nancy C. Fighting Bob La Follette: The Righteous Reformer Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000., Venzon, Anne Cipriano, ed. The United States in the First World War: An Encyclopedia New York: Garland Pub., 1995., Ward, Robert D. "The Origin and Activities of the National Security League, 1914–1919." Mississippi Valley Historical Review 47 (1960): 51–65. online at JSTOR, Witcover, Jules. Sabotage at Black Tom: Imperial Germany's Secret War in America. Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, 1989. Doenecke, Justus D. "Neutrality Policy and the Decision for War." in Ross Kennedy ed., A Companion to Woodrow Wilson (2013) pp. 243–69 Online; covers the historiography, Keene, Jennifer D. "Remembering the "Forgotten War": American Historiography on World War I." Historian 78#3 (2016): 439–468. Committee on Public Information. How the war came to America (1917) online 840pp, The Papers of Woodrow Wilson edited by Arthur S. Link complete in 69 vol, at major academic libraries. Annotated edition of all of WW's letters, speeches and writings plus many letters written to him, Wilson, Woodrow. Why We Are at War (1917) six war messages to Congress, Jan- April 1917 Keene, Jennifer D.: United States of America , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War., Ford, Nancy Gentile: Civilian and Military Power (USA) , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War., Strauss, Lon: Social Conflict and Control, Protest and Repression (USA) , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War., Little, Branden: Making Sense of the War (USA) , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War., Miller, Alisa: Press/Journalism (USA) , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War., Wells, Robert A.: Propaganda at Home (USA) , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War., NY Times main headline, April 2, 1917, President Calls for War Declaration, Stronger Navy, New Army of 500,000 Men, Full Cooperation With Germany's Foes, Map of Europe at the time of the US declaration of war on Germany at omniatlas.com, World War I: Declarations of War from Around the Globe - How America Entered the Great War, Today in History: U.S. Enters World War I The Battle of Belleau Wood (1–26 June 1918) occurred during the German Spring Offensive in World War I, near the Marne River in France. The battle was fought between the U.S. 2nd (under the command of Major General Omar Bundy) and 3rd Divisions along with French and British forces against an assortment of German units including elements from the 237th, 10th, 197th, 87th, and 28th Divisions. The battle has become a key component of the lore of the United States Marine Corps. In March 1918, with nearly 50 additional divisions freed by the Russian surrender on the Eastern Front, the German Army launched a series of attacks on the Western Front, hoping to defeat the Allies before U.S. forces could be fully deployed. A third offensive launched in May against the French between Soissons and Reims, known as the Third Battle of the Aisne, saw the Germans reach the north bank of the Marne River at Château-Thierry, from Paris, on 27 May. On 31 May, the 3rd Division held the German advance at Château-Thierry and the German advance turned right towards Vaux and Belleau Wood. On 1 June, Château-Thierry and Vaux fell, and German troops moved into Belleau Wood. The U.S. 2nd Infantry Division—which included a brigade of U.S. Marines—was brought up along the Paris-Metz highway. The 9th Infantry Regiment was placed between the highway and the Marne, while the 6th Marine Regiment was deployed to their left. The 5th Marine and 23rd Infantry regiments were placed in reserve. On the evening of 1 June, German forces punched a hole in the French lines to the left of the Marines' position. In response, the U.S. reserve—consisting of the 23rd Infantry Regiment under Colonel Paul B. Malone, the 1st Battalion, 5th Marines under lieutenant colonel Julius S. Turrill, and an element of the 6th Machine Gun Battalion—conducted a forced march over to plug the gap in the line, which they achieved by dawn. By the night of 2 June, the U.S. forces held a front line north of the Paris-Metz Highway running through grain fields and scattered woods, from Triangle Farm west to Lucy and then north to Hill 142. The German line opposite ran from Vaux to Bouresches to Belleau. German commanders ordered an advance on Marigny and Lucy through Belleau Wood as part of a major offensive, in which other German troops would cross the Marne River. The commander of the Marine Brigade, Army General James Harbord, countermanding a French order to dig trenches further to the rear, ordered the Marines to "hold where they stand". With bayonets, the Marines dug shallow fighting positions from which they could shoot from the prone position. In the afternoon of 3 June, German infantry attacked the Marine positions through the grain fields with bayonets fixed. The Marines waited until the Germans were within before opening deadly rifle fire which mowed down waves of German infantry and forced the survivors to retreat into the woods. Having suffered heavy casualties, the Germans dug in along a defensive line from Hill 204, just east of Vaux, to Le Thiolet on the Paris-Metz Highway and northward through Belleau Wood to Torcy. After Marines were repeatedly urged to turn back by retreating French forces, Marine Captain Lloyd W. Williams of the 2nd Battalion, 5th Marines uttered the now-famous retort "Retreat? Hell, we just got here". Williams' battalion commander, Major Frederic Wise, later claimed to have said the famous words. On 4 June, Major General Bundy—commanding the 2nd Division—took command of the American sector of the front. Over the next two days, the Marines repelled the continuous German assaults. The 167th French Division arrived, giving Bundy a chance to consolidate his of front. Bundy's 3rd Brigade held the southern sector of the line, while the Marine brigade held the north of the line from Triangle Farm. At 03:45 on 6 June, the Allies launched an attack on the German forces, who were preparing their own strike. The French 167th Division attacked to the left of the American line, while the Marines attacked Hill 142 to prevent flanking fire against the French. As part of the second phase, the 2nd Division were to capture the ridge overlooking Torcy and Belleau Wood, as well as occupying Belleau Wood. However, the Marines failed to scout the woods. As a consequence, they missed a regiment of German infantry dug in, with a network of machine gun nests and artillery. At dawn, 1st Battalion, 5th Marines—commanded by Major Julius Turrill—was to attack Hill 142, but only two companies were in position. The Marines advanced in waves with bayonets fixed across an open wheat field that was swept with German machine gun and artillery fire, and many Marines were cut down. Captain Crowther commanding the 67th Company was killed almost immediately. Captain Hamilton and the 49th Company fought from wood to wood, fighting the entrenched Germans and overrunning their objective by . At this point, Hamilton had lost all five junior officers, while the 67th had only one commissioned officer alive. Hamilton reorganized the two companies, establishing strong points and a defensive line. In the German counter-attack, Gunnery Sergeant Ernest A. Janson—who was serving under the name Charles Hoffman—repelled an advance of 12 German soldiers, killing two with his bayonet before the others fled; for this action he became the first Marine to receive the Medal of Honor in World War I. Also cited for advancing through enemy fire during the counter-attack was Marine Gunner Henry Hulbert who was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross. The rest of the battalion now arrived and went into action. Turrill's flanks lay unprotected, and the Marines were rapidly exhausting their ammunition. By the afternoon, however, the Marines had captured Hill 142, at a cost of nine officers and most of the 325 men of the battalion. On the night of 4 June, the intelligence officer for the 6th Marines, Lieutenant William A. Eddy, and two men stole through German lines to gather information about German forces. They gathered valuable information showing the Germans were consolidating machine gun positions and bringing in artillery. While this activity indicated an attack was not immediately likely, their increasing strength was creating a base of attack that raised concern about breaking through to Paris. At 17:00 on 6 June, the 3rd Battalion 5th Marines (3/5)—commanded by Major Benjamin S. Berry, and the 3rd Battalion 6th Marines (3/6)—commanded by Major Berton W. Sibley, on their right—advanced from the west into Belleau Wood as part of the second phase of the Allied offensive. Again, the Marines had to advance through a waist-high wheat field into deadly machine gun fire. One of the most famous quotations in Marine Corps history came during the initial step-off for the battle when First Sergeant Dan Daly, a recipient of two Medals of Honor who had served in the Philippines, Santo Domingo, Haiti, Peking, and Vera Cruz, prompted his men of the 73rd Machine Gun Company forward with the words: "Come on, you sons of bitches, do you want to live forever?" The first waves of Marines—advancing in well-disciplined lines—were slaughtered; Major Berry was wounded in the forearm during the advance. On his right, the Marines of Major Sibley's 3/6 Battalion swept into the southern end of Belleau Wood and encountered heavy machine gun fire, sharpshooters, and barbed wire. Marines and German infantrymen were soon engaged in heavy hand-to-hand fighting. The casualties sustained on this day were the highest in Marine Corps history up to that time. Some 31 officers and 1,056 men of the Marine brigade were casualties. However, the Marines now had a foothold in Belleau Wood. The battle was now deadlocked. At midnight on 7–8 June, a German attack was stopped cold and an American counter-attack in the morning of 8 June was similarly defeated. Sibley's battalion—having sustained nearly 400 casualties—was relieved by the 1st Battalion, 6th Marines. Major Shearer took over the 3rd Battalion, 5th Marines for the wounded Berry. On 9 June, an enormous American and French barrage devastated Belleau Wood, turning the formerly attractive hunting preserve into a jungle of shattered trees. The Germans counter-fired into Lucy and Bouresches and reorganized their defenses inside Belleau Wood. In the morning of 10 June, Major Hughes' 1st Battalion, 6th Marines—together with elements of the 6th Machine Gun Battalion—attacked north into the wood. Although this attack initially seemed to be succeeding, it was also stopped by machine gun fire. The commander of the 6th Machine Gun Battalion—Major Cole—was mortally wounded. Captain Harlan Major—senior captain present with the battalion—took command. The Germans used great quantities of mustard gas. Next, Wise's 2nd Battalion, 5th Marines was ordered to attack the woods from the west, while Hughes continued his advance from the south. At 04:00 on 11 June, Wise's men advanced through a thick morning mist towards Belleau Wood, supported by the 23rd and 77th companies of the 6th Machine Gun Battalion, and elements of the 2nd Battalion, 2nd Engineers and were cut to pieces by heavy fire. Platoons were isolated and destroyed by interlocked machine gun fire. It was discovered that the battalion had advanced in the wrong direction. Rather than moving northeast, they had moved directly across the wood's narrow waist. However, they smashed the German southern defensive lines. A German private, whose company had 30 men left out of 120, wrote "We have Americans opposite us who are terribly reckless fellows." Overall, the woods were attacked by the Marines a total of six times before they could successfully expel the Germans. They fought off parts of five divisions of Germans, often reduced to using only their bayonets or fists in hand-to-hand combat. On 26 June, the 3rd Battalion, 5th Marines, under command of Major Maurice E. Shearer, supported by two companies of the 4th Machine Gun Battalion and the 15th Company of the 6th Machine Gun Battalion, made an attack on Belleau Wood, which finally cleared that forest of Germans. On that day, Major Shearer submitted a report simply stating, "Woods now U.S. Marine Corps entirely", ending one of the bloodiest and most ferocious battles U.S. forces would fight in the war. United States forces suffered 9,777 casualties, included 1,811 killed. Many are buried in the nearby Aisne-Marne American Cemetery. There is no clear information on the number of German soldiers killed, although 1,600 were taken prisoner. After the battle, the French renamed the wood "Bois de la Brigade de Marine" ("Wood of the Marine Brigade") in honor of the Marines' tenacity. The French government also later awarded the 5th and 6th Marine Regiments the Croix de guerre. An official German report classified the Marines as "vigorous, self-confident, and remarkable marksmen ..." General Pershing—commander of the AEF—said, "The deadliest weapon in the world is a United States Marine and his rifle." Pershing also said "the Battle of Belleau Wood was for the U.S. the biggest battle since Appomattox and the most considerable engagement American troops had ever had with a foreign enemy." Legend and lore has it that the Germans used the term "Teufelshunde" ("devil dogs") for the Marines. However, this has not been confirmed, as the term was not commonly known in contemporary German. The closest common German term would be "Höllenhunde" which means "hellhound". Regardless of the term's origin, ten years after the battle, Lieutenant Colonel Ernst Otto, from the Historical Section of the German Army, wrote of the Marine Corps; "Their fiery advance and great tenacity were well recognized by their opponents." Marines actively serving in the Fifth and Sixth Marine regiments are authorized to wear the French Fourragère on the left shoulder of their uniform to recognize the legacy and valor of their regimental predecessors. In June 1923, the Marine Band performed a new march called "Belleau Wood" for the first time during the annual Belleau Wood Anniversary celebration. Composed by then Second Leader Taylor Branson, who would later lead the Marine Band from 1927 to 1940, it was dedicated to Army Major General James. G. Harbord, who commanded the Marines during the battle. In July 1923, Belleau Wood was dedicated as an American battle monument. Major General Harbord was made an honorary Marine and attended the event. In his address, he summed up the future of the site: White crosses and Stars of David mark 2,289 graves, 250 for unknown service members, and the names of 1,060 missing men adorn the wall of a memorial chapel. Visitors also stop at the nearby German cemetery where 8,625 men are buried; 4,321 of them—3,847 unknown—rest in a common grave. The German cemetery was established in March 1922, consolidating a number of temporary sites, and includes men killed between the Aisne and the Marne in 1918, along with 70 men who died in 1914 in the First Battle of the Marne. On 18 November 1955, a black marble monolith with a bronze relief of a fighting Marine was dedicated at a road clearing near the site of the battle. Simply entitled The Marine Memorial, it was sculpted by Felix de Weldon, the artist who had also sculpted the Marine Corps War Memorial in Washington, D.C. The memorial honors the 4th Marine Brigade for their bravery here in June 1918, and is the only memorial in Europe dedicated solely to the United States Marines. Below the statue is a commemorative plaque with a large Eagle, Globe, and Anchor. The plaque includes a brief history of the battle, with text in both English and French. Officiating at the monument's dedication ceremony was then Commandant of the Marine Corps, General Lemuel C. Shepherd, Jr., who had fought and was twice wounded at Belleau Wood, and later awarded the Army Distinguished Service Cross and the Navy Cross for his gallantry in action, 37 years earlier. In New York City, a triangle at the intersection of 108 Street and 51st Avenue in Queens is dedicated to Marine Private William F. Moore, 47th Company, 2nd Battalion, 5th Marine Regiment. Two U.S. Navy vessels have been named for the battle. The first was a light aircraft carrier active during World War II in the Pacific Theater, from 1943 to 1945. From 1953 to 1960, she was loaned to the French Navy under the name Bois Belleau and served in the First Indochina and Algerian Wars. The second was active from 1977 to 2005. A shortened version of Lloyd Williams' famous quote is the basis for the motto the 2nd Battalion, 5th Marines, his unit during the battle. Williams himself has been honored with a building on the campus of his alma mater Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University named in remembrance of him. In April 2018, French President Emmanuel Macron gifted the United States a sessile oak sapling from Belleau Wood as part of his state visit. On 10 November 2018, amid ceremonies in the French capital to mark the 100th anniversary of the end of the first world war, a planned presidential visit by Donald Trump to the American cemetery at Belleau, a site of immense importance to the US military, was cancelled because low cloud cover prevented air transport. Also; on 10 November 2018 (Note: This day celebrates the 243rd Birthday of the United States Marine Corps) White House Chief of Staff, John Kelly and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General Joseph Dunford, USMC visited Aisne-Marne American Cemetery & Memorial. Alexander, Joseph H. Three Touchstone Battles: Belleau Wood, Iwo Jima, Chosin Reservoir. Quantico, Va: Marine Corps Association, 1997., Andriot, R. Belleau Wood and the American Army : the 2nd and 26th Divisions (June and July 1918). Foster, RI : Brass Hat, 1986., Asprey, Robert B. At Belleau Wood. New York, Putnam [1965]., Axelrod, Alan. Miracle at Belleau Wood : the birth of the modern U.S. Marine Corps. Guilford, Conn: Lyons Press, 2007., Bonk, David, and Peter Dennis. Château Thierry & Belleau Wood 1918: America's Baptism of Fire on the Marne. Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Pub, 2007., Bosco, Peter I., and Antoinette Bosco. World War I. New York : Facts on File, 2003., Brady, James. Why Marines fight. New York : Thomas Dunne Books/St. Martin's Press, 2007., Camp, Richard D. Leatherneck legends : conversations with the Marine Corps' Old Breed. St. Paul, MN : Zenith Press, 2006., Camp, Richard D. The Devil Dogs at Belleau Wood : U.S. Marines in World War I. Minneapolis, MN : Zenith Press, 2008., Catlin, Albertus W., and Walter A. Dyer. "With the help of God and a few Marines" : the battles of Chateau Thierry and Belleau Wood. Yardley : Westholme, [2013]., Clark, George B. Devil dogs : fighting Marines of World War I. Novato, CA : Presidio Press, 1999., Clark, George B. The History of the Third Battalion 5th Marines, 1917–1918. Pike, N.H. : Brass Hat, 1996., Clark, George B. Their time in hell : the 4th Marine Brigade at Belleau Wood, June 1918. Pike, N.H. : Brass Hat, 1996., Cowley, Robert. The Great War : perspectives on the First World War. New York : Random House, 2003., Crocker, H.W. The Yanks are coming : a military history of the United States in World War I. Washington, D.C. : Regnery Publishing, 2014., Daniels, Josephus, William, John J. Pershing, and Charles F. Horne. Château-Thierry and Belleau Wood : how America held back the Germans at the Marne, May 31st-July 1st. S.l: s.n, 1923, Devil Dogs Chronicle: Voices of the 4th Marine Brigade in World War I. Lawrence, Kan: University Press of Kansas, 2013., Dowswell, Paul. War stories : true stories from the first and second World Wars. Tulsa, Oklahoma : EDC Publishing, 2006., Eisenhower, John S. D., and Joanne Thompson Eisenhower. Yanks : the epic story of the American Army in World War I. New York : Free Press, 2001., Farwell, Byron. Over there : the United States in the Great War, 1917–1918. New York : Norton, 2000., Fenster, J. M. Lafayette Escadrille The Battle of Belleau Wood. [United States]: Buckingham, Beacon Hardy, 1996., Fenster, J. M. World War I : voices from the front. [United States] : Buckingham, Beacon Hardy, 1996., Fleming, Thomas J. Days of valor. Chicago : Follett Educational, 1970., Grant, R. G. World War I : the definitive visual history : from Sarajevo to Versailles. New York : DK Publishing, 2014., Hallas, James H. Doughboy war : the American Expeditionary Force in World War I. Boulder, Colo. : Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2000., Harbord, Jaes Guthrie. A month in Belleau Wood in 1918. Detroit, Mich: s.n, 1928., History of the Fifth Regiment Marines, (May 1917-December 31, 1918. Pike, N.H.: Brass Hat, 2000., Leckie, Robert. Great American battles. Illustrated with maps, prints, and photos. New York, Random House [1968]., Linn, Louis C., Laura Jane Linn Wright, and B. J. Omanson. At Belleau Wood with Rifle and Sketchpad : Memoir of a United States Marine in World War I. Jefferson : McFarland & Co., Publishers, 2012., Marrin, Albert. The Yanks are coming : the United States in the First World War. Princeton, NJ: Recording for the Blind & Dyslexic, 2007., McClellan, Edwin North. The Battle of Belleau Wood. Washington, D.C.: Historical Section, U.S.M.C., 1930., Mead, Gary. The Doughboys : America and the First World War. New York : Overlook Press, 2000., Metzger, Fritz, and Mark Fuller. Oral History Interview with Fritz Metzger. 1982., Moore, Ray T. With the Marines at Belleau Wood : a vivid description of personal experiences in battle. Wake Forest, N.C.: Euzelian Society, 1921., Pattullo, George. Hellwood. New York: U.S. Marine Corps Mobilization Bureau, 1918., Pike, Lloyd E. The battle for Belleau Wood, as I remember it, about 60 years later. 1977., Rice, Earle. The Battle of Belleau Wood. San Diego : Lucent Books, 1996., Simmons, Edwin H., and Joseph H. Alexander Through the wheat : the U.S. Marines in World War I. Annapolis, Md. : Naval Institute Press, 2008., Stallings, Laurence. Blood Belleau Wood. New York. : American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc., 1963., Stephenson, Michael. Battlegrounds : geography and the history of warfare. Washington, D.C. : National Geographic, 2003., Suskind, Richard. Do you want to live forever!. New York : Bantam Books, 1964., Suskind, Richard. The Battle of Belleau Wood; the Marines stand fast. [New York] Macmillan [1969]., Terry, Charles. Wilson's war : America in the First World War. [S.l. : s.n.], 2011., United States. Diary of Fourth Brigade, Marine Corps, Am. E.F. ; May 30, 1918 to June 30, 1918. [S.l. : s.n.], 1918., Venzon, Anne Cipriano. The United States in the First World War : an Encyclopedia. Hoboken : Taylor and Francis, 2013., Webb, Robert N., and Shannon Stirnweis. Stories of great battles. Racine, Wis. : Whitman Pub. Co., 1960. Battle of Belleau Wood at the American Expeditionary Force website, Photos of Belleau Wood as it is today, The Battle of Belleau Wood, Marines' First Crucible: Belleau Wood, Battle of Belleau Wood, Battle of Belleau Wood, 6–26 June 1918, Devil Dogs in Olive Drab: The 2d Engineers at Belleau Wood, Belleau Wood Marine Memorial

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In June 2018, England played a three-test series against as part of the 2018 mid-year rugby union tests. The series was part of the sixth year of the global rugby calendar established by World Rugby, which runs through to 2019. On 29 May, England finalised a 34-man tour squad for their 3-test series summer tour of South Africa. On 11 June, Jack Singleton joined the squad as a third choice hooker option and injury cover for Luke Cowan-Dickie. Coaching team: Head coach: Eddie Jones, Attack coach: Scott Wisemantel, Defence coach: Paul Gustard, Forwards coach: Steve Borthwick, Scrum coach: Neal Hatley On 26 May 2018, head coach Rassie Erasmus named a 43-man squad for South Africa's June Internationals. Coaching team: Head coach: Rassie Erasmus, Attack coach: Mzwandile Stick, Defence coach: Jacques Nienaber, Scrum coach: Pieter de Villiers Notes: This is the first time sine 2014 the Barbarians has defeated England. Notes: Tomos Williams (Wales) and Robert du Preez, Thomas du Toit, André Esterhuizen, Travis Ismaiel, Jason Jenkins, Makazole Mapimpi, Ox Nché, Sikhumbuzo Notshe, Marvin Orie, Embrose Papier, Kwagga Smith, Akker van der Merwe and Ivan van Zyl (all South Africa) made their international debuts., This victory saw Wales record a record third consecutive win against the Springboks, and win for the first time away from home. Notes: Aphiwe Dyantyi, S'busiso Nkosi and RG Snyman (all South Africa) and Brad Shields and Ben Spencer (both England) made their international debuts., Mako Vunipola (England) earned his 50th test cap. Notes: Tendai Mtawarira (South Africa) earned his 100th test cap. Notes: This was England's first victory over South Africa in South Africa since they won 27–22 in 2000. 2018 mid-year rugby union internationals, History of rugby union matches between England and South Africa Official Website of South African Rugby, Official Website of English Rugby The Rugby World Cup is a men's rugby union tournament contested every four years between the top international teams. The tournament was first held in 1987, when the tournament was co-hosted by New Zealand and Australia. The winners are awarded the Webb Ellis Cup, named after William Webb Ellis, the Rugby School pupil who, according to a popular legend, invented rugby by picking up the ball during a football game. Four countries have won the trophy; New Zealand and South Africa three times, Australia twice, and England once. South Africa are the current champions, having defeated England in the final of the 2019 tournament in Japan. The tournament is administered by World Rugby, the sport's international governing body. Sixteen teams were invited to participate in the inaugural tournament in 1987, however since 1999 twenty teams have taken part. Japan hosted the 2019 Rugby World Cup and France will host the next in 2023. On 21 August 2019, World Rugby announced that gender designations would be removed from the titles of the men's and women's World Cups. Accordingly, all future World Cups for men and women will officially bear the "Rugby World Cup" name. The first tournament to be affected by the new policy will be the next women's tournament to be held in New Zealand in 2021, which will officially be titled as "Rugby World Cup 2021". Qualifying tournaments were introduced for the second tournament, where eight of the sixteen places were contested in a twenty-four-nation tournament. The inaugural World Cup in 1987, did not involve any qualifying process; instead, the 16 places were automatically filled by seven eligible International Rugby Football Board (IRFB, now World Rugby) member nations, and the rest by invitation. In 2003 and 2007, the qualifying format allowed for eight of the twenty available positions to be filled by automatic qualification, as the eight quarter-finalists of the previous tournament enter its successor. The remaining twelve positions were filled by continental qualifying tournaments. Positions were filled by three teams from the Americas, one from Asia, one from Africa, three from Europe and two from Oceania. Another two places were allocated for repechage. The first repechage place was determined by a match between the runners-up from the Africa and Europe qualifying tournaments, with that winner then playing the Americas runner-up to determine the place. The second repechage position was determined between the runners-up from the Asia and Oceania qualifiers. The current format allows for 12 of the 20 available positions to be filled by automatic qualification, as the teams who finish third or better in the group (pool) stages of the previous tournament enter its successor (where they will be seeded). The qualification system for the remaining eight places is region-based, with a total eight teams allocated for Europe, five for Oceania, three for the Americas, two for Africa, and one for Asia. The last place is determined by an intercontinental play-off. The 2015 tournament involved twenty nations competing over six weeks. There were two stages, a pool and a knockout. Nations were divided into four pools, A through to D, of five nations each. The teams were seeded before the start of the tournament, with the seedings taken from the World Rankings in December 2012. The four highest-ranked teams were drawn into pools A to D. The next four highest-ranked teams were then drawn into pools A to D, followed by the next four. The remaining positions in each pool were filled by the qualifiers. Nations play four pool games, playing their respective pool members once each. A bonus points system is used during pool play. If two or more teams are level on points, a system of criteria is used to determine the higher ranked; the sixth and final criterion decides the higher rank through the official World Rankings. The winner and runner-up of each pool enter the knockout stage. The knockout stage consists of quarter- and semi-finals, and then the final. The winner of each pool is placed against a runner-up of a different pool in a quarter-final. The winner of each quarter-final goes on to the semi-finals, and the respective winners proceed to the final. Losers of the semi-finals contest for third place, called the 'Bronze Final'. If a match in the knockout stages ends in a draw, the winner is determined through extra time. If that fails, the match goes into sudden death and the next team to score any points is the winner. As a last resort, a kicking competition is used. Prior to the Rugby World Cup, there was no truly global rugby union competition, but there were a number of other tournaments. One of the oldest is the annual Six Nations Championship, which started in 1883 as the Home Nations Championship, a tournament between England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales. It expanded to the Five Nations in 1910, when France joined the tournament. France did not participate from 1931 to 1939, during which period it reverted to a Home Nations championship. In 2000, Italy joined the competition, which became the Six Nations. Rugby union was also played at the Summer Olympic Games, first appearing at the 1900 Paris games and subsequently at London in 1908, Antwerp in 1920, and Paris again in 1924. France won the first gold medal, then Australasia, with the last two being won by the United States. However rugby union ceased to be on Olympic program after 1924. The idea of a Rugby World Cup had been suggested on numerous occasions going back to the 1950s, but met with opposition from most unions in the IRFB. The idea resurfaced several times in the early 1980s, with the Australian Rugby Union (ARU; now known as Rugby Australia) in 1983, and the New Zealand Rugby Union (NZRU; now known as New Zealand Rugby) in 1984 independently proposing the establishment of a world cup. A proposal was again put to the IRFB in 1985 and this time successfully passed 10–6. The delegates from Australia, France, New Zealand and South Africa all voted for the proposal, and the delegates from Ireland and Scotland against; the English and Welsh delegates were split, with one from each country for and one against. The inaugural tournament, jointly hosted by Australia and New Zealand, was held in May and June 1987, with sixteen nations taking part. New Zealand became the first-ever champions, defeating France 29–9 in the final. The subsequent 1991 tournament was hosted by England, with matches played throughout Britain, Ireland and France. This tournament saw the introduction of a qualifying tournament; eight places were allocated to the quarter-finalists from 1987, and the remaining eight decided by a thirty-five nation qualifying tournament. Australia won the second tournament, defeating England 12–6 in the final. In 1992, eight years after their last official series, South Africa hosted New Zealand in a one-off test match. The resumption of international rugby in South Africa came after the dismantling of the apartheid system, and was only done with permission of the African National Congress. With their return to test rugby, South Africa were selected to host the 1995 Rugby World Cup. After upsetting Australia in the opening match, South Africa continued to advance through the tournament until they met New Zealand in the final. After a tense final that went into extra time, South Africa emerged 15–12 winners, with then President Nelson Mandela, wearing a Springbok jersey, presenting the trophy to South Africa's captain, Francois Pienaar. The tournament in 1999 was hosted by Wales with matches also being held throughout the rest of the United Kingdom, Ireland and France. The tournament included a repechage system, alongside specific regional qualifying places, and an increase from sixteen to twenty participating nations. Australia claimed their second title, defeating France in the final. The 2003 event was hosted by Australia, although it was originally intended to be held jointly with New Zealand. England emerged as champions defeating Australia in extra time. England's win was unique in that it broke the southern hemisphere's dominance in the event. Such was the celebration of England's victory that an estimated 750,000 people gathered in central London to greet the team, making the day the largest sporting celebration of its kind ever in the United Kingdom. The 2007 competition was hosted by France, with matches also being held in Wales and Scotland. South Africa claimed their second title by defeating defending champions England 15–6. The 2011 tournament was awarded to New Zealand in November 2005, ahead of bids from Japan and South Africa. The All Blacks reclaimed their place atop the rugby world with a narrow 8–7 win over France in the 2011 final. In the 2015 edition of tournament, hosted by England, New Zealand once again won the final, this time against established rivals, Australia. In doing so, they became the first team in World Cup history to win three titles, as well as the first to successfully defend a title. It was also New Zealand's first title victory on foreign soil. The 2019 World Cup, hosted by Japan, saw South Africa claim their third trophy to match New Zealand for the most Rugby World Cup titles. South Africa defeated England 32–12 in the final. The Webb Ellis Cup is the prize presented to winners of the Rugby World Cup, named after William Webb Ellis. The trophy is also referred to simply as the Rugby World Cup. The trophy was chosen in 1987 as an appropriate cup for use in the competition, and was created in 1906 by Garrard's Crown Jewellers. The trophy is restored after each game by fellow Royal Warrant holder Thomas Lyte. The words 'The International Rugby Football Board' and 'The Webb Ellis Cup' are engraved on the face of the cup. It stands thirty-eight centimetres high and is silver gilded in gold, and supported by two cast scroll handles, one with the head of a satyr, and the other a head of a nymph. In Australia the trophy is colloquially known as "Bill" — a reference to William Webb Ellis. Tournaments are organised by Rugby World Cup Ltd (RWCL), which is itself owned by World Rugby. The selection of host is decided by a vote of World Rugby Council members. The voting procedure is managed by a team of independent auditors, and the voting kept secret. The allocation of a tournament to a host nation is now made five or six years prior to the commencement of the event, for example New Zealand were awarded the 2011 event in late 2005. The tournament has been hosted by multiple nations. For example, the 1987 tournament was co-hosted by Australia and New Zealand. World Rugby requires that the hosts must have a venue with a capacity of at least 60,000 spectators for the final. Host nations sometimes construct or upgrade stadia in preparation for the World Cup, such as Millennium Stadium – purpose built for the 1999 tournament – and Eden Park, upgraded for 2011. The first country outside of the traditional rugby nations of SANZAAR or the Six Nations to be awarded the hosting rights was 2019 host Japan. France will host the 2023 tournament. Organizers of the Rugby World Cup, as well as the Global Sports Impact, state that the Rugby World Cup is the third largest sporting event in the world, behind only the FIFA World Cup and the Olympics, although other sources question whether this is accurate. Reports emanating from World Rugby and its business partners have frequently touted the tournament's media growth, with cumulative worldwide television audiences of 300 million for the inaugural 1987 tournament, 1.75 billion in 1991, 2.67 billion in 1995, 3 billion in 1999, 3.5 billion in 2003, and 4 billion in 2007. The 4 billion figure was widely dismissed as the global audience for television is estimated to be about 4.2 billion. However, independent reviews have called into question the methodology of those growth estimates, pointing to factual inconsistencies. The event's supposed drawing power outside of a handful of rugby strongholds was also downplayed significantly, with an estimated 97 percent of the 33 million average audience produced by the 2007 final coming from Australasia, South Africa, the British Isles and France. Other sports have been accused of exaggerating their television reach over the years; such claims are not exclusive to the Rugby World Cup. While the event's global popularity remains a matter of dispute, high interest in traditional rugby nations is well documented. The 2003 final, between Australia and England, became the most watched rugby union match in the history of Australian television. †Typhoon Hagibis caused 3 group stage matches to be cancelled. As a result, only 45 of the scheduled 48 matches were played in the 2019 Rugby World Cup. Notes: The host union keeps revenue from gate receipts. World Rugby, through RWCL, receive revenue from sources including broadcasting rights, sponsorship and tournament fees. Twenty-five nations have participated at the Rugby World Cup (excluding qualifying tournaments). The only nations to host and win a tournament are New Zealand (1987 and 2011) and South Africa (1995). The performance of other host nations includes England (1991 final hosts) and Australia (2003 hosts) both finishing runners-up, while France (2007 hosts) finished fourth, and Wales (1999 hosts) and Japan (2019 hosts) reached the quarter-finals. Wales became the first host nation to be eliminated at the pool stages in 1991 while England became the first solo host nation to be eliminated at the pool stages in 2015. Of the twenty-five nations that have participated in at least one tournament, eleven of them have never missed a tournament. South Africa was excluded from the first two tournaments due to a sporting boycott during the apartheid era. The record for most points overall is held by English player Jonny Wilkinson, who scored 277 during his World Cup career. New Zealand All Black Grant Fox holds the record for most points in one competition, with 126 in 1987; Jason Leonard of England holds the record for most World Cup matches: 22 between 1991 and 2003. All Black Simon Culhane holds the record for most points in a match by one player, 45, as well as the record for most conversions in a match, 20. All Black Marc Ellis holds the record for most tries in a match, six, which he scored against Japan in 1995. New Zealand All Black Jonah Lomu is the youngest player to appear in a final – aged 20 years and 43 days at the 1995 Final. Lomu (playing in two tournaments) and South African Bryan Habana (playing in three tournaments) share the record for most total World Cup tournament tries, both scoring 15. Lomu (in 1999) and Habana (in 2007) also share the record, along with All Black Julian Savea (in 2015), for most tries in a tournament, with 8 each. South Africa's Jannie de Beer kicked five drop- goals against England in 1999 – an individual record for a single World Cup match. The record for most penalties in a match is 8, held by Australian Matt Burke, Argentinian Gonzalo Quesada, Scotland's Gavin Hastings and France's Thierry Lacroix, with Quesada also holding the record for most penalties in a tournament, with 31. The most points scored in a game is 145, by the All Blacks against Japan in 1995, while the widest winning margin is 142, held by Australia in a match against Namibia in 2003. A total of 16 players have been sent off (red carded) in the tournament. Welsh lock Huw Richards was the first, while playing against New Zealand in 1987. No player has been red carded more than once. Rugby World Cup (women's), Rugby World Cup Sevens – men's and women's tournaments held simultaneously at a single site Davies, Gerald (2004). The History of the Rugby World Cup Sanctuary Publishing Ltd. ., Farr-Jones, Nick, (2003). Story of the Rugby World Cup, Australian Post Corporation. . – official site, World Rugby The 2007 Rugby World Cup Final was a rugby union match, played on Saturday, 20 October 2007 at the Stade de France, Saint-Denis, Paris, to determine the winner of the 2007 Rugby World Cup. South Africa beat England 15–6. Having also won the 1995 tournament, South Africa became the second country to win two World Cups, following Australia, who won in 1991 and 1999. England and South Africa, who won their semi-finals against France and Argentina respectively, had met during the pool stage of the competition, when South Africa won 36–0. South Africa began the final undefeated in the competition. The final was refereed by Irish referee Alain Rolland. The match itself was try-less with each team scoring only penalties, South Africa five – four by fullback Percy Montgomery and one by centre François Steyn – and England two, both by fly-half Jonny Wilkinson. Each team had one major try scoring opportunity; South Africa's came late in the first half, while England's came early in the second, as wing Mark Cueto had a try disallowed in the 42nd minute after he was ruled to have put a foot in touch during a tackle by Danie Rossouw before grounding the ball. Television match official Stuart Dickinson stood by his decision, though he encountered a language barrier with the French broadcaster preventing his access to frame-by-frame pictures. Both England and South Africa were placed in Pool A along with Samoa, Tonga and the United States. England's first match was against the United States, whom they beat 28–10. South Africa opened their campaign with a 59–7 victory over Samoa in which they scored seven tries, four of them by Bryan Habana. The two teams then met in their second match of the tournament. For the first time in their World Cup history, England were kept pointless as South Africa scored three tries to win 36–0. South Africa then rested several of their top players for their match against Tonga. Tonga came close to an upset but South Africa held on to win 30–25, guaranteeing the Springboks top position in the pool. England then played Samoa, winning 44–22, before facing Tonga in a match effectively serving as a qualification play-off; whoever won the game would finish second in the pool behind South Africa. England eventually won 36–20, scoring four tries in the process. England played Australia, who had finished top of Pool B, in their quarter-final. The match was a repeat of the 2003 World Cup final, with England coming out on top again, beating the Wallabies 12–10. All of England's points were scored by Jonny Wilkinson penalties. South Africa faced Fiji, who had defeated Wales to finish as runners-up behind Australia in Pool B. South Africa scored five tries to two and won 37–20. England played hosts France in their semi-final. Despite having less possession and territory England won 14–9. South Africa faced Argentina and scored four tries to one to win 37–13. The match was kicked off by England's Jonny Wilkinson, whose kick was collected by Schalk Burger, before the ball was kicked into touch by Butch James, giving England the first line-out throw of the game. However, South Africa stole the ball to win the first line-out of the match. In the sixth minute, Mathew Tait attempted to run the ball from inside England's 22-metre line, only to be tackled and penalised for not releasing the ball in the ruck. South Africa's Percy Montgomery successfully converted the penalty to give the Springboks a 3–0 lead. An up-and-under kick from England resulted in South African wing JP Pietersen dropping the ball. England regained possession and passed the ball out to winger Paul Sackey, before South Africa were penalised for killing the ball. Wilkinson stepped up to convert the penalty and level the scores at 3–3 after ten minutes. After a lot of kicking from both sides, Butch James was tripped by England flanker Lewis Moody as the South African fly-half was chasing a kick. Montgomery kicked the resulting penalty, to put the South Africans 6–3 up after 15 minutes. Two minutes later, England positioned themselves for an attempted drop-goal, but Wilkinson's attempt was left wanting as it drifted slightly wide. After 21 minutes, England prop and captain Phil Vickery was penalised for being offside near the halfway line. The resulting penalty kick was taken by South Africa's centre Frans Steyn, but he missed the long-range effort. The match continued with large amounts of kicking from both sides until the 35th minute, when Steyn broke through the England line. South Africa managed to retain possession and eventually their hooker, John Smit, went for the try-line but was held up two metres short. The ball was eventually knocked on by South Africa and England were awarded a five-metre scrum. The scrum had to be reset several times, but the Springbok forwards were finally able to wheel the scrum through 90 degrees to force the turnover. They won the scrum on their own feed and continued to press at England's goal line before England were penalised for killing the ball. A penalty was awarded, which Montgomery kicked to give South Africa a 9–3 half- time lead. The second half was kicked off by South Africa's Butch James, and the ball was caught by England's number 8 Nick Easter. After stewards had dealt with a pitch invasion by infamous pitch invader Jimmy Jump, the ball was eventually received by Mathew Tait, who was able to break the South African defensive line, before being tackled metres short of the South African goal line. The ball was recycled and spread left to England winger Mark Cueto, who dived for the try line while being tackled by South African number eight Danie Rossouw. Referee Alain Rolland referred the decision to Australian Television Match Official Stuart Dickinson to determine whether Cueto was in touch before grounding the ball. Dickinson ruled that a foot was in touch and Rolland brought play back to an earlier penalty against Schalk Burger. Wilkinson converted the penalty to reduce South Africa's lead to 9–6 after 42 minutes. In the 48th minute, Steyn made another break for South Africa and England flanker Martin Corry was penalised for playing the ball off his feet. Montgomery kicked the penalty to restore South Africa's six-point advantage. England penetrated South Africa's 22 in the 58th minute and their scrum-half Andy Gomarsall chipped the ball ahead for Toby Flood to run on to. However, the kick was too deep and was shepherded over the dead ball line by Percy Montgomery. Unable to reach the ball, and trying to force an English five- metre scrum, Flood pushed Montgomery in the back as they both chased for the ball, sending Montgomery into the advertising boards. In his attempt to hurdle the boards, Montgomery collided with a television camera, but referee Rolland decided not to penalise Flood. Three minutes later, just inside England's half, the English were penalised for obstruction, and Steyn kicked a 49-metre penalty to extend South Africa's lead to 15–6. In the 67th minute, South African captain John Smit was penalised for a collision with Mark Cueto as Cueto chased his own kick. Wilkinson kicked the ball into touch in South Africa's 22 from his own half, but England lost their resulting line-out to give South Africa possession. Requiring at least two scores to overhaul South Africa's lead, England kept attacking, and Wilkinson attempted a long-range drop goal in the 71st minute but was unsuccessful. England kept possession for long periods during the last ten minutes, but were unable to break through the South African defence. They were penalised in the 75th minute for holding on in the tackle, and South Africa continued to try to play the match in England territory. England then knocked the ball on in the 79th minute, giving South Africa a scrum. The South African forwards secured the ball, and as soon as the clock ticked over the 80-minute mark, the ball was kicked into touch. Referee Rolland then blew the final whistle, and South Africa had won their second World Cup title. This was also the second World Cup title for retiring prop Os du Randt, who was the last player from the Springboks' 1995 championship team still active. He joined five Australians who had been on the Wallabies' 1991 and 1999 championship teams as the only players at that time to have won two World Cups (they would be joined by several New Zealanders who won in 2011 and 2015, and by du Randt's Springboks teammate François Steyn in 2019). Knockout stage at rwc2007.irb.com

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A sonic boom is the sound associated with the shock waves created whenever an object travelling through the air travels faster than the speed of sound. Sonic booms generate enormous amounts of sound energy, sounding similar to an explosion or a thunderclap to the human ear. The crack of a supersonic bullet passing overhead or the crack of a bullwhip are examples of a sonic boom in miniature. Sonic booms due to large supersonic aircraft can be particularly loud and startling, tend to awaken people, and may cause minor damage to some structures. They led to prohibition of routine supersonic flight over land. Although they cannot be completely prevented, research suggests that with careful shaping of the vehicle the nuisance due to them may be reduced to the point that overland supersonic flight may become a practical option. A sonic boom does not occur only at the moment an object crosses the speed of sound; and neither is it heard in all directions emanating from the speeding object. Rather the boom is a continuous effect that occurs while the object is travelling at supersonic speeds. But it affects only observers that are positioned at a point that intersects a region in the shape of a geometrical cone behind the object. As the object moves, this conical region also moves behind it and when the cone passes over the observer, they will briefly experience the boom. When an aircraft passes through the air, it creates a series of pressure waves in front of the aircraft and behind it, similar to the bow and stern waves created by a boat. These waves travel at the speed of sound and, as the speed of the object increases, the waves are forced together, or compressed, because they cannot get out of each other's way quickly enough. Eventually they merge into a single shock wave, which travels at the speed of sound, a critical speed known as Mach 1, and is approximately at sea level and . In smooth flight, the shock wave starts at the nose of the aircraft and ends at the tail. Because the different radial directions around the aircraft's direction of travel are equivalent (given the "smooth flight" condition), the shock wave forms a Mach cone, similar to a vapour cone, with the aircraft at its tip. The half-angle between direction of flight and the shock wave formula_1 is given by: where formula_3 is the inverse formula_4 of the plane's Mach number (formula_5). Thus the faster the plane travels, the finer and more pointed the cone is. There is a rise in pressure at the nose, decreasing steadily to a negative pressure at the tail, followed by a sudden return to normal pressure after the object passes. This "overpressure profile" is known as an N-wave because of its shape. The "boom" is experienced when there is a sudden change in pressure; therefore, an N-wave causes two booms – one when the initial pressure-rise reaches an observer, and another when the pressure returns to normal. This leads to a distinctive "double boom" from a supersonic aircraft. When the aircraft is maneuvering, the pressure distribution changes into different forms, with a characteristic U-wave shape. Since the boom is being generated continually as long as the aircraft is supersonic, it fills out a narrow path on the ground following the aircraft's flight path, a bit like an unrolling red carpet, and hence known as the boom carpet. Its width depends on the altitude of the aircraft. The distance from the point on the ground where the boom is heard to the aircraft depends on its altitude and the angle formula_1. For today's supersonic aircraft in normal operating conditions, the peak overpressure varies from less than 50 to 500 Pa (1 to 10 psf (pound per square foot)) for an N-wave boom. Peak overpressures for U-waves are amplified two to five times the N-wave, but this amplified overpressure impacts only a very small area when compared to the area exposed to the rest of the sonic boom. The strongest sonic boom ever recorded was 7,000 Pa (144 psf) and it did not cause injury to the researchers who were exposed to it. The boom was produced by an F-4 flying just above the speed of sound at an altitude of . In recent tests, the maximum boom measured during more realistic flight conditions was 1,010 Pa (21 psf). There is a probability that some damage — shattered glass, for example — will result from a sonic boom. Buildings in good condition should suffer no damage by pressures of 530 Pa (11 psf) or less. And, typically, community exposure to sonic boom is below 100 Pa (2 psf). Ground motion resulting from sonic boom is rare and is well below structural damage thresholds accepted by the U.S. Bureau of Mines and other agencies. The power, or volume, of the shock wave depends on the quantity of air that is being accelerated, and thus the size and shape of the aircraft. As the aircraft increases speed the shock cone gets tighter around the craft and becomes weaker to the point that at very high speeds and altitudes no boom is heard. The "length" of the boom from front to back depends on the length of the aircraft to a power of 3/2. Longer aircraft therefore "spread out" their booms more than smaller ones, which leads to a less powerful boom. Several smaller shock waves can and usually do form at other points on the aircraft, primarily at any convex points, or curves, the leading wing edge, and especially the inlet to engines. These secondary shockwaves are caused by the air being forced to turn around these convex points, which generates a shock wave in supersonic flow. The later shock waves are somewhat faster than the first one, travel faster and add to the main shockwave at some distance away from the aircraft to create a much more defined N-wave shape. This maximizes both the magnitude and the "rise time" of the shock which makes the boom seem louder. On most aircraft designs the characteristic distance is about , meaning that below this altitude the sonic boom will be "softer". However, the drag at this altitude or below makes supersonic travel particularly inefficient, which poses a serious problem. The pressure from sonic booms caused by aircraft often is a few pounds per square foot. A vehicle flying at greater altitude will generate lower pressures on the ground, because the shock wave reduces in intensity as it spreads out away from the vehicle, but the sonic booms are less affected by vehicle speed. In the late 1950s when supersonic transport (SST) designs were being actively pursued, it was thought that although the boom would be very large, the problems could be avoided by flying higher. This assumption was proven false when the North American XB-70 Valkyrie started flying, and it was found that the boom was a problem even at 70,000 feet (21,000 m). It was during these tests that the N-wave was first characterized. Richard Seebass and his colleague Albert George at Cornell University studied the problem extensively and eventually defined a "figure of merit" (FM) to characterize the sonic boom levels of different aircraft. FM is a function of the aircraft weight and the aircraft length. The lower this value, the less boom the aircraft generates, with figures of about 1 or lower being considered acceptable. Using this calculation, they found FMs of about 1.4 for Concorde and 1.9 for the Boeing 2707. This eventually doomed most SST projects as public resentment mixed with politics eventually resulted in laws that made any such aircraft impractical (flying supersonically only over water for instance). Another way to express this is wing span. The fuselage of even a large supersonic aircraft is very sleek and with enough angle of attack and wing span the plane can fly so high that the boom by the fuselage is not important. The larger the wing span, the greater the downwards impulse which can be applied to the air, the greater the boom felt. A smaller wing span favors small aeroplane designs like business jets. Seebass and George also worked on the problem from a different angle, trying to spread out the N-wave laterally and temporally (longitudinally), by producing a strong and downwards-focused (SR-71 Blackbird, Boeing X-43) shock at a sharp, but wide angle nose cone, which will travel at slightly supersonic speed (bow shock), and using a swept back flying wing or an oblique flying wing to smooth out this shock along the direction of flight (the tail of the shock travels at sonic speed). To adapt this principle to existing planes, which generate a shock at their nose cone and an even stronger one at their wing leading edge, the fuselage below the wing is shaped according to the area rule. Ideally this would raise the characteristic altitude from to 60,000 feet (from 12,000 m to 18,000 m), which is where most SST aircraft were expected to fly. This remained untested for decades, until DARPA started the Quiet Supersonic Platform project and funded the Shaped Sonic Boom Demonstration (SSBD) aircraft to test it. SSBD used an F-5 Freedom Fighter. The F-5E was modified with a highly refined shape which lengthened the nose to that of the F-5F model. The fairing extended from the nose all the way back to the inlets on the underside of the aircraft. The SSBD was tested over a two-year period culminating in 21 flights and was an extensive study on sonic boom characteristics. After measuring the 1,300 recordings, some taken inside the shock wave by a chase plane, the SSBD demonstrated a reduction in boom by about one-third. Although one-third is not a huge reduction, it could have reduced Concorde's boom to an acceptable level; one below the FM = 1 limit stated above, for instance. As a follow-on to SSBD, in 2006 a NASA-Gulfstream Aerospace team tested the Quiet Spike on NASA-Dryden's F-15B aircraft 836. The Quiet Spike is a telescoping boom fitted to the nose of an aircraft specifically designed to weaken the strength of the shock waves forming on the nose of the aircraft at supersonic speeds. Over 50 test flights were performed. Several flights included probing of the shockwaves by a second F-15B, NASA's Intelligent Flight Control System testbed, aircraft 837. There are theoretical designs that do not appear to create sonic booms at all, such as the Busemann's Biplane. However, creating a shockwave is inescapable if they generate aerodynamic lift. NASA and Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Co. are working together to build an experimental aircraft called the Low Boom Flight Demonstrator (LBFD), which will reduce the sonic boom synonymous with high- speed flight to the sound of a car door closing. The agency has awarded a $247.5 million contract to construct a working version of the sleek, single- pilot plane by summer 2021 and should begin testing over the following years to determine whether the design could eventually be adapted to commercial aircraft. The sound of a sonic boom depends largely on the distance between the observer and the aircraft shape producing the sonic boom. A sonic boom is usually heard as a deep double "boom" as the aircraft is usually some distance away. The sound is much like that of mortar bombs, commonly used in firework displays. It is a common misconception that only one boom is generated during the subsonic to supersonic transition; rather, the boom is continuous along the boom carpet for the entire supersonic flight. As a former Concorde pilot puts it, "You don't actually hear anything on board. All we see is the pressure wave moving down the aeroplane – it gives an indication on the instruments. And that's what we see around Mach 1. But we don't hear the sonic boom or anything like that. That's rather like the wake of a ship – it's behind us.". In 1964, NASA and the Federal Aviation Administration began the Oklahoma City sonic boom tests, which caused eight sonic booms per day over a period of six months. Valuable data was gathered from the experiment, but 15,000 complaints were generated and ultimately entangled the government in a class action lawsuit, which it lost on appeal in 1969. Sonic booms were also a nuisance in North Cornwall and North Devon in the UK as these areas were underneath the flight path of Concorde. Windows would rattle and in some cases the "torching" (pointing underneath roof slates) would be dislodged with the vibration. There has been recent work in this area, notably under DARPA's Quiet Supersonic Platform studies. Research by acoustics experts under this program began looking more closely at the composition of sonic booms, including the frequency content. Several characteristics of the traditional sonic boom "N" wave can influence how loud and irritating it can be perceived by listeners on the ground. Even strong N-waves such as those generated by Concorde or military aircraft can be far less objectionable if the rise time of the over- pressure is sufficiently long. A new metric has emerged, known as perceived loudness, measured in PLdB. This takes into account the frequency content, rise time, etc. A well-known example is the snapping of one's fingers in which the "perceived" sound is nothing more than an annoyance. The energy range of sonic boom is concentrated in the 0.1–100 hertz frequency range that is considerably below that of subsonic aircraft, gunfire and most industrial noise. Duration of sonic boom is brief; less than a second, 100 milliseconds (0.1 second) for most fighter-sized aircraft and 500 milliseconds for the space shuttle or Concorde jetliner. The intensity and width of a sonic boom path depends on the physical characteristics of the aircraft and how it is operated. In general, the greater an aircraft's altitude, the lower the over- pressure on the ground. Greater altitude also increases the boom's lateral spread, exposing a wider area to the boom. Over-pressures in the sonic boom impact area, however, will not be uniform. Boom intensity is greatest directly under the flight path, progressively weakening with greater horizontal distance away from the aircraft flight track. Ground width of the boom exposure area is approximately for each of altitude (the width is about five times the altitude); that is, an aircraft flying supersonic at will create a lateral boom spread of about . For steady supersonic flight, the boom is described as a carpet boom since it moves with the aircraft as it maintains supersonic speed and altitude. Some maneuvers, diving, acceleration or turning, can cause focusing of the boom. Other maneuvers, such as deceleration and climbing, can reduce the strength of the shock. In some instances weather conditions can distort sonic booms. Depending on the aircraft's altitude, sonic booms reach the ground two to 60 seconds after flyover. However, not all booms are heard at ground level. The speed of sound at any altitude is a function of air temperature. A decrease or increase in temperature results in a corresponding decrease or increase in sound speed. Under standard atmospheric conditions, air temperature decreases with increased altitude. For example, when sea-level temperature is 59 degrees Fahrenheit (15 °C), the temperature at drops to minus 49 degrees Fahrenheit (−45 °C). This temperature gradient helps bend the sound waves upward. Therefore, for a boom to reach the ground, the aircraft speed relative to the ground must be greater than the speed of sound at the ground. For example, the speed of sound at is about , but an aircraft must travel at least (Mach 1.12, where Mach 1 equals the speed of sound) for a boom to be heard on the ground. The composition of the atmosphere is also a factor. Temperature variations, humidity, atmospheric pollution, and winds can all have an effect on how a sonic boom is perceived on the ground. Even the ground itself can influence the sound of a sonic boom. Hard surfaces such as concrete, pavement, and large buildings can cause reflections which may amplify the sound of a sonic boom. Similarly, grassy fields and lots of foliage can help attenuate the strength of the over- pressure of a sonic boom. Currently there are no industry-accepted standards for the acceptability of a sonic boom. Until such metrics can be established, either through further study or supersonic overflight testing, it is doubtful that legislation will be enacted to remove the current prohibition on supersonic overflight in place in several countries, including the United States. The cracking sound a bullwhip makes when properly wielded is, in fact, a small sonic boom. The end of the whip, known as the "cracker", moves faster than the speed of sound, thus creating a sonic boom. A bullwhip tapers down from the handle section to the cracker. The cracker has much less mass than the handle section. When the whip is sharply swung, the energy is transferred down the length of the tapering whip. Goriely and McMillen showed that the physical explanation is complex, involving the way that a loop travels down a tapered filament under tension. Cherenkov radiation, Hypersonic, Supershear earthquake, Ground vibration boom Boston Globe profile of Spike Aerospace planned S-521 supersonic jet Charles Elwood Yeager (; born February 13, 1923) is a former United States Air Force officer, flying ace, and record-setting test pilot. In 1947, he became the first pilot confirmed to have exceeded the speed of sound in level flight. Yeager's career began in World War II as a private in the United States Army Air Forces. After serving as an aircraft mechanic, in September 1942 he entered enlisted pilot training and upon graduation was promoted to the rank of flight officer (the World War II USAAF equivalent to warrant officer) and became a P-51 fighter pilot. After the war, Yeager became a test pilot of many types of aircraft, including experimental rocket-powered aircraft. As the first human to officially break the sound barrier, on October 14, 1947, he flew the experimental Bell X-1 at Mach 1 at an altitude of , for which he won both the Collier and Mackay trophies in 1948. He then went on to break several other speed and altitude records. Yeager later commanded fighter squadrons and wings in Germany, and in Southeast Asia during the Vietnam War, and in recognition of the outstanding performance ratings of those units he was promoted to brigadier general. Yeager's flying career spans more than 70 years and has taken him to many parts of the world, including the Soviet Union during the height of the Cold War. Yeager was born February 13, 1923, to farming parents Susie Mae (Sizemore) and Albert Hal Yeager in Myra, West Virginia, and graduated from high school in Hamlin, West Virginia, in June 1941. He had two brothers, Roy and Hal Jr., and two sisters, Doris Ann (accidentally killed at age 2 by 6-year-old Roy playing with a shotgun) and Pansy Lee. His first experience with the military was as a teen at the Citizens Military Training Camp at Fort Benjamin Harrison, Indianapolis, Indiana, during the summers of 1939 and 1940. On February 26, 1945, Yeager married Glennis Dickhouse, and the couple had four children. Glennis died in 1990. The name "Yeager" () is an Anglicized form of the German name Jäger or Jaeger (German: "hunter"). He is the cousin of former baseball catcher Steve Yeager. Yeager enlisted as a private in the U.S. Army Air Forces (USAAF) on September 12, 1941, and became an aircraft mechanic at George Air Force Base, Victorville, California. At enlistment, Yeager was not eligible for flight training because of his age and educational background, but the entry of the U.S. into World War II less than three months later prompted the USAAF to alter its recruiting standards. Having unusually sharp vision (a visual acuity rated 20/10), which once enabled him to shoot a deer at , Yeager displayed natural talent as a pilot and was accepted for flight training. Yeager received his wings and a promotion to flight officer at Luke Field, Arizona, where he graduated from class 43C on March 10, 1943. Assigned to the 357th Fighter Group at Tonopah, Nevada, he initially trained as a fighter pilot, flying Bell P-39 Airacobras (being grounded for seven days for clipping a farmer's tree during a training flight), and shipped overseas with the group on November 23, 1943. Stationed in the United Kingdom at RAF Leiston, Yeager flew P-51 Mustangs in combat with the 363d Fighter Squadron. He named his aircraft Glamorous Glen after his girlfriend, Glennis Faye Dickhouse, who became his wife in February 1945. Yeager had gained one victory before he was shot down over France in his first aircraft (P-51B-5-NA s/n 43-6763) on March 5, 1944 during his eighth mission. He escaped to Spain on March 30 with the help of the Maquis (French Resistance) and returned to England on May 15, 1944. During his stay with the Maquis, Yeager assisted the guerrillas in duties that did not involve direct combat; he helped construct bombs for the group, a skill that he had learned from his father. He was awarded the Bronze Star for helping a B-24 navigator, "Pat" Patterson, who was shot in the knee during the escape attempt, to cross the Pyrenees. Yeager cut off the tendon by which Patterson's leg was hanging below the knee, then tied off the leg with a spare shirt made of parachute silk. Despite a regulation prohibiting "evaders" (escaped pilots) from flying over enemy territory again, the purpose of which was to prevent a second capture from compromising resistance groups, Yeager was reinstated to flying combat. He had joined another evader, fellow P-51 pilot 1st Lt Fred Glover, in speaking directly to the Supreme Allied Commander, General Dwight D. Eisenhower, on June 12, 1944. With Glover pleading their case, they argued that because the Allies had invaded France and the Maquis were by then openly fighting the Nazis alongside Allied troops, if Yeager or Glover were shot down again, there was little about those who had previously helped them evade capture that could be revealed to the enemy. Eisenhower, after gaining permission from the War Department to decide the requests, concurred with Yeager and Glover. Yeager later credited his postwar success in the Air Force to this decision, saying that his test pilot career followed naturally from his having been a decorated combat pilot, along with having been an aircraft mechanic before attending pilot school. In part, because of his maintenance background, he also frequently served as a maintenance officer in his flying units. Yeager demonstrated outstanding flying skills and combat leadership. On October 12, 1944, he became the first pilot in his group to make "ace in a day," downing five enemy aircraft in a single mission. Two of these kills were scored without firing a single shot: when he flew into firing position against a Messerschmitt Bf 109, the pilot of the aircraft panicked, breaking to starboard and colliding with his wingman. Yeager said both pilots bailed out. He finished the war with 11.5 official victories, including one of the first air-to-air victories over a jet fighter, a German Messerschmitt Me 262 that he shot down as it was on final approach for landing. In his 1986 memoirs, Yeager recalled with disgust that "atrocities were committed by both sides", and he said he went on a mission with orders from the Eighth Air Force to "strafe anything that moved." During the mission briefing, he whispered to Major Donald H. Bochkay, "If we are going to do things like this, we sure as hell better make sure we are on the winning side." Yeager said, "I'm certainly not proud of that particular strafing mission against civilians. But it is there, on the record and in my memory." He has also expressed bitterness at his treatment in England during WWII, describing the British as "arrogant" and "nasty". Yeager was commissioned a second lieutenant while at Leiston, and was promoted to captain before the end of his tour. He flew his 61st and final mission on January 15, 1945 and returned to the United States in early February. As an evader, he received his choice of assignments and, because his new wife was pregnant, chose Wright Field to be near his home in West Virginia. His high number of flight hours and maintenance experience qualified him to become a functional test pilot of repaired aircraft, which brought him under the command of Colonel Albert Boyd, head of the Aeronautical Systems Flight Test Division. Yeager remained in the Air Force after the war, becoming a test pilot at Muroc Army Air Field (now Edwards Air Force Base), following graduation from Air Materiel Command Flight Performance School (Class 46C). After Bell Aircraft test pilot Chalmers "Slick" Goodlin demanded $150,000 ($1.6 million in 2015 dollars) to break the sound "barrier," the USAAF selected Yeager to fly the rocket-powered Bell XS-1 in a NACA program to research high-speed flight. Such was the difficulty in this task that the answer to many of the inherent challenges was along the lines of "Yeager better have paid-up insurance." Two nights before the scheduled date for the flight, Yeager broke two ribs when he fell from a horse. He was worried that the injury would remove him from the mission and reported that he went to a civilian doctor in nearby Rosamond, who taped his ribs. Yeager told only his wife, as well as friend and fellow project pilot Jack Ridley, about the accident. On the day of the flight, Yeager was in such pain that he could not seal the X-1's hatch by himself. Ridley rigged up a device, using the end of a broom handle as an extra lever, to allow Yeager to seal the hatch. Yeager broke the sound barrier on October 14, 1947, flying the X-1 Glamorous Glennis at Mach 1.05 at an altitude of . over the Rogers Dry Lake in the Mojave Desert. The success of the mission was not announced to the public until June 1948. Yeager was awarded the Mackay Trophy and the Collier Trophy in 1948 for his mach-transcending flight, and the Harmon International Trophy in 1954. The X-1 he flew that day was later put on permanent display at the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum. Yeager went on to break many other speed and altitude records. He was also one of the first American pilots to fly a MiG-15, after its pilot, No Kum-sok, defected to South Korea. Returning to Muroc, during the latter half of 1953, Yeager was involved with the USAF team that was working on the X-1A, an aircraft designed to surpass Mach 2 in level flight. That year, he flew a chase aircraft for the civilian pilot Jackie Cochran as she became the first woman to fly faster than sound. On November 20, 1953 the U.S. Navy program involving the D-558-II Skyrocket and its pilot, Scott Crossfield, became the first team to reach twice the speed of sound. After they were bested, Ridley and Yeager decided to beat rival Crossfield's speed record in a series of test flights that they dubbed "Operation NACA Weep." Not only did they beat Crossfield by setting a new record at Mach 2.44 on December 12, 1953, but they did it in time to spoil a celebration planned for the 50th anniversary of flight in which Crossfield was to be called "the fastest man alive." The new record flight, however, did not entirely go to plan, since shortly after reaching Mach 2.44, Yeager lost control of the X-1A at about due to inertia coupling, a phenomenon largely unknown at the time. With the aircraft simultaneously rolling, pitching, and yawing out of control, Yeager dropped in less than a minute before regaining control at around . He then managed to land without further incident. For this achievement, Yeager was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal (DSM) in 1954. Yeager was foremost a fighter pilot and held several squadron and wing commands. From May 1955 to July 1957, he commanded the F-86H Sabre-equipped 417th Fighter-Bomber Squadron (50th Fighter-Bomber Wing) at Hahn AB, Germany, and Toul-Rosieres Air Base, France; and from 1957 to 1960 the F-100D Super Sabre-equipped 1st Fighter Day Squadron (later, while still under Yeager's command, re-designated the 306th Tactical Fighter Squadron) at George Air Force Base, California, and Morón Air Base, Spain. Now a full colonel in 1962, after completion of a year's studies at the Air War College, Yeager became the first commandant of the USAF Aerospace Research Pilot School, which produced astronauts for NASA and the USAF, after its redesignation from the USAF Flight Test Pilot School. (Yeager himself had only a high school education, so he was not eligible to become an astronaut like those he trained.) Between December 1963 and January 1964, Yeager completed five flights in the NASA M2-F1 lifting body. An accident during a December 1963 test flight in one of the school's NF-104s eventually put an end to his record attempts. In 1966, Yeager took command of the 405th Tactical Fighter Wing at Clark Air Base, the Philippines, whose squadrons were deployed on rotational temporary duty (TDY) in South Vietnam and elsewhere in Southeast Asia. There he accrued another 414 hours of combat time in 127 missions, mostly in a Martin B-57 Canberra light bomber. In February 1968, Yeager was assigned command of the 4th Tactical Fighter Wing at Seymour Johnson Air Force Base, North Carolina, and led the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II wing in South Korea during the Pueblo crisis. On June 22, 1969, Yeager was promoted to brigadier general and was assigned in July as the vice- commander of the Seventeenth Air Force. From 1971 to 1973, at the behest of Ambassador Joe Farland, Yeager was assigned to Pakistan to advise the Pakistan Air Force. In one of the numerous raids carried out by Indian pilots against Pakistani airfields, Yeager's plane was destroyed while it was parked at Islamabad airport. Edward C. Ingraham, a U.S diplomat who had served as political counselor to Ambassador Farland in Islamabad recalled this incident in the Washington Monthly of October 1985: "After Yeager's Beechcraft was destroyed during an Indian air raid, he raged to his cowering colleagues that the Indian pilot had been specifically instructed by Indira Gandhi to blast his plane. 'It was,' he later wrote, 'the Indian way of giving Uncle Sam the finger.'" On March 1, 1975, following assignments in Germany and Pakistan, Yeager retired from the Air Force at Norton Air Force Base after serving over 33 years on active duty, although he continued to occasionally fly for the USAF and NASA as a consulting test pilot at Edwards AFB. Yeager made a cameo appearance in the movie The Right Stuff (1983). He played "Fred," a bartender at "Pancho's Place", which was most appropriate, as Yeager said, "if all the hours were ever totaled, I reckon I spent more time at her place than in a cockpit over those years." His own role in the movie was played by Sam Shepard. For several years in the 1980s, Yeager was connected to General Motors, publicizing AC Delco, the company's automotive parts division. In 1986 he was invited to drive the Chevrolet Corvette pace car for the 70th running of the Indianapolis 500. In 1988, Yeager was again invited to drive the pace car, this time at the wheel of an Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme. In 1986, President Reagan appointed Yeager to the Rogers Commission that investigated the explosion of the Space Shuttle Challenger. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Yeager set several light general aircraft performance records for speed, range, and endurance. Most notable were flights conducted on behalf of Piper Aircraft. On one such flight, Yeager performed an emergency landing as a result of fuel exhaustion. On another, he piloted Piper's turboprop Cheyenne 400LS to a time-to-height record: FL350 (35,000 feet) in 16 minutes, exceeding the climb performance of a Boeing 737 at gross weight. During this time Yeager also served as a technical adviser for three Electronic Arts flight simulator video games. The games include Chuck Yeager's Advanced Flight Trainer, Chuck Yeager's Advanced Flight Trainer 2.0, and Chuck Yeager's Air Combat. The game manuals featured quotes and anecdotes from Yeager, and were well received by players. Missions featured several of Yeager's accomplishments and let players attempt to top his records. Chuck Yeager's Advanced Flight Trainer was Electronic Art's top selling game for 1987. In 2009, Yeager participated in the documentary The Legend of Pancho Barnes and the Happy Bottom Riding Club, a profile of his friend Pancho Barnes. The documentary was screened at film festivals, aired on public television in the United States and won an Emmy Award. Yeager is fully retired from military test flying, after having maintained that status for three decades after his official retirement from the Air Force. On October 14, 1997, on the 50th anniversary of his historic flight past Mach 1, he flew a new Glamorous Glennis III, an F-15D Eagle, past Mach 1. The chase plane for the flight was an F-16 Fighting Falcon piloted by Bob Hoover, a longtime test, fighter and aerobatic pilot who had been Yeager's wingman for the first supersonic flight. This was supposed to be Yeager's last official flight with the U.S. Air Force. However he was called back into flying with the USAF in 2000 and continued to do so until the end of 2012. At the end of his speech to the crowd in 1997, Yeager concluded, "All that I am ... I owe to the Air Force." Later that month, he was the recipient of the Tony Jannus Award for his achievements. On October 14, 2012, on the 65th anniversary of breaking the sound barrier, Yeager did it again at the age of 89, flying as co-pilot in a McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle piloted by Captain David Vincent out of Nellis Air Force Base. In 1973, Yeager was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame, arguably aviation's highest honor. In December 1975, the U.S. Congress awarded Yeager a silver medal "equivalent to a noncombat Medal of Honor ... for contributing immeasurably to aerospace science by risking his life in piloting the X-1 research airplane faster than the speed of sound on October 14, 1947." President Gerald Ford presented the medal to Yeager in a ceremony at the White House on December 8, 1976. Yeager, who never attended college and was often modest about his background, is considered by many, including Flying Magazine, the California Hall of Fame, the State of West Virginia, National Aviation Hall of Fame, a few U.S. presidents, and the United States Army Air Force, to be one of the greatest pilots of all time. Despite his lack of higher education, he has been honored in his home state. Marshall University has named its highest academic scholarship, the Society of Yeager Scholars, in his honor. Yeager was also the chairman of Experimental Aircraft Association's Young Eagle Program from 1994–2004, and has been named the program's chairman emeritus. In 1966, Yeager was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame. He was inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame in 1981. He was inducted into the Aerospace Walk of Honor 1990 inaugural class. Yeager Airport in Charleston, West Virginia, is named in his honor. The Interstate 64/Interstate 77 bridge over the Kanawha River in Charleston is named in his honor. He also flew directly under the Kanahwa Bridge and West Virginia named it to the Chuck E. Yeager Bridge. On October 19, 2006, the state of West Virginia also honored Yeager with a marker along Corridor G (part of US Highway 119) in his home Lincoln County, and also renamed part of the highway the Yeager Highway. Yeager is an honorary board member of the humanitarian organization Wings of Hope. On August 25, 2009, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and Maria Shriver announced that Yeager would be one of 13 California Hall of Fame inductees in The California Museum's yearlong exhibit. The induction ceremony was on December 1, 2009 in Sacramento, California. Flying Magazine ranked Yeager number 5 on its 2013 list of The 51 Heroes of Aviation; he is the highest-ranked living person on the list. The Civil Air Patrol, the volunteer auxiliary of the USAF, awards the Charles E. "Chuck" Yeager Award to its Senior Members as part of its Aerospace Education program. Yeager named his plane after his wife Glennis as a good-luck charm; "You're my good-luck charm, hon. Any airplane I name after you always brings me home." Yeager and Glennis moved to Grass Valley, California, after his retirement from the Air Force in 1975. The couple prospered because of Yeager's best- selling autobiography, speaking engagements and commercial ventures. Glennis Yeager died of ovarian cancer in 1990. They had four children (Susan, Don, Mickey and Sharon). In 2000, Yeager met actress Victoria Scott D'Angelo on a hiking trail in Nevada County. The pair started dating shortly thereafter, and married in August 2003. Subsequent to the commencement of their relationship, a bitter dispute arose between Yeager, his children and D'Angelo. The children contended that D'Angelo, 35 years Yeager's junior, had married him for his fortune. Yeager and D'Angelo both denied the charge. Litigation ensued, in which his children accused D'Angelo of "undue influence" on Yeager, and Yeager accused his children of diverting millions of dollars from his pension fund. In August 2008, the California Court of Appeal ruled for Yeager, finding that his daughter Susan had breached her duty as trustee. List of firsts in aviation, Chuck Yeager's Advanced Flight Trainer, Chuck Yeager's Air Combat Biography from ChuckYeager.org, U.S. Air Force: Chuck Yeager biography, Yeager in Biography.com, Biography in the National Aviation Hall of Fame, Airport Journals' "Chuck Yeager: Booming And Zooming" Part 1 and Part 2, "Chuck Yeager & the Sound Barrier" in Aerospaceweb.org, Space.com: Chuck Yeager The sound barrier or sonic barrier is the sudden increase in aerodynamic drag and other undesirable effects experienced by an aircraft or other object when it approaches the speed of sound. When aircraft first began to be able to reach close to the speed of sound, these effects were seen as constituting a barrier making faster speeds very difficult or impossible. The term sound barrier is still sometimes used today to refer to aircraft reaching supersonic flight. In dry air at 20 °C (68 °F), the speed of sound is 343 metres per second (about 767 mph, 1234 km/h or 1,125 ft/s). The term came into use during World War II when pilots of high-speed fighter aircraft experienced the effects of compressibility, a number of adverse aerodynamic effects that deterred further acceleration, seemingly impeding flight at speeds close to the speed of sound. These difficulties represented a barrier to flying at faster speeds. In 1947 it was demonstrated that safe flight at the speed of sound was achievable in purpose-designed aircraft thereby breaking the barrier. By the 1950s new designs of fighter aircraft routinely reached the speed of sound, and faster. Some common whips such as the bullwhip or stockwhip are able to move faster than sound: the tip of the whip exceeds this speed and causes a sharp crack—literally a sonic boom. Firearms made after the 19th century generally have a supersonic muzzle velocity. The sound barrier may have been first breached by living beings some 150 million years ago. Some paleobiologists report that, based on computer models of their biomechanical capabilities, certain long-tailed dinosaurs such as Brontosaurus, Apatosaurus, and Diplodocus may have been able to flick their tails at supersonic speeds, creating a cracking sound. This finding is theoretical and disputed by others in the field. Meteors entering the Earth's atmosphere usually, if not always, descend faster than sound. The tip of the propeller on many early aircraft may reach supersonic speeds, producing a noticeable buzz that differentiates such aircraft. This is undesirable, as the transonic air movement creates disruptive shock waves and turbulence. It is due to these effects that propellers are known to suffer from dramatically decreased performance as they approach the speed of sound. It is easy to demonstrate that the power needed to improve performance is so great that the weight of the required engine grows faster than the power output of the propeller can compensate. This problem was one that led to early research into jet engines, notably by Frank Whittle in England and Hans von Ohain in Germany, who were led to their research specifically in order to avoid these problems in high-speed flight. Nevertheless, propeller aircraft were able to approach the critical Mach number in a dive. Unfortunately, doing so led to numerous crashes for a variety of reasons. Most infamously, in the Mitsubishi Zero, pilots flew at full power into the terrain because the rapidly increasing forces acting on the control surfaces of their aircraft overpowered them. In this case, several attempts to fix it only made the problem worse. Likewise, the flexing caused by the low torsional stiffness of the Supermarine Spitfire's wings caused them, in turn, to counteract aileron control inputs, leading to a condition known as control reversal. This was solved in later models with changes to the wing. Worse still, a particularly dangerous interaction of the airflow between the wings and tail surfaces of diving Lockheed P-38 Lightnings made "pulling out" of dives difficult; however, the problem was later solved by the addition of a "dive flap" that upset the airflow under these circumstances. Flutter due to the formation of shock waves on curved surfaces was another major problem, which led most famously to the breakup of de Havilland Swallow and death of its pilot, Geoffrey de Havilland, Jr. on 27 September 1946. A similar problem is thought to have been the cause of the 1943 crash of the BI-1 rocket aircraft in the Soviet Union. All of these effects, although unrelated in most ways, led to the concept of a "barrier" making it difficult for an aircraft to exceed the speed of sound. Erroneous news reports caused most people to envision the sound barrier as a physical "wall", which supersonic aircraft needed to "break" with a sharp needle nose on the front of the fuselage. Rocketry and artillery experts' products routinely exceeded Mach 1, but aircraft designers and aerodynamic engineers during and after World War II discussed Mach 0.7 as a limit dangerous to exceed. During WWII and immediately thereafter, a number of claims were made that the sound barrier had been broken in a dive. The majority of these purported events can be dismissed as instrumentation errors. The typical airspeed indicator (ASI) uses air pressure differences between two or more points on the aircraft, typically near the nose and at the side of the fuselage, to produce a speed figure. At high speed, the various compression effects that lead to the sound barrier also cause the ASI to go non-linear and produce inaccurately high or low readings, depending on the specifics of the installation. This effect became known as "Mach jump". Before the introduction of Mach meters, accurate measurements of supersonic speeds could only be made externally, normally using ground-based instruments. Many claims of supersonic speeds were found to be far below this speed when measured in this fashion. In 1942, Republic Aviation issued a press release stating that Lts. Harold E. Comstock and Roger Dyar had exceeded the speed of sound during test dives in the P-47 Thunderbolt. It is widely agreed that this was due to inaccurate ASI readings. In similar tests, the North American P-51 Mustang, a higher performance aircraft, demonstrated limits at Mach 0.85, with every flight over M0.84 causing the aircraft to be damaged by vibration. One of the highest recorded instrumented Mach numbers attained for a propeller aircraft is the Mach 0.891 for a Spitfire PR XI, flown during dive tests at the Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough in April 1944. The Spitfire, a photo-reconnaissance variant, the Mark XI, fitted with an extended 'rake type' multiple pitot system, was flown by Squadron Leader J. R. Tobin to this speed, corresponding to a corrected true airspeed (TAS) of 606 mph. In a subsequent flight, Squadron Leader Anthony Martindale achieved Mach 0.92, but it ended in a forced landing after over- revving damaged the engine. In the 1990s, Hans Guido Mutke claimed to have broken the sound barrier on 9 April 1945 in the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet aircraft. He states that his ASI pegged itself at . Mutke reported not just transonic buffeting but the resumption of normal control once a certain speed was exceeded, then a resumption of severe buffeting once the Me 262 slowed again. He also reported engine flame out. This claim is widely disputed, even by pilots in his unit. All of the effects he reported are known to occur on the Me 262 at much lower speeds, and the ASI reading is simply not reliable in the transonic. Further, a series of tests made by Karl Doetsch at the behest of Willy Messerschmitt found that the plane became uncontrollable above Mach 0.86, and at Mach 0.9 would nose over into a dive that could not be recovered from. Post-war tests by the RAF confirmed these results, with the slight modification that the maximum speed using new instruments was found to be Mach 0.84, rather than Mach 0.86. In 1999, Mutke enlisted the help of Professor Otto Wagner of the Munich Technical University to run computational tests to determine whether the aircraft could break the sound barrier. These tests do not rule out the possibility, but are lacking accurate data on the coefficient of drag that would be needed to make accurate simulations. Wagner stated "I don't want to exclude the possibility, but I can imagine he may also have been just below the speed of sound and felt the buffeting, but did not go above Mach-1." One bit of evidence presented by Mutke is on page 13 of the "Me 262 A-1 Pilot's Handbook" issued by Headquarters Air Materiel Command, Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio as Report No. F-SU-1111-ND on January 10, 1946: The comments about restoration of flight control and cessation of buffeting above Mach 1 are very significant in a 1946 document. However, it is not clear where these terms came from, as it does not appear the US pilots carried out such tests. In his 1990 book Me-163, former Messerschmitt Me 163 "Komet" pilot Mano Ziegler claims that his friend, test pilot Heini Dittmar, broke the sound barrier while diving the rocket plane, and that several people on the ground heard the sonic booms. He claims that on 6 July 1944, Dittmar, flying Me 163B V18, bearing the Stammkennzeichen alphabetic code VA+SP, was measured traveling at a speed of 1,130 km/h (702 mph). However, no evidence of such a flight exists in any of the materials from that period, which were captured by Allied forces and extensively studied. Dittmar had been officially recorded at 1,004.5 km/h (623.8 mph) in level flight on 2 October 1941 in the prototype Me 163A V4. He reached this speed at less than full throttle, as he was concerned by the transonic buffeting. Dittmar himself does not make a claim that he broke the sound barrier on that flight, and notes that the speed was recorded only on the AIS. He does, however, take credit for being the first pilot to "knock on the sound barrier." The Luftwaffe test pilot Lothar Sieber (April 7, 1922 – March 1, 1945) may have inadvertently become the first man to break the sound barrier on 1 March 1945. This occurred while he was piloting a Bachem Ba 349 "Natter" for the first manned vertical takeoff of a rocket in history. In 55 seconds, he traveled a total of 14 km (8.7 miles). The aircraft crashed and he perished violently in this endeavor. There are a number of unmanned vehicles that flew at supersonic speeds during this period, but they generally do not meet the definition. In 1933, Soviet designers working on ramjet concepts fired phosphorus-powered engines out of artillery guns to get them to operational speeds. It is possible that this produced supersonic performance as high as Mach 2, but this was not due solely to the engine itself. In contrast, the German V-2 ballistic missile routinely broke the sound barrier in flight, for the first time on 3 October 1942. By September 1944, V-2s routinely achieved Mach 4 (1,200 m/s, or 3044 mph) during terminal descent. In 1942, the United Kingdom's Ministry of Aviation began a top-secret project with Miles Aircraft to develop the world's first aircraft capable of breaking the sound barrier. The project resulted in the development of the prototype Miles M.52 turbojet powered aircraft, which was designed to reach 1,000 mph (417 m/s; 1,600 km/h) (over twice the existing speed record) in level flight, and to climb to an altitude of 36,000 ft (11 km) in 1 minute 30 sec. A huge number of advanced features were incorporated into the resulting M.52 design, many of which hint at a detailed knowledge of supersonic aerodynamics. In particular, the design featured a conical nose and sharp wing leading edges, as it was known that round-nosed projectiles could not be stabilised at supersonic speeds. The design used very thin wings of biconvex section proposed by Jakob Ackeret for low drag. The wing tips were "clipped" to keep them clear of the conical shock wave generated by the nose of the aircraft. The fuselage had the minimum cross-section allowable around the centrifugal engine with fuel tanks in a saddle over the top. Another critical addition was the use of a power-operated stabilator, also known as the all-moving tail or flying tail, a key to supersonic flight control which contrasted with traditional hinged tailplanes (horizontal stabilizers) connected mechanically to the pilots control column. Conventional control surfaces became ineffective at the high subsonic speeds then being achieved by fighters in dives, due to the aerodynamic forces caused by the formation of shockwaves at the hinge and the rearward movement of the centre of pressure, which together could override the control forces that could be applied mechanically by the pilot, hindering recovery from the dive. A major impediment to early transonic flight was control reversal, the phenomenon which caused flight inputs (stick, rudder) to switch direction at high speed; it was the cause of many accidents and near- accidents. An all-flying tail is considered to be a minimum condition of enabling aircraft to break the transonic barrier safely, without losing pilot control. The Miles M.52 was the first instance of this solution, and has since been universally applied. Initially, the aircraft was to use Frank Whittle's latest engine, the Power Jets W.2/700, which would only reach supersonic speed in a shallow dive. To develop a fully supersonic version of the aircraft, an innovation incorporated was a reheat jetpipe – also known as an afterburner. Extra fuel was to be burned in the tailpipe to avoid overheating the turbine blades, making use of unused oxygen in the exhaust. Finally, the design included another critical element, the use of a shock cone in the nose to slow the incoming air to the subsonic speeds needed by the engine. Although the project was eventually cancelled, the research was used to construct an unmanned missile that went on to achieve a speed of Mach 1.38 in a successful, controlled transonic and supersonic level test flight; this was a unique achievement at that time which validated the aerodynamics of the M.52. Meanwhile, test pilots achieved high velocities in the tailless, swept-wing de Havilland DH 108. One of them was Geoffrey de Havilland, Jr. who was killed on 27 September 1946 when his DH 108 broke up at about Mach 0.9. John Derry has been called "Britain's first supersonic pilot" because of a dive he made in a DH 108 on 6 September 1948. The British Air Ministry signed an agreement with the United States to exchange all its high-speed research, data and designs and Bell Aircraft company was given access to the drawings and research on the M.52, but the U.S. reneged on the agreement and no data was forthcoming in return. Bell's supersonic design was still using a conventional tail and they were battling the problem of control. They utilized the information to initiate work on the Bell X-1. The final version of the Bell X-1 was very similar in design to the original Miles M.52 version. Also featuring the all-moving tail, the XS-1 was later known as the X-1. It was in the X-1 that Chuck Yeager was credited with being the first person to break the sound barrier in level flight on October 14, 1947, flying at an altitude of 45,000 ft (13.7 km). George Welch made a plausible but officially unverified claim to have broken the sound barrier on 1 October 1947, while flying an XP-86 Sabre. He also claimed to have repeated his supersonic flight on October 14, 1947, 30 minutes before Yeager broke the sound barrier in the Bell X-1. Although evidence from witnesses and instruments strongly imply that Welch achieved supersonic speed, the flights were not properly monitored and are not officially recognized. The XP-86 officially achieved supersonic speed on April 26, 1948. On 14 October 1947, just under a month after the United States Air Force had been created as a separate service, the tests culminated in the first manned supersonic flight, piloted by Air Force Captain Charles "Chuck" Yeager in aircraft #46-062, which he had christened Glamorous Glennis. The rocket-powered aircraft was launched from the bomb bay of a specially modified B-29 and glided to a landing on a runway. XS-1 flight number 50 is the first one where the X-1 recorded supersonic flight, at Mach 1.06 (361 m/s, 1,299 km/h, 807.2 mph) peak speed; however, Yeager and many other personnel believe Flight #49 (also with Yeager piloting), which reached a top recorded speed of Mach 0.997 (339 m/s, 1,221 km/h), may have, in fact, exceeded Mach 1. (The measurements were not accurate to three significant figures and no sonic boom was recorded for that flight.) As a result of the X-1's initial supersonic flight, the National Aeronautics Association voted its 1948 Collier Trophy to be shared by the three main participants in the program. Honored at the White House by President Harry S. Truman were Larry Bell for Bell Aircraft, Captain Yeager for piloting the flights, and John Stack for the NACA contributions. Jackie Cochran was the first woman to break the sound barrier on May 18, 1953, in a Canadair Sabre, with Yeager as her wingman. On August 21, 1961, a Douglas DC-8-43 (registration N9604Z) unofficially exceeded Mach 1 in a controlled dive during a test flight at Edwards Air Force Base, as observed and reported by the flight crew; the crew were William Magruder (pilot), Paul Patten (co-pilot), Joseph Tomich (flight engineer), and Richard H. Edwards (flight test engineer). This was the first supersonic flight by a civilian airliner, and the only one other than those by Concorde or the Tu-144. As the science of high-speed flight became more widely understood, a number of changes led to the eventual understanding that the "sound barrier" is easily penetrated, with the right conditions. Among these changes were the introduction of thin swept wings, the area rule, and engines of ever- increasing performance. By the 1950s, many combat aircraft could routinely break the sound barrier in level flight, although they often suffered from control problems when doing so, such as Mach tuck. Modern aircraft can transit the "barrier" without control problems. By the late 1950s, the issue was so well understood that many companies started investing in the development of supersonic airliners, or SSTs, believing that to be the next "natural" step in airliner evolution. However, this has not yet happened. Although the Concorde and the Tupolev Tu-144 entered service in the 1970s, both were later retired without being replaced by similar designs. The last flight of a Concorde in service was in 2003. Although Concorde and the Tu-144 were the first aircraft to carry commercial passengers at supersonic speeds, they were not the first or only commercial airliners to break the sound barrier. On 21 August 1961, a Douglas DC-8 broke the sound barrier at Mach 1.012 or 1,240 km/h (776.2 mph) while in a controlled dive through 41,088 feet (12,510 m). The purpose of the flight was to collect data on a new design of leading-edge for the wing. A China Airlines 747 may have broken the sound barrier in an unplanned descent from 41,000 ft (12,500 m) to 9,500 ft (2,900 m) after an in-flight upset on 19 February 1985. It also reached over 5g. On January 12, 1948, a Northrop unmanned rocket sled became the first land vehicle to break the sound barrier. At a military test facility at Muroc Air Force Base (now Edwards AFB), California, it reached a peak speed of 1,019 mph (1,640 km/h) before jumping the rails. On October 15, 1997, in a vehicle designed and built by a team led by Richard Noble, Royal Air Force pilot Andy Green became the first person to break the sound barrier in a land vehicle in compliance with Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile rules. The vehicle, called the ThrustSSC ("Super Sonic Car"), captured the record 50 years and one day after Yeager's first supersonic flight. In October 2012 Felix Baumgartner, with a team of scientists and sponsor Red Bull, attempted the highest sky-dive on record. The project would see Baumgartner attempt to jump 120,000 ft (36,580 m) from a helium balloon and become the first parachutist to break the sound barrier. The launch was scheduled for October 9, 2012, but was aborted due to adverse weather; subsequently the capsule was launched instead on October 14. Baumgartner's feat also marked the 65th anniversary of U.S. test pilot Chuck Yeager's successful attempt to break the sound barrier in an aircraft. Baumgartner landed in eastern New Mexico after jumping from a world record 128,100 feet (39,045 m), or 24.26 miles, and broke the sound barrier as he traveled at speeds up to 833.9 mph (1342 km/h or Mach 1.26). In the press conference after his jump, it was announced he was in freefall for 4 minutes, 18 seconds, the second longest freefall after the 1960 jump of Joseph Kittinger for 4 minutes, 36 seconds. In October 2014, Alan Eustace, a senior vice president at Google, broke Baumgartner's record for highest sky-dive and also broke the sound barrier in the process. David Lean directed The Sound Barrier, a fictionalized retelling of the de Havilland DH 108 test flights. "Breaking the Sound Barrier." Modern Marvels (TV program). July 16, 2003., Hallion, Dr. Richard P. "Saga of the Rocket Ships." AirEnthusiast Five, November 1977 – February 1978. Bromley, Kent, UK: Pilot Press Ltd., 1977., Miller, Jay. The X-Planes: X-1 to X-45, Hinckley, UK: Midland, 2001. ., Pisano, Dominick A., R. Robert van der Linden and Frank H. Winter. Chuck Yeager and the Bell X-1: Breaking the Sound Barrier. Washington, DC: Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum (in association with Abrams, New York), 2006. ., Radinger, Willy and Walter Schick. Me 262 (in German). Berlin: Avantic Verlag GmbH, 1996. ., Rivas, Brian (2012), A Very British Sound Barrier: DH 108, A Story of Courage, Triumph and Tragedy, Walton-on-Thames, Surrey: Red Kite, ., Winchester, Jim. "Bell X-1." Concept Aircraft: Prototypes, X-Planes and Experimental Aircraft (The Aviation Factfile). Kent, UK: Grange Books plc, 2005. ., Wolfe. Tom. The Right Stuff. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1979. ., Yeager, Chuck, Bob Cardenas, Bob Hoover, Jack Russell and James Young. The Quest for Mach One: A First-Person Account of Breaking the Sound Barrier. New York: Penguin Studio, 1997. ., Yeager, Chuck and Leo Janos. Yeager: An Autobiography. New York: Bantam, 1986. . Fluid Mechanics, a collection of tutorials by Dr. Mark S. Cramer, Ph.D, Breaking the Sound Barrier with an Aircraft by Carl Rod Nave, Ph.D, a video of a Concorde reaching Mach 1 at intersection TESGO taken from below, An interactive Java applet, illustrating the sound barrier.

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"Is She Really Going Out with Him?" is a song written and performed by British musician Joe Jackson. It was released in October 1978 as his debut single and was later included on Jackson's debut album, Look Sharp! The track was one of the first Jackson recorded with his new backing band, a band he would perform with for his first three albums. Written as a humorous commentary on women dating unattractive men, the song contains a prominent bass line and a chorus praised by critics as memorable. Jackson has since stated that the song's reputation for being angry was untrue. On its initial release, the single was commercially unsuccessful and failed to chart. Two follow-up singles, "Sunday Papers" and "One More Time", were also chart failures. However, when "Is She Really Going Out with Him?" was rereleased in 1979 after Jackson's reputation and new wave music grew in popularity, the single saw more attention and became a chart success. This second release reached the top 20 in the UK and top 30 in the US, becoming one of Jackson's highest charting singles worldwide. Since then, the song has been praised as one of Jackson's greatest and most famous and has been covered by multiple artists. The song has appeared on several of Jackson's compilation albums and remains a staple of Jackson's live setlist. A live a cappella version released in 1988 was a top five single in the Netherlands. It has been described as one of the classics of the new wave genre, though Jackson does not consider it his best song. "Is She Really Going Out with Him?" was one of the first songs Joe Jackson recorded with the Joe Jackson band, which included bassist Graham Maby, guitarist Gary Sanford, and drummer Dave Houghton. The song was immediately popular with the band; Jackson recalled in his autobiography, "Everyone liked it. It was catchy, they said, and had the makings of a hit. I wouldn't know a hit, I protested, from a hole in my head. I liked all my songs, and if I'd written a hit it was by accident. But I appreciated the enthusiasm, and something else, too: a growing feeling that I was up to something". The final version of the song was recorded with American producer David Kershenbaum in August 1978 after Jackson was signed to A&M; Records. According to Jackson, the song originated from when he heard the title. Jackson claimed that he had first heard it on a song by the Damned, who had gotten it from the Shangri- Las' song, "Leader of the Pack". From there, he came up with the basis for lyrics for "a funny little song about watching couples and wondering what the girls could possibly see in the guys". Though the song was written to be comical, it has been interpreted by some critics as angry, earning Jackson the tag of "angry young man". He said of the song's origins in an interview: In another interview, Jackson recalled another incident where the lyrics to the song were misinterpreted. He explained that he was accused of racism by a black man because of the song's opening lyric "Pretty women out walking with gorillas down my street", which the man had thought was about black men dating white women. Jackson concluded, "And no matter what I said he wouldn't believe me, and as far as he was concerned that was what it was. So, I mean, really, what can you do? (Laughs) I always feel like my lyrics are very clear, but what can I say?" "Is She Really Going Out with Him?" has been described by critics as "snotty piano pop" and "the sound of New Wave boiled down into three minutes and 35 seconds." The song contains a "soft seesaw rhythm of plunking guitar and bass"; the bass line, played by Jackson's longtime collaborator Graham Maby, has seen praise from critics. Steve Huey of AllMusic praises the rhythm section's performance for "immediately setting a vibe of cool indignation". The song's chorus, which has been described as "perfectly singable" and "strong and emotionally compelling", contains "clean guitars and tight bass and drum groove" accompanied by Jackson's "lush vocals". The song's bridge is more piano-based, showing what Huey describes as "a glimpse of Jackson jazz training". Lyrically, the song contains a "string of priceless quips" about "boy/girl laws of attraction"; the opening lyric, "Pretty women out walking with gorillas down my street", has been highlighted by Huey. Huey also praises Jackson for "capturing mood and meaning through minor detail" in lyrics like "From my window I'm staring while my coffee goes cold / Look over there (where?) / There, there's a lady that I used to know / She's married now or engaged or something so I am told". In a call and response Jackson says "Look over there" and the band responds "Where?"; in live shows, the audience calls often provides the response, which Sarah Larson of The New Yorker recalled made Jackson laugh during a performance. "Is She Really Going Out with Him?" was initially released as a single in October 1978 with "You Got the Fever" as the B-side. The American single release instead included "(Do the) Instant Mash". This release of the single was unsuccessful on the charts, failing to reach the top 100 in either the UK or the US. Two follow-up singles, "Sunday Papers" and "One More Time", were released, but neither charted. However, when the Look Sharp! album began to gain notoriety and British new wave music grew more popular in the United States, a reissue of the single was released in July 1979 with the new catalogue number AMS 7459. The new release of the single saw much greater success than the initial pressing, reaching number 13 in Britain and number 21 in America. "Is She Really Going Out with Him?" was also a chart success in other nations, reaching the top 10 in Ireland and Canada and the top 20 in Australia and New Zealand. A live a cappella version reached number three on the Dutch Top 40 and number 17 in Belgium. Since its release, "Is She Really Going Out with Him?" has appeared on compilation albums such as , Joe Jackson - Greatest Hits, and This Is It! (The A&M; Years 1979–1989). The song was also used in the 1998 romantic comedy film There's Something About Mary. "Is She Really Going Out with Him?" saw positive reception during the time of its initial release; Geoffrey Himes of The Washington Post called the song "prime New Wave material" and "one of the best reasons for flipping on the car radio this summer". Since then, "Is She Really Going Out with Him?" has been recognized as a classic of new wave. Sarah Larson of The New Yorker called the song one of Jackson's "brilliantly agitated New Wave masterworks", while an author for Billboard dubbed the song one of Jackson's "classics" and "old favorites". Paste Magazine also praised the song, saying, "Only Joe Jackson could turn a song so self-deprecating and sarcastic into something so peppy and upbeat". AllMusic's Huey praised the song's "caustic yet charming witticisms", while the same website's Tom Maginnis called it "the lead salvo from one of the stand out albums of the late 70's New Wave/Pop era". Dave Lifton of Ultimate Classic Rock ranked the song Jackson's second best, highlighting the song's bass line, chorus, and call-and-response. The song has been described by critics as one of Jackson's most remembered tracks; Paste described the song as "the song Jackson is most remembered for", Maginnis called it "the track that put Joe Jackson on the musical map", and Lifton said it has "proven to be his best-known song". Jackson later wrote, "People still occasionally tell me that this song is the best thing I've ever done. I'm certainly not ashamed of it, and I thank them, but I have to admit I sincerely hope they're not right". When asked if audiences at his concerts interrupt to ask for "Is She Really Going Out with Him?", Jackson said, "I mean, that never really happens. I always play it anyway. It's fine with me. You always get a reaction for the best-known songs — that's obvious". "Is She Really Going Out with Him?" has been a mainstay of Jackson's live setlist since its release. Like many of Jackson's songs, "Is She Really Going Out with Him?" has been rearranged in live concerts to align with Jackson's shifting musical interests. These reworkings include an acoustic rendition and an a cappella doo-wop version, performances of which have both been released on Live 1980/86. An a cappella version of "Is She Really Going Out with Him?" was released as a single in 1988 in some European countries. Jackson attributes this tendency to rework his songs to jazz musician Duke Ellington, a musical idol of Jackson's for whom Jackson released a tribute album titled The Duke in 2012; he explained in an interview, "I was ... inspired by Ellington's own philosophy, which he thought the same way about his music – he constantly rearranged and reinvented his own compositions. Sometimes in quite radical ways". A live version of "Is She Really Going Out with Him?" recorded at the Hammersmith Palais appeared as the B-side on Jackson's 1981 "Beat Crazy" single. Other live renditions have appeared on Two Rainy Nights, Live in Germany 1980, and Live at Rockpalast. Another live version of the song was released on a bonus CD for Jackson's 2003 album Volume 4, performed by a reunited Joe Jackson Band; this reunited lineup also performed the song live on Later... with Jools Holland in 2003. Joe Jackson – vocals, piano, Gary Sanford – guitar, Graham Maby – bass, David Houghton – drums Personnel per Look Sharp! liner notes. American alternative rock band Sugar Ray recorded a cover of "Is She Really Going Out with Him?" on their album In the Pursuit of Leisure. This version reached number 19 on the US Billboard Adult Top 40 Tracks and was used as the theme for the short-lived sitcom I'm with Her. Chuch Taylor of Billboard reviewed the song favourably, saying that McGrath "infuses it with his consistently likeable brand of hand-waving posturing", though Will Levith of Ultimate Classic Rock named the song one of the worst covers ever released and said "the song just misses the heart and soul of the original completely". Australian pop punk band Kid Courageous released a version of the song as the first single from their album Dear Diary, reaching number 25 on the Australian ARIA Singles Chart. Comedic a capella singing group Da Vinci's Notebook also recorded a cover of the song, which appeared on their album The Life and Times of Mike Manning. The Raconteurs' 2006 song "Steady, As She Goes" has been compared by some critics to "Is She Really Going Out with Him?" for its similar-sounding bass line. Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly compared the two songs and declared "Is She Really Going Out with Him?" to be the better song, saying, Steady' proves [Jack] White's non-Stripes chops (he's not allergic to bass after all!), but Jackson's track is a stone classic". Citations Sources "New Rose" is the first single by British punk rock group the Damned, released on 22 October 1976 on Stiff Records, and in 1977 in the Netherlands, Germany and France. It is considered to be the first single by a British punk group. Written by guitarist Brian James, "New Rose" was also included on the group's full-length debut album, Damned Damned Damned. The deadpan intro by singer Dave Vanian ("Is she really going out with him?") parodied the 1964 Shangri- Las song "Leader of the Pack". The single's B-side was a cover of the Beatles' hit "Help!", performed about twice as fast as the original. Both songs became staples of the Damned's live shows, and appeared on various compilations. "New Rose" was reissued in Stiff's Damned 4 Pack mail-order set. Original copies had a press-out centre, while reissues had a solid centre. Copies from the four-pack had matrix details: "Bilbo tape" handwritten and "AY 50332" printed. A CD version was issued in the Stiff Singles 1976–1977 boxed set by Castle Music in 2003. "Help!" also appeared on Hits Greatest Stiffs. The song was produced by Nick Lowe. It was recorded at Pathway Studios in London, recorded in one day, according to drummer Rat Scabies. and "Nick Lowe may have taken an extra day to mix it". "New Rose" was released on 22 October 1976. James stated that Captain Sensible initially wanted the song "I Fall" as the first single. Sensible later said that "I Fall" would have been "even more gobsmacking because it's so snotty and fast". In a retrospective review in 1992, music critic Dave Thompson heaped praise on the single: 'New Rose' is today rightly revered as one of the greatest songs to emerge from 1970s Britain. More than anything outside of the Pistols, 'New Rose' (and its flip, the relentless slaughter of the Beatles' 'Help') brought a focus to the still burgeoning punk scene, finally lifting it out of the musical basket it had hitherto shared with the Stooges/Dolls/MC5 axis, and knocking the Feelgoods and Hot Rods-powered pub rock angle clean out of sight. This was no sub-metal snottiness, no high octane R&B; revival. Rather, it was the absolute redefinition of all that rock 'n' roll held dear, a stunning return to basics which threw every last iota of expertise and experience to the winds. The band's detractors thought they were smart when they called the Damned's record 'primitive.' They were way off the mark – the Damned's fans saw it as primeval. Guns N' Roses covered the track on their 1993 covers album The Spaghetti Incident?. When asked about the Guns N' Roses cover, Damned guitarist Captain Sensible said that he had not heard it because he does not listen to music released after 1980. The song was released as a promo single in 1993. Rachel Sweet covered the song on her 1980 album Protect the Innocent. 1. "New Rose" (James) – 2:46 2. "Help!" (Lennon–McCartney) – 1:43 Producer: Nick Lowe, Musicians:, Dave Vanian − vocals, Brian James − guitar, Captain Sensible − bass, Rat Scabies − drums Sources "Steady, As She Goes" is the debut single by the rock band The Raconteurs from their first album Broken Boy Soldiers. A limited edition, 7-inch, 45 rpm vinyl record, was released in Europe on January 30, 2006, and in North America on March 7, 2006. It was a double A-sided single, with the relatively unpromoted "Store Bought Bones" as the flipside. A CD version of "Steady, As She Goes" was released on April 24 with the B-side "Bane Rendition". Two further vinyl releases were produced: the first (marked 'B') with "Store Bought Bones" as the B-side; the second (marked 'C') an acoustic rendition of "Steady, As She Goes" with "Call It a Day" as the B-side. In the US, the song reached number 54 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number one on the Modern Rock Tracks chart. It achieved top ten success in the UK, where it peaked at number four, and Canada, peaking at number three. "Steady, As She Goes" is the first song ever written by White and Benson. Entertainment Weekly said the track is "less weird than what we're used to from the ghostly singer." Rolling Stone called "Steady, As She Goes" the second best song of 2006, just behind "Crazy" by Gnarls Barkley. The bass in the song, especially in the intro, has drawn comparisons to the song "Is She Really Going Out With Him?", by Joe Jackson. In 2007, "Steady, As She Goes" was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal. There are two music videos for "Steady, As She Goes". The first music video was directed by Jim Jarmusch, and focuses on the band performing the song. It premiered on MTV2 on March 10, 2006, and was also available for streaming on the band's website. In the second music video, The Raconteurs teamed up with Paul Reubens. In this video, each band member plays an imaginary speed-racing hero in an old-fashioned soap box race, following the heroes on their cut- throat chase for first place. Reubens plays an unscrupulous pit boss, stooping to low levels to ensure a win for his racer, Jack Lawrence. Lawrence and Reubens (wearing standard melodrama-villain handlebar moustaches) cheat many times throughout the race, to make sure that Lawrence wins. Patrick falls off a cliff, Brendan crashes, and Reubens shoots White ("the Copper Kid") with a blow gun. Lawrence wins. The latter video premiered exclusively on Yahoo! Music on June 19, 2006. The song was covered by Corinne Bailey Rae for BBC Radio 1's Live lounge. It was frequently covered live by Fitz and the Tantrums, and was covered live by Adele during "Backstage at BBC Radio 1's Big Weekend" on May 10th of 2008. CD "Steady, As She Goes", "The Bane Rendition" 7" (A) & (B) "Steady, As She Goes", "Store Bought Bones" 7" (C) "Steady, As She Goes" (acoustic), "Call It a Day" Psych (2007) season 1 episode 11, (2007), Guitar Hero 5 (2009), Rock Band series (2009) (DLC for the seventh-generation games), Theme tune to BBC Radio 4 show Saturday Live. NME Review "...wonderful..." link

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The following is an episode list for Still Game. The first series began on September 6, 2002 and its eighth series started on BBC One on March 8, 2018. Its ninth and final series was shown on the new BBC Scotland channel. In the first three series the episode titles were all Scots words that were related to the episode. This was changed to standard English titles for Series 4, so that the national audience could understand the titles. Early series of the show featured short sound clips whenever an establishing shot of Osprey Heights (the building Jack, Victor, Winston, Tam, and Isa live in) occurred. These included Jack and Victor sighing contentedly and one of the two saying "Is that you?" with the other replying "Oh, aye, that's me." Arguably the most common was one where Jack and Victor hummed a song ("Hurdy gurdy gurdy, in the windae boxes"). These decreased in frequency after the first couple of series, and were discontinued altogether by the fourth series. On 12 May 2016, Ford and Greg announced a new series of Still Game was in the works. Filming of the long-awaited seventh series commenced on 4 July 2016, with the series airing in late 2016 on BBC One nationwide. All of the original main cast reprised their roles. Recurring character Pete "The Jakey" McCormack, played by Jake D'Arcy, who died in May 2015, did not return; and the character's death was announced in the second episode, "The Undrinkables." The eighth series of Still Game aired from March 8 to April 12, 2018, in Wales it aired on BBC Two only The ninth series will be broadcast from February 2019, on the new BBC Scotland channel. Ford Kiernan and Greg Hemphill have stated this will be the final series. Filming on the ninth series began in August 2018, six episodes have been produced for the final series. The Game is an American comedy-drama television series created by Mara Brock Akil. Premiering on October 1, 2006, the series debuted as the only new comedy series chosen for The CW's primetime schedule. Along with Runaway, it was one of only two series on the new network not to be inherited from either of its predecessor networks, The WB and UPN, during the network's first season. The series is a spin-off of the long-running UPN/CW sitcom Girlfriends. After three seasons, the series was canceled by The CW in May 2009. BET struck a deal with The Game's parent company CBS to develop new episodes of the series, relocating taping of the show from Los Angeles to Atlanta, and announcing its renewal at the April 2010 upfronts. The Game returned to the air for a fourth season on January 11, 2011, and brought a record breaking 7.7 million viewers for the season premiere which made it the most watched sitcom premiere in cable television history. On April 24, 2014, BET announced the eighth season renewal of The Game. On October 6, 2014, BET announced the show that had also been renewed for a ninth and final season. The eighth season premiered on January 14, 2015, at 10/9c, and the final season premiered on June 3, 2015, and ended on August 5, 2015. With the growing success of the UPN sitcom Girlfriends, that show's creator and producers decided to create a spin-off series. On April 17, 2006, a Girlfriends episode called The Game focused on a young woman who decides to put her pending career plans on hold for the rising success of her star athlete boyfriend. The character, Melanie Barnett, was introduced in the episode as the first cousin of Joan Clayton, Girlfriends' principal character. The episode performed well and gained enough interest for The CW network to pick up The Game as a new series for its fall 2006–2007 prime time line-up. Originally, actress Renee Bruce was cast for the role of Melanie but was later replaced with Tia Mowry. Before debuting on The CW, more cast changes occurred. Aldis Hodge and Jennifer Baxter, both of whom appeared in the pilot episode, were replaced by Pooch Hall and Brittany Daniel respectively. Coby Bell, Hosea Chanchez and Wendy Raquel Robinson were the remaining cast members. As the series premieres, Melanie Barnett (Tia Mowry) is a first-year medical school student who has given up an offer of admission to Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine in Baltimore to follow her boyfriend Derwin Davis (Pooch Hall), a professional football player, to San Diego, against the advice of her parents. Derwin Davis is a first-year rookie with a fictional team called the "San Diego Sabers". As Melanie settles into her new life, she meets Tasha Mack (Wendy Raquel Robinson), the mother of Sabers' starting quarterback Malik Wright (Hosea Chanchez), and Kelly Pitts (Brittany Daniel), the then wife of Sabers' captain Jason Pitts (Coby Bell). As she learns to balance her new roles as both med student and the partner of a professional football player, Tasha and Kelly immediately warn her to keep a close eye on her boyfriend because of the numerous "gold diggers" who approach the professional football players. Over time the relationships evolves with the players and the significant others, leading to the series to more focus on their relationships and less on the sport. Tia Mowry-Hardrict (seasons 1−5; guest season 9) as Dr. Melanie Barnett-Davis, M.D. - Melanie Barnett-Davis is the show's main protagonist. In season one, Melanie is a medical student who gave up the chance to attend Johns Hopkins School of Medicine to move to San Diego with her boyfriend Derwin Davis while attending a less prestigious medical school in the area. Melanie is the cousin of Los Angeles attorney-turned-restaurateur Joan Clayton (of Girlfriends). In season one, Melanie and Derwin break up due to Derwin's infidelity with singer Drew Sidora, which starts a series of ups-and-downs between the two. In the season three finale, Melanie finally marries Derwin during a private ceremony, after the public ceremony was interrupted by the birth of Derwin's son by his ex-girlfriend Janay. In season five, after confessing that she felt empty being just a housewife despite their wealth and Derwin's success, she decides to pursue her medical career and begin a residency program at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. Derwin was against it at first but eventually came around. In May 2012 Mowry announced via her Twitter account that she would not be returning to The Game in season six. In the series finale, Melanie made an appearance in where she was pregnant with her & Derwin's twin babies and as the episode closes it's shown that she has had a boy and girl. She did not appear in Season 6, Season 7 and Season 8., Pooch Hall as Derwin Davis (seasons 1–5; guest season 6 and 9) - Derwin Davis is a wide receiver for the San Diego Sabers and husband of Melanie Barnett. In the season one finale, Derwin has an affair with Drew Sidora, and Melanie breaks off the relationship. In the beginning of season 2, after desperately trying to get her back, Derwin acts out against Melanie for a bit until she saves him from a gold digger who tried to "trap" him by getting her pregnant. Derwin and Melanie became cordial for a minute as they both went about their own way & were seeing other people, but a run-in at a grocery store and later at Derwin's apartment on the day of the Super Bowl stirred up their old feelings of love again, as the 2 passionately kiss upon sight the second time. The off field drama didn't affect Derwin's play on the field though, as he became a rising star for the Sabers until he suffered a bad knee injury in a playoff game. In the season two finale, he finds out his ex-girlfriend Janay is pregnant with his baby, and he and Melanie get back together. Derwin ran into some on the field issues (due to his injury, the Sabers considered cutting him for a little while) and off the field issues throughout season 3 (questions about whether he was actually the father of Janay's baby, Melanie and Janay feuding, getting with Melanie but not being all in, Melanie breaking up then getting back with him while having an affair with a handsome doctor, Derwin breaking up and then trying to get with Janay only for the baby's sake, and finally breaking up with Janay and proposing to Melanie). In the season three finale, Derwin's son is born and he finally marries Melanie in a private ceremony. In the fourth-season premiere, there are still some questions regarding the true paternity of Derwin's son. Derwin also emerges as a superstar player in season 4, getting numerous endorsement deals, including Nike, and becoming the new face of the Sabers organization. In May 2012, it was announced that Hall would not return to The Game for the sixth season; however in August 2012 it was announced that he would be returning, but Hall would only appear in one episode. In season 6, Derwin was traded to Baltimore in exchange for Blue and he is the enemies of Bryce "Blue" Westbrook, who was chosen by Baltimore as the Number 1 Draft Pick. This allowed Derwin to be with Melanie, who is in Baltimore doing her Residency. The trade, however, was not planned by Derwin, but executed by the team owner because Derwin was responsible for the injury of former teammate and quarterback Kwan Kirkland. In the series finale, Derwin made an appearance with a pregnant Melanie as the episode closes it's shown that they've had a baby boy & girl. He did not appear in Season 7 and Season 8., Wendy Raquel Robinson as Tasha Mack is the brash, bold, & flamboyant mother of Malik Wright and begins the series as his manager. Malik, giving his mother an ultimatum at one point, eventually fires Tasha. It is then that Tasha builds her own management company, Tasha Mack Management. She dissolves the company, however, to join Irv Smiff Management (ISM). In season three, she falls in love with former NBA player Rick Fox, who also works for ISM. Tasha ends up getting fired from ISM, and dumps Rick in the aftermath, assuming that he knew all about Irv Smith's plans to fire her. In the season three finale, Kelly Pitts and Tasha have a falling-out when Kelly discovers that Tasha set her then ex-husband, Jason Pitts, with his then new girlfriend, Camille. The altercation soon turns physical, with Kelly punching Tasha. Season four started with Tasha as Derwin's agent. She had also begun dating a much younger man named Donté (played by former 106 & Park host Terrence J). In season 5, Tasha decided to be celibate after a brief romance with a male escort (Carl Anthony Payne). She eventually falls for her longtime friend Pookie (Rockmond Dunbar). In the Season 5 finale, her ex-boyfriend Rick Fox returns. In season 6, she appoints herself Sunbeams president due to Jaz arguing with everybody with Tasha and Keira and Chardonnay. At the end of season 7, after breaking up with Pookie (upon Pookie finding out about her affairs with Rick) and later with Rick, she becomes pregnant & delivers a baby girl by Pookie. In the series finale, after revealing the feelings they still had for each other Tasha & Pookie decided to be together & happily moved into their own house with their baby daughter., Brittany Daniel as Kelly Pitts (seasons 1–3, 8–9); recurring seasons 4, 7) – Kelly Pitts is the wife of Jason Pitts, mother of Brittany Pitts, and former President of the Sunbeams. After their relationship gradually becomes more and more strained in season 2, Kelly and Jason divorce at the beginning of season three. At the start of season 4, it is revealed that Kelly is now a reality TV star, with her own show centered around the ex-wives of professional athletes. Her character was bumped down to recurring in season 4, and her character was effectively written out of the show in season 4 after she stated to Jason that she needed to head back home to her parents to find herself again. Daniel had made no further appearances in the series after that season. But in season 6, Kelly is heavily mentioned by the remaining characters (especially Tasha). After being referred to a therapist by Kelly, Tasha reveals that Kelly has since moved to Paris. She made her return in season 7. She comes to Chardonnay and Jason's wedding where Jason reveals he still loves her, ending the wedding. She and Jason get remarried in season 9., Hosea Chanchez as Malik Wright – Malik Wright is the San Diego Sabers superstar quarterback and the son of Tasha Mack. Arrogant and cocky, Malik initially begins the series as an immature womanizer. He falls in love with actress Robin Givens and convinces her to marry him as a publicity stunt. In the beginning, he lived with his mom but eventually gets his own place for the purpose of being able to party every night. He also fired his mom in season 2. In the season 3, he finally meets his father and his half sister, Pucci, whom he tries to help with her singing career. In season 4, Malik is still a cocky, spoiled playboy who is sleeping with the wife of the Sabers' new owner (guest star Meagan Good). Malik gets incarcerated for assaulting a cop and DUI, and goes to rehab to solve his newfound problems. In rehab, he falls for a troubled supermodel Jenna Rice (Tika Sumpter). In season 5, Malik has financial issues and is forced to sell his multimillion-dollar mansion and his cars. The season 5 finale, Malik ends his relationship with Jenna. He seemed to be getting his life together, but then had converted back to his old ways. During the season 6 finale, after Malik lands in the hospital from being beat up by a group of men, he learns he won't have full use of his football arm anymore. In season 7, Malik goes through physical therapy in hopes of getting back into football and falls for his previously lesbian physical therapist Yanna. In the season 7 finale Malik ends his relationship with Yanna. In season 8 Malik rejoins the Sabers, but loses his position as team captain to Blue. In the season 8 finale he and Keira admit their feelings about each other (after being best friends for a long time). In the beginning of season 9 Malik and Keira are in a relationship as he and Blue began feuding, and he becomes the laughing stock of the team . Then, in the next to last episode, Malik breaks up with Keira after realizing he wasn't truly in love with her the way he was with Yanna.(Malik determined this after realizing he wasn't crying after having sex with Keira like he did with Yanna, something he had never felt before then.) Keira responds by slapping him. In the series finale Malik leads the team to the playoffs, he proposes to Keira (who declines), he had plans to retire, but he continues to play, winning another championship with the Sabers., Coby Bell as Jason Pitts (seasons 1-3, 6-9; recurring seasons 4-5) – Jason Pitts is the San Diego Sabers former team captain and superstar wide receiver, later its head coach. He is the husband of Kelly Pitts, although they divorced in season 3. Jason and Kelly have one child, Brittany Pitts. In season 2, realizing that his skills were visibly diminishing, Jason starts using steroids to boost his performance. The Sabers win the championship that year. But once Kelly finds out about his steroid use it puts a strain on their relationship, leading to their divorce in season 3. Jason had a girlfriend briefly in season 3 (guest star Stacey Dash); however, he is single at the beginning of season 4. Jason is officially cut from the Sabers in season 4, and he becomes a correspondent on Benched, a sports news television series hosted by former NBA basketball player Chris Webber. In season 5, he is a correspondent on his own show, The Pitts Stop, and is in a romantic relationship with girlfriend-wife Chardonnay (portrayed by Brandy Norwood). In season 6, Jason makes an attempt at a comeback but suffered a concussion, affecting his playing ability among other things as well. He retires for good at the beginning of season 7. In season 7 Kelly returns and attends the wedding of Chardonnay and Jason (at Chardonnay's request). Jason does not marry Chardonnay, admitting he is still in love with Kelly. In season 8 Jason courts Kelly again (despite her initial reluctance) and is also named interim head coach of the Sabers. He and Kelly remarry in season 9., Brandy as Chardonnay Pitts (seasons 6–9; recurring season 5) – Chardonnay is the ex-wife of Jason Pitts. She and Jason meet when he goes to the bar where she bartends. She refuses to serve Jason, who tells her boss and gets her fired. Feeling bad after he got her fired, Jason takes her on a date. They wind up in Tijuana. Jason gets drunk and Chardonnay tricks him into marrying her to see if he really loves black women. They return to San Diego and decide to get their marriage annulled. In the season 5 finale Chardonnay and Jason decide not to go through with the annulment and stay married. Though they have their ups and downs, everything seems fine between the two until Kelly shows up in season 7. Kelly pays off Ty Savage (Jason's former teammate) to stop him from revealing Jason's steroid use. This upsets Chardonnay to the point that she kicks Jason out of the house. She lets him back in and despite his reveal that he kissed Kelly after visiting her in a hotel, they still plan to get married. But in the season 7 finale, Jason doesn't go through with the wedding, revealing he's still in love with Kelly. Chardonnay slaps Jason and storms off, beside herself. At the beginning of season 8 she goes back to Fresno, saying to Tasha there is nothing left but bad memories in San Diego., Lauren London as Keira Michelle Whitaker (seasons 6–9) – a former child star who starred in a fictional 'Cosby'-esque sitcom called Stuck Together. She is struggling to make the transition from child star to adult. Keira is one of the new characters introduced in season 6. Her character does not replace Melanie, but is a new character added into the script. Her love interest is "Bryce 'Blue' Westbrook". The two meet at a party where they hook up. After being shut down by Keira, Blue hooks up with Keira's friend, singer Ciara, making Keira jealous. Blue and Keira try to ignore and anger each other at first, then become cordial, then fall for each other. After Keira loses her virginity to Blue however, they break up due to Blue's insensitivity. They still have feelings for each other even while Keira briefly dates an actor named Luke, with whom she has a rather raunchy sex scene in her movie 'Baggers', that she didn't want Blue to see at the premiere. (He sees it from the back.) They break up again. After more ups and downs in season 7, they elope in that season's finale after Blue proposes, skipping Jason and Chardonnay's wedding. In season 8, after being told by several people that she needs to dedicate herself to her craft, she kisses Malik at an audition after being made to by the acting coach,leading to deeper feelings between the two, who were just best friends before. Blue catches on & breaks off the engagement in season 9 after a huge fight between him and Malik in an elevator. Keira ends up with Malik, at the disapproval of Tasha. In the series finale, after Malik breaks up with Keira, she sleeps with Blue once more, refuses Malik's proposal & she decides to focus on her career. She gets her breakout role., Jay Ellis as Bryce "Blueprint" Westbrook (seasons 6–9) – San Diego Sabers wide receiver and the first overall draft pick from Stanford who is highly educated and often the smartest person in the room. Even though he is bright and talented, he is still a young man who has a lot to learn about life, love and himself. Blue is one of the new characters that was introduced in season 6. His character replaces Derwin Davis as a main character. Blue was traded from Baltimore to San Diego in exchange for Derwin. The two men confront each other at a post-draft party and brawl. That same night he pursues Keira for the first time. They start an on-again, off-again type of relationship throughout the series. Though Blue had his moments where he attempts to act out against Keira when the two weren't together by using women to make her jealous (sleeping with Ciara, bringing her to a group photoshoot, & the party bus episode all in season 6, having an escort with him in the season 7 premiere, having a woman with him in season 9 as he calls off their engagement), he obviously still loves Keira. In season 7 Jason chastises Blue for not being focused due to his off the field distractions. Blue takes initiative and eventually becomes team captain in season 8. In season 9 he led a protest against Saber management that cost him a couple of games, though the Sabers would eventually win the championship in the series finale. Barry Floyd as Terrence "Tee-Tee" Carter (seasons 1-9) - Malik's childhood friend, former assistant, and owner of Tee Tee's Cluck Truck., Erica Gluck (Seasons 1-3) / Katlynn Simone (Seasons 4-9) as Brittany Pitts - daughter of Jason and Kelly Pitts., P. J. Byrne as Irv Smiff - Owner of Irv Smiff Management (ISM). (Seasons 1-3, 5, 9), Bumper Robinson as Juvon Glenn - San Diego Sabers' Running Back and husband of Jazz. (Seasons 1, 3-6, 8-9), Shanti Lowry as Dionne Marie Taylor - Derwin's former publicist and Melanie's previous roommate. (Seasons 1-3, 8), Gregory Alan Williams as Dr. James Barnett - Melanie's father. (Seasons 1, 3-4), Claudette Roche as Grace Barnett - Melanie's mother. (Seasons 1, 3-4), Tahj Mowry as Cameron Barnett - Melanie's brother. (Season 1, 3), Drew Sidora as herself — singer; Derwin's brief love interest. (Seasons 1-2), Rocky Carroll as Kenny "Coach T" Taylor - offensive coordinator of the San Diego Sabers; Tasha's brief love interest. (Seasons 1-2), Caryn Ward as Erica Harrison (Seasons 1-4, 8), Kendra C. Johnson as Renee Royce - TV personality and one of Malik's love interests. (Seasons 1-2), Chaz Lamar Shepherd as Trey Wiggs - Melanie's college friend and father of Melanie's aborted baby. (Seasons 1-2, 5), Rick Fox as himself — former NBA basketball player; Tasha's co-worker and eventual love interest. (Seasons 2-3, 5-6, 9), Robin Givens as herself — actress; Malik's ex-wife. (Seasons 2-3), Tae Heckard as Jasmine "Jazz" - the former Sunbeams President and Wife of San Diego Sabers' Running Back Juvon (Seasons 2-6, 8-9), Gabrielle Dennis as Janay Brice - Derwin's ex-girlfriend and mother of his son. In season 5, it was revealed that she is engaged to a man named Noah and decided to take her son DJ and move to New York with her fiancé. (Seasons 2-5), Lee Majors as Coach Ross - coach of the San Diego Sabers. (Seasons 2-3), Mehcad Brooks as Jerome - Melanie's ex-boyfriend. (Seasons 2-3), Jason Olive as McHottie - Melanie's love interest in medical school. (Season 3, 5), Michael Boatman as Lawrence Chauncey Wright - Malik's father. (Season 3), Lisa Tucker as Pucci Wright - Malik's half-sister. (Season 3), Stacey Dash as Camille Rose - Jason's ex-girlfriend. (Seasons 3-4), Rockmond Dunbar as Pookie - Ex-con; Tasha's old friend and eventual love interest. He is the father of Tasha's newborn baby. It is revealed his real name is Marion. (Seasons 3, 5-9), Michael Beach as Roger Keith - Owner of San Diego Sabers. (Seasons 4-6, 8-9), Terrence Jenkins as Donté - the younger ex-boyfriend of Tasha. (Season 4), Chris Webber as himself — former NBA basketball player; Jason's co-host on the sports news television series Benched. (Season 4), Tika Sumpter as Jenna Rice - Super Model; Malik met Jenna in Rehab; later Malik's love interest. (Seasons 4-5), Meagan Good as Parker Keith - The wife of Roger Keith; had an affair with Malik. (Season 4), Jigga as Bibs - Malik's bodyguard. (Seasons 4-9), Isley Anderson as D.J. - Derwin and Janay's son (Seasons 4-5, 9), Charles Michael Davis as Kwan Kirkland - the San Diego Saber's former quarterback. (Seasons 4-5), Janet Varney as Summer Grayson - co-host of The Pitts Stop. (Season 5), Ciara as Herself — singer; friend of Keira; she hooked up with Blue. (Season 6), Candice Patton as Tori - Malik's personal assistant. (Seasons 6-7), LaMonica Garrett as Luke Rogers (Season 6), Miranda Rae Mayo as Patreece Sheibani (Season 6), Carissa Capobianco as Nina - Malik's girlfriend; friend of Keira. (Seasons 6-7), Hayley Marie Norman as Bianca (Season 6), Danielle Nicolet as Yana - A physical therapist who agrees to help Malik recuperate from his injured arm. (Season 7-9), Andra Fuller as Roger Keith, Jr. - The son of Sabers owner Roger Keith. (Seasons 9) Jared Allen, Tichina Arnold, Nnamdi Asomugha, Rob Base, Chico Benymon, Derek Blanks, Tisha Campbell-Martin, Chamillionaire, Morris Chestnut, Loretta Devine, Dustin Diamond, Christopher B. Duncan, Earthquake, Selita Ebanks, Raymond Edwards, Jr., David Eigenberg, Carmen Electra, Estelle, Faith Evans, Fabolous, Melyssa Ford, Scott Michael Foster, Vivica A. Fox, Andy Allo, Tomiko Fraser, Kevin Frazier, Rudy Gay, Reagan Gomez-Preston, Cuba Gooding, Jr., Tiffany Haddish, Irma P. Hall, Regina Hall, Cory Hardrict, Hill Harper, Napoleon Harris, Jamie Hector, Jim Hill, Jennifer Hudson, Daymond John, Magic Johnson, Shawn Johnson, Mike Jones, Leslie Jordan, Solange Knowles, Queen Latifah, Martin Lawrence, NeNe Leakes, Lisa Leslie, LisaRaye, Joanna "JoJo" Levesque, Lil' Kim, Lil' Romeo, Nia Long, Jennifer Lopez, Eva Marcille, Shawn Marion, Penny Marshall, Duane Martin, Darius McCrary, Willie McGinest, Lonette McKee, Daryl Mitchell, Kel Mitchell, Mo'Nique, Tahj Mowry, Bria Murphy, Musiq, Navid Negahban, Elimu Nelson, Chad Ochocinco, Keke Palmer, Hayden Panettiere, Carl Anthony Payne II, Mario Van Peebles, Shaun Phillips, Eyal Podell, Kyla Pratt, The Pussycat Dolls, Raven-Symone, Jerry Rice, Emma Roberts, Charlie Robinson, Jalen Rose, Kelly Rowland, Ephraim Salaam, Drew Sidora, Jessica Simpson, John Singleton, Kenny Smith, Tasha Smith, Soulja Boy, Joss Stone, Keith Sweat, Nick Swisher, Kenan Thompson, Ashley Tisdale, Too Short, Lisa Tucker, Michael Twombley, Gabrielle Union, Chris Webber, Serena Williams, Stevie Williams, Tyler James Williams, Vanessa L. Williams, Amy Winehouse, Kellen Winslow II, Jaleel White, Shereé Whitfield, William Allen Young, Jolee Alexander, Jason Momoa Seasonal ratings based on average total viewers per episode of The Game on The CW. When The Game transferred from the CW to BET, it acquired 7.7 million viewers, which was a record for a scripted premiere on BET. In September 2006, writer Staci Robinson filed a $40 million lawsuit against the CW, CBS, Warner Bros., and Grammnet Productions for copyright infringement. Robinson claimed that she had applied for a job as writer's assistant in 2005 with series creator and executive producer Mara Brock Akil, to whom Robinson had subsequently sent her novel, Interceptions. The novel is about a woman who decides to put her goal of becoming a lawyer on hold to follow her boyfriend as he pursues a career as a professional football player. After receiving the novel, Robinson was interviewed for the job but later declined the position. Robinson alleged that Akil and a CW screenwriter stole the idea from her novel to create the series. The suit was settled out of court under a non-disclosure agreement in September 2007. BET aired the fourth season on January 11, 2011. The premiere drew 7.7 million viewers, making it the biggest ad-supported sitcom telecast in the history of cable. Chanchez officially announced at the 2011 BET Awards that the show would begin its fifth season in 2012. The fifth season premiered on January 10, 2012. Tia Mowry-Hardrict announced via Twitter that she would not be returning to the series. In May 2012, actor Pooch Hall announced that he will not be returning for the sixth season; In August 2012, actor Pooch Hall announced that he will be returning for the 100th episode of the 6th season, but he's back as a guest star, He will be appear in one episode. It was also confirmed that actress Lauren London and actor Jay Ellis had joined the cast as series regulars for the show's sixth season, which premiered on March 26, 2013. In April 2013, it was announced that The Game has been renewed for a seventh season. The seventh season premiered on March 4, 2014. In April 2014, BET renewed the series for an eighth season, which premiered on January 14, 2015. In October 2014, BET said that the series would end in 2015. The series leads Tia Mowry-Hardrict and Pooch Hall will be returning for the series finale. The final season premiered on June 3, 2015 and the series finale premiered on August 5, 2015. Season releases Seasons 2–6 are also available in the United States and Canada. In December 2019, it was announced that an hour-long sequel series was in the works at The CW. The new incarnation, written by original series creator Mara Brock Akil and Devon Greggory, will have a new East Coast setting while allowing original cast members to return. Akil and Greggory, the latter set to serve as showrunner, will also executive produce the follow-up series with Akil's fellow original executive producers, Salim Akil and Kelsey Grammer, as well as Tom Russo. Grammer and Russo's Grammnet NH Productions and CBS Television Studios, which were behind the original series, will produce the sequel series. Official website at BET Chewin' the Fat is a Scottish comedy sketch show, starring Ford Kiernan, Greg Hemphill and Karen Dunbar. Comedians Paul Riley and Mark Cox also appeared regularly on the show among other actors such as Gregor Fisher and Tom Urie. Chewin' the Fat first started as a radio series on BBC Radio Scotland. The later television show, which ran for four series, was first broadcast on BBC One Scotland, but series three and four, as well as highlights from the first two series, were later broadcast nationally across the United Kingdom. Although the last series ended in February 2002, a Hogmanay special was broadcast each New Year's Eve between 2000–05. Chewin' the Fat gave rise to the successful, and cult spin-off show Still Game, a sitcom focusing on the two elderly friends, Jack and Victor. The series was mostly filmed in and around Glasgow and occasionally West Dunbartonshire. The English idiom to chew the fat means to chat casually, but thoroughly, about subjects of mutual interest. Alistair (Hemphill) and Rory (Kiernan): Two eccentric documentary presenters from the Scottish Highlands, fascinated with Scottish history and landscapes. They are constantly harassed by two neds, who often play practical jokes on the pair or taunt them, shouting: "ya couple o' fannies!" The pranks vary from childish tricks (such as putting glue on the receiver of "Britain's most northerly phone box," which promptly sticks to Alistair's beard) to potentially lethal actions (such as rolling a caber down a mountainside at full tilt towards them); however, the pair of plucky Highlanders always live to present another show. The characters are partly based on the hosts of Scottish history programmes such as Weir's Way. The Big Man (Kiernan): The Big Man is a tough Glaswegian gangster, and a stereotypical representation of an "Alpha Male", who turns up to solve people's problems by means of intense intimidation and violence. Keeping with the "hard man" theme, he has a very deep voice. The character first appeared in a parody of Scotland Today's "Call The Lawyer" section, in which people having problems could get legal advice. The character was so popular after his first appearance that he appeared in other sketches; his catchphrase being: "Is there a problem here?" The Big Man is frequently hypocritical, usually demanding as payment whatever he had helped his clients receive. However, the people are always very happy to give him whatever he asks for. Bish & Bosh: Two very dodgy painter & decorators who usually steal things from the houses they are working at. Their real names are Tony (Kiernan) and Wullie (Hemphill). In the sketches, they are normally seen having a tea break talking about something inconsequential that Wullie drags into depravity, only to be told by Tony, "You've taken that too far". The Banter Boys: Two camp men who are regularly found nearby places where Glaswegian banter is common, taking great relish (and apparently even sexual arousal) experiencing the Glaswegian accent and patter in a variety of situations. This includes hiding out in a football team's changing room to hear the coach shouting at the players and taking a taxi ride in a complete circle back to where they got on, paying out with a £100 note for "the banter" they received from the driver. The two characters appear in the form of the stereotypical Kelvinside housewife, with the same pretensions and turns of phrase. Their catchphrase is "we're just paying for the banter". Their real names are James (Hemphill) and Gary (Kiernan). Big Jock (Kiernan): An overbearing, narcissistic golfer who enjoys humiliating his fellow golf club members by making them do such things as retrieving a £50 note from a dustbin, or leaving another £50 note on the bar to see who would be desperate enough to pick it up for themselves. He is typically very loud and likes to make bombastic speeches and has a habit of calling everyone Percy, even if it isn't their name. He also wins many trophies, and makes sure everyone knows about it. The Lighthouse Keepers: Duncan (Hemphill) and Malcolm (Kiernan) are two Highlanders who work in a lighthouse on the fictional west coast island of Aonoch Mor. Their sketches usually featured at the start of the programme. Duncan endures pranks from Malcolm while pleading "Gonnae no dae that?" Malcolm's pranks gradually escalated in severity as the series went on, going from simple jokes to excruciating torture of the psyche, including drawing bras and undergarments over the unfortunate man's pornography (seemingly his only form of sexual gratification available) and pretending that he has hanged himself. The final sketch ends with the lighthouse being blown up, Duncan's trademark "Gonnae no dae that?" phrase being spoken as the unfortunate lighthouse keeper watches Malcolm sail away before the lighthouse explodes. The Lonely Shopkeeper (Karen Dunbar): A bored, friendless woman working in a corner shop who is "stuck in the shop, day after day after day...", and therefore constantly trying to be over-friendly with her customers, and invariably frightening them off. She often attempts to pry into customers' personal lives, and comments on their (occasionally embarrassing) purchases. The Man from Kilmacolm (Kiernan): A man who breaks cultural taboos or does something very anti-social. When challenged or criticised, he explains his actions by simply saying "I'm from Kilmacolm", which would immediately win understanding of his superiority from everyone around him. The Depressed Taxi Caller (Karen Dunbar): These sketches feature an extremely unlucky woman named Fiona working as a taxi controller, who is always shown crying down her headset to the drivers about her terrible life and how her new boyfriends keep dying in bizarre circumstances. She generally smokes many cigarettes and drinks large volumes of whisky throughout the sketch, in order to "dull the pain." Jack (Kiernan) and Victor (Hemphill): Two OAPs who get up to mischief, featuring the characters that were famously later to appear in the series Still Game. The Janny (Kiernan): A school janitor who pops up to try and fix everything from broken ankles to broken hearts with a liberal application of sawdust from his bucket. His catch-phrase is "Gie that ten minutes an' it'll be as right as rain." The Boy Who Has Just Started Masturbating:A 14-year-old boy called Stephen (played by Gordon McCorkell) who is constantly embarrassed by his parents as they announce proudly to anyone they meet that he has just started [the] masturbating. While other young people around him find this hilarious, most of the adults react by smiling and congratulating Stephen. Betty the Auld Slapper (Karen Dunbar): A female OAP, usually seen giving interviews to a "teatime [radio] show" about her memories from during the Second World War. These always end up with Betty describing her (numerous) sexual experiences in detail before being cut off by the show's exasperated host (Hemphill). She always sits with her legs spread wide apart, exposing her underpants. The Community Mobile Van: A van that brings various cultural amenities to the car park of a council estate, ranging from things like swimming pools to an art gallery to a theatre. The staff of the van are often harassed by a ned or two walking past. In reality, such vans would contain something like a Mobile Library, or the "Bionic Bus" which councils would send around local estates to keep the children amused. Miss Isabelle Gourlay, the Teacher (Karen Dunbar): A highly-strung, seemingly sexually-repressed teacher who gets overly offended by just about anything her class says, who take pleasure in winding her up as a result. Her catchphrase is " Right, that's enough of that!" Apparently based on a chemistry teacher Karen Dunbar had in her own school. Ballistic Bob (Kiernan): A man who attempts to do a normal task, fails multiple times and ends up trashing the surrounding area in a frustrated rage. He was also featured in two Scottish adverts for broadband where he smashed up an entire office when a file took an infuriatingly long time to download from the Internet and his home study was wrecked when someone he was trying to call wouldn't answer the phone. The Nightshifters: Two men who try to get some sleep for their night shift, but are always interrupted by too much noise. They follow the noise, and upon finding the culprit(s), the men shout "Haw, we're oan the night shift!". This noise can be anything from a loud football match to pens clicking. Gretta (Karen Dunbar):An outgoing female boss who hangs around two reluctant male employees at their desks whilst being obsessed with her moustache. Sluich: Two sock puppets from the Scottish Highlands that get up to mischief, such as finding a "package" on the beach, then discovering that it is hash and proceed to produce a Rizla. They speak a mixture of Gaelic and English to communicate with each other, with their conversations beginning and ending with "oola." It is a parody of the Gaelic-language children's programme "Dòtaman." Mr. Simpson (Kiernan):A man with a whistling lisp, which often gets satirised by other people by having him say a phrase with the pronunciation of the letter "S" strewn throughout, such as his niece and nephew having him read "The Night Before Christmas" from the beginning (the sketch begins with him finishing it, on the last sentence where the letter "S" not present.) So he reads it as (lisps are in bold) "Twas the night before christmas, and all through the house, not a creature was stirring, not even a mouse." The Smoking Family:A family of serial smokers who only spend their money on their incredibly heavy addiction to cigarettes. They have all lost their voices (due to throat cancer) so they have to rely on voice boxes to communicate. One scene includes the young grandson who, wishing to 'have a fag', invites the opportunity for grandad to 'grab the camera' for this first time. The Sewer Workers: Two sewer workers who find strange ways of amusing themselves in the sewer, including playing with faeces. Ronald Villiers (Kiernan):The world's worst actor, with a gravelly, monotonous voice. Ronald is apparently registered with the agent "Widdecombe & Pump." When presented with any script or concept, he invariably responds, "Ah can dae that", but he is incapable of remembering simple lines, often completely misunderstands the directions of the director, and attempts inappropriate ad- libs. Gym Teacher (Hemphill): A flatulent gym teacher who demonstrates physical activity to his class, and ends up passing gas from exertion. After this happens, the class laughs at him as he then yells "Simmer down!" The Sniffer (Karen Dunbar): A woman who can smell "shite", often in the form of a scam or a lie, from a distance away. According to her mail, her name is Olive Actory, a play on olfactory. The Shoe Sniffer (Hemphill): A man with an extreme fetish for sniffing other people's shoes; he usually distracts them and then sniffs them in a surreptitious manner. Bob (Hemphill) & Alan (Kiernan): Two overbearing salesmen in an electronics store who frequently try to put their "sales pitch" on expecting customers. They will usually attempt to completely confuse the customer, often using entirely fictional or inappropriate terminology to describe everyday electronics equipment. They also end up insulting the customers by using offensive and overly familiar terms, such as distorting the person's own name until it becomes a personal insult towards them. Socially Awkward Car salesman: A car salesman (played by Mark Cox) who stands in a group with three other car salesmen (Kiernan, Hemphill, and Paul Riley) that have a laugh with each other by making comments or noises in relation to a subject. When it gets to his turn, he becomes overbearing by making loud noises or gestures, resulting in the other car salesmen walking away in embarrassment. Milk Lemonade Chocolate (MLC): Different characters in competitive, or disagreeing situations, who proceed to taunt the losing side by chanting "Milk Lemonade Chocolate", pointing to their breasts, crotch, and posteriors respectively. Oo-oo-hh, fancy!:A sketch featuring a different group of people each time. The group will be comparing items (packed lunches, drinks bought at a bar, etc.). All but the last item will be stereotypically "normal" or "working-class" – but the last person will have something considered "posh". On hearing this sophisticated item everyone else in the group will put their hands by their cheeks – wiggling their fingers – and chant 'OO-OO-HH Fancy!'. The most infamous example is the "Cheese Baguette", as being slightly more sophisticated than an ordinary cheese sandwich, that it is still commonly used as a comedic taunt within social groups. Eric the Activist (Hemphill): A deranged animal rights activist (always seen in a tie-dyed shirt and baggy jeans) who would do to a person what he/she is doing to an animal, such as grab a guy's lip when he is fishing to show what it feels like. His catchphrases are "Now you know what it feels like" and "'Mon the (animal that is being abused)!" Harry (Kiernan), Linda (Dunbar) and George (Hemphill): Harry often becomes unjustifiably angry and even verbally abusive to his long-suffering wife, Linda, if she makes the simplest of mistakes, such as during a game of Monopoly or Countdown. George – a family friend with a soft spot for Linda – always gets caught in the middle of these arguments while trying to stop them. Linda and George always have the last laugh, however, as Harry is nearly always injured at the end of these episodes. The final sketch of Series 2, featuring a Hogmanay party at the couple's house, shows Harry's ultimate comeuppance, when Linda and George end up kissing passionately in front of him after he makes a fuss about some sausage rolls Linda said she'd made herself but had in fact, bought meat and pastry and "put the sausage rolls together" which, Harry tries to make clear, are not the same thing. They reappeared in Series 3 where they visit a zoo in episode one and a warehouse in episode four. Tom Gallagher (Hemphill): A Glasgow merchant who sets up stalls around Glasgow in an attempt to sell sports socks at the price of "two for a pound". Brenda (Karen Dunbar): A woman who repeatedly injures (often seriously) her husband, she then shouts "HELP HELP, there's been a terrible accident!" in a very bored, insincere manner. Her husband then usually replies with "Brenda, ya bastard!" Another Brenda was introduced in Series 4, depicting an overbearing woman who would, at unexpected moments, go "My heart was like that", and tap on her chest simultaneously. Rab McGlinchy (Kiernan):Rab is a stereotypical shellsuit-wearing, chain- smoking, hard-drinking Glaswegian ned in who is employed by the television company to translate the Scottish news, narrated by a newsreader, into the ned dialect. He is introduced thusly "...and here, interpreting for the Neds tonight, Rab McGlinchy." Singing Bar Boys: Many old men who sing songs, changing the lyrics for comedic effect. Some of these characters later appeared in Still Game. Archie – Couple o' plums: Two men harass their friend Archie in a bar. A typical sketch will involve Archie walking up to his mates, at which point they start shouting "ARCHIIIEE" whilst fondling him. Often they will shout "TITTIES" or "COUPLE O' PLUMS." Archie then gets frustrated with them and storms off after shouting: "Get aaf me ya pair ah bastards!" Take a Drink!:In different situations, while several people are drinking (not necessarily alcoholic beverages), a person declines to drink. He/she is prompted to "Take a drink" by a constantly growing number of people until they gives up and accepts ("Awright then"), at which point everyone cheers him/her. Foulmouthed Fishermen: Two fishermen aboard the trawler the "pearl necklace". They speak in a nautical sounding tone but the words used are rude and have very little to do with ships. Tending to make references to sex or various parts of the anatomy. Old-time photobomb: A group of characters in costume is seen posed in a way typical of photographs from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. At the last second before the photographer takes the photograph, one of the characters jumps in front of the others, screaming a modern Glaswegian expression. The annoyed photographer says, "one more time," whereupon the normal picture is taken. One of the most famous examples is a wild west scene, when one of the people yells "NAE DANGER!!!" The Wee Girl with the Scooter: Often characters are seen to be injured in various, and often serious, ways, such as being run over or pushed down the stairs, and when looking around to see the perpetrator, they are faced with a smiling young girl on a scooter, accompanied by some light ice cream van-esque music. The injured party and anyone accompanying them respond by saying, "Awww" and seem to forget about what has happened to them, occasionally dying from their injuries. Woman married to Derek (Karen Dunbar):A (gullible) woman on the phone to her mother recounting how great her husband Derek (who is never seen) is, completely unaware that he seems to be a self-serving liar and cheat. For example, he travels to Tenerife without his wife; telling her it's because she has an old red passport instead of a new blue one (red actually being the latest and blue no longer valid) and she could not have a photograph taken because her teeth are "fillings with magnets" and would break the photo booth. The conversation ends when sheriff's officers appear to "repossess the beanbag" she is sitting on. Taysiders in Space: A parody of Star Trek. It portrays what Star Trek would look like if it was made by Scots. All of the crewmembers speak in thick Angus accents. Main Cast Ford Kiernan – Various Characters, Greg Hemphill – Various Characters, Karen Dunbar – Various Characters, Paul Riley – Various Characters, Mark Cox – Various Characters, Julie Wilson Nimmo – Various Characters, Tom Urie – Various Characters, Gordon McCorkell – Various Characters Main Crew Ford Kiernan – Writer & Creator, Greg Hemphill – Writer & Creator, Sanjeev Kohli – Additional Material, Donald McLeary – Additional Material, Iain Connell – Additional Material, Robert Florence – Additional Material, Michael Hines – Director, Colin Gilbert – Producer, Ewan Angus – Producer (For BBC Scotland), Rab Christie – Script Editor, John McNeil – Lighting Director 1\. Episode 1 – 13 January 1999 2\. Episode 2 – 20 January 1999 3\. Episode 3 – 27 January 1999 4\. Episode 4 – 3 February 1999 5\. Episode 5 – 10 February 1999 6\. Episode 6 – 17 February 1999 1\. Episode 1 – 11 November 1999 2\. Episode 2 – 18 November 1999 3\. Episode 3 – 25 November 1999 4\. Episode 4 – 2 December 1999 5\. Episode 5 – 9 December 1999 6\. Episode 6 – 16 December 1999 1\. Episode 1 – 15 November 2000 2\. Episode 2 – 22 November 2000 3\. Episode 3 – 29 November 2000 4\. Episode 4 – 6 December 2000 5\. Episode 5 – 13 December 2000 6\. Episode 6 – 20 December 2000 2000 Hogmanay Special – 31 December 2000 2001 Hogmanay Special – 31 December 2001 1\. Episode 1 – 18 January 2002 2\. Episode 2 – 25 January 2002 3\. Episode 3 – 1 February 2002 4\. Episode 4 – 8 February 2002 5\. Episode 5 – 15 February 2002 6\. Episode 6 – 22 February 2002 2002 Hogmanay Special – 31 December 2002 2003 Hogmanay Special – 31 December 2003 2004 Hogmanay Special – 31 December 2004 2005 Hogmanay Special – 31 December 2005 Chewin' the Fat at The Comedy Unit

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This is a list of countries by gross domestic product (GDP) sector composition. The figures are based on nominal GDP and GDP (PPP) estimates and sector composition ratios provided by the CIA World Factbook at market or government official exchange rates with figures in trillions of United States dollars. Agricultural (or primary) sector: Agriculture (a term which encompasses farming) is the process of producing food, feed, fiber and other goods by the systematic raising of plants and animals. Agricultural output is a component of the GDP of a nation. Industrial (or secondary) sector: Industry is the segment of economy concerned with production of goods (including fuels and fertilisers). Industrial output is a component of the GDP of a nation. Service (or tertiary) sector: A service is the non-material equivalent of a good. Service provision is defined as an economic activity that does not result in ownership, and this is what differentiates it from providing physical goods. It is claimed to be a process that creates benefits by facilitating either a change in customers, a change in their physical possessions, or a change in their intangible assets. Service output is a component of the GDP of a nation. The service sector includes (but is not limited to) farm and factory related activities. GDP (PPP) sector composition, 2017 (in percentage and in millions of dollars): Nominal GDP sector composition, 2015 (in percentage and in millions of dollars): Nominal GDP sector composition, 2015 (in millions of 2005 USD): 2005 prices are used similarly to 2010 constant prices in which they provide economic statistics where inflation is accounted for. GDP (PPP) per person employed by sector, 2015: GDP (nominal): International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database, April 2012: Nominal GDP list of countries. Data for the year 2012. - IMF, GDP Sector composition: Field Listing - GDP composition by sector. - CIA World Factbook The economy of India is characterised as a developing market economy. It is the world's fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP and the third-largest by purchasing power parity (PPP). According to the IMF, on a per capita income basis, India ranked 142nd by GDP (nominal) and 119th by GDP (PPP) per capita in 2018. From independence in 1947 until 1991, successive governments promoted protectionist economic policies with extensive state intervention and regulation; the end of the Cold War and an acute balance of payments crisis in 1991 led to the adoption of a broad program of economic liberalisation. Since the start of the 21st century, annual average GDP growth has been 6% to 7%, and from 2014 to 2018, India was the world's fastest growing major economy, surpassing China. Historically India was one of the largest economy in the world for most of the two millennia from 1st until 19th century. The long-term growth perspective of the Indian economy remains positive due to its young population and corresponding low dependency ratio, healthy savings and investment rates, and is increasing integration into the global economy. The economy slowed in 2017, due to shocks of "demonetisation" in 2016 and introduction of Goods and Services Tax in 2017. Nearly 60% of India's GDP is driven by domestic private consumption and continues to remain the world's sixth-largest consumer market. Apart from private consumption, India's GDP is also fueled by government spending, investment, and exports. In 2018, India was the world's tenth-largest importer and the nineteenth-largest exporter. India has been a member of World Trade Organization since 1 January 1995. It ranks 63rd on Ease of doing business index and 68th on Global Competitiveness Report. With 520-million-workers, the Indian labour force is the world's second-largest as of 2019. Since India has a vast informal economy, barely 2% of Indians pay income taxes. During the 2008 global financial crisis the economy faced mild slowdown, India undertook stimulus measures (both fiscal and monetary) to boost growth and generate demand; in subsequent years economic growth revived. According to 2017 PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) report, India's GDP at purchasing power parity could overtake that of the United States by 2050. According to World Bank, to achieve sustainable economic development India must focus on public sector reform, infrastructure, agricultural and rural development, removal of land and labour regulations, financial inclusion, spur private investment and exports, education and public health. India's largest trading partners are China, USA, UAE, Saudi Arabia, Switzerland, Germany, Hong Kong, Indonesia, South Korea, and Malaysia. In 2018-19, the foreign direct investment (FDI) in India was $64.4 billion with service sector, computer, and telecom industry remains leading sectors for FDI inflows. India has free trade agreements with several nations, including ASEAN, SAFTA, Mercosur, South Korea, Japan and few others which are in effect or under negotiating stage. The service sector makes up 55.6% of GDP and remains the fastest growing sector, while the industrial sector and the agricultural sector employs majority of the labor force. The Bombay Stock Exchange and National Stock Exchange are one of the world's largest stock exchanges by market capitalization. India is the world's sixth-largest manufacturer, representing 3% of global manufacturing output and employs over 57 million people. Nearly 70% of India's population is rural whose primary source of livelihood is agriculture, and contributes about 50% of India's GDP. It has the world's seventh-largest foreign-exchange reserves worth $461 billion. India has a high national debt with 68% of GDP, while its fiscal deficit remained at 3.4% of GDP. However, as per 2019 CAG report, the actual fiscal deficit is 5.85% of GDP. India's government-owned banks faced mounting bad debt, resulting in low credit growth, simultaneously the NBFC sector has been engulfed in a liquidity crisis. India faces high unemployment, rising income inequality, and major slump in aggregate demand. In recent years, independent economists and financial institutions have accused the government of fudging various economic data especially GDP growth. India ranks second globally in food and agricultural production, while agricultural exports were $38.5 billion. The construction and real estate sector is the second largest employer after agriculture, and a vital sector to gauge economic activity. The Indian textiles industry is estimated at $150 billion and contributes 7% of industrial output and 2% of India's GDP while employs over 45 million people directly. The Indian IT industry is a major exporter of IT services with $180 billion in revenue and employs over four million people. India's telecommunication industry is the world's second largest by number of mobile phone, smartphone, and internet users. It is the world's tenth-largest oil producer and the third-largest oil consumer. The Indian automobile industry is the world's fourth largest by production. It has $672 billion worth of retail market which contributes over 10% of India's GDP and has one of world's fastest growing e-commerce markets. India has the world's fourth-largest natural resources, with mining sector contributes 11% of the country's industrial GDP and 2.5% of total GDP. It is also the world's second-largest coal producer, the second-largest cement producer, the second-largest steel producer, and the third-largest electricity producer. The combination of protectionist, import-substitution, Fabian socialism, and social democratic-inspired policies governed India for sometime after the end of British rule. The economy was then characterised by extensive regulation, protectionism, public ownership of large monopolies, pervasive corruption and slow growth. Since 1991, continuing economic liberalisation has moved the country towards a market-based economy. By 2008, India had established itself as one of the world's faster-growing economies. The citizens of the Indus Valley Civilisation, a permanent settlement that flourished between 2800 BC and 1800 BC, practised agriculture, domesticated animals, used uniform weights and measures, made tools and weapons, and traded with other cities. Evidence of well-planned streets, a drainage system and water supply reveals their knowledge of urban planning, which included the first-known urban sanitation systems and the existence of a form of municipal government. For a continuous duration of nearly 1700 years from the year 1 AD, India is the top most economy constituting 35 to 40% of world GDP. Maritime trade was carried out extensively between South India and Southeast and West Asia from early times until around the fourteenth century AD. Both the Malabar and Coromandel Coasts were the sites of important trading centres from as early as the first century BC, used for import and export as well as transit points between the Mediterranean region and southeast Asia. Over time, traders organised themselves into associations which received state patronage. Historians Tapan Raychaudhuri and Irfan Habib claim this state patronage for overseas trade came to an end by the thirteenth century AD, when it was largely taken over by the local Parsi, Jewish, Syrian Christian and Muslim communities, initially on the Malabar and subsequently on the Coromandel coast. Other scholars suggest trading from India to West Asia and Eastern Europe was active between the 14th and 18th centuries. During this period, Indian traders settled in Surakhani, a suburb of greater Baku, Azerbaijan. These traders built a Hindu temple, which suggests commerce was active and prosperous for Indians by the 17th century. Further north, the Saurashtra and Bengal coasts played an important role in maritime trade, and the Gangetic plains and the Indus valley housed several centres of river-borne commerce. Most overland trade was carried out via the Khyber Pass connecting the Punjab region with Afghanistan and onward to the Middle East and Central Asia. Although many kingdoms and rulers issued coins, barter was prevalent. Villages paid a portion of their agricultural produce as revenue to the rulers, while their craftsmen received a part of the crops at harvest time for their services. The Indian economy was large and prosperous under the Mughal Empire, up until the 18th century. Sean Harkin estimates China and India may have accounted for 60 to 70 percent of world GDP in the 17th century. The Mughal economy functioned on an elaborate system of coined currency, land revenue and trade. Gold, silver and copper coins were issued by the royal mints which functioned on the basis of free coinage. The political stability and uniform revenue policy resulting from a centralised administration under the Mughals, coupled with a well-developed internal trade network, ensured that India–before the arrival of the British–was to a large extent economically unified, despite having a traditional agrarian economy characterised by a predominance of subsistence agriculture, with 64% of the workforce in the primary sector (including agriculture), but with 36% of the workforce also in the secondary and tertiary sectors, higher than in Europe, where 65–90% of its workforce were in agriculture in 1700 and 65–75% were in agriculture in 1750. Agricultural production increased under Mughal agrarian reforms, with Indian agriculture being advanced compared to Europe at the time, such as the widespread use of the seed drill among Indian peasants before its adoption in European agriculture, and higher per-capita agricultural output and standards of consumption. The Mughal Empire had a thriving industrial manufacturing economy, with India producing about 25% of the world's industrial output up until 1750, making it the most important manufacturing center in international trade. Manufactured goods and cash crops from the Mughal Empire were sold throughout the world. Key industries included textiles, shipbuilding, and steel, and processed exports included cotton textiles, yarns, thread, silk, jute products, metalware, and foods such as sugar, oils and butter. Cities and towns boomed under the Mughal Empire, which had a relatively high degree of urbanization for its time, with 15% of its population living in urban centres, higher than the percentage of the urban population in contemporary Europe at the time and higher than that of British India in the 19th century. In early modern Europe, there was significant demand for products from Mughal India, particularly cotton textiles, as well as goods such as spices, peppers, indigo, silks, and saltpeter (for use in munitions). European fashion, for example, became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles and silks. From the late 17th century to the early 18th century, Mughal India accounted for 95% of British imports from Asia, and the Bengal Subah province alone accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia. In contrast, there was very little demand for European goods in Mughal India, which was largely self- sufficient. Indian goods, especially those from Bengal, were also exported in large quantities to other Asian markets, such as Indonesia and Japan. At the time, Mughal Bengal was the most important center of cotton textile production. In the early 18th century, the Mughal Empire declined, as it lost western, central and parts of south and north India to the Maratha Empire, which integrated and continued to administer those regions. The decline of the Mughal Empire led to decreased agricultural productivity, which in turn negatively affected the textile industry. The subcontinent's dominant economic power in the post-Mughal era was the Bengal Subah in the east., which continued to maintain thriving textile industries and relatively high real wages. However, the former was devastated by the Maratha invasions of Bengal and then British colonization in the mid-18th century. After the loss at the Third Battle of Panipat, the Maratha Empire disintegrated into several confederate states, and the resulting political instability and armed conflict severely affected economic life in several parts of the country – although this was mitigated by localised prosperity in the new provincial kingdoms. By the late eighteenth century, the British East India Company had entered the Indian political theatre and established its dominance over other European powers. This marked a determinative shift in India's trade, and a less- powerful impact on the rest of the economy. From the beginning of the 19th century, the British East India Company's gradual expansion and consolidation of power brought a major change in taxation and agricultural policies, which tended to promote commercialisation of agriculture with a focus on trade, resulting in decreased production of food crops, mass impoverishment and destitution of farmers, and in the short term, led to numerous famines. The economic policies of the British Raj caused a severe decline in the handicrafts and handloom sectors, due to reduced demand and dipping employment. After the removal of international restrictions by the Charter of 1813, Indian trade expanded substantially with steady growth. The result was a significant transfer of capital from India to England, which, due to the colonial policies of the British, led to a massive drain of revenue rather than any systematic effort at modernisation of the domestic economy. Under British rule, India's share of the world economy declined from 24.4% in 1700 down to 4.2% in 1950. India's GDP (PPP) per capita was stagnant during the Mughal Empire and began to decline prior to the onset of British rule. India's share of global industrial output declined from 25% in 1750 down to 2% in 1900. At the same time, the United Kingdom's share of the world economy rose from 2.9% in 1700 up to 9% in 1870. The British East India Company, following their conquest of Bengal in 1757, had forced open the large Indian market to British goods, which could be sold in India without tariffs or duties, compared to local Indian producers who were heavily taxed, while in Britain protectionist policies such as bans and high tariffs were implemented to restrict Indian textiles from being sold there, whereas raw cotton was imported from India without tariffs to British factories which manufactured textiles from Indian cotton and sold them back to the Indian market. British economic policies gave them a monopoly over India's large market and cotton resources. India served as both a significant supplier of raw goods to British manufacturers and a large captive market for British manufactured goods. British territorial expansion in India throughout the 19th century created an institutional environment that, on paper, guaranteed property rights among the colonisers, encouraged free trade, and created a single currency with fixed exchange rates, standardised weights and measures and capital markets within the company-held territories. It also established a system of railways and telegraphs, a civil service that aimed to be free from political interference, a common-law and an adversarial legal system. This coincided with major changes in the world economy – industrialisation, and significant growth in production and trade. However, at the end of colonial rule, India inherited an economy that was one of the poorest in the developing world, with industrial development stalled, agriculture unable to feed a rapidly growing population, a largely illiterate and unskilled labour force, and extremely inadequate infrastructure. The 1872 census revealed that 91.3% of the population of the region constituting present-day India resided in villages. This was a decline from the earlier Mughal era, when 85% of the population resided in villages and 15% in urban centers under Akbar's reign in 1600. Urbanisation generally remained sluggish in British India until the 1920s, due to the lack of industrialisation and absence of adequate transportation. Subsequently, the policy of discriminating protection (where certain important industries were given financial protection by the state), coupled with the Second World War, saw the development and dispersal of industries, encouraging rural–urban migration, and in particular the large port cities of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras grew rapidly. Despite this, only one-sixth of India's population lived in cities by 1951. The impact of British rule on India's economy is a controversial topic. Leaders of the Indian independence movement and economic historians have blamed colonial rule for the dismal state of India's economy in its aftermath and argued that financial strength required for industrial development in Britain was derived from the wealth taken from India. At the same time, right-wing historians have countered that India's low economic performance was due to various sectors being in a state of growth and decline due to changes brought in by colonialism and a world that was moving towards industrialisation and economic integration. Several economic historians have argued that real wage decline occurred in the early 19th century, or possibly beginning in the very late 18th century, largely as a result of British imperialism. Economic historian Prasannan Parthasarathi presented earnings data which showed real wages and living standards in 18th century Bengal and Mysore being higher than in Britain, which in turn had the highest living standards in Europe. Mysore's average per-capita income was five times higher than subsistence level, i.e. five times higher than $400 (1990 international dollars), or $2,000 per capita. In comparison, the highest national per-capita incomes in 1820 were $1,838 for the Netherlands and $1,706 for Britain. It has also been argued that India went through a period of deindustrialization in the latter half of the 18th century as an indirect outcome of the collapse of the Mughal Empire. Indian economic policy after independence was influenced by the colonial experience, which was seen as exploitative by Indian leaders exposed to British social democracy and the planned economy of the Soviet Union. Domestic policy tended towards protectionism, with a strong emphasis on import substitution industrialisation, economic interventionism, a large government- run public sector, business regulation, and central planning, while trade and foreign investment policies were relatively liberal. Five-Year Plans of India resembled central planning in the Soviet Union. Steel, mining, machine tools, telecommunications, insurance, and power plants, among other industries, were effectively nationalised in the mid-1950s. Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of India, along with the statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis, formulated and oversaw economic policy during the initial years of the country's independence. They expected favourable outcomes from their strategy, involving the rapid development of heavy industry by both public and private sectors, and based on direct and indirect state intervention, rather than the more extreme Soviet-style central command system. The policy of concentrating simultaneously on capital- and technology-intensive heavy industry and subsidising manual, low-skill cottage industries was criticised by economist Milton Friedman, who thought it would waste capital and labour, and retard the development of small manufacturers. The rate of growth of the Indian economy in the first three decades after independence was derisively referred to as the Hindu rate of growth by economists, because of the unfavourable comparison with growth rates in other Asian countries. Since 1965, the use of high- yielding varieties of seeds, increased fertilisers and improved irrigation facilities collectively contributed to the Green Revolution in India, which improved the condition of agriculture by increasing crop productivity, improving crop patterns and strengthening forward and backward linkages between agriculture and industry. However, it has also been criticised as an unsustainable effort, resulting in the growth of capitalistic farming, ignoring institutional reforms and widening income disparities. In 1984, Rajiv Gandhi promised economic liberalization, he made V. P. Singh the finance minister, who tried to reduce tax-evasion and tax-receipts rose due to this crackdown although taxes were lowered. This process lost its momentum during later tenure of Mr. Gandhi as his government was marred by scandals. The collapse of the Soviet Union, which was India's major trading partner, and the Gulf War, which caused a spike in oil prices, resulted in a major balance- of-payments crisis for India, which found itself facing the prospect of defaulting on its loans. India asked for a $1.8 billion bailout loan from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), which in return demanded de-regulation. In response, the Narasimha Rao government, including Finance Minister Manmohan Singh, initiated economic reforms in 1991. The reforms did away with the Licence Raj, reduced tariffs and interest rates and ended many public monopolies, allowing automatic approval of foreign direct investment in many sectors. Since then, the overall thrust of liberalisation has remained the same, although no government has tried to take on powerful lobbies such as trade unions and farmers, on contentious issues such as reforming labour laws and reducing agricultural subsidies. By the turn of the 21st century, India had progressed towards a free-market economy, with a substantial reduction in state control of the economy and increased financial liberalisation. This has been accompanied by increases in life expectancy, literacy rates, and food security, although urban residents have benefited more than rural residents. While the credit rating of India was hit by its nuclear weapons tests in 1998, it has since been raised to investment level in 2003 by Standard & Poor's (S&P;) and Moody's. India experienced high growth rates, averaging 9% from 2003 to 2007. Growth then moderated in 2008 due to the global financial crisis. In 2003, Goldman Sachs predicted that India's GDP in current prices would overtake France and Italy by 2020, Germany, UK and Russia by 2025 and Japan by 2035, making it the third-largest economy of the world, behind the US and China. India is often seen by most economists as a rising economic superpower which will play a major role in the 21st-century global economy. Starting in 2012, India entered a period of reduced growth, which slowed to 5.6%. Other economic problems also became apparent: a plunging Indian rupee, a persistent high current account deficit and slow industrial growth. India started recovery in 2013–14 when the GDP growth rate accelerated to 6.4% from the previous year's 5.5%. The acceleration continued through 2014–15 and 2015–16 with growth rates of 7.5% and 8.0% respectively. For the first time since 1990, India grew faster than China which registered 6.9% growth in 2015. However the growth rate subsequently decelerated, to 7.1% and 6.6% in 2016–17 and 2017–18 respectively, partly because of the disruptive effects of 2016 Indian banknote demonetisation and the Goods and Services Tax (India). India is ranked 77th out of 190 countries in the World Bank's 2018 ease of doing business index, up 23 points from the last year's 100 and up 53 points in just two years. In terms of dealing with construction permits and enforcing contracts, it is ranked among the 10 worst in the world, while it has a relatively favourable ranking when it comes to protecting minority investors or getting credit. The strong efforts taken by the Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP) to boost ease of doing business rankings at the state level is said to impact the overall rankings of India. The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2018. Inflation under 5% is in green. Historically, India has classified and tracked its economy and GDP in three sectors: agriculture, industry, and services. Agriculture includes crops, horticulture, milk and animal husbandry, aquaculture, fishing, sericulture, aviculture, forestry, and related activities. Industry includes various manufacturing sub-sectors. India's definition of services sector includes its construction, retail, software, IT, communications, hospitality, infrastructure operations, education, healthcare, banking and insurance, and many other economic activities. Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry, logging and fishing accounted for 17% of the GDP, the sector employed 49% of its total workforce in 2014. Agriculture accounted for 23% of GDP, and employed 59% of the country's total workforce in 2016. As the Indian economy has diversified and grown, agriculture's contribution to GDP has steadily declined from 1951 to 2011, yet it is still the country's largest employment source and a significant piece of its overall socio-economic development. Crop-yield-per-unit-area of all crops has grown since 1950, due to the special emphasis placed on agriculture in the five-year plans and steady improvements in irrigation, technology, application of modern agricultural practices and provision of agricultural credit and subsidies since the Green Revolution in India. However, international comparisons reveal the average yield in India is generally 30% to 50% of the highest average yield in the world. The states of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, West Bengal, Gujarat and Maharashtra are key contributors to Indian agriculture. India receives an average annual rainfall of and a total annual precipitation of 4000 billion cubic metres, with the total utilisable water resources, including surface and groundwater, amounting to 1123 billion cubic metres. of the land area, or about 39% of the total cultivated area, is irrigated. India's inland water resources and marine resources provide employment to nearly six million people in the fisheries sector. In 2010, India had the world's sixth-largest fishing industry. India is the largest producer of milk, jute and pulses, and has the world's second-largest cattle population with 170 million animals in 2011. It is the second-largest producer of rice, wheat, sugarcane, cotton and groundnuts, as well as the second-largest fruit and vegetable producer, accounting for 10.9% and 8.6% of the world fruit and vegetable production, respectively. India is also the second-largest producer and the largest consumer of silk, producing 77,000 tons in 2005. India is the largest exporter of cashew kernels and cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL). Foreign exchange earned by the country through the export of cashew kernels during 2011–12 reached 4,390 crore ( 43.9 billion) based on statistics from the Cashew Export Promotion Council of India (CEPCI). 131,000 tonnes of kernels were exported during 2011–12. There are about 600 cashew processing units in Kollam, Kerala. India's foodgrain production remained stagnant at approximately 252 million tonnes (MT) during both the 2015–16 and 2014–15 crop years (July–June). India exports several agriculture products, such as Basmati rice, wheat, cereals, spices, fresh fruits, dry fruits, buffalo beef meat, cotton, tea, coffee and other cash crops particularly to the Middle East, Southeast and East Asian countries. About 10 percent of its export earnings come from this trade. At around , India has the second-largest amount of arable land, after the US, with 52% of total land under cultivation. Although the total land area of the country is only slightly more than one-third of China or the US, India's arable land is marginally smaller than that of the US, and marginally larger than that of China. However, agricultural output lags far behind its potential. The low productivity in India is a result of several factors. According to the World Bank, India's large agricultural subsidies are distorting what farmers grow and hampering productivity- enhancing investment. Over-regulation of agriculture has increased costs, price risks and uncertainty, and governmental intervention in labour, land, and credit are hurting the market. Infrastructure such as rural roads, electricity, ports, food storage, retail markets and services remain inadequate. The average size of land holdings is very small, with 70% of holdings being less than one hectare (2.5 acres) in size. Irrigation facilities are inadequate, as revealed by the fact that only 46% of the total cultivable land was irrigated resulting in farmers still being dependent on rainfall, specifically the monsoon season, which is often inconsistent and unevenly distributed across the country. In an effort to bring an additional two crore hectares (20 million hectares; 50 million acres) of land under irrigation, various schemes have been attempted, including the Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP) which was provided 80,000 crore (800 billion) in the union budget. Farming incomes are also hampered by lack of food storage and distribution infrastructure; a third of India's agricultural production is lost from spoilage. Industry accounts for 26% of GDP and employs 22% of the total workforce. According to the World Bank, India's industrial manufacturing GDP output in 2015 was 6th largest in the world on current US dollar basis ($559 billion), and 9th largest on inflation-adjusted constant 2005 US dollar basis ($197.1 billion). The industrial sector underwent significant changes due to the 1991 economic reforms, which removed import restrictions, brought in foreign competition, led to the privatisation of certain government-owned public- sector industries, liberalised the foreign direct investment (FDI) regime, improved infrastructure and led to an expansion in the production of fast- moving consumer goods. Post-liberalisation, the Indian private sector was faced with increasing domestic and foreign competition, including the threat of cheaper Chinese imports. It has since handled the change by squeezing costs, revamping management, and relying on cheap labour and new technology. However, this has also reduced employment generation, even among smaller manufacturers who previously relied on labour-intensive processes. With strength of over 1.3 million active personnel, India has the third- largest military force and the largest volunteer army. The total budget sanctioned for the Indian military for the financial year 2019-20 was . Defence spending is expected to rise to US$62 billion by 2022. Primary energy consumption of India is the third-largest after China and the US with 5.3% global share in the year 2015. Coal and crude oil together account for 85% of the primary energy consumption of India. India's oil reserves meet 25% of the country's domestic oil demand. India's total proven crude oil reserves are 763.476 million metric tons, while gas reserves stood at . Oil and natural gas fields are located offshore at Bombay High, Krishna Godavari Basin and the Cauvery Delta, and onshore mainly in the states of Assam, Gujarat and Rajasthan. India is the fourth-largest consumer of oil and net oil imports were nearly in 2014–15, which had an adverse effect on the country's current account deficit. The petroleum industry in India mostly consists of public sector companies such as Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC), Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited (HPCL), Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited (BPCL) and Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL). There are some major private Indian companies in the oil sector such as Reliance Industries Limited (RIL) which operates the world's largest oil refining complex. India became the world's third-largest producer of electricity in 2013 with a 4.8% global share in electricity generation, surpassing Japan and Russia. By the end of calendar year 2015, India had an electricity surplus with many power stations idling for want of demand. The utility electricity sector had an installed capacity of 303 GW of which thermal power contributed 69.8%, hydroelectricity 15.2%, other sources of renewable energy 13.0%, and nuclear power 2.1%. India meets most of its domestic electricity demand through its 106 billion tonnes of proven coal reserves. India is also rich in certain alternative sources of energy with significant future potential such as solar, wind and biofuels (jatropha, sugarcane). India's dwindling uranium reserves stagnated the growth of nuclear energy in the country for many years. Recent discoveries in the Tummalapalle belt may be among the top 20 natural uranium reserves worldwide, and an estimated reserve of of thorium – about 25% of world's reserves – are expected to fuel the country's ambitious nuclear energy program in the long-run. The Indo-US nuclear deal has also paved the way for India to import uranium from other countries. Engineering is the largest sub-sector of India's industrial sector, by GDP, and the third-largest by exports. It includes transport equipment, machine tools, capital goods, transformers, switchgear, furnaces, and cast and forged parts for turbines, automobiles, and railways. The industry employs about four million workers. On a value-added basis, India's engineering subsector exported $67 billion worth of engineering goods in the 2013–14 fiscal year, and served part of the domestic demand for engineering goods. The engineering industry of India includes its growing car, motorcycle and scooters industry, and productivity machinery such as tractors. India manufactured and assembled about 18 million passenger and utility vehicles in 2011, of which 2.3 million were exported. India is the largest producer and the largest market for tractors, accounting for 29% of global tractor production in 2013. India is the 12th-largest producer and 7th-largest consumer of machine tools. The automotive manufacturing industry contributed $79 billion (4% of GDP) and employed 6.76 million people (2% of the workforce) in 2016. India is one of the largest centres for polishing diamonds and gems and manufacturing jewellery; it is also one of the two largest consumers of gold. After crude oil and petroleum products, the export and import of gold, precious metals, precious stones, gems and jewellery accounts for the largest portion of India's global trade. The industry contributes about 7% of India's GDP, employs millions, and is a major source of its foreign-exchange earnings. The gems and jewellery industry created $60 billion in economic output on value-added basis in 2017, and is projected to grow to $110 billion by 2022. The gems and jewellery industry has been economically active in India for several thousand years. Until the 18th century, India was the only major reliable source of diamonds. Now, South Africa and Australia are the major sources of diamonds and precious metals, but along with Antwerp, New York, and Ramat Gan, Indian cities such as Surat and Mumbai are the hubs of world's jewellery polishing, cutting, precision finishing, supply and trade. Unlike other centres, the gems and jewellery industry in India is primarily artisan- driven; the sector is manual, highly fragmented, and almost entirely served by family-owned operations. The particular strength of this sub-sector is in precision cutting, polishing and processing small diamonds (below one carat). India is also a hub for processing of larger diamonds, pearls, and other precious stones. Statistically, 11 out of 12 diamonds set in any jewellery in the world are cut and polished in India. It is also a major hub of gold and other precious-metal-based jewellery. Domestic demand for gold and jewellery products is another driver of India's GDP. India's infrastructure and transport sector contributes about 5% of its GDP. India has a road network of over the second-largest road network in the world only behind the United States. At 1.66 km of roads per square kilometre of land (2.68 miles per square mile), the quantitative density of India's road network is higher than that of Japan (0.91) and the United States (0.67), and far higher than that of China (0.46), Brazil (0.18) or Russia (0.08). Qualitatively, India's roads are a mix of modern highways and narrow, unpaved roads, and are being improved. 87.05% of Indian roads were paved. India has the lowest kilometre-lane road density per 100,000 people among G-27 countries, leading to traffic congestion. It is upgrading its infrastructure. India had completed over of 4- or 6-lane highways, connecting most of its major manufacturing, commercial and cultural centres. India's road infrastructure carries 60% of freight and 87% of passenger traffic. Indian Railways is the fourth-largest rail network in the world, with a track length of and 7,172 stations. This government-owned-and-operated railway network carried an average of 23 million passengers a day, and over a billion tonnes of freight in 2013. India has a coastline of with 13 major ports and 60 operational non-major ports, which together handle 95% of the country's external trade by volume and 70% by value (most of the remainder handled by air). Nhava Sheva, Mumbai is the largest public port, while Mundra is the largest private sea port. The airport infrastructure of India includes 125 airports, of which 66 airports are licensed to handle both passengers and cargo. Petroleum products and chemicals are a major contributor to India's industrial GDP, and together they contribute over 34% of its export earnings. India hosts many oil refinery and petrochemical operations, including the world's largest refinery complex in Jamnagar that processes 1.24 million barrels of crude per day. By volume, the Indian chemical industry was the third-largest producer in Asia, and contributed 5% of the country's GDP. India is one of the five- largest producers of agrochemicals, polymers and plastics, dyes and various organic and inorganic chemicals. Despite being a large producer and exporter, India is a net importer of chemicals due to domestic demands. The chemical industry contributed $163 billion to the economy in FY18 and is expected to reach $300–400 billion by 2025. The industry employed 17.33 million people (4% of the workforce) in 2016. The Indian pharmaceutical industry has grown in recent years to become a major manufacturer of health care products to the world. India produced about 8% of the global pharmaceutical supply in 2011 by value, including over 60,000 generic brands of medicines. The industry grew from $6 billion in 2005 to $36.7 billion in 2016, a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 17.46%. It is expected to grow at a CAGR of 15.92% to reach $55 billion in 2020. India is expected to become the sixth-largest pharmaceutical market in the world by 2020. It is one of the fastest-growing industrial sub-sectors and a significant contributor to India's export earnings. The state of Gujarat has become a hub for the manufacture and export of pharmaceuticals and active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs). The textile and apparel market in India was estimated to be $108.5 billion in 2015. It is expected to reach a size of $226 billion by 2023. The industry employees over 35 million people. By value, the textile industry accounts for 7% of India's industrial, 2% of GDP and 15% of the country's export earnings. India exported $39.2 billion worth of textiles in the 2017-18 fiscal year. India's textile industry has transformed in recent years from a declining sector to a rapidly developing one. After freeing the industry in 2004–2005 from a number of limitations, primarily financial, the government permitted massive investment inflows, both domestic and foreign. From 2004 to 2008, total investment into the textile sector increased by 27 billion dollars. Ludhiana produces 90% of woollens in India and is known as the Manchester of India. Tirupur has gained universal recognition as the leading source of hosiery, knitted garments, casual wear, and sportswear. Expanding textile centres such as Ichalkaranji enjoy one of the highest per-capita incomes in the country. India's cotton farms, fibre and textile industry provides employment to 45 million people in India, including some child labour (1%). The sector is estimated to employ around 400,000 children under the age of 18. The pulp and paper industry in India is one of the major producers of paper in the world and has adopted new manufacturing technology. The paper market in India was estimated to be worth in 2017-18 recording a CAGR of 6-7%. Domestic demand for paper almost doubled from around 9 million tonnes in the 2007-08 fiscal to over 17 million tonnes in 2017-18. The per capita consumption of paper in India is around 13–14 kg annually, lower than the global average of 57 kg. The services sector has the largest share of India's GDP, accounting for 57% in 2012, up from 15% in 1950. It is the seventh-largest services sector by nominal GDP, and third largest when purchasing power is taken into account. The services sector provides employment to 27% of the workforce. Information technology and business process outsourcing are among the fastest-growing sectors, having a cumulative growth rate of revenue 33.6% between fiscal years 1997–98 and 2002–03, and contributing to 25% of the country's total exports in . India is the fourth-largest civil aviation market in the world recording an air traffic of 158 million passengers in 2017. The market is estimated to have 800 aircraft by 2020, which would account for 4.3% of global volumes, and is expected to record annual passenger traffic of 520 million by 2037. IATA estimated that aviation contributed $30 billion to India's GDP in 2017, and supported 7.5 million jobs - 390,000 directly, 570,000 in the value chain, and 6.2 million through tourism. Civil aviation in India traces its beginnings to 18 February 1911, when Henri Pequet, a French aviator, carried 6,500 pieces of mail on a Humber biplane from Allahabad to Naini. Later on 15 October 1932, J.R.D. Tata flew a consignment of mail from Karachi to Juhu Airport. His airline later became Air India and was the first Asian airline to cross the Atlantic Ocean as well as first Asian airline to fly jets. In March 1953, the Indian Parliament passed the Air Corporations Act to streamline and nationalise the then existing privately owned eight domestic airlines into Indian Airlines for domestic services and the Tata group-owned Air India for international services. The International Airports Authority of India (IAAI) was constituted in 1972 while the National Airports Authority was constituted in 1986. The Bureau of Civil Aviation Security was established in 1987 following the crash of Air India Flight 182. The government de-regularised the civil aviation sector in 1991 when the government allowed private airlines to operate charter and non-scheduled services under the 'Air Taxi' Scheme until 1994, when the Air Corporation Act was repealed and private airlines could now operate scheduled services. Private airlines including Jet Airways, Air Sahara, Modiluft, Damania Airways and NEPC Airlines commenced domestic operations during this period. The aviation industry experienced a rapid transformation following deregulation. Several low-cost carriers entered the Indian market in 2004–05. Major new entrants included Air Deccan, Air Sahara, Kingfisher Airlines, SpiceJet, GoAir, Paramount Airways and IndiGo. Kingfisher Airlines became the first Indian air carrier on 15 June 2005 to order Airbus A380 aircraft worth 3 billion. However, Indian aviation would struggle due to an economic slowdown and rising fuel and operation costs. This led to consolidation, buyouts and discontinuations. In 2007, Air Sahara and Air Deccan were acquired by Jet Airways and Kingfisher Airlines respectively. Paramount Airways ceased operations in 2010 and Kingfisher shut down in 2012. Etihad Airways agreed to acquire a 24% stake in Jet Airways in 2013. AirAsia India, a low-cost carrier operating as a joint venture between Air Asia and Tata Sons launched in 2014. –14, only IndiGo and GoAir were generating profits. The average domestic passenger air fare dropped by 70% between 2005 and 2017, after adjusting for inflation. The financial services industry contributed $809 billion (37% of GDP) and employed 14.17 million people (3% of the workforce) in 2016, and the banking sector contributed $407 billion (19% of GDP) and employed 5.5 million people (1% of the workforce) in 2016. The Indian money market is classified into the organised sector, comprising private, public and foreign-owned commercial banks and cooperative banks, together known as 'scheduled banks'; and the unorganised sector, which includes individual or family-owned indigenous bankers or money lenders and non-banking financial companies. The unorganised sector and microcredit are preferred over traditional banks in rural and sub- urban areas, especially for non-productive purposes such as short-term loans for ceremonies. Prime Minister Indira Gandhi nationalised 14 banks in 1969, followed by six others in 1980, and made it mandatory for banks to provide 40% of their net credit to priority sectors including agriculture, small-scale industry, retail trade and small business, to ensure that the banks fulfilled their social and developmental goals. Since then, the number of bank branches has increased from 8,260 in 1969 to 72,170 in 2007 and the population covered by a branch decreased from 63,800 to 15,000 during the same period. The total bank deposits increased from in 1970–71 to in 2008–09. Despite an increase of rural branches – from 1,860 or 22% of the total in 1969 to 30,590 or 42% in 2007 – only 32,270 of 500,000 villages are served by a scheduled bank. India's gross domestic savings in 2006–07 as a percentage of GDP stood at a high 32.8%. More than half of personal savings are invested in physical assets such as land, houses, cattle, and gold. The government-owned public-sector banks hold over 75% of total assets of the banking industry, with the private and foreign banks holding 18.2% and 6.5% respectively. Since liberalisation, the government has approved significant banking reforms. While some of these relate to nationalised banks – such as reforms encouraging mergers, reducing government interference and increasing profitability and competitiveness – other reforms have opened the banking and insurance sectors to private and foreign companies. According to the report of The National Association of Software and Services Companies (NASSCOM), India has a presence of around 400 companies in the fintech space, with an investment of about $420 million in 2015. The NASSCOM report also estimated the fintech software and services market to grow 1.7 times by 2020, making it worth $8 billion. The Indian fintech landscape is segmented as follows – 34% in payment processing, followed by 32% in banking and 12% in the trading, public and private markets. The information technology (IT) industry in India consists of two major components: IT services and business process outsourcing (BPO). The sector has increased its contribution to India's GDP from 1.2% in 1998 to 7.5% in 2012. According to NASSCOM, the sector aggregated revenues of 147 billion in 2015, where export revenue stood at 99 billion and domestic at 48 billion, growing by over 13%. The growth in the IT sector is attributed to increased specialisation, and an availability of a large pool of low-cost, highly skilled, fluent English-speaking workers – matched by increased demand from foreign consumers interested in India's service exports, or looking to outsource their operations. The share of the Indian IT industry in the country's GDP increased from 4.8% in 2005–06 to 7% in 2008. In 2009, seven Indian firms were listed among the top 15 technology outsourcing companies in the world. The business process outsourcing services in the outsourcing industry in India caters mainly to Western operations of multinational corporations. around 2.8 million people work in the outsourcing sector. Annual revenues are around $11 billion, around 1% of GDP. Around 2.5 million people graduate in India every year. Wages are rising by 10–15 percent as a result of skill shortages. India became the tenth-largest insurance market in the world in 2013, rising from 15th in 2011. At a total market size of US$66.4 billion in 2013, it remains small compared to world's major economies, and the Indian insurance market accounted for just 2% of the world's insurance business in 2017. India's life and non-life insurance industry collected in total gross insurance premiums in 2018. Life insurance accounts for 75.41% of the insurance market and the rest is general insurance. Of the 52 insurance companies in India, 24 are active in life-insurance business. Specialised insurers Export Credit Guarantee Corporation and Agriculture Insurance Company (AIC) offer credit guarantee and crop insurance. It has introduced several innovative products such as weather insurance and insurance related to specific crops. The premium underwritten by the non-life insurers during 2010–11 was 42,576 crore (425 billion) against 34,620 crore (346 billion) in 2009–10. The growth was satisfactory, particularly given across-the-broad cuts in the tariff rates. The private insurers underwrote premiums of 17,424 crore (174 billion) against 13,977 crore (140 billion) in 2009–10. The Indian insurance business had been under-developed with low levels of insurance penetration. The retail industry, excluding wholesale, contributed $482 billion (22% of GDP) and employed 249.94 million people (57% of the workforce) in 2016. The industry is the second largest employer in India, after agriculture. The Indian retail market is estimated to be US$600 billion and one of the top-five retail markets in the world by economic value. India has one of the fastest- growing retail markets in the world, and is projected to reach $1.3 trillion by 2020. The e-commerce retail market in India was valued at $32.7 billion in 2018, and is expected to reach $71.9 billion by 2022. India's retail industry mostly consists of local mom-and-pop stores, owner-manned shops and street vendors. Retail supermarkets are expanding, with a market share of 4% in 2008. In 2012, the government permitted 51% FDI in multi-brand retail and 100% FDI in single-brand retail. However, a lack of back-end warehouse infrastructure and state-level permits and red tape continue to limit growth of organised retail. Compliance with over thirty regulations such as "signboard licences" and "anti-hoarding measures" must be made before a store can open for business. There are taxes for moving goods from state to state, and even within states. According to The Wall Street Journal, the lack of infrastructure and efficient retail networks cause a third of India's agriculture produce to be lost from spoilage. The World Travel & Tourism Council calculated that tourism generated or 9.4% of the nation's GDP in 2017 and supported 41.622 million jobs, 8% of its total employment. The sector is predicted to grow at an annual rate of 6.9% to by 2028 (9.9% of GDP). Over 10 million foreign tourists arrived in India in 2017 compared to 8.89 million in 2016, recording a growth of 15.6%. India earned $21.07 billion in foreign exchange from tourism receipts in 2015. International tourism to India has seen a steady growth from 2.37 million arrivals in 1997 to 8.03 million arrivals in 2015. The United States is the largest source of international tourists to India, while European Union nations and Japan are other major sources of international tourists. Less than 10% of international tourists visit the Taj Mahal, with the majority visiting other cultural, thematic and holiday circuits. Over 12 million Indian citizens take international trips each year for tourism, while domestic tourism within India adds about 740 million Indian travellers. India has a fast-growing medical tourism sector of its health care economy, offering low-cost health services and long-term care. In October 2015, the medical tourism sector was estimated to be worth US$3 billion. It is projected to grow to $7–8 billion by 2020. In 2014, 184,298 foreign patients traveled to India to seek medical treatment. An ASSOCHAM-PwC joint study projected that the Indian media and entertainment industry would grow from a size of $30.364 billion in 2017 to $52.683 billion by 2022, recording a CAGR of 11.7%. The study also predicted that television, cinema and over-the-top services would account for nearly half of the overall industry growth during the period. India's healthcare sector is expected to grow at a CAGR of 29% between 2015 and 2020, to reach US$280 billion, buoyed by rising incomes, greater health awareness, increased precedence of lifestyle diseases, and improved access to health insurance. The ayurveda industry in India recorded a market size of $4.4 billion in 2018. The Confederation of Indian Industry estimates that the industry will grow at a CAGR 16% until 2025. Nearly 75% of the market comprises over-the-counter personal care and beauty products, while ayurvedic well-being or ayurvedic tourism services accounted for 15% of the market. The logistics industry in India was worth over $160 billion in 2016, and grew at a CAGR of 7.8% in the previous five-year period. The industry employs about 22 million people. It is expected to reach of a size of $215 billion by 2020. India was ranked 35th out of 160 countries in the World Bank's 2016 Logistics Performance Index. The telecommunication sector generated in revenue in 2014–15, accounting for 1.94% of total GDP. India is the second-largest market in the world by number of telephone users (both fixed and mobile phones) with 1.053 billion subscribers It has one of the lowest call-tariffs in the world, due to fierce competition among telecom operators. India has the world's third-largest Internet user-base. there were 342.65 million Internet subscribers in the country. Industry estimates indicate that there are over 554 million TV consumers in India India is the largest direct-to-home (DTH) television market in the world by number of subscribers. there were 84.80 million DTH subscribers in the country. Mining contributed $63 billion (3% of GDP) and employed 20.14 million people (5% of the workforce) in 2016. India's mining industry was the fourth-largest producer of minerals in the world by volume, and eighth-largest producer by value in 2009. In 2013, it mined and processed 89 minerals, of which four were fuel, three were atomic energy minerals, and 80 non-fuel. The government-owned public sector accounted for 68% of mineral production by volume in 2011–12. Nearly 50% of India's mining industry, by output value, is concentrated in eight states: Odisha, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka. Another 25% of the output by value comes from offshore oil and gas resources. India operated about 3,000 mines in 2010, half of which were coal, limestone and iron ore. On output-value basis, India was one of the five largest producers of mica, chromite, coal, lignite, iron ore, bauxite, barite, zinc and manganese; while being one of the ten largest global producers of many other minerals. India was the fourth-largest producer of steel in 2013, and the seventh-largest producer of aluminium. India's mineral resources are vast. However, its mining industry has declined – contributing 2.3% of its GDP in 2010 compared to 3% in 2000, and employed 2.9 million people – a decreasing percentage of its total labour. India is a net importer of many minerals including coal. India's mining sector decline is because of complex permit, regulatory and administrative procedures, inadequate infrastructure, shortage of capital resources, and slow adoption of environmentally sustainable technologies. In fiscal year 2014–15, India was the third-largest producer of raw steel and the largest producer of sponge iron. The industry produced 91.46 million tons of finished steel and 9.7 million tons of pig iron. Most iron and steel in India is produced from iron ore. The construction industry contributed $288 billion (13% of GDP) and employed 60.42 million people (14% of the workforce) in 2016. Until the liberalisation of 1991, India was largely and intentionally isolated from world markets, to protect its economy and to achieve self-reliance. Foreign trade was subject to import tariffs, export taxes and quantitative restrictions, while foreign direct investment (FDI) was restricted by upper- limit equity participation, restrictions on technology transfer, export obligations and government approvals; these approvals were needed for nearly 60% of new FDI in the industrial sector. The restrictions ensured that FDI averaged only around $200 million annually between 1985 and 1991; a large percentage of the capital flows consisted of foreign aid, commercial borrowing and deposits of non-resident Indians. India's exports were stagnant for the first 15 years after independence, due to general neglect of trade policy by the government of that period; imports in the same period, with early industrialisation, consisted predominantly of machinery, raw materials and consumer goods. Since liberalisation, the value of India's international trade has increased sharply, with the contribution of total trade in goods and services to the GDP rising from 16% in 1990–91 to 47% in 2009–10. Foreign trade accounted for 48.8% of India's GDP in 2015. Globally, India accounts for 1.44% of exports and 2.12% of imports for merchandise trade and 3.34% of exports and 3.31% of imports for commercial services trade. India's major trading partners are the European Union, China, the United States and the United Arab Emirates. In 2006–07, major export commodities included engineering goods, petroleum products, chemicals and pharmaceuticals, gems and jewellery, textiles and garments, agricultural products, iron ore and other minerals. Major import commodities included crude oil and related products, machinery, electronic goods, gold and silver. In November 2010, exports increased 22.3% year-on-year to , while imports were up 7.5% at . The trade deficit for the same month dropped from in 2009 to in 2010. India is a founding-member of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and its successor, the WTO. While participating actively in its general council meetings, India has been crucial in voicing the concerns of the developing world. For instance, India has continued its opposition to the inclusion of labour, environmental issues and other non-tariff barriers to trade in WTO policies. India secured 43rd place in competitiveness index. Since independence, India's balance of payments on its current account has been negative. Since economic liberalisation in the 1990s, precipitated by a balance-of-payment crisis, India's exports rose consistently, covering 80.3% of its imports in 2002–03, up from 66.2% in 1990–91. However, the global economic slump followed by a general deceleration in world trade saw the exports as a percentage of imports drop to 61.4% in 2008–09. India's growing oil import bill is seen as the main driver behind the large current account deficit, which rose to $118.7 billion, or 11.11% of GDP, in 2008–09. Between January and October 2010, India imported $82.1 billion worth of crude oil. The Indian economy has run a trade deficit every year from 2002 to 2012, with a merchandise trade deficit of US$189 billion in 2011–12. Its trade with China has the largest deficit, about $31 billion in 2013. India's reliance on external assistance and concessional debt has decreased since liberalisation of the economy, and the debt service ratio decreased from 35.3% in 1990–91 to 4.4% in 2008–09. In India, external commercial borrowings (ECBs), or commercial loans from non-resident lenders, are being permitted by the government for providing an additional source of funds to Indian corporates. The Ministry of Finance monitors and regulates them through ECB policy guidelines issued by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) under the Foreign Exchange Management Act of 1999. India's foreign exchange reserves have steadily risen from $5.8 billion in March 1991 to $426 billion in April 2018. In 2012, the United Kingdom announced an end to all financial aid to India, citing the growth and robustness of Indian economy. India's current account deficit reached an all-time high in 2013. India has historically funded its current account deficit through borrowings by companies in the overseas markets or remittances by non-resident Indians and portfolio inflows. From April 2016 to January 2017, RBI data showed that, for the first time since 1991, India was funding its deficit through foreign direct investment inflows. The Economic Times noted that the development was "a sign of rising confidence among long-term investors in Prime Minister Narendra Modi's ability to strengthen the country's economic foundation for sustained growth". As the third-largest economy in the world in PPP terms, India has attracted foreign direct investment (FDI). During the year 2011, FDI inflow into India stood at $36.5 billion, 51.1% higher than the 2010 figure of $24.15 billion. India has strengths in telecommunication, information technology and other significant areas such as auto components, chemicals, apparels, pharmaceuticals, and jewellery. Despite a surge in foreign investments, rigid FDI policies were a significant hindrance. Over time, India has adopted a number of FDI reforms. India has a large pool of skilled managerial and technical expertise. The size of the middle-class population stands at 300 million and represents a growing consumer market. India liberalised its FDI policy in 2005, allowing up to a 100% FDI stake in ventures. Industrial policy reforms have substantially reduced industrial licensing requirements, removed restrictions on expansion and facilitated easy access to foreign technology and investment. The upward growth curve of the real-estate sector owes some credit to a booming economy and liberalised FDI regime. In March 2005, the government amended the rules to allow 100% FDI in the construction sector, including built-up infrastructure and construction development projects comprising housing, commercial premises, hospitals, educational institutions, recreational facilities, and city- and regional-level infrastructure. Between 2012 and 2014, India extended these reforms to defence, telecom, oil, retail, aviation, and other sectors. From 2000 to 2010, the country attracted $178 billion as FDI. The inordinately high investment from Mauritius is due to routing of international funds through the country given significant tax advantages – double taxation is avoided due to a tax treaty between India and Mauritius, and Mauritius is a capital gains tax haven, effectively creating a zero-taxation FDI channel. FDI accounted for 2.1% of India's GDP in 2015. As the government has eased 87 foreign investment direct rules across 21 sectors in the last three years, FDI inflows hit $60.1 billion between 2016 and 2017 in India. Since 2000, Indian companies have expanded overseas, investing FDI and creating jobs outside India. From 2006 to 2010, FDI by Indian companies outside India amounted to 1.34 per cent of its GDP. Indian companies have deployed FDI and started operations in the United States, Europe and Africa. The Indian company Tata is the United Kingdom's largest manufacturer and private-sector employer. In 2015, a total of US$68.91 billion was made in remittances to India from other countries, and a total of US$8.476 billion was made in remittances by foreign workers in India to their home countries. The UAE, the US, and Saudi Arabia were the top sources of remittances to India, while Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Nepal were the top recipients of remittances from India. Remittances to India accounted for 3.32% of the country's GDP in 2015. Between 1985 and 2018 20,846 deals have been announced in, into (inbound) and out of (outbound) India. This cumulates to a value of US$618 billion. In terms of value, 2010 has been the most active year with deals worth almost 60 bil. USD. Most deals have been conducted in 2007 (1,510). Here is a list of the top 10 deals with Indian companies participating: The Indian rupee () is the only legal tender in India, and is also accepted as legal tender in neighbouring Nepal and Bhutan, both of which peg their currency to that of the Indian rupee. The rupee is divided into 100 paisas. The highest-denomination banknote is the 2,000 note; the lowest-denomination coin in circulation is the 50 paise coin. Since 30 June 2011, all denominations below 50 paise have ceased to be legal currency. India's monetary system is managed by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), the country's central bank. Established on 1 April 1935 and nationalised in 1949, the RBI serves as the nation's monetary authority, regulator and supervisor of the monetary system, banker to the government, custodian of foreign exchange reserves, and as an issuer of currency. It is governed by a central board of directors, headed by a governor who is appointed by the Government of India. The benchmark interest rates are set by the Monetary Policy Committee. The rupee was linked to the British pound from 1927 to 1946, and then to the US dollar until 1975 through a fixed exchange rate. It was devalued in September 1975 and the system of fixed par rate was replaced with a basket of four major international currencies: the British pound, the US dollar, the Japanese yen and the Deutsche Mark. In 1991, after the collapse of its largest trading partner, the Soviet Union, India faced the major foreign exchange crisis and the rupee was devalued by around 19% in two stages on 1 and 2 July. In 1992, a Liberalized Exchange Rate Mechanism (LERMS) was introduced. Under LERMS, exporters had to surrender 40 percent of their foreign exchange earnings to the RBI at the RBI-determined exchange rate; the remaining 60% could be converted at the market-determined exchange rate. In 1994, the rupee was convertible on the current account, with some capital controls. After the sharp devaluation in 1991 and transition to current account convertibility in 1994, the value of the rupee has been largely determined by market forces. The rupee has been fairly stable during the decade 2000–2010. In October 2018, rupee touched an all-time low 74.90 to the US dollar. India's gross national income per capita had experienced high growth rates since 2002. It tripled from 19,040 in 2002–03 to 53,331 in 2010–11, averaging 13.7% growth each of these eight years, with peak growth of 15.6% in 2010–11. However growth in the inflation-adjusted per-capita income of the nation slowed to 5.6% in 2010–11, down from 6.4% in the previous year. These consumption levels are on an individual basis. The average family income in India was $6,671 per household in 2011. According to 2011 census data, India has about 330 million houses and 247 million households. The household size in India has dropped in recent years, the 2011 census reporting 50% of households have four or fewer members, with an average 4.8 members per household including surviving grandparents. These households produced a GDP of about $1.7 trillion. Consumption patterns note: approximately 67% of households use firewood, crop residue or cow-dung cakes for cooking purposes; 53% do not have sanitation or drainage facilities on premises; 83% have water supply within their premises or from their house in urban areas and from the house in rural areas; 67% of the households have access to electricity; 63% of households have landline or mobile telephone service; 43% have a television; 26% have either a two- or four-wheel motor vehicle. Compared to 2001, these income and consumption trends represent moderate to significant improvements. One report in 2010 claimed that high-income households outnumber low-income households. New World Wealth publishes reports tracking the total wealth of countries, which is measured as the private wealth held by all residents of a country. According to New World Wealth, India's total wealth increased from $3,165 billion in 2007 to $8,230 billion in 2017, a growth rate of 160%. India's total wealth decreased by 1% from $8.23 trillion in 2017 to $8.148 trillion in 2018, making it the sixth wealthiest nation in the world. There are 20,730 multimillionaires (7th largest in the world) and 118 billionaires in India (3rd largest in the world). With 327,100 high net-worth individuals (HNWI), India is home to the 9th highest number of HNWIs in the world. Mumbai is the wealthiest Indian city and the 12th wealthiest in the world, with a total net worth of $941 billion in 2018. Twenty-eight billionaires reside in the city, ranked ninth worldwide. the next wealthiest cities in India were Delhi ($450 billion), Bangalore ($320 billion), Hyderabad ($310 billion), Kolkata ($290 billion), Chennai ($150 billion) and Gurgaon ($110 billion). The Global Wealth Migration Review 2019 report, published by New World Wealth, found that 5,000 HNWI's emigrated from India in 2018, or about 2% of all HNWIs in the country. Australia, Canada and the United States were among the top destination countries. The report also projected that private wealth in India would grow by around 180% to reach $22,814 billion by 2028. In May 2014, the World Bank reviewed and proposed revisions to its poverty calculation methodology of 2005 and purchasing-power-parity basis for measuring poverty. According to the revised methodology, the world had 872.3 million people below the new poverty line, of which 179.6 million lived in India. With 17.5% of the total world's population, India had a 20.6% share of world's poorest in 2013. According to a 2005–2006 survey, India had about 61 million children under the age of 5 who were chronically malnourished. A 2011 UNICEF report stated that between 1990 and 2010, India achieved a 45 percent reduction in under age 5 mortality rates, and now ranks 46th of 188 countries on this metric. Since the early 1960s, successive governments have implemented various schemes to alleviate poverty, under central planning, that have met with partial success. In 2005, the government enacted the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), guaranteeing 100 days of minimum wage employment to every rural household in all the districts of India. In 2011, it was widely criticised and beset with controversy for corrupt officials, deficit financing as the source of funds, poor quality of infrastructure built under the programme, and unintended destructive effects. Other studies suggest that the programme has helped reduce rural poverty in some cases. Yet other studies report that India's economic growth has been the driver of sustainable employment and poverty reduction, though a sizeable population remains in poverty. India lifted 271 million people out of poverty between 2006 and 2016, recording the fastest reductions in the multidimensional poverty index values during the period with strong improvements in areas such as assets, cooking fuel, sanitation and nutrition. Agricultural and allied sectors accounted for about 52.1% of the total workforce in 2009–10. While agriculture employment has fallen over time in percentage of labour employed, services which includes construction and infrastructure have seen a steady growth accounting for 20.3% of employment in 2012–13. Of the total workforce, 7% is in the organised sector, two-thirds of which are in the government-controlled public sector. About 51.2% of the workforce in India is self-employed. According to a 2005–06 survey, there is a gender gap in employment and salaries. In rural areas, both men and women are primarily self-employed, mostly in agriculture. In urban areas, salaried work was the largest source of employment for both men and women in 2006. Unemployment in India is characterised by chronic (disguised) unemployment. Government schemes that target eradication of both poverty and unemployment – which in recent decades has sent millions of poor and unskilled people into urban areas in search of livelihoods – attempt to solve the problem by providing financial assistance for starting businesses, honing skills, setting up public sector enterprises, reservations in governments, etc. The decline in organised employment, due to the decreased role of the public sector after liberalisation, has further underlined the need for focusing on better education and created political pressure for further reforms. India's labour regulations are heavy, even by developing country standards, and analysts have urged the government to abolish or modify them in order to make the environment more conducive for employment generation. The 11th five-year plan has also identified the need for a congenial environment to be created for employment generation, by reducing the number of permissions and other bureaucratic clearances required. Inequalities and inadequacies in the education system have been identified as an obstacle, which prevents the benefits of increased employment opportunities from reaching all sectors of society. Child labour in India is a complex problem that is rooted in poverty. Since the 1990s, the government has implemented a variety of programs to eliminate child labour. These have included setting up schools, launching free school lunch programs, creating special investigation cells, etc. Author Sonalde Desai stated that recent studies on child labour in India have found some pockets of industries in which children are employed, but overall, relatively few Indian children are employed. Child labour below the age of 10 is now rare. In the 10–14 age group, the latest surveys find only 2% of children working for wage, while another 9% work within their home or rural farms assisting their parents in times of high work demand such as sowing and harvesting of crops. India has the largest diaspora around the world, an estimated 16 million people, many of whom work overseas and remit funds back to their families. The Middle East region is the largest source of employment of expat Indians. The crude oil production and infrastructure industry of Saudi Arabia employs over 2 million expat Indians. Cities such as Dubai and Abu Dhabi in United Arab Emirates have employed another 2 million Indians during the construction boom in recent decades. In 2009–10, remittances from Indian migrants overseas stood at , the highest in the world, but their share in FDI remained low at around 1%. Corruption has been a pervasive problem in India. A 2005 study by Transparency International (TI) found that more than half of those surveyed had first-hand experience of paying a bribe or peddling influence to get a job done in a public office in the previous year. A follow-up study in 2008 found this rate to be 40 percent. In 2011, TI ranked India at 95th place amongst 183 countries in perceived levels of public sector corruption. By 2016, India saw a reduction in corruption and its ranking improved to 79th place. In 1996, red tape, bureaucracy and the Licence Raj were suggested as a cause for the institutionalised corruption and inefficiency. More recent reports suggest the causes of corruption include excessive regulations and approval requirements, mandated spending programs, monopoly of certain goods and service providers by government-controlled institutions, bureaucracy with discretionary powers, and lack of transparent laws and processes. Computerisation of services, various central and state vigilance commissions, and the 2005 Right to Information Act – which requires government officials to furnish information requested by citizens or face punitive action – have considerably reduced corruption and opened avenues to redress grievances. In 2011, the Indian government concluded that most spending fails to reach its intended recipients, as the large and inefficient bureaucracy consumes budgets. India's absence rates are among the worst in the world; one study found that 25% of public sector teachers and 40% of government-owned public-sector medical workers could not be found at the workplace. Similarly, there are many issues facing Indian scientists, with demands for transparency, a meritocratic system, and an overhaul of the bureaucratic agencies that oversee science and technology. India has an underground economy, with a 2006 report alleging that India topped the worldwide list for black money with almost $1,456 billion stashed in Swiss banks. This would amount to 13 times the country's total external debt. These allegations have been denied by the Swiss Banking Association. James Nason, the Head of International Communications for the Swiss Banking Association, suggested "The (black money) figures were rapidly picked up in the Indian media and in Indian opposition circles, and circulated as gospel truth. However, this story was a complete fabrication. The Swiss Bankers Association never published such a report. Anyone claiming to have such figures (for India) should be forced to identify their source and explain the methodology used to produce them." A recent step taken by Prime Minister Modi, on 8 November 2016, involved the demonetization of all 500 and 1000 rupee bank notes (replaced by new 500 and 2000 rupee notes) in order to return black money into the economy. India has made progress increasing the primary education attendance rate and expanding literacy to approximately three-fourths of the population. India's literacy rate had grown from 52.2% in 1991 to 74.04% in 2011. The right to education at elementary level has been made one of the fundamental rights under the eighty-sixth Amendment of 2002, and legislation has been enacted to further the objective of providing free education to all children. However, the literacy rate of 74% is lower than the worldwide average and the country suffers from a high drop-out rate. Literacy rates and educational opportunities vary by region, gender, urban and rural areas, and among different social groups. A critical problem facing India's economy is the sharp and growing regional variations among India's different states and territories in terms of poverty, availability of infrastructure and socio-economic development. Six low-income states – Assam, Chhattisgarh, Nagaland, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and Uttar Pradesh – are home to more than one-third of India's population. Severe disparities exist among states in terms of income, literacy rates, life expectancy and living conditions. The five-year plans, especially in the pre- liberalisation era, attempted to reduce regional disparities by encouraging industrial development in the interior regions and distributing industries across states. The results have been discouraging as these measures increased inefficiency and hampered effective industrial growth. The more advanced states have been better placed to benefit from liberalisation, with well- developed infrastructure and an educated and skilled workforce, which attract the manufacturing and service sectors. Governments of less-advanced states have tried to reduce disparities by offering tax holidays and cheap land, and focused on sectors like tourism which can develop faster than other sectors. India's income Gini coefficient is 33.9, according to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), indicating overall income distribution to be more uniform than East Asia, Latin America and Africa. The Global Wealth Migration Review 2019 report, published by New World Wealth, estimated that 48% of India's total wealth was held by high-net worth individuals. There is a continuing debate on whether India's economic expansion has been pro-poor or anti-poor. Studies suggest that economic growth has been pro-poor and has reduced poverty in India. The development of Indian security markets began with the launch of the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) in July 1875 and Ahmedabad Stock exchange in 1894. Since then, 22 other exchanges have traded in Indian cities. In 2014, India's stock exchange market became the 10th largest in the world by market capitalisation, just above those of South Korea and Australia. India's two major stock exchanges, BSE and National Stock Exchange of India, had a market capitalisation of US$1.71 trillion and US$1.68 trillion according to World Federation of Exchanges. The initial public offering (IPO) market in India has been small compared to NYSE and NASDAQ, raising US$300 million in 2013 and US$1.4 billion in 2012. Ernst & Young stated that the low IPO activity reflects market conditions, slow government approval processes and complex regulations. Before 2013, Indian companies were not allowed to list their securities internationally without first completing an IPO in India. In 2013, these security laws were reformed and Indian companies can now choose where they want to list first: overseas, domestically, or both concurrently. Further, security laws have been revised to ease overseas listings of already- listed companies, to increase liquidity for private equity and international investors in Indian companies. Economic Advisory Council, Economic development in India, List of megaprojects in India, Make in India – a government program to encourage manufacturing in India, Startup India Events: Late-2000s recession, Oil price increases since 2003, Demonetization Lists: List of companies of India, List of largest companies in India, List of the largest trading partners of India, Trade unions in India, Natural resources of India Books Papers and reports Bahl, R., Heredia-Ortiz, E., Martinez-Vazquez, J., & Rider, M. (2005). India: Fiscal Condition of the States, International Experience, and Options for Reform: Volume 1 (No. paper05141). International Center for Public Policy, Andrew Young School of Policy Studies, Georgia State University. Articles News a Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, India profile at the CIA World Factbook, India profile at The World Bank, India - OECD The economy of Andhra Pradesh is one of the fastest growing economies in India, with growth outstripping that of the wider Indian economy in the past few years. The GSDP at constant (2011-12) Prices for the year 2018-19 (Advance Estimates) is estimated at 850,000 crores as against 490,134 crores for 2015-16 (First Revised Estimates) indicating a growth of 11.61%. Per Capita Income at current prices increased to 122,376 from 108,163 in 2015-16 registering a growth of 13.14%. The economy is primarily dependent on agriculture, which directly and indirectly employs 62% of the population. The state has been ranked the best state in ease of doing business in the country by the World Bank. In 2014–15, the state ranked eighth in GSDP at current prices, which stood at . It recorded 12.03% growth compared to previous fiscal which was . While, at constant prices, the GSDP of the state for 2014–15 was , compare to of 2013–14. In 2012-13, the Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) of Andhra Pradesh at constant prices stood at and the Gross State Domestic Product at current prices for the same fiscal year stood at . The per capita income of the state increased by 6.26% from (2004–05) to (2012-13). This is a chart of trend of gross state domestic product of Andhra Pradesh at market prices by Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation with figures in billions of Indian rupees. Source: GSDP (current prices) The per capita income figure gives a better idea of the standard of living of the people. In 2014–15, the state is ranked eighteenth with 90517 in terms of GDP per capita at current prices. It recorded a growth of 11.20% compared to previous fiscal which was 81,397. Agriculture has been the chief source of income and main occupation for the state with 60% of population engaged in agriculture and related activities. Rice is the major food crop and staple food of the state. Other important crops are sugarcane, cotton, mango, tobacco, Maize, pulses etc. Four important rivers of India, the Godavari, Krishna, Penna, and Tungabhadra flow through the state, providing irrigation. Recently, crops used for vegetable oil production such as sunflower and peanuts have gained favour. There are many multi-state irrigation projects in development, including Godavari River Basin Irrigation Projects and Nagarjuna Sagar Dam. Andhra Pradesh was among the very few states in the country which went in for the Green Revolution in rice cultivation in the 1970s. Agricultural income in the state was at constant prices (2012–13). Given below is a table of 2015 national output share of select agricultural crops and allied segments in Andhra Pradesh based on 2011 prices Aquaculture such as cultivating fish, crustaceans, molluscs, Shrimp production etc., are the major occupations of coastal areas. Andhra Pradesh is the largest producer of shrimp in the country, with 70% of the production from the state itself. The geographical location of the state allows marine fishing as well as inland fish production. Cyclones may do less damage to aquaculture than to crop production. Hence, farmers are getting attracted towards this industry. It grew from to . The Waterbase Limited is an aquaculture unit located at Nellore, it encourages scientific shrimp farming. Most exported marine exports include Vannamei shrimp. The domestic product of Industrial sector accounts for . The state has also started to focus on the fields of information technology and biotechnology. Several major heavy industries are in operation in Visakhapatnam. The state still has to make its mark in Hi-tech engineering. Automobiles and Auto components Industry, spices, mines and minerals, Textiles and apparels, IT industry, Bulk drugs and pharmaceuticals, horticulture, poultry farming are the main industries in Andhra Pradesh. As of June 2013, the state had 39 operational special economic zones (SEZs). There are 272 Industrial estates and industrial development areas in the State, covering an area of 14700 hectares. The State Government is in the process of developing Industrial Parks at different places, for specific groups of industries like Visakhapatnam Export Processing Zone. Food parks,one each in the 2 regions of Coastal Andhra (value added rice products, dairy, horticultural, marine etc.); and in Rayalseema region (processing of vegetables, edible oils and export oriented industry). Agri Export Zones for the following produce are proposed at the places mentioned against them: Red Chilli – Guntur district,, Mangoes – Krishna district,, Mango pulp and fresh vegetables – Chittoor Road transport remains the primary mode of transport in the state. The state is criss-crossed by 5,293.43 km of National Highways and 15,406 km of State Highways. The National Highway 16, which is a part of the Golden Quadrilateral passes through the state from north to south and is at the centre of the road network. The National Highways are developed and maintained by NHAI while the state highways and other roads are maintained by the Andhra Pradesh Road Development Corporation. The state has a road density of 32.82 km/sq.km, higher than the national average of 30.45 km/sq. km. Andhra Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation operates buses that form the primary mode of transport across the state. As of March 2017, there are 11,962 buses in operation. Andhra Pradesh has a total broad gauge railway route of 3703.25 km and has no metre gauge railway. The rail density of the state is 16.59 per , compared to an all India average of 20. The Howrah–Chennai main line which runs through the state is proposed to be upgraded into a high-speed rail corridor through the Diamond Quadrilateral project of the Indian Railways. There are three A1 and twenty three A-category railway stations in the state. Visakhapatnam railway station has been declared the cleanest railway station in the country. The railway station of Shimiliguda was the first highest broad gauge railway station in the country. Three iconic bridges that span the river Godavari - the decommissioned Old Godavari Bridge, the Godavari bridge and the new Godavari Arch bridge are widely regarded as architectural and engineering marvels of the state. There are three international airports in the state at Tirupati, Visakhapatnam and Vijayawada. There are domestic airports at Kadapa, Rajamuhndry and Puttaparti. The government is planning to develop a new international airport at Bhogapuram and two new domestic airports at Dagadarthi and Orvakallu to serve the growing needs of the state. Andhra Pradesh has the second longest coastline in the country and the longest coastline on the eastern coast. Vishakapatnam Port, a major port operated by the central government is the fifth busiest port in the country. Keeping in mind shift of trade towards India's eastern coast, the government is developing 14 non-major ports in the state, out of which five are operational. There is a huge scope for inland water transportation in the state through the network of river interlinking canals that are being developed. However, the current status of it is minimal. The latest available statistics (as in 2001) show that there were 3003 Telephone exchanges, 3140948 telephone connections, 118 telegraph offices (excluding extension counters, telecom centres, and combined offices) and 78218 public telephones. As at December 2003, it is estimated that there are 1550,000 cell phone subscribers in the State. The State has a share of 7% in All India cell phone subscribers. Tentative estimates reveal that the total exports from AP during the year 2003–04 were to the tune of 15,306 crore. The share of software was 30%, and that of food products was 20%. The value of exports during 2002–03 was 13,614 crore and that during 2001–02 was 12,400 crore. Gross state domestic product (GSDP) of industries was estimated at US$137.3 billion for 2012–13. Andhra Pradesh is one of the store houses of mineral resources with large deposits of Chrysotile, mica Asbestos, barytes and limestone India. It accounts for about 93% of total production of Barytes in India. Andhra Pradesh has varied geological formations with a rich variety of industrial minerals and building stones. Other important minerals in the state are copper ore, manganese, mica, coal and limestone. Minerals like coal, oil and Natural gas, barytes, Limestone, diamond, gold beach sand bauxite, ball clay fire clay, dolomite, dimensional stones etc. are still under tapped or untapped. The wide variety of minerals from the State is being traded or consumed in Power, Metals, Alloys, Cement, Chemicals, Paint, Cosmetic, Glass, Ceramics, Refractory, Refinery and manufacture of various down stream industries. Minerals found in the state include limestone, reserves of Oil and Natural Gas, Manganese, Asbestos, Iron Ore, Ball Clay, Fire Clay, Gold Diamonds, Graphite, Dolomite, Quartz, Tungsten, Steatitic, Feldspar, Silica Sand etc. It has about one third of India's limestone reserves and is known for large exclusive deposits of Barytes and Galaxy granite in the international market. Mining Mining is identified as one of the growth engines for the overall development of industry and infrastructure. The Tummalapalle Uranium mine in Andhra has confirmed 49,000 tonnes of ore and there are indications that it could hold reserves totaling three times its current size. 700 million tonnes of metal grade Bauxite deposits in close proximity to Visakhapatnam Port. The Government of Andhra Pradesh is keen to utilize large deposits of KG Basin (Krishna Godavari Basin gas for power production to overcome the energy shortage, create employment opportunities and contribute to economic value and exports. The state is a pioneer nationwide in hydro electricity generation, encouraging privates sector in power generation and efficient use of its coal based thermal power stations. The state has become power surplus with excess power generation being exported to other states. Thermal (natural gas and coal based) and renewable power plants totalling to 21,000 MW are installed in the state by the year 2015. Thermal power plants with total capacity of 9,155 MW are situated in the state which includes Simhadri Super Thermal Power Plant (2000 MW) of NTPC, Rayalaseema Thermal Power Station (1050 MW), Sri Damodaram Sanjeevaiah Thermal Power Station (1600 MW), Vijayawada Thermal Power Plant (1760 MW), etc. Hydel power plants are having a capacity of 1798 MW. The state provides a budget for tourism, financially supporting various projects. The state has helped develop religious tourism via the State Tourism Department (APTDC). Some of the famous destinations are Tirumala, Srisailam, Sri Kalahasti, etc. Tirupathi is one of the major source of income in the tourism segment because of the abode of Sri Venkateswara (Lord Balaji). The temple is one of the richest in the world in terms of donations received. Other important sources of income come from the developing tourism centres at Visakhapatnam, Vijayawada. This can be called the 29-year era of 12 centrally nominated chief ministers List of Chief Ministers of Andhra Pradesh. Excluding Kasu Brahmananda Reddy term (7 years), average tenure of a chief minister was less than two years. The cumulative growth during this 30-year period for Indian economy is 311%, and for Andhra Pradesh it was 138%. An academic study of Andhra's economic activity using official data collected by the state government of Andhra Pradesh, Govt of India and World Bank reveal the following highlights. 1. A Domestic Demand – Supply based economic policy instead of exports oriented policies during this pre-liberalization period resulted in Constant Currency (inflation adjusted) cumulative growth rates of 151% in seven years, one and half times higher than the cumulative growth rate of the 31 years earlier, and 25% higher than the cumulative growth rates of 20 years that followed. 2. Education reforms, local government empowerment, irrigation and electricity improvements, corruption controls of this period resulted in cumulative per capita income growth rates (corrected to inflation and population growth) ten times the growth rates for the first 30 years and three times the rates of the 20 years that followed. On average a typical Andhra resident was 3000% more productive in improving his/her economic condition than in the 30 years earlier and 450% more productive than the 20 years that followed. 3. Distributional and social indicators (rural education 51%, child labor (−60%), malnutrition (−81%), infant mortality (−37%), female education (77%)) improved at rates that are yet to be repeated. 4. Fiscal Management Indices (deficit,foreign debt, debt servicing levels etc.) were at their best levels compared to the era the followed when central government allowed higher deficit targets and allowed foreign borrowing directly from world bank as a part of the liberalisation regime. Since the backbone of economy of Andhra pradesh is Agriculture, any drastic changes in Monsoon would affect GDP of the state. The state of Andhra pradesh has a total public debt created by Government of Andhra Pradesh which is equal to 1,62,000 crores ($53.23 Billion) as of May 2019.

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Ae Dil Hai Mushkil () is the soundtrack album composed by Pritam, with lyrics written by Amitabh Bhattacharya for the 2016 Hindi romance film of the same name, directed and produced by Karan Johar. Starring Ranbir Kapoor, Aishwarya Rai Bachchan and Anushka Sharma, the soundtrack album consists of six songs and was released by Sony Music on 7 October 2016, after three promotional singles were released. The album received positive reviews from music critics. The songs "Ae Dil Hai Mushkil", "Bulleya" and "Channa Mereya" were applauded by critics. Due to the overwhelming appraisals, various cover versions of "Channa Mereya" were created. The song also features an unplugged version in the deluxe edition of the soundtrack album, and also a remixed version by DJ Chetas. A mashup of all songs in the film remixed by DJ Veronica and released on December 2016. Pritam received the Best Music Director award at the 62nd Filmfare Awards, while Arijit Singh won the "Best Playback Singer Award" for the title song of the film. Amitabh Bhattacharya won Best Lyricist" Award for "Channa Mereya". Following the official teaser which released on 28 August 2016 gained positive response and increased the anticipation of fans. The makers released the title track on 31 August 2016. Sung by Arijit Singh, with lyrics written by Amitabh Bhattacharya, the song received overwhelming applause and the official video song gained 20 million views, after its release. The song has also become quite the talk of the town because of the way, actor Ranbir Kapoor holds his gaze at the camera as he lip-syncs to Arijit's voice; the visual would give anybody goosebumps and in a recent interview, with India Today, Arijit revealed the making of the song and the video. Apparently, Ranbir sang the song first for the film, the visual of which one sees in the teaser, after which Arijit saw the video and sang keeping in mind Ranbir's facial expressions and body language. "This is going to be really interesting because this was perhaps the first time where I had to sing while looking at the actor. He (Ranbir) had already performed on that song. So I had to call for the video, watch the reflexes and match him. That was a very good experience for me," Arijit told PTI. The second single track "Bulleya" rendered by Amit Mishra and Shilpa Rao was released on 5 September 2016, and it gained positive response. The official video song crossed 200 million views in its lifetime. The song is a Sufi ballad number. The listeners overwhelmingly applauded for its beautiful lyrics, powerful music and crackling chemistry between the lead pair Aishwarya Rai Bachchan and Ranbir Kapoor, seems to be melodious and visually stunning. However, the song faced allegations of plagiarism, since the introductory riff of the track is allegedly lifted from Papa Roach's Last Resort. And when social media users realised this striking resemblance between the guitar riff portions of the two tracks, they couldn't hold back and vented their angst on social media. However, the music producer Sunny M.R. denied all allegations of plagiarism in an interview to SpotBoyE quoting that, "The Bulleya guitar riff is, musically, no where close to any of the songs it's being referred to. The notes are totally different. The riff is in a simple 1/16 timing widely used in many genres not limited to any specific song. This timing is also used for many background score pieces. It's like calling a rock song a copy of another rock song just because they use the same set of instruments." The third single track "Channa Mereya" was released on 9 September 2016, and also received overwhelming applause, praising the rendition of Arijit and the stunning visuals."Channa Mereya" is in JioSaavn's top songs of all time list. The lyrics with Sufi touch brings out the emotions from a heart broken soul and then tries to heal the wounded soul with the extended poetic verse - "Sachi mohabbat shayad wahi hai, jisme junoon hai, par do dilon ki yaari mein bhi toh kitna sukoon hai" which means "True love is that which is fuelled by madness, but no less is the friendship of two hearts in which resides peace" and also with the couplet - "Ek tarfa pyaar ki taqat hi kuch aur hoti hai. Auron ki rishton ki tarah ye do logo mei nahi battata, sirf mera haq hai ispe" which talks about unrequited love and its impact. Karan Johar, director of the film, approved "Channa Mereya" the moment he heard the song, stated Bhattacharya in an interview with SpotboyE. Ranbir Kapoor, on whose portrayed character the song is based, revealed that "Channa Mereya" is by far the best song in his entire career. After three singles from the film has been released, the makers released promos of "The Breakup Song", "Cutepie" and "Alizeh" on 23, 28 September and 1 October respectively. The soundtrack album in its entirety was released on 7 October 2016, followed by the audio jukebox which was launched on YouTube on 9 October 2016. The deluxe edition of the film's soundtrack album was released on 11 November 2016. It features all the six songs, with three additional tracks including the reprised version of "Bulleya", the unplugged version of "Channa Mereya", and "Aaj Jaane Ki Zid Na Karo" were released separately in the deluxe edition of the album, but not added in soundtrack album. However, the latter of these, which was written by Fayyaz Hashmi and was originally composed by Sohail Rana, was recreated and featured in the film too. Various cover versions of the song "Channa Mereya" were created, due to the overwhelming appraisal of the song. Some of the unplugged versions were done by Mansi Bhardwaj, Kabir Singh, Shobhit Banwait (tabla cover), Siddhant Bhosle (sad version), and Siddharth Slathia. A remixed version of the song "Channa Mereya" by DJ Chetas was released on 17 December 2016. A mashup version of all the songs in Ae Dil Hai Mushkil, by DJ Veronica was released on 24 December 2016. The official instrumental soundtrack of the film's songs were released on 6 January 2018. It features the instrumental versions of all the six tracks included in the soundtrack album and also in the film itself. The album received extremely positive reviews. The Times of India rated 4 out of 5 stars, for the album and stated that "'ADHM's soundtrack is in sync with the film's theme and genre and has some memorable numbers that will continue to stay in the minds of listeners in the years to come." BollywoodLife gave a rating of 3.5 out of 5, summarising that "The album has soulful tracks, especially the slower ones. Pritam, once again has delivered chartbuster tracks. If I have to rank the songs, it'll go mostly in the same order as they were launched." Koimoi.com rated 4 out of 5 stars to the album, stating that "Pritam gives us one of 2016’s best albums with Ae Dil Hai Mushkil. The confluence of good music, lyrics and vocals makes this soundtrack easily likable." Bollywood Hungama rated the album 4/5 stars, stating that "The music of Ae Dil Hai Mushkil is very good and is totally in lines with the expectations that you have from a film belonging to the romantic drama genre, as well as the cast that it features. Most of the songs do well instantly and majority would go on to have a long run even after the film is off the screens. Pritam and Amitabh Bhattacharya along with their team of singers show yet again that they have an eye on a popular score with a good blend of class and mass effect." GlamSham rated the album 4 out of 5, and quoted that "The audio of AE DIL HAI MUSHKIL is excellent.. All the songs have universal appeal. The nation is drooling under the inebriated effects of the title track and the youth already clean bowled by 'Bulleya' and these two tracks are our favourites too. Pritam has surely come back with a big bang and provided Karan with the chartbusting music, a prerequisite of any successful love story. The superhit songs will surely prove to be the accelerator pad for the movie." The song "Channa Mereya" is in JioSaavn's top songs of all time list. This song is at #1 position in Radio Mirchi Top 20 Countdown, and at the year end it debuted at the 9th position at Radio Mirchi Top 100 Countdown. Weekly charts Year-end charts The 9th Mirchi Music Awards, presented by the Radio Mirchi, honoured the best of Hindi music from the year 2016. The ceremony was held on 18 February 2017 at the Dome @ National Sports Club of India, Mumbai and was hosted by Sonu Nigam. There were many performances, including those by Amit Trivedi, Papon, Badshah, Armaan Malik, Sukhwinder Singh, Jubin Nautiyal, Shalmali Kholgade, Neeti Mohan, Neha Bhasin. It was the first time that the ceremony was open to the public. Ae Dil Hai Mushkil won a leading five awards including Album of the Year and Song of the Year for "Channa Mereya". The show was broadcast on 19 March 2017 on Zee TV. The winners were selected by the members of jury, chaired by Javed Akhtar. The following are the names of nominees and winners. Won a Listeners' Choice award The jury was chaired by Javed Akhtar. Other members were: Alka Yagnik - playback singer, Milind Srivastava - music director, Anu Malik - music director, Anuradha Paudwal - playback singer, Ila Arun - actress and folk singer, Irshad Kamil - lyricist, Lalit Pandit - composer, Kavita Krishnamurthy - playback singer, Louis Banks - composer, record producer and singer, Madhur Bhandarkar - director, writer and producer, Pankaj Udhas - singer, Prasoon Joshi - lyricist and screenwriter, Pritam - music director and composer, Ramesh Sippy - director and producer, Roop Kumar Rathod - playback singer and music director, Sadhana Sargam - playback singer, Sulemaan - composer, Sameer - lyricist, Sapna Mukherjee - playback singer, Shaan - playback singer, Shailendra Singh - playback singer, Subhash Ghai - director, producer and screenwriter, Sudhir Mishra - director and screenwriter, Suresh Wadkar - playback singer, Talat Aziz - singer, Udit Narayan - playback singer, Vijay Krishna Acharya - director and screenwriter Mirchi Music Awards Music Mirchi Awards Official Website, Music Mirchi Awards 2016 "Ae Dil Hai Mushkil" (English: "This Heart is Complicated") is a Hindi song from the soundtrack of the Indian film of the same name. It is written by Amitabh Bhattacharya, composed by Pritam, and sung by Arijit Singh. The music video features actor Ranbir Kapoor. This song officially used in Mahesh Bhatt's Naamkarann, which is broadcast on Star Plus. The song was released by Sony Music India on 31 August 2016. The Times of India wrote, "Pritam and Amitabh Bhattacharya, who have delivered several memorable compositions in the past, live up to their reputations and give yet another hit album."

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Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince is a fantasy novel written by British author J.K. Rowling and the sixth and penultimate novel in the Harry Potter series. Set during Harry Potter's sixth year at Hogwarts, the novel explores the past of Harry's nemesis, Lord Voldemort, and Harry's preparations for the final battle against Voldemort alongside his headmaster and mentor Albus Dumbledore. The book was published in the United Kingdom by Bloomsbury and in the United States by Scholastic on 16 July 2005, as well as in several other countries. It sold nine million copies in the first 24 hours after its release, a record that was eventually broken by its sequel, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows. There were many controversies before and after it was published, including the right to read copies delivered before the release date in Canada. Reception to the novel was generally positive, and it won several awards and honours, including the 2006 British Book of the Year award. Reviewers noted that the book took on a darker tone than its predecessors, though it did contain some humour. Some considered the main themes to be love, death, trust, and redemption. The considerable character development of Harry and many other teenage characters also drew attention. The film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince was released 15 July 2009 by Warner Bros. Severus Snape, a member of the Order of the Phoenix, meets with Narcissa Malfoy, Draco's mother, and her sister Bellatrix Lestrange, Lord Voldemort's faithful supporter. Narcissa expresses her concern that her son might not survive a dangerous mission given him by Lord Voldemort. Bellatrix feels Snape will be of no help until he surprises her by making an Unbreakable Vow with Narcissa, swearing on his life that he will protect and assist Draco in his mission. Dumbledore picks Harry up from his aunt and uncle's house, intending to escort him to the Burrow, the home of Harry's best friend Ron and his large family. On the way, they make a detour to the temporary home of Horace Slughorn, former Potions teacher at Hogwarts, and Harry unwittingly helps persuade Slughorn to return to teach. Harry and Dumbledore then proceed to the Burrow, where Hermione has already arrived. The next morning, Harry, Ron, and Hermione get their O.W.L. exam results, along with lists of school supplies. Harry's letter reveals that he has been made captain of the Gryffindor Quidditch team. Later, Harry, Ron, and Hermione follow Draco to Dark Arts artifacts supplier Borgin and Burke's in Knockturn Alley. Harry is suspicious of Draco, who he believes has become a Death Eater. On the Hogwarts Express, Harry discusses his suspicions of Draco's allegiance to Lord Voldemort, but Ron and Hermione are doubtful because of Harry's lack of evidence. Harry dons his invisibility cloak and hides in the same carriage in which Malfoy is seated. He overhears Draco bragging to his friends about the mission Lord Voldemort has given him. However, Malfoy suspects someone else is in the carriage and discovers Harry was listening to his conversation. Malfoy petrifies Harry and breaks his nose out of rage. Harry cannot get out of the carriage, and he is worried the Hogwarts Express will depart before he can move again. To his relief, Nymphadora Tonks finds Harry and escorts him to the castle during the opening feast. The students return to school, where Dumbledore announces Snape will be teaching Defence Against the Dark Arts. Dumbledore also announces Horace Slughorn will resume his previous post as Potions master. Harry now excels in Potions, thanks to having received a used Potions textbook that once belonged to someone named "The Half-Blood Prince," a mysterious former student who wrote numerous tips and spells in the book that sometimes contradict the written text. Harry uses this information to achieve superb results. During a class contest, The Half-Blood Prince's tips help Harry win a bottle of Felix Felicis, more commonly known as "Liquid Luck." Though Harry's success pleases Slughorn, his newfound brilliance in potions angers Hermione, who feels he is not truly earning his grades and also does not trust the Half-Blood Prince. Believing Harry needs to learn Voldemort's past to gain an advantage in a foretold battle, Dumbledore schedules regular meetings with Harry in his office. Ron starts dating a girl named Lavender Brown, who is also a sixth-year Gryffindor student, and Ron and Hermione start yet another quarrel. Dumbledore and Harry use Dumbledore's Pensieve to look at the memories of those who have had direct contact with Voldemort. Harry learns about Voldemort's family and his foe's evolution into a murderer obsessed not only with power but with gaining eternal life. Dumbledore shows Harry a memory involving Slughorn conversing with a young Tom Riddle at Hogwarts. The memory has clearly been tampered with. Dumbledore sets Harry the task of convincing Slughorn to give him the true memory so Dumbledore can confirm his suspicions about Voldemort's rise to power and near-invincibility. Meanwhile, security tightens around the wizarding world now that everyone believes Voldemort has returned. Some people get murdered by Death Eaters. Harry finds several bits of proof that make him even more suspicious of Draco. A few months later, after receiving an invitation to the funeral for Aragog the Acromantula, Harry uses an hour's dose of Felix Felicis and succeeds in retrieving Slughorn's unedited memory while at the funeral. Harry presents the memory to Dumbledore, and they watch it together. In it, Slughorn tells Riddle about the process of splitting one's soul and hiding it in several objects called Horcruxes. Only by committing a murder can a wizard turn an object into a Horcrux. Dumbledore tells Harry he suspects Voldemort has created six Horcruxes, making himself virtually immortal by placing a piece of his soul in each one and keeping the seventh within his body. Dumbledore explains that, in order to destroy Voldemort, all the Horcruxes must first be destroyed. Two Horcruxes, Riddle's diary from Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets and a ring belonging to Voldemort's grandfather Marvolo Gaunt, have already been destroyed, but four others remain. As Harry learns more about his great enemy, the love lives of the main characters become more active. Ron and Hermione grow closer together, but after learning from his sister Ginny that Hermione had previously kissed Viktor Krum, Ron is angered and shuns her. Harry attempts to repair things between the two but fails, resulting in Ron going out with Lavender Brown and making Hermione jealous. After Ron is nearly killed in an attempt on Dumbledore's life, he and Hermione reconcile. Ron and Lavender break up when Lavender sees the two of them walking out of the boys' dormitory together. Harry develops deep feelings for Ginny but is reluctant to pursue her for most of the year because of his friendship with Ron. Following a wild Gryffindor Quidditch victory, Harry and Ginny finally strike up a relationship of which Ron reluctantly approves. Near the end of the year, Harry and Dumbledore journey to a remote cave far from Hogwarts to retrieve a suspected Horcrux, Slytherin's locket. Dumbledore finds a secret passageway to a large, pitch-black underground lake, which Harry and Dumbledore cross in a small boat to an island at the centre. The locket is at the bottom of a basin on the island and can only be reached if someone drinks the potion concealing it. Harry aids Dumbledore, who drinks the potion, which causes him to experience vivid hallucinations and torturous pain. Though Dumbledore is severely weakened after finishing the potion, the two manage to fight off Voldemort's Inferi that have been hiding in the lake. They take the locket and return to Hogwarts to find the Dark Mark hovering over the school's Astronomy Tower. Harry and Dumbledore ascend to the tower, where they are ambushed by Draco Malfoy, who is accompanied by Death Eaters he helped get inside Hogwarts. Dumbledore freezes Harry under his Invisibility Cloak with a freezing spell to keep him hidden. At the same time, Draco disarms Dumbledore and then threatens to kill him, which turns out to have been Draco's mission from Voldemort all along. Draco is unable to go through with it, and when Snape arrives, he kills Dumbledore instead. Harry ignores the battle raging in Hogwarts to pursue Dumbledore's killer. Snape successfully fights Harry off, and he reveals that he is the Half-Blood Prince before he, Draco, and the rest of the Death Eaters escape. After Dumbledore's funeral, Harry decides to break up with Ginny, saying she would be in danger should their relationship continue. Later, Harry finds out the locket is not the real Horcrux. The fake Horcrux contains a note from someone named "R.A.B.". Harry is devastated by Dumbledore's death, and he tells his friends he will not return to Hogwarts. Instead, he says he will spend the next year searching out Voldemort's Horcruxes. Ron and Hermione insist on joining him in destroying Lord Voldemort for good. Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince is the sixth book in the Harry Potter series. The first book in the series, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, was first published by Bloomsbury in 1997, with an initial print-run of 500 copies in hardback, 300 of which were distributed to libraries. By the end of 1997, the UK edition won a National Book Award and a gold medal in the 9- to 11-year-olds category of the Nestlé Smarties Book Prize. The second book, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, was originally published in the UK on 2 July 1998 and in the US on 2 June 1999. Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was then published a year later in the UK on 8 July 1999 and in the US on 8 September 1999. Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire was published on 8 July 2000 at the same time by Bloomsbury and Scholastic. Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, the longest novel in the Harry Potter series, was released 21 June 2003. After the publishing of Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, the seventh and final novel, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, was released 21 July 2007. The book sold 11 million copies within 24 hours of its release: 2.7 million copies in the UK and 8.3 million in the US. Rowling stated that she had Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince "planned for years," but she spent an entire two months going over her plan before she began writing the story seriously. This was a lesson learned after she did not check the plan for Goblet of Fire and had to rewrite an entire third of the book. She started writing the book before her second child, David, was born, but she took a break to care for him. The first chapter, "The Other Minister", which features meetings between the Muggle Prime Minister, Minister of Magic Cornelius Fudge, and his successor, Rufus Scrimgeour, was a concept Rowling tried to start in Philosopher's Stone, Prisoner of Azkaban, and Order of the Phoenix, but she found "it finally works" in Half-Blood Prince. She stated that she was "seriously upset" writing the end of the book, although Goblet of Fire was the hardest to write. When asked if she liked the book, she responded, "I like it better than I liked Goblet, Phoenix or Chamber when I finished them. Book six does what I wanted it to do and even if nobody else likes it (and some won't), I know it will remain one of my favourites of the series. Ultimately you have to please yourself before you please anyone else!" Rowling revealed the title of Half-Blood Prince on her website on 24 June 2004. This was the title she had once considered for the second book, Chamber of Secrets, though she decided the information disclosed belonged later on in the story. On 21 December 2004, she announced she had finished writing it, along with the release date of 16 July. Bloomsbury unveiled the cover on 8 March 2005. The record-breaking publication of Half-Blood Prince was accompanied by controversy. In May 2005, bookmakers in the UK suspended bets on which main character would die in the book amid fears of insider knowledge. A number of high-value bets were made on the death of Albus Dumbledore, many coming from the town of Bungay where it was believed the books were being printed at the time. Betting was later reopened. Additionally, in response to Greenpeace's campaign on using forest friendly paper for big-name authors, Bloomsbury published the book on 30% recycled paper. In early July 2005, a Real Canadian Superstore in Coquitlam, British Columbia, Canada, accidentally sold fourteen copies of The Half-Blood Prince before the authorised release date. The Canadian publisher, Raincoast Books, obtained an injunction from the Supreme Court of British Columbia that actually prohibited the purchasers from reading the books before the official release date or discussing the contents. Purchasers were actually offered Harry Potter T-shirts and autographed copies of the book if they returned their copies before 16 July. On 15 July, less than twelve hours before the book went on sale in the Eastern time zone, Raincoast warned The Globe and Mail newspaper that publishing a review from a Canada-based writer at midnight, as the paper had promised, would be seen as a violation of the trade secret injunction. The injunction sparked a number of news articles alleging that the injunction had restricted fundamental rights. Canadian law professor Michael Geist posted commentary on his blog. Richard Stallman called for a boycott and requested the publisher issue an apology. The Globe and Mail published a review from two UK-based writers in its 16 July edition and posted the Canadian writer's review on its website at 9:00 that morning. Commentary was also provided on the Raincoast website. Some reviewers noted that Half-Blood Prince contained a darker tone than the previous Potter novels. The Christian Science Monitor reviewer Yvonne Zipp argued the first half contained a lighter tone to soften the unhappy ending. The Boston Globe reviewer Liz Rosenberg wrote, "lightness [is] slimmer than ever in this darkening series...[there is] a new charge of gloom and darkness. I felt depressed by the time I was two-thirds of the way through." She also compared the setting to Charles Dickens's depictions of London as it was "brooding, broken, gold-lit, as living a character as any other." Christopher Paolini called the darker tone "disquieting" because it was so different from the earlier books. Liesl Schillinger, a contributor to The New York Times book review, also noted that Half-Blood Prince was "far darker" but "leavened with humor, romance and snappy dialogue." She suggested a connection to the 11 September attacks, as the later, darker novels were written after that event. David Kipen, a critic of the San Francisco Chronicle, considered the "darkness as a sign of our paranoid times" and singled out curfews and searches that were part of the tightened security at Hogwarts as resemblances to our world. Julia Keller, a critic for the Chicago Tribune, highlighted the humour found in the novel and claimed it to be the success of the Harry Potter saga. She acknowledged that "the books are dark and scary in places" but "no darkness in Half-Blood Prince...is so immense that it cannot be rescued by a snicker or a smirk." She considered that Rowling was suggesting difficult times can be worked through with imagination, hope, and humour and compared this concept to works such as Madeleine L'Engle's A Wrinkle in Time and Kenneth Grahame's The Wind in the Willows. Rosenberg wrote that the two main themes of Half-Blood Prince were love and death and praised Rowling's "affirmation of their central position in human lives." She considered love to be represented in several forms: the love of parent to child, teacher to student, and the romances that developed between the main characters. Zipp noted trust and redemption to be themes promising to continue in the final book, which she thought "would add a greater layer of nuance and complexity to some characters who could sorely use it." Deepti Hajela also pointed out Harry's character development, that he was "no longer a boy wizard; he's a young man, determined to seek out and face a young man's challenges." Paolini had similar views, claiming, "the children have changed...they act like real teenagers." Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince was met with positive reviews. Liesl Schillinger of The New York Times praised the novel's various themes and suspenseful ending. However, she considered Rowling's gift "not so much for language as for characterisation and plotting." Kirkus Reviews said it "will leave readers pleased, amused, excited, scared, infuriated, delighted, sad, surprised, thoughtful and likely wondering where Voldemort has got to, since he appears only in flashbacks." They considered Rowling's "wry wit" to turn into "outright merriment" but called the climax "tragic, but not uncomfortably shocking." Yvonne Zipp of The Christian Science Monitor praised the way Rowling evolved Harry into a teenager and how the plot threads found as far back as Chamber of Secrets came into play. On the other hand, she noted it "gets a little exposition-heavy in spots," and older readers may have seen the ending coming. The Boston Globe correspondent Liz Rosenberg wrote, "The book bears the mark of genius on every page" and praised the imagery and darker tone of the book, considering that the series could be crossing over from fantasy to horror. The Associated Press writer Deepti Hajela praised the newfound emotional tones and ageing Harry to the point at which "younger fans may find [the series] has grown up too much." Emily Green, a staff writer for the Los Angeles Times, was generally positive about the book but was concerned whether young children could handle the material. Cultural critic Julia Keller of the Chicago Tribune called it the "most eloquent and substantial addition to the series thus far" and considered the key to the success of the Potter novels to be humour. Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince won several awards, including the 2006 British Book of the Year Award and the 2006 Royal Mail Award for Scottish Children's Books for ages 8–12 in its native United Kingdom. In the United States, the American Library Association listed it among its 2006 Best Books for Young Adults. It won both the 2005 reader-voted Quill Awards for Best Book of the Year and Best Children's Book. It also won the Oppenheim Toy Portfolio Platinum Seal for notable book. Before publication, 1.4 million pre-orders were placed for Half-Blood Prince on Amazon.com, breaking the record held by the previous novel, Order of the Phoenix, with 1.3 million. The initial print run for Half-Blood Prince was a record-breaking 10.8 million. Within the first 24 hours after release, the book sold 9 million copies worldwide: 2 million in the UK and about 6.9 million in the US, which prompted Scholastic to rush an additional 2.7 million copies into print. Within the first nine weeks of publication, 11 million copies of the US edition were reported to have been sold. The US audiobook, read by Jim Dale, set sales records with 165,000 sold over two days, besting the adaptation of Order of the Phoenix by twenty percent. Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince was published simultaneously in the UK, US, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. Along with the rest of the books in the Harry Potter series, it was eventually translated into 67 languages. However, because of high security surrounding the manuscript, translators did not get to start on translating Half-Blood Prince until its English release date, and the earliest were not expected to be released until the fall of 2005. In Germany, a group of "hobby translators" translated the book via the internet less than two days after release, long before German translator Klaus Fritz could translate and publish the book. Since its wide hardcover release on 16 July 2005, Half-Blood Prince was released as a paperback on 23 June 2006 in the UK. Two days later on 25 July, the paperback edition was released in Canada and the US, where it had an initial print run of 2 million copies. To celebrate the release of the American paperback edition, Scholastic held a six-week sweepstakes event in which participants in an online poll were entered to win prizes. Simultaneous to the original hardcover release was the UK adult edition that featured a new cover and was also released as a paperback on 23 June. Also released on 16 July was the Scholastic "Deluxe Edition," which featured reproductions of Mary GrandPré's artwork and had a print run of about 100,000 copies. Bloomsbury later released a paperback "Special Edition" on 6 July 2009 and a "Signature Edition" paperback on 1 November 2010. The film adaptation of the sixth book was originally scheduled to be released on 21 November 2008 but was changed to 15 July 2009. Directed by David Yates, the screenplay was adapted by Steve Kloves and produced by David Heyman and David Barron. The film grossed over $934 million worldwide, which made it the second-highest-grossing film of 2009 worldwide and the fifteenth-highest of all time. Additionally, Half-Blood Prince gained an Academy Award nomination for Best Cinematography. A video game adaptation of the book was developed by EA Bright Light Studio and published by Electronic Arts in 2009. The game was available on the Microsoft Windows, Nintendo DS, PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, PlayStation Portable, Wii, Xbox 360, and macOS platforms. The book was also adapted in the 2011 video game . Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince is a 2009 fantasy film directed by David Yates and distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures. It is based on J. K. Rowling's 2005 novel of the same name. The film, which is the sixth instalment in the Harry Potter film series, was written by Steve Kloves and produced by David Heyman and David Barron. The story follows Harry Potter's sixth year at Hogwarts as he receives a mysterious textbook, falls in love, and attempts to retrieve a memory that holds the key to Lord Voldemort's downfall. The film stars Daniel Radcliffe as Harry Potter, alongside Rupert Grint and Emma Watson as Harry's best friends Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger. It is the sequel to Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix and is followed by Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1. Filming began on 24 September 2007, leading to the film's worldwide cinematic release on 15 July 2009, one day short of the fourth anniversary of the corresponding novel's release. With an estimated budget of $250 million, it is the 15th most expensive film ever made and the most expensive film in the Harry Potter film series. The film was simultaneously released in regular cinemas and IMAX 3D everywhere except North America, where its IMAX release was delayed for two weeks. Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince premiered in London on 7 July 2009 and was released theatrically worldwide on 15 July. The film was a major commercial success, breaking the record for the biggest single-day worldwide gross. In five days the film made $394 million, breaking the record for highest five-day worldwide gross. With a total gross of $934 million, it became the 8th-highest-grossing film of all time and 2009's second-highest-grossing film (behind Avatar). It is the fifth-highest-grossing film in the franchise. The film received positive reviews, with praise for Yates's direction and the performances, Delbonnel's cinematography, musical score, and "emotionally satisfying" story. The film was nominated at the 82nd Academy Awards for Best Cinematography and the 63rd British Academy Film Awards for Best Special Visual Effects and Best Production Design. Lord Voldemort is tightening his grip on both the wizarding and Muggle worlds, kidnapping wand-maker Garrick Ollivander from Diagon Alley and destroying the Millennium Bridge. The Malfoy family is disgraced when Lucius is apprehended and sent to Azkaban for his involvement with the Death Eaters. Voldemort instead chooses Draco to carry out a secret mission at Hogwarts. Draco's mother Narcissa and aunt Bellatrix Lestrange seek help from Severus Snape, who claims to have been acting as a mole within the Order of the Phoenix all along. Snape makes an Unbreakable Vow with Narcissa to protect Draco and fulfill the assignment if he fails. Harry Potter, now 16 years old, accompanies Albus Dumbledore from Surbiton to the village of Budleigh Babberton to visit former Potions professor Horace Slughorn. Slughorn, who has been in hiding, agrees to return to teach at Hogwarts. Dumbledore then takes Harry to The Burrow, where Harry reunites with his best friends, Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger. The three visit Fred and George Weasley's new joke shop at Diagon Alley and see Draco entering Knockturn Alley with a group of Death Eaters including Fenrir Greyback. Harry believes Voldemort has made Draco a Death Eater, but Ron and Hermione are sceptical. On the Hogwarts Express, Harry hides in the Slytherin carriage using his Invisibility Cloak, but is spotted and petrified by Malfoy. Harry is found and saved by Luna Lovegood. At Hogwarts, Harry and Ron borrow textbooks for Slughorn's Potions class, and Harry is stuck with a copy that turns out to be filled with helpful notes and spells left by the "Half-Blood Prince". Harry uses the book to excel in the class and impresses Slughorn, winning a Liquid Luck potion. Ron becomes Keeper of the Gryffindor Quidditch team and forms a romantic relationship with Lavender Brown, upsetting Hermione. Harry consoles Hermione and admits that he now has feelings for Ron's younger sister, Ginny Weasley. Harry spends the Christmas holidays with the Weasleys. On Christmas Eve, Harry discusses his suspicions about Draco to the Order of the Phoenix. His suspicions are dismissed, but Arthur Weasley later tells Harry privately that the Malfoys may have been interested in a Vanishing Cabinet. Bellatrix and Greyback attack and burn down the Burrow, drawing Harry into a battle. He saves Ginny before the Order arrive and fight off the Death Eaters. At Hogwarts, Dumbledore reveals to Harry that Slughorn possesses a memory of Voldemort that Dumbledore desperately needs. He asks Harry to confront Slughorn and retrieve the real memory, after being given an altered version that made it appear as though Slughorn did not know anything. Harry is unable to convince Slughorn. After Ron accidentally ingests a love potion intended for Harry, Harry cures him with Slughorn's help. The trio celebrate with mead that Slughorn had intended to gift to Dumbledore. The mead poisons Ron, and Harry is forced to save his life after Slughorn hesitates. Ron murmurs Hermione's name while recovering in the infirmary, causing Lavender to end their relationship. Harry confronts Draco about the mead and a cursed necklace, and the two duel. Harry uses a curse from the Half-Blood Prince's potion book to severely injure Malfoy, who is rescued and healed by Snape. Fearing the book may be filled with more Dark Magic, Ginny and Harry hide it in the Room of Requirement and share their first kiss. Harry decides to use his Liquid Luck potion to convince Slughorn to give up the memory Dumbledore needs. Harry views the memory with Dumbledore and learns that Voldemort wanted information for creating Horcruxes, magical objects that could contain pieces of a wizard's soul and make them immortal. Dumbledore concludes that Voldemort successfully divided his soul into seven pieces by creating six Horcruxes, two of which have already been destroyed: Tom Riddle's diary by Harry and Marvolo Gaunt's ring by him. The two travel to a seaside cave where Harry aids Dumbledore in drinking a potion that hides another Horcrux, Slytherin's locket. A weakened Dumbledore defends them from Inferi and apparates back to Hogwarts. Bellatrix, Greyback, and other Death Eaters enter Hogwarts with Draco's help through the Vanishing Cabinet in the Room of Requirement that Draco managed to connect to the one he had been working on in Knockturn Alley. Dumbledore instructs Harry to talk to Snape and no one else. Draco arrives in the Astronomy Tower and disarms Dumbledore revealing that he has been chosen by Voldemort to kill the headmaster. Harry is hiding below. Snape arrives, and casts the killing curse on Dumbledore when Draco is unable to bring himself to do it, killing the Headmaster. He later overpowers Harry and reveals himself as the Half-Blood Prince before escaping with the Death Eaters. Harry returns to Hogwarts, where the students and staff mourn Dumbledore's death. He later reveals to Ron and Hermione that the locket Horcrux was a fake. The locket contains a message from "R.A.B.", stating that he has stolen the real Horcrux with the intent of destroying it. As they decide to forgo their final year at Hogwarts Harry, Ron, and Hermione decide to track down the remaining Horcruxes together. Daniel Radcliffe as Harry Potter, a 16-year-old British wizard, who now enters his sixth year at Hogwarts., Rupert Grint as Ron Weasley, one of Harry's two best friends., Emma Watson as Hermione Granger, one of Harry's two best friends., Helena Bonham Carter as Bellatrix Lestrange, one of Voldemort's principal Death Eaters and Draco Malfoy's aunt., Jim Broadbent as Horace Slughorn, the newly appointed Potions master who held the position before., Robbie Coltrane as Rubeus Hagrid, the Hogwarts gamekeeper and Care of Magical Creatures teacher at Hogwarts., Warwick Davis as Filius Flitwick, the Charms master and head of Ravenclaw., Tom Felton as Draco Malfoy, Harry's rival and recipient of Voldemort's secret mission., Michael Gambon as Albus Dumbledore, the headmaster of Hogwarts., Alan Rickman as Severus Snape, the former Potions master, current Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher and head of Slytherin., Maggie Smith as Minerva McGonagall, the Hogwarts Transfiguration teacher, deputy headmistress and head of Gryffindor., Timothy Spall as Peter Pettigrew, the Death Eater who betrayed Harry's parents to Voldemort. Pettigrew has no lines in this film, but appears as a servant at Snape's house., David Thewlis as Remus Lupin, a member of the Order of the Phoenix and Harry's ex-Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher., Julie Walters as Molly Weasley, the Weasley matriarch and a mother figure to Harry. Before David Yates was officially chosen to direct the film, many directors had expressed an interest in taking the helm. Alfonso Cuarón, the director of the third film, stated he "would love to have the opportunity" to return. Goblet of Fire director Mike Newell declined a spot to direct the fifth film, and was not approached for this one. Guillermo del Toro turned down the chance to direct the film in order to direct . Terry Gilliam was Rowling's personal choice to direct Philosopher's Stone. When asked whether he would consider directing a later film, Gilliam said, "Warner Bros. had their chance the first time around, and they blew it." In an interview with Dark Horizons, Yates said that "I was still working on Order of the Phoenix when they asked me to do Half-Blood Prince. So they were really delighted with the material that they were seeing while we were in post-production, and the conversations happened before the movie was released, because I had to start pre-production on it while Order of the Phoenix was being promoted. It was just something they see in the work that they really liked, and responded to." Yates described Half- Blood Prince as being "a cross between the chills of Prisoner of Azkaban and the fantastical adventure of Goblet of Fire." Emma Watson considered not returning for the film, but eventually decided that, "the pluses outweighed the minuses," and could not bear to see anyone else play Hermione. Composer Nicholas Hooper returned from the last film; he included a reworking of John Williams's "Hedwig's Theme", which has recurred in all scores. Also maintained were costume designer Jany Temime, visual effects supervisor Tim Burke, creature and make-up effects designer Nick Dudman, and special effects supervisor John Richardson from the third film. Yates and Heyman have noted that some of the events of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows influenced the script of Half-Blood Prince. Christian Coulson, who played the young Tom Riddle in Chamber of Secrets, expressed an interest in returning in the role for flashback sequences; Yates responded that Coulson was too old, nearing 30, to be playing the role. Jamie Campbell Bower, who appeared in , previously noted that he had his "fingers crossed" he would be cast as a young Riddle. (Bower was, however, later cast as the teenage Gellert Grindelwald in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1.) Thomas James Longley was the original choice to take on the role but Riddle was ultimately played by Hero Fiennes-Tiffin as a child and Frank Dillane as a teenager. Helen McCrory appears as Narcissa Malfoy, Draco's mother and younger sister of Bellatrix. McCrory was originally cast as Bellatrix in Order of the Phoenix, but had to drop out due to pregnancy. Naomi Watts was previously reported as having accepted the role, only for it to be denied by her agency. Both Clémence Poésy, who had played Fleur Delacour, and Chris Rankin, who had played Percy Weasley, were interested in returning, but did not appear in the film. After Bill Nighy expressed an interest in appearing, Yates confirmed that Nighy would be his first choice for the role of Minister for Magic Rufus Scrimgeour. Scrimgeour's character was ultimately cut from the film, but Nighy appeared in his role in Deathly Hallows. Stuart Craig, the production designer of the first five films, stayed on to design all the sets in Half-Blood Prince. Several new sets are introduced, including Tom Riddle's Orphanage, Astronomy Tower and the Cave. Craig noted that the film used several CGI sets, noticeably the interior of the Cave where Harry and Dumbledore both go to hunt Horcruxes. The exterior of the cave scene was filmed at the Cliffs of Moher in the west of Ireland, the only location to be filmed outside of the United Kingdom throughout the film series. The interior of the cave is made up of geometric crystal formations. Craig noted "Apart from the point at which Harry and Dumbledore first arrive and the island formation on which everything inside the cave happens, the set is entirely virtual, designed in the computer. We'd had our first totally virtual set on the last film, so we approached this one with a bit more confidence." Before filming began, there was belief that filming might move from the UK, where all previous films were shot. The crew also scouted around Cape Wrath in Scotland, for use in the cave scene. Filming returned to Glen Coe and Glenfinnan, both which have appeared in the previous films, to preserve the continuity of the landscape. Following a week of rehearsals, principal photography began on 24 September 2007 and ended on 17 May 2008. Though Radcliffe, Gambon and Broadbent started shooting in late September 2007, some other cast members started much later: Grint did not begin until November 2007, Watson did not begin until December 2007, Rickman until January 2008, and Bonham Carter until February 2008. On the weekend of 6 October 2007, the crew shot scenes involving the Hogwarts Express in the misty and dewy environment of Fort William, Scotland. A series of night scenes were filmed in the village of Lacock and the cloisters at Lacock Abbey for three nights starting 25 October 2007. Filming took place from 5 pm to 5 am daily, and residents of the street were asked to black out their windows with dark blinds. On set reports indicated that the main scene filmed was Harry and Dumbledore's visit to Slughorn's house. Further filming took place in Surbiton railway station in October 2007, Gloucester Cathedral, where the first and second films were shot, in February 2008, and at the Millennium Bridge in London in March 2008. Due to cinematographer Bruno Delbonnel's use of de-focussing and soft wipes in the digital grade, Warner Bros. asked director David Yates to add more colours to the film. Yates didn't want to lose the "very European look" of the film, but after retouching the picture, he said, "It's not what you wanted, but we're happy with it." After five minutes of watching the film, the studio were pleased with the changes. In an interview with Total Film, Yates said that "the choice of angles, the extreme close-ups, [and] the pacing of the scenes" made the film "incredibly rich". The palette and lighting was heavily inspired by the Dutch painter Rembrandt. Half-Blood Prince is the only film in the series to be nominated for the Best Cinematography accolade at the Academy Awards. One of the major challenges for Delbonnel was lighting the film. In an interview with the Academy, he said, "Some of the sets are there since the very first Potter. How could I light them in a different way? This question brought another one based on the series itself… I thought it would be interesting to have those very intimate stories amidst this very dark mood. As if the school was a dark character. That's when I suggested to go for this (again) dark moody variations of greys. Fortunately David Yates, and the producers liked the idea." In reference to the cave scene Delbonnel said, "I wanted to have some kind of 'dynamism' with the light. I thought it could be interesting and more dramatic if the light was floating, circling above the characters faces: sometimes lighting them, sometimes hiding them in a very random and unpredictable way." Tim Burke and Tim Alexander were the visual effects supervisors for the film. Tim Alexander said that completing the Inferi-attack scene took several months. He said, "It's certainly much bolder and scarier than we imagined that they'd ever go in a 'Potter' movie. Director David Yates was cautious of not making this into a zombie movie, so we were constantly trying to figure out how not to make these dead people coming up look like zombies. A lot of it came down to their movement – they don't move fast, but they don't move really slow or groan and moan. We ended up going with a very realistic style." He also noted that Inferi are skinnier than zombies, waterlogged and grey. About Dumbledore's ring of fire, he noted that the effect would look as if someone sprayed propane and then lit it. He added, "We did a lot of research on molten volcanoes, which have a lot of heat going on but no actual flames, and collected a bunch of other references, including flares that burn underwater, and showed them to the Potter folks." The visual effects team emulated these six fire parameters: heat ripples, smoke, buoyancy, viscosity, opacity, and brightness. Since the whole fire scene was very time consuming, computer graphics artist Chris Horvath spent eight months finding a faster way to conjure flames. The opening scenes of the Death Eaters' attack on Diagon Alley and London was created by Double Negative, led by VFX Supervisor Paul Franklin. Double Negative spent six months surveying and documenting the environment around the River Thames and Trafalgar Square to create the swooping views of the city. Double Negative also contributed the Pensieve sequences, developing complex directed fluid simulations to realise the swirling world of memory and the past. The film's score was composed by Nicholas Hooper, who also composed the music for Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. The soundtrack was released on an Audio CD format on 14 July 2009, a day before the film was released in cinemas. The album debuted at number twenty-nine on the Billboard 200 chart, thus making it the highest-charting soundtrack among all the six movie soundtracks released. It was nominated for the 2010 Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack Album For Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media. While at the middle of the series in length, the film Half-Blood Prince did add or change events in the literary canon. The book begins with a scene involving the Muggle Prime Minister. Yates and his crew debated over this scene, as well as the character Rufus Scrimgeour, but gave up the beginning of the movie to events described but not seen in the book. Yates thought it would give the audience a feel for what the Death Eaters were doing if they showed the collapse of the Millennium Bridge rather than simply describe it (as was done with the Brockdale Bridge in the book). As with Goblet of Fire, the Dursleys were cut, which Steve Kloves did to "break the pattern". Further background of Tom Riddle was removed, such as the Gaunts because they felt it more important to concentrate on Riddle as a young boy, and an additional action scene at the Burrow was added to keep with the tone of the franchise. Yates felt that they needed "an injection of jeopardy and danger" and that without it there was too much comedy and lightness. A small battle scene at Hogwarts which happened during the end of the book was cut; Heyman commented that it was removed to "[avoid] repetition" with the forthcoming adaptation of the Battle of Hogwarts in Deathly Hallows. Dumbledore's funeral was removed as it was believed it did not fit with the rest of the film. Warner Bros. has spent an estimated $155 million to market and distribute the film. The special-edition two-disc DVD for Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix contained two sneak peeks of the film, while the US edition included an additional clip. A 15-second teaser for the film was shown alongside the IMAX release of The Dark Knight. The first full-length US teaser trailer was released on 29 July on AOL's Moviefone website. An international teaser was released on 26 October and another teaser trailer was released. The US theatrical trailer was released on 14 November. Another trailer was screened on the Japanese TV station Fuji TV during a screening of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire on 18 January 2009. Scenes from the film were aired during ABC Family's Harry Potter marathon which took place 5–7 December 2008. On 5 February 2009, the first three promotional teaser posters were released, featuring Dumbledore and Harry. On 5 March and 16 April 2009, new trailers were released by Warner Bros. Warner Bros and MSN ran an online Order of the Phoenix quiz, with the prize being a walk-on part in the Half-Blood Prince. As with the previous films, EA Games produced a video game based on the film. On 10 March 2009, it was announced that there would be a video game soundtrack, which was released on 17 March 2009. On 27 March six character posters were released: Harry, Dumbledore, Ron, Hermione, Draco and Professor Snape. An English version of the international trailer and a Japanese version of the international trailer were released online 10 April. On 8 May, CW Channel aired a 30-second TV spot, which focused on the romantic side of the film. On 20 May, first clip from the film was released through The Ellen DeGeneres Shows official website, showing love-struck Ron. Another clip of the film, showing Dumbledore visiting Tom Riddle's Orphanage was released on 31 May 2009, at MTV Awards. The film was released in the United Kingdom, United States, France, Belgium, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Sweden, Canada, Australia, Taiwan, New Zealand, India, Brazil, Spain and Mexico on 15 July 2009. It was originally set to be released on 21 November 2008, but was pushed back by eight months to 17 July, despite being completed. Warner Bros. executive Alan F. Horn noted that the move was meant "to guarantee the studio a major summer blockbuster in 2009," with other films being delayed due to the 2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike. The box-office success of summer WB films Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix and The Dark Knight also motivated the decision. An unnamed rival studio executive told Entertainment Weekly that the move was to "stop next year's profits from looking seriously underwhelming after the phenomenal success of The Dark Knight," as "they don't need the money this year anymore." Dan Fellman, WB head of distribution, said that the studio had considered the date change for three to four weeks prior to the announcement, but gave it serious consideration a week before they came to their final decision. Three months before its release in July, the date was again changed by 2 days from 17 to 15 July, so it could open on a Wednesday like most tentpole summer movies. The date change was met with a heavily negative reaction by Harry Potter fans, as the Los Angeles Times noted: "Petitions were circulating, rumors were flying and angry screeds were being posted on Internet sites within minutes of the Thursday announcement." The move was mocked by Entertainment Weekly which had Half-Blood Prince on the cover on its "Fall Preview Issue". Despite each being owned by Time Warner Inc., EW was unaware of the change until it was publicly announced by WB and noted that readers would now be in possession of a "Dewey Defeats Truman collectible". Several days after the announcement, Horn released a statement in response to the "large amount of disappointment" expressed by fans of the series. Following the date change, Half-Blood Princes release slot was taken by Summit Entertainment's Twilight and Walt Disney Pictures' Bolt. The sixth film was simultaneously released in regular cinemas and IMAX 3D everywhere but the United States, due to a conflicting agreement in which was given a four-week window by itself in IMAX in that country. Therefore, the IMAX 3D version of the film was released on 29 July 2009 there. The film's opening sequence featuring the destruction of the Millennium Bridge was in 3D. The film had been chosen to be screened at the 2008 Royal Film Performance on 17 November, but was not shown. Cinema and Television Benevolent Fund chief executive Peter Hore noted he was "very disappointed" with Warner Bros' decision. Advance ticket sales on Fandango.com for Half-Blood Prince surpassed advance ticket sales for Transformers 2 at the same point in sale cycles. It is also in MovieTickets.com's top 25 advance sellers of all time. Running 153 minutes (2 hours 33 minutes and 19 seconds) long, Half-Blood Prince is the third-longest film in the series, behind Chamber of Secrets (161 minutes) and Goblet of Fire (157 minutes). Like the previous films, a 1-disc and 2-disc special edition for the film was released on Blu-ray with a Digital Copy and DVD on 7 December 2009 in the United Kingdom, and 8 December 2009 in the United States. The Blu-ray and DVD includes an 11-minute, 38-second feature on the new Wizarding World of Harry Potter mini theme park which opened on 18 June 2010 at Islands of Adventure in Orlando, Florida. Also included are deleted scenes comprising 8 scenes with a running length of 6 minutes and 31 seconds, and a sneak peek of the next Harry Potter movie, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1 (2010). The Blu- ray and DVD released in India, the Philippines, South Africa, Czech Republic and Israel on 16 November 2009, making them the first countries to get the Half Blood Prince DVD release before the UK and the US. The release date for Australia and New Zealand was 18 November and for Brazil and Chile, 19 November. The Blu-ray and two-disc DVD editions in North America includes a digital copy of the film. In the United Kingdom, the DVD release became the fastest-selling DVD of the year with an estimated 840,000 copies of the film sold in a few hours. In the US, the DVD made a strong debut at number one in both the DVD and Blu-ray markets widely beating out any competition with sales of 4,199,622 copies. Worldwide DVD and Blu-ray sales of the film show that it is the fastest-selling film of 2009. On 14 June 2011, an Ultimate Edition was released simultaneously with the Ultimate Edition of the Order of the Phoenix film on both Blu-ray and DVD, containing new bonus features, documentaries and collectables. Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince broke the then-record for biggest midnight showings, making $22.8 million in 3,000 cinemas; bested this with $26.3 million. Half-Blood Prince opened in the same Wednesday slot that Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix did in 2007, which grossed $12 million in midnight runs, on its way to $139.7 million in its five-day debut in the US. The film's box office run was over on 17 December 2009. The film opened in 4,325 cinemas (rising to 4,455 three weeks later, becoming the largest number of cinemas until surpassed it with the 4,468 cinemas) and grossed $58.2 million on its opening day at the top of the United States and Canadian box office, the third-highest Wednesday opening of all time behind and The Twilight Saga: Eclipse. It is also the nineteenth-highest single-day gross of all time and the third-highest for a film in the Harry Potter franchise behind Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2s $91.1 million and Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1, which made $61.1 million. It earned an additional $46 million overseas for a worldwide total of $104 million, breaking the record for highest single-day worldwide gross, previously held by The Dark Knight. By 20 July, the film had taken in $158.7 million in the US and $236 million from 85 other markets, for a worldwide tally of $394.7 million. This broke the record for biggest-ever worldwide five-day opening, surpassing Spider-Man 3s $381 million; this makes the film the fastest to reach the $350 million mark in worldwide box office of all time. In the US, it surpassed all of its predecessors by a wide margin, achieving the sixth- largest-ever five-day opening in that country. The film held this record for two years until it was topped by Deathly Hallows – Part 2 ($483.2 million). In the UK, the film grossed £19.75 million (equivalent to about $38.13 million), the highest opening for both the series and releases of 2009. At the end of the film's US and Canadian box office run the total ticket sales of the film were $302 million, making it the third most successful film in the franchise, after Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 and Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, as well as the third-highest-grossing film of 2009 in these regions behind Avatar and Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen. As with all of the previous films in the franchise, Half-Blood Prince proved to be extremely successful globally with an estimated non-US total gross of $632.5 million, totalling approximately $934.4 million worldwide, making it the second-highest-grossing film of 2009, behind Avatar. It is the fifth-highest- grossing film in the franchise, behind Philosopher's Stone, both parts of Deathly Hallows, and Order of the Phoenix. In South Africa the film opened with the number one position grossing $789,176, it maintained a number one position during the second week, too, with a total of $242,336. In Australia, as in most of the world, the film broke records with a debut of $11,492,142 and opening at number one, maintaining a second week at number one with a total of $5,278,096 (down 54%), and grossed a total of $24,208,243. In France the film debuted at $20,541,239 from 949 cinemas. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 83% based on 276 reviews, with an average rating of 7.12/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Dark, thrilling, and occasionally quite funny, Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince is also visually stunning and emotionally satisfying." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 78 out of 100 based on 36 critics, indicating "generally favourable reviews". The film scored an 87 from professional critics at the Broadcast Film Critics Association; it is the first Harry Potter film to receive a Critic's Choice certificate. On CinemaScore, audiences gave the film an average grade of "A-" on an A+ to F scale. The first review of the film came three weeks before the official release. Paul Dergarabedian of Hollywood.com ranked the film with The Lord of the Rings film trilogy and called the film a "possible Oscar contender". He highly praised the performance of Sir Michael Gambon, Alan Rickman and Daniel Radcliffe. He commented, "Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince is a tour-de-force that combines style and substance, special effects and heart and most importantly great performances from all of the actors young and not-so-young". Another early review came from the UK tabloid The Sun, whose anonymous reviewer called the film "masterful" and "very emotional". The reviewer praised David Yates's directing and called Jim Broadbent's portrayal of Horace Slughorn "perfect". Devin Faraci of Chud.com called the film not only the best Harry Potter film yet, but also one of the best films of the year. Andrew Pulver of The Guardian wrote a positive review, and gave the film 3.5 out of 5 stars rating. Todd McCarthy of the trade magazine Variety said that the film is "dazzlingly well made" and "less fanciful than the previous entries". He praised Alan Rickman's performance and he described Helena Bonham Carter as "mesmerising" and Jim Broadbent as a "grand eccentric old professor". BBC News's Tim Masters praised the film's cinematography, visual effects, production design, improved acting and darker plotline. The Hollywood Reporter Kirk Honeycutt noted that the film's first half is "jerky and explosive", but in the second half, the film finds better footing. He adds, "Composer Nicholas Hooper, cinematographer Bruno Delbonnel and designer Stuart Craig deliver a singularly muscular and vigorous chapter". Screen Daily called the film "[s]tunningly shot by Bruno Delbonnel in metallic hues leavened by buttery tones and the thumping beats of Nicholas Hooper's score bear little resemblance to the original and the overall effect is much less tween, much more grown-up". Chris Tilly of IGN UK commented on the length of the film, saying "while on occasion it drags, the 153-minute run-time never feels too long, thanks in no small part to the astonishing visuals and (largely) marvellous performances," and goes on to say, "This is by far the best-looking of the Potter films thus far," commending the "beautiful" Quidditch match and the "stunning" finale. However, Dave Golder of SFX magazine found some aspects of the film to be a disappointment, largely due to the large number of opportunities the director and screenwriter had sacrificed to devote "huge swathes of the film to subplots of Harry and his chums' teenage romances," but nevertheless found the film to be a large enjoyment, praising the performances of Jim Broadbent and Alan Rickman. David Stratton, of Margaret and David at the Movies, gave the film a 2.5 out of a possible 5 stars, remarking, "For non-readers [of the Harry Potter series] the films are now borderline incomprehensible", and that the film was "a little tedious" and "generally less interesting visually than its predecessors." He praised the cast, describing them as "consummate", adding Sir Michael Gambon "really makes Dumbledore an imposing character" and Jim Broadbent was "wonderful". Margaret Pomeranz, the co-host of the television show, gave the film 3 out of 5 stars. At the time of its release, Rowling stated that Half-Blood Prince was her "favourite one" of the six film adaptations. Radcliffe, however, was critical of his own performance in the film, stating in an interview in 2014 that he was "just not very good in it", and calling it "hard to watch". The film was nominated for BAFTA Awards in Production Design and Visual Effects, and was in the longlists for five other categories, including Best Supporting Actor for Alan Rickman. Bruno Delbonnel was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Cinematography at the 82nd Academy Awards. The film was also one of the final seven contenders for Best Visual Effects. for the film, for the film series The fictional universe of British author J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter series of fantasy novels comprises two distinct societies: the Wizarding World and the Muggle world. In the novels, the Muggle world is the world inhabited by the non-magical majority, with which the Wizarding world exists coextensively, albeit mostly remaining hidden from the non-magical humans. The plot of the series is set in 1990s Britain, but in a veiled and separate shadow society wherein magic is commonly used and practised, and those who can use it live in self-enforced seclusion, hiding their abilities from the rest of the world. The term "Wizarding World" refers to the global wizard community that lives hidden in parallel with the Muggle world; the different terms refer to different communities within the same area rather than separate planets or worlds. Any new works taking place in this universe are released under the "J. K. Rowling's Wizarding World" brand. The entire Harry Potter series is set from 1991 to 1998 aside from the opening chapter of the first book, which takes place on 1 November 1981, and the epilogue of the seventh book, which takes place on 1 September 2017. At various points throughout the Harry Potter timeline, flashbacks and flash- forwards depict the 1920s, the 1930s, the 1940s, the 1970s, the 1980s, the 2010s, and the 2020s. The depiction of the Wizarding World is centred on magic, which not only imbues objects such as wands, but is portrayed as an inborn ability. It is also centred on the separation of the wizarding world from the non-wizarding (Muggle) world. Despite being an inherent talent, magic is honed through study of various branches of magic and practical training into a skill. A great deal of effort is expended in keeping the Muggles unaware of magic. Originally the two worlds co-existed; however, persecution of those with magic meant laws have been put in place over the centuries, designed to keep the existence of the magical world hidden from Muggles. The first and most important statute is the International Statute of Wizarding Secrecy of 1692. Enchantment of Muggle artefacts is forbidden; under-age wizards are restricted from using magic outside school, and any deliberate revelation of magical ability to the Muggle community is punishable. However, allowances are made for the use of magic in the presence of a Muggle in case of a life-threatening situation (for the wizard or the Muggle). These laws are enforced by the Ministry of Magic, while a special arm of it, the Obliviators, has the job of making certain that Muggles who have seen magic in action will be left with no "inconvenient" memories. Exceptions to the statute of secrecy include wizards' Muggle relatives and high-ranking political leaders; the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, for instance. As seen in the first chapter of "Philosopher's Stone", jubilation and euphoria at Voldemort's first downfall in 1981 led to these rules being momentarily ignored and wizards exposing themselves gratuitously to muggles, who were greatly puzzled. Some aspects of the Wizarding World are depicted as being less-than-modern in comparison to the Muggle world, sometimes even old-fashioned or quaint. The technological development of the Wizarding World is substantially behind that of its Muggle counterpart — for instance, candles are used for illumination instead of electrical or gas bulbs/tubes – and owls, a more cumbersome and slower mode of communication, are used to send messages instead of simple phone calls. On the other hand, an owl can be sent to deliver a message without the sender needing to know the recipient's exact location or phone number. However, a large number of technologically complex devices do exist, and most of these devices exist in the Muggle world. From a certain perspective, it can be seen that Magic and electricity are the equivalents of each other in their respective worlds, but electronic equipment doesn't work around magic-filled areas, such as Hogwarts, and Muggle devices used by wizards (such as cameras and radios) can be made to function using magic instead of electricity. Such examples are rare, however; wizards rarely make use of Muggle technology, nor do they have much interest in doing so, even when such technology might make their lives much easier. Pure-blood Wizards are baffled by how Muggle technology works and most have no interest in understanding it (with occasional exceptions, such as Muggle aficionado Arthur Weasley, whose dearest ambition is "to find out how an aeroplane stays up"). "Muggle Studies" classes are offered at Hogwarts for those students with an interest. On several occasions, Harry Potter is tasked with having to explain the workings of commonplace Muggle technology, such as introducing the telephone to Mr Weasley in Chamber of Secrets; at the beginning of Prisoner of Azkaban, Ron Weasley makes his first telephone call – with disastrous results for Harry. The Wizarding World has also not embraced modern Muggle modes of information collection and transfer. For instance, instead of pen/pencil, paper and electronic equipment like computers, Hogwarts students use ink- dipped quills and parchment to take notes and do their homework. Wizarding money is also old-fashioned; whilst Muggle Britain was decimalised in 1971, Magical Britons continued with their system of 17 silver Sickles to a gold Galleon, and 29 bronze Knuts to a Sickle. Also, magical currency is all metal coins, and there is no paper money. The magical world does have at least one train - the Hogwarts Express - pulled by a steam locomotive. There is radio but no television is shown. Magical brooms are mass-produced, with new models coming out regularly, similar to muggle cars. On the other hand, magical wands are hand made by skilled artisans, each individual wand taking long and painstaking labor. Printing is carried out by mechanical printing presses, rather than by magic (at least, the Quibbler is so produced.) Many aspects of the British Wizarding World have Muggle equivalents. For example, after reaching age of 17 wizards can be licensed to apparate, while Muggles can learn and be licensed to drive cars. In the fifth and seventh years of Hogwarts or Muggle secondary school, external examinations take place. Some aspects of Muggle pop culture are also mirrored in the Wizarding World such as rock music, posters, and tabloids. A few young wizards embrace Muggle culture whole-heartedly: as a teenager, Sirius Black filled his room with pictures of Muggle pin-up girls, motorcycles and rock bands in rebellion against his prejudiced, Muggle-hating parents. Muggle music is heard in the film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix - music by The Ordinary Boys is heard playing in the background of the Gryffindor common room. Wizards and witches who are Muggle-born, or are half-bloods (of mixed Muggle and magical parentage) find it easier (or even commonplace) to integrate into Muggle society and take on Muggle trends, as they are predisposed to Muggle ways growing up. Gryffindor student Dean Thomas has frequent references to the adorning of his part of the dormitory with posters of West Ham United Football Club. Albus Dumbledore has expressed interest in Muggle knitting patterns and ten-pin bowling. There is no separate "magical land" in the Harry Potter universe; the wizarding world not only coexists alongside the world of Muggles, but also is embedded within it. Only one settlement in Britain, the village of Hogsmeade, is home to an entirely magical population. The vast majority of witches' and wizards' locations are integrated within the wider non-magical area. Wizards will often live in small communities of several families within Muggle villages such as Godric's Hollow in the West Country (home of the Dumbledores and the Potters) or Tinworth in Cornwall. The all-wizard Weasley, Diggory, Lovegood, and Fawcett families live near the Muggle village of Ottery St Catchpole, in Devon. Many wizarding houses in the Harry Potter books are depicted as being on the outskirts of towns, usually isolated from most of the town. Similarly, the wizarding high street Diagon Alley lies in central London, just off Charing Cross Road. A train called the Hogwarts Express departs from the real King's Cross station, albeit from Platform 9¾. These locations are hidden by a combination of Muggle-repelling charms, illusions, and other magical protections. Many magical locations, such as the Isle of Drear off the coast of Scotland, or the Quidditch World Cup Stadium, and the wizarding prison, Azkaban, are rendered "unplottable", or impossible to locate on a map. This is further banked by the natural tendency of non-magical people to ignore anything they cannot explain or understand. Hogwarts Castle appears as abandoned ruins to any Muggles close enough to see. Although wizarding society lives for the most part directly alongside Muggles, interaction between the two communities is virtually non-existent since the International Statute of Wizarding Secrecy was introduced in 1692. Few wizards are aware of basic Muggle culture (for instance, most wizards do not understand Muggle clothing customs). On the odd occasions when it may be necessary for a wizard or witch to dress in Muggle clothing, the result is usually comical. While the series is set in Great Britain, there is evidence that the wizarding world has locations throughout the globe. This is shown in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, when it describes many people at the Quidditch World Cup speaking foreign languages. The number of Irish wizards working for the Ministry and attending Hogwarts, as well as the various nationalities attending Beauxbatons and Durmstrang, suggest the wizarding world's borders differ from the geopolitical divisions of the Muggle world. However, countries such as Bulgaria and Ireland have national teams representing them at the Quidditch World Cup - even though the muggles of these countries have no idea that the competition is taking place. It is also suggested in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban that wizards played a part in ancient Egyptian history, and possibly are behind many historical wonders in the modern world such as the Egyptian pyramids and tombs. The Wizarding World is home to many magical creatures and plants, some of which are familiar from folklore and myth. Giants, dragons, unicorns, boggarts, and goblins all have roles in the series, while many plants long believed to have magical properties, such as mandrake root, aconite, asphodel and wormwood, also make appearances. Within the stories, the conceit is that these creatures and their magical powers are real, but have been hidden for centuries from the non-magical world by the efforts of wizards, to the point where they have faded into folklore. In Hogwarts, some types of pets are allowed: cats, owls, rats, and toads. J.K. Rowling wrote a spin-off book about magical creatures to complement the main Harry Potter novels, titled Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them. In both the book Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them and the movie of the same name, laws governing magical creatures are often referenced. Like any laws, these are changed over time, and vary from country to country. There are three distinct definitions for all magical creatures given in the Fantastic Beasts book, which are "Beasts", "Beings" and "Spirits" (spirits being for ghosts) which were defined in 1811 by the British Minister for Magic. "Beings" are defined as "any creature that has sufficient intelligence to understand the laws of the magical community and to bear part of the responsibility in shaping those laws". Laws have been created surrounding the management of magical creatures, largely for the purposes of their protection, but also to protect wizards from dangerous creatures, govern ownership of certain creatures, and also to hide them from the Muggle world. In the Fantastic Beasts movie the political climate of the wizarding community at the time saw a blanket ban on possessing all magical creatures. The longstanding separation between the wizarding and Muggle worlds in the Harry Potter universe has led many wizards to advocate keeping the two apart. This view has, in turn, led to a minority of British wizards seeing Muggles (and wizards of pure Muggle parentage) as untrustworthy, foolish, or, in extreme cases, racially inferior. The common practice of wizards marrying Muggles is viewed by such extremists as miscegenation, and they instead advocate maintaining a so-called "purity of blood". This was part of Lord Voldemort's ideology, and the Black family disowned anyone who married a half- blood or muggle. However, in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, Hagrid and Ron both state there is probably no such factor as "blood purity", with all wizards (given sufficient research) likely to find in their family history some marriages to Muggles. Pure-blood is the term applied to wizards and witches who have no Muggle blood, Muggle-borns, or half-bloods at all in their family tree. They are the rarest of the three blood statuses, with J.K. Rowling saying 10% of the Wizarding community is made up of pure-bloods. Although technically pure- bloods have no Muggle ancestors, the small wizarding population means that "true" pure-bloods are rare, with some just ignoring or disowning the few Muggles in their family. Identified pure-blood families include the Blacks, the Crouches, the Fudges, the Gaunts (though that line died out before the beginning of Philosopher's Stone), the Lestranges, the Longbottoms, the Malfoys, and the Weasleys (but the most recent generation has had half-blood members). To maintain their blood purity, some supremacist families have been known to inbreed into their own families by marrying their cousins, resulting sometimes in mental instability and violent natures. The Gaunt family displayed both tendencies by the time of the sixth book. Pure-blood supremacists believe blood purity is a measure of a wizard's magical ability – notwithstanding examples of skilled Muggle-born witches and wizards such as Hermione Granger and Lily Potter – and less skilled pure-bloods such as Neville Longbottom (whose skills developed in Deathly Hallows due to his heroism) – and Muggles to be low-life, having no magic in them. Supremacists apply the term "blood traitor" to pure-bloods who married and had children with non-pure-bloods. The pure-blood wizards and witches in the Harry Potter books are almost all supremacists, while there are some of them who don't advocate ancestral superiority; the Weasleys, Potters, and Longbottoms are old pure-blood families, but no known members of these families are sympathetic to supremacist aims. The Black family, traditionally pure-blood supremacists, also seem to have produced one or two such "black sheep" in every generation, namely Sirius and Andromeda (Bellatrix and Narcissa's sister who married the Muggle-born Ted Tonks). Several wizards question the notion of blood purity altogether. In his copy of The Tales of Beedle the Bard, (later bequeathed to Hermione Granger) Dumbledore has made annotations that he thinks the much- vaunted blood purity does not exist, and is only a fiction maintained by the deceptions of supremacist wizards. Half-blood refers to those wizards and witches who have magical and Muggle ancestors in their family trees. Half-bloods are the most common wizard blood, far outnumbering pure-bloods and Muggle-borns. Rowling has stated that, of the Hogwarts annual intake, 50% are half-bloods. Pure-blood supremacists view half-bloods as inferior to them, although superior to Muggles and Muggle- borns. The Malfoy family, a family of wealthy Wizards who showed disdain to Muggles, attempted to maintain blood purity, but found it acceptable to marry half-bloods if there was a death of marriageable pure-bloods. Voldemort is a half-blood, and his most guarded secret which few Wizards know is that his father was Tom Riddle, a Muggle. Severus Snape is also a half-blood (he gave himself the nickname "The Half-Blood Prince"), as his father Tobias Snape was a Muggle. Harry himself is a half-blood, since his pure-blood father, James, married a Muggle-born woman named Lily, and his maternal grandparents were Muggles. Muggle-born is the term applied to wizards and witches whose parents were Muggles. J.K. Rowling has said they are second-most common of the three types of blood status wizards, numbering about 25% in the Wizarding community. They are often believed to be descended from Squibs who married Muggles, and the dormant magical gene may resurface after a couple of generations. Harry Potter's mother, Lily Evans, was a Muggle-born. Unlike children of Wizarding families who get a Hogwarts acceptance letter from an owl, a Hogwarts employee will usually hand-deliver the letter to Muggle-borns in order to meet the Muggle parents and explain. Supremacists typically believe Muggle-borns to be magically deficient, despite examples to the contrary, such as Hermione and Lily, who are exceptionally skilled in their abilities. Pureblood supremacists refer to Muggle-borns with the offensive derogatory term Mudblood. Hagrid was shocked to find out that Draco Malfoy uttered the term to Hermione in order to insult and provoke her, since the slur is never used in proper conversations. Hermione, after being tortured by Bellatrix Lestrange, due to her blood status, decided to reclaim use of the term "Mudblood" with pride instead of shame in an effort to defuse its value as a slur. During Voldemort's rule, Muggle-borns were legally required to register with the Muggle-Born Registration Commission, headed by Dolores Umbridge. During this time, the Department of Mysteries claimed that Muggle-borns acquired their magic by stealing magic and wands from "real" wizards. Other wizards and witches rejected this notion, such as Ron Weasley, who asks how such an accusation can be proven. After the fall of Voldemort, Dolores Umbridge is imprisoned in Azkaban, with the other members of the commission either imprisoned or becoming fugitives. Squib is the term applied to a child who is born of magical parents, but who develops no magical abilities. They are considered to be the opposite of Muggle-born wizards/witches. Squib births are rare: the only Squibs noted as such in the books are Argus Filch, Arabella Figg, and Molly Weasley's second cousin, who was an accountant. The Ministry does not require them to be registered as part of the community. Squibs share some things with wizards and they are aware of and comprehend the wizarding World. They can also see Hogwarts and Dementors, which ordinary Muggles cannot. However, according to Ron's Aunt Muriel, the custom with Squibs has been to send them to Muggle schools and encourage them to integrate into the Muggle world, which is "much kinder" than keeping them in the wizarding world where they will always be "second-class". In contrast to most of the wizarding world's acceptance and even respect for Muggles and Muggle-born wizards and witches, it is often considered embarrassing to have a Squib in the family. Neville once said that his family originally thought he was a Squib, until his great-uncle Algie dropped him out of a second-story window and Neville bounced down the road. Albus Dumbledore's sister, Ariana, was inaccurately rumored to be a squib. Some wizards are the products of unions between humans and magical creatures of more-or-less human intelligence, such as Fleur Delacour and her sister Gabrielle (both quarter veela), Professor Flitwick (a quarter goblin), and Madame Maxime and Hagrid (both half giant). Prejudiced wizards (such as Umbridge) often use the insulting term half-breed to refer to mixed-species wizards and werewolves, or to other beings such as house elves, merpeople and centaurs (who are separate species). The centaurs within the series prefer to exist amongst themselves, with little interaction with humans. The Ministry of Magic is the government for the magical community of Britain. The government is first mentioned in Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone. The Minister for Magic, Cornelius Fudge, is the first minister to make an appearance in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets. The Ministry itself is not shown until Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. As the books progress, the Ministry becomes more corrupt and blind to happenings in the Wizard world, reaching a nadir of corruption during Voldemort's uprising. Known Ministers for Magic include Millicent Bagnold (before the books begin), Cornelius Fudge, Rufus Scrimgeour, Pius Thicknesse (under the Imperius Curse, controlled indirectly by Lord Voldemort), Kingsley Shacklebolt (at first temporarily, but later known to be permanent) and Hermione Granger. The Muggles remain, for the most part, oblivious to the wizarding world. This situation is considered preferable to the alternative by wizards. Most things of magical nature are hidden or otherwise obscured from Muggles; others, such as Dementors, are invisible to them, although they experience the same depression and sense of manifest darkness and despair while near a Dementor. It is commented that Muggles generally dismiss anything they cannot explain. Likewise, to many magical people, many functional aspects of the Muggle world are rarely glimpsed and mysterious. Wizards and witches' attempts to disguise themselves as Muggles, as when they have to venture out onto "normal" streets, often have humorous results. When magic is seen in the muggle world, the Ministry of Magic is often tasked with clean-up. The mispronunciation of common Muggle terms like "telephone", "escalator", "plumber", "firearms" or "policeman", as "fellytone", "escapator", "pumble", "firelegs", and "please- men", respectively, is a running gag in the series. Arthur Weasley is known for being fascinated with the muggle world and has a vast collection of muggle objects. Muggle Studies is an option of study at Hogwarts. However, while some professions require its study, to others it is often considered a "soft option". Hermione surprised Harry by taking the course, as her parents are Muggles. She explained that she thought it would be "fascinating" to study Muggles from the wizarding point of view. The only official relations described with the Muggle world are between the Minister for Magic and the Muggle Prime Minister. In Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince it is revealed that the Minister for Magic privately introduces himself to each new Prime Minister. There is a magical painting in the Prime Minister's office that notifies him of such visits, and a fireplace that is connected to the Floo Network, which is how the Minister for Magic travels to the Prime Minister's office. Minister for Magic Cornelius Fudge informed the Prime Minister of the escape of Sirius Black. Fudge also informed the Prime Minister that several problems he was facing were rooted in the war against Voldemort, and that the Prime Minister's new secretary Kingsley Shacklebolt was an Auror. Fudge treats the Muggle Prime Minister with condescension, and the Muggle Prime Minister is often frustrated by the Minister for Magic. The exact extent to which the secrecy and isolation of the wizarding world is maintained varies. Many references are made to the Ministry of Magic performing memory charms to preserve secrecy; however, some Muggles have necessary interactions with the wizarding world. Hermione's parents are Muggles, but have been seen in Diagon Alley. They are fully aware that magic exists, but they forbade Hermione to use magic to fix her teeth (as dentists, they felt that this was cheating). The Dursleys are also aware of the Wizarding World; Petunia Dursley indicates that she learned of it when her sister, Lily, was accepted for Hogwarts. She shared this information with her husband, who is shown to be contemptuous of the wizarding world even before Harry shows up at their doorstep. There is no indication that Dudley was aware of this until Harry is told about Hogwarts. Along with the families of Muggle-born wizards, there are mixed marriages. Seamus Finnigan reports that his mother was a witch who did not inform his Muggle father of her magical abilities until after they were married. There is also some unspecified financial relationship between the two worlds, as it is possible to exchange Muggle money into wizard money. Hermione's parents are shown doing this in the second book. In Harry Potter and the Prizoner of Azkaban, Harry writes an essay on medieval witch burning, which was cited as the reason behind the introduction of the International Statute of Wizarding Secrecy, and wizards going into hiding from the Muggle world. This is further explored in other novels, and is notably covered in some depth in The Tales of Beedle the Bard, where Albus Dumbledore writes notes after each story that often concern Wizard-Muggle relationships. Part of these 'observations' note how The Tales were modified in the face of anti-Muggle sentiments, in order to remove any pro-Muggle messages for wizards who did not want their children exposed to those messages. This included Lucius Malfoy, who demanded that the Tales be removed from the Hogwarts syllabus. Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them shows that different wizarding governments around the world may have different levels of relationships with Muggles depending on their social and political climate, and that these relationships may even change over time like other political policies. In the movie, Newt Scamander describes American wizarding law in regard to Muggles as "rather backward", and further explains that American wizards are forbidden from having any contact or relationships with Muggles. Since a person's most important capability – magical aptitude – does not depend on sex, sexual equality is highly advanced in the Wizarding World, and the "battle of the sexes" never became much of an issue (for example, Quidditch teams have both male and female players – except for a known example, the Holyhead Harpies, which are an all-female team). The most obvious example of wizard prejudice is a longstanding disdain, even a genocidal hatred, toward Muggles and wizards and witches of Muggle parentage (Muggle- borns, half-bloods) among certain wizards. This has led to a eugenic philosophy among some of the older wizarding families, leading to a practice of "pure-blood" intermarriage that has exposed many of them (such as the Gaunt family) to the risks of mental instability. Other internal tensions include the slavery of house elves and the suspicion or disregard for some species of near-human intelligence ("beings" in Wizard parlance). Voldemort and his allies frequently exploit these divisions to bring non-human magical creatures, particularly werewolves and giants, over to their cause. The magical governments of the world are to some degree united in the International Confederation of Wizards. This organisation has many responsibilities, mostly to enforce the International Statute of Wizarding Secrecy. There is a reference to the Ministry of Magic's Department of International Magical Cooperation and to various international bodies such as the International Magical Trading Standards Body, the International Magical Office of Law, the International Confederation of Wizards and the International Quidditch Association. As noted in the depiction of the Quidditch World Championship in Goblet of Fire, Irish and Bulgarian wizards (and presumably, also those from other countries) can feel a strong national pride and be intensely eager for their country to win – even though Irish and Bulgarian Muggles, who form most of the population in the two countries, are not aware that the Championship is taking place. The books do not refer to the degree to which wars and tensions between Muggle governments (e.g., the World Wars or the Cold War) influence the relations between the respective wizarding governments. However, Rowling has strongly implied that the rise of the dark wizard Gellert Grindelwald and his defeat by Dumbledore in 1945 were related to the rise and fall of the Third Reich. There appears to be no official precursor to a magical education; apparently, wizard parents home-school their children in basic non-magical topics, such as literacy and arithmetic. Muggle-born wizards (or Muggle-raised wizards), however, clearly experience an ordinary Muggle primary education before enrolling at Hogwarts, something that could be viewed as either a cognitive edge or a disadvantage. There are also no compulsory educational laws that exist in the British Wizarding World. Parents may continue to home-school their children, send them to Hogwarts, or send them abroad to other wizarding schools. However, during the time Voldemort had overthrown the Ministry of Magic, attendance at Hogwarts was compulsory, so that his followers could have complete control over the wizarding youth. Following completion of a Hogwarts education, there is no standard tertiary education, and there are no wizard universities. Successful Hogwarts students are considered ready to function as adults, though some wizarding professions do require special, years-long training programmes after finishing Hogwarts. These include the professions of the Auror and the Healer (the wizard physician). Sometimes, the young travel the world to "observe foreign witches and wizards" after graduation to complete their education. In the Deathly Hallows, Elphias Doge describes how his plans to travel the world with his friend Dumbledore were disrupted by the death of the latter's mother. Similarly, Professor Quirrell took time off to gain first-hand experience after a celebrated academic career. The Wizarding Examinations Authority is an organisation responsible for examining students in their fifth and seventh years taking their O.W.L. and N.E.W.T. exams. These relate to the Muggle world's GCSE and A-Level examinations in English, Welsh and Northern Irish schools (National 5 and Higher in Scottish schools) in the UK. The head of the authority, Griselda Marchbanks, is an elderly witch who examined a school-aged Dumbledore in his N.E.W.T.s. Ordinary Wizarding Levels (O.W.L.s) are wizarding examinations taken in the fifth year. O.W.Ls affect what jobs a witch or wizard is eligible for after school, and are presided over by the Wizarding Examinations Authority (see above). Nastily Exhausting Wizarding Tests(N.E.W.T.s) are wizarding examinations taken in the seventh year. N.E.W.T.s are the final tests to see what jobs a witch or wizard is eligible for. While Hermione goes back to Hogwarts to take her exams in the aftermath of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Harry and Ron never take their N.E.W.T.s. In spite of this, Harry manages to become the head of the Department of Magical Law Enforcement at some point in the future. Beauxbatons Academy of Magic in France, Durmstrang Institute for Magical Learning in Northern Europe, Ilvermorny School of Witchcraft and Wizardry in North America, Uagadou in Africa, Mahoutokoro in Japan, Castelobruxo in Brazil, Koldovstoretz in Russia A fictional system of currency is used by the wizards of the United Kingdom. The currency uses only coins as the units of account. It is based on three types of coin; in order of decreasing value, the gold Galleon, the silver Sickle, and the bronze Knut. Wizarding banks provide money-changing services for those with Muggle currency. The only bank seen in the Harry Potter series is Gringotts, which is located in Diagon Alley in London and has hundreds of vaults. Account-holders may use these vaults to store anything they wish. Hagrid indicates that wizards have "just the one" bank, and considers Gringotts to be the most secure place to store valuable or sensitive items aside from Hogwarts. Some Gringotts employees are stationed in countries other than England and tasked with recovering treasure for use by the bank. Bill Weasley is introduced as one such employee, working in Egypt as a Charm- Breaker to extract riches from ancient tombs. The Galleon is the largest and most valuable coin in the British wizard currency. It is gold, round and larger than the other coins in use. Around the rim of the Galleon is inscribed at least one serial number, which identifies the goblin who was responsible for minting the coin. In Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Hermione enchants fake Galleons to show the time and date of the next Dumbledore's Army meeting instead of the serial number. As explained in Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone there are 17 silver Sickles to a gold Galleon, and 29 bronze Knuts to a Sickle. According to Pottermore, the wizards never changed their units of measurement (i.e. feet to metres, ounces to grams, pounds to kilograms, etc.) because they can do the calculations with magic, so strange number conversions do not bother them. In a 2001 interview, J. K. Rowling said a Galleon was approximately five pounds (at the time of the interview approximately US$7.50 or €5.50), although "the exchange rate varies." In the book Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them, it is said that the £174 million raised for charity is equivalent to 34,000,872 Galleons, 14 Sickles, and 7 Knuts (the figure is truncated to "over thirty-four million Galleons" in Quidditch Through the Ages). This means that £5.12 = 1 galleon. However, the book's cover price is £2.50 ($3.99 US), or "14 Sickles and 3 Knuts," which implies either an exchange rate of £3.01 = 1 galleon or a 41% discount to Muggle purchasers. Sports, specifically Quidditch, play an important role in the Wizarding world, and in the Harry Potter series. Quidditch is a team sport played up in the air on brooms. Wizards all around the globe fanatically follow it in a similar manner to football, and the Quidditch World Cup is a major event on the wizard calendar. Not long into his first year at Hogwarts, Harry proves himself a talented Quidditch player and is named to the Gryffindor team as its Seeker, with the role of finding and catching the Golden Snitch. His activities on the Quidditch pitch feature prominently in several of the books. Lee Jordan, two years older than Harry, serves as the commentator for the Quidditch matches at Hogwarts until he graduates. The sport appears in every book except the seventh; school matches are canceled in the fourth due to the need to use the pitch for the Triwizard Tournament, but Harry attends the Quidditch World Cup as a guest of the Weasley family. Other wizard games and sports include Gobstones (a version of marbles in which the stones squirt foul-smelling liquid into the other player's face when they lose a point), Exploding Snap (a card game in which the cards explode), and Wizard Chess (in which the pieces are sentient and under the command of the player). The wizarding world is also home to a number of other wizard spectator sports, such as Creaothceann (a now-banned broom game from Scotland in which players try to catch rocks with cauldrons strapped to their heads), Quodpot (a popular game in the United States involving a Quaffle that explodes), and broom racing. Several magical communication methods are available to the wizarding world. By far the most popular method of communication is via owls. Owls are used for conveying packages, with multiple owls acting in concert to deliver heavier packages. Owls also deliver mail and newspapers, acting as a replacement for the postal service of the Muggle world. If an owl delivers something for which payment is expected, such as a newspaper, the recipient places the money in a small pouch attached to the owl's leg. Not only owls may be used; Sirius Black makes use of a tropical bird, likely a macaw, on one occasion. The Ministry of Magic regulates Owl Mail. How the owls find the recipients of the letters they carry is not specifically stated. In some circumstances, letters have extremely explicit addresses on them (specifying rooms or locations inside of a building). Other times, there is no mention of an address, and the owl is simply told to whom to deliver. The Ministry of Magic used to use owls to deliver inter-office mail within the ministry building, but according to Mr. Weasley, the mess was incredible. Now the ministry uses enchanted memos, which fly throughout the building as paper aeroplanes, rather than owls. In addition, though owls are portrayed as flying directly to the recipient of their package, it is implied that owl traffic can be monitored and even interrupted. There are several references to "the owls being watched" and Harry uses different owls to communicate with Sirius (his godfather) since his snowy owl, Hedwig, would supposedly attract too much attention. On one occasion Hedwig is injured after being intercepted and searched (supposedly by Umbridge). A Patronus is primarily used to repel Dementors. They can also be used for communication by accomplished witches and wizards. Albus Dumbledore devised a method of using Patronuses to deliver vocal messages, putting this to the exclusive use of the Order of the Phoenix. Dumbledore, Minerva McGonagall, Kingsley Shacklebolt, and Arthur Weasley all deliver messages via Patronus in the course of the series. McGonagall is also the only character in the series to have shown the ability to project multiple Patronuses to send multiple messages. Patronuses are also the only known way of repelling Lethifolds. Severus Snape used his Patronus to lead Harry Potter to the forest pool wherein Gryffindor's sword was hidden in The Deathly Hallows. While the Floo Network (a play on the word 'flue') is intended for use as a method of transport, it also occasionally serves as a method of communication. A wizard can throw a pinch of Floo Powder into a lit fireplace connected to the Network and put his/her head into the flames, causing it to appear in the fireplace of the wizard with whom he/she intends to speak. This use of the Network is first seen in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire when Harry sees Amos Diggory's head in the Weasleys' fireplace at The Burrow, talking to Molly Weasley. Harry also uses this method to communicate with Sirius Black on several occasions during the series. The etiquette surrounding using the fireplace for communication is not explicitly addressed in the series. Dumbledore tells Harry it is not polite for a wizard to apparate (appear out of thin air) directly into another wizard's house. However, at one point Harry uses Floo Powder to contact Grimmauld Place unannounced. Severus Snape uses a fireplace to contact Remus Lupin and tell him he wants a word, before speaking to him in person in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. Lord Voldemort uses a method of communication called the Dark Mark, which is like a brand on the inner forearms of the Death Eaters. When the mark is pressed, contact is made with other Death Eaters and Voldemort himself. Pressing one's Dark Mark causes every other Death Eater's mark to burn, signalling them to Disapparate from wherever they were and immediately Apparate to Voldemort's side. Those who follow Voldemort consider the Dark Mark to be of great importance, and while some people are 'lucky' enough to have one, the privilege is restricted to those of 'pure' blood. It is stated that Fenrir Greyback (a vicious werewolf) is not allowed the Dark Mark, which is likely because he is a werewolf. Hermione uses the principle of the Dark Mark in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. Instead of burning/engraving the message into the members of Dumbledore's Army's skin, she uses fake Galleons which all mimic each other and have messages on the rim. Later Malfoy and Madam Rosmerta, who was under the Imperius Curse, used Galleons to contact each other. Apart from the fake Galleons enchanted by Hermione for Dumbledore's Army, there are a few other methods of closed-channel communications used in the books and films. Subjects painted into wizarding portraits are frequently used to carry messages between locations where their portraits hang. Phineas Nigellus (former Hogwarts headmaster and member of the Black Family) is used to send messages between Dumbledore's office and his other portrait in Grimmauld Place. Hermione takes Phineas from Grimmauld Place during Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows and uses Phineas to obtain information about events at Hogwarts. Dumbledore also uses two other former headmasters in a similar fashion when Arthur Weasley is attacked by Nagini in the Ministry of Magic. A portrait is also seen carrying messages between the Minister for Magic and the Muggle Prime Minister in the opening of Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince. Another form of closed communication used in the books and movies is a set of mirrors which belonged to Sirius Black. Sirius gives Harry one mirror in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, with a note explaining to Harry that Sirius and James Potter used to use the mirrors to talk to each other when they were put in separate detentions. In Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Harry uses a shard of his broken mirror to call for help from the Malfoy's cellar, and later finds out that Aberforth Dumbledore had been watching over Harry using Sirius' mirror, which he obtained from Mundungus Fletcher. Flying paper aeroplanes, (referred to as "interdepartmental memos") are used within the Ministry of Magic. In Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix when Arthur Weasley takes Harry to the Ministry of Magic, Mr. Weasley explains that these took the place of the owls to minimise the mess. They are pale violet with MINISTRY OF MAGIC stamped along the edges of the wings. A variation on this method of communication is shown in the movie version of Harry Potter and the Prizoner of Azkaban, when Draco Malfoy sends Harry a note in class in the form of a flying paper crane. Wizards and witches often Apparate to their destinations, which is quite similar to teleportation. It is quite difficult to Apparate; therefore underage wizards and witches are forbidden to do it. There are many examples of failed Apparition attempts made by people who have not passed their "Apparition test", which is like a Muggle driving test. If not Apparating correctly, a person may lose a body part in the process, referred to as "splinching". In Deathly Hallows, Ron gets splinched after being grabbed by Yaxley, a Death Eater. Hermione heals him with a liquid - essence of dittany - that she carried in her bag, a process which takes several days. Bob Ogden, once the head of Magical Law Enforcement, after being attacked by Morfin and Marvolo Gaunt, apparated back to his headquarters, returning with several more policemen to subdue the lawbreakers. Characters in the series make use of several magical devices and artefacts to transport themselves within the Wizarding World and to the Muggle world. Among the most common of these objects are broomsticks, the Floo Network (a network of fireplaces magically connected to one another), the Knight Bus, and the Hogwarts Express. Some characters have been known to enchant Muggle vehicles to have magical features, such as Arthur Weasley's Ford Anglia or Sirius Black's Flying Motorbike. In Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, a discussion is held around the politics of importing flying carpets. Portkeys are used if witches or wizards are unable to Apparate, whether that be because they are unable to or because they have an underage witch or wizard in their company. Portkeys can be almost anything, usually a mundane, everyday object that would easily be overlooked by a muggle. Using the charm "Portus," they are able to carry the user to their destination, so long as the user has hold of the object upon leaving. Portkeys are able to carry multiple people at once, an example being in The Goblet of Fire when Harry, Hermione Granger, the Weasleys and the Diggorys travel to the Quidditch World Cup. Portkeys are usually disguised as rubbish such as a tin can or old sock so Muggles won't notice them. Thestrals are skeletal, winged horses, black in colour, which can only be seen by those who have witnessed death firsthand. They pull the Hogwarts school coaches and can also be tamed and ridden. This method of transportation was used in Order of the Phoenix, when members of the Dumbledore's Army needed to go to the Ministry of Magic to rescue Sirius Black, and also used when transporting Harry from the Dursleys' house to The Burrow in Deathly Hallows. Other magical birds have also been known to be flown; for instance Fawkes the phoenix by Harry, Ron, Ginny and Lockhart in Chamber of Secrets and Buckbeak the hippogriff by Harry, Hermione and Sirius in Prisoner of Azkaban. The Daily Prophet is the most widely read daily newspaper in Britain's wizard community. The articles include moving pictures. Its journalistic integrity is lacking; it has been known to be more concerned about sales than about factual accuracy and is often a mouthpiece for the Ministry of Magic; as described by Rita Skeeter, "The Prophet exists to sell itself!" The Prophet remains respectable for the first three books, but by Goblet of Fire, it has hired Rita Skeeter, an unscrupulous journalist who supplies several thrilling and blatantly false articles. These include an article that, while correctly asserting that Hagrid is part giant, also makes numerous scurrilous accusations about his personal character, and declares Harry "disturbed and dangerous" based on remarks by Draco Malfoy. When Minister Fudge takes the stance of firmly denying Voldemort's return, the Prophet initiates a smear campaign against Dumbledore and Harry, the most influential proponents of the opposing view. After Fudge is forced to admit that Voldemort has returned, the Prophet changes its stance overnight, calling Harry "a lone voice of truth". The newspaper even buys, from The Quibbler, Harry's interview on Voldemort's return and claims it to be exclusive. The editor of The Daily Prophet is Barnabas Cuffe, a former pupil of the Potions master Horace Slughorn. It is unclear how long he has been editor of The Daily Prophet. According to J. K. Rowling, in the events after the book series, Ginny Weasley becomes Senior Quidditch correspondent at The Daily Prophet, after her retirement from the Holyhead Harpies. The Daily Prophet has a late edition named The Evening Prophet, and a weekend edition named The Sunday Prophet. The Warner Bros. Harry Potter website's news and events page has been named after the paper. The Quibbler is a magazine first mentioned in Order of the Phoenix. The magazine's editor is Xenophilius Lovegood. The Quibbler mainstays are conspiracy theories and cryptozoology. Articles in The Quibbler have claimed that Fudge has had goblins cooked in pies, and uses the Department of Mysteries to develop terrible poisons, which he supposedly feeds to people who disagree with him, and that he has a secret army of fire-demons called "heliopaths". Numerous (presumably imaginary) beasts are mentioned in The Quibbler, such as Crumple-Horned Snorkacks (which supposedly live in Sweden and cannot fly), the Blibbering Humdinger and Nargles (which are supposed to infest mistletoe). In Order of the Phoenix, Hermione blackmails Rita Skeeter into writing an article about Harry's encounter with Voldemort. The interview is published by Xenophilius, and he later sells it to the Daily Prophet for a good price (enough to finance an expedition to Sweden to hunt for the Crumple- Horned Snorkack). In Deathly Hallows, Xenophilius continues to support Harry in his magazine until his daughter Luna gets kidnapped to silence him. Harry, Ron, and Hermione visit Xenophilius for information but discover that the latest issue features an anti-Harry story on the cover. Following Voldemort's ultimate defeat, the Quibbler goes back to its condition of advanced lunacy and becomes popular, still being appreciated for its unintentional humour. The most popular radio station is the Wizarding Wireless Network. Harry learns about the popular wizarding band The Weird Sisters from his peers that listen to the WWN. Over Christmas with the Weasley family during Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, the Weasley family listens to Celestina Warbeck on the network. In Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Ron introduces Harry and Hermione to Potterwatch. Potterwatch is an underground anti-Voldemort radio program which is only accessible with a secret password. The Potterwatch episode that the trio listen to features various members of the Order of the Phoenix and is hosted by Lee Jordan. The following are food and beverages unique to the wizarding world: Multitudes of sweets are referred to in the stories; many have a violent or bizarre side effect, especially those created by Fred and George Weasley. Most sweets can be found in the sweetshop Honeydukes. Dumbledore seems to be partial to these as he often uses their names as passwords. Chocolate Frogs are, as the name suggests, frogs made of chocolate, and are very popular wizarding sweets. They are each packaged with a collectible card displaying a magical picture and brief biography of a famous witch or wizard of medieval to modern times. Cards named in the Harry Potter series include wizards such as Merlin, Dumbledore, Nicholas Flamel and the four founders of Hogwarts. According to a web chat with the author, Harry and his friends are eventually featured on a series of Chocolate Frog cards; Ron calling it "his finest hour". Some of the most notable magical sweets such as Bertie Bott's Every- Flavour Beans, Skiving Snackboxes and Cockroach Clusters have been manufactured in real life, mainly by the Jelly Belly candy company. They have produced real versions of Bertie Bott's Every-Flavour Beans odd flavours in and out of the market since 2001. Apart from some "regular" flavours, the company also produces several "unusual" flavours mentioned in the books. Other flavours include bacon, dirt, earthworm, earwax, vomit, rotten egg, sausage, pickle, toast, grass and soap. A description of Honeydukes in the third book says that the store sells candies called Coconut Ice, Ice Mice (which make your teeth chatter and squeak), Fizzing Whizbees, Pepper Imps (which allow you to breathe fire on your friends), Sugar Quills, Cockroach Clusters, self- flossing mints, Drooble's Best Blowing Gum (which make a room fill up with bluebell-coloured bubbles which wouldn't pop for days), Peppermint Creams shaped like toads (which hop in your stomach), Exploding Bonbons, Jelly Slugs, Acid Pops, and blood-flavoured lollipops. Butterbeer is the drink of choice for younger wizards. Harry is first presented with the beverage in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. Although house-elves can become intoxicated on Butterbeer, the amount of alcohol contained in Butterbeer has a negligible effect on Witches and Wizards. J.K. Rowling said in her interview to Bon Appétit magazine that she imagines it "to taste a little bit like less-sickly butterscotch". Butterbeer can be served cold or hot, but either way it has a warming effect. The earliest reference to buttered beer is from The Good Huswifes Handmaide for the Kitchin, published in London in 1588. It was made from beer, sugar, eggs, nutmeg, cloves and butter. Another old recipe for buttered beer, published by Robert May in 1664 from his recipe book The Accomplisht Cook, calls for liquorice root and aniseed to be added. British celebrity chef Heston Blumenthal recreated the drink for his show "Heston's Tudor Feast". It was announced in April 2010 that a drink named after butterbeer would be sold in the theme park The Wizarding World of Harry Potter at Universal Orlando. The beverage is also sold at the Warner Bros. Studio Tour London. It has a sweet taste and is a non-alcoholic beverage. It was taste-tested by J. K. Rowling herself. According to Neil Genzlinger, a staff editor on the culture desk of The New York Times, the beverage "is indistinguishable from a good quality cream soda". Firewhisky is a type of alcohol that wizards under the age of seventeen are not allowed to drink; however, this rule is not always followed. Firewhisky is described as burning the drinkers' throats as they consume it. It can be seen as a very strong whisky, and by all intents is used as such. The characters drink it in the last book when Mad-Eye Moody dies in flight, to numb the shock and toast to his life. Hagrid also drinks it, although in much larger quantities. Pumpkin juice is a cold drink favoured by the Wizarding world, and among the students at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. It is drunk at any occasion, such as breakfast, lunch, at feasts or on other occasions. It seems to have taken on the same role that orange juice has to Muggles. Pumpkin juice is readily available, and can be purchased on the Hogwarts Express. Severus Snape threatened to Harry in his fourth year that he might slip Veritaserum in his morning pumpkin juice while believing that Harry had stolen some of Snape's potion ingredients. Prior to a Quidditch match in his sixth year, Ron Weasley believed that Harry had slipped Felix Felicis into his morning juice to help him play perfectly. Pumpkin juice is one of several speciality beverages developed for Universal's Wizarding World of Harry Potter theme park (along with butterbeer, see above). According to a preview by The New York Times' Neil Genzlinger, "Pumpkin juice (in a cute, pumpkin-topped bottle) is far more interesting [than the park's butterbeer], perhaps because the actual pumpkin content seems minimal – it’s more like a feisty apple cider with a little pumpkin thrown in." Gillywater is a beverage sold in the Harry Potter universe. Professor McGonagall drinks this in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. The Magical Worlds of Harry Potter Harry Potter movies – Official website (Warner Bros.), Harry Potter at Bloomsbury.com (International publisher), Harry Potter at Scholastic.com (US publisher)

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This is a list of single-season records in Major League Baseball. Most Grand Slams By a Pitcher in One Season: Tony Cloninger, Madison Bumgarner, 2 Most runners caught stealing: Jody Davis, 89 (1986), Most stolen bases allowed: Mike Piazza, 155 (1996), Highest caught-stealing %: Mike LaValliere, 72.73% (1993), Most no-hitters caught: 2, Carlos Ruiz (2010) and Wilson Ramos (2015) Drew Brutera (List of Major League Baseball no-hitters) Both of Ruiz's no-hitters were by Roy Halladay; the second was in Game 1 of the National League Division Series, Halladay's first career postseason start. Both of Ramos' no-hitters were by Max Scherzer. In 1914, Yankees catcher Les Nunamaker threw out three runners in the same inning. Most regular season wins (as a team): 116, Seattle Mariners (2001) Denton True "Cy" Young (March 29, 1867 – November 4, 1955) was an American Major League Baseball (MLB) pitcher. Born in Gilmore, Ohio, he worked on his family's farm as a youth before starting his professional baseball career. Young entered the major leagues in 1890 with the National League's Cleveland Spiders and pitched for them until 1898. He was then transferred to the St. Louis Cardinals franchise. In 1901, Young jumped to the American League and played for the Boston Red Sox franchise until 1908, helping them win the 1903 World Series. He finished his career with the Cleveland Naps and Boston Rustlers, retiring in 1911. Young was one of the hardest-throwing pitchers in the game early in his career. After his speed diminished, he relied more on his control and remained effective into his forties. By the time Young retired, he had established numerous pitching records, some of which have stood for over a century. He holds MLB records for the most career wins, with 511, along with most career innings pitched, games started, and complete games. He led his league in wins during five seasons and pitched three no- hitters, including a perfect game. Young was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1937. In 1956, one year after his death, the Cy Young Award was created to honor the best pitcher in each league for each season. Cy Young was the oldest child born to McKinzie Young, Jr. a German American and Nancy Mottmiller. He was christened Denton True Young. The couple had four more children: Jesse Carlton, Alonzo, Ella, and Anthony. When the couple married, McKinzie's father gave him the of farm land he owned. Young was born in Gilmore, a tiny farming community located in Washington Township, Tuscarawas County, Ohio. He was raised on one of the local farms and went by the name Dent Young in his early years. Young was also known as "Farmer Young" and "Farmboy Young". Young stopped his formal education after he completed the sixth grade so he could help out on the family's farm. In 1885, Young moved with his father to Nebraska, and in the summer of 1887, they returned to Gilmore. Young played for many amateur baseball leagues during his youth, including a semi-professional Carrollton team in 1888. Young pitched and played second base. The first box score known containing the name Young came from that season. In that game, Young played first base and had three hits in three at-bats. After the season, Young received an offer to play for the minor league Canton team, which started Young's professional career. Young began his professional career in 1889 with the Canton, Ohio, team of the Tri-State League, a professional minor league. During his tryout, Young impressed the scouts, recalling years later, "I almost tore the boards off the grandstand with my fast ball." Cy Young's nickname came from the fences that he had destroyed using his fastball. The fences looked like a cyclone had hit them. Reporters later shortened the name to "Cy", which became the nickname Young used for the rest of his life. During Young's one year with the Canton team, he won 15 games and lost 15. Franchises in the National League, the major professional baseball league at the time, wanted the best players available to them. Therefore, in 1890, Young signed with the Cleveland Spiders, a team which had moved from the American Association to the National League the previous year. On August 6, 1890, Young's major league debut, he pitched a three-hit 8–1 victory over the Chicago Colts. While Young was on the Spiders, Chief Zimmer was his catcher more often than any other player. Bill James, a baseball statistician, estimated that Zimmer caught Young in more games than any other battery in baseball history. Early on, Young established himself as one of the harder-throwing pitchers in the game. Bill James wrote that Zimmer often put a piece of beefsteak inside his baseball glove to protect his catching hand from Young's fastball. In the absence of radar guns, however, it is impossible to say just how hard Young actually threw. Young continued to perform at a high level during the 1890 season. On the last day of the season, Young won both games of a doubleheader. In the first weeks of Young's career, Cap Anson, the player-manager of the Chicago Colts spotted Young's ability. Anson told Spiders manager Gus Schmelz, "He's too green to do your club much good, but I believe if I taught him what I know, I might make a pitcher out of him in a couple of years. He's not worth it now, but I'm willing to give you $1,000 ($ today) for him." Schmelz replied, "Cap, you can keep your thousand and we'll keep the rube." Two years after Young's debut, the National League moved the pitcher's position back by . Since 1881, pitchers had pitched within a "box" whose front line was from home base, and since 1887 they had been compelled to toe the back line of the box when delivering the ball. The back line was away from home. In 1893, was added to the back line, yielding the modern pitching distance of . In the book The Neyer/James Guide to Pitchers, sports journalist Rob Neyer wrote that the speed with which pitchers like Cy Young, Amos Rusie, and Jouett Meekin threw was the impetus that caused the move. The 1892 regular season was a success for Young, who led the National League in wins (36), ERA (1.93), and shutouts (9). Just as many contemporary Minor League Baseball leagues operate today, the National League was using a split season format during the 1892 season. The Boston Beaneaters won the first-half title, and the Spiders won the second-half title, with a best-of-nine series determining the league champion. Despite the Spiders' second half run, the Beaneaters swept the series, five games to none. Young pitched three complete games in the series, but lost two decisions. He also threw a complete game shutout, but the game ended in a 0-0 tie. The Spiders faced the Baltimore Orioles in the Temple Cup, a precursor to the World Series, in 1895. Young won three games in the series and Cleveland won the Cup, four games to one. It was around this time that Young added what he called a "slow ball" to his pitching repertoire to reduce stress on his arm. The pitch today is called a changeup. In 1896, Young lost a no-hitter with two outs in the ninth inning when Ed Delahanty of the Philadelphia Phillies hit a single. On September 18, 1897, Young pitched the first no-hitter of his career in a game against the Cincinnati Reds. Although Young did not walk a batter, the Spiders committed four errors while on defense. One of the errors had originally been ruled a hit, but the Cleveland third baseman sent a note to the press box after the eighth inning, saying he had made an error, and the ruling was changed. Young later said, that, despite his teammate's gesture, he considered the game to be a one- hitter. Prior to the 1899 season, Frank Robison, the Spiders owner, bought the St. Louis Browns, thus owning two clubs simultaneously. The Browns were renamed the "Perfectos", and restocked with Cleveland talent. Just weeks before the season opener, most of the better Spiders players were transferred to St. Louis, including three future Hall of Famers: Young, Jesse Burkett, and Bobby Wallace. The roster maneuvers failed to create a powerhouse Perfectos team, as St. Louis finished fifth in both 1899 and 1900. Meanwhile, the depleted Spiders lost 134 games, the most in MLB history, before folding. Young spent two years with St. Louis, which is where he found his favorite catcher, Lou Criger. The two men were teammates for a decade. In 1901, the rival American League declared major league status and set about raiding National League rosters. Young left St. Louis and joined the American League's Boston Americans for a $3,500 contract ($ today). Young would remain with the Boston team until 1909. In his first year in the American League, Young was dominant. Pitching to Criger, who had also jumped to Boston, Young led the league in wins, strikeouts, and ERA, thus earning the colloquial AL Triple Crown for pitchers. Young won almost 42% of his team's games in 1901, accounting for 33 of his team's 79 wins. In February 1902, before the start of the baseball season, Young served as a pitching coach at Harvard University. The sixth-grade graduate instructing Harvard students delighted Boston newspapers. The following year, Young coached at Mercer University during the spring. The team went on to win the Georgia state championship in 1903, 1904, and 1905. The Boston Americans played the Pittsburgh Pirates in the first modern World Series in 1903. Young, who started Game One against the visiting Pirates, thus threw the first pitch in modern World Series history. The Pirates scored four runs in that first inning, and Young lost the game. Young performed better in subsequent games, winning his next two starts. He also drove in three runs in Game Five. Young finished the series with a 2-1 record and a 1.85 ERA in four appearances, and Boston defeated Pittsburgh, five games to three games. After one-hitting Boston on May 2, 1904, Philadelphia Athletics pitcher Rube Waddell taunted Young to face him so that he could repeat his performance against Boston's ace. Three days later, Young pitched a perfect game against Waddell and the Athletics. It was the first perfect game in American League history. Waddell was the 27th and last batter, and when he flied out, Young shouted, "How do you like that, you hayseed?" Waddell had picked an inauspicious time to issue his challenge. Young's perfect game was the centerpiece of a pitching streak. Young set major league records for the most consecutive scoreless innings pitched and the most consecutive innings without allowing a hit; the latter record still stands at 25.1 innings, or 76 hitless batters. Even after allowing a hit, Young's scoreless streak reached a then-record 45 shutout innings. Before Young, only two pitchers had thrown perfect games. This occurred in 1880, when Lee Richmond and John Montgomery Ward pitched perfect games within five days of each other, although under somewhat different rules: the front edge of the pitcher's box was only from home base (the modern release point is about farther away); walks required eight balls; and pitchers were obliged to throw side-armed. Young's perfect game was the first under the modern rules established in 1893. One year later, on July 4, 1905, Rube Waddell beat Young and the Americans, 4-2, in a 20-inning matchup. Young pitched 13 consecutive scoreless innings before he gave up a pair of unearned runs in the final inning. Young did not walk a batter and was later quoted: "For my part, I think it was the greatest game of ball I ever took part in." In 1907, Young and Waddell faced off in a scoreless 13-inning tie. In 1908, Young pitched the third no-hitter of his career. Three months past his 41st birthday, Cy Young was the oldest pitcher to record a no- hitter, a record which would stand 82 years until 43-year-old Nolan Ryan surpassed the feat. Only a walk kept Young from his second perfect game. After that runner was caught stealing, no other batter reached base. At this time, Young was the second-oldest player in either league. In another game one month before his no-hitter, he allowed just one single while facing 28 batters. On August 13, 1908, the league celebrated "Cy Young Day." No American League games were played on that day, and a group of All-Stars from the league's other teams gathered in Boston to play against Young and the Red Sox. When the season ended, he posted a 1.26 ERA, which gave him not only the lowest in his career, but also gave him a major league record of being the oldest pitcher with 150+ innings pitched to post a season ERA under 1.50. Young was traded back to Cleveland, the place where he played over half his career, before the 1909 season, to the Cleveland Naps of the American League. The following season, 1910, he won his 500th career game on July 19 against Washington. He split 1911, his final year, between the Naps and the Boston Rustlers. On September 22, 1911, Young shut out the Pittsburgh Pirates, 1-0, for his last career victory. In his final start two weeks later, the last eight batters of Young's career combined to hit a triple, four singles, and three doubles. By the time of his retirement, Young's control had faltered. He had also gained weight. In two of his last three years, he was the oldest player in the league. Young established numerous pitching records, some of which have stood for over a century. Young compiled 511 wins, which is the most in major league history and 94 ahead of Walter Johnson, second on the list. At the time of Young's retirement, Pud Galvin had the second most career wins with 364. In addition to wins, Young still holds the major league records for most career innings pitched (7,356), most career games started (815), and most complete games (749). He also retired with 316 losses, the most in MLB history. Young's career record for strikeouts was broken by Johnson in 1921. Young's 76 career shutouts are fourth all-time. Young led his league in wins five times (1892, 1895, and 1901-1903), finishing second twice. His career high was 36 in 1892. He won at least thirty games in a season five times. He had fifteen seasons with twenty or more wins, two more than the runners-up, Christy Mathewson and Warren Spahn. Young won two ERA titles during his career, in 1892 (1.93) and in 1901 (1.62), and was three times the runner-up. Young's earned run average was below 2.00 six times, but this was not uncommon during the dead-ball era. Although Young threw over 400 innings in each of his first four full seasons, he did not lead his league until 1902. He had 40 or more complete games nine times. Young also led his league in strikeouts twice (with 140 in 1896, and 158 in 1901), and in shutouts seven times. Young led his league in fewest walks per nine innings fourteen times and finished second one season. Only twice in his 22-year career did Young finish lower than 5th in the category. Although the WHIP ratio was not calculated until well after Young's death, Young was the retroactive league leader in this category seven times and was second or third another seven times. Young is tied with Roger Clemens for the most career wins by a Boston Red Sox pitcher. They each won 192 games while with the franchise. In addition, Young pitched three no-hitters, including the third perfect game in baseball history, first in baseball's "modern era". Young also was an above average hitting pitcher in his career. He posted a .210 batting average (623-for-2960) with 325 runs, 18 home runs, 290 RBI and drew 81 bases on balls. From 1891 through 1905, he drove in 10 or more runs for 15 straight seasons, with a high of 28 RBI in 1896. Particularly after his fastball slowed, Young relied upon his control. Young was once quoted as saying, "Some may have thought it was essential to know how to curve a ball before anything else. Experience, to my mind, teaches to the contrary. Any young player who has good control will become a successful curve pitcher long before the pitcher who is endeavoring to master both curves and control at the same time. The curve is merely an accessory to control." In addition to his exceptional control, Young was also a workhorse who avoided injury. For nineteen consecutive years, from 1891 through 1909, Young was in his league's top ten for innings pitched; in fourteen of the seasons, he was in the top five. Not until 1900, a decade into his career, did Young pitch two consecutive incomplete games. By habit, Young restricted his practice throws in spring training. "I figured the old arm had just so many throws in it", said Young, "and there wasn't any use wasting them." Young once described his approach before a game: I never warmed up ten, fifteen minutes before a game like most pitchers do. I'd loosen up, three, four minutes. Five at the outside. And I never went to the bullpen. Oh, I'd relieve all right, plenty of times, but I went right from the bench to the box, and I'd take a few warm-up pitches and be ready. Then I had good control. I aimed to make the batter hit the ball, and I threw as few pitches as possible. That's why I was able to work every other day. Beginning in 1912, Young lived and worked on his farm. In 1913, he served as manager of the Cleveland Green Sox of the Federal League, which was at the time an outlaw league. However, he never worked in baseball after that. Young's wife, Roba, whom he had known since childhood, died in 1933. After she died, Young tried several jobs, and eventually moved in with friends John and Ruth Benedum and did odd jobs for them. Young took part in many baseball events after his retirement. In 1937, 26 years after he retired from baseball, Young was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame. He was among the first to donate mementos to the Hall. By 1940, Young's only source of income was stock dividends of $300 per year ($ today). On November 4, 1955, Young died on the Benedums' farm at the age of 88. He was buried in Peoli, Ohio. Young's career is seen as a bridge from baseball's earliest days to its modern era; he pitched against stars such as Cap Anson, already an established player when the National League was first formed in 1876, as well as against Eddie Collins, who played until 1930. When Young's career began, pitchers delivered the baseball underhand and fouls were not counted as strikes. The pitcher's mound was not moved back to its present position of until Young's fourth season; he did not wear a glove until his sixth season. Young was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1937. In 1956, about one year after Young's death, the Cy Young Award was created to honor the best pitcher in Major League Baseball for each season. The first award was given to Brooklyn's Don Newcombe. Originally, it was a single award covering the whole of baseball. The honor was divided into two Cy Young Awards in 1967, one for the National League and one for the American League. On September 23, 1993, a statue dedicated to him was unveiled by Northeastern University on the site of the Red Sox's original stadium, the Huntington Avenue Grounds. It was there that Young had pitched the first game of the 1903 World Series, as well as the first perfect game in the modern era of baseball. A home plate-shaped plaque next to the statue reads: On October 1, 1903 the first modern World Series between the American League champion Boston Pilgrims (later known as the Red Sox) and the National League champion Pittsburgh Pirates was played on this site. General admission tickets were fifty cents. The Pilgrims, led by twenty- eight game winner Cy Young, trailed the series three games to one but then swept four consecutive victories to win the championship five games to three. In 1999, 88 years after his final major league appearance and 44 years after his death, editors at The Sporting News ranked Young 14th on their list of "Baseball's 100 Greatest Players". That same year, baseball fans named him to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team. 300 win club, List of Major League Baseball career wins leaders, List of Major League Baseball career ERA leaders, List of Major League Baseball career strikeout leaders, List of Major League Baseball career shutout leaders, List of Major League Baseball career hit batsmen leaders, Triple Crown (baseball), List of Major League Baseball annual wins leaders, List of Major League Baseball annual ERA leaders, List of Major League Baseball annual strikeout leaders, List of Major League Baseball annual shutout leaders, List of Major League Baseball annual saves leaders, Major League Baseball titles leaders, List of Major League Baseball no-hitters, List of Major League Baseball individual streaks, List of Major League Baseball player-managers, List of Major League Baseball all-time leaders in home runs by pitchers, Boston Red Sox Hall of Fame a. Although the phrase "perfect game" appeared in record books as early as 1922, and was a common expression years before that, Major League Baseball did not formalize the definition of a "perfect game" until 1991, long after Young's death. Nonetheless, Young's 1955 obituary also used the phrase., b.Although not an actual award, many baseball fans and experts call a pitcher who leads his league in wins, strikeouts, and ERA the Triple Crown winner. Jane Benedum Oral History Interview on Cy Young (1 of 2) - National Baseball Hall of Fame Digital Collection, Jane Benedum Oral History Interview on Cy Young (2 of 2) - National Baseball Hall of Fame Digital Collection Lynn Nolan Ryan Jr. (born January 31, 1947), nicknamed The Ryan Express, is an American former Major League Baseball (MLB) pitcher and a previous chief executive officer (CEO) of the Texas Rangers, and Houston Astros. Over a record 27-year career, Ryan pitched for the New York Mets, California Angels, Houston Astros, and Texas Rangers. He was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1999. Ryan was a right-handed pitcher who consistently threw pitches that were clocked above 100 miles per hour (161 km/h). He maintained this velocity throughout his career, even into his 40s. Ryan was also known to throw a devastating 12–6 curveball at exceptional velocity for a breaking ball. Ryan had a lifetime record of 324–292 (.526) and was an eight-time MLB All-Star. His 5,714 career strikeouts is an MLB record by a significant margin. He leads the runner-up, Randy Johnson, by 839 strikeouts. Similarly, Ryan's 2,795 bases on balls lead second-place Steve Carlton by 962—walking over 50% more hitters than any other pitcher in MLB history. Ryan's lifetime batting average against of .204 is also a major league record. Ryan, Pedro Martínez, Randy Johnson, Trevor Hoffman, and Sandy Koufax are the only five pitchers inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame who had more strikeouts than innings pitched. Ryan is one of only three players in history to have his number retired by at least three teams, along with Jackie Robinson (whose number was retired by Major League Baseball) and Frank Robinson. Ryan is the all-time leader in no-hitters with seven, three more than any other pitcher. He is tied with Bob Feller for the most one-hitters, with 12. Ryan also pitched 18 two-hitters. Despite this, he never pitched a perfect game, nor did he ever win a Cy Young Award. Ryan is one of only 29 players in baseball history to have appeared in Major League baseball games in four different decades. Ryan was born in Refugio, Texas, a small town located just south of Victoria, Texas in south Texas. Ryan was the youngest of six children, to Lynn Nolan Ryan Sr. (1907–1970), and the former Martha Lee Hancock (1913–1990). The senior Ryan operated a newspaper delivery service for the Houston Post that required him to rise in the early morning hours to prepare 1,500 newspapers for delivery over a 55-mile route. The children were expected to help with the daily tasks. Ryan's family lived in nearby Woodsboro, Texas in Refugio County, until they moved to Alvin, Texas in Brazoria County, when Nolan was six weeks old. As a young boy, Nolan enjoyed throwing objects at any target. His father thought baseball a better usage for his arm; therefore, he encouraged Nolan to play the game. Ryan joined Alvin Little League Baseball when he was nine, made the all-star team when he was 11 and 12, and pitched the first no-hitter of his life a few years later. Ryan also played various positions besides pitcher. In junior high school, Ryan could throw a softball over 100 yards. After ninth grade, Ryan quit playing football after a tackle and fumble caused by future NFL running back Norm Bulaich made him decide to focus on baseball. Ryan played baseball for Coach Jim Watson at Alvin High School for all of his high school career. Ryan held the school's single game strikeout record for 44 years, striking out 21 hitters in a 7-inning game. The record was eventually tied by Alvin High School pitchers Aaron Stewart and Josh Land in the same week in 2009. In 1963, at an Alvin High School game at Clear Creek High School in League City, Texas, Red Murff, a scout for the New York Mets, first noticed sophomore pitcher Ryan. Coach Watson recounted to Murff that some opponents refused to bat against Ryan and how his hard pitches would sometimes break bones in his catchers' hands. In his subsequent report to the Mets, Murff stated that Ryan had "the best arm I've seen in my life." The Mets later drafted Ryan. As a senior in 1965, Ryan had a 19–3 record and led the Alvin Yellow Jackets to the Texas high school state finals. Ryan pitched in 27 games, with 20 starts. He had 12 complete games with 211 strikeouts and 61 walks. In 1965, after graduating from Alvin High School, Ryan was drafted by the New York Mets in the 12th round of the 1965 Major League Baseball draft, with the 226th overall pick. Ryan signed with the Mets and immediately pitched for the Marion Mets in the Appalachian League and for the Mets team in the Florida Instructional League. Overall, he was 6–9 in 1965 with a 4.33 ERA and 150 strikeouts in 120 innings. In 1966, Ryan pitched for the Class A Greenville Mets of the Western Carolinas League, where he went 17–2 with a 2.51 ERA and 272 strikeouts in 183 innings. He was then promoted to the Class AA Williamsport Mets of the Eastern League, where he was 0–2 with a with a 0.95 ERA, striking out 35 batters in 19 innings. Overall, Ryan had 307 strikeouts in 202 minor league innings in 1966, earning a late season call-up to the New York Mets. In 1967, Ryan pitched three games in relief for the Class AAA Jacksonville Suns, started one game for the Class A Winter Haven Mets and pitched eight games for the Mets team in the Florida Instructional League. In 34 total innings Ryan had 54 strikeouts in 1967. When Ryan was called by the New York Mets in 1966, he was the second-youngest player in the league. Playing in only two games, his first strikeout was Pat Jarvis, and he gave up his first major league home run to Joe Torre, a future NL MVP and Hall of Fame big-league manager. Ryan missed much of the 1967 season due to illness, an arm injury, and service with the Army Reserve; he pitched only 7 innings for the Mets' minor league affiliate in Jacksonville. In the 1968 season, Ryan returned to stay in the major leagues, until his retirement. Ryan was unable to crack the Mets' pitching rotation, led by Tom Seaver and Jerry Koosman. Ryan was used more as a reliever and spot starter by the 1969 Mets. To deal with frequent blisters on his throwing hand he often soaked his fingers in pickle brine, although the technique's effectiveness was questioned by Ryan's teammates and coaches. Ryan pitched well for the Miracle Mets in the 1969 postseason. Against the Braves in the NLCS, Ryan completed a Mets sweep by throwing seven innings of relief in Game 3, getting his first playoff win (it took him 12 years to get another). Then in the 1969 World Series, Ryan saved Game 3, pitching 2⅓ shutout innings against the Baltimore Orioles. The Game 3 victory gave the Mets a 2–1 lead in the Series, which they went on to win in five games. It was Ryan's only World Series appearance in his career. On April 18, 1970, Ryan tied a Mets record by striking out 15 batters in one game. Four days later, Ryan's teammate, Tom Seaver, topped it with a then MLB record 19 against the San Diego Padres (though Ryan tied this record four years later). Ryan has credited his time with Seaver and the Mets with turning him from just a flamethrower to a pitcher. Contrary to popular belief, Ryan never wanted to be traded from the Mets and felt betrayed by the team that drafted him. His views on this only calmed once he started running the Rangers and gained a better understanding of the business side of baseball. In five seasons with the Mets, 105 games and 74 starts, Ryan had a 29–38 record, with a 3.58 ERA, 1.39 WHIP, with 344 walks and 493 strikeouts in 511 innings. On December 10, 1971, the 25-year-old Ryan was traded to the California Angels along with pitcher Don Rose, catcher Francisco Estrada, and outfielder Leroy Stanton for shortstop Jim Fregosi (who later managed Ryan in Anaheim). The deal has been cited as one of the worst in Mets history but was not viewed as unreasonable at the time given Ryan's relatively unremarkable numbers as a Met. In his first season with the Angels, Ryan was given a chance to pitch regularly as a starter for the first time in his career, mainly because by then he had fulfilled his military obligation and no longer had to commute to Houston every other week. He had a league-leading 329 strikeouts—nearly a third more than the AL runner-up, and to that point, the fourth-highest total of the 20th century. Within five seasons, the season was only Ryan's fourth- highest strikeout total. He also set a still-standing Major League record by allowing only 5.26 hits per nine innings, breaking Luis Tiant's 5.30 in 1968, as well as posting a 2.28 earned run average that year, to date the second lowest in franchise history, trailing only Dean Chance's 1.65 in 1964. Though Ryan's actual winning percentage hovered only slightly over .500, his strikeouts and no-hitters brought him media attention. Meanwhile, Fregosi failed to produce as a Met, making no significant contribution to the Mets' 1973 pennant-winning campaign; he was sold to the Texas Rangers mid-season. Although the Angels were a sub-.500 team and remained one for much of his time there, Ryan managed to post some winning records, notably 19–16 in 1972, 21–16 in 1973 and 22–16 in 1974 (the 22 wins tied what remains the Angels franchise record, set by Clyde Wright in 1970). He finished 2nd in the Cy Young balloting (losing to Jim Palmer 88 to 62) in 1973. It was the closest he ever came in the Cy Young balloting. Ryan also led the league in losses in 1976 with a 17–18 record (one short of the franchise record for losses). In the early 1970s, many teams used a four-man rotation and expected the starter to complete the game; thus most games Ryan started ended in a decision. On July 9, 1972, Ryan struck out three batters on nine pitches in the second inning of a 3–0 win over the Boston Red Sox; he became the seventh American League pitcher to accomplish the immaculate inning, and the first (and currently only) pitcher in Major League history to accomplish the feat in both leagues. (On April 19, 1968, he had struck out three batters on nine pitches in the second inning of a 2–1 win over the St. Louis Cardinals, becoming the eighth National League pitcher and the 14th pitcher in Major League history to accomplish the feat.) In 1973, Ryan set his first major record when he struck out 383 batters in one season, beating Sandy Koufax's old mark by one. Remarking on this feat, Koufax joked, "Yeah, and he also surpassed my total for bases on balls in a single season by 91. I suspect half of those guys he struck out swung rather than get hit." Ryan threw two no-hitters in 1973. In the second one, on July 15 against the Detroit Tigers, he struck out 17 batters – most in a recorded no-hitter. (This record was later tied by Max Scherzer on October 3, 2015.) Ryan was so dominant in this game, it led to one of baseball's best-remembered pranks. Tigers first baseman and cleanup hitter Norm Cash came to the plate with two outs in the bottom of the ninth, having already struck out twice, and was carrying a clubhouse table leg instead of a bat. Plate umpire Ron Luciano ordered Cash to go back and get a regulation bat, to which Cash replied, "Why, I won't hit him anyway!" With a regulation bat in hand, Cash did finally make contact, but popped out to end the game. Pitching 13 innings against the Boston Red Sox on June 14, 1974, Ryan threw 235 pitches, striking out 19, walking 10 and getting a no-decision. During a September 7, 1974 game against the Chicago White Sox at Anaheim Stadium, Ryan became the first Major League pitcher to have his pitch speed measured during a game. A primitive radar gun clocked a ninth inning fastball at when it was in front of home plate. This exceeded an earlier pitch by Bob Feller which was measured at at home plate and previously thought to be the fastest pitch ever recorded. Ryan added a third no-hitter in 1974 and a fourth in 1975, tying another of Koufax's records. In 1974 he twice struck out 19 batters, tying Tom Seaver and Steve Carlton for the single-game record for a nine-inning game. Roger Clemens became the first pitcher with a 20-strikeout game in 1986. The California Angels finally made the playoffs in Ryan's eighth and final year there in 1979. He started Game 1 of the ALCS and threw seven innings against the Orioles' Jim Palmer, but neither man was involved in the decision as Baltimore won in the 10th inning. Ryan was scheduled to pitch Game 5, but the Angels were eliminated in four. The season complete, Ryan became a free agent. Ryan led the American League in strikeouts seven times during his eight seasons with the Angels, but he also led the league in walks in six of those years, and finished second the other two seasons: 1975 and 1979. Aside from Bob Feller in 1938, Ryan is the only man since 1900 to walk 200 batters in a season, which he did twice: in 1974 and 1977. Emblematic of this, his 1974 no- hitter against the Minnesota Twins included eight walks. Though Ryan's strikeouts and no-hitters got him considerable media attention, he did not win over Angels general manager Buzzie Bavasi, who dismissed him as a flashy .500 pitcher (Ryan was 26–27 in the last two years he was with the Angels). In his eight seasons with the Angels, Ryan was 138–121, a 3.07 ERA, 1.29 WHIP, with 1302 walks and 2416 strikeouts in 2181 innings over 288 starts and 156 complete games. On November 19, 1979, Nolan Ryan became the first million dollar player when he signed a four-year free agent contract with the Houston Astros for $4.5 million (equivalent to $ million in ). The salary quadrupled what he had been making with the California Angels. The normally light-hitting Ryan got his Houston years started with a bang in a nationally televised game against the Los Angeles Dodgers on April 12, 1980, when he hit a three-run home run off Don Sutton. It was the first of two homers in Ryan's career and produced half of the six RBIs he got that year. On July 4 of that season, at Riverfront Stadium, Ryan recorded his 3,000th career strikeout, the victim being César Gerónimo of the Cincinnati Reds (Gerónimo had also been Bob Gibson's 3,000th strikeout victim, in 1974). Ryan got his third taste of postseason play in 1980, but the Astros were stopped one game short of the World Series. In the 1980 NLCS versus the Philadelphia Phillies, Ryan pitched well in Game 2, leaving the game tied 2–2 in the seventh (having contributed to both Astros runs with a run scored following a walk, and a sacrifice bunt leading to a run) but again got a no decision in a game that went extra innings. In the fifth and final game of the series, Ryan and the Astros held a 5–2 lead entering the 8th inning. But Ryan allowed three consecutive singles before walking in the third run. The Houston bullpen allowed the Phillies to take a 7–5 lead, and only a game-tying Astro rally permitted Ryan to escape the loss. On September 26, 1981, Ryan threw his fifth no-hitter, breaking Koufax's mark while becoming the third pitcher to throw a no-hitter in each league. That season, his 1.69 ERA won the National League ERA title. Facing the Los Angeles Dodgers in the 1981 NLDS, Ryan threw a complete game 2-hitter in the opener, outlasting the Dodgers' rookie sensation Fernando Valenzuela. It was Ryan's second and last career postseason win. In the fifth and final game of the series, Ryan left trailing 3–0 and took the loss. By the end of the 1982 season, both Ryan and Steve Carlton were approaching Walter Johnson's all-time strikeout record, sometimes passing one another's career totals in successive starts. On April 27, 1983, Ryan won the race with his 3,509th whiff, against Brad Mills of the Montreal Expos. (Carlton reached the same mark two weeks after Ryan, and Gaylord Perry did so later that season.) On July 11, 1985, Ryan struck out Danny Heep for his 4,000th career strikeout. In 1986, Ryan's Astros faced the New York Mets in the National League Championship Series. Ryan had a shaky start in Game 2, taking the loss. He returned in Game 5, throwing 9 innings of 2-hit, 1-run, 12-strikeout ball, but one of those hits was a Darryl Strawberry home run which tied the game at 1–1, as Dwight Gooden matched Ryan pitch for pitch. Ryan got a no-decision as his Astros lost in 12 innings. In 1987, Ryan led the major leagues in both ERA (2.76) and strikeouts (270) at the age of 40—but finished 8–16 as the result of extremely poor run support. (The Astros scored a total of 27 runs in his 16 losses--an average of 1.69 runs per game.) Despite his .333 winning percentage, Ryan tied for 5th place in the 1987 Cy Young voting. Ryan hit his second and last career home run in a 12–3 win on May 1, 1987, against the Atlanta Braves. In nine seasons as a pitcher with the Astros, Ryan compiled a 106–94 record in 282 starts, a 3.13 ERA, 1.20 WHIP, with 796 walks and 1866 strikeouts in 1854 innings. Ryan left Houston after a contract dispute following the 1988 season and signed with the Texas Rangers at age 42. He became the first player to play for all four MLB original expansion teams: the Mets, Angels, Houston Colt .45s/ Astros and Washington Senators/Texas Rangers. (Ryan was joined in this category by Darren Oliver, who made his major league debut as Ryan's teammate in September 1993. Oliver's father Bob had also been a teammate of Ryan's, with the Angels from 1972 to 1974.) In 1989, he went 16–10 and led the league with 301 strikeouts. Against the Oakland Athletics on August 22, Ryan struck out Rickey Henderson to become the only pitcher to record 5,000 career strikeouts. (Following the game, Henderson was quoted as saying, "If he ain't struck you out, then you ain't nobody.") His 4,999th and 5,001st strikeouts were against the same man, Athletics catcher Ron Hassey. Two years later, at 44, Ryan finished fifth in the league in ERA (2.91) and third in strikeouts (203). In 1990, Ryan threw his sixth no-hitter on June 11 against the Athletics, and earned his 300th win on July 31 against the Milwaukee Brewers. On May 1, 1991, at age 44, Ryan extended his record by throwing the seventh no-hitter of his career, striking out Roberto Alomar of the Toronto Blue Jays for the final out. On August 6, 1992, Ryan had the first and only ejection of his career when he was ejected after engaging in a shouting match with Oakland Athletics outfielder Willie Wilson with 2 outs in the 9th inning. Before the 1993 season began, Ryan announced that he would retire as a player at the end of that season. On August 4, just before the end, Ryan had yet another high- profile moment—this time an on-the-mound fight. After Ryan hit Robin Ventura of the Chicago White Sox with a pitch, Ventura charged the mound in order to fight Ryan, who was 20 years his senior. Ryan secured the 26-year-old Ventura in a headlock with his left arm, while pummeling Ventura's head with his right fist six times before catcher Iván Rodríguez was able to pull Ventura away from Ryan. Ryan stated afterwards it was the same maneuver he used on steers he had to brand on his Texas ranch. Videos of the incident were played that evening throughout the country. While Ventura was ejected, Ryan–who had barely moved from his spot on the mound in the fracas–was allowed to remain in the game. White Sox manager Gene Lamont vehemently argued this, leading to his own ejection. Ryan pitched a hitless ball game the rest of the way. He had determined to be more aggressive after coming out on the wrong side of an altercation with Dave Winfield in 1980. Ryan's arm gave out in Seattle on September 22, 1993, when he tore a ligament. The injury ended his career two starts earlier than planned, at age 46. Ryan briefly attempted to pitch past the injury, and he threw one additional pitch after tearing his ligament. With his injured arm, his final pitch was measured at . Ryan's last start was his career worst; he allowed a single, four walks, and a grand slam in the top of the first without recording an out. It was his record-setting 10th grand slam given up of his career. (Ryan left trailing 5–0, and the fourth walk was completed by a reliever after Ryan's injury, but credited to Ryan.) Greg Myers of the California Angels was the last strikeout victim of Nolan Ryan's career, on September 17, 1993. Ryan finished his career having played in a major league record 27 seasons. He was the final active player from the 1960s to retire from Major League Baseball, outlasting Carlton Fisk (the final active position player) by three months. In five seasons with the Rangers, Ryan had a 51–39 record, a 3.43 ERA, 1.12 WHIP, with 353 walks and 939 strikeouts in 840 innings over 129 starts. Ryan threw a record seven no-hitters during his major league career, three more than any other pitcher. The no-hitters spanned three decades of pitching. In those seven games, Ryan accumulated a total of 94 strikeouts and 26 walks; a ratio of 3.6 strikeouts per walk (his career K:BB was 2.0). Ryan struck out 17 in his no-hitter on July 15, 1973 versus Detroit and walked eight in his subsequent no-hitter against Minnesota, both respective highs for his no- hitters. Ryan holds 51 total MLB records, including: 5,714 career strikeouts, 215 career double-digit strikeout games, 7 career no-hitters, 12 career 1-hitters, tied with Bob Feller, 18 career 2-hitters, 31 career 3-hitters, 15 200-strikeout seasons, 6 300-strikeout seasons, 6.555, fewest career hits per nine innings, 5.26, fewest single-season hits per nine innings (1972), Lowest batting average allowed, career (minimum 1500 innings) .204, 26 seasons with at least one win, 2,795 career walks, 10 grand slams allowed (tied), 757 career stolen bases allowed Nolan Ryan's post-retirement business interests include ownership of two minor league teams: the Corpus Christi Hooks, which play in the Class AA Texas League, and the Round Rock Express, a Class AAA team in the Pacific Coast League. Both teams were affiliates of the Houston Astros, for whom Ryan also served as a special assistant to the general manager until selling his interest in the team in the off-season between 2004 and 2005. He became the president of the Texas Rangers in 2008. He became the Rangers' AAA affiliate beginning in 2010; the Hooks are still the Astros' AA affiliate and were purchased by the Astros in 2013 when Nolan's son, Reid Ryan, took office as President of the Houston Astros. Ryan threw out the ceremonial first pitch before Game 3 of the 2005 World Series between the Astros and the White Sox, the first World Series game ever played in Texas. That game went 14 innings, equaling the longest in innings in World Series history (at 5:41, it was the longest in time). ESPN wryly suggested the Astros might have needed to pull the 58-year-old Ryan out of retirement if the game had gone much longer. Ryan has co-written six books: autobiographies Miracle Man (with Jerry Jenkins, 1992), Throwing Heat (with Harvey Frommer, 1988) and The Road to Cooperstown (with Mickey Herskowitz and T.R. Sullivan, 1999); Kings of the Hill (with Mickey Herskowitz, 1992), about contemporary pitchers; and instructional books Pitching and Hitting (with Joe Torre and Joel Cohen, 1977), and Nolan Ryan's Pitcher's Bible (with Tom House, 1991). In addition to his baseball activities, Ryan was majority owner and chairman of Express Bank of Alvin but sold his interest in 2005. He also owned a restaurant in Three Rivers, Texas. He served on the Texas Parks and Wildlife Commission from 1995 to 2001. He appeared as a TV spokesman for Advil for several years, promoting the pain medication he recommended for his own arm. He also has appeared in various television commercials shown in the Texas market. After retiring from baseball, Ryan teamed up with the federal government to promote physical fitness. His likeness was used in the "Nolan Ryan Fitness Guide", published by The President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports in 1994. Ryan suffered a heart attack on April 25, 2000, and had to receive a double coronary bypass. In February 2008, the Rangers hired Ryan as team president. After the 2009 season, Ryan and Chuck Greenberg submitted a bid to purchase the Rangers from owner Tom Hicks. At midnight on August 5, 2010, the Ryan/Greenberg group, Rangers Baseball Express, was announced as the winners of the final auction to purchase the Rangers, after final approval from Major League Baseball. The final cash bid to purchase the franchise was $385 million. The opposing high bidder was Dallas Mavericks owner Mark Cuban. Greenberg became managing general partner and CEO, while Ryan remained as team president. Greenberg left the group in March 2011, reportedly due to a philosophical clash with Ryan. Ryan was immediately named as CEO while keeping the title of president. Although Texas oil magnates Ray Davis and Bob Simpson served as co-chairmen and held larger stakes, Ryan became the undisputed head of the franchise, with Davis and Simpson serving mostly as senior consultants. Ryan was named the Dallas-Fort Worth's 2012 CEO of the Year by Southern Methodist University's Cox School of Business. During the baseball owners' meetings in Scottsdale, Arizona, on March 1, 2013, the Rangers announced that general manager Jon Daniels would add president of baseball operations to his title. Rick George was promoted to president of business operations. Ryan's title was changed simply to CEO, but he remained operating head of the franchise; both Daniels and George reported to him. On October 17, 2013, Ryan announced that he was stepping down as Rangers CEO effective October 31, 2013. On February 11, 2014, Ryan accepted a position as an executive adviser for the Houston Astros under owner Jim Crane. Ryan's son, Reid Ryan, was hired the previous year as president of business operations for the Astros. The Astros won the 2017 World Series and won the 2019 American League pennant. Reid Ryan was demoted by the Astros after the 2019 World Series, and shortly thereafter Nolan Ryan sent a text message to a reporter indicating that he would not return to the Astros front office for the 2020 season. Ryan played in more seasons (27) than any other player in modern (since 1900) major league history. Ryan ranks first all-time in strikeouts (5,714), fewest hits allowed per nine innings (6.56), and no-hitters (7). He is also fifth in innings pitched (5,386), second in games started (773), seventh in shutouts (61) and is tied for 14th in wins (324). Opposing hitters hit only .204 against Ryan during his career, though they had a .309 on-base percentage against him. He also limited hitters to a .298 slugging percentage. Ryan had 15 or more strikeouts in a game 26 times, second only to Randy Johnson, who had 28. Ryan's lengthy career spanned generations as he struck out seven pairs of fathers and sons (for example, Bobby Bonds and Barry Bonds), another major league record. Ryan also played during the administrations of seven U.S. Presidents—Lyndon B. Johnson, Richard M. Nixon, Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush, and Bill Clinton—equaling a 20th-century record that had been set by Jim Kaat. Ryan also ranks high on the list for four "negative" records; he ranks first all-time in walks allowed (2,795), first in wild pitches (277), third in losses (292—most in the post-1920 live- ball era), and ninth in hit batters (158). Ryan was the first pitcher in MLB history to give up ten grand slam home runs, including one to Dann Howitt, the next-to-last batter Ryan faced in his career; he has since been surpassed. Bill James focuses on this dichotomy between Ryan's positive and negative statistics. While ranking him as the 24th best pitcher of all time, he notes, "Ryan has been retired almost ten years [in 2001], in another ten perhaps we will begin to get a little bit of perspective on him. Ryan's log of spectacular accomplishments is as thick as Bill Clinton's little black book; his list of flaws and failures is lengthy but dry, and will never make for good reading." Other writers have delved more into the specifics of James' general concerns. ESPN writer Rob Neyer stated in a 2003 column that while Ryan was among the 20 best pitchers since World War II, he "often had trouble throwing strikes, [and] he wasn't any good at fielding his position". In another column, Neyer, while stating that Ryan belonged in the Hall of Fame, pointed to Ryan's record-breaking walks total and noted that his .309 on-base percentage against "wasn't even close to being in the top 100". Ryan and Frank Robinson are the only two major league players to have their number retired by three teams on which they played. The California Angels (now the Los Angeles Angels) retired the number 30 on June 16, 1992; the Texas Rangers retired his number 34 on September 15, 1996; and the Houston Astros retired number 34 on September 29, 1996. His number was the first retired by the Rangers. He is also one of only nine players to have had their numbers retired by more than one MLB team, with Carlton Fisk (Red Sox and White Sox), Reggie Jackson (Athletics and Yankees), Rollie Fingers (Brewers and Athletics), Hank Aaron (Brewers and Braves), Greg Maddux (Braves and Cubs), Frank Robinson (Reds, Orioles and Indians), Rod Carew (Twins and Angels), and Jackie Robinson (All MLB) being the others. Two managers, Casey Stengel (Yankees and Mets) and Sparky Anderson (Reds and Tigers) also had their numbers retired by more than one team. Ryan was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in , in his first year of eligibility with 98.79% of the vote (491 out of 497 possible), six votes short of a unanimous election and the fourth-highest percentage in history, behind Mariano Rivera (100%, 425 out of 425 possible), Ken Griffey Jr. (99.32%, 437 out of 440 possible), and Tom Seaver (98.84%, 425 out of 430 possible). He chose to wear a Rangers cap for his HOF plaque to reflect his Texas heritage, as well as the fact that his 300th win, 5000th strikeout, and last two no-hitters came as a Ranger. He was the first Hall of Famer inducted as a Ranger. However, the Hall of Fame recognizes the Los Angeles Angels as his primary team. That year, he ranked 41st on The Sporting News list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players and was elected to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team. He was inducted into the Texas Rangers Hall of Fame in 2003, and named the Rangers', and Astros' Hometown Hero in 2006—the only player to be so named by two franchises. In 2011, he was inducted into the Irish American Baseball Hall of Fame. In 1992 the United States Mint produced a $1 commemorative coin honoring Olympic baseball depicting a pitcher in a USA Baseball uniform, but in a pose nearly identical to Ryan's photo on his 1991 Fleer baseball card. The numismatic community subsequently referred to the coin as the "Nolan Ryan dollar." In 1995 the Texas State Legislature declared State Highway 288, which passes near Alvin, as the Nolan Ryan Expressway. The Alvin Independent School District opened Nolan Ryan Junior High School, located at 11500 Shadow Creek Parkway (FM 2234) in Pearland, Texas, just a few hundred yards away from the Nolan Ryan Expressway. Ryan married his high school sweetheart, the former Ruth Holdorff, on June 25, 1967. Nolan and Ruth attended Alvin High School together. Ruth was a high school state tennis champion. They have three children, Reid, Reese, and Wendy. Reid and Reese were both pitchers for the TCU Horned Frogs. Reid also pitched briefly in the minor leagues. On May 17, 2013, Reid was announced as president of the Houston Astros. Nolan frequently pitched in the off seasons, with Ruth often donning catching gear and serving as his catcher. Ruth Ryan also coached her sons' little league teams for a few summers. Nolan Ryan resides in the Cimarron Hills community in Georgetown, a suburb of Austin. Ryan wrote in his 1992 autobiography "Miracle Man" that he voted for Jimmy Carter over Gerald R. Ford Jr. in 1976, but since then has generally identified as a Republican, though he does not automatically vote this way and looks at individual candidates, mentioning disgust at one particular election in which the two major parties were forcing a choice between "the racist or the criminal." He also crossed party lines in 2002 to headline a group of Republicans and Independents supporting a Democratic candidate for Lieutenant Governor of Texas. He has maintained a decades-long friendship with the Bush family, partially due to George W. Bush being a part-owner of the Rangers while Ryan played there, though he did in his 1992 book express some criticisms of the elder Bush's handling of domestic issues and said he wasn't "locked in" to voting for him that fall. In 1996 Ryan campaigned on behalf of Ron Paul in the election for Texas's 14th congressional district; his hometown of Alvin was located in the district. On April 7, 2011, Todd Staples announced that Nolan Ryan would be his statewide chairman for his exploratory committee for lieutenant governor. Ryan is quoted as saying, "Todd Staples is the top prospect for the Texas Republican Party in 2014." Staples, however, lost out in that race to current Lieutenant Governor Dan Patrick of Houston. 300 win club, DHL Hometown Heroes, List of Major League Baseball annual ERA leaders, List of Major League Baseball career wins leaders, List of Major League Baseball no-hitters, List of Major League Baseball annual strikeout leaders, List of Major League Baseball players who played in four decades, List of Major League Baseball single-game strikeout leaders, List of Texas Rangers Opening Day starting pitchers, List of Major League Baseball career hit batsmen leaders, Nolan Ryan's Baseball, List of Major League Baseball pitchers who have struck out three batters on nine pitches, List of Major League Baseball career strikeout leaders, List of Major League Baseball career bases on balls allowed leaders Nolan Ryan at SABR (Baseball BioProject), Nolan Ryan at Baseball Almanac, Nolan Ryan at Baseball Library, Nolan Ryan at Astros Daily, Nolan Ryan at Ultimate Mets Database, The Nolan Ryan Foundation

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Lynda Jean Cordova Carter (born July 24, 1951) is an American actress, singer, songwriter, model, and beauty pageant titleholder, who was crowned Miss World USA 1972 and finished in the Top 15 at the Miss World 1972 pageant. Carter is most widely known as the star of the American live-action television series Wonder Woman, in the role of Diana Prince / Wonder Woman, based on the DC comic book fictional superheroine character of the same name, which aired on ABC and later on CBS from 1975 to 1979. Carter was born in Phoenix, Arizona, the daughter of Juanita (née Córdova) and Colby Carter. Her father is of English and Scots-Irish ancestry, and her mother, whose family hailed from Mexico, is of Mexican, Spanish and French descent. She has one brother, Vincent, and one sister, Pamela. Carter made her public television debut on Lew King's Talent Show at age 5. During high school, Carter performed in a band called Just Us, consisting of a marimba, a conga drum, an acoustic guitar, and a stand-up bass played by another girl. When she was 16, she joined two of her cousins in another band called The Relatives. Actor Gary Burghoff was the drummer. The group opened at the Sahara Hotel and Casino lounge in Las Vegas for three months; because Carter was under 21, she had to enter through the kitchen. Carter attended Arizona State University. After being voted "Most Talented", she dropped out to pursue a career in music. In 1970, Carter auditioned and then sang on tour with The Garfin Gathering, and bandleader Howard (Speedy) Garfin. Their first performance together was in a San Francisco hotel so new that it had no sidewalk entrance. Consequently, they played mostly to the hotel staff and hotel guests who parked their cars in the underground garage. The Garfin Gathering toured the Nevada "Silver Circuit", playing many shows in many casino show lounges between Lake Tahoe, Carson City, Reno, and Las Vegas. Carter decided to leave the Garfin Gathering in 1972 to pursue acting, and she returned to Arizona. In 1972, Carter won a local Arizona beauty contest and gained national attention in the United States by winning Miss World USA, representing Arizona. In the international 1972 pageant, representing the United States, she reached the Top 15. After taking acting classes at several New York acting schools, she made her first acting appearance, in an episode of the 1974 police drama Nakia entitled "Roots of Anger". She soon began making appearances on such TV shows as Starsky and Hutch and Cos, as well as appearances in several "B" movies. Wonder Woman, the fictional superheroine character, was created by the American psychologist and writer William Moulton Marston and artist Harry G. Peter in 1941 for DC Comics. Conceived in the wake of popularity of Superman, Marston designed his creation as counter-programming to the Man of Steel. The Diana Prince/Wonder Woman character is also referred to by such names as the Amazing Amazon, the Spirit of Truth, Themyscira's Champion, and the Goddess of Love and War. Wonder Woman was an instant hit with readers, and for the last 76 years, the character has been the world's most prominent DC comic book female superhero. Carter's acting career took off when she landed the starring role on Wonder Woman as the title character and her secret identity, Diana Prince. The savings she had set aside from her days of touring on the road with her band to pursue acting in Los Angeles were almost exhausted, and she was close to returning to Arizona when Carter's manager informed her that Joanna Cassidy had lost the part to her. Carter's earnest performance greatly endeared her to both fans and critics and as a result, she continues to be closely identified with Wonder Woman. The Wonder Woman series lasted for three seasons, which aired on ABC and later on CBS from 1975 to 1979. For decades, this 1970s TV series has been the version of Wonder Woman most fans picture when they imagine the ageless Amazon, and they would be entirely justified; Carter's performance, rooted in the character's inherent goodness, combined with a comic-accurate costume and a catchy theme song, made for a depiction that was nothing less than iconic. After the show ended, Carter told Us that "I never meant to be a sexual object for anyone but my husband. I never thought a picture of my body would be tacked up in men's bathrooms. I hate men looking at me and thinking what they think. And I know what they think. They write and tell me." In 2017, Carter explained her perspective of portraying the Diana Prince/Wonder Woman character. Carter says she got the role back in 1975 largely because she looked the part, which was both a blessing and – as one of the show's producers warned her – a curse: "Oh, women are going be so jealous of you"... "Well, I said, 'Not a chance. They won't be, because I am not playing her that way. I want women to want to be me, or be my best friend!". As Carter describes Wonder Woman, "There is something about the character where in your creative mind for that time in your life where you pretended to be her, or whatever the situation was, that it felt like you could fly". In 1985, DC Comics named Carter as one of the honorees in the company's 50th anniversary publication Fifty Who Made DC Great for her work on the Wonder Woman series. In 2007, DC Direct released a 13-inch full-figure statue of Carter as Wonder Woman, limited to 5,000 pieces; it was re-released in 2010. Also in 2010, DC Direct began selling a 5½-inch bust of Carter's Wonder Woman to celebrate the DC Comics' 75th anniversary. It is clear that Carter holds the new film and the character introduced more than 75 years ago dear. "Many actresses or actors, they want to divorce themselves from a role because we are actors, we really aren't the people that we play. But I knew very early on that this character is much more than me certainly, and to try to divorce myself from the experiences that other people have of the character is silly" she said. A possible sequel film to the 2017 Wonder Woman was part of the topic of conversation when Carter joined the Library of Congress's Coolidge Auditorium. During production of the 2017 Wonder Woman feature film, director Patty Jenkins approached Carter to appear in a cameo role in the film, as Carter confirmed, "Patty asked me to do a cameo in this. She was in England, and I was doing my concerts", Carter said, explaining she had singing engagements that made her unavailable. "At that time we couldn't get our timing together. So, this next time, if she writes me a decent part, I might do it". While Wonder Woman was being produced, Carter was well recognized and in demand for promotional work. In 1978, Carter was voted "The Most Beautiful Woman in the World" by the International Academy of Beauty and the British Press Organization. She had also signed a modelling contract with Maybelline cosmetics in 1977. In 1979, she appeared in a Diet 7Up commercial along with comedian Don Rickles. Carter continued to pursue her interest in music. During the late 1970s, she recorded the album, Portrait. Carter is credited in several variety television programs for being a co-writer on several songs and making numerous musical guest appearances. She also sang two of her songs in a 1979 Wonder Woman episode, "Amazon Hot Wax". In 1977, Carter released a promotional poster through Pro Arts at the suggestion of her then-husband and manager, Ron Samuels. The poster was very successful despite Carter's dissatisfaction with it. In 1981 during an interview on the NBC television special Women Who Rate a 10, she said: It's uncomfortable because I just simply took a photograph. That's all my participation was in my poster that sold over a million copies, was that I took a photograph that I thought was a dumb photograph. My husband said, "Oh, try this thing tied up here, it'll look beautiful". And the photographer said "the back-lighting is really terrific". So dealing with someone having that picture up in their... bedroom or their... living room or whatever I think would be hard for anyone to deal with. In 1979's Apocalypse Now, she was originally cast in the role of Playboy Playmate Bunny, but the filming of her scenes was interrupted by the storm that wrecked the theater set, prompting nearly two months' delay for rebuilding. By the time Francis Ford Coppola, the director of the film was ready to shoot again, Carter's contractual obligations to Wonder Woman had forced her back to the States, and her scenes were reshot with Colleen Camp. The only evidence remaining of Carter's involvement are the Playboy centerfolds that were specially shot by the magazine as movie props. At one point in the Redux version of Apocalypse Now, a glimpse of Carter's pinup is visible, as the only nude work ascribed to the actress outside of Bobbie Jo and the Outlaw. After Wonder Woman ended, Carter had many opportunities in music, film and television. In 1980 Carter initially made a guest appearance on The Muppet Show. In the episode's running gag, Kermit the Frog repeatedly reminded the other Muppets that their guest was Carter and not Wonder Woman, but to no avail, as they ineptly attempted to become superheroes by taking a correspondence course, and Miss Piggy portrayed "Wonder Pig", a spoof of Carter's iconic television character. She was quickly given a variety of her own musical TV specials, including Lynda Carter's Special (1980), Encore! (1980), Celebration (1981), Street Life (1982), and Body And Soul (1984). She landed the title role in a biographical film of actress Rita Hayworth (born Margarita Carmen Cansino), titled (1983). Carter's next major role after Wonder Woman was in the crime drama television series, Partners in Crime with Loni Anderson in 1984. She then portrayed Helen Durant in the 1989 CBS television film where she booby-trapped Las Vegas entertainer Johnny Roman (Edward Winter), her husband Doctor Carl Durant, and his employee accountant Brad Peters (Jim Carrey) to their deaths. Throughout the 1990s, Carter appeared in a string of television movies that resulted in a resurgence in television appearances. She also appeared in commercials for Lens Express (now 1-800 Contacts). Around that time, Carter created her own production company, Potomac Productions. In 1993, Carter expanded her performance resume to include voice-over work as the narrator for the Sandra Brown book Where There's Smoke. The new millennium saw Carter continuing to work in various areas. Because of the resyndication of Wonder Woman on such cable networks as FX and SyFy, Carter participated in two scheduled on-line chat sessions with fans. In 2000, Carter hosted the I Love 1978 episode of BBC2's I Love the '70s. In 2004, she won an award for being the "Superest Superhero" on the Second Annual TV Land Awards that same year. When an announcer reported that an invisible plane was double-parked illegally and needed to be moved before it was towed, she performed her spinning transformation once again after 25 years, although a younger actress wore the star-spangled outfit at that moment. Carter performed in a variety of film roles, making up a majority of her film work, in the 2000s. In 2001, she was cast in the independent comedy feature Super Troopers, as Vermont Governor Jessman. The writers and stars of the film, the comedy troupe Broken Lizard, with Jay Chandrasekhar directing, had specifically sought Carter for the role. Inspired by the character detour from her usual roles, she agreed to play a washed-up, former beauty queen in The Creature of the Sunny Side Up Trailer Park (2004), directed by Christopher Coppola. Carter made her first appearance in a major feature film in a number of years in the big-screen remake of The Dukes of Hazzard (2005), also directed by Chandrasekhar. She also appeared in Disney's action comedy film Sky High (2005) as Principal Powers, the headmistress of a school for superheroes. The script allowed Carter to poke fun at her most famous character when she states: "I can't do anything more to help you. I'm not Wonder Woman, y'know". In 2006, she guest-starred in the made-for-cable vampire film Slayer. The following year, Carter returned to the DC Comics' television world in the Smallville episode "Progeny" (2007), playing Chloe Sullivan's Kryptonite- empowered mother. Carter expanded her voice-over work to include video games, performing voices for the nord and orsimer (orc) females in two computer games of The Elder Scrolls series beginning in 2002, and including , and . These games were developed by Bethesda Softworks; her husband, businessman Robert A. Altman, is chairman and CEO of Bethesda's parent company, ZeniMax Media. As if all this was not enough, Carter decided to do a variety of theater projects. From September to November 2005, Carter played "Mama Morton" in the West End London production of Chicago. In 2006, her rendition of "When You're Good to Mama" was officially released on the Chicago: 10th Anniversary Edition CD box set. In May 2007, Carter began touring the U.S. with her one-woman musical cabaret show, An Evening with Lynda Carter. She played engagements at such venues as Feinstein's at Loews Regency in New York, Jazz at Lincoln Center, the Kennedy Center in Washington, D.C., the Razz Room in San Francisco, and the Catalina Jazz Club in Los Angeles. In June 2009, her second album, At Last, was released and reached No. 10 on Billboard's Jazz Albums Chart. In June 2011, Carter released her third album, Crazy Little Things, which she describes as a delightful mix of standards, country, and pop tunes. In 2015, Carter wrote and recorded five original songs for the video game Fallout 4, in which she herself stars. An EP of the songs from the game's soundtrack was released on iTunes on November 6, 2015. The song "Good Neighbor" from the EP was nominated by NAVGTR for best song under the category of Song, Original or Adapted. In 2018, Carter released her fourth album titled Red, Rock n' Blues with her All-Star Band which featured two vocals with her daughter, Jessica Carter Altman. Carter is among the interview subjects in Superheroes: A Never-Ending Battle, a three-hour documentary narrated by Liev Schreiber that premiered on PBS in October 2013. Carter, fellow Wonder Woman actress Gal Gadot, DC Entertainment President Diane Nelson, Wonder Woman director Patty Jenkins and U.N. Under- Secretary General Cristina Gallach appeared at the United Nations on October 21, 2016, the 75th anniversary of the first appearance of Wonder Woman, to mark the character's designation by the United Nations as its "Honorary Ambassador for the Empowerment of Women and Girls". The gesture was intended to raise awareness of UN Sustainable Development Goal No. 5, which seeks to achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls by 2030. However, the decision was met with protests from UN staff members who stated in their petition to UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon that the character is "not culturally encompassing or sensitive", and served to objectify women. As a result, the character was stripped of the designation, and the project ended December 16. In 2017, Carter rejoined the DC Comics film and television family on the second season of The CW's Supergirl television series in the role of President Olivia Marsdin. Executive producer Andrew Kreisberg described Carter's presence on the show as "a big stand to necessitate Supergirl (Melissa Benoist) and the DEO protecting her". Lynda Carter and the French singer Michel Polnareff had a romantic relationship in 1973 before she played the role of Wonder Woman. Carter has been married twice. Her first marriage was to her former talent agent, Ron Samuels, from 1977 to 1982. In January 1984, Carter married Washington, D.C. attorney Robert A. Altman, law partner of Clark Clifford (and now CEO of ZeniMax Media). She left Hollywood in 1985 to join her husband in Washington DC for a few years. Carter and her husband have two children: James (born January 1988), and Jessica (born 1990), and live in Potomac, Maryland, in a home they built in 1987, shortly before the birth of their son. The 20,000 square foot Georgian-style mansion was profiled in the premiere issue of Closer magazine in November 2013, as well as on HGTV. In 1993, after a lengthy and highly publicized jury trial stemming from his involvement with the Bank of Credit and Commerce International and its secret acquisition of First American Bankshares Inc., Altman was acquitted. Carter was seen on the TV news with her arm around him, declaring, "Not guilty! Not guilty!" to the gathered reporters. In 2003, Carter revealed that her mother had suffered from irritable bowel syndrome for over 30 years, resulting in Carter touring the country as an advocate and spokeswoman. Carter is also a staunch advocate and supporter of Susan G. Komen for the Cure, Pro-Choice rights for women, and legal equality for LGBT people. She was the Grand Marshal for the 2011 Phoenix Pride Parade and the 2011 New York Pride Parades, as well as the 2013 Capital Pride Parade in Washington, D.C. In a June 4, 2008 interview with People magazine, Carter stated that she had in the past entered a rehabilitation clinic for treatment of alcoholism and that she had been sober for nearly 10 years. When she was asked what the recovery process had taught her, Carter explained that the best measure of a human being is "how we treat the people who love us, and the people that we love". Carter states that she is committed to her recovery from alcoholism and addiction. She credits her husband's intervention for her ultimate acceptance of personal powerlessness over alcoholism, stating in a 2016 Council on Recovery interview that, "After 18 years of recovery, I live every day with immense gratitude. I am forever thankful for my family and friends who stood by me and encouraged me… and for those who helped me heal." Through her inspiring story, Carter shares the power and grace of vulnerability, faith, and surrender that she believes nourish lasting recovery. Celebrating over 20 years of sobriety, Carter continues to guest speak at various health and well-being events. Her recovery story, and its message of hope, is directed to every member of the family. It is a strong reminder that family support can make a huge difference to a recovering addict or alcoholic. In 1985, DC Comics named Carter as one of the honorees in the company's 50th anniversary publication Fifty Who Made DC Great for her work on the Wonder Woman series. In 2014, a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs, California, Walk of Stars was dedicated to Carter's career. Carter's dedication is the 369th honoree on the Palm Springs Walk of Stars. In 2016, Carter received a Lifetime Achievement Award at the Gracie Awards. The Gracie Awards ceremony is presented by the Alliance for Women in Media Foundation (AWM), since 1975. On April 3, 2018, the Hollywood chamber of commerce proudly honored Carter with the 2,632nd Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. The Star was dedicated in the category of Television and is located at 6562 Hollywood Boulevard, California. Hollywood Chamber of Commerce President and CEO, Leron Gubler, unveiled the Star with the assistance of guest speakers, director Patty Jenkins and former CBS chairman Leslie Moonves. Gal Gadot Varsano (, ; born 30 April 1985) is an Israeli actress and model. At age 18, she was crowned Miss Israel 2004. She then served two years in the Israel Defense Forces as a fitness/combat readiness instructor, and she began studying law and international relations at IDC Herzliya college while building up her modeling and acting careers. Gadot's first international film role came as Gisele Yashar in Fast & Furious (2009), a role she reprised in subsequent installments of the film franchise. She went on to earn worldwide fame for portraying Wonder Woman in the DC Extended Universe, beginning with (2016), followed by the solo film Wonder Woman and the ensemble Justice League (both 2017). In 2018, Gadot was included on Times annual list of the 100 most influential people in the world, and she was listed among the highest-paid actresses in the world. Gal Gadot was born in Petah Tikva, Israel, and raised in its neighbouring city of Rosh HaAyin. In Hebrew, her first name means "wave" and her surname means "riverbanks". Her parents are Irit (née Weiss), a teacher, and Michael Gadot, an engineer. Both her parents were born in Israel, and they Hebraized their surname from "Greenstein" to "Gadot" prior to her birth. Her father is a sixth-generation Sabra. Her maternal grandparents were born in Europe; her grandfather, who was imprisoned in the Auschwitz concentration camp, survived the Holocaust, and her grandmother left before the Nazi invasion. Gadot has stated that she was brought up in a "very Jewish, Israeli family environment". Her ancestry is Polish-Jewish, Austrian-Jewish, German-Jewish, and Czech- Jewish. She has one younger sister. Her high school major was biology. She says that in high school she was good at basketball because of her height. As a teenager, her first jobs were babysitting and working at Burger King. As an adult, Gadot started studying law and international relations at the IDC Herzliya college. Gadot completed her two mandatory years of service in the Israel Defense Forces, enlisted as a combat instructor. She said of her time in the Israeli military: "You give two or three years, and it's not about you. You learn discipline and respect." Gadot says that her background helped her to win the role of Gisele in Fast & Furious: "I think the main reason was that the director Justin Lin really liked that I was in the military, and he wanted to use my knowledge of weapons." At age 18, Gadot won the 2004 Miss Israel beauty pageant and next competed in the Miss Universe 2004 pageant in Ecuador. She carried out her mandatory two- year military service from the age of 20, then studied law. Gadot has led international campaigns as a model for Miss Sixty, Huawei smartphones, Captain Morgan rum, Gucci fragrances and Vine Vera skincare ranges, and Jaguar Cars. In 2015, she became the face of Gucci's Bamboo perfume brand. She has been featured as the covergirl on Cosmopolitan, Glamour, Bride Magazine, Entertainment Weekly, UMM, Cleo, Fashion, Lucire, FHM. Gadot has been the main model for fashion brand Castro in 2008–16. In 2013, her combined annual modelling and acting salary was estimated at NIS 2.4 million, which was ahead of a number of other famous Israeli models such as Esti Ginzburg and Shlomit Malka, though significantly behind Bar Refaeli. In 2007, 21-year-old Gadot was in the Maxim photo shoot, "Women of the IDF", and was then featured on the cover of the New York Post. In April 2012, Shalom Life ranked her Number 5 on its list of "the 50 most talented, intelligent, funny, and gorgeous Jewish women in the world", behind model Bar Refaeli and actress Eva Green. In 2014, Gadot was one of two Israeli actresses, along with Odeya Rush, listed as an upcoming leading lady by InStyle magazine. After Gadot had completed her first year of college, a casting director contacted her agent to have Gadot audition for the part of Bond girl Camille Montes in the spy film Quantum of Solace. Although the part eluded her, a few months later, Gadot starred in the 2008 Israeli drama Bubot. Three months later, the casting director from her Quantum of Solace audition chose Gadot over six other actresses for the role of Gisele Yashar in the action film Fast & Furious, the fourth film in the Fast & Furious franchise. Gadot performed her own stuntwork in those films. In 2010, she had small roles in the action- comedy Date Night and the action-adventure comedy Knight and Day. 2011 brought her back to the Fast & Furious franchise, reprising her role as Gisele in Fast Five, and in 2013's Fast & Furious 6. Gadot portrayed Wonder Woman in the superhero film (2016). Gadot received swordsmanship, Kung Fu, kickboxing, capoeira and Brazilian jiu-jitsu training in preparation for the role. Gadot's performance as the superhero, which was the character's first appearance in film, was hailed as one of the best parts of the film. Also in 2016, she had a small role in John Hillcoat's crime-thriller Triple 9, where she starred along with Kate Winslet and Aaron Paul. Later that year, she co-starred in the action crime thriller film Criminal, as the wife of Ryan Reynolds' character, alongside Kevin Costner, Gary Oldman, and Tommy Lee Jones. Her final film of 2016 was the action comedy Keeping Up with the Joneses, in which she played a secret agent, alongside Zach Galifianakis, Jon Hamm, and Isla Fisher. In 2017, Gadot starred in a solo film for her character, Wonder Woman. She reprised the role in the ensemble film Justice League, which was released in November 2017, and was her third DC Extended Universe instalment. In 2017 Gadot was also invited to become a member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Emily Shire stated that Gadot's acting defies some of the stereotypes of women, especially as many Jewish women were portrayed on film as unattractive or the funny sidekick. Gadot provided the voice of Shank in the Walt Disney Animation Studios' film Ralph Breaks the Internet. Gadot, fellow Wonder Woman actress Lynda Carter, DC Entertainment President Diane Nelson, Wonder Woman director Patty Jenkins and U.N. Under-Secretary General Cristina Gallach appeared at the United Nations on 21 October 2016, the 75th anniversary of the first appearance of Wonder Woman, to mark the character's designation by the United Nations as its "Honorary Ambassador for the Empowerment of Women and Girls". The gesture was intended to raise awareness of UN Sustainable Development Goal No. 5, which seeks to achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls by 2030. The decision was met with protests from UN staff members who stated in their petition to UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon that the character is "not culturally encompassing or sensitive" and served to objectify women. As a result, the character was stripped of the designation, and the project ended 16 December. Gadot was also featured in the music video for Maroon 5's single "Girls Like You" featuring Cardi B. In July 2018, during a break in filming Wonder Woman 1984, Gadot visited a Virginia children's hospital in costume as Wonder Woman. Gadot was named as pitchwoman for Smartwater in 2020, replacing Jennifer Aniston who served in that role since 2008. Gadot married Israeli real estate developer Yaron Varsano in 2008. They have two daughters, one born in 2011, and another in 2017. Gadot and her husband owned a boutique hotel in Tel Aviv, which she helped to run. They sold their hotel to Roman Abramovich in 2015 for $26 million. Israeli fashion, Women in Israel, Women in the Israel Defense Forces Diane Colleen Lane (born January 22, 1965) is an American actress. Born and raised in New York City, Lane made her screen debut in George Roy Hill's 1979 film A Little Romance. She has since appeared in several notable films, including the 2002 film Unfaithful, which earned her Satellite, New York Film Critics Circle, and National Society of Film Critics awards for Best Actress in a Motion Picture (Drama). Her performance in Unfaithful also garnered her Academy Award, Golden Globe, and Screen Actors Guild Award nominations for Best Actress. Lane has starred in The Outsiders (1983), Knight Moves (1992), Judge Dredd (1995), A Walk on the Moon (1999), The Perfect Storm (2000), Under the Tuscan Sun (2003), Cinema Verite (2011), Trumbo (2015), and in the sixth season of House of Cards. She played Martha Kent in Man of Steel (2013), (2016), and Justice League (2017). Lane was born January 22, 1965, in New York City. Her mother, Colleen Leigh Farrington (1936–2015), was a nightclub singer and Playboy centerfold (Miss October 1957), who was also known as "Colleen Price". Her father, Burton Eugene Lane (1930–2002), was a Manhattan drama coach who ran an acting workshop with John Cassavetes, worked as a cab driver, and later taught humanities at City College. When Lane was 13 days old, her parents separated. Lane's mother went to Mexico and obtained a divorce while retaining custody of Lane until she was six years old. Lane's father received custody of her after Lane's mother moved to her native state, Georgia. Lane and her father lived in a number of residential hotels in New York City and she rode with him in his taxi. When Lane was 15, she declared her independence from her father and flew to Los Angeles for a week with actor and friend Christopher Atkins. Lane later remarked, "It was reckless behavior that comes from having too much independence too young." She returned to New York and moved in with a friend's family, paying them rent. In 1981, she enrolled in high school after taking correspondence courses. However, Lane's mother kidnapped her and took her back to Georgia. Lane and her father challenged her mother in court, and six weeks later, she was back in New York. Lane did not speak to her mother for the next three years, but they eventually reconciled. Lane's grandmother, Eleanor Scott, was a Pentecostal preacher of the Apostolic denomination, and Lane was influenced theatrically by the demonstrative quality of her grandmother's sermons. Lane began acting professionally at the age of six at the La MaMa Experimental Theatre Club in New York, where she appeared in a production of Medea. When Lane was 12 years old, she had a role in Joseph Papp's production of The Cherry Orchard with Meryl Streep and Irene Worth. At this time, Lane was enrolled in an accelerated program at Hunter College High School; however, her grades suffered from her busy schedule. When Lane was 13, she turned down a role in Runaways on Broadway to make her feature-film debut opposite Laurence Olivier in A Little Romance. Lane won high praise from Olivier, who declared her "The New Grace Kelly". At the same time, Lane was featured on the cover of Time, which declared her one of Hollywood's "Whiz Kids". In the early 1980s, Lane made a successful transition from child actor to adult roles. She was cast as the teenaged female outlaw Little Britches in the 1981 Lamont Johnson film, Cattle Annie and Little Britches, with Amanda Plummer in her own debut role as Cattle Annie. 1982 as Heather (Breezy) with Kenny Rogers in Six Pack. Lane's breakout performances came with back-to-back adaptations of young adult novels by S. E. Hinton, adapted and directed by Francis Ford Coppola: The Outsiders and Rumble Fish, both in 1983. Both films also featured memorable performances from a number of young male actors who would go on to become leading men in the next decade (as well as members of the so-called "Brat Pack"), including Tom Cruise, Rob Lowe, Judd Nelson, C. Thomas Howell, Emilio Estevez, Patrick Swayze, Mickey Rourke, Nicolas Cage, and Matt Dillon. Lane's distinction among these heavily male casts advanced her career while affiliating her with this young generation of male actors. Andy Warhol proclaimed her, "the undisputed female lead of Hollywood's new rat pack". However, the two films that could have catapulted her to star status, Streets of Fire (she turned down Splash and Risky Business for this film) and The Cotton Club, were both commercial and critical failures, and her career languished as a result. After The Cotton Club, Lane dropped out of the movie business and lived with her mother in Georgia. According to the actress, "I hadn't been close to my mom for a long time, so we had a lot of homework to do. We had to repair our relationship because I wanted my mother back." Lane returned to acting to appear in The Big Town and Lady Beware, but Lane had not made another big impression on a sizable audience until 1989's popular and critically acclaimed TV miniseries Lonesome Dove, and was nominated for an Emmy Award for her role. She came very close to being cast as Vivian Ward in 1990's blockbuster hit Pretty Woman (which had a much darker script at the time), but due to scheduling conflicts, was unable to take the role. Apparently, costume fittings were made for Lane, before the role fell to Julia Roberts. She was given positive reviews for her performance in the independent film My New Gun, which was well received at the Cannes Film Festival. She went on to appear as actress Paulette Goddard in Sir Richard Attenborough's big-budget biopic of Charles Chaplin, 1992's Chaplin. Over the next seven years Lane would star in ten movies, including Jack and Judge Dredd. It wasn't until 1999 that Lane earned further recognition for her role in A Walk on the Moon. The film also stars Liev Schreiber, Viggo Mortensen, and Anna Paquin. One reviewer wrote, "Lane, after years in post-teenaged- career limbo, is meltingly effective." The film's director, Tony Goldwyn, described Lane as having "... this potentially volcanic sexuality that is in no way self-conscious or opportunistic." Lane earned an Independent Spirit Award nomination for Best Female Lead. At this time, she was interested in making a film about actress Jean Seberg in which she would play Seberg. In 2000, Lane had a supporting role as Mark Wahlberg's love interest in The Perfect Storm. In 2002, she starred in Unfaithful, a drama film directed by Adrian Lyne and adapted from the French film The Unfaithful Wife. Lane played a housewife who indulges in an affair with a mysterious book dealer. The film featured several sex scenes, and Lyne's repeated takes for these scenes were very demanding for the actors involved, especially for Lane, who had to be emotionally and physically fit for the duration. Unfaithful received mostly mixed reviews, though Lane earned widespread praise for her performance. Besides winning the Best Actress National Society of Film Critics Award and the New York Film Critics Circle Award, she also received Best Actress Academy Award and Golden Globe nominations. Entertainment Weekly critic Owen Gleiberman stated that "Lane, in the most urgent performance of her career, is a revelation. The play of lust, romance, degradation, and guilt on her face is the movie's real story." Following Unfaithful, Lane starred in Under the Tuscan Sun, a film based on the best-selling book by Frances Mayes for which Lane won a further Best Actress Golden Globe nomination. This was followed by lead roles in Fierce People, Must Love Dogs, and Hollywoodland. In 2008, Lane reunited with Richard Gere for the romantic drama Nights in Rodanthe. It is the third film Gere and Lane filmed together, and is based on the novel of the same title by Nicholas Sparks. Lane also co-starred in Jumper and Untraceable in the same year. She then appeared in Killshot with Mickey Rourke, which was given a limited theatrical release before being released on DVD in 2009. While promoting Nights in Rodanthe, she expressed frustration with being typecast and stated that she was "gunning for something that's not so sympathetic. I need to be a bitch, and I need to be in a comedy. I've decided. No more Miss Nice Guy." Lane had even contemplated quitting acting and spending more time with her family if she is unable to get these kinds of roles. She said in an interview, "I can't do anything official. My agents won't let me. Between you and me, I don't have anything else coming out." Despite her concerns with being typecast, Lane signed on to Secretariat (2010), a Disney film about the relationship between the 1973 Triple Crown-winning racehorse and his owner, Penny Chenery, whom Lane portrayed. Lane then starred in Cinema Verite (2011), an HBO movie about the making of the first reality television show An American Family. Lane earned Emmy, Screen Actors Guild, Satellite, and Golden Globe award nominations for her portrayal of Pat Loud. In 2012, Lane was featured in the PBS documentary Half the Sky: Turning Oppression into Opportunity for Women Worldwide (produced by Show of Force along with Fugitive Films), which showcased women and girls living under very difficult circumstances and bravely fighting to challenge them. Following the success of Cinema Verite, Lane starred in Zack Snyder's Superman film Man of Steel, playing Martha Kent. Snyder said of her casting, "We are thrilled to have Diane in the role because she can convey the wisdom and the wonder of a woman whose son has powers beyond her imagination." Lane reprised her role as Martha Kent in (2016) and Justice League (2017). Shortly after the release of Man of Steel, Lane was tapped to play Hillary Clinton in an NBC miniseries, Hillary, which was supposed to "start with the Monica Lewinsky morning-after ... And then continue on until she was embarking on her [2008] presidential bid." Intense media backlash ultimately caused NBC to cancel the series. In 2015, Lane appeared in the drama Every Secret Thing (alongside Dakota Fanning and Elizabeth Banks), had a voice role in the Pixar animated feature Inside Out, and co-starred in the biopic Trumbo (opposite Bryan Cranston and Helen Mirren), which received a Screen Actors Guild nomination for Best Ensemble Cast. Besides Justice League, Lane appeared in two other films in 2017: Eleanor Coppola's Paris Can Wait and . In the end of 2012, and before her divorce from Josh Brolin in early 2013, Lane returned to her theater roots and headlined a production of the David Cromer directed Sweet Bird of Youth (by Tennessee Williams) at the Goodman Theatre in Chicago. Lane played Princess Kosmonopolis, a fading Hollywood movie star, opposite Finn Wittrock, who portrayed Chance, her attractive gigolo. This was the first time she had done a stage play since 1989, when she played Olivia in William Shakespeare's Twelfth Night at the American Repertory Theater in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Lane returned to theatre in the winter of 2015, starring with Tony Shalhoub in the off-Broadway original production of Bathsheba Doran's The Mystery of Love and Sex. In 2016, nearly four decades after she first appeared on Broadway, Lane starred in a play in which she previously performed: Chekhov's The Cherry Orchard (1977). While Lane played a child peasant (with no lines) in Broadway's 1977 run of the play, this time she played the lead role of Madame Lyubov Andreyevna Ranevskaya. In 2018, Lane starred in the Amazon original miniseries The Romanoffs, which premiered in October, and as Annette Shepherd in the final season of Netflix's hit series House of Cards, which was released on the streaming service on November 2. These roles "seemingly "mark[ed] rare TV appearance[s] for Lane, who has primarily worked in film throughout her career." In 2019, she played one of Matthew McConaughey's character's love interests in the thriller Serenity. She will also star in an untitled Reed Morano-directed film with Jeff Bridges (whom she previously worked with in Wild Bill), in addition to starring in the forthcoming series on FX based on the post-apocalyptic science fiction comic book series . Lane will also co- star with Kevin Costner in the up-coming thriller Let Him Go. Lane met actor Christopher Lambert in Paris while promoting The Cotton Club in 1984. They had a brief affair and split up. They met again two years later in Rome to make a film together, entitled Priceless Beauty, and in two weeks they were a couple again. Lane and Lambert married in October 1988 in Santa Fe, New Mexico. They have a daughter Eleanor Lambert, born on September 5, 1993. Following a prolonged separation, they were divorced in 1994. Lane became engaged to actor Josh Brolin in July 2003 and they were married on August 15, 2004. On December 20 of that year, she called police after an altercation with him, and he was arrested on a misdemeanor charge of domestic battery. Lane declined to press charges, however, and the couple's spokesperson described the incident as a "misunderstanding". Lane and Brolin filed for divorce in February 2013. Their divorce was finalized on December 2, 2013. Lane is also involved in several charities, including Heifer International, which focuses on world hunger, and Artists for Peace and Justice, a Hollywood organization that supports Haiti relief. However, she tries not to draw attention to her humanitarian efforts: "Sometimes I give with my heart. Sometimes I give financially, but there's something about [helping others] that I think ought to be anonymous. I don't want it to be a boastful thing." Lane was featured heavily in the documentary Half the Sky, based on the book . The documentary had Lane and several other A-list actresses/celebrities visit Africa and other areas where women are oppressed. Lane has become very much an ambassador for this kind of work and charity work in general. On August 22, 2014, Diane Lane was honored for her work with Heifer International at its third annual Beyond Hunger: A Place at the Table gala at the Montage Beverly Hills. Lane says working with Heifer International has affected her life and nurtured the relationship she has with her daughter. At age 6, Lane landed her first acting role in La Mama Experimental Theatre Company's 1971 production of Medea in which she played Medea's daughter. From then until 1976, she performed with La MaMa, E.T.C. in New York and toured with them abroad. Some of the plays she performed in include The Trojan Women, Electra, Bertolt Brecht's The Good Woman of Szechuan, Federico García Lorca's Blood Wedding, Paul Foster's The Silver Queen, and Shakespeare's As You Like It. Most of these plays were directed and/or adapted by Andrei Șerban and Elizabeth Swados. From 1976 to 1977, Lane appeared in The Cherry Orchard and Agamemnon at New York's Vivian Beaumont Theater. After participating in the first production of Runaways when it was off-Broadway, Lane took a decade-long hiatus from theatre. In 1989, Lane returned to the stage to play Olivia in Twelfth Night at the American Repertory Theater in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Lane took another hiatus from theatre until 2012, when she starred opposite Finn Wittrock in Sweet Bird of Youth at the Goodman Theatre in Chicago (directed by David Cromer). Lane then returned to New York theatre and starred off-Broadway in Bathsheba Doran's The Mystery of Love and Sex in 2015 (alongside Tony Shalhoub) and in Broadway's revival of Chekhov's The Cherry Orchard in 2016 (alongside Joel Grey and Harold Perrineau). Four days before the New York Film Critics Circle's vote in 2002, Lane was given a career tribute by the Film Society of Lincoln Center. A day before that, Lyne held a dinner for the actress at the Four Seasons Hotel. Critics and award voters were invited to both. She went on to win the National Society of Film Critics, the New York Film Critics Circle awards and was nominated for a Golden Globe and an Academy Award for Best Actress. In 2003, she was named ShoWest's 2003 Female Star of the Year, and was a co-recipient of the Women in Film Crystal Award honoring outstanding women in entertainment. Lane ranked at No. 79 on VH1's 100 Greatest Kid Stars. She was ranked No. 45 on AskMen.com's Top 99 Most Desirable Women in 2005, No. 85 in 2006 and No. 98 in 2007. 2003: Honored as the Female Star of the Year by the ShoWest Convention., 2004: Received the American Riviera Award during the Santa Barbara International Film Festival., 2012: Received the Outstanding Achievement in Cinema Award during the Savannah Film Festival., 2017: Received the Career Achievement Award during the Sarasota Film Festival. Diane Lane at Film Reference, Diane Lane at Emmys.com

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The TI-84 Plus is a graphing calculator made by Texas Instruments which was released in early 2004. There is no original TI-84, only the TI-84 Plus and TI-84 Plus Silver Edition models. The TI-84 Plus is an enhanced version of the TI-83 Plus. The key-by-key correspondence is relatively the same, but the 84 features some improved hardware. The archive (ROM) is about 3 times as large, and CPU about 2.5 times as fast (over the TI-83 and TI-83 Plus). A USB port and built-in clock functionality were also added. The USB port on the TI-84 Plus series is USB On-The-Go compliant, similar to the next generation TI- Nspire calculator, which supports connecting to USB based data collection devices and probes, and supports device to device transfers over USB rather than over the serial link port.. In 2015, Texas Instruments released the TI-84 Plus T in the Netherlands. This model is very similar to the original TI-84 Plus, but features an LED to indicate whether or not the calculator is in Exam Mode. The hardware of the TI-84 Plus T is similar to the TI-84 Plus Silver Edition, with 96 16 kB pages of archive memory, for a total of 1540 kB. However, unlike the TI-84 Plus, the TI-84 Plus T does not allow users to execute assembly programs. The TI-84 Plus T has 2 different Exam Modes available with different levels of restrictiveness. The most restrictive level does not allow for any existing programs to be accessed, and does not allow any new programs to be created. This mode makes the LED blink green. The second, more moderate Exam Mode is the same, apart from three additional applications being allowed (PlySmlt2, Inequalz and Conics). This mode makes the LED blink orange. The TI-84 Plus Silver Edition was released in 2004 as an upgrade to the TI-83 Plus. Like the TI-83 Plus Silver Edition, it features a 15 MHz Zilog Z80 processor and 24 kB user available RAM. The chip has 128 kB, but TI has not made an OS that uses all of it. Newer calculators have a RAM chip that is only 48 kB. All calculators with the letter H or later as the last letter in the serial code have fewer ram pages, causing some programs to not run correctly. There is 1.5 MB of user-accessible Flash ROM. Like the standard TI-84 Plus, the Silver Edition includes a built-in USB port, a built-in clock, and assembly support. It uses 4 AAA batteries and a backup button cell battery. The TI-84 Plus Silver Edition comes preloaded with a variety of applications. These programs are also available for the TI-84 Plus, but some must be downloaded separately from TI's website. It is manufactured by Kinpo Electronics. TI offers a special yellow version of the TI-84 Plus, inscribed with the words "School Property", for schools to loan out to students. This special design was produced in effort to combat theft. Owners can buy other interchangeable colored face-plates and slide-cases online. A kickstand-style slide case and other accessories are also available. Although graphing calculators have been called inexpensive in education reform research, the TI-84 Plus Silver Edition cost $139.00 as of 2013 on the TI online store. This calculator has been discontinued in favor of the TI-84 Plus C Silver Edition. In 2011, TI launched for the French market a miniaturized version of the TI-84 Plus : the TI-84 Pocket.fr. In 2012, TI launched for the Asian market a miniaturized version of the TI-84 Plus Silver Edition : the TI-84 Plus Pocket SE. The TI-84 Plus C Silver Edition was first publicly referenced in October 2012 in a tweet from TI. Even though this tweet had gone unnoticed, in November 2012, it was discovered through a leak from a pilot class (the Cemetech user that leaked it, 0rac343, was part of said class) that TI was developing a color-screen TI-84 Plus, tentatively called the TI-84 Plus C Silver Edition. It has a high-resolution 320x240-pixel color screen driven by the Ilitek ILI9335 LCD controller, a modified version of the 2.55MP operating system, a removable 1200mAh rechargeable lithium-ion battery and keystroke compatibility with existing math and programming tools. It has the standard 2.5mm I/O (DBUS) port and a mini-USB port for connectivity and charging. More details about the calculator's math and programming features were published when TI began distributing review models in February 2013, and even more when the calculator was released in 2013. This calculator was not received well by everyone as it is fairly slow (to the point of missing key presses and making the program editor unusable) compared to the older monochrome ones. This was mainly due to the fact that TI used the same TA3 ASIC as in late model TI-84 Plus/SE calculators, meaning it still used a 6/15 MHz dual-mode Z80. On October 30th 2014, Cemetech user Val managed to overclock their TI-84 Plus C Silver Edition by replacing resistor R07D with a 5 kiloohm potentiometer. Soon after, Botboy3000 showed off his version with a color coded speed control knob. These experiments proved the calculator was perfectly stable up to a blazing 22Mhz. It is still unclear why TI limited it, but one possibility is that they wanted to sell more calculators later (namely the more powerful successor, the TI-84 Plus CE). The TI-84 Plus C Silver Edition is still the last calculator to have a version of the Christopher "Kerm Martian" Mitchell's famous Doors CS GUI that, which despite the calculator's overall sluggishness, makes it an attractive purchase especially on the used calculator market. Due to being able to run 3rd party operating systems (such as KnightOS) and community- produced apps (both things which the CE cannot do), this calculator is the last super-hackable calculator from TI. The TI-84 Plus CE was publicly previewed by TI Education in January 2015, and released Spring 2015. The calculator retains the 320x240-pixel color screen, rechargeable battery, and key layout of the TI-84 Plus C Silver Edition, while removing the 2.5mm I/O ("DBUS") linkport and moving the USB port and charging LED to the right side of the handheld. The calculator's OS 5.x is incompatible with the TI-84 Plus C Silver Edition's hardware. The calculator has 154KB of user-accessible RAM and 3.0MB of Archive memory. It uses the eZ80 processor from Zilog, making all Z80 assembly programs from previous 84 Plus series calculators incompatible. The CE comes in multiple colors, Classic (black), Silver Linings, Radical Red, True Blue, Denim (navy blue), Lightning (light blue), Plum Pi (purple), Positively Pink (as of March 2015), Golden Ratio, and Bright White (as of June, 2016). Like the rest of the 84 Plus series, it is allowed on most standardized tests. The calculator comes programmed with seven different languages (English, French, German, Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish, and Swedish). In 2016, the TI-84 Plus CE-T was released for the European educational market. The only significant difference from the CE model is the addition of an LED that blinks while the calculator is in Press-to-Test mode. CE calculators revision M and later (manufactured on and after April 2019) contain a faster flash chip (Winbond 25Q32JVSIQ) than previous revisions, which contained a Winbond W29GL032C. Due to this change, more recent revisions have seen a significant improvement in overall speed. There are three different types of programs which can be downloaded or programmed into the calculators: TI-BASIC, Z80 assembly language, and Flash applications (also written in Z80 assembly). The TI84+CE is different in that programs are written in TI-BASIC, eZ80 assembly language, or in the C programming language. In addition, there are programs available that are able to compile or interpret other programming languages. Also, there are several languages developed by community members for the calculators, notably ICE, which is for the TI84+CE, and Axe, which is for the TI84+ and TI84+SE. There are a wide range of applications that this produces, from science classes, to games, to calculus to note taking (when put together with a separately sold keyboard). The TI-84 Plus Series is exactly like its predecessor in that it can be used on the SAT and ACT examinations as well as International Baccalaureate examinations. However, in some cases those administering the exam may reset the calculator's memory beforehand to prevent cheating through the use of built in programs or other data. When OS 2.30 was initially released, users noticed the speed of graphing was greatly reduced. The explanation was that the update added asymptote checking in graphing. In January 2006, Texas Instruments released v2.40 of the operating system for the TI-84 Plus series. The most noticeable addition to the new OS was the "Press- To-Test" feature that allowed a teacher to disable any programs installed on the calculator, so they cannot be used on tests, etc. As of OS version 2.53MP which was released in February 2010, support was added for prettyprinted expressions. However, some programs stopped working correctly in this OS version, or were running slower. The current OS version is 2.55MP which was released in January 2011. In July 2009, a community-made patch was released which allowed user-made operating systems to be easily uploaded onto the TI-84 plus series. Shortly after the patch was developed, the RSA keys for the calculator's operating system were factored via the General number field sieve (GNFS) algorithm, making a software patch unnecessary. In response to this, Texas Instruments released a newer hardware revision which only accepts other, stronger RSA keys, making it harder to load user-made operating systems or older TI operating systems (2.53MP and earlier). The community has found a way around the newest limitation by discovering a way to revert to older versions of the boot code. Critics point out that the basic design of the TI-84 has not changed since it was released in 2004, contrary to the trend of rapid design change occurring in other areas of electronics manufacturing. CPU: Zilog Z80 15 MHz, with 6 MHz compatibility mode., Flash ROM, Plus Edition: 480 KB user accessible of 1 MB, Silver Edition: 1.5 MB user accessible of 2 MB, Third-party software permits usage of FAT16-formatted USB drives, RAM: 24 KB RAM user accessible of 128 KB (48 KB on newer models), Display, Text: -16-×|8| characters (normal font), Graphics: 96 (0-95) ×64 (0-63) pixels, monochrome (software grayscale can be used) LCD, I/O, Link port, 9.6 kbit/s, 50 button built-in keypad, USB, Power, Silver Edition: 4 AAA batteries plus 1 SR44SW or 303 silver oxide battery for backup, C Silver Edition and CE: Rechargeable lithium-ion battery, Integrated programming languages: TI-BASIC and machine code. Assembly requires a computer with a Z80 assembler or an on-calc assembler. The TI-84 Plus is based heavily on its predecessor, the TI-83 Plus. As with all other calculators in the series, the TI-84 Plus supports native Z80 assembly as well as TI's interpreted, BASIC-like language for calculators, dubbed TI-BASIC. Programming for the TI-84 Plus is nearly identical to programming for the TI-83 Plus, with a few new functions in both TI-BASIC and the calculator's assembly support that do not exist on earlier models and OS versions. Several attempts have been made at creating a C to Zilog Z80 assembly assemblers, such as SDCC. The TI84+CE series can be programmed in TI- BASIC, eZ80 assembly, or with the C programming language. The TI-84 Plus calculators' dialect of TI-BASIC is the same as that of the TI-83 Plus series, but with a few more commands including ones for date and time. Texas Instruments, Comparison of Texas Instruments graphing calculators, Cemetech, TI-Basic TI Education Portal, ticalc.org The flagship hobbyist program- and game-hosting archives, How Texas Instruments Monopolized Math Class How students are using DonorsChoose to raise money to buy TI graphing calculators The TI-83 series is a series of graphing calculators manufactured by Texas Instruments. The original TI-83 is itself an upgraded version of the TI-82. Released in 1996, it was one of the most popular graphing calculators for students. In addition to the functions present on normal scientific calculators, the TI-83 includes many features, including function graphing, polar/parametric/sequence graphing modes, statistics, trigonometric, and algebraic functions, along with many useful applications. Although it does not include as many calculus functions, applications (for the TI-83 Plus—see below) and programs can be downloaded from certain websites, or written on the calculator. TI replaced the TI-83 with the TI-83 Plus calculator in 1999, which included Flash memory, enabling the device's operating system to be updated if needed, or for large new Flash Applications to be stored, accessible through a new Apps key. The Flash memory can also be used to store user programs and data. In 2001, the TI-83 Plus Silver Edition was released, which featured approximately nine times the available flash memory, and over twice the processing speed (15 MHz) of a standard TI-83 Plus, all in a translucent grey case inlaid with small "sparkles." The TI-83 was redesigned twice, first in 1999 and again in 2001. The 1999 redesign introduced a design very similar to the TI-73 and TI-83 Plus, eliminating the sloped screen that had been common on TI graphing calculators since the TI-81. The 2001 redesign (nicknamed the TI-83 "Parcus") introduced a slightly different shape to the calculator itself, eliminated the glossy grey screen border, and reduced cost by streamlining the printed circuit board to four units. The TI-83 was the first calculator in the TI series to have built in assembly language support. The TI-92, TI-85, and TI-82 were capable of running assembly language programs, but only after sending a specially constructed (hacked) memory backup. The support on the TI-83 could be accessed through a hidden feature of the calculator. Users would write their assembly (ASM) program on their computer, assemble it, and send it to their calculator as a program. The user would then execute the command "Send (9prgmXXX" (where XXX is the name of the program), and it would execute the program. Successors of the TI-83 replaced the Send() backdoor with a less-hidden Asm() command. The TI-83 Plus is a graphing calculator made by Texas Instruments, designed in 1999 as an upgrade to the TI-83. The TI-83 Plus is one of TI's most popular calculators. It uses a Zilog Z80 microprocessor running at 6 MHz, a 96×64 monochrome LCD screen, and 4 AAA batteries as well as backup CR1616 or CR1620 battery. A link port is also built into the calculator in the form of a 2.5mm jack. The main improvement over the TI-83, however, is the addition of 512 kB of Flash ROM, which allows for operating system upgrades and applications to be installed. Most of the Flash memory is used by the operating system, with 160 kB available for user files and applications. Another development is the ability to install Flash Applications, which allows the user to add functionality to the calculator. Such applications have been made for math and science, text editing (both uppercase and lowercase letters), organizers and day planners, editing spread sheets, games, and many other uses. Designed for use by high school and college students, though now used by middle school students in some public school systems, it contains all the features of a scientific calculator as well as function, parametric, polar, and sequential graphing capabilities; an environment for financial calculations; matrix operations; on-calculator programming; and more. Symbolic manipulation (differentiation, algebra) is not built into the TI-83 Plus. It can be programmed using a language called TI-BASIC, which is similar to the BASIC computer language. Programming may also be done in TI Assembly, made up of Z80 assembly and a collection of TI provided system calls. Assembly programs run much faster, but are more difficult to write. Thus, the writing of Assembly programs is often done on a computer. The TI-83 Plus Silver Edition is a newer version of the TI-83 Plus calculator, released in 2001. Its enhancements are 1.5 MB of Flash memory, a dual-speed 6/15 MHz processor, 96 kB of additional RAM (but TI has yet to code support for the entire RAM into an OS), an improved link transfer hardware, a translucent silver case, and more applications preinstalled. This substantial Flash memory increase is significant. Whereas the TI-83+ can only hold a maximum of 10 apps (or more often less, dependent on size), the Silver Edition can hold up to 94 apps. It also includes a USB link cable in the box. It is almost completely compatible with the TI-83 Plus; the only problems that may arise are with programs (e.g. games) that may run too quickly on the Silver Edition or with some programs which have problems with the link hardware. The key layout is the same. A second version of the TI-83 Plus Silver Edition exists, the ViewScreen™ (VSC) version. It is virtually identical, but has an additional port at the screen end of the rear of the unit, enabling displays on overhead projectors via a cable and panel. This feature can be useful when demonstrating to a student who does not know what to do. It looks similar to the standard TI-83 Plus, but has a silver-colored frame, identical to the standard Silver Edition, around the screen. The TI-83 Plus Silver Edition is listed on the Texas Instruments website as "discontinued." In April 2004, the TI-83 Plus Silver Edition was replaced by the TI-84 Plus Silver Edition. They feature the same processor and the same amount of Flash memory, but the TI-84 Plus Silver Edition features a built in USB port, clock, and changeable faceplates. CPU: Zilog Z80 CPU, 6 MHz (TI-83, 83+), or 15 MHz (Silver Edition), or Inventec 6S1837 (TI-83+ revision A), ROM, 24 kB ROM (TI-83), Flash ROM: 512 kB with 163 kB available for user data and programs (83+) or 2 MB (Silver Edition), RAM: 32 kB RAM with 24 kB available for user data and programs (128 kB on Silver Edition, however the extra 96 kB is not user accessible by default, this extra memory is used in some Applications such as Omnicalc for a RAM recovery feature and a virtual calc), Display, Text: 16×8 characters (normal font), Graphics: 96×64 pixels, monochrome 3" LCD, I/O, Link port, 9.6 kbit/s, 50 button built-in keypad, Power: 4 AAA batteries plus 1 CR 1616 or CR 1620 for backup, Integrated programming languages: TI-BASIC, Assembly language and machine code. C requires a computer with a Z80 cross-compiler or an on-calc assembler. The TI-83 Plus series are very similar in the languages natively supported by the calculator. These include "TI-ASM" (an unofficial name for the native Z80 assembly language on which the calculator is based) and "TI-BASIC", an interpreted language used by all of TI's calculators. Z80 assembly language gives a programmer much more power over the calculator than the built-in language, TI-BASIC. On the downside, Z80 assembly is more difficult to learn than TI-BASIC. Z80 assembly language can be programmed on the computer and sent to the calculator via USB port, written by hand directly into the program editor (using the hexadecimal equivalents to the op-codes) or compiled using third party compiler programs. Programs written in assembly are much faster and more efficient than those using TI-BASIC, as it is the processor's native language, and does not have to be interpreted. An example program that displays "Hello World!" on the screen is given. Note that b_call() is not an instruction, but a macro (syntactic sugar) for calling an OS routine. TI-BASIC is the built in language for TI-83 series calculators, as well as many other TI graphing calculators. TI-BASIC is a non-structured programming language, meaning it is arranged sequentially, without the use of methods or organized blocks of code. Due to its simplicity and the ubiquity of TI calculators in school curricula, for many students it is their first experience with programming. Below is an example of a Hello World program equivalent to the assembly language example. The TI-84 Plus series was introduced in April 2004 as a further update to the TI-83 Plus line. Despite the new appearance, there are very few actual changes. The main improvements of the TI-84 Plus and TI-84 Plus Silver Edition are a modernized case design, changeable faceplates (Silver Edition only), a few new functions, more speed and memory, a clock, and USB port connectivity. The TI-84 Plus also has a brighter screen with a clearer contrast, though this caused a bug with the LCD driver in some calculators sold. The TI-84 Plus has 3 times the memory of the TI-83 Plus, and the TI-84 Plus Silver Edition has 9 times the memory of the TI-83 Plus. They both have 2.5 times the speed of the TI-83 Plus. The operating system and math functionality remain essentially the same, as does the standard link port for connecting with the rest of the TI calculator series. While mobile devices and the internet have superseded any calculator's capabilities, standardized testing precludes the use of those devices. Furthermore, textbooks have been tailored for the TI-83 effectively giving the calculator a "monopoly in the field of high school mathematics." TI continued to rely on RSA cryptographic signing keys only 512 bits long for many years after it was known that longer keys were necessary for security. 512-bit keys had been publicly cracked in 1999 as part of the RSA Factoring Challenge. In 2009, a group of enthusiasts used brute force and distributed methods to find all of the cryptographic signing keys for the TI calculator firmware, allowing users to directly flash their own operating systems to the devices. The key for the TI-83+ calculator was first published by someone at the unitedti.org forum. They needed several months to crack it. The other keys were found after a few weeks by the unitedti.org community through a distributed computing project. Texas Instruments then began sending out DMCA take-down requests to a variety of different websites mirroring the keys, including unitedTI and reddit.com. They then became subject to the Streisand effect and were mirrored on a number of different sites, including WikiLeaks. Comparison of Texas Instruments graphing calculators, Calculator Gaming, Cemetech, SDCC can compile C code for the TI-83, Z88DK, an SDCC derived cross compiler Features of the TI-83 Plus, and TI-83 Plus Silver Edition Texas Instruments Product Info, TI-83 Plus Guide Book Texas Instruments Product Documentation, How Texas Instruments Monopolized Math Class How students are using DonorsChoose to raise money to buy TI graphing calculators The TI-89 and the TI-89 Titanium are graphing calculators developed by Texas Instruments (TI). They are differentiated from most other TI graphing calculators by their computer algebra system, which allows symbolic manipulation of algebraic expressions—equations can be solved in terms of variables, whereas the TI-83/84 series can only give a numeric result. The TI-89 is a graphing calculator developed by Texas Instruments in 1998. The unit features a 160×100 pixel resolution LCD screen and a large amount of flash memory, and includes TI's Advanced Mathematics Software. The TI-89 is one of the highest model lines in TI's calculator products, along with the TI- Nspire. In the summer of 2004, the standard TI-89 was replaced by the TI-89 Titanium. The TI-89 runs on a 16-bit microprocessor, the Motorola 68000, which nominally runs at 10, 12 MHz, depending on the calculator's hardware version. Texas Instruments has allocated 256 total kB of RAM for the unit (190 kB of which are available to the user) and 2 MB of flash memory (700 kB of which is available to the user). The RAM and Flash ROM are used to store expressions, variables, programs, tables, text files, and lists. The TI-89 is essentially a TI-92 Plus with a limited keyboard and smaller screen. It was created partially in response to the fact that while calculators are allowed on many standardized tests, the TI-92 was considered a computer due to the QWERTY layout of its keyboard. Additionally, some people found the TI-92 unwieldy and overly large. The TI-89 is significantly smaller—about the same size as most other graphing calculators. It has a flash ROM, a feature present on the TI-92 Plus but not on the original TI-92. The major advantage of the TI-89 over lower-model TI calculators is its built- in computer algebra system, or CAS. The calculator can evaluate and simplify algebraic expressions symbolically. For example, entering codice_1 returns formula_1. The answer is "prettyprinted" by default; that is, displayed as it would be written by hand (e.g. the aforementioned formula_1 rather than codice_1). The TI-89's abilities include: Algebraic factoring of expressions, including partial fraction decomposition., Algebraic simplification; for example, the CAS can combine multiple terms into one fraction by finding a common denominator., Evaluation of trigonometric expressions to exact values. For example, sin(60°) returns formula_3 instead of 0.86603., Solving equations for a certain variable. The CAS can solve for one variable in terms of others; it can also solve systems of equations. For equations such as quadratics where there are multiple solutions, it returns all of them. Equations with infinitely many solutions are solved by introducing arbitrary constants: codice_3 returns x=2.(90.@n1-1), with the @n1 representing any integer., Finding limits of functions, including infinite limits and limits from one direction., Symbolic differentiation and integration. Derivatives and definite integrals are evaluated exactly when possible, and approximately otherwise. In addition to the standard two-dimensional function plots, it can also produce graphs of parametric equations, polar equations, sequence plots, differential equation fields, and three-dimensional (two independent variable) functions. The TI-89 is directly programmable in a language called TI-BASIC, TI's derivative of BASIC for calculators. With the use of a PC, it is also possible to develop more complex programs in Motorola 68000 assembly language or C, translate them to machine language, and copy them to the calculator. Two software development kits for C programming are available; one is TI Flash Studio, the official TI SDK, and the other is TIGCC, a third-party SDK based on GCC. Since the TI-89's release in 1998, thousands of programs for math, science, or entertainment have been developed. Many available games are generic clones of Tetris, Minesweeper, and other classic games, but some programs are more advanced: for example, a ZX Spectrum emulator, a chess- playing program, a symbolic circuit simulator, and a clone of Link's Awakening. One of the most popular and well-known games is Phoenix. Many calculator games and other useful programs can be found on TI-program sharing sites. Ticalc.org is a major one that offers thousands of calculator programs. There are four hardware versions of the TI-89. These versions are normally referred to as HW1, HW2, HW3, and HW4 (released in May 2006). Entering the key sequence [F1] [A] displays the hardware version. Older OS versions (before 2.00) don't display anything about the hardware version unless the calculator is HW2 or later. The differences in the hardware versions are not well documented by Texas Instruments. HW1 and HW2 correspond to the original TI-89; HW3 and HW4 are only present in the TI-89 Titanium. The most significant difference between HW1 and HW2 is in the way the calculator handles the display. In HW1 calculators there is a video buffer that stores all of the information that should be displayed on the screen, and every time the screen is refreshed the calculator accesses this buffer and flushes it to the display (direct memory access). In HW2 and later calculators, a region of memory is directly aliased to the display controller (memory-mapped I/O). This allows for slightly faster memory access, as the HW1's DMA controller used about 10% of the bus bandwidth. However, it interferes with a trick some programs use to implement grayscale graphics by rapidly switching between two or more displays (page-flipping). On the HW1, the DMA controller's base address can be changed (a single write into a memory-mapped hardware register) and the screen will automatically use a new section of memory at the beginning of the next frame. In HW2, the new page must be written to the screen by software. The effect of this is to cause increased flickering in grayscale mode, enough to make the 7-level grayscale supported on the HW1 unusable (although 4-level grayscale works on both calculators). HW2 calculators are slightly faster because TI increased the nominal speed of the processor from 10 MHz to 12 MHz. It is believed that TI increased the speed of HW4 calculators to 16 MHz, though many users disagree about this finding. Another difference between HW1 and HW2 calculators is assembly program size limitations. The size limitation on HW2 calculators has varied with the AMS version of the calculator. As of AMS 2.09 the limit is 24k. Some earlier versions limited assembly programs to 8k, and the earliest AMS versions had no limit. HW1 calculators have no hardware to enforce the limits, so it is easy to bypass them in software. There are unofficial patches and kernels that can be installed on HW2 calculators to remove the limitations. The TI-89 Titanium was released in the summer of 2004, and has largely replaced the popular classic TI-89. The TI-89 Titanium is referred to as HW3 and uses the corresponding AMS 3.x. In 2006, new calculators were upgraded to HW4 which was supposed to offer increases in RAM and speeds up to 16 MHz, but some benchmarks made by users reported speeds between 12.85–14.1 MHz. The touted advantages of the TI-89 Titanium over the original TI-89 include two times the flash memory (with over three times as much available to the user). The TI-89 Titanium is essentially a Voyage 200, except it doesn't have an integrated keyboard. The TI-89 Titanium also has a USB On-The-Go port, for connectivity to other TI-89 Titanium calculators, or to a computer (to store programs or update the operating system). The TI-89 Titanium also features some pre-loaded applications, such as "CellSheet", a spreadsheet program also offered with other TI calculators. The Titanium has a slightly updated CAS, which adds a few more mathematical functions, most notably implicit differentiation. The Titanium also has a slightly differing case design from that of the TI-89 (the Titanium's case design is similar to that of the TI-84 Plus). There are some minor compatibility issues with C and assembly programs developed for the original TI-89. Some have to be recompiled to work on the Titanium due to various small hardware changes, though in most cases the problems can be fixed by using a utility such as GhostBuster, by Olivier Armand and Kevin Kofler. This option is generally preferred as it requires no knowledge of the program, works without the need of the program's source code, is automated, and doesn't require additional computer software. In some cases, only one character needs to be changed (the ROM base on TI-89 is at 0x200000, whereas the TI-89 Titanium is at 0x800000) by hand or by patcher. Most, if not all, of these problems are caused by the mirror memory (ghost space) or lack thereof. The Joint Council for Qualifications publish examination instructions on behalf of the main examination boards in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. These instructions state that a calculator used in an examination must not be designed to offer symbolic algebra manipulation, symbolic differentiation or integration. This precludes use of the TI-89 or TI-89 Titanium in examinations, but it may be used as part of classroom study. The SQA give the same instructions for examinations in Scotland. In the United States, the TI-89 is allowed by the College Board on all calculator-permitted tests, including the SAT, some SAT Subject Tests, and the AP Calculus, Physics, Chemistry, and Statistics exams. However, the calculator is banned from use on the ACT, the PLAN, and in some classrooms. The TI-92 series, with otherwise comparable features, has a QWERTY keyboard that results in it being classified as a computer device rather than as a calculator. Comparison of Texas Instruments graphing calculators, TI-Nspire Instruction Manual, Using the TI-89 Graphing Calculator, Complete disassembly of a TI-89 Titanium calculator

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Virgil Tibbs is one of the two fictional main characters in John Ball's 1965 novel In the Heat of the Night. He is also the protagonist in six sequels to that novel. On screen, Tibbs is the protagonist in the Oscar-winning 1967 film In the Heat of the Night and in its sequels, They Call Me Mister Tibbs! (1970) and The Organization (1971). He is also portrayed in the 1988-1995 television series. In the novels, Tibbs works for the police department of Pasadena, California. In the films, portrayed by Academy Award winner Sidney Poitier, he first works in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, but in the sequels, he works for the San Francisco Police. The Tibbs films are mentioned in the sequel novels. When asked about the movies, Tibbs emphasizes that he's from Pasadena, not Philadelphia. He also praises Poitier's looks and acting ability. In a short story (see below), the film character meets his literary counterpart. In the novels, Tibbs returns to Pasadena as a police officer. In the films, Tibbs also returns to his law enforcement career, in Philadelphia and then in San Francisco. In the television series, set a few years after the first film, Tibbs returns to Sparta, Mississippi—where the action in the first film takes place—to become Chief of Detectives under Sparta's police chief, Bill Gillespie. Tibbs has a black belt in karate and a brown belt in aikido. Like many fictional detectives, he is also perceptive and a polymath. He demonstrates an extensive depth and breadth of knowledge in many fields of the arts, sciences, and modern culture. His demeanor is cold and intellectual. He tolerates non-criminal behaviors outside of the social mainstream, such as nudism. Tibbs is uninterested in glory or media attention. He is a perfectionist, and his sole motivation is duty and justice. In the films, Tibbs displays more anger over issues of race than in the books. For example, in the novel In The Heat of the Night, the phrase "They call me Mr. Tibbs" is a statement ending in a period, while in the movie, it's an angry exclamation. Physically, Tibbs is slender, quick, strong, and handsome. His nose is narrow, and his mouth is "straight and determined". His skin tone is neither exceptionally light nor dark. Tibbs has several romantic liaisons in the novels and seems to be well on the way to be getting married by the end of the last Tibbs novel Singapore. In the first film, Tibbs is not married, although in the second and third films he has a wife (played by Barbara McNair) and two children. For the book The Great Detectives (1978), edited by Otto Penzler, John Ball contributed a short story in which Ball (or rather his counterpart in Virgil Tibbs' universe) meets with Tibbs and asks him to recount his upbringing. This short story establishes that Tibbs' superior on the police force encouraged Ball's fictionalizations of Tibbs' cases to promote positive public relations. "'I have a letter from Otto Penzler,' I said... 'Otto has asked me for a piece about your background. How much may I tell him?' I should insert a footnote here. Virgil Tibbs is basically a quiet, self-effacing man... He has mentioned to me more than once that my accounts of some of his cases have proved somewhat embarrassing to him. However, Chief McGowan feels that these books help explain the police function to the citizenry at large and to show how modern, enlightened police departments function." Virgil Tibbs is an African American police detective who is detained on suspicion of murder solely on the basis of his skin color while passing through the small town of Wells, somewhere in the Carolinas (Sparta, Mississippi in the film). When Tibbs' innocence and status as a homicide investigator is confirmed, political pressure in the town leads to his temporary assignment to aid the Wells (Sparta) police on the case - despite the reluctance of the town's racist chief of police, Bill Gillespie. Tibbs is a diligent, hard working detective who does not accept the racism of his new surroundings. When his erstwhile supervisor, Chief Gillespie, remarks that "Virgil is a pretty fancy name for a black boy like you," and asks what people call him at home, Tibbs is quick to respond, "They call me Mister Tibbs." The line is delivered more forcefully in the film than it is in the novel. The Tibbs character and his famous quote were both ranked in the AFI 100 Years... series. The Tibbs character was ranked as the 19th greatest hero in the history of American cinema whilst his famous quote was ranked as the 16th greatest quote. In the NBC/CBS television series In the Heat of the Night, Tibbs is a native of Sparta, Mississippi who left the South and became a police detective in Philadelphia. During a visit to his hometown for the funeral of his mother, the politically opportunistic mayor offers Tibbs the position of Chief of Detectives because of his previous experience with Gillespie. Tibbs accepts the position, making him second-in-command to the reluctant Police Chief. Although Tibbs and Gillespie have their disagreements about police methods and use of limited local resources, they prove an effective partnership. Tibbs' sophisticated detective skills complement Gillespie's intimate knowledge of the area and its population. Tibbs is portrayed in the series by Howard Rollins, who garnered critical acclaim for his work in the film A Soldier's Story and for his Academy Award-nominated performance in the film Ragtime. Substance abuse problems led to fewer Rollins' appearances on the series, and he eventually was fired. The Tibbs family was written out of the series. All novels were written by John Ball. In the Heat of the Night (1965), The Cool Cottontail (1966), Johnny Get Your Gun (1969), Five Pieces Of Jade (1972), The Eyes Of Buddha (1976), Then Came Violence (1980), Singapore (1986) "Virgil Tibbs and the Cocktail Napkin" (1977), "Virgil Tibbs" (1978) In the Heat of the Night (1967), They Call Me Mister Tibbs! (1970), The Organization (1971) In the Heat of the Night (1988–1995) Howard Ellsworth Rollins Jr. (October 17, 1950 – December 8, 1996) was an American stage, film and television actor. Howard Rollins was best known for his role as Andrew Young in 1978's King, George Haley in the 1979 miniseries , Coalhouse Walker Jr. in the 1981 film Ragtime, Captain Davenport in the 1984 film A Soldier's Story, and as Virgil Tibbs on the TV crime drama In the Heat of the Night. Rollins was the youngest of four children born to Ruth and Howard Ellsworth Rollins Sr. in Baltimore, Maryland. His mother was a domestic worker while his father was a steelworker. Rollins Sr. died in 1980. Upon his high school graduation, Rollins studied theater at Towson University. In 1970, Rollins left college early to play the role of "Slick" in the PBS soap opera Our Street. In 1974, he moved to New York City where he went on to appear in the Broadway productions of We Interrupt This Program..., in 1975, The Mighty Gents in 1978, and G. R. Point in 1979. He also appeared in the miniseries King and . In 1981, Rollins made his film debut in the Dino De Laurentiis/Miloš Forman motion picture, Ragtime. His performance in the film earned him an Academy Award nomination for best supporting actor, as well as Golden Globe nominations for Best Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture and New Star of the Year in a Motion Picture. The following year, he was nominated for a Daytime Emmy for his role on Another World. In 1984, Rollins starred in director Norman Jewison's film, A Soldier's Story which led to his role as Virgil Tibbs on In the Heat of the Night, the television series based on Jewison's acclaimed 1967 film of the same name. In the Heat of the Night began airing on NBC in 1988. During the show's run, Rollins struggled with an addiction to drugs and alcohol. He was arrested four times for drug- and alcohol-related crimes and spent one month in jail for reckless driving and driving under the influence. Due to his ongoing personal and legal issues, Rollins was let go from the series at the end of Season 6. Rollins, however, would return for several guest appearances throughout the seventh season of the show in 1993-1994. After being let go from In the Heat of the Night, Rollins got sober and worked on rebuilding his career and reputation. In 1995, he appeared in a guest role on New York Undercover, followed by a role in the theatrical film, Drunks. In 1996, he appeared in a guest role on Remember WENN. His final acting role was in the 1996 PBS television movie Harambee!. In 1988, Rollins was arrested and pleaded guilty to cocaine possession in Louisiana. In 1992 and 1993, he was arrested on three occasions for driving under the influence. In 1994, he served a month in jail for reckless driving and driving under the influence. Because of continued legal problems, Rollins was ultimately dropped from In the Heat of the Night. After attending drug rehab, he returned to In the Heat of the Night as a guest star. On December 8, 1996, Rollins died at St. Luke's-Roosevelt Hospital Center in New York City of complications from AIDS-related lymphoma. He had been diagnosed with the disease approximately six weeks earlier. His funeral was held on December 13 in Baltimore. On October 25, 2006, a wax statue of Rollins was unveiled at the Senator Theatre in Baltimore. The statue is now at Baltimore's Great Blacks in Wax Museum. The Howard E. Rollins Foundation Anne-Marie Johnson (born July 18, 1960) is an American actress and impressionist, who has starred in film and on television. She is known for her roles as Nadine Hudson Thomas on What's Happening Now!!, Aileen Lewis on Double Trouble, Althea Tibbs on In the Heat of the Night, and as a cast member on In Living Color during its final season. Anne-Marie Johnson was born in Los Angeles, California. Her father is African- American and her mother is mixed race. She graduated from University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) with a degree in Acting and Theater. Her first television appearance was as a contestant on the game show Card Sharks that originally aired on June 5, 1979, where her name was listed as "Anne Johnson". She appeared on the game show Child's Play under her full name, as well as a pilot episode for the game show Body Language as Anne Marie Johnson, where she described herself as a "struggling actress". Johnson played the role of Aileen Lewis on the 1984–85 NBC comedy series Double Trouble. She played Raj's wife Nadine Hudson Thomas in the 1985–88 syndicated series What's Happening Now!!. Cast as Althea Tibbs on the NBC/CBS series In the Heat of the Night, she became well known in this role, performing in series from 1988 through 1993. While appearing on In the Heat of the Night, Johnson recorded the song "Little Drummer Boy" for the 1991 cast Christmas CD Christmas Time's A Comin. Providing vocals behind her were country gospel group The Marksmen Quartet. The song was produced by co-stars Randall Franks and Alan Autry. Johnson joined the cast of the Fox Network sketch comedy series In Living Color in its last season (1993–1994); afterwards she portrayed Alycia Barnett in one season of the Fox series Melrose Place (1995–1996). She had a recurring role on the CBS TV series JAG as Representative Bobbi Latham. She has made guest appearances on other TV series, including Diff'rent Strokes, Hill Street Blues, Hunter, Babylon 5, Living Single, Leverage, Girlfriends, The Parkers and Rock Me Baby. Other appearances include playing fashion designer Donna Cabonna on That's So Raven and TV reporter Janet King on I'm in the Band. Boss, Karyn Parsons, Lynn Whitfield, Mary Tyler Moore (one episode), Oprah Winfrey, Regina King, Robin Givens, Sally Struthers (Gloria in "All Up in The Family"), Shari Belafonte, Whitney Houston Johnson was elected First National Vice President of the Screen Actors Guild in 2005. In 2010, she was succeeded by Ned Vaughn. She ran for president of the actors' union in 2009 on the Membership First ticket, but she lost to eventual winner Ken Howard. Johnson has been married to Martin Grey since January 1, 1996.

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Powers of the United States Congress are implemented by the United States Constitution, defined by rulings of the Supreme Court, and by its own efforts and by other factors such as history and custom. It is the chief legislative body of the United States. Some powers are explicitly defined by the Constitution and are called enumerated powers; others have been assumed to exist and are called implied powers. Article I of the Constitution sets forth most of the powers of Congress, which include numerous explicit powers enumerated in Section 8. Constitutional amendments have granted Congress additional powers. Congress also has implied powers derived from the Necessary and Proper Clause of the Constitution. Congress has authority over financial and budgetary matters, through the enumerated power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States. The Sixteenth Amendment, ratified in 1913, extended power of taxation to include income taxes. The Constitution also grants Congress exclusively the power to appropriate funds. This power of the purse is one of Congress' primary checks on the executive branch. Other powers granted to Congress include the authority to borrow money on the credit of the United States, regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states, and coin money. Generally both Senate and House have equal legislative authority although only the House may originate revenue bills and, by tradition, appropriation bills. The Constitution also gives Congress an important role in national defense, including the exclusive power to declare war, to raise and maintain the armed forces, and to make rules for the military. Some critics charge that the executive branch has usurped Congress's Constitutionally-defined task of declaring war. While historically presidents initiated the process for going to war, they asked for and received formal war declarations from Congress for the War of 1812, the Mexican–American War, the Spanish–American War, World War I, and World War II, although President Theodore Roosevelt's military move into Panama in 1903 did not get Congressional assent. Presidents have initiated war without Congressional war declarations; Truman called the Korean War a "police action" and the Vietnam War lasted over a decade without a declaration of war. In 1970, Time magazine noted: "All told, it has been calculated, U.S. presidents have ordered troops into position or action without a formal congressional declaration a total of 149 times" before 1970. In 1993, one writer noted "Congress's war power has become the most flagrantly disregarded provision in the Constitution," and that the "real erosion (of Congressional authority to declare war) began after World War II." President George H. W. Bush claimed he could begin Operation Desert Storm and launch a "deliberate, unhurried, post–Cold War decision to start a war" without Congressional approval. Critics charge that President George W. Bush largely initiated the Iraq War with little debate in Congress or consultation with Congress, despite a Congressional vote on military force authorization. Disagreement about the extent of congressional versus presidential power regarding war has been present periodically throughout the nation's history. Congress also has the power to establish post offices and post roads, issue patents and copyrights, fix standards of weights and measures, establish courts inferior to the Supreme Court, and "To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof." Article Four gives Congress the power to admit new states into the Union. One of the foremost non- legislative functions of the Congress is the power to investigate and to oversee the executive branch. Congressional oversight is usually delegated to committees and is facilitated by Congress' subpoena power. Some critics have charged that Congress has in some instances failed to do an adequate job of overseeing the other branches of government. In the Valerie Plame Wilson episode sometimes known as the Plame affair, some critics, including Representative Henry A. Waxman, charged that Congress was not doing an adequate job of oversight in this case. Other critics charge Congress was lax in its oversight duties regarding presidential actions such as warrantless wiretapping, although others respond that Congress did investigate the legality of decisions by President George W. Bush involving such matters. Congress also has the exclusive impeachment power, allowing impeachment, trial, and removal of the President, federal judges and other federal officers. Among the powers specifically given to Congress in Article I Section 8, are the following: 1\. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; 2\. To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 3\. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Native American tribes; 4\. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; 5\. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures; 6\. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States; 7\. To establish post offices and post roads; 8\. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries; 9\. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 10\. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations; 11\. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water; 12\. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years; 13\. To provide and maintain a navy; 14\. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces; 15\. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions; 16\. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress; 17\. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten miles (16 km) square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings. In addition to the above, Congress is granted a power by Article III Section 3: “The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted.” Congress is also granted a power by Article IV Section 3: “The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State.” Other congressional powers have been granted, or confirmed, by constitutional amendments. The Thirteenth (1865), Fourteenth (1868), and Fifteenth Amendments (1870) gave Congress authority to enact legislation to enforce rights of all citizens regardless of race, including voting rights, due process, and equal protection under the law. Generally militia forces are controlled by state governments, not Congress. Congress also has implied powers, which derive from the Necessary and Proper Clause of the Constitution and permit Congress "To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof." Broad interpretations of this clause and of the Commerce Clause, the enumerated power to regulate commerce, in rulings such as McCulloch v Maryland, have effectively widened the scope of Congress' legislative authority. For example, in Wickard v Filburn it was held that the Section 8 power “To regulate commerce…among the several states” gave Congress the authority to limit the amount of wheat that a farmer could grow in order to feed animals on his own farm, even though this activity was not commerce and was not interstate, because such activities by private individuals had a substantial economic effect on interstate commerce in wheat, even though only indirectly. Impeachment in the United States is the process by which a legislature (usually in the form of the lower house) brings charges against a civil officer of government for crimes alleged to have been committed, analogous to the bringing of an indictment by a grand jury. Impeachment may occur at the federal level or the state level. The federal House of Representatives can impeach federal officials, including the president, and each state's legislature can impeach state officials, including the governor, in accordance with their respective federal or state constitution. Most impeachments have concerned alleged crimes committed while in office, though there have been a few cases in which officials have been impeached and subsequently convicted for crimes committed prior to taking office. The impeached official remains in office until a trial is held. That trial, and removal from office if convicted, is separate from the act of impeachment itself. In impeachment proceedings, the defendant does not risk forfeiture of life, liberty, or property. According to the Constitution, the only penalties allowed to be imposed by the Senate are removal from office and disqualification from holding any federal office in the future. If a person of a high office is convicted of having committed "Treason, Bribery, or other High Crime or Misdemeanor," then they will be removed upon impeachment in accordance with the law. An impeachment trial is carried out in the Senate, with the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court presiding if the impeachment involves the President. Impeachment can expand beyond senior members of the White House. A Supreme Court of the United States justice may be impeached for committing treason, bribery, or a high crime or misdemeanor. Impeachment charges must be drafted in the House of Representatives. The trial for the person undergoing such occurs in the Senate, requiring two-thirds of the members present (currently 67 out of 100 senators, assuming all present) to successfully remove a public official from office. There are several provisions in the United States Constitution relating to impeachment: The Constitution limits grounds of impeachment to "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors". The precise meaning of the phrase "high Crimes and Misdemeanors" is not defined in the Constitution itself. "High crimes and misdemeanors", in the legal and common parlance of England in the 17th and 18th centuries, is corrupt activity by those who have special duties that are not shared with common persons. Toward the end of the 1700s, "High crimes and misdemeanors" acquired a more technical meaning. As Blackstone says in his Commentaries: The first and principal high misdemeanor...was mal- administration of such high offices as are in public trust and employment. The notion that only criminal conduct can constitute sufficient grounds for impeachment does not comport with either the views of the founders or with historical practice. Alexander Hamilton, in Federalist 65, described impeachable offenses as arising from "the misconduct of public men, or in other words from the abuse or violation of some public trust." Such offenses were "political, as they relate chiefly to injuries done immediately to the society itself." According to this reasoning, impeachable conduct could include behavior that violates an official's duty to the country, even if such conduct is not necessarily a prosecutable offense. Indeed, in the past both houses of Congress have given the phrase "high Crimes and Misdemeanors" a broad reading, finding that impeachable offenses need not be limited to criminal conduct. The purposes underlying the impeachment process also indicate that non-criminal activity may constitute sufficient grounds for impeachment. The purpose of impeachment is not to inflict personal punishment for criminal activity. Instead, impeachment is a "remedial" tool; it serves to effectively "maintain constitutional government" by removing individuals unfit for office. Grounds for impeachment include abuse of the particular powers of government office or a violation of the "public trust"—conduct that is unlikely to be barred via statute. In drawing up articles of impeachment, the House has placed little emphasis on criminal conduct. Less than one-third of the articles that the House have adopted have explicitly charged the violation of a criminal statute or used the word "criminal" or "crime" to describe the conduct alleged. Officials have been impeached and removed for drunkenness, biased decision-making, or inducing parties to enter financial transactions, none of which is specifically criminal. Two of the articles against President Andrew Johnson were based on rude speech that reflected badly on the office: President Johnson had made "harangues" criticizing the Congress and questioning its legislative authority, refusing to follow laws, and diverting funds allocated in an army appropriations act, each of which brought the presidency "into contempt, ridicule, and disgrace". A number of individuals have been impeached for behavior incompatible with the nature of the office they hold. Some impeachments have addressed, at least in part, conduct before the individuals assumed their positions: for example, Article IV against Judge Thomas Porteous related to false statements to the FBI and Senate in connection with his nomination and confirmation to the court. On the other hand, the Constitutional Convention rejected language that would have permitted impeachment for "maladministration," with Madison arguing that "[s]o vague a term will be equivalent to a tenure during pleasure of the Senate." Congressional materials have cautioned that the grounds for impeachment "do not all fit neatly and logically into categories" because the remedy of impeachment is intended to "reach a broad variety of conduct by officers that is both serious and incompatible with the duties of the office". Congress has identified three general types of conduct that constitute grounds for impeachment, although these categories should not be understood as exhaustive: Conversely, not all criminal conduct is impeachable: in 1974, the Judiciary Committee rejected an article of impeachment against President Nixon alleging that he committed tax fraud, primarily because that "related to the President's private conduct, not to an abuse of his authority as President." Several commentators have suggested that Congress alone may decide for itself what constitutes a "high Crime or Misdemeanor", especially since the Supreme Court decided in Nixon v. United States that it did not have the authority to determine whether the Senate properly "tried" a defendant. In 1970, then-House Minority Leader Gerald R. Ford defined the criterion as he saw it: "An impeachable offense is whatever a majority of the House of Representatives considers it to be at a given moment in history." Of the 17 impeachments voted by the House: No official has been charged with treason. (In 1797, Senator Blount was impeached for assisting Britain in capturing Spanish territory. In 1862, Judge Humphries was impeached and convicted for siding with the Confederacy and taking a position as a Confederate judge during the Civil War.), Three officials have been charged with bribery. Of those, two proceeded to trial and were removed (Judge Archibald and Judge Hastings); the other resigned prior to trial (Secretary Belknap)., The remaining charges against all the other officials fall under the category of "high Crimes and Misdemeanors". The standard of proof required for impeachment and conviction is also left to the discretion of individual Representatives and Senators, respectively. Defendants have argued that impeachment trials are in the nature of criminal proceedings, with convictions carrying grave consequences for the accused, and that therefore proof beyond a reasonable doubt should be the applicable standard. House Managers have argued that a lower standard would be appropriate to better serve the purpose of defending the community against abuse of power, since the defendant does not risk forfeiture of life, liberty, or property, for which the reasonable doubt standard was set. The Constitution gives Congress the authority to impeach and remove "The President, Vice President, and all civil officers of the United States" upon a determination that such officers have engaged in treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. The Constitution does not articulate who qualifies as a "civil officer of the United States". Federal judges are subject to impeachment. In fact, 15 of 19 officers impeached, and all eight officers removed after Senate trial, have been judges. The most recent impeachment effort against a Supreme Court justice that resulted in a House of Representatives investigation was against Justice William O. Douglas. In 1970, Representative Gerald Ford, who was then House minority leader, called for the House to impeach Douglas. However, a House investigation led by Congressman Emanuel Celler (D-NY) determined that Ford's allegations were baseless. According to Professor Joshua E. Kastenberg at the University of New Mexico, School of Law, Ford and Nixon sought to force Douglas off the Court in order to cement the "Southern Strategy" as well as to provide cover for the invasion of Cambodia. When their efforts failed, Douglas remained on the Court. Within the executive branch, any Presidentially appointed "principal officer," including a head of an agency such as a Secretary, Administrator, or Commissioner, is a "civil officer of the United States" subject to impeachment. At the opposite end of the spectrum, lesser functionaries, such as federal civil service employees, do not exercise "significant authority", and are not appointed by the President or an agency head. These employees do not appear to be subject to impeachment, though that may be a matter of allocation of House floor debate time by the Speaker, rather than a matter of law. The Senate has concluded that members of Congress (Representatives and Senators) are not "civil officers" for purposes of impeachment. As a practical matter, expulsion is effected by the simpler procedures of Article I, Section 5, which provides "Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members... Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a Member." (see List of United States senators expelled or censured and List of United States Representatives expelled, censured, or reprimanded). This allows each House to expel its own members without involving the other chamber. In 1797, the House of Representatives impeached Senator William Blount of Tennessee. The Senate expelled Senator Blount under Article I, Section 5, on the same day. However, the impeachment proceeding remained pending (expulsion only removes the individual from office, but conviction after impeachment may also bar the individual from holding future office, so the question of further punishment remained to be decided). After four days of debate, the Senate concluded that a Senator is not a "civil officer of the United States" for purposes of the Impeachment clause, and dismissed for lack of jurisdiction. The House has not impeached a Member of Congress since Blount. At the federal level, the impeachment process is a three-step procedure. First, the Congress investigates. This investigation typically begins in the House Judiciary Committee, but may begin elsewhere. For example, the Nixon impeachment inquiry began in the Senate Judiciary Committee. The facts that led to impeachment of Bill Clinton were first discovered in the course of an investigation by Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr., Second, the House of Representatives must pass, by a simple majority of those present and voting, articles of impeachment, which constitute the formal allegation or allegations. Upon passage, the defendant has been "impeached.", Third, the Senate tries the accused. In the case of the impeachment of a president, the Chief Justice of the United States presides over the proceedings. For the impeachment of any other official, the Constitution is silent on who shall preside, suggesting that this role falls to the Senate's usual presiding officer, the President of the Senate, who is also the Vice President of the United States. Conviction in the Senate requires the concurrence of a two-thirds supermajority of those present. The result of conviction is removal from office. A number of rules have been adopted by the House and Senate and are honored by tradition. Jefferson's Manual, which is integral to the Rules of the House of Representatives, states that impeachment is set in motion by charges made on the floor, charges proffered by a memorial, a member's resolution referred to a committee, a message from the president, or from facts developed and reported by an investigating committee of the House. It further states that a proposition to impeach is a question of high privilege in the House and at once supersedes business otherwise in order under the rules governing the order of business. The House Practice: A Guide to the Rules, Precedents and Procedures of the House is a reference source for information on the rules and selected precedents governing the House procedure, prepared by the House Parliamentarian. The manual has a chapter on the House's rules, procedures, and precedent for impeachment. In 1974, as part of the preliminary investigation in the Nixon impeachment inquiry, the staff of the Impeachment Inquiry of the House Judiciary Committee prepared a report, Constitutional Grounds for Presidential Impeachment. The primary focus of the Report is the definition of the term "high Crimes and Misdemeanors" and the relationship to criminality, which the Report traces through history from English roots, through the debates at the 1787 Constitutional Convention, and the history of the impeachments before 1974. The 1974 report has been expanded and revised on several occasions by the Congressional Research Service, and the current version Impeachment and Removal dates from October 2015. While this document is only staff recommendation, as a practical matter, today it is probably the single most influential definition of "high Crimes and Misdemeanors." The Senate has formal Rules and Procedures of Practice in the Senate When Sitting on Impeachment Trials. While the actual impeachment of a federal public official is a rare event, demands for impeachment, especially of presidents, are common, going back to the administration of George Washington in the mid-1790s. While almost all of them were for the most part frivolous and were buried as soon as they were introduced, several did have their intended effect. Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellon and Supreme Court Justice Abe Fortas both resigned in response to the threat of impeachment hearings, and most famously, President Richard Nixon resigned from office after the House Judiciary Committee had already reported articles of impeachment to the floor. In advance of the formal resolution by the full House to authorize proceedings, committee chairmen have the same power for impeachment as for any other issue within the jurisdiction of the committee: to investigate, subpoena witnesses, and prepare a preliminary report of findings. For example: In 1970, House minority leader Gerald R. Ford attempted to initiate impeachment proceedings against Associate Justice William O. Douglas; the attempt included a 90-minute speech on the House floor. The House did not vote to initiate proceedings., In 1973, the Senate Watergate hearings (with testimony from John Dean, and the revelation of the White House tapes by Alexander Butterfield) were held in May and June 1973, and the House Judiciary Committee authorized Chairman Rodino to commence an investigation, with subpoena power, on October 30, 1973. The full House voted to initiate impeachment proceedings on February 6, 1974, that is, after nine months of formal investigations by various Congressional committees., Other examples are discussed in the article on Impeachment investigations of United States federal officials. Targets of congressional investigations have challenged the power of Congress to investigate before a formal resolution commences impeachment proceedings. For example, President Buchanan wrote to the committee investigating his administration: I do, therefore... solemnly protest against these proceedings of the House of Representatives, because they are in violation of the rights of the coordinate executive branch of the Government, and subversive of its constitutional independence; because they are calculated to foster a band of interested parasites and informers, ever ready, for their own advantage, to swear before ex parte committees to pretended private conversations between the President and themselves, incapable, from their nature, of being disproved; thus furnishing material for harassing him, degrading him in the eyes of the country... He maintained that the House of Representatives possessed no general powers to investigate him, except when sitting as an impeaching body. When the Supreme Court has considered similar issues, it held that the power to secure "needed information... has long been treated as an attribute of the power to legislate... [The power to investigate is deeply rooted in the nation's history:] It was so regarded in the British Parliament and in the colonial Legislatures before the American Revolution, and a like view has prevailed and been carried into effect in both houses of Congress and in most of the state Legislatures." The Supreme Court also held, "There can be no doubt as to the power of Congress, by itself or through its committees, to investigate matters and conditions relating to contemplated legislation." The Supreme Court considered the power of the Congress to investigate, and to subpoena executive branch officials, in a pair of cases arising out of alleged corruption in the administration of President Warren G. Harding. In the first, McGrain v. Daugherty, the Court considered a subpoena issued to the brother of Attorney General Harry Daugherty for bank records relevant to the Senate's investigation into the Department of Justice. Concluding that the subpoena was valid, the Court explained that Congress's “power of inquiry... is an essential and appropriate auxiliary to the legislative function,” as “[a] legislative body cannot legislate wisely or effectively in the absence of information respecting the conditions which the legislation is intended to affect or change.” The Supreme Court held that it was irrelevant that the Senate's authorizing resolution lacked an “avow[al] that legislative action was had in view” because, said the Court, “the subject to be investigated was... [p]lainly [a] subject... on which legislation could be had” and such legislation “would be materially aided by the information which the investigation was calculated to elicit.” Although “[a]n express avowal” of the Senate's legislative objective “would have been better,” the Court admonished that “the presumption should be indulged that [legislation] was the real object.” Two years later, in Sinclair v. United States, the Court considered investigation of private parties involved with officials under potential investigation for public corruption. In Sinclair, Harry Sinclair, the president of an oil company, appealed his conviction for refusing to answer a Senate committee's questions regarding his company's allegedly fraudulent lease on federal oil reserves at Teapot Dome in Wyoming. The Court, acknowledging individuals’ “right to be exempt from all unauthorized, arbitrary or unreasonable inquiries and disclosures in respect of their personal and private affairs,” nonetheless explained that because “[i]t was a matter of concern to the United States,” “the transaction purporting to lease to [Sinclair’s company] the lands within the reserve cannot be said to be merely or principally... personal.” The Court also dismissed the suggestion that the Senate was impermissibly conducting a criminal investigation. “It may be conceded that Congress is without authority to compel disclosures for the purpose of aiding the prosecution of pending suits,” explained the Court, “but the authority of that body, directly or through its committees, to require pertinent disclosures in aid of its own constitutional power is not abridged because the information sought to be elicited may also be of use in such suits.” The Supreme Court reached similar conclusions in a number of other cases. In Barenblatt v. United States, the Court permitted Congress to punish contempt, when a person refused to answer questions while testifying under subpoena by the House Committee on Un-American Activities. The Court explained that although “Congress may not constitutionally require an individual to disclose his … private affairs except in relation to” “a valid legislative purpose,” such a purpose was present. Congress's “wide power to legislate in the field of Communist activity... and to conduct appropriate investigations in aid thereof[] is hardly debatable,” said the Court, and “[s]o long as Congress acts in pursuance of its constitutional power, the Judiciary lacks authority to intervene on the basis of the motives which spurred the exercise of that power.” Presidents have often been the subjects of Congress's legislative investigations. For example, in 1832, the House vested a select committee with subpoena power “to inquire whether an attempt was made by the late Secretary of War... [to] fraudulently [award]... a contract for supplying rations” to Native Americans and to “further... inquire whether the President... had any knowledge of such attempted fraud, and whether he disapproved or approved of the same.” In the 1990s, first the House and Senate Banking Committees and then a Senate special committee investigated President and Mrs. Clinton's involvement in the Whitewater land deal and related matters. The Senate had an enabling resolution; the House did not. The Supreme Court has also explained that Congress has not only the power, but the duty, to investigate so it can inform the public of the operations of government: It is the proper duty of a representative body to look diligently into every affair of government and to talk much about what it sees. It is meant to be the eyes and the voice, and to embody the wisdom and will of its constituents. Unless Congress have and use every means of acquainting itself with the acts and the disposition of the administrative agents of the government, the country must be helpless to learn how it is being served; and unless Congress both scrutinize these things and sift them by every form of discussion, the country must remain in embarrassing, crippling ignorance of the very affairs which it is most important that it should understand and direct. The informing function of Congress should be preferred even to its legislative function. Impeachment proceedings may be requested by a member of the House of Representatives on his or her own initiative, either by presenting a list of the charges under oath or by asking for referral to the appropriate committee. The impeachment process may be requested by non-members. For example, when the Judicial Conference of the United States suggests a federal judge be impeached, a charge of actions constituting grounds for impeachment may come from a special prosecutor, the President, or state or territorial legislature, grand jury, or by petition. An impeachment proceeding formally begins with a resolution adopted by the full House of Representatives, which typically includes a referral to a House committee. The type of impeachment resolution determines the committee to which it is referred. A resolution impeaching a particular individual is typically referred to the House Committee on the Judiciary. A resolution to authorize an investigation regarding impeachable conduct is referred to the House Committee on Rules, and then to the Judiciary Committee. The House Committee on the Judiciary, by majority vote, will determine whether grounds for impeachment exist (this vote is not law and is not required, US Constitution and US law). Where the Committee finds grounds for impeachment, it will set forth specific allegations of misconduct in one or more articles of impeachment. The Impeachment Resolution, or Articles of Impeachment, are then reported to the full House with the committee's recommendations. The House debates the resolution and may at the conclusion consider the resolution as a whole or vote on each article of impeachment individually. A simple majority of those present and voting is required for each article for the resolution as a whole to pass. If the House votes to impeach, managers (typically referred to as "House managers", with a "lead House manager") are selected to present the case to the Senate. Recently, managers have been selected by resolution, while historically the House would occasionally elect the managers or pass a resolution allowing the appointment of managers at the discretion of the Speaker of the United States House of Representatives. These managers are roughly the equivalent of the prosecution or district attorney in a standard criminal trial. Also, the House will adopt a resolution in order to notify the Senate of its action. After receiving the notice, the Senate will adopt an order notifying the House that it is ready to receive the managers. The House managers then appear before the bar of the Senate and exhibit the articles of impeachment. After the reading of the charges, the managers return and make a verbal report to the House. The proceedings unfold in the form of a trial, with each side having the right to call witnesses and perform cross-examinations. The House members, who are given the collective title of managers during the course of the trial, present the prosecution case, and the impeached official has the right to mount a defense with his or her own attorneys as well. Senators must also take an oath or affirmation that they will perform their duties honestly and with due diligence. After hearing the charges, the Senate usually deliberates in private. The Constitution requires a two-thirds supermajority to convict a person being impeached. The Senate enters judgment on its decision, whether that be to convict or acquit, and a copy of the judgment is filed with the Secretary of State. Upon conviction in the Senate, the official is automatically removed from office and may also be barred from holding future office. The trial is not an actual criminal proceeding and more closely resembles a civil service termination appeal in terms of the contemplated deprivation. Therefore, the removed official may still be liable to criminal prosecution under a subsequent criminal proceeding. The President may not grant a pardon in the impeachment case, but may in any resulting Federal criminal case. Beginning in the 1980s with Harry E. Claiborne, the Senate began using "Impeachment Trial Committees" pursuant to Senate Rule XI. These committees presided over the evidentiary phase of the trials, hearing the evidence and supervising the examination and cross-examination of witnesses. The committees would then compile the evidentiary record and present it to the Senate; all senators would then have the opportunity to review the evidence before the chamber voted to convict or acquit. The purpose of the committees was to streamline impeachment trials, which otherwise would have taken up a great deal of the chamber's time. Defendants challenged the use of these committees, claiming them to be a violation of their fair trial rights as this did not meet the constitutional requirement for their cases to be "tried by the Senate". Several impeached judges, including District Court Judge Walter Nixon, sought court intervention in their impeachment proceedings on these grounds. In Nixon v. United States (1993), the Supreme Court determined that the federal judiciary could not review such proceedings, as matters related to impeachment trials are political questions and could not be resolved in the courts. In theory at least, as President of the Senate, the Vice President of the United States could preside over his own impeachment, although legal theories suggest that allowing a defendant to be the judge in his own case would be a blatant conflict of interest. If the Vice President did not preside over an impeachment (of anyone besides the President), the duties would fall to the President pro tempore of the Senate. To convict an accused, "the concurrence of two thirds of the [Senators] present" for at least one article is required. If there is no single charge commanding a "guilty" vote from two- thirds of the senators present, the defendant is acquitted and no punishment is imposed. Conviction immediately removes the defendant from office. Following conviction, the Senate may vote to further punish the individual by barring him or her from holding future federal office, elected or appointed. As the threshold for disqualification is not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, the Senate has taken the position that disqualification votes only require a simple majority rather than a two-thirds supermajority. The Senate has used disqualification sparingly, as only three individuals have been disqualified from holding future office. Conviction does not extend to further punishment, for example, loss of pension. After conviction by the Senate, "the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law" in the regular federal or state courts. In the United Kingdom, impeachment was a procedure whereby a member of the House of Commons could accuse someone of a crime. If the Commons voted for the impeachment, a trial would then be held in the House of Lords. Unlike a bill of attainder, a law declaring a person guilty of a crime, impeachments did not require royal assent, so they could be used to remove troublesome officers of the Crown even if the monarch was trying to protect them. The monarch, however, was above the law and could not be impeached, or indeed judged guilty of any crime. When King Charles I was tried before the Rump Parliament of the New Model Army in 1649 he denied that they had any right to legally indict him, their king, whose power was given by God and the laws of the country, saying: "no earthly power can justly call me (who is your King) in question as a delinquent... no learned lawyer will affirm that an impeachment can lie against the King." While the House of Commons pronounced him guilty and ordered his execution anyway, the jurisdictional issue tainted the proceedings. With this example in mind, the delegates to the 1787 Constitutional Convention chose to include an impeachment procedure in Article II, Section4 of the Constitution which could be applied to any government official; they explicitly mentioned the President to ensure there would be no ambiguity. Opinions differed, however, as to the reasons Congress should be able to initiate an impeachment. Initial drafts listed only treason and bribery, but George Mason favored impeachment for "maladministration" (incompetence). James Madison argued that impeachment should only be for criminal behavior, arguing that a maladministration standard would effectively mean that the President would serve at the pleasure of the Senate. Thus the delegates adopted a compromise version allowing impeachment by the House for "treason, bribery and other high crimes and misdemeanors" and conviction by the Senate only with the concurrence of two-thirds of the senators present. The House of Representatives has initiated impeachment proceedings 62 times since 1789. The House has impeached 20 federal officers. Of these: 15 were federal judges: thirteen district court judges, one court of appeals judge (who also sat on the Commerce Court), and one Supreme Court Associate Justice., three were Presidents: Andrew Johnson and Bill Clinton were later acquitted by the Senate, and Donald Trump, who is awaiting trial., one was a Cabinet secretary, one was a U.S. Senator. Of the 20 impeachments by the House, two cases did not come to trial because the individuals had left office, seven were acquitted, and eight officials were convicted, all of whom were judges. One, former judge Alcee Hastings, was elected as a member of the United States House of Representatives after being removed from office. Additionally, an impeachment process against Richard Nixon was commenced, but not completed, as he resigned from office before the full House voted on the articles of impeachment. To date, no president or vice president has been removed from office by impeachment and conviction. The following table lists federal officials for whom impeachment proceedings were instituted and referred to a committee of the House of Representatives. Numbered lines of the table reflect officials impeached by a majority vote of the House. Unnumbered lines are those officials for whom an impeachment proceeding was formally instituted, but ended when (a) the Committee did not vote to recommend impeachment, (b) the Committee recommended impeachment but the vote in the full House failed, or (c) the official resigned or died before the full House vote. There were unsuccessful attempts to initiate impeachment proceedings against John Tyler (impeachment defeated in the House, 83–127), George W. Bush, and Barack Obama. One notable impeachment attempt that never reached the point of House resolution was an attempt to impeach Associate Justice William O. Douglas by then-House Minority Leader Gerald R. Ford. The Legislative Reference Service of the Library of Congress prepared a report as part of Ford's vetting for confirmation as Vice President in 1973. President Bill Clinton, a Democrat, was impeached on December 19, 1998, by the House of Representatives on articles charging perjury (specifically, lying to a federal grand jury) by a 228–206 vote and obstruction of justice by a 221–212 vote. The House rejected other articles: one was a count of perjury in a civil deposition in Paula Jones' sexual harassment lawsuit against Clinton (by a 205–229 vote); the second accused Clinton of abuse of power (by a 148–285 vote). President Clinton was acquitted by the Senate. The votes in the Senate to remove him from office did not even reach a majority, let alone two-thirds: 45–55 on obstruction of justice and 50–50 on perjury. President Donald Trump, a Republican was impeached on December 18, 2019, by the House of Representatives on articles charging abuse of his office by soliciting a foreign government to announce an anti-corruption investigation into Joe Biden and his son, a political candidate challenging Trump, and obstruction of Congress in its attempts to investigate the matter. Article 1, abuse of power, was passed 230–197 (229 Democrats and 1 Independent voting “yes”; 195 Republicans and 2 Democrats voting “no”; and 1 Democrat voting present). Article 2, obstruction of Congress, was passed 229–198 (228 Democrats and one Independent voting “yes"; 195 Republicans and 3 Democrats voting “no”; and 1 Democrat voting present). This impeachment was described by a number of Republican congressmen as the first in which a President was not accused of any specific crime. However, a report prepared by the House Judiciary Committee accused President Trump of numerous federal crimes, including wire fraud and bribery, even though they were not included in the specific articles of impeachment. Trump is set to stand trial in the Senate sometime in 2020. State legislatures can impeach state officials, including governors, in every state except Oregon. The court for the trial of impeachments may differ somewhat from the federal model—in New York, for instance, the Assembly (lower house) impeaches, and the State Senate tries the case, but the members of the seven-judge New York State Court of Appeals (the state's highest, constitutional court) sit with the senators as jurors as well. Impeachment and removal of governors has happened occasionally throughout the history of the United States, usually for corruption charges. A total of at least eleven U.S. state governors have faced an impeachment trial; a twelfth, Governor Lee Cruce of Oklahoma, escaped impeachment conviction by a single vote in 1912. Several others, most recently Missouri's Eric Greitens, have resigned rather than face impeachment, when events seemed to make it inevitable. The most recent impeachment of a state governor occurred on January 14, 2009, when the Illinois House of Representatives voted 117–1 to impeach Rod Blagojevich on corruption charges; he was subsequently removed from office and barred from holding future office by the Illinois Senate on January 29. He was the eighth U.S. state governor to be removed from office. The procedure for impeachment, or removal, of local officials varies widely. For instance, in New York a mayor is removed directly by the governor "upon being heard" on charges—the law makes no further specification of what charges are necessary or what the governor must find in order to remove a mayor. In 2018, the entire Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia was impeached, something that has been often threatened, but had never happened before. At least four state governors have been impeached and removed from office: James E. Ferguson, Democratic Governor of Texas, was impeached for misapplication of public funds and embezzlement. In July 1917, Ferguson was convicted and removed from office., Jack C. Walton, Democratic Governor of Oklahoma, was impeached for a variety of crimes including illegal collection of campaign funds, padding the public payroll, suspension of habeas corpus, excessive use of the pardon power, and general incompetence. In November 1923, Walton was convicted and removed from office., Evan Mecham, Republican Governor of Arizona, was impeached for obstruction of justice and misusing government funds and removed from office in April 1988., Rod Blagojevich, Democratic Governor of Illinois, was impeached for abuse of power and corruption, including an attempt to sell the appointment to the United States Senate seat vacated by the resignation of Barack Obama. He was removed from office in January 2009. Stephen B. Presser, Essays on Article I: Impeachment Attribution An Overview of the Impeachment Process at congressionalresearch.com, House Judiciary Committee, Constitutional Grounds for Presidential Impeachment, February 1974, and Politico story, September 2019 Article One of the United States Constitution establishes the legislative branch of the federal government, the United States Congress. Under Article One, Congress is a bicameral legislature consisting of the House of Representatives and the Senate. Article One grants Congress various enumerated powers and the ability to pass laws "necessary and proper" to carry out those powers. Article One also establishes the procedures for passing a bill and places various limits on the powers of Congress and the states. Article One's Vesting Clause grants all federal legislative power to Congress and establishes that Congress consists of the House of Representatives and the Senate. In combination with the Vesting Clauses of Article Two and Article Three, the Vesting Clause of Article One establishes the separation of powers among the three branches of the federal government. Section 2 of Article One addresses the House of Representatives, establishing that members of the House are elected every two years, with congressional seats apportioned to the states on the basis of population. Section 2 includes various rules for the House of Representatives, including a provision stating that individuals qualified to vote in elections for the largest chamber of their state's legislature have the right to vote in elections for the House of Representatives. Section 3 addresses the Senate, establishing that the Senate consists of two senators from each state, with each senator serving a six-year term. Section 3 originally required that the state legislatures elect the members of the Senate, but the Seventeenth Amendment, ratified in 1913, provides for the direct election of senators. Section 3 lays out various other rules for the Senate, including a provision that establishes the Vice President of the United States as the president of the Senate. Section 4 of Article One grants the states the power to regulate the congressional election process but establishes that Congress can alter those regulations or make its own regulations. Section 4 also requires Congress to assemble at least once per year. Section 5 lays out various rules for both houses of Congress and grants the House of Representatives and the Senate the power to judge their own elections, determine the qualifications of their own members, and punish or expel their own members. Section 6 establishes the compensation, privileges, and restrictions of those holding congressional office. Section 7 lays out the procedures for passing a bill, requiring both houses of Congress to pass a bill for it to become law, subject to the veto power of the President of the United States. Under Section 7, the president can veto a bill, but Congress can override the president's veto with a two-thirds vote of both chambers. Section 8 lays out the powers of Congress. It includes several enumerated powers, including the power to lay and collect taxes and tariffs for the "general welfare" of the United States, the power to borrow money, the power to regulate interstate and international commerce, the power to set naturalization laws, the power to coin and regulate money, the power to establish federal courts inferior to the Supreme Court, the power to raise and support military forces, and the power to declare war. Section 8 also provides Congress the power to establish a federal district to serve as the national capital and gives Congress the exclusive power to administer that district. In addition to various enumerated powers, Section 8 grants Congress the power to make laws necessary and proper to carry out its enumerated powers and other powers vested in it. Section 9 places various limits on the power of Congress, banning bills of attainder and other practices. Section 10 places limits on the states, prohibiting them from entering into alliances with foreign powers, impairing contracts, taxing imports or exports above the minimum level necessary for inspection, keeping armies, or engaging in war without the consent of Congress. Section 1 is a vesting clause that bestows federal legislative power exclusively to Congress. Similar clauses are found in Articles II and III. The former confers executive power upon the President alone, and the latter grants judicial power solely to the federal judiciary. These three articles create a separation of powers among the three branches of the federal government. This separation of powers, by which each department may exercise only its own constitutional powers and no others, is fundamental to the idea of a limited government accountable to the people. The separation of powers principle is particularly noteworthy in regard to the Congress. The Constitution declares that the Congress may exercise only those legislative powers "herein granted" within Article I (as later limited by the Tenth Amendment). It also, by implied extension, prohibits Congress from delegating its legislative authority to either of the other branches of government, a rule known as the nondelegation doctrine. However, the Supreme Court has ruled that Congress does have the latitude to delegate regulatory powers to executive agencies as long as it provides an "intelligible principle" which governs the agency's exercise of the delegated regulatory authority. That the power assigned to each branch must remain with that branch, and may be expressed only by that branch, is central to the theory. The nondelegation doctrine is primarily used now as a way of interpreting a congressional delegation of authority narrowly, in that the courts presume Congress intended only to delegate that which it certainly could have, unless it clearly demonstrates it intended to "test the waters" of what the courts would allow it to do. Although not specifically mentioned in the Constitution, Congress has also long asserted the power to investigate and the power to compel cooperation with an investigation. The Supreme Court has affirmed these powers as an implication of Congress's power to legislate. Since the power to investigate is an aspect of Congress's power to legislate, it is as broad as Congress's powers to legislate. However, it is also limited to inquiries that are "in aid of the legislative function;" Congress may not "expose for the sake of exposure." It is uncontroversial that a proper subject of Congress's investigation power is the operations of the federal government, but Congress's ability to compel the submission of documents or testimony from the President or his subordinates is often- discussed and sometimes controversial (see executive privilege), although not often litigated. As a practical matter, the limitation of Congress's ability to investigate only for a proper purpose ("in aid of" its legislative powers) functions as a limit on Congress's ability to investigate the private affairs of individual citizens; matters that simply demand action by another branch of government, without implicating an issue of public policy necessitating legislation by Congress, must be left to those branches due to the doctrine of separation of powers. The courts are highly deferential to Congress's exercise of its investigation powers, however. Congress has the power to investigate that which it could regulate, and the courts have interpreted Congress's regulatory powers broadly since the Great Depression. Section Two provides for the election of the House of Representatives every second year. Since Representatives are to be "chosen... by the People," State Governors are not allowed to appoint temporary replacements when vacancies occur in a state's delegation to the House of Representatives; instead, the Governor of the state is required by to issue a writ of election calling a special election to fill the vacancy. At the time of its creation, the Constitution did not explicitly give citizens an inherent right to vote. However, by stipulating that those qualified to vote in elections for the largest chamber of a state's legislature could vote in Congressional (House of Representatives) elections the Framers expressed a rather explicit intent that the House was to be directly elected. Since the Civil War, several constitutional amendments have been enacted that have curbed the states' broad powers to set voter qualification standards. Though never enforced, clause 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment provides that "when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State." The Fifteenth Amendment prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude. The Nineteenth Amendment prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on sex. The Twenty-fourth Amendment prohibits the revocation of voting rights due to the non-payment of a poll tax. The Twenty-sixth Amendment prohibits the denial of the right of US citizens, eighteen years of age or older, to vote on account of age. Moreover, since the Supreme Court has recognized voting as a fundamental right, the Equal Protection Clause places very tight limitations (albeit with uncertain limits) on the states' ability to define voter qualifications; it is fair to say that qualifications beyond citizenship, residency, and age are usually questionable. In the 1960s, the Supreme Court started to view voting as a fundamental right covered by the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. In a dissenting opinion of a 1964 Supreme Court case involving reapportionment in the Alabama state legislature, Associate Justice John Marshall Harlan II included Minor in a list of past decisions about voting and apportionment which were no longer being followed. In Oregon v. Mitchell (1970), the Supreme Court held that the Qualifications clause did not prevent Congress from overriding state-imposed minimum age restrictions for voters in Congressional elections. Since provides that Members of the House of Representatives are apportioned state-by-state and that each state is guaranteed at least one Representative, exact population equality between all districts is not guaranteed and, in fact, is currently impossible, because while the size of the House of Representatives is fixed at 435, several states had less than 1/435 of the national population at the time of the last reapportionment in 2010. However, the Supreme Court has interpreted the provision of Clause One that Representatives shall be elected "by the People" to mean that, in those states with more than one member of the House of Representatives, each congressional election district within the state must have nearly identical populations. The Constitution provides three requirements for Representatives: A Representative must be at least 25 years old, must be an inhabitant of the state in which he or she is elected, and must have been a citizen of the United States for the previous seven years. There is no requirement that a Representative reside within the district in which he or she represents; although this is usually the case, there have been occasional exceptions. The Supreme Court has interpreted the Qualifications Clause as an exclusive list of qualifications that cannot be supplemented by a house of Congress exercising its authority to "judge...the...qualifications of its own members" or by a state in its exercise of its authority to prescribe the "times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives." The Supreme Court, as well as other federal courts, have repeatedly barred states from additional restrictions, such as imposing term limits on members of Congress, allowing members of Congress to be subject to recall elections, or requiring that Representatives live in the congressional district in which they represent. A 2002 Congressional Research Service report also found that no state could implement a qualification that a Representative not be a convicted felon or incarcerated. However, the United States Supreme Court has ruled that certain ballot access requirements, such as filing fees and submitting a certain number of valid petition signatures do not constitute additional qualifications and thus few Constitutional restrictions exist as to how harsh ballot access laws can be. Finally, although the U.S. Constitution places no restrictions on state or local office-holders simultaneously holding federal office, most state constitutions today effectively ban state and local office holders from also holding federal office at the same time by prohibiting federal office holders from also holding state and local office. Unlike other state-mandated restrictions, these sort of prohibitions are constitutional as long they are enforced purely at the state level (i.e. against active federal office holders seeking to obtain or hold a state or local office). After much debate, the framers of the Constitution decided to make population the basis of apportioning the seats in the House of Representatives and the tax liability among the states. To facilitate this, the Constitution mandates that a census be conducted every ten years to determine the population of each state and of the nation as a whole and establishes a rule for who shall be counted or excluded from the count. As the new form of government would become operational prior to the completion of a national census, the Constitution also provides for a temporary apportionment of seats. Originally, the population of each state and of the nation as a whole was ascertained by adding to the whole number of free Persons, three-fifths the number of all other Persons (i.e. slaves), but excluding non-taxed Native Americans. This Constitutional rule, known as the three-fifths compromise, was a compromise between Southern and Northern states in which three-fifths of the population of slaves would be counted for enumeration purposes and for the apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives and of taxes among the states. It was, according to Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story (writing in 1833), a "matter of compromise and concession, confessedly unequal in its operation, but a necessary sacrifice to that spirit of conciliation, which was indispensable to the union of states having a great diversity of interests, and physical condition, and political institutions". Following the completion of each census, Congress is empowered to use the aggregate population in all the states (according to the prevailing Constitutional rule for determining population) to determine the relative population of each state to the population of the whole, and, based on its calculations, to establish the appropriate size of the House and to allocate a particular number of representatives to each state according to its share of the national population. Since enactment of the Reapportionment Act of 1929, a constant 435 House seats have been apportioned among the states according to each census, and determining the size of the House is not presently part of the apportionment process. With one exception, the apportionment of 1842, the House of Representatives had been enlarged by various degrees from sixty-five members in 1788 to 435 members by 1913. The determination of size was made based on the aggregate national population, so long as the size of the House did not exceed 1 member for every 30,000 of the country's total population nor the size of any state's delegation exceed 1 for every 30,000 of that state's population. With the size of the House still fixed at 435, the current ratio, as of the 2010 Census, is around 1 Representative: 700,000 Persons. Although the first sentence in this clause originally concerned apportionment of both House seats and taxes among the several states, the Fourteenth Amendment sentence that replaced it in 1868 mentioned only the apportionment of House seats. Even so, the constraint placed upon Congress's taxation power remained, as the restriction was reiterated in Article 1 Section 9 Clause 4. The amount of direct taxes that could be collected by the federal government from the people in any State would still be tied directly to that state's share of the national population. Due to this restriction, application of the income tax to income derived from real estate and specifically income in the form of dividends from personal property ownership such as stock shares was found to be unconstitutional because it was not apportioned among the states; that is to say, there was no guarantee that a State with 10% of the country's population paid 10% of those income taxes collected, because Congress had not fixed an amount of money to be raised and apportioned it between the States according to their respective shares of the national population. To permit the levying of such an income tax, Congress proposed and the states ratified the Sixteenth Amendment, which removed the restriction by specifically providing that Congress could levy a tax on income "from whatever source derived" without it being apportioned among the States or otherwise based on a State's share of the national population. Section two, Clause four, provides that when vacancies occur in the House of Representatives, it is not the job of the House of Representatives to arrange for a replacement, but the job of the State whose vacant seat is up for refilling. Moreover, the State Governor may not appoint a temporary replacement, but must instead arrange for a special election to fill the vacancy. The original qualifications and procedures for holding that election are still valid. Section Two further provides that the House of Representatives may choose its Speaker and its other officers. Though the Constitution does not mandate it, every Speaker has been a member of the House of Representatives. The Speaker rarely presides over routine House sessions, choosing instead to deputize a junior member to accomplish the task. Finally, Section Two grants to the House of Representatives the sole power of impeachment. Although the Supreme Court has not had an occasion to interpret this specific provision, the Court has suggested that the grant to the House of the "sole" power of impeachment makes the House the exclusive interpreter of what constitutes an impeachable offense. This power, which is analogous to the bringing of criminal charges by a grand jury, has been used only rarely. The House has begun impeachment proceedings 62 times since 1789, and twenty federal officials have been formally impeached as a result, including: three Presidents (Andrew Johnson, Bill Clinton, and Donald Trump), one Cabinet Secretary (William W. Belknap), one Senator (William Blount), one Supreme Court Associate Justice (Samuel Chase), and fourteen federal judges. Also, notably, impeachment proceedings compelled the resignation of President Richard Nixon. The Constitution does not specify how impeachment proceedings are to be initiated. Until the early 20th century, a House member could rise and propose an impeachment, which would then be assigned to a committee for investigation upon a formal resolution vote of the judicial committee. Presently, it is the House Judiciary Committee that initiates the process and then, after investigating the allegations, prepares recommendations for the whole House's consideration. If the House votes to adopt an impeachment resolution, the Chairman of the Judiciary Committee recommends a slate of "managers," whom the House subsequently approves by resolution. These Representatives subsequently become the prosecution team in the impeachment trial in the Senate (see Section 3, Clause 6 below). The first Clause of Section Three provides that each state is entitled to have two Senators, who would be elected by its state legislature (now by the people of each state), serve for staggered six-year terms, and have one vote each. By these provisions, the framers of the Constitution intended to protect the interests of the states as states. This clause has been superseded by the Seventeenth Amendment, ratified in 1913, which, in part, provides as amended, that Article Five specifies the means by which the Constitution of the United States can be amended. It ends by temporarily shielding three Article I clauses from being amended. This clause is among them. (The others are first and fourth clauses in Section 9.) Article Five provides that "no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate." Thus, no individual state may have its individual representation in the Senate adjusted without its consent. That is to say, an amendment that changed this clause to provide that all states would get only one Senator (or three Senators, or any other number) could become valid as part of the Constitution if ratified by three-fourths of the states; however, one that provided for some basis of representation other than strict numerical equality (for example, population, wealth, or land area), would require the unanimous consent of all the states. Denying the states their intended role as joint partners in the federal government by abolishing their equality in the Senate would, according to Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase (in Texas v. White), destroy the grounding of the Union. This Article V provision has been employed by those opposed to contemplated constitutional amendments that would grant the District of Columbia full representation in the Congress without also granting it statehood. Their argument is that an amendment that would allow a non-state district to have two Senators would deprive the states of their equal suffrage in the Senate and would therefore require unanimous ratification by all the states. Those in favor of the amendment have argued that the States are merely entitled to equal suffrage amongst one another, and that granting the federal district Senate representation does not violate that right. Whether unanimous consent of the 50 states would be required for such an amendment to become operative remains an unanswered political question. After the first group of Senators was elected to the First Congress (1789–1791), the Senators were divided into three "classes" as nearly equal in size as possible, as required by this section. This was done in May 1789 by lot. It was also decided that each state's Senators would be assigned to two different classes. Those Senators grouped in the first class had their term expire after only two years; those Senators in the second class had their term expire after only four years, instead of six. After this, all Senators from those States have been elected to six-year terms, and as new States have joined the Union, their Senate seats have been assigned to two of the three classes, maintaining each grouping as nearly equal in size as possible. In this way, election is staggered; approximately one-third of the Senate is up for re-election every two years, but the entire body is never up for re- election in the same year (as contrasted with the House, where its entire membership is up for re-election every 2 years). As originally established, Senators were elected by the Legislature of the State they represented in the Senate. If a senator died, resigned, or was expelled, the legislature of the state would appoint a replacement to serve out the remainder of the senator's term. If the State Legislature was not in session, its Governor could appoint a temporary replacement to serve until the legislature could elect a permanent replacement. This was superseded by the Seventeenth Amendment, which provided for the Popular Election of Senators, instead of their appointment by the State Legislature. In a nod to the less populist nature of the Senate, the Amendment tracks the vacancy procedures for the House of Representatives in requiring that the Governor call a special election to fill the vacancy, but (unlike in the House) it vests in the State Legislature the authority to allow the Governor to appoint a temporary replacement until the special election is held. Note, however, that under the original Constitution, the Governors of the states were expressly allowed by the Constitution to make temporary appointments. The current system, under the Seventeenth Amendment, allows Governors to appoint a replacement only if their state legislature has previously decided to allow the Governor to do so; otherwise, the seat must remain vacant until the special election is held to fill the seat, as in the case of a vacancy in the House. A Senator must be at least 30 years of age, must have been a citizen of the United States for at least nine years before being elected, and must reside in the State they will represent at the time of the election. The Supreme Court has interpreted the Qualifications Clause as an exclusive list of qualifications that cannot be supplemented by a House of Congress exercising its authority to "Judge... the... Qualifications of its own Members," or by a state in its exercise of its authority to prescribe the "Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives..." Section Three provides that the Vice President is the President of the Senate. Excepting the duty to receive the tally of electoral votes for President, this is the only regular responsibility assigned to the office of the Vice President by the Constitution. When serving in this capacity, the Vice President, who is not a member of the Senate, may cast tie-breaking votes. Early in the nation's history, Vice Presidents frequently presided over the Senate. In modern times, the Vice President usually does so only during ceremonial occasions or when a tie in the voting is anticipated. , a tie- breaking vote has been cast 268 times. Clause five provides for a President pro tempore of the Senate, a Senator elected to the post by the Senate, to preside over the body when the Vice President is either absent or exercising the Office of the President. Although the Constitutional text seems to suggest to the contrary, the Senate's current practice is to elect a full-time President pro tempore at the beginning of each Congress, as opposed to making it a temporary office only existing during the Vice President's absence. Since World War II, the senior (longest serving) member of the majority party has filled this position. As is true of the Speaker of the House, the Constitution does not require that the President pro tempore be a senator, but by convention, a senator is always chosen. Clause Six grants to the Senate the sole power to try impeachments and spells out the basic procedures for impeachment trials. The Supreme Court has interpreted this clause to mean that the Senate has exclusive and unreviewable authority to determine what constitutes an adequate impeachment trial. Of the nineteen federal officials formally impeached by the House of Representatives, three resigned (meaning proceedings were dismissed), seven were acquitted, and eight (all judges) were convicted by the Senate. On one occasion (in the case of Senator William Blount in 1797) the Senate declined to hold a trial, asserting that it had no jurisdiction over its own members; in any case, Blount had already been expelled from the Senate. The constitution's framers vested the Senate with this power for several reasons. First, they believed Senators would be better educated, more virtuous, and more high-minded than Members of the House of Representatives and thus uniquely able to decide responsibly the most difficult of political questions. Second, they believed that the Senate, being a numerous body, would be well suited to handle the procedural demands of an impeachment trial, in which it, unlike judges and the judiciary system, would "never be tied down by such strict rules, either in the delineation of the offense by the prosecutor, or in the construction of it by judges, as in the common cases serve to limit the discretion of courts in favor of personal security." (Alexander Hamilton, The Federalist No. 65). There are three Constitutionally mandated requirements for impeachment trials. The provision that Senators must sit on oath or affirmation was designed to impress upon them the extreme seriousness of the occasion. The stipulation that the Chief Justice is to preside over presidential impeachment trials underscores the solemnity of the occasion and aims to avoid the conflict of interest of a Vice President's presiding over the proceeding for the removal of the one official standing between them and the presidency. The latter consideration was regarded to be quite important in the eighteenth century - political parties had not yet formed when the Constitution was adopted, and with the original method of electing the President and Vice President it was presumed that the two people elected to those offices would frequently be political rivals. The specification that a two-thirds super-majority vote of those Senators present in order to convict was also thought necessary to facilitate serious deliberation and to make removal possible only through a consensus that cuts across factional divisions. If any officer is convicted on impeachment, he or she is immediately removed from office, and may be barred from holding any public office in the future. No other punishments may be inflicted pursuant to the impeachment proceeding, but the convicted party remains liable to trial and punishment in the courts for civil and criminal charges. The purpose of this clause is twofold. First, it makes clear the division of responsibility with respect to the conduct of the election of federal Senators and Representatives. That responsibility lies primarily with the states and secondarily with Congress. Second, the clause lodges the power to regulate elections in the respective legislative branches of the states and the federal government, not with the executive or judicial. As authorized by this clause, Congress has set a uniform date for federal elections: the Tuesday following the first Monday in November. Presently, as there are no on-point federal regulations, the states retain the authority to regulate the dates on which other aspects of the election process are held (registration, primary elections, etc.) and where elections will be held. As for regulating the "manner" of elections, the Supreme Court has interpreted this to mean "matters like notices, registration, supervision of voting, protection of voters, prevention of fraud and corrupt practices, counting of votes, duties of inspectors and canvassers, and making and publication of election returns." The Supreme Court has held that States may not exercise their power to determine the "manner" of holding elections to impose term limits on their congressional delegation. One of the most significant ways that each state regulates the "manner" of elections is through their power to draw electoral districts. Although in theory Congress could draw the district map for each State, it has not exercised this level of oversight. Congress has, however, required the States to conform to certain practices when drawing districts. States are currently required to use a single-member district scheme, whereby the State is divided into as many election districts for Representatives in the House of Representatives as the size of its representation in that body (that is to say, Representatives cannot be elected at-large from the whole State unless the State has only one Representative in the House, nor can districts elect more than 1 Representative). The Supreme Court has interpreted "by the Legislature thereof" to include voters using the initiative process, in those states whose constitutions provide it, to create an independent redistricting commission. Congress first exercised its power to regulate elections nation-wide in 1842, when the 27th Congress passed a law requiring the election of Representatives by districts. In subsequent years, Congress expanded on the requirements, successively adding contiguity, compactness, and substantial equality of population to the districting requirements. These standards were all later deleted in the Reapportionment Act of 1929. Congress subsequently reinstated the requirement that districts be composed of contiguous territory, be "compact," and have equal populations within each State. Congress has allowed those requirements to lapse, but the Supreme Court has re-imposed the population requirement on the States under the Equal Protection Clause and is suspicious of districts that do not meet the other "traditional" districting criteria of compactness and contiguity. In 1865, Congress legislated a remedy for a situation under which deadlocks in state legislatures over the election of Senators were creating vacancies in the office. The act required the two houses of each legislature to meet in joint session on a specified day and to meet every day thereafter until a Senator was selected. The first comprehensive federal statute dealing with elections was adopted in 1870 as a means of enforcing the Fifteenth Amendment’s guarantee against racial discrimination in granting suffrage rights. Under the Enforcement Act of 1870, and subsequent laws, false registration, bribery, voting without legal right, making false returns of votes cast, interference in any manner with officers of election, and the neglect by any such officer of any duty required by state or federal law were made federal offenses. Provision was made for the appointment by federal judges of persons to attend at places of registration and at elections with authority to challenge any person proposing to register or vote unlawfully, to witness the counting of votes, and to identify by their signatures the registration of voters and election tally sheets. Beginning with the Tillman Act of 1907, Congress has imposed a growing number of restrictions on elections and campaign financing. The most significant piece of legislation has been the 1971 Federal Election Campaign Act. It was this legislation that was at issue in the Supreme Court's seminal decision, Buckley v. Valeo (1976), which, in the face of a First Amendment challenge, set the ground rules for campaign finance legislation, generally disallowing restrictions on expenditures by candidates, but permitting restrictions on contributions by individuals and corporations. In addition to statutory constraints, Congress and the States have altered the electoral process through amending the Constitution (first in the above mentioned Fifteenth Amendment). The Seventeenth Amendment altered the manner of conducting the elections of Senators; establishing that they are to be elected by the people of the states. Also, the Nineteenth Amendment prohibits any U.S. citizen from being denied the right to vote on the basis of sex; the Twenty-fourth Amendment prohibits both Congress and the states from conditioning the right to vote in federal elections on payment of a poll tax or other types of tax; and the Twenty-sixth Amendment prohibits the states and the federal government from using age as a reason for denying the right to vote to U.S. citizens who are at least eighteen years old. Clause 2 fixes an annual date upon which Congress must meet. By doing so, the Constitution empowers Congress to meet, whether or not the President called it into session. does grant the president limited authority to convene and adjourn both Houses (or either of them) and mandates that it will meet at least once in a year to enact legislation on behalf of the people. Some delegates to the 1787 constitutional convention believed yearly meetings were not necessary, for there would not be enough legislative business for Congress to deal with annually. Nathaniel Gorham of Massachusetts argued that the time should be fixed to prevent disputes from arising within the legislature, and to allow the states to adjust their elections to correspond with the fixed date. A fixed date also corresponded to the tradition in the states of having annual meetings. Finally, Gorham concluded that the legislative branch should be required to meet at least once a year to act as a check upon the executive department. Although this clause provides that the annual meeting was to be on the first Monday in December, the government established by the 1787 Constitution did not begin operations until March 4, 1789. As the 1st Congress held its initial meeting on March 4, that became the date on which new representatives and senators took office in subsequent years. Therefore, every other year, although a new Congress was elected in November, it did not come into office until the following March, with a "lame duck" session convening in the interim. This practice was altered in 1933 following ratification of the Twentieth Amendment, which states (in Section 2) that, "The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall begin at noon on the third day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a different day". This change virtually eliminated the necessity of there being a lame duck session of Congress. Section Five states that a majority of each House constitutes a quorum to do business; a smaller number may adjourn the House or compel the attendance of absent members. In practice, the quorum requirement is all but ignored. A quorum is assumed to be present unless a quorum call, requested by a member, proves otherwise. Rarely do members ask for quorum calls to demonstrate the absence of a quorum; more often, they use the quorum call as a delaying tactic. Sometimes, unqualified individuals have been admitted to Congress. For instance, the Senate once admitted John Henry Eaton, a twenty-eight-year-old, in 1818 (the admission was inadvertent, as Eaton's birth date was unclear at the time). In 1934, a twenty-nine-year-old, Rush Holt, was elected to the Senate; he agreed to wait six months, until his thirtieth birthday, to take the oath. The Senate ruled in that case that the age requirement applied as of the date of the taking of the oath, not the date of election. Each House can determine its own Rules (assuming a quorum is present), and may punish any of its members. A two-thirds vote is necessary to expel a member. Section 5, Clause 2 does not provide specific guidance to each House regarding when and how each House may change its rules, leaving details to the respective chambers. Each House must keep and publish a Journal, though it may choose to keep any part of the Journal secret. The decisions of the House—not the words spoken during debates—are recorded in the Journal; if one-fifth of those present (assuming a quorum is present) request it, the votes of the members on a particular question must also be entered. Neither House may adjourn, without the consent of the other, for more than three days. Often, a House will hold pro forma sessions every three days; such sessions are merely held to fulfill the constitutional requirement, and not to conduct business. Furthermore, neither House may meet in any place other than that designated for both Houses (the Capitol), without the consent of the other House. Senators and Representatives set their own compensation. Under the Twenty- seventh Amendment, any change in their compensation will not take effect until after the next congressional election. Paying Senators and Representatives out of the federal treasury was a departure from the practice under the Articles of Confederation, where they were paid by the state they were elected. Members of both Houses have certain privileges, based on those enjoyed by the members of the British Parliament. Members attending, going to or returning from either House are privileged from arrest, except for treason, felony or breach of the peace. One may not sue a Senator or Representative for slander occurring during Congressional debate, nor may speech by a member of Congress during a Congressional session be the basis for criminal prosecution. The latter was affirmed when Mike Gravel published over 4,000 pages of the Pentagon Papers in the Congressional Record, which might have otherwise been a criminal offense. This clause has also been interpreted in Gravel v. United States, 408 U.S. 606 (1972) to provide protection to aides and staff of sitting members of Congress, so long as their activities relate to legislative matters. Senators and Representatives may not simultaneously serve in Congress and hold a position in the executive branch. This restriction is meant to protect legislative independence by preventing the president from using patronage to buy votes in Congress. It is a major difference from the political system in the British Parliament, where cabinet ministers are required to be members of parliament. Furthermore, Senators and Representatives cannot resign to take newly created or higher-paying political positions; rather, they must wait until the conclusion of the term for which they were elected. If Congress increases the salary of a particular officer, it may later reduce that salary to permit an individual to resign from Congress and take that position (known as the Saxbe fix). The effects of the clause were discussed in 1937, when Senator Hugo Black was appointed an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court with some time left in his Senate term. Just prior to the appointment, Congress had increased the pension available to Justices retiring at the age of seventy. It was therefore suggested by some that the office's emolument had been increased during Black's Senatorial term, and that therefore Black could not take office as a Justice. The response, however, was that Black was fifty- one years old, and would not receive the increased pension until at least 19 years later, long after his Senate term had expired. This establishes the method for making Acts of Congress that involve taxation. Accordingly, any bill may originate in either House of Congress, except for a revenue bill, which may originate only in the House of Representatives. In practice, the Senate sometimes circumvents this requirement by substituting the text of a revenue bill previously passed by the House with a substitute text. Either House may amend any bill, including revenue and appropriation bills. This clause of the U.S. Constitution stemmed from an English parliamentary practice that all money bills must have their first reading in the House of Commons. This practice was intended to ensure that the power of the purse is possessed by the legislative body most responsive to the people, although the English practice was modified in America by allowing the Senate to amend these bills. The clause was part of the Great Compromise between small and large states; the large states were unhappy with the lopsided power of small states in the Senate, and so the clause theoretically offsets the unrepresentative nature of the Senate, and compensates the large states for allowing equal voting rights to Senators from small states. This clause is known as the Presentment Clause. Before a bill becomes law, it must be presented to the President, who has ten days (excluding Sundays) to act upon it. If the President signs the bill, it becomes law. If he disapproves of the bill, he must return it to the House in which it originated together with his objections. This procedure has become known as the veto, although that particular word does not appear in the text of Article One. The bill does not then become law unless both Houses, by two-thirds votes, override the veto. If the President neither signs nor returns the bill within the ten-day limit, the bill becomes law, unless the Congress has adjourned in the meantime, thereby preventing the President from returning the bill to the House in which it originated. In the latter case, the President, by taking no action on the bill towards the end of a session, exercises a "pocket veto", which Congress may not override. In the former case, where the President allows a bill to become law unsigned, there is no common name for the practice, but recent scholarship has termed it a "default enactment." What exactly constitutes an adjournment for the purposes of the pocket veto has been unclear. In the Pocket Veto Case (1929), the Supreme Court held that "the determinative question in reference to an 'adjournment' is not whether it is a final adjournment of Congress or an interim adjournment, such as an adjournment of the first session, but whether it is one that 'prevents' the President from returning the bill to the House in which it originated within the time allowed." Since neither House of Congress was in session, the President could not return the bill to one of them, thereby permitting the use of the pocket veto. In Wright v. United States (1938), however, the Court ruled that adjournments of one House only did not constitute an adjournment of Congress required for a pocket veto. In such cases, the Secretary or Clerk of the House in question was ruled competent to receive the bill. In 1996, Congress passed the Line Item Veto Act, which permitted the President, at the time of the signing of the bill, to rescind certain expenditures. The Congress could disapprove the cancellation and reinstate the funds. The President could veto the disapproval, but the Congress, by a two- thirds vote in each House, could override the veto. In the case Clinton v. City of New York, the Supreme Court found the Line Item Veto Act unconstitutional because it violated the Presentment clause. First, the procedure delegated legislative powers to the President, thereby violating the nondelegation doctrine. Second, the procedure violated the terms of Section Seven, which state, "if he approve [the bill] he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it." Thus, the President may sign the bill, veto it, or do nothing, but he may not amend the bill and then sign it. Every bill, order, resolution, or vote that must be passed by both Houses, except on a question of adjournment, must be presented to the President before becoming law. However, to propose a constitutional amendment, two-thirds of both Houses may submit it to the states for the ratification, without any consideration by the President, as prescribed in Article V. Some Presidents have made very extensive use of the veto, while others have not used it at all. Grover Cleveland, for instance, vetoed over four hundred bills during his first term in office; Congress overrode only two of those vetoes. Meanwhile, seven Presidents have never used the veto power. There have been 2,560 vetoes, including pocket vetoes. Congress's legislative powers are enumerated in Section Eight: Many powers of Congress have been interpreted broadly. Most notably, the Taxing and Spending, Interstate Commerce, and Necessary and Proper Clauses have been deemed to grant expansive powers to Congress. Congress may lay and collect taxes for the "common defense" or "general welfare" of the United States. The U.S. Supreme Court has not often defined "general welfare," leaving the political question to Congress. In United States v. Butler (1936), the Court for the first time construed the clause. The dispute centered on a tax collected from processors of agricultural products such as meat; the funds raised by the tax were not paid into the general funds of the treasury, but were rather specially earmarked for farmers. The Court struck down the tax, ruling that the general welfare language in the Taxing and Spending Clause related only to "matters of national, as distinguished from local, welfare". Congress continues to make expansive use of the Taxing and Spending Clause; for instance, the social security program is authorized under the Taxing and Spending Clause. Congress has the power to borrow money on the credit of the United States. In 1871, when deciding Knox v. Lee, the Court ruled that this clause permitted Congress to emit bills and make them legal tender in satisfaction of debts. Whenever Congress borrows money, it is obligated to repay the sum as stipulated in the original agreement. However, such agreements are only "binding on the conscience of the sovereign", as the doctrine of sovereign immunity prevents a creditor from suing in court if the government reneges on its commitment. The Necessary and Proper Clause, as well as the Commerce and General Welfare Clauses have been interpreted so broadly that to this day, the Federal Government of the United States exercises many powers that are not expressly delegated by the States in the Federal Government by the Constitution, like the different social programs of the American Welfare State. However, James Madison, who wrote much of the Constitution, asserted that Congress could not exercise powers unless they were expressly granted in the Constitution. While he was President of the United States, Madison vetoed the Federal Public Works Bill of 1817, calling it unconstitutional, since in his view the Federal Government did not have the authority to build infrastructure. The Supreme Court has seldom restrained the use of the commerce clause for widely varying purposes. The first important decision related to the commerce clause was Gibbons v. Ogden, decided by a unanimous Court in 1824. The case involved conflicting federal and state laws: Thomas Gibbons had a federal permit to navigate steamboats in the Hudson River, while the other, Aaron Ogden, had a monopoly to do the same granted by the state of New York. Ogden contended that "commerce" included only buying and selling of goods and not their transportation. Chief Justice John Marshall rejected this notion. Marshall suggested that "commerce" included navigation of goods, and that it "must have been contemplated" by the Framers. Marshall added that Congress's power over commerce "is complete in itself, may be exercised to its utmost extent, and acknowledges no limitations other than are prescribed in the Constitution". The expansive interpretation of the Commerce Clause was restrained during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, when a laissez-faire attitude dominated the Court. In United States v. E. C. Knight Company (1895), the Supreme Court limited the newly enacted Sherman Antitrust Act, which had sought to break up the monopolies dominating the nation's economy. The Court ruled that Congress could not regulate the manufacture of goods, even if they were later shipped to other states. Chief Justice Melville Fuller wrote, "commerce succeeds to manufacture, and is not a part of it." The U.S. Supreme Court sometimes ruled New Deal programs unconstitutional because they stretched the meaning of the commerce clause. In Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States, (1935) the Court unanimously struck down industrial codes regulating the slaughter of poultry, declaring that Congress could not regulate commerce relating to the poultry, which had "come to a permanent rest within the State." As Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes put it, "so far as the poultry here in question is concerned, the flow of interstate commerce has ceased." Judicial rulings against attempted use of Congress's Commerce Clause powers continued during the 1930s. In 1937, the Supreme Court began moving away from its laissez-faire attitude concerning Congressional legislation and the Commerce Clause, when it ruled in National Labor Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Company, that the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (commonly known as the Wagner Act) was constitutional. The legislation under scrutiny prevented employers from engaging in "unfair labor practices" such as firing workers for joining unions. In sustaining this act, the Court signaled its return to the philosophy espoused by John Marshall, that Congress could pass laws regulating actions that even indirectly influenced interstate commerce. This new attitude became firmly set into place in 1942. In Wickard v. Filburn, the Court ruled that production quotas under the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 were constitutionally applied to agricultural production (in this instance, home-grown wheat for private consumption) that was consumed purely intrastate, because its effect upon interstate commerce placed it within the power of Congress to regulate under the Commerce Clause. This decision marked the beginning of the Court's total deference to Congress' claims of Commerce Clause powers, which lasted into the 1990s. United States v. Lopez (1995) was the first decision in six decades to invalidate a federal statute on the grounds that it exceeded the power of the Congress under the Commerce Clause. The Court held that while Congress had broad lawmaking authority under the Commerce Clause, the power was limited, and did not extend so far from "commerce" as to authorize the regulation of the carrying of handguns, especially when there was no evidence that carrying them affected the economy on a massive scale. In a later case, United States v. Morrison (2000), the justices ruled that Congress could not make such laws even when there was evidence of aggregate effect. In contrast to these rulings, the Supreme Court also continues to follow the precedent set by Wickard v. Filburn. In Gonzales v. Raich it ruled that the Commerce Clause granted Congress the authority to criminalize the production and use of home-grown cannabis even where states approve its use for medicinal purposes. The court held that, as with the agricultural production in the earlier case, home-grown cannabis is a legitimate subject of federal regulation because it competes with marijuana that moves in interstate commerce. Congress may establish uniform laws relating to naturalization and bankruptcy. It may also coin money, regulate the value of American or foreign currency and punish counterfeiters. Congress may fix the standards of weights and measures. Furthermore, Congress may establish post offices and post roads (the roads, however, need not be exclusively for the conveyance of mail). Congress may promote the progress of science and useful arts by granting copyrights and patents of limited duration. Section eight, clause eight of Article One, known as the Copyright Clause, is the only instance of the word "right" used in the original constitution (though the word does appear in several Amendments). Though perpetual copyrights and patents are prohibited, the Supreme Court has ruled in Eldred v. Ashcroft (2003) that repeated extensions to the term of copyright do not constitute perpetual copyright; also note that this is the only power granted where the means to accomplish its stated purpose is specifically provided for. Courts inferior to the Supreme Court may be established by Congress. Congress has several powers related to war and the armed forces. Under the War Powers Clause, only Congress may declare war, but in several cases it has, without declaring war, granted the President the authority to engage in military conflicts. Five wars have been declared in United States' history: the War of 1812, the Mexican–American War, the Spanish–American War, World War I and World War II. Some historians argue that the legal doctrines and legislation passed during the operations against Pancho Villa constitute a sixth declaration of war. Congress may grant letters of marque and reprisal. Congress may establish and support the armed forces, but no appropriation made for the support of the army may be used for more than two years. This provision was inserted because the Framers feared the establishment of a standing army, beyond civilian control, during peacetime. Congress may regulate or call forth the state militias, but the states retain the authority to appoint officers and train personnel. Congress also has exclusive power to make rules and regulations governing the land and naval forces. Although the executive branch and the Pentagon have asserted an ever- increasing measure of involvement in this process, the U.S. Supreme Court has often reaffirmed Congress's exclusive hold on this power (e.g. Burns v. Wilson, 346 U.S. 137 (1953)). Congress used this power twice soon after World War II with the enactment of two statutes: the Uniform Code of Military Justice to improve the quality and fairness of courts martial and military justice, and the Federal Tort Claims Act which among other rights had allowed military service persons to sue for damages until the U.S. Supreme Court repealed that section of the statute in a divisive series of cases, known collectively as the Feres Doctrine. Congress has the exclusive right to legislate "in all cases whatsoever" for the nation's capital, the District of Columbia. Congress chooses to devolve some of such authority to the elected mayor and council of District of Columbia. Nevertheless, Congress remains free to enact any legislation for the District so long as constitutionally permissible, to overturn any legislation by the city government, and technically to revoke the city government at any time. Congress may also exercise such jurisdiction over land purchased from the states for the erection of forts and other buildings. Finally, Congress has the power to do whatever is "necessary and proper" to carry out its enumerated powers and, crucially, all others vested in it. This has been interpreted to authorize criminal prosecution of those whose actions have a "substantial effect" on interstate commerce in Wickard v. Filburn; however, Thomas Jefferson, in the Kentucky Resolutions, supported by James Madison, maintained that a penal power could not be inferred from a power to regulate, and that the only penal powers were for treason, counterfeiting, piracy and felony on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations. The necessary and proper clause has been interpreted extremely broadly, thereby giving Congress wide latitude in legislation. The first landmark case involving the clause was McCulloch v. Maryland (1819), which involved the establishment of a national bank. Alexander Hamilton, in advocating the creation of the bank, argued that there was "a more or less direct" relationship between the bank and "the powers of collecting taxes, borrowing money, regulating trade between the states, and raising and maintaining fleets and navies". Thomas Jefferson countered that Congress's powers "can all be carried into execution without a national bank. A bank therefore is not necessary, and consequently not authorized by this phrase". Chief Justice John Marshall agreed with the former interpretation. Marshall wrote that a Constitution listing all of Congress's powers "would partake of a prolixity of a legal code and could scarcely be embraced by the human mind". Since the Constitution could not possibly enumerate the "minor ingredients" of the powers of Congress, Marshall "deduced" that Congress had the authority to establish a bank from the "great outlines" of the general welfare, commerce and other clauses. Under this doctrine of the necessary and proper clause, Congress has sweepingly broad powers (known as implied powers) not explicitly enumerated in the Constitution. However, the Congress cannot enact laws solely on the implied powers, any action must be necessary and proper in the execution of the enumerated powers. The ninth section of Article One places limits on Congress' powers: The first clause in this section prevents Congress from passing any law that would restrict the importation of slaves into the United States prior to 1808. Congress could however, levy a per capita duty of up to ten Spanish milled dollars for each slave imported into the country. This clause was further entrenched into the Constitution by Article V, where it is explicitly shielded from constitutional amendment prior to 1808. On March 2, 1807, Congress approved legislation prohibiting the importation of slaves into the United States, which went into effect January 1, 1808, the first day of the prohibition permitted by the Constitution. A writ of habeas corpus is a legal action against unlawful detainment that commands a law enforcement agency or other body that has a person in custody to have a court inquire into the legality of the detention. The court may order the person released if the reason for detention is deemed insufficient or unjustifiable. The Constitution further provides that the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus may not be suspended "unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it". In Ex parte Milligan (1866), the Supreme Court ruled that the suspension of habeas corpus in a time of war was lawful, but military tribunals did not apply to citizens in states that had upheld the authority of the Constitution and where civilian courts were still operating. A bill of attainder is a law by which a person is immediately convicted without trial. An ex post facto law is a law which applies retroactively, punishing someone for an act that was only made criminal after it was done. The ex post facto clause does not apply to civil matters. Section Nine reiterates the provision from that direct taxes must be apportioned by state populations. This clause was also explicitly shielded from constitutional amendment prior to 1808 by Article V. In 1913, the 16th Amendment exempted all income taxes from this clause. This overcame the ruling in Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co. that the income tax could only be applied to regular income and could not be applied to dividends and capital gains. Furthermore, no tax may be imposed on exports from any state. Congress may not, by revenue or commerce legislation, give preference to ports of one state over those of another; neither may it require ships from one state to pay duties in another. All funds belonging to the Treasury may not be withdrawn except according to law. Modern practice is that Congress annually passes a number of appropriations bills authorizing the expenditure of public money. The Constitution requires that a regular statement of such expenditures be published. The Title of Nobility Clause prohibits Congress from granting any title of nobility. In addition, it specifies that no civil officer may accept, without the consent of Congress, any gift, payment, office or title from a foreign ruler or state. Emoluments were a profound concern of the Founders. However, a U.S. citizen may receive foreign office before or after their period of public service. States may not exercise certain powers reserved for the federal government: they may not enter into treaties, alliances or confederations, grant letters of marque or reprisal, coin money or issue bills of credit (such as currency). Furthermore, no state may make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts, which expressly forbids any state government (but not the federal government) from "making a tender" (i.e., authorizing something that may be offered in payment) of any type or form of money to meet any financial obligation, unless that form of money is coins made of gold or silver (or a medium of exchange backed by and redeemable in gold or silver coins, as noted in Farmers & Merchants Bank v. Federal Reserve Bank). Much of this clause is devoted to preventing the States from using or creating any currency other than that created by Congress. In Federalist no. 44, Madison explains that "it may be observed that the same reasons which shew the necessity of denying to the States the power of regulating coin, prove with equal force that they ought not to be at liberty to substitute a paper medium in the place of coin. Had every State a right to regulate the value of its coin, there might be as many different currencies as States; and thus the intercourse among them would be impeded". Moreover, the states may not pass bills of attainder, enact ex post facto laws, impair the obligation of contracts, or grant titles of nobility. The Contract Clause was the subject of much contentious litigation in the 19th century. It was first interpreted by the Supreme Court in 1810, when Fletcher v. Peck was decided. The case involved the Yazoo land scandal, in which the Georgia legislature authorized the sale of land to speculators at low prices. The bribery involved in the passage of the authorizing legislation was so blatant that a Georgia mob attempted to lynch the corrupt members of the legislature. Following elections, the legislature passed a law that rescinded the contracts granted by the corrupt legislators. The validity of the annulment of the sale was questioned in the Supreme Court. In writing for a unanimous court, Chief Justice John Marshall asked, "What is a contract?" His answer was: "a compact between two or more parties". Marshall argued that the sale of land by the Georgia legislature, though fraught with corruption, was a valid "contract". He added that the state had no right to annul the purchase of the land, since doing so would impair the obligations of contract. The definition of a contract propounded by Chief Justice Marshall was not as simple as it may seem. In 1819, the Court considered whether a corporate charter could be construed as a contract. The case of Trustees of Dartmouth College v. Woodward involved Dartmouth College, which had been established under a Royal Charter granted by King George III. The Charter created a board of twelve trustees for the governance of the College. In 1815, however, New Hampshire passed a law increasing the board's membership to twenty-one with the aim that public control could be exercised over the College. The Court, including Marshall, ruled that New Hampshire could not amend the charter, which was ruled to be a contract since it conferred "vested rights" on the trustees. The Marshall Court determined another dispute in Sturges v. Crowninshield. The case involved a debt that was contracted in early 1811. Later in that year, the state of New York passed a bankruptcy law, under which the debt was later discharged. The Supreme Court ruled that a retroactively applied state bankruptcy law impaired the obligation to pay the debt, and therefore violated the Constitution. In Ogden v. Saunders (1827), however, the court decided that state bankruptcy laws could apply to debts contracted after the passage of the law. State legislation on the issue of bankruptcy and debtor relief has not been much of an issue since the adoption of a comprehensive federal bankruptcy law in 1898. Still more powers are prohibited of the states. States may not, without the consent of Congress, tax imports or exports except for the fulfillment of state inspection laws (which may be revised by Congress). The net revenue of the tax is paid not to the state, but to the federal Treasury. Under the Compact Clause, states may not, without the consent of Congress, keep troops or armies during times of peace. They may not enter into alliances nor compacts with foreign states, nor engage in war unless invaded. States may, however, organize and arm a militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress. (Article I, Section 8, enumerated powers of Congress.) The National Guard, whose members are also members of the militia of the United States as defined by , fulfill this function, as do persons serving in State Militias with federal oversight under . The idea of allowing Congress to have say over agreements between states traces back to the numerous controversies that arose between various colonies. Eventually compromises would be created between the two colonies and these compromises would be submitted to the Crown for approval. After the American Revolutionary War, the Articles of Confederation allowed states to appeal to Congress to settle disputes between the states over boundaries or "any cause whatever". The Articles of Confederation also required Congressional approval for "any treaty or alliance" in which a state was one of the parties. There have been a number of Supreme Court cases concerning what constitutes valid congressional consent to an interstate compact. In Virginia v. Tennessee, , the Court found that some agreements among states stand even when lacking the explicit consent of Congress. (One example the court gave was a state moving some goods from a distant state to itself, it would not require Congressional approval to contract with another state to use its canals for transport.) According to the Court, the Compact Clause requires congressional consent only if the agreement among the states is "directed to the formation of any combination tending to the increase of political power in the States, which may encroach upon or interfere with the just supremacy of the United States". The congressional consent issue is at the center of the current debate over the constitutionality of the not yet effective National Popular Vote Interstate Compact entered into by fifteen states plus the District of Columbia. Irons, Peter H. (1999). A People's History of the Supreme Court. New York: Penguin. Davis, Z. (2001). "Presidential Vetoes, 1989–2000.", Kilman, J. & Costello, G. (Eds). (2000). The Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation. s, CRS Annotated Constitution: Article 1, "Resources Regarding the Origination Clause" (from TIFIS), National Cable Satellite Corporation. (2003). "Capitol Questions."

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Gun violence in the United States results in tens of thousands of deaths and injuries annually. In 2013, there were 73,505 nonfatal firearm injuries (23.2 injuries per 100,000 people), and 33,636 deaths due to "injury by firearms" (10.6 deaths per 100,000 people). These deaths included 21,175 suicides, 11,208 homicides, 505 deaths due to accidental or negligent discharge of a firearm, and 281 deaths due to firearms use with "undetermined intent". In 2017, gun deaths reached their highest level since 1968 with 39,773 deaths by firearm, of which 23,854 were by suicide and 14,542 were homicides. The rate of firearm deaths per 100,000 people rose from 10.3 per 100,000 in 1999 to 12 per 100,000 in 2017, with 109 people dying per day. The ownership and control of guns are among the most widely debated issues in the country. In 2012, there were 8,855 total firearm-related homicides in the United States, with 6,371 of those attributed to handguns. In 2012, 64% of all gun-related deaths in the U.S. were suicides. In 2010, there were 19,392 firearm-related suicides, and 11,078 firearm-related homicides in the U.S. In 2010, 358 murders were reported involving a rifle while 6,009 were reported involving a handgun; another 1,939 were reported with an unspecified type of firearm. About 1.4 million people have died from firearms in the U.S. between 1968 and 2011. This number includes all deaths resulting from a firearm, including suicides, homicides, and accidents. Compared to 22 other high-income nations, the U.S. gun-related homicide rate is 25 times higher. Although it has half the population of the other 22 nations combined, the U.S. had 82 percent of all gun deaths, 90 percent of all women killed with guns, 91 percent of children under 14 and 92 percent of young people between ages 15 and 24 killed with guns. Gun violence against other persons is most common in poor urban areas and is frequently associated with gang violence, often involving male juveniles or young adult males. Although mass shootings are covered extensively in the media, mass shootings in the United States account for only a small fraction of gun-related deaths. School shootings are described as a "uniquely American crisis", according to The Washington Post in 2018. Kids at U.S. schools have active shooter drills. According to USA Today, in 2019 “about 95% of public schools now have students and teachers practice huddling in silence, hiding from an imaginary gunman.” Legislation at the federal, state, and local levels has attempted to address gun violence through a variety of methods, including restricting firearms purchases by youths and other "at-risk" populations, setting waiting periods for firearm purchases, establishing gun buyback programs, law enforcement and policing strategies, stiff sentencing of gun law violators, education programs for parents and children, and community-outreach programs. Despite widespread concern about the impacts of gun violence on public health, Congress has prohibited the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) from conducting research that could be used to advocate in favor of gun control. The CDC has interpreted this ban to extend to all research on gun violence prevention, and so has not funded any research on this subject since 1996. The Congressional Research Service in 2009 estimated there were 310 million firearms in the U.S., not including weapons owned by the military. Of these, 114 million were handguns, 110 million were rifles, and 86 million were shotguns. In that same year, the Census bureau stated the population of people in the U.S. at 306 million. Accurate figures for civilian gun ownership are difficult to determine. While the number of guns in civilian hands has been on the increase, the percentage of Americans and American households who claim to own guns has been in long-term decline, according to the General Social Survey. It found that gun ownership by households has declined steadily from about half, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, down to 32% in 2015. The percentage of individual owners declined from 31% in 1985 to 22% in 2014. However, the Gallup organization has been performing similar polls for the same interval, and finds that household ownership of firearms was about the same in 2013 as it was in 1970 – 43%, and individual ownership numbers rose from 27% in 2000, to 29% in 2013. Household firearms ownership hit a high in 1993–1994 when household gun ownership exceeded 50%, according to Gallup polls. In 2016, household firearm ownership still exceeded 35%, and there was a long-term trend of declining support for stricter gun control laws. Gallup polling has consistently shown two-thirds opposition to bans on handgun possession. Gun ownership figures are generally estimated via polling, by such organizations as the General Social Survey (GSS), Harris Interactive, and Gallup. There are significant disparities in the results across polls by different organizations, calling into question their reliability. In Gallup's 1972 survey, 43% reported having a gun in their home, while GSS's 1973 survey resulted in 49% reporting a gun in the home; in 1993, Gallup's poll results were 51%, while GSS's 1994 poll showed 43%. In 2012, Gallup's survey showed 47% of Americans reporting having a gun in their home, while the GSS in 2012 reports 34%. In 1997, estimates were about 44 million gun owners in the United States. These owners possessed around 192 million firearms, of which an estimated 65 million were handguns. A National Survey on Private Ownership and Use of Firearms (NSPOF), conducted in 1994, indicated that Americans owned 192 million guns: 36% rifles, 34% handguns, 26% shotguns, and 4% other types of long guns. Most firearm owners owned multiple firearms, with the NSPOF survey indicating 25% of adults owned firearms. In the U.S., 11% of households reported actively being involved in hunting, with the remaining firearm owners having guns for self-protection and other reasons. Throughout the 1970s and much of the 1980s, the rate of gun ownership in the home ranged from 45–50%. After highly publicized mass murders, it is consistently observed that there are rapid increases in gun purchases and exceptionally large crowds at gun vendors and gun shows, due to fears of increased gun control . Gun ownership also varied across geographic regions, ranging from 25% rates of ownership in the Northeastern United States to 60% rates of ownership in the East South Central States. A Gallup poll (2004) indicated that 49% of men reported gun ownership, compared to 33% of women, and 44% of whites owned a gun, compared to only 24% of nonwhites. More than half of those living in rural areas (56%) owned a gun, compared with 40% of suburbanites and 29% of those in urban areas. More than half (53%) of Republicans owned guns, compared with 36% of political independents and 31% of Democrats. One criticism of the GSS survey and other proxy measures of gun ownership, is that they do not provide adequate macro-level detail to allow conclusions on the relationship between overall firearm ownership and gun violence. Gary Kleck compared various survey and proxy measures and found no correlation between overall firearm ownership and gun violence. In contrast, studies by David Hemenway and his colleagues, which used GSS data and the fraction of suicides committed with a gun as a proxy for gun ownership rates, found a strong positive association between gun ownership and homicide in the United States. Similarly, a 2006 study by Philip J. Cook and Jens Ludwig, which also used the percent of suicides committed with a gun as a proxy, found that gun prevalence increased homicide rates. This study also found that the elasticity of this effect was between +0.1 and +0.3. The effectiveness and safety of guns used for personal defense is debated. Studies place the instances of guns used in personal defense as low as 65,000 times per year, and as high as 2.5 million times per year. Under President Bill Clinton, the Department of Justice conducted a survey in 1994 that placed the usage rate of guns used in personal defense at 1.5 million times per year, but noted this was likely to be an overestimate. Between 1987 and 1990, David McDowall et al. found that guns were used in defense during a crime incident 64,615 times annually (258,460 times total over the whole period). This equated to two times out of 1,000 criminal incidents (0.2%) that occurred in this period, including criminal incidents where no guns were involved at all. For violent crimes, assault, robbery, and rape, guns were used 0.83% of the time in self-defense. Of the times that guns were used in self-defense, 71% of the crimes were committed by strangers, with the rest of the incidents evenly divided between offenders that were acquaintances or persons well known to the victim. In 28% of incidents where a gun was used for self-defense, victims fired the gun at the offender. In 20% of the self-defense incidents, the guns were used by police officers. During this same period, 1987 to 1990, there were 11,580 gun homicides per year (46,319 total), and the National Crime Victimization Survey estimated that 2,628,532 nonfatal crimes involving guns occurred. McDowall's study for the American Journal of Public Health contrasted with a 1995 study by Gary Kleck and Marc Gertz, which found that 2.45 million crimes were thwarted each year in the U.S. using guns, and in most cases, the potential victim never fired a shot. The results of the Kleck studies have been cited many times in scholarly and popular media. The methodology of the Kleck and Gertz study has been criticized by some researchers but also defended by gun-control advocate Marvin Wolfgang. There were 19,392 firearm-related suicides in the U.S. in 2010. In 2017, over half of the nation's 47,173 suicides involved a firearm. The U.S. Department of Justice reports that about 60% of all adult firearm deaths are by suicide, 61% more than deaths by homicide. One study found that military veterans used firearms in about 67% of suicides in 2014. Firearms are the most lethal method of suicide, with a lethality rate 2.6 times higher than suffocation (the second-most lethal method). In the United States, access to firearms is associated with an increased risk of completed suicide. A 1992 case-control study in the New England Journal of Medicine showed an association between estimated household firearm ownership and suicide rates, finding that individuals living in a home where firearms are present are more likely to successfully commit suicide than those individuals who do not own firearms, by a factor of 3 or 4. A 2006 study by researchers from the Harvard School of Public Health found a significant association between changes in estimated household gun ownership rates and suicide rates in the United States among men, women, and children. A 2007 study by the same research team found that in the United States, estimated household gun ownership rates were strongly associated with overall suicide rates and gun suicide rates, but not with non- gun suicide rates. A 2013 study reproduced this finding, even after controlling for different underlying rates of suicidal behavior by states. A 2015 study also found a strong association between estimated gun ownership rates in American cities and rates of both overall and gun suicide, but not with non-gun suicide. Correlation studies comparing different countries do not always find a statistically significant effect. A 2016 cross-sectional study showed a strong association between estimated household gun ownership rates and gun-related suicide rates among men and women in the United States. The same study found a strong association between estimated gun ownership rates and overall suicide rates, but only in men. During the 1980s and early 1990s, there was a strong upward trend in adolescent suicides with guns as well as a sharp overall increase in suicides among those age 75 and over. A 2018 study found that temporary gun seizure laws were associated with a 13.7% reduction in firearm suicides in Connecticut and a 7.5% reduction in firearm suicides in Indiana. David Hemenway, professor of health policy at Harvard University's School of Public Health, and director of the Harvard Injury Control Research Center and the Harvard Youth Violence Prevention Center, stated There are over twice as many gun-related suicides than gun-related homicides in the United States. Firearms are the most popular method of suicide due to the lethality of the weapon. 90% of all suicides attempted using a firearm result in a fatality, as opposed to less than 3% of suicide attempts involving cutting or drug-use. The risk of someone attempting suicide is also 4.8 times greater if they are exposed to a firearm on a regular basis; for example, in the home. Unlike other high-income OECD countries, most homicides in the U.S. are gun homicides. In the U.S. in 2011, 67 percent of homicide victims were killed using a firearm: 66 percent of single-victim homicides and 79 percent of multiple-victim homicides. In 1993, there were seven gun homicides for every 100,000 people; by 2013, that figure had fallen to 3.6, according to Pew Research. Since that time, gun homicides appear to be on the rise again, according to the FBI data. The FBI further breaks down gun homicides by weapon type. Handguns have been consistently responsible for the majority of fatalities. In 2016, there were 11,004 gun homicides (65% handguns, 6% rifle/shotgun, 30% other/unknown type), In 2014, there were 8,124 gun homicides (68% handguns, 6% rifle/shotgun, 25% other/unknown type)., In 2010, there were 8,775 gun homicides (68% handguns, 8% rifle/shotgun, 23% other/unknown type)., In 2001, there were 8,890 gun homicides (78% handguns, 10% rifle/shotguns, 12% other/unknown type). The Centers for Disease Control reports that there were 11,078 gun homicides in the U.S. in 2010. This is higher than the FBI's count. In the 19th century gun violence played a role in civil disorder such as the Haymarket riot. Homicide rates in cities such as Philadelphia were significantly lower in the 19th century than in modern times. During the 1980s and early 1990s, homicide rates surged in cities across the United States (see graphs at right). Handgun homicides accounted for nearly all of the overall increase in the homicide rate, from 1985 to 1993, while homicide rates involving other weapons declined during that time frame. The rising trend in homicide rates during the 1980s and early 1990s was most pronounced among lower income and especially unemployed males. Youths and Hispanic and African American males in the U.S. were the most represented, with the injury and death rates tripling for black males aged 13 through 17 and doubling for black males aged 18 through 24. The rise in crack cocaine use in cities across the U.S. is often cited as a factor for increased gun violence among youths during this time period. Prevalence of homicide and violent crime is higher in statistical metropolitan areas of the U.S. than it is in non-metropolitan counties; the vast majority of the U.S. population lives in statistical metropolitan areas. In metropolitan areas, the homicide rate in 2013 was 4.7 per 100,000 compared with 3.4 in non-metropolitan counties. More narrowly, the rates of murder and non-negligent manslaughter are identical in metropolitan counties and non- metropolitan counties. In U.S. cities with populations greater than 250,000, the mean homicide rate was 12.1 per 100,000. According to FBI statistics, the highest per capita rates of gun-related homicides in 2005 were in Washington, D.C. (35.4/100,000), Puerto Rico (19.6/100,000), Louisiana (9.9/100,000), and Maryland (9.9/100,000). In 2017, according to the Associated Press, Baltimore broke a record for homicides. In 2005, the 17-24 age group was significantly over-represented in violent crime statistics, particularly homicides involving firearms. In 2005, 17-19-year-olds were 4.3% of the overall population of the U.S. but 11.2% of those killed in firearm homicides. This age group also accounted for 10.6% of all homicide offenses. The 20-24-year-old age group accounted for 7.1% of the population, but 22.5% of those killed in firearm homicides. The 20-24 age group also accounted for 17.7% of all homicide offenses. Those under 17 are not overrepresented in homicide statistics. In 2005, 13-16-year-olds accounted for 6% of the overall population of the U.S., but only 3.6% of firearm homicide victims, and 2.7% of overall homicide offenses. People with a criminal record are more likely to die as homicide victims. Between 1990 and 1994, 75% of all homicide victims age 21 and younger in the city of Boston had a prior criminal record. In Philadelphia, the percentage of those killed in gun homicides that had prior criminal records increased from 73% in 1985 to 93% in 1996. In Richmond, Virginia, the risk of gunshot injury is 22 times higher for those males involved with crime. It is significantly more likely that a death will result when either the victim or the attacker has a firearm. The mortality rate for gunshot wounds to the heart is 84%, compared to 30% for people who suffer stab wounds to the heart. In the United States, states with higher gun ownership rates have higher rates of gun homicides and homicides overall, but not higher rates of non-gun homicides. Higher gun availability is positively associated with homicide rates. However, there is evidence, that gun ownership has more of an effect on rates of gun suicide than it does on gun homicide. Some studies suggest that the concept of guns can prime aggressive thoughts and aggressive reactions. An experiment by Berkowitz and LePage in 1967 examined this "weapons effect." Ultimately, when study participants were provoked, their reaction was substantially more aggressive when a gun (in contrast with a more benign object like a tennis racket) was visibly present in the room. Other similar experiments like those conducted by Carson, Marcus-Newhall and Miller yield similar results. Such results imply that the presence of a gun in an altercation could elicit an aggressive reaction which may result in homicide. However, the demonstration of such reactions in experimental settings does not entail that this would be true in reality. The U.S. is ranked 4th out of 34 developed nations for the highest incidence rate of homicides committed with a firearm, according to Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) data. Mexico, Turkey, Estonia are ranked ahead of the U.S. in incidence of homicides. A U.S. male aged 15–24 is 70 times more likely to be killed with a gun than their counterpart in the eight (G-8) largest industrialized nations in the world (United Kingdom, France, Germany, Japan, Canada, Italy, Russia). In a broader comparison of 218 countries the U.S. is ranked 111. In 2010, the U.S.' homicide rate is 7 times higher than the average for populous developed countries in the OECD, and its firearm-related homicide rate was 25.2 times higher. In 2013 the United States' firearm-related death rate was 10.64 deaths for every 100,000 inhabitants, a figure very close to Mexico's 11.17, although in Mexico firearm deaths are predominantly homicides whereas in the United States they are predominantly suicides. (Although Mexico has strict gun laws, the laws restricting carry are often unenforced, and the laws restricting manufacture and sale are often circumvented by trafficking from the United States and other countries.) Canada and Switzerland each have much looser gun control regulation than the majority of developed nations, although significantly more than in the United States, and have firearm death rates of 2.22 and 2.91 per 100,000 citizens, respectively. By comparison Australia, which imposed sweeping gun control laws in response to the Port Arthur massacre in 1996, has a firearm death rate of 0.86 per 100,000, and in the United Kingdom the rate is 0.26. In the year of 2014, there were a total of 8,124 gun homicides in the U.S. In 2015, there were 33,636 deaths due to firearms in the U.S, with homicides accounting for 13,286 of those, while guns were used to kill about 50 people in the U.K., a country with population one fifth of the size of the U.S. population. More people are typically killed with guns in the U.S. in a day (about 85) than in the U.K. in a year, if suicides are included. With deaths by firearm reaching almost 40,000 in the U.S. in 2017, their highest level since 1968, almost 109 people died per day. A study conducted by the Journal of the American Medical Association in 2018, states that the worldwide gun death reach 250,000 Yearly and the United States is among just six countries that make up half of those fatalities. The definition of a mass shooting is still under debate. The precise inclusion criteria are disputed, and there is no broadly accepted definition.Mother Jones, using their standard of a mass shooting where a lone gunman kills at least four people in a public place for motivations excluding gang violence or robbery, concluded that between 1982 and 2006 there were 40 mass shootings (an average of 1.6 per year). More recently, from 2007 through May 2018, there have been 61 mass shootings (an average of 5.4 per year). More broadly, the frequency of mass shootings steadily declined throughout the 1990s and early 2000s, then increased dramatically. Studies indicate that the rate at which public mass shootings occur has tripled since 2011. Between 1982 and 2011, a mass shooting occurred roughly once every 200 days. However, between 2011 and 2014 that rate has accelerated greatly with at least one mass shooting occurring every 64 days in the United States. In "Behind the Bloodshed", a report by USA Today, said that there were mass killings every two weeks and that public mass killings account for 1 in 6 of all mass killings (26 killings annually would thus be equivalent to 26/6, 4 to 5, public killings per year). Mother Jones listed seven mass shootings in the U.S. for 2015. The average for the period 2011–2015 was about 5 a year. An analysis by Michael Bloomberg's gun violence prevention group, Everytown for Gun Safety, identified 110 mass shootings, defined as shootings in which at least four people were murdered with a firearm, between January 2009 and July 2014; at least 57% were related to domestic or family violence. This would imply that not more than 43% of 110 shootings in 5.5 years were non-domestic, though not necessarily public or indiscriminate; this equates to 8.6 per year, broadly in line with the other figures. Other media outlets have reported that hundreds of mass shootings take place in the United States in a single calendar year, citing a crowd- funded website known as Shooting Tracker which defines a mass shooting as having four or more people injured or killed. In December 2015, The Washington Post reported that there had been 355 mass shootings in the United States so far that year. In August 2015, The Washington Post reported that the United States was averaging one mass shooting per day. An earlier report had indicated that in 2015 alone, there had been 294 mass shootings that killed or injured 1,464 people. However, an article from Russia Today stated that 42 percent of the incidents involved zero deaths, and 29 percent one death. Shooting Tracker and Mass Shooting Tracker, the two sites that the media have been citing, have been criticized for using a criterion much more inclusive than that used by the government—they count four victims injured as a mass shooting—thus producing much higher figures. Handguns figured in the Virginia Tech massacre, Binghamton shootings, 2009 Fort Hood shooting, Oikos University shooting, and 2011 Tucson shooting, but both a handgun and a rifle were used in the Sandy Hook Elementary School Shooting. The Aurora theater shooting and the Columbine High School massacre were committed by assailants armed with multiple weapons. AR-15 style rifles have been used in a number of the deadliest mass shooting incidents, and have come to be widely characterized as the weapon of choice for perpetrators of mass shootings, despite statistics which show that handguns are the most commonly used weapon type in mass shootings. In recent years, the number of public mass shootings has increased substantially, with a steady increase in gun related deaths. Although mass shootings are covered extensively in the media, they account for a small fraction of gun-related deaths (only 1 percent of all gun deaths between 1980 and 2008). Between Jan. 1 and May 18, 2018, 31 students and teachers were killed inside U.S. schools. That exceeds the number of U.S. military servicemembers who died in combat and noncombat roles during the same period. The perpetrators and victims of accidental and negligent gun discharges may be of any age. Accidental injuries are most common in homes where guns are kept for self-defense. The injuries are self-inflicted in half of the cases. On January 16, 2013, President Obama issued 23 Executive Orders on Gun Safety, one of which was for the Center for Disease Control (CDC) to research causes and possible prevention of gun violence. The five main areas of focus were gun violence, risk factors, prevention/intervention, gun safety and how media and violent video games influence the public. They also researched the area of accidental firearm deaths. According to this study not only have the number of accidental firearm deaths been on the decline over the past century but they now account for less than 1% of all unintentional deaths, half of which are self-inflicted. In the United States, areas with higher levels of gun ownership have an increased risk of gun assault and gun robbery. However it is unclear if higher crime rates are a result of increased gun ownership or if gun ownership rates increase as a result of increased crime. In 2000, the costs of gun violence in the United States were estimated to be on the order of $100 billion per year, plus the costs associated with the gun violence avoidance and prevention behaviors. In 2010, gun violence cost U.S. taxpayers about $516 million in direct hospital costs. At least eleven assassination attempts with firearms have been made on U.S. presidents (over one-fifth of all presidents); four were successful, three with handguns and one with a rifle. Abraham Lincoln survived an earlier attack, but was killed using a .44-caliber Derringer pistol fired by John Wilkes Booth. James A. Garfield was shot two times and mortally wounded by Charles J. Guiteau using a .44-caliber revolver on July 2, 1881. He would die of pneumonia the same year on September 19. On September 6, 1901, William McKinley was fatally wounded by Leon Czolgosz when he fired twice at point- blank range using a .32-caliber revolver. Despite only being struck by one of the bullets and receiving immediate surgical treatment, McKinley died 8 days later of gangrene infection. John F. Kennedy was killed by Lee Harvey Oswald with a bolt-action rifle on November 22, 1963. Andrew Jackson, Harry S. Truman, and Gerald Ford (the latter twice) survived assassination attempts involving firearms unharmed. Ronald Reagan was critically wounded in the March 30, 1981 assassination attempt by John Hinckley, Jr. with a .22-caliber revolver. He remains the only U.S. President to survive being shot while in office. Former president Theodore Roosevelt was shot and wounded right before delivering a speech during his 1912 presidential campaign. Despite bleeding from his chest, Roosevelt refused to go to a hospital until he delivered the speech. On February 15, 1933, Giuseppe Zangara attempted to assassinate president-elect Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who was giving a speech from his car in Miami, Florida. Although Roosevelt was unharmed, Chicago mayor Anton Cermak died in that attempt, and several other bystanders received non-fatal injuries. Response to these events has resulted in federal legislation to regulate the public possession of firearms. For example, the attempted assassination of Franklin Roosevelt contributed to passage of the National Firearms Act of 1934, and the Kennedy assassination (along with others) resulted in the Gun Control Act of 1968. The GCA is a federal law signed by President Lyndon Johnson that broadly regulates the firearms industry and firearms owners. It primarily focuses on regulating interstate commerce in firearms by largely prohibiting interstate firearms transfers except among licensed manufacturers, dealers, and importers. A quarter of robberies of commercial premises in the U.S. are committed with guns. Fatalities are three times as likely in robberies committed with guns than where other, or no, weapons are used, with similar patterns in cases of family violence. Criminologist Philip J. Cook hypothesized that if guns were less available, criminals might commit the same crime, but with less-lethal weapons. He finds that the level of gun ownership in the 50 largest U.S. cities correlates with the rate of robberies committed with guns, but not with overall robbery rates. He also finds that robberies in which the assailant uses a gun are more likely to result in the death of the victim, but less likely to result in injury to the victim. A significant number of homicides are the consequence of an unintended escalation of another crime in which firearms are present, with no initial intent to kill. Overall robbery and assault rates in the U.S. are comparable to those in other developed countries, such as Australia and Finland, with much lower levels of gun ownership. A strong association exists between the availability of illegal guns and violent crime rates, but not between legal gun availability and violent crime rates. Considering mass shootings alone (sometimes defined as at least four people shot dead in a public place), nearly all shooters are male. A database of 101 mass shootings between 1982 and 2018 recorded 98 male shooters, 2 female shooters, and one partnership of a male and female shooter. The race of the shooters included 58 whites, 16 blacks, 8 Asians, 7 Latinos, 3 Native Americans, and 8 unknown/other. In 2015, Arizona State University researcher Sherry Towers said "National news media attention is like a 'vector' that reaches people who are vulnerable." She stated that disaffected people can become infected by the attention given other disturbed people who have become mass killers. African Americans suffer a disproportionate share of firearm homicides. African Americans, who were only 13% of the U.S. population in 2010, were 55% of the victims of gun homicide. Non-Hispanic whites were 65% of the U.S. population in 2010, but only 25% of the victims. Hispanics were 16% of the population in 2010 but 17% of victims. According to the U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics, from 1980 to 2008, 84% of white homicide victims were killed by white offenders and 93% of black homicide victims were killed by black offenders. Public policy as related to preventing gun violence is an ongoing political and social debate regarding both the restriction and availability of firearms within the United States. Policy at the Federal level is/has been governed by the Second Amendment, National Firearms Act, Gun Control Act of 1968, Firearm Owners Protection Act, Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act, Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, and the Domestic Violence Offender Act. Gun policy in the U.S. has been revised many times with acts such as the Firearm Owners Protection Act, which loosened provisions for gun sales while also strengthening automatic firearms law. At the federal, state and local level gun laws such as handgun bans have been overturned by the Supreme Court in cases such as District of Columbia v. Heller and McDonald v. Chicago. These cases hold that the Second Amendment protects an individual right to possess a firearm. Columbia v. Heller only addressed the issue on Federal enclaves, while McDonald v. Chicago addressed the issue as relating to the individual states. Gun control proponents often cite the relatively high number of homicides committed with firearms as reason to support stricter gun control laws. Firearm laws are a subject of debate in the U.S., with firearms used for recreational purposes as well as for personal protection. Gun rights advocates cite the use of firearms for self-protection, and to deter violent crime, as reasons why more guns can reduce crime. Gun rights advocates also say criminals are the least likely to obey firearms laws, and so limiting access to guns by law-abiding people makes them more vulnerable to armed criminals. In a survey of 41 studies, half of the studies found a connection between gun ownership and homicide but these were usually the least rigorous studies. Only six studies controlled at least six statistically significant confounding variables, and none of them showed a significant positive effect. Eleven macro-level studies showed that crime rates increase gun levels (not vice versa). The reason that there is no opposite effect may be that most owners are noncriminals and that they may use guns to prevent violence. The US Constitution enshrines the right to gun ownership in the Second Amendment of the United States Bill of Rights to ensure the security of a free state through a well regulated Miltia. It states: "A well regulated Miltia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms shall not be infringed." The Constitution makes no distinction between the type of firearm in question or state of residency. While all federal and state restrictions on gun ownership are technically infringements on this right, and therefore unconstitutional, lawmakers have nevertheless introduced various forms of gun control. Gun dealers in the U.S. are prohibited from selling handguns to those under the age of 21, and long guns to those under the age of 18. In 2017, the National Safety Council released a state ranking on firearms access indicators such as background checks, waiting periods, safe storage, training, and sharing of mental health records with the NICS database to restrict firearm access. Assuming access to guns, the top ten guns involved in crime in the U.S. show a definite tendency to favor handguns over long guns. The top ten guns used in crime, as reported by the ATF in 1993, were the Smith & Wesson .38 Special and .357 revolvers; Raven Arms .25 caliber, Davis P-380 .380 caliber, Ruger .22 caliber, Lorcin L-380 .380 caliber, and Smith & Wesson semi-automatic handguns; Mossberg and Remington 12 gauge shotguns; and the Tec DC-9 9 mm handgun. An earlier 1985 study of 1,800 incarcerated felons showed that criminals preferred revolvers and other non-semi-automatic firearms over semi-automatic firearms. In Pittsburgh a change in preferences towards pistols occurred in the early 1990s, coinciding with the arrival of crack cocaine and the rise of violent youth gangs. Background checks in California from 1998 to 2000 resulted in 1% of sales being initially denied. The types of guns most often denied included semiautomatic pistols with short barrels and of medium caliber. A 2018 study determined that California's implementation of comprehensive background checks and misdemeanor violation policies was not associated with a net change in the firearm homicide rate over the ensuing 10 years. A 2018 study found no evidence of an association between the repeal of comprehensive background check policies and firearm homicide and suicide rates in Indiana and Tennessee. Among juveniles (minors under the age of 16, 17, or 18, depending on legal jurisdiction) serving in correctional facilities, 86% had owned a gun, with 66% acquiring their first gun by age 14. There was also a tendency for juvenile offenders to have owned several firearms, with 65% owning three or more. Juveniles most often acquired guns illegally from family, friends, drug dealers, and street contacts. Inner city youths cited "self-protection from enemies" as the top reason for carrying a gun. In Rochester, New York, 22% of young males have carried a firearm illegally, most for only a short time. There is little overlap between legal gun ownership and illegal gun carrying among youths. One 2006 study concluded that "suicide, murder and violent crime rates are determined by basic social, economic and/or cultural factors with the availability of any particular one of the world's myriad deadly instrument being irrelevant." However, A 2011 study indicated that in states where local background checks for gun purchases are completed, the suicide and homicide rates were much lower than states without. Gun rights advocates argue that policy aimed at the supply side of the firearms market is based on limited research. One consideration is that 60–70% of firearms sales in the U.S. are transacted through federally licensed firearm dealers, with the remainder taking place in the "secondary market", in which previously owned firearms are transferred by non-dealers. Access to secondary markets is generally less convenient to purchasers, and involves such risks as the possibility of the gun having been used previously in a crime. Unlicensed private sellers were permitted by law to sell privately owned guns at gun shows or at private locations in 24 states as of 1998. Regulations that limit the number of handgun sales in the primary, regulated market to one handgun a month per customer have been shown to be effective at reducing illegal gun trafficking by reducing the supply into the secondary market. Taxes on firearm purchases are another means for government to influence the primary market. Criminals tend to obtain guns through multiple illegal pathways, including large-scale gun traffickers, who tend to provide criminals with relatively few guns. Federally licensed firearm dealers in the primary (new and used gun) market are regulated by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF). Firearm manufacturers are required to mark all firearms manufactured with serial numbers. This allows the ATF to trace guns involved in crimes back to their last Federal Firearms License (FFL) reported change of ownership transaction, although not past the first private sale involving any particular gun. A report by the ATF released in 1999 found that 0.4% of federally licensed dealers sold half of the guns used criminally in 1996 and 1997. This is sometimes done through "straw purchases." State laws, such as those in California, that restrict the number of gun purchases in a month may help stem such "straw purchases." States with gun registration and licensing laws are generally less likely to have guns initially sold there used in crimes. Similarly, crime guns tend to travel from states with weak gun laws to states with strict gun laws. An estimated 500,000 guns are stolen each year, becoming available to prohibited users. During the ATF's Youth Crime Gun Interdiction Initiative (YCGII), which involved expanded tracing of firearms recovered by law enforcement agencies, only 18% of guns used criminally that were recovered in 1998 were in possession of the original owner. Guns recovered by police during criminal investigations were often sold by legitimate retail sales outlets to legal owners, and then diverted to criminal use over relatively short times ranging from a few months to a few years, which makes them relatively new compared with firearms in general circulation. A 2016 survey of prison inmates by the Bureau of Justice Statistics found that 43% of guns used in crimes were obtained from the black market, 25% from an individual, 10% from a retail source (including 0.8% from a gun show), and 6% from theft. The first Federal legislation related to firearms was the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution ratified in 1791. For 143 years, this was the only major Federal legislation regarding firearms. The next Federal firearm legislation was the National Firearms Act of 1934, which created regulations for the sale of firearms, established taxes on their sale, and required registration of some types of firearms such as machine guns. In the aftermath of the Robert F. Kennedy and Martin Luther King Jr. assassinations, the Gun Control Act of 1968 was enacted. This Act regulated gun commerce, restricting mail order sales, and allowing shipments only to licensed firearm dealers. The Act also prohibited sale of firearms to felons, those under indictment, fugitives, illegal aliens, drug users, those dishonorably discharged from the military, and those in mental institutions. The law also restricted importation of so-called Saturday night specials and other types of guns, and limited the sale of automatic weapons and semi-automatic weapon conversion kits. The Firearm Owners Protection Act, also known as the McClure-Volkmer Act, was passed in 1986. It changed some restrictions in the 1968 Act, allowing federally licensed gun dealers and individual unlicensed private sellers to sell at gun shows, while continuing to require licensed gun dealers to require background checks. The 1986 Act also restricted the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms from conducting punitively repetitive inspections, reduced the amount of record-keeping required of gun dealers, raised the burden of proof for convicting gun law violators, and changed restrictions on convicted felons from owning firearms. In the years following the passage of the Gun Control Act of 1968, people buying guns were required to show identification and sign a statement affirming that they were not in any of the prohibited categories. Many states enacted background check laws that went beyond the federal requirements. The Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act passed by Congress in 1993 imposed a waiting period before the purchase of a handgun, giving time for, but not requiring, a background check to be made. The Brady Act also required the establishment of a national system to provide instant criminal background checks, with checks to be done by firearms dealers. The Brady Act only applied to people who bought guns from licensed dealers, whereas felons buy some percentage of their guns from black market sources. Restrictions, such as waiting periods, impose costs and inconveniences on legitimate gun purchasers, such as hunters. A 2000 study found that the implementation of the Brady Act was associated with "reductions in the firearm suicide rate for persons aged 55 years or older but not with reductions in homicide rates or overall suicide rates." The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, enacted in 1994, included the Federal Assault Weapons Ban, and was a response to public fears over mass shootings. This provision prohibited the manufacture and importation of some firearms with certain features such as a folding stock, pistol grip, flash suppressor, and magazines holding more than ten rounds. A grandfather clause was included that allowed firearms manufactured before 1994 to remain legal. A short-term evaluation by University of Pennsylvania criminologists Christopher S. Koper and Jeffrey A. Roth did not find any clear impact of this legislation on gun violence. Given the short study time period of the evaluation, the National Academy of Sciences advised caution in drawing any conclusions. In September 2004, the assault weapon ban expired, with its sunset clause. The Domestic Violence Offender Gun Ban, the Lautenberg Amendment, prohibited anyone previously convicted of a misdemeanor or felony crime of domestic violence from shipment, transport, ownership and use of guns or ammunition. This was ex post facto, in the opinion of Representative Bob Barr. This law also prohibited the sale or gift of a firearm or ammunition to such a person. It was passed in 1996, and became effective in 1997. The law does not exempt people who use firearms as part of their duties, such as police officers or military personnel with applicable criminal convictions; they may not carry firearms. In the immediate aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, police and National Guard units in New Orleans confiscated firearms from private citizens in an attempt to prevent violence. In reaction, Congress passed the Disaster Recovery Personal Protection Act of 2006 in the form of an amendment to Department of Homeland Security Appropriations Act, 2007. Section 706 of the Act prohibits federal employees and those receiving federal funds from confiscating legally possessed firearms during a disaster. On Jan. 5, 2016, President Obama unveiled his new strategy to curb gun violence in America. His proposals focus on new background check requirements that are intended to enhance the effectiveness of the National Instant Criminal Background Check System (NICS), and greater education and enforcement efforts of existing laws at the state level. In an interview with Bill Simmons of HBO, President Obama also confirmed that gun control will be the "dominant" issue on his agenda in his last year of presidency. All 50 U.S. states allow for the right to carry firearms. A majority of states either require a shall-issue permit or allow carrying without a permit and a minority require a may-issue permit. Right-to-carry laws expanded in the 1990s as homicide rates from gun violence in the U.S. increased, largely in response to incidents such as the Luby's shooting of 1991 in Texas which directly resulted in the passage of a carrying concealed weapon, or CCW, law in Texas in 1995. As Rorie Sherman, staff reporter for the National Law Journal wrote in an article published on April 18, 1994, "It is a time of unparalleled desperation about crime. But the mood is decidedly 'I'll do it myself' and 'Don't get in my way.'" The result was laws, or the lack thereof, that permitted persons to carry firearms openly, known as open carry, often without any permit required, in 22 states by 1998. Laws that permitted persons to carry concealed handguns, sometimes termed a concealed handgun license, CHL, or concealed pistol license, CPL in some jurisdictions instead of CCW, existed in 34 states in the U.S. by 2004. Since then, the number of states with CCW laws has increased; , all 50 states have some form of CCW laws on the books. Economist John Lott has argued that right-to-carry laws create a perception that more potential crime victims might be carrying firearms, and thus serve as a deterrent against crime. Lott's study has been criticized for not adequately controlling for other factors, including other state laws also enacted, such as Florida's laws requiring background checks and waiting period for handgun buyers. When Lott's data was re-analyzed by some researchers, the only statistically significant effect of concealed-carry laws found was an increase in assaults, with similar findings by Jens Ludwig. Lott and Mustard's 1997 study has also been criticized by Paul Rubin and Hashem Dezhbakhsh for inappropriately using a dummy variable; Rubin and Dezhbakhsh reported in a 2003 study that right-to-carry laws have much smaller and more inconsistent effects than those reported by Lott and Mustard, and that these effects are usually not crime-reducing. Since concealed-carry permits are only given to adults, Philip J. Cook suggested that analysis should focus on the relationship with adult and not juvenile gun incident rates. He found no statistically significant effect. A 2004 National Academy of Science survey of existing literature found that the data available "are too weak to support unambiguous conclusions" about the impact of right-to-carry laws on rates of violent crime. NAS suggested that new analytical approaches and datasets at the county or local level are needed to adequately evaluate the impact of right-to-carry laws. A 2014 study found that Arizona's SB 1108, which allowed adults in the state to concealed carry without a permit and without passing a training course, was associated with an increase in gun-related fatalities. A 2018 study by Charles Manski and John V. Pepper found that the apparent effects of RTC laws on crime rates depend significantly on the assumptions made in the analysis. A 2019 study found no statistically significant association between the liberalization of state level firearm carry legislation over the last 30 years and the rates of homicides or other violent crime. Child Access Prevention (CAP) laws, enacted by many states, require parents to store firearms safely, to minimize access by children to guns, while maintaining ease of access by adults. CAP laws hold gun owners liable should a child gain access to a loaded gun that is not properly stored. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) claimed that, on average, one child died every three days in accidental incidents in the U.S. from 2000 to 2005. In most states, CAP law violations are considered misdemeanors. Florida's CAP law, enacted in 1989, permits felony prosecution of violators. Research indicates that CAP laws are correlated with a reduction in unintentional gun deaths by 23%, and gun suicides among those aged 14 through 17 by 11%. A study by Lott did not detect a relationship between CAP laws and accidental gun deaths or suicides among those age 19 and under between 1979 and 1996. However, two studies disputed Lott's findings. A 2013 study found that CAP laws are correlated with a reduction of non-fatal gun injuries among both children and adults by 30–40%. In 2016 the American Academy of Pediatrics found that safe gun storage laws were associated with lower overall adolescent suicide rates. Research also indicated that CAP laws were most highly correlated with reductions of non-fatal gun injuries in states where violations were considered felonies, whereas in states that considered violations as misdemeanors, the potential impact of CAP laws was not statistically significant. Some local jurisdictions in the U.S. have more restrictive laws, such as Washington, D.C.'s Firearms Control Regulations Act of 1975, which banned residents from owning handguns, and required permitted firearms be disassembled and locked with a trigger lock. On March 9, 2007, a U.S. Appeals Court ruled the Washington, D.C. handgun ban unconstitutional. The appeal of that case later led to the Supreme Court's ruling in District of Columbia v. Heller that D.C.'s ban was unconstitutional under the Second Amendment. Despite New York City's strict gun control laws, guns are often trafficked in from other parts of the U.S., particularly the southern states. Results from the ATF's Youth Crime Gun Interdiction Initiative indicate that the percentage of imported guns involved in crimes is tied to the stringency of local firearm laws. Violence prevention and educational programs have been established in many schools and communities across the United States. These programs aim to change personal behavior of both children and their parents, encouraging children to stay away from guns, ensure parents store guns safely, and encourage children to solve disputes without resorting to violence. Programs aimed at altering behavior range from passive (requiring no effort on the part of the individual) to active (supervising children, or placing a trigger lock on a gun). The more effort required of people, the more difficult it is to implement a prevention strategy. Prevention strategies focused on modifying the situational environment and the firearm itself may be more effective. Empirical evaluation of gun violence prevention programs has been limited. Of the evaluations that have been done, results indicate such programs have minimal effectiveness. SPEAK UP is a national youth violence prevention initiative created by The Center to Prevent Youth Violence, which provides young people with tools to improve the safety of their schools and communities. The SPEAK UP program is an anonymous, national hot-line for young people to report threats of violence in their communities or at school. The hot-line is operated in accordance with a protocol developed in collaboration with national education and law enforcement authorities, including the FBI. Trained counselors, with access to translators for 140 languages, collect information from callers and then report the threat to appropriate school and law enforcement officials. One of the most widely used parent counseling programs is Steps to Prevent Firearm Injury program (STOP), which was developed in 1994 by the American Academy of Pediatrics and the Brady Center to Prevent Gun Violence (the latter of which was then known as the Center to Prevent Handgun Violence). STOP was superseded by STOP 2 in 1998, which has a broader focus including more communities and health care providers. STOP has been evaluated and found not to have a significant effect on gun ownership or firearm storage practices by inner-city parents. Marjorie S. Hardy suggests further evaluation of STOP is needed, as this evaluation had a limited sample size and lacked a control group. A 1999 study found no statistically significant effect of STOP on rates of gun ownership or better gun storage. Prevention programs geared towards children have also not been greatly successful. Many inherent challenges arise when working with children, including their tendency to perceive themselves as invulnerable to injury, limited ability to apply lessons learned, their innate curiosity, and peer pressure. The goal of gun safety programs, usually administered by local firearms dealers and shooting clubs, is to teach older children and adolescents how to handle firearms safely. There has been no systematic evaluation of the effect of these programs on children. For adults, no positive effect on gun storage practices has been found as a result of these programs. Also, researchers have found that gun safety programs for children may likely increase a child's interest in obtaining and using guns, which they cannot be expected to use safely all the time, even with training. One approach taken is gun avoidance, such as when encountering a firearm at a neighbor's home. The Eddie Eagle Gun Safety Program, administered by the National Rifle Association (NRA), is geared towards younger children from pre- kindergarten to sixth grade, and teaches kids that real guns are not toys by emphasizing a "just say no" approach. The Eddie Eagle program is based on training children in a four-step action to take when they see a firearm: (1) Stop! (2) Don't touch! (3) Leave the area. (4) Go tell an adult. Materials, such as coloring books and posters, back the lessons up and provide the repetition necessary in any child-education program. ABC News challenged the effectiveness of the "just say no" approach promoted by the NRA's Eddie the Eagle program in an investigative piece by Diane Sawyer in 1999. Sawyer's piece was based on an academic study conducted by Dr. Marjorie Hardy. Dr. Hardy's study tracked the behavior of elementary age schoolchildren who spent a day learning the Eddie the Eagle four-step action plan from a uniformed police officer. The children were then placed into a playroom which contained a hidden gun. When the children found the gun, they did not run away from the gun, but rather, they inevitably played with it, pulled the trigger while looking into the barrel, or aimed the gun at a playmate and pulled the trigger. The study concluded that children's natural curiosity was far more powerful than the parental admonition to "Just say no". Programs targeted at entire communities, such as community revitalization, after-school programs, and media campaigns, may be more effective in reducing the general level of violence that children are exposed to. Community-based programs that have specifically targeted gun violence include Safe Kids/Healthy Neighborhoods Injury Prevention Program in New York City, and Safe Homes and Havens in Chicago. Evaluation of such community-based programs is difficult, due to many confounding factors and the multifaceted nature of such programs. A Chicago-based program, "BAM" (Becoming a Man) has produced positive results, according to the University of Chicago Crime Lab, and is expanding to Boston in 2017. The March for Our Lives was a student-led demonstration in support of legislation to prevent gun violence in the United States. It took place in Washington, D.C. on March 24, 2018, with over 880 sibling events throughout the U.S. It was planned by Never Again MSD in collaboration with the nonprofit organization. The demonstration followed the Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School shooting in Parkland, Florida on February 14, 2018, which was described by several media outlets as a possible tipping point for gun control legislation. Sociologist James D. Wright suggests that to convince inner-city youths not to carry guns "requires convincing them that they can survive in their neighborhood without being armed, that they can come and go in peace, that being unarmed will not cause them to be victimized, intimidated, or slain." Intervention programs, such as CeaseFire Chicago, Operation Ceasefire in Boston and Project Exile in Richmond, Virginia during the 1990s, have been shown to be effective. Other intervention strategies, such as gun "buy-back" programs have been demonstrated to be ineffective. Gun "buyback" programs are a strategy aimed at influencing the firearms market by taking guns "off the streets". Gun "buyback" programs have been shown to be effective to prevent suicides, but ineffective to prevent homicides with the National Academy of Sciences citing theory underlying these programs as "badly flawed." Guns surrendered tend to be those least likely to be involved in crime, such as old, malfunctioning guns with little resale value, muzzleloading or other black-powder guns, antiques chambered for obsolete cartridges that are no longer commercially manufactured or sold, or guns that individuals inherit but have little value in possessing. Other limitations of gun buyback programs include the fact that it is relatively easy to obtain gun replacements, often of better guns than were relinquished in the buyback. Also, the number of handguns used in crime (about 7,500 per year) is very small compared to about 70 million handguns in the U.S.. (i.e., 0.011%). "Gun bounty" programs launched in several Florida cities have shown more promise. These programs involve cash rewards for anonymous tips about illegal weapons that lead to an arrest and a weapons charge. Since its inception in May 2007, the Miami program has led to 264 arrests and the confiscation of 432 guns owned illegally and $2.2 million in drugs, and has solved several murder and burglary cases. In 1995, Operation Ceasefire was established as a strategy for addressing youth gun violence in Boston. Violence was particularly concentrated in poor, inner-city neighborhoods including Roxbury, Dorchester, and Mattapan. There were 22 youths (under the age of 24) killed in Boston in 1987, with that figure rising to 73 in 1990. Operation Ceasefire entailed a problem-oriented policing approach, and focused on specific places that were crime hot spots—two strategies that when combined have been shown to be quite effective. Particular focus was placed on two elements of the gun violence problem, including illicit gun trafficking and gang violence. Within two years of implementing Operation Ceasefire in Boston, the number of youth homicides dropped to ten, with only one handgun-related youth homicide occurring in 1999 and 2000. The Operation Ceasefire strategy has since been replicated in other cities, including Los Angeles. Erica Bridgeford, spearheaded a "72-hour ceasefire" in August 2017, but the ceasefire was broken with a homicide. Councilman Brandon Scott, Mayor Catherine Pugh and others talked of community policing models that might work for Baltimore. Project Exile, conducted in Richmond, Virginia during the 1990s, was a coordinated effort involving federal, state, and local officials that targeted gun violence. The strategy entailed prosecution of gun violations in Federal courts, where sentencing guidelines were tougher. Project Exile also involved outreach and education efforts through media campaigns, getting the message out about the crackdown. Research analysts offered different opinions as to the program's success in reducing gun crime. Authors of a 2003 analysis of the program argued that the decline in gun homicide was part of a "general regression to the mean" across U.S. cities with high homicide rates. Authors of a 2005 study disagreed, concluding that Richmond's gun homicide rate fell more rapidly than the rates in other large U.S. cities with other influences controlled. Project Safe Neighborhoods (PSN) is a national strategy for reducing gun violence that builds on the strategies implemented in Operation Ceasefire and Project Exile. PSN was established in 2001, with support from the Bush administration, channelled through the United States Attorney's Offices in the United States Department of Justice. The Federal government has spent over US$1.5 billion since the program's inception on the hiring of prosecutors, and providing assistance to state and local jurisdictions in support of training and community outreach efforts. In 2016, Chicago saw a 58% increase in homicides. In response to the spike in gun violence, a group of foundations and social service agencies created the Rapid Employment and Development Initiative (READI) Chicago. A Heartland Alliance program, READI Chicago targets those most at risk of being involved in gun violence – either as perpetrator or a victim. Individuals are provided with 18 months of transitional jobs, cognitive behavioral therapy and legal and social services. Individuals are also provided with 6 months of support as they transition to full-time employment at the end of the 18 months. The University of Chicago Crime Lab is evaluating READI Chicago’s impact on gun violence reduction. The evaluation, expected to be completed in Spring 2021, is showing early signs of success. Eddie Bocanegra, senior directer of READI Chicago, hopes that the early success of READI Chicago will result in funding from the City of Chicago. The National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) is used by law enforcement agencies in the United States for collecting and reporting data on crimes. The NIBRS is one of four subsets of the Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) program. Traditional Summary Reporting System (SRS) and the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) – Offense and arrest data, Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted (LEOKA) Program, Hate Crime Statistics Program – hate crimes, Cargo Theft Reporting Program – cargo theft The FBI states the UCR Program is retiring the SRS and will transition to a NIBRS-only data collection by January 1, 2021. Additionally, the FBI states NIBRS will collect more detailed information, including incident date and time, whether reported offenses were attempted or completed, expanded victim types, relationships of victims to offenders and offenses, demographic details, location data, property descriptions, drug types and quantities, the offender's suspected use of drugs or alcohol, the involvement of gang activity, and whether a computer was used in the commission of the crime. Though NIBRS will be collecting more data the reporting if the firearm used was legally or illegally obtained by the suspect will not be identified. Nor will the system have the capability to identify if a legally obtained firearm used in the crime was used by the owner or registered owner, if required to be registered. Additionally, the information of how an illegally obtained firearm was acquired will be left to speculation. The absence of collecting this information into NIBRS the reported "gun violence" data will remain a gross misinterpretation lending anyone information that can be skewed to their liking/needs and not pinpoint where actual efforts need to be directed to curb the use of firearms in crime. In the United States, research into firearms and violent crime is fraught with difficulties, associated with limited data on gun ownership and use, firearms markets, and aggregation of crime data. Research studies into gun violence have primarily taken one of two approaches: case-control studies and social ecology. Gun ownership is usually determined through surveys, proxy variables, and sometimes with production and import figures. In statistical analysis of homicides and other types of crime which are rare events, these data tend to have poisson distributions, which also presents methodological challenges to researchers. With data aggregation, it is difficult to make inferences about individual behavior. This problem, known as ecological fallacy, is not always handled properly by researchers; this leads some to jump to conclusions that their data do not necessarily support. In 1996 the NRA lobbied Congressman Jay Dickey (R-Ark.) to include budget provisions that prohibited the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) from advocating or promoting gun control and that deleted $2.6 million from the CDC budget, the exact amount the CDC had spent on firearms research the previous year. The ban was later extended to all research funded by the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS). According to an article in Nature, this made gun research more difficult, reduced the number of studies, and discouraged researchers from even talking about gun violence at medical and scientific conferences. In 2013, after the December 2012 Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, President Barack Obama ordered the CDC to resume funding research on gun violence and prevention, and put $10 million in the 2014 budget request for it. However, the order had no practical effect, as the CDC refused to act without a specific appropriation to cover the research, and Congress repeatedly declined to allocate any funds. As a result, the CDC has not performed any such studies since 1996. Crime in the United States, Firearm death rates in the United States by state, Gun show loophole, Gunshot wound, Index of gun politics articles, Second Amendment to the United States Constitution Gun violence – National Criminal Justice, US Violent Crime – Data on US Violent Crime, Gun Violence Archive – Data on each verified gun related incident, with annual statistics, Report US Anti-gun violence activist art project, Eileen Boxer (2016), The Accessibility of Firearms and Risk for Suicide and Homicide Victimization Among Household Members – Anglemyer, Horvath, and Rutherford (2014) This is a list of mass shootings in the United States that have occurred in 2019. Mass shootings are incidents involving multiple victims of firearm- related violence. The precise inclusion criteria are disputed, and there is no broadly accepted definition. Gun Violence Archive, a nonprofit research group that tracks shootings and their characteristics in the United States, defines a mass shooting as an incident in which four or more people, excluding the perpetrator(s), are shot in one location at roughly the same time. The Congressional Research Service narrows that definition, limiting it to "public mass shootings", and defined by four or more victims killed. It excludes counting wounded survivors. The Washington Post and Mother Jones use similar definitions, with the latter acknowledging that their definition "is a conservative measure of the problem", as shootings with fewer fatalities occur. The crowdsourced Mass Shooting Tracker project defines a mass shooting as "an incident where four or more people are shot in a single shooting spree. This may include the gunman himself, or police shootings of civilians around the gunman." There were 434 mass shootings in 2019 that fit the inclusion criteria of this article. This averaged 1.19 mass shootings per day. In these shootings, 1,643 people were injured and 517 died, for a total of 2,160 victims. There are many definitions of a mass shooting. Listed roughly from broad to specific: Stanford University MSA Data Project: three or more persons shot in one incident, excluding the perpetrator(s), at one location, at roughly the same time. Excluded are shootings associated with organized crime, gangs or drug wars., Mass Shooting Tracker: four or more persons shot in one incident, at one location, at roughly the same time., Gun Violence Archive/Vox: four or more shot in one incident, excluding the perpetrators, at one location, at roughly the same time., Mother Jones: three or more shot and killed in one incident at a public place, excluding the perpetrators., The Washington Post: four or more shot and killed in one incident at a public place, excluding the perpetrators., ABC News/FBI: four or more shot and killed in one incident, excluding the perpetrators, at one location, at roughly the same time., Congressional Research Service: four or more shot and killed in one incident, excluding the perpetrators, at a public place, excluding gang-related killings and those done with a profit-motive. Only incidents considered mass shootings by at least two of the above sources are listed below. The statistics columns for each month are updated after the month ends, in an effort to make sure the correct number of events, individuals affected, and descriptions are accurate. Thus, the number may be incomplete throughout the month until the last day of each month. According to data compiled by the Associated Press, USA Today, and Northeastern University, the year 2019 saw the highest number of mass killings recorded to date: 211 killed in 41 incidents. Thirty-three of these mass killings, defined here as four or more people killed excluding the perpetrator, involved firearms. List of mass shootings in the United States in 2020, List of school shootings in the United States, List of school shootings in the United States by death toll, Casualty recording Gun Violence Archive Mass Shootings, Mass Shooting Tracker Mass Shootings, Mother Jones Mass Shootings, USA Today Mass Shootings, Vox Mass Shootings, Washington Post Mass Shootings This article is a list of U.S. states with firearm death rates per 100,000 population. In 2016, the overall rate of death by firearms in the United States was 11.8 per 100,000 people — the same as for death by motor vehicles — with suicides accounting for roughly two out of every three gun deaths. State firearm death rates, 2016. Rate per 100,000 population. National firearm death rate is 11.8. These numbers include (among others) death as a result of suicide, self-defense and accidents. A list regarding only murders is provided below. These rates have been age-adjusted. The age-adjusted rates are rates that would exist if the population of each state had the same age distribution as the "standard" US population. See the references for more info: State firearm death rates, 2013. Rate per 100,000 population. Age-adjusted death rates. United States: 10.4 This is a list of the U.S. states and the District of Columbia. The population data is the official data from the U.S. Census Bureau. The murder rates and gun murder rates were calculated based on the FBI reports. The official population of each state for 2010 and gun ownership rates were added for context. The gun murders in 2010 from FBI Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) program was 8,775. The total number of murders from all weapons was 12,996. These figures includes murders and willful manslaughters, but excludes "deaths caused by negligence, suicide, or accident" and justifiable homicides. The U.S. reports a 70% conviction rate for murder prosecutions. Crime and violence in Latin America, Gun laws in the United States by state, Gun politics in the United States, Gun violence in the United States by state, Suicide in the United States, Homicide in world cities, Index of gun politics articles, List of Brazilian states by murder rate, List of cities by murder rate, List of countries by firearm-related death rate, List of countries by intentional death rate - homicide plus suicide., List of countries by intentional homicide rate by decade, List of countries by intentional homicide rate, List of countries by life expectancy, List of countries by suicide rate, List of federal subjects of Russia by murder rate, List of Mexican states by homicides, List of U.S. states by homicide rate, List of U.S. states by incarceration rate, List of United States cities by crime rate (2012). 250,001+, Number of guns per capita by country, Right to keep and bear arms in the United States, United States cities by crime rate (100,000–250,000), United States cities by crime rate (60,000-100,000)

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Tracy Mosby (née McConnell) (colloquial: "The Mother") is the title character from the CBS television sitcom How I Met Your Mother. The show, narrated by Future Ted (Bob Saget), tells the story of how Ted Mosby (Josh Radnor) met The Mother. Tracy McConnell appears in eight episodes, from "Lucky Penny" to "The Time Travelers", as an unseen character; she was first seen fully in "Something New" and was promoted to a main character in season 9. The Mother is played by Cristin Milioti. The story of how Ted met The Mother is the framing device behind the series; many facts about her are revealed throughout the series, including the fact that Ted once unwittingly owned her umbrella before accidentally leaving it behind in her apartment. Ted and The Mother meet at the Farhampton train station following Barney Stinson (Neil Patrick Harris) and Robin Scherbatsky's (Cobie Smulders) wedding; this scene is shown in "Last Forever", the series finale. The Mother's death from an unspecified terminal illness in 2024, also revealed in the series finale, received a mixed reaction from fans. In the alternate ending on the ninth season DVD, The Mother is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030. During its first eight seasons, the sitcom often hinted at the unseen character of The Mother. Well-known actresses often made guest appearances on the show. Many fans expected that another would play one of the most-wanted roles in Hollywood, but creators Carter Bays and Craig Thomas wanted an unknown. Using Anne Hathaway and Amy Adams as examples, Thomas said that "We didn’t want it to be a big famous star because we didn’t want the wider audience to have associations with whatever actress this would be ... The whole idea is that Ted’s never seen this woman before, so it better feel that way to the audience", similar to how Cobie Smulders being cast as Robin Scherbatsky had "kept the show alive" when it began. Bays and Thomas also did not want a large casting call. They chose Cristin Milioti after seeing her on 30 Rock and Once; her musical ability was also helpful, as The Mother had been described as a band member. Milioti filmed her first scene for the last episode of season 8 having never watched How I Met Your Mother before. She only learned of the character's importance after binge watching the show during the summer. The Mother was born on September 19, 1984. The Mother, joined by her roommate Kelly (Ahna O'Reilly), awaits the arrival of her boyfriend Max, only to receive a call informing her of his death. After the funeral service, she returns to the apartment to open Max's last gift to her — a ukulele. The Mother spends the next few years grieving the passing of the man she believes was her one true love. In "Wait for It", it is revealed that the short story of how they met involved her yellow umbrella. In "No Tomorrow", Ted finds the umbrella at a club and takes it home after attending a St. Patrick's Day party which she also attended, as it had been two and a half years since Max's death. She is still grieving, but Kelly encourages her to go out and date again, bringing her to the same bar where Barney Stinson (Neil Patrick Harris) and Ted are celebrating. The two women run into Mitch (Adam Paul), her old orchestra instructor; The Mother offers to give Mitch her cello for his work at a school and they head to her apartment. Mitch tries to seduce her with a move called "The Naked Man", but she turns him down. Nevertheless, Mitch encourages her to pursue her dreams. The Mother expresses her desire to end poverty by taking up economics in college. On his first day of teaching as Professor Mosby, as seen in the season 4 finale "The Leap", he is seen in front of the classroom of students, one of which Future Ted says is the titular mother. But in the first episode of season 5, "Definitions", it is revealed that he was actually in the wrong classroom — Economics instead of Architecture. At the same time in "How Your Mother Met Me", the Mother sits her first session in Economics 305 and meets another graduate student named Cindy (Rachel Bilson), whom she offers to move in with her as her roommate. They see Ted enter the room, but when he announces the subject, The Mother thinks she is in the wrong room and runs off. She heads back to the room after seeing Ted scramble to his actual classroom. Later, in "Girls Versus Suits", Ted dates Cindy, not knowing that her roommate is his future wife. Throughout the episode, Ted notes that Cindy had spent most of their first date talking jealously about her roommate. When in Cindy and the mother's apartment he picks up many of The Mother's belongings, attempting to show how compatible he and Cindy are (thinking the items are Cindy's) and glimpses the mother's foot as she disappears into her room after taking a shower. Ted finds out at this time that she plays bass guitar in a band. Ted forgets to take the yellow umbrella with him when he goes out and Future Ted mentions, "this is how your mother got her yellow umbrella back." In "How Your Mother Met Me", it is revealed that, after Ted left the apartment, the Mother had discovered the umbrella and, upon going to question Cindy, finds her crying. As the Mother tried to console her, Cindy kissed her, revealing that her jealousy towards her roommate was actually a crush. While this incident made Cindy realise that she is a lesbian, it also made the Mother decide to go back into dating, as the kiss was her first in a long time. Some time after this, a man named Darren (Andrew Rannells) approaches the Mother and is welcomed into her band, Superfreakonomics. Darren gradually takes over the band, and becomes her nemesis. In the season 6 opener "Big Days" it is revealed Ted meets his future wife "the day of" the wedding at which he is the best man. In the episode "False Positive" Robin asks Ted to be her future best man, should she ever get married. In the episode "Challenge Accepted", it is revealed that Ted meets the mother of his children the day of Barney's wedding. In the last episode of season 7, "The Magician's Code" it is shown that Barney will marry Robin, and Ted will meet the Mother "the day of" their wedding. On the premiere of season 8, Ted's wife appears after Barney and Robin's wedding, outside at the "Farhampton" station while holding a yellow umbrella and her bass guitar. In the season 8 episode "Band or DJ?," Ted runs into Cindy and her partner on the subway and tells them that the band Barney and Robin hired to play at their wedding cancelled at the last minute. The end result of the encounter is that Cindy's (now ex-) roommate's band plays at Barney and Robin's wedding. The Mother is first shown meeting Louis (Louis Ferrigno Jr.) in "How Your Mother Met Me" as she is left to carry the band equipment while the now-lead band member Darren talks to his fans. Later at MacLaren's Pub, she tells him she's not yet ready to date. Louis asks her to give him a call if she changes her mind, and they begin dating not long after. They live together for the next two years, but she knows deep down that she doesn't love him. The Mother meets all of Ted's best friends – Barney, Robin, Lily Aldrin (Alyson Hannigan), and Marshall Eriksen (Jason Segel) – before she meets him. The Mother is responsible for convincing Barney to pursue Robin, as revealed through a flashback in "Platonish". In "The Locket", Tracy meets Lily on a train journey. In "Bass Player Wanted", the Mother picks up a hitchhiking Marshall, carrying his infant son Marvin, on her way to Farhampton Inn. On their way, it is revealed that the Mother is a bass player in the band that is scheduled to play at the wedding reception, but Darren forced her to quit. The Mother ultimately decides to confront Darren and retake the band. Before she can, however, Darren walks up to her, furious the groom's best man punched him for "no reason", and quits the band. In "How Your Mother Met Me", it is shown that after this incident, the Mother returns to Louis' summer cottage not far from the Farhampton Inn where she has been staying for the duration of the wedding weekend. As she walks in the door, Louis proposes to her, but she goes outside to think about it for a few minutes. She looks skyward and asks Max for permission to let him go and move on; she takes a sudden gust of wind as a "yes", says goodbye, and declines Louis' proposal when she goes back inside. She leaves his cottage and checks in at Farhampton Inn. On her room's balcony, she plays the ukulele and sings "La Vie en Rose". Ted hears her singing from his room next door. In "Gary Blauman", Ted and the Mother are on their first date. Ted picks her up at her New York City apartment and they proceed to walk to a Scottish-Mexican fusion restaurant for dinner. On the way there, Ted is telling her a story when they nearly have a run-in with Louis. She says that she is in the "weirdest place on earth" right now and that it is too soon for her to be dating. Ted walks her back to her apartment. They say goodnight and Ted begins to walk away. The Mother then stops him and asks him to finish the story he was telling her. When the story is over, they say goodnight again. The Mother takes a step towards Ted and they kiss for the first time, before deciding to carry on their date. In a flashforward in "The Lighthouse", Ted proposes to the Mother at the top of the lighthouse near Farhampton Inn. She immediately accepts. In another flashfoward in "Unpause", the Mother is revealed to be pregnant with their second child, Luke, in the year 2017. She goes into labor while she and Ted are staying at Farhampton. The Mother's real name is not revealed until the series finale, "Last Forever". When Ted meets her at the Farhampton train station, she reveals that her name is Tracy McConnell. In the season 1 episode "Belly Full of Turkey", Ted meets a stripper named Tracy and says "...that, kids, is the true story of how I met your mother". The children are horrified, but then he says he is joking, which led some fans to correctly guess that the Mother's name is Tracy. In the series finale, it is revealed that six years prior to Ted telling the story to his children, Tracy died in 2024 from an undisclosed illness. In the finale the characters do not directly state that the Mother is dead. Ted says that she "became sick" and his children said that she has been "gone" for six years. Many fans expressed considerable disappointment with the Mother's death. Milioti cried when she learned her character was supposed to die, but came to accept the ending was what the writers had planned from the beginning. Bill Kuchman from Popculturology said that the Mother was "an amazing character" and that "over the course of this final season HIMYM made us care about Tracy. Kuchman said that "asking fans to drop all of that with a simple line about The Mother getting sick and passing away was a very difficult request", that the finale "advanced too quickly" and that "HIMYM was a victim of its own success on this issue". A petition was started, aiming to rewrite and reshoot the finale. The petition has over 20,000 signatures and considerable online news coverage. On April 5, 2014, Carter Bays announced on Twitter that an alternate ending would be included on the Season 9 DVD. No new material was shot for this scene. In the alternate ending, The Mother is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030. Future Ted is heard saying, "...When I think how lucky I am to wake up next to your mom every morning, I can't help but be amazed how easy it all really was...", indirectly stating that The Mother is alive. The video ends right after the train passes at Farhampton station and credits start rolling, implying that Ted never went back to Robin and went on to have a long, happy marriage with Tracy. The American sitcom How I Met Your Mother premiered on CBS on September 19, 2005. Created by Craig Thomas and Carter Bays, the show is presented from the perspective of Ted Mosby in 2030 ("Future Ted") as he tells his children how he met the titular mother. The show lasted for nine seasons and 208 episodes; the finale first aired on March 31, 2014. The main characters are: Ted Mosby, a romantic searching for "The One"; Barney Stinson, a womanizer; Robin Scherbatsky, a journalist who moved to New York in 2005; and Marshall Eriksen and Lily Aldrin, a long-term couple. Although the show is based around The Mother, her first appearance is not until the season eight finale. Many of the main character's relatives appear throughout the show, such as Lily's father or Barney's brother. They may also be seen in family gatherings, such as Barney and Robin's wedding or Marshall's father's funeral. Ted's children and Marvin W. Eriksen (son of Marshall and Lily) appear in the background of many episodes without being crucial to many plots. Ranjit, Carl the Bartender, and several other characters often appear because they work in places the main cast frequent (such as MacLaren's Pub). Characters in relationships with Ted, Barney, or Robin often appear in several episodes within a short period of time, such as Victoria, Nora, or Kevin. Minor characters such as the Slutty Pumpkin or Mary the Paralegal may only appear in one or two episodes, but still play a crucial role in the episodes in which they appear. Notes: "The Mother" was played by various stunt actresses (including Jennifer Birmingham and the show's director, Pamela Fryman) throughout the series until Cristin Milioti assumed the role for the season 8 finale., Cristin Milioti was promoted to series regular in season 9 after a brief guest appearance in season 8., Scenes featuring David Henrie and Lyndsy Fonseca were recycled footage beginning with season 3, although unreleased footage filmed in 2006 was used in season 9., Marvin W. Eriksen has been played by several actors, some uncredited, at different ages varying from babyhood to adulthood. Portrayed by Neil Patrick Harris, Barnabus "Barney" Stinson is a former womanizer. He is known for wearing suits, playing laser tag, performing magic tricks, and overusing catchphrases such as "Suit up!", "Legend-wait-for-it- dary" and "Challenge accepted!". Barney is the writer of the Bro Code and the Playbook, documenting rules for best friends ("bros") and his favorite moves to use on women. Barney was raised by a single mother, Loretta, along with his older brother James. He spent very little time with his father as a child. In season 6, Barney's father Jerome returns to his life hoping to make amends for abandoning him as a child. As a young adult, Barney was a long-haired hippie with plans to join the Peace Corps. Soon after his rejection, he saw a flier for a sale on suits, thus beginning his suit addiction. Shortly after, he met Ted Mosby at a urinal and announced that he would "teach [Ted] how to live", thus beginning his life with Ted's group of friends. In season 4, Barney falls in love with Robin and spends the next season hiding it from her. The two get together in season 5, but the relationship is short-lived. After their breakup, Barney returns to one-night stands, but sometimes shows regret in ending his relationship with Robin. In "Desperation Day", Robin introduces him to her friend Nora. Barney and Nora have a brief relationship, but it ends because Barney is unwilling to let himself be honest with her about his feelings. Later, they get back together but Barney cheats on Nora with Robin. In "Challenge Accepted", it is revealed that Barney gets married at some point in the future; in "The Magician's Code", the bride is revealed to be Robin. However, Barney and Robin get divorced in 2016. Barney goes back to having one-night stands, and eventually impregnates a woman. The birth of his daughter, Ellie, effectively causes him to change his ways for good. Portrayed by Josh Radnor, Theodore Evelyn "Ted" Mosby (born on April 25, 1978) is a romantic, originally searching for "The One" and often discussing destiny and "The Universe" controlling things. Ted grew up in Shaker Heights, Ohio with parents Virginia Mosby, Alfred Mosby, and sister Heather Mosby. He is an architect who graduated from Wesleyan University, where he met Marshall and Lily. Ted also serves as the show's narrator from the future, voiced by Bob Saget, as he tells his children a detailed story, with the premise of explaining how he met their mother. A brief history of Ted includes being left at the altar, taking a job as an architecture professor and designing the new headquarters for Goliath National Bank. Ted has dated many people and been in several long-term relationships. Ted has an on-again, off-again relationship with Robin. Ted also dated Victoria, Stella, Zoey and Jeanette. Ted finally gets to meet his wife-to-be, Tracy, on the day of Barney and Robin's wedding, after accidentally teaching one of her college classes, owning her yellow umbrella for a short time, and dating her roommate. When he ran into Tracy's roommate (Cindy), it led to Tracy's band performing at Barney and Robin's wedding. In the finale, it is discovered his wife died six years earlier. His children claim his story was not about their mother but about Robin; they urge him to get back together with her and he does, bringing the iconic blue French horn with him. Portrayed by Cobie Smulders, Robin Charles Scherbatsky Jr. works as a news reporter for various stations, ending up at World Wide News. She is originally from Vancouver, British Columbia and is a fan of the Vancouver Canucks. Robin was named after her father, who she has some issues with as he wanted a male child. She and Ted have an on-again, off-again relationship there was some sexual tension between them throughout the third season, most obviously when Robin brought home her boyfriend Gael from a trip to Argentina. The subject of four episodes, Robin was a teen pop singer named Robin Sparkles. Her first boyfriend was Simon, who starred in her second music video. In season 4, Robin moves in with Ted after leaving her short-lived job in Japan. During "The Leap", she and Barney pursue a relationship, but it soon ends. Robin is frequently made fun of for her tendency to laugh while lying, as well as her references to places and history exclusive to Canada, such as Mount Waddington or Danby's. Though she has stated explicitly that she does not like children, Future Ted mentioned that she eventually grew to like them and even became close to Ted's children. After being unemployed for a while, Robin found out that she would be deported from America if she did not get a job. Barney helped her land a job for an early morning show in "The Possimpible". Soon after she started she got a co-host named Don whom she originally disliked. However, she grew to like him and they dated for a while. In "False Positive", Robin worked as a researcher for World Wide News and eventually moved up to co-anchor after hosting a New Year's Eve show. It is revealed in the season 7 finale that Robin married Barney. They divorce after three years of marriage. In 2030, Robin is shown to be living with her dogs in New York when she gets asked out by Ted, a six-year widower by then. Portrayed by Alyson Hannigan, Lily Aldrin is a kindergarten teacher. She is married to Marshall and grew up in Brooklyn, New York. Like Ted and Marshall, she is a graduate of Wesleyan University and dreams of being an artist; she has painted naked paintings of Marshall and Barney. Lily has a huge debt problem because of her impulsive shopping; she is able to hide this from Marshall until they apply for a mortgage in "Dowisetrepla". She is very manipulative, having caused several of Ted's relationships to end when she disliked his date. It has been shown many times that she cannot keep a secret, with a few exceptions: she hides her second pregnancy and keeps Ted's move to Chicago a secret from everyone but Marshall. Another ongoing joke in the show is her implied bisexuality. Prior to college, Lily dated Scooter. At college, she met Ted and started dating Marshall. She and Marshall were together for 9 years and engaged for almost a year before Lily broke up with Marshall to move to San Francisco for a summer to concentrate on her art. Marshall was so hurt that they stayed separated for a few months after she returned to New York. They eventually get married at the end of season 2. They move into an apartment in "Dowisetrepla"; previously, they had been living with Ted. They consider children for years before feeling "ready". Lily announces in the season 6 finale that she is pregnant and their first child was revealed to be male in "Mystery vs. History". In the episode "Good Crazy", Lily goes into labor five weeks early and in the episode "The Magician's Code – Part 1", gives birth to Marvin. In season eight, Lily accepts a job as The Captain's art consultant. The Captain later asks her to move to Italy to search for and purchase artwork for his collection; she and Marshall agree to move there. However, this is the cause of disagreement between the couple for most of the season when Marshall accepts an offer to be a judge without consulting Lily. Lily is revealed to be pregnant with a second child in "Daisy", followed by third child a few years later in "Last Forever". Portrayed by Jason Segel, Marshall Eriksen met Ted and Lily during their freshman year at Wesleyan University. He and Lily began dating during college and got married at the end of season 2. Marshall is a Columbia Law School graduate originally from Minnesota. Even though he stands at , he is the shortest male member of his family. Marshall became a lawyer because he was interested in environmental protection laws. He accepts a job at a corporate law firm, before joining the legal team at Goliath National Bank, where Barney also works. Marshall is also very good at various games and believes in the paranormal, specifically Sasquatch and the Loch Ness Monster. It is revealed in "Last Cigarette Ever" that in the future, he and Lily have a son. In early 2011, after being told Marshall and Lily are capable of having a baby, Marshall's dad has a fatal heart attack and dies. For several months after this, he is upset and his friends make an effort to be nicer to him. His first son, born in the episode "The Magician's Code – Part 1" is named Marvin, after Marshall's father. Marshall was able to arrive just in time to witness the birth. Marshall eventually is accepted to his dream job, being a judge, after committing to move to Italy with Lily. This leads to constant strife between the couple through most of the final season. However, throughout the first half of the last season, Marshall is on a car ride from Minnesota to Long Island after missing his flight to Barney and Robin's wedding. In this process, Marshall meets The Mother. Portrayed by Cristin Milioti, the Mother is the title character of the series; Ted's narration of the series is based around how he met her. While several clues about the Mother are revealed throughout the series (including the story of the yellow umbrella), she is not fully seen until the season eight finale, "Something New". Season 9 reveals more about the Mother through several flashforwards throughout the season and the 200th episode, "How Your Mother Met Me", which shows the years 2005 through 2013 from her perspective. In that episode, it is revealed that her boyfriend Max died on her 21st birthday and that she refrained from dating in the years following; her first boyfriend after Max, Louis, proposed to her the night before Barney and Robin's wedding, but she rejected him, allowing herself to move on. It is the highest rated episode of the series on IMDb. Ted is shown meeting The Mother in the series finale at the Farhampton train station following Barney and Robin's wedding. They date, get engaged, and have two children called Luke and Penny. In the original ending of the show, The Mother is shown to have been deceased in 2024. Many fans of the show had become emotionally attached to The Mother. In many scenes throughout the show, it was shown how incredibly perfect Ted and Tracy were for each other and how nice she was to everyone. Her death in the series finale was met with considerable dissatisfaction by many viewers. A petition was started, aiming to rewrite and reshoot the finale. The petition received over 20,000 signatures and considerable online news coverage. An alternate ending was released in the ninth season DVD. In the alternate ending, Tracy Mosby is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030. In the video, future Ted is heard saying, "...When I think how lucky I am to wake up next to your mom every morning, I can't help but be amazed how easy it all really was...", indirectly stating that The Mother is alive. The video ends right after the train passes at Farhampton station and credits start rolling, implying that Ted never went back to Robin as he lived a successful married life with Tracy Mosby. Penny and Luke are Ted's children, teenagers in 2030 as Ted narrates the story of how he met their mother. Penny is portrayed by Lyndsy Fonseca while Luke is portrayed by David Henrie. Georgina Bays, the daughter of Carter Bays, has portrayed Ted's daughter as an infant. Penny and Luke as young children are portrayed by Katie Silverman and Dexter Cross in "Rally". The names of Ted's children were unknown until "Unpause". Before he had met their mother, Ted had repeatedly expressed the desire to name them Luke and Leia. The children initially appear only in the framing narrative, though Penny appears as an infant in "Trilogy Time", "Lobster Crawl" and "Unpause". Both Penny and Luke appear as young children in "Rally", when they greet their parents on New Year's Day in 2022. Since the actors playing Ted's children were going to age quickly, stock footage of them was shot in 2006, to be used in later episodes. Additionally, footage for the series finale was shot and the actors were made to sign non-disclosure agreements; Fonseca said in 2013 that she did not "remember what the secret was", although Henrie thought he remembered. A season nine promotional video was filmed with the same actors, now adults, joking that they have been listening to Ted tell the story for eight years, and was first shown at the 2013 San Diego Comic-Con. Marvin Wait-for-it Eriksen is the son of Lily and Marshall. In "Challenge Accepted", Lily discovers she is pregnant after a long-running storyline of Marshall and Lily trying to have kids. Marvin is born in "The Magician's Code – Part 1"; Marshall arrives just in time for the birth. Barney helped Marshall arrive in the hospital, in return for choosing the middle name of the baby: "Wait-for-it". Marvin appears in many episodes after that, usually causing Marshall and Lily to become stressed and sleep deprived. In "Who Wants to Be a Godparent?", Ted, Barney and Robin all become godparents of Marvin. "Bedtime Stories" is based around Marvin going to sleep. Marvin has been played by twins, and several actors have been credited as playing him; Jake Elliott, August Maturo and Spencer Ralston have played the part of Marvin during various flashforwards. Craig Thomas said that they were "tending to the fact that [Marshall and Lily] have a baby more than other shows have", although Marvin "doesn't take over the show." Played by Marshall Manesh, Ranjit is a cab driver from Bangladesh. He drives the main characters around during several significant moments of their lives; for instance, he drives Marshall and Lily in a limo shortly after they are married and helps Ted with a "two-minute date" in "Ten Sessions". In "The Sexless Innkeeper", he and his wife Falguni go on a double date with Marshall and Lily, although they do not enjoy it. He also appears in episodes such as "The Limo", "Rabbit or Duck", "The Goat" and "Three Days of Snow". In "Gary Blauman", Future Ted reveals that Ranjit became rich through investments and bought a limo service. Ranjit is the only recurring character to appear in all nine seasons. Played by Joe Nieves, Carl is the bartender at MacLaren's, which is frequented by the main characters. It's assumed that Carl's last name is MacLaren and that he owns the bar. Carl eventually has a son who helps him at MacLaren's. Joe Nieves received the part after the scene he was supposed to be in was cut from the pilot but no one had told him, and he turned up on set in a police officer costume. As no one wanted to tell him that they had cut his scene, they gave him the role of Carl. Carl is named after one of the assistants to the producers. Played by Charlene Amoia, Wendy is a waitress from MacLaren's bar. Characterized as sweet and somewhat naive, she is well liked by the main characters. Barney once had a brief relationship with her. It is also revealed in "Garbage Island" that Wendy the Waitress falls in love and is later married to Marshall's ex-co worker Meeker (Daniel G. O'Brien) who found out at the time they both hate Marshall after his "Go Green" fiasco. She and Meeker have three kids. Played by Ashley Williams. A baker at The Buttercup Bakery, Victoria meets Ted in "The Wedding" at the wedding reception of Ted's friends, for whom Victoria had baked the wedding cake. They agree to spend the evening together anonymously in order to preserve the memory of the night, despite their attraction to one another. However, Ted quickly finds her and they begin an intense romantic relationship. The relationship is complicated when Victoria is offered a cooking fellowship in Germany and they attempt to remain together in a long-distance relationship. However, Ted kisses Robin and they break up. Victoria reappears in Ted's life seven years later, when she is catering the Architect's Ball that Ted is attending at the end of "The Naked Truth". During their reunion, Ted apologizes for cheating on her and she accepts his apology. However, he becomes upset when he learns that she began dating Klaus, whom she met not long after arriving in Germany, almost immediately after they broke up. During their ensuing argument, they begin to remember what they loved about their relationship together and end up kissing. Victoria responds to the kiss with the revelation that Klaus intends to propose to her soon and she and Ted part on amicable terms, though she also warns Ted that his existing relationships with Robin and Barney are stopping him from finding his true love. In "The Magician's Code", Ted, having recently reconciled with Robin, follows her suggestion to contact Victoria in hopes of learning if she ever got married. When they meet, Ted is stunned to see that Victoria has secretly run away from her wedding to Klaus. Recalling his own experience at being left at the altar by Stella, Ted attempts to have Victoria return to her wedding to at least inform Klaus that she has run away, but they learn that Klaus has also run away from the wedding, as he has realized that he and Victoria are not meant to be together. Ted and Victoria's renewed relationship is short- lived; when Ted proposes to her, she presents an ultimatum: he must end his friendship with Robin to be with her. Unwilling to give up his friendship with Robin, Victoria breaks up with him. She is later revealed to have returned to Germany and sends him Robin's locket, which she had taken with her. Bays and Thomas planned to have Victoria as a backup Mother in case CBS decided to cancel the series after season 2. Another possible storyline was Williams wearing a fat suit to portray Victoria having become, according to Bays, "enormously fat" because of her baking career. Victoria was described as Ted's best girlfriend by People magazine. Played by Suzie Plakson, Judy Eriksen is the mother of Marshall. Married to the late Marvin Eriksen, she has three children: Marvin, Marcus and Marshall. She lives in St. Cloud, Minnesota and is known to have a tense, sometimes adversarial relationship with Lily, leaving Marshall torn as he loves Lily, but has trouble understanding how she could dislike his mother. In "The Over- Correction," she begins a sexual relationship with Lily's father, Mickey. Played by Wayne Brady, James is Barney's gay African-American half-brother; they are very alike and act as each other's "wingmen". This changes when James meets Tom, his future husband. Barney tries to stop his brother from marrying but changes his mind when he learns that they are adopting a baby. James marries Tom and they have a son named Eli. In the season 6 episode "Cleaning House," James finds out his father is Sam Gibbs after he and Barney discover an unsent letter that their mother Loretta addressed to him. At the end of "The Rebound Girl", it is revealed that James and Tom have adopted an infant daughter named Sadie. In "Coming Back", James announces that he is getting a divorce after Tom discovered him cheating. Robin wins James' wedding ring in "The Poker Game" and refuses to give it back because James has been saying that she and Barney should not get married. Barney initially stands by his brother, but then realizes that James' selfishness is what caused his own marriage to fail. James reveals that Gary Blauman was one of the guys that he cheated on Tom with in "Gary Blauman". Future Ted explains to his children that James and Tom did eventually get back together, and raised Eli and Sadie as a happy family. Played by Jennifer Morrison. One of Ted's girlfriends. Ted first meets Zoey when she was an activist protesting the destruction of a historic New York building, in "Architect of Destruction". At first Ted is attracted to her, even though he is the architect responsible for the building's demolition. However, when she discovers this fact, she turns on him, and the two develop a mutually antagonistic relationship. In "Natural History", Ted meets her rich husband, who calls himself The Captain, at a black-tie event at a museum. Zoey spends Thanksgiving hanging out with the gang in "Blitzgiving" because her husband is spending it with his daughter; surprisingly, it is Ted who convinces the group to let her do so, after deducing that she is hurting by her stepdaughter's rejection of her. Zoey is (by marriage) a van Smoot, whose family is shown to have owned the mansion in which Marshall and Lily were married, and an apartment in the Alberta building. In "Oh Honey", Zoey divorces the Captain and Zoey gets together with Ted. However, they break up in "Landmarks" due to tensions caused by the Arcadian. She appears in "Challenge Accepted", where she unsuccessfully tries reuniting with Ted. In "Gary Blauman", Future Ted reveals that Zoey continued campaigning for various causes. Played by Ellen D. Williams, Patrice is a World Wide News employee, often shouted down by Robin who is annoyed by her efforts to be best friends. In season 8, Patrice joins Barney's "The Robin" play by pretending to date him. In "Gary Blauman", it is shown that Patrice later moves on to becoming a radio talk show host. Played by Bill Fagerbakke, Marvin Eriksen is: Judy's husband; the father of Marvin, Marcus and Marshall; father-in-law of Lily; grandfather of Marshall and Lily's three children and Marcus and Sarah's children, Marcus Jr. and Martin. He was very close to Marshall and the rest of his family prior to his passing in early 2011. After "Last Words", set at Marvin's funeral, Carter Bays stated that they intended to bring back Bill Fagerbakke as Marshall's father in future episodes during flashbacks. He later appeared in five episodes as a "ghost" imagined by Marshall. Played by Nazanin Boniadi, Nora is an English co-worker of Robin's who meets Barney the day before Valentine's Day. Though he is interested in her, Barney is reluctant to admit it, despite Robin's encouragement. During his first formal date with Nora, she reveals her wishes to eventually marry and settle down and invites him to meet her parents, both of which Barney accepts as things he wants. At the end of their date, however, he tells her that his words were a lie and criticizes Nora's dreams, which seemingly ends the relationship. Though Barney is convinced that he was lying to her, he later realizes that he does want to marry and settle down. He gets a second chance with Nora, when he convinces her that he will be honest in their relationship. They start dating but break up in "Tick Tick Tick" after Barney confesses to cheating on her with Robin. Played by Chris Elliott, Mickey Aldrin is Lily's father. Obsessed with attempting to launch Aldrin Games, his unsuccessful board game creator business, he was frequently absent, distant, and unreliable throughout her childhood. He and Lily did not have a close relationship during the first few seasons. As the series progressed he gradually redeems himself. He eventually moves in with Marshall and Lily at Lily's grandparents' home in Long Island. Once there he refuses to leave his childhood home, despite being unwelcome; he does eventually agree to leave at Lily and Marshall's insistence, although they let him stay after he makes pancakes for them. From then on his hobbies make him an occasional nuisance in the household, eventually accidentally burning the house down after Marshall and Lily had returned to the apartment. This leads to him joining them in Manhattan and despite Lily's expectations, he proves very helpful in looking after his grandson Marvin W. Eriksen. He reveals that he had taken much better care of Lily prior to her going to school; only when she started kindergarten and he found himself at loose ends did he go to the racetrack on a whim, where he developed a gambling addiction. Played by Robert Belushi, Linus is a bartender at the Farhampton Inn. Lily pays him $100 to make sure she always has a drink in her hand during the weekend of Barney and Robin's wedding. Throughout season 9, he is constantly seen handing her drinks followed by Lily saying "Thank you, Linus". It is revealed in "Daisy" that these drinks are non-alcoholic as Lily is pregnant. Played by Sarah Chalke, Stella is Ted's dermatologist, who removes his ill- advised butterfly tattoo. He attempts to convince her to date him over the course of the episode "Ten Sessions". Stella initially refuses, wanting to focus on her daughter Lucy, but eventually agrees to go on a two-minute lunch date. They start dating soon after. In the last episode of season three, Ted proposes to Stella, and in the season four premiere, she accepts. In "Shelter Island", after her sister's wedding falls apart, Ted and she agree to take over the wedding. She ends up leaving Ted at the altar and getting back together with Tony, her ex-boyfriend and father of Lucy. She later appears in "Right Place Right Time", where she is still with Tony. Played by Kal Penn, Kevin is originally introduced as Robin's therapist but later becomes her boyfriend. She cheats on him with Barney, although he never discovers this. He proposed to Robin before she told him of her infertility. He still wanted to marry her, suggesting they could adopt or use a surrogate but when Robin made it clear to him that she did not want to have any children, they broke up. In "Gary Blauman", Future Ted says that Kevin ended up with Jeanette. Played by Becki Newton, Quinn is a romantic interest for Barney in season 7, as she has a scheming personality similar to him. In season 7, episode 18, she tells Barney that at the strip club, she goes by the name Karma. Barney becomes interested in her without realizing she is a stripper at the Lusty Leopard, despite being a frequent patron. Quinn initially scams Barney out of a large amount of money, but gives Barney a chance. Due to Barney's insecurity, she quits her job as a stripper and accommodates most of his demands regarding his apartment when she moves in with him. Barney proposes to her in "The Magician's Code". However, due to their inability to trust one another, they break up in "The Pre-Nup". Quinn makes a brief return in "The Bro Mitzvah" as a stripper hired for Barney's bachelor party, much to his chagrin. Played by Alexis Denisof, Alyson Hannigan's real life husband, Sandy is a narcissistic lecherous anchorman. He debuts as Robin's colleague at Metro News One and spares no opportunity to ask her out. Ted and Marshall make fun of him during his segments. He resigns from the network to take up a job at CNN but recommends Robin to succeed him as lead anchor. Sandy and Robin cross paths again in season 6 as colleagues at World Wide News, where he is often seen hitting on young female interns. Sandy's inappropriate behavior ruins his career in the US and he does not change his ways even as he anchors a news show in Russia. Marcus Eriksen is one of Marshall's brothers, known for pranking Marshall. He and the rest of his brothers often played roughly with each other. In "Who Wants to Be a Godparent?", Marcus left his wife and two children for his dream job of being a bartender. Marcus is often seen at family events such as his father's funeral. Played by Frances Conroy, Loretta is Barney's mother. Prior to her first proper appearance, she appeared from the neck down voiced by Megan Mullally in "Single Stamina" and "Showdown". Loretta had a very promiscuous lifestyle and neither Barney nor James know who their real fathers are until they are adults. She also tends to tell ridiculous lies to her sons to cover up bad news, such as saying Barney's father is Bob Barker. So that his mother would not worry about him, Barney hired actors to pretend to be his family; when he is forced to reveal the truth in "The Stinsons", Loretta is not upset. She returns in "Cleaning House": the gang go to her home as she is planning to move. Though she had hidden the identities of James and Barney's fathers so that she could be both mother and father to them, she eventually discloses who both of their fathers are. Played by Bob Odenkirk, Arthur is a boss at Goliath National Bank and was also Marshall's boss at Nicholson, Hewitt & West. Due to his habit of screaming at his employees, he is nicknamed "Artillery Arthur." He has a dog named Tugboat. Played by Cristine Rose. Virginia is Ted's mother, married to Alfred for 30 years before they get divorced. She marries Clint in "Home Wreckers". Barney jokes on several occasions that he had sex with Virginia, although it is revealed in "Unpause" that they only shared a kiss. Played by Michael Gross. Alfred is Ted's father, married to Virginia for 30 years before they get divorced. He shares similar views on romance to Ted, being described as a "head-in-the-clouds romantic" by Virginia. Played by Sherri Shepherd. When she, Marshall and Marvin get kicked off a plane, they spend the first half of season 9 travelling together. Marshall gets to know Daphne through the journey; she has a daughter and is worried that she is not a good mother. Played by Joe Manganiello, Brad is a friend of Marshall from law school. Brad and Marshall begin to hang out after they both discover they are single, following breakups with their respective girlfriends, Kara and Lily. The bromance between Brad and Marshall becomes increasingly awkward after they go to brunch and a musical together. Eventually, Brad gets back together with his girlfriend. He attends Marshall's bachelor party and wedding and gets punched in the face by Barney when he tries to kiss Robin, although he bears no hard feelings. He appears in "The Stamp Tramp", claiming to be in need of help but later revealing that he is the opposition lawyer in a big court case, putting Marshall's job at risk. The trial takes place in "Twelve Horny Women" and Gruber Pharmaceuticals are found guilty but only have to pay $25,000, because the judge is biased due to his attraction to Brad; this leads to Marshall becoming a judge, as he realizes that is the position from which to effect the most change. His image appears in a flash forward in "Rally" when a news report shows him leading in exit polls over Marshall for New York State Supreme Court Judge in 2020. Played by Kyle MacLachlan, George van Smoot (known by his nickname "The Captain") is introduced as Zoey Pierson's husband at a gala at the Natural History Museum. He is obsessed with boats, an interest that Zoey does not share. Despite the Captain's frightening demeanor, such as the murderous look he has in his eyes, he proves to be generous, if rather strange; he is also seen to be somewhat shy because of the apparent age gap between him and most of Zoey's peers. While he comes to like Ted, Ted's fear of the Captain is exacerbated by the fact that Ted and Zoey are attracted to one another. Zoey eventually divorces the Captain and leaves him for Ted. A year after Ted breaks up with Zoey, the Captain unexpectedly runs into Ted, Robin and Lily at a gallery show. He reveals that he holds no hard feelings for Ted regarding his divorce with Zoey. During the gallery show, Lily's advice about artwork, while initially dismissed by the Captain, proves to be invaluable and the Captain ends up hiring Lily as his new art consultant in "The Ashtray". He announces his intention to move to Rome for a year and asks for Lily and her family to accompany him; following a fight between Marshall and Lily, they do live in Italy for a year. The Captain has three Olympic gold medals in fencing and ends up engaged to Becky. Played by Michael Trucco, Nick is a love interest of Robin. They originally met in a clothes shop and later came face-to-face in a bar called "Hopeless". Each had a crush on the other. Although Nick was supposed to be a recurring character in season 7, Michael Trucco could not return as he was playing Justin Patrick in the second season of Fairly Legal. Instead, he began dating Robin in season 8. Nick is characterized as overly emotional and unintelligent, and in "Splitsville", Robin begins to get annoyed by these traits (Nick's groin injury prevents the two from having sex, so she begins to notice his personality more). They break up in the same episode, after Barney makes an impassioned speech about being in love with Robin; although he tells her that he was lying, it is later revealed he was telling the truth. Played by Eric Braeden in "Happily Ever After" and Ray Wise in all other appearances, Robin Charles Scherbatsky Sr. is an overbearing father who wanted a son. When the baby (Robin) turned out to be a girl, he raises her as a son, teaching her stereotypically male activities such as hunting. Robin Sr expresses his disappointment of his daughter over the years; he has very little contact with her, becoming married without telling her. The two eventually reconcile. Played by Bryan Callen. He works for Goliath National Bank as Barney and Marshall's co-worker and fires Ted when he designed an Employee Termination Room that was too "inspired". Played by David Burtka, Neil Patrick Harris' real life husband, Scooter is Lily's old high-school boyfriend and is obsessed with her. They broke up during their high-school prom after being in a relationship for a long time. Scooter appears over several seasons, during which he fails to win back Lily at her wedding, works as a waiter in a fine-dining restaurant and as a cafeteria server at her school. A flashback shows that Lily intimidated Scooter into hanging out with her during her days as a bully in 1994. Scooter eventually marries Lily's doppelganger, Jasmine the stripper. Played by Taran Killam, Cobie Smulders' real life husband, Gary was Barney and Marshall's coworker until he quit. In "The Chain of Screaming", Barney claims his life went downhill after being fired and that he eventually died. However, Blauman appears in later episodes; he inexplicably starts hanging out with Bilson when the two of them start working for Goliath National Bank. In "Gary Blauman", it is revealed that he slept with Barney's brother James, in an affair leading to Tom and James nearly getting divorced. Played by Ben Koldyke, Don is Robin's boyfriend and co-anchor in season 5, despite Robin originally disliking him. Robin decides to move into his apartment in "Twin Beds". She is offered a job in Chicago but decides to stay for him. When offered the same job, Don accepts. In "Unfinished", a drunken Robin is shown calling him, leaving death threats as she never got over their breakup. Played by Will Sasso, Doug is an angry, violent bartender who beats up three men for sitting in the gang's booth. Although he appears in the background of several significant events in "The Fight", he is not in the original scenes. Played by Abby Elliott, Jeanette is the last person Ted dates before The Mother. Clinically insane, she is a New York Police Department officer who stalks Ted for roughly a year and a half after he was featured in a magazine, Jeanette is described by the gang as "crazy" after she messes up Ted's apartment, destroys Barney's Playbook and throws Robin's locket off a bridge. It is revealed in "Gary Blauman" that she ended up with Kevin the psychiatrist. Played by Laura Bell Bundy, Becky is Robin's replacement co-anchor for Don Frank at the morning talk show Come On, Get Up New York!, and starts to eclipse Robin in the show. Her hyperactivity and cheerfulness wins over the production staff, but Robin dislikes her as she fails to remain professional on camera. In "Canning Randy", she does a commercial about boats, giving her the nickname "Boats Boats Boats". She marries The Captain. Played by Roger Bart. He is the front desk clerk at the Farhampton Inn, who works there until at least 2024. He is unintentionally condescending to Ted upon learning he is single. When The Mother shows up at the inn in the middle of the night, he gives her a key to Robin's mother's empty room. Claudia and Stuart are played by Virginia Williams and Matt Boren. Claudia and Stuart are about to get married when they make their first appearance. While Stuart is an easy-going, sensitive, and plain-looking man, Claudia is an attractive, blunt and somewhat high-strung woman; despite their differences, they have a good relationship. As their wedding approaches, Claudia becomes increasingly stressed and refuses to allow Ted to bring Robin as a last-minute date to the wedding. Ted persuades Stuart, behind Claudia's back, to allow him to bring Robin. Claudia and Stuart argue over this and break up before the wedding, although Marshall manages to convince them to get back together. However, as the show progresses, it is shown that Stuart and Claudia have a toxic and unstable relationship. The couple make minor recurring appearances afterward. Stuart attends Marshall's bachelor party in "Bachelor Party", where it is suggested he regrets marrying Claudia. He also briefly appears in "Intervention". In "Baby Talk", he and Claudia are seen to have a daughter named Esther. Stuart makes another appearance in "The Over-Correction", where Ted blames him for failing to return Ted's red cowboy boots. In "The Poker Game", Stuart claims to have given Marshall and Lily a coffeemaker for their wedding, when it was really Ted's present. In that episode it is also revealed that Stuart has been cheating on Claudia. In "Double Date", Ted mentions that the group has seen people who look exactly like them. This theme of five doppelgängers, one for each of the main characters (excluding The Mother), continues throughout several episodes. The first three doppelgängers are seen in "Double Date". "Moustache Marshall" appears on an advert on the side of a bus, and is spotted by Barney in MacLaren's. "Lesbian Robin" is seen in the streets of New York. "Stripper Lily" (known by the name "Jasmine") works at the Lusty Leopard and also appears in "46 Minutes" and "Gary Blauman", eventually marrying Scooter. "Mexican Wrestler Ted" is discovered in "Robots Versus Wrestlers". Barney's doppelgänger is the most significant; Lily and Marshall want a sign from "the universe" that they are ready to have children, and agree to start trying once they see Barney's double. In "Doppelgangers", Marshall meets a cab driver who he thinks is Barney's doppelgänger, but who turns out to be Barney in disguise. Lily then sees a pretzel vendor and thinks he is the double; in reality, the vendor looks nothing like Barney but they begin to try to have children as Marshall claims it means that Lily is subconsciously ready to have kids. Barney's real doppelgänger, Doctor John Stangel, is revealed in "Bad News". He is a fertility doctor, making Lily uncomfortable as she is convinced he is Barney in disguise. As themselves : Maury Povich in "Subway Wars": a recurring joke in the episode is that the gang see Maury Povich everywhere and he appears in many scenes that occur simultaneously., Regis Philbin, along with Marshall, tries to track down "The Best Burger in New York". He also hosts the fictional show Million Dollar Heads or Tails., Heidi Klum, Alessandra Ambrosio, Marisa Miller, Miranda Kerr and Adriana Lima of Victoria's Secret appear in "The Yips"., Marshall imagines a conversation between him and pictures of Kim Kardashian, Spencer Pratt and Heidi Montag on the front page of his magazine in "Benefits". Scenes were shot on November 12, 2008., Boyz II Men (Wanya Morris, Nathan Morris and Shawn Stockman) sing "You Just Got Slapped" at the end of "". Their appearance was described as "a decent surprise" by one critic; another said their cameo "didn't make sense"; a third described it as "way random"., "Weird Al" Yankovic reads a fan letter from Ted in "Noretta"., Ralph Macchio and William Zabka appear in "The Bro Mitzvah" as a surprise at Barney's bachelor party; William Zabka also appears in 6 other episodes from "The Broken Code" to "The End of the Aisle", attending Barney's wedding., Emmitt Smith guest stars in "Monday Night Football": Barney meets him when he tries to find out the Super Bowl result. One critic said his "60-second bit was not funny"., Jim Nantz appears in "Perfect Week" and "Last Forever – Part 2"; in both episodes, Barney imagines being interviewed by him. In "Perfect Week", his appearance was complimented by Donna Bowman from The A.V. Club., Frank Viola phones Marshall, who is unable to speak to him because of a jinx, in "The Final Page – Part 1"., Nick Swisher, a former New York Yankee, walks into MacLaren's during "Perfect Week". This attracts the attention of the girl Barney was trying to pick up. His appearance on the show was first announced in December 2009; his episode aired in February 2010., Funk musician George Clinton appears in "Where Were We?", in a scene imagined by Marshall. Robin Pierson said Clinton's scene was "pure silliness" and Marshall's imaginings were "just a stupid excuse to give Clinton a part on the show"., Game show host Bob Barker appears in "Showdown", hosting The Price is Right in which Barney competes. Barney claims Bob Barker is his father, a lie told by his mother. Staci Krause said "Barney's emotional closing words to Bob Barker almost brought tears to [her] eyes". Pierson said "the writers handled [Barney's storyline] beautifully"., Tim Gunn appears in 5 episodes from "Girls Versus Suits" to "The End of the Aisle". First appearing in the 100th episode of the show, he is Barney's tailor and in season 9, goes to Farhampton during Barney's wedding weekend. Tim Gunn designs Barney's wedding tux; they play poker together in "The Poker Game" and in "Sunrise", a drunk Barney takes Justin and Kyle to Tim Gunn to be fitted for suits. Brian Zoromski said Gunn "seemed a little bit stilted in his delivery"; however, Hannigan said he was "more popular than Britney Spears" and that she "[wanted] him back in every episode". He was third in a list of best guest stars in the show by Bustle., Alex Trebek appears in "False Positive" and "P.S. I Love You". In the former, a Christmas special, he hosts the fictional game show Million Dollar Heads or Tails; it was announced Trebek would appear in the show on December 13 by TV Guide on November 17, 2014. Later, Trebek appeared alongside a number of Canadian guest stars in "P.S. I Love You" in an episode centered around "Robin Sparkles"., Alan Thicke appears in 5 episodes from "Sandcastles in the Sand" to "The Rehearsal Dinner". In the Robin Sparkles music video "Sandcastles in the Sand," he was cast as Sparkles' dad. In "The Rough Patch", he was hired by Lily to help with a plan to break Robin and Barney up; one critic said about the episode "anything Alan Thicke-related was funny" while another said the highlight of the episode was Thicke telling Barney that he and Robin once worked together on a Canadian variety show. It was revealed in "Glitter" that Thicke worked with Robin and Jessica Glitter in the variety show "Space Teens". Thicke appeared in "P.S. I Love You", where he beats Barney easily in a fight, after Barney mistakenly thinks Robin had a crush on Thicke as a teenager. Thicke's final appearance on the show was in "The Rehearsal Dinner", where he sings a Crash Test Dummies song. However, Thicke also appeared on a website made specifically for the show, CanadianSexActs.org, featured in the episode "Old King Clancy"., Jason Priestley, Paul Shaffer, Geddy Lee, Dave Coulier, k.d. lang, Luc Robitaille and Steven Page appear in a fictional documentary during "P.S. I Love You"; it was announced these Canadian guest stars would appear in a Robin Sparkles-related episode on January 7, 2013, roughly a month before the episode aired. As characters: Abby : Played by Britney Spears; appears in "Ten Sessions" and "Everything Must Go". Abby is Stella's receptionist. Very energetic and scatterbrained, she developed an obsessive crush on Ted while he was pursuing Stella. Barney ended up sleeping with her. It was announced Spears would appear on the show in March 2008; most critics complimented her acting in "Ten Sessions", with Segel noting that she improvised a few "really good" lines. However, her scenes in "Everything Must Go" were described as "rushed and awkward", and her character as "silly". An article in Bustle ranked her top in a list of guest stars on How I Met Your Mother. Amy : Played by Mandy Moore; appears in "Wait for It". A girl who Ted meets at MacLaren's shortly after breaking up with Robin. After committing theft and trespassing in someone else's home, she takes an intoxicated Ted to get a tattoo, a butterfly on his lower back which his friends call a "tramp stamp". She was described by IGN as "fantastic in her brief role"; Joel Keller of TV Squad originally said Moore "doesn't pull [her hard-ass role] off", although later said that she was not too bad. Moore described her kiss with Radnor as "unbelievably awkward", although Radnor said "she was a really good fake kisser". Anita Appleby : Played by Jennifer Lopez; appears in "Of Course". Anita has written a book about dating, encouraging women to "train" men and refrain from sex until they have had seventeen dates with a person; after being interviewed by Robin on the news, Robin hires her to seduce Barney. Gael: Played by: Enrique Iglesias, the guy Robin appears with when returning from Argentina after the breakup with Ted. He appears in the first two episodes of the third season, "Wait for It" and "We're Not from Here". Genevieve Scherbatsky : Played by Tracey Ullman, Robin's mother appears in three episodes of season 9 from "Vesuvius" to "The End of the Aisle". Honey : Played by Katy Perry; appears in "Oh Honey". She is Zoey van Smoot's cousin, the gullible character who Barney eventually sleeps with. As Future Ted cannot recall her real name, she is referred to as "Honey". Perry's appearance was described as a "gimmick", but still praised. Jessica Glitter : Played by Nicole Scherzinger; appears in "Glitter". She plays an old friend of Robin's from Canada. Glitter was her character's name on a Canadian TV show called "Space Teens" where she and Robin used math to complete missions in space. Tiffany : Played by Carrie Underwood; appears in "Hooked". Ted is said to be "on the hook" for this girl: he is infatuated with her while she is just friends with him. Brian Zoromski of The A.V. Club described her acting as "decent", especially for a "singer turned actor". "Blah Blah" / Carol : Played by Abigail Spencer; appears in "How I Met Everyone Else" and "Gary Blauman". She meets Ted on World of Warcraft and when she is introduced to the gang, they spend the night wondering whether she is crazy. Ted calls her "blah blah" upon recounting the story to his children in "How I Met Everyone Else", as he cannot remember the girl's name; this joke was called "ridiculously funny" by one critic. She appears again in "Gary Blauman", where Ted suddenly remembers that her name was Carol. Mrs. Buckminster : Played by Jane Carr; appears in "Nannies". She is a "delightful" nanny but Marshall and Lily cannot afford her salary. Barney tries to pay, but Lily realises she feels uncomfortable leaving Marvin with a stranger. Carly Whittaker : Played by Ashley Benson; appears in "Ring Up!". She is Barney's half-sister, whom Ted briefly dates. Cathy : Played by Lindsay Price; appears in "Spoiler Alert". Ted is happy dating Cathy until his friends point out that she never stops talking. Once Ted realises this, it starts to annoy him and they eventually break up. Cindy : Played by Rachel Bilson; appears in 4 episodes from "Girls Versus Suits" to "How Your Mother Met Me". She is a PhD candidate who dates Ted. Her roommate turns out to be The Mother. Cindy turns out to be a lesbian and marries Casey. Cindy, who first appears in the show's 100th episode, "is very important to the ultimate story" according to Bays. Coat-Check Girl : Played by Jayma Mays; appears in "Okay Awesome" and "The Time Travelers". Ted meets this girl at a dance club, but never calls her; several years later, he imagines her dropping by at MacLaren's. Darren : Played by Andrew Rannells; appears in "Bass Player Wanted" and "How Your Mother Met Me". Tracy invited him to join her band, and he quickly began to take over it, culminating in him firing Tracy. Darren tries to ruin friendships between Ted and Barney, and Lily and Robin; one critic said "his shit-starting added an edge to everybody's dynamic." Daryl : Played by Seth Green in "The Final Page – Part 1". A friend from their college days, Daryl became obsessed with Lily and Marshall. He runs a successful business selling Hacky Sacks. Max Nicholson said "Daryl's "Hackmigos" bit was a little bizarre, but funny." Garrison Cootes : Played by Martin Short; appears in 3 episodes from "The Naked Truth" to "The Burning Beekeeper". He is Marshall's "workaholic boss" and an "environmental pixie" at the Natural Resources Defense Council. It was announced that Short would appear on the show playing Marshall's boss in June 2011. Genevieve Scherbatsky : Played by Tracey Ullman; appears in 3 episodes from "Vesuvius" to "The End of the Aisle". She is Robin's mother, but the gang know very little about her until she is finally seen in season 9. Nicholson described her scene in "Vesuvius" as "an appearance that fans have been waiting to see since the season began". Hammond Druthers : Played by Bryan Cranston; appears in 3 episodes from "Aldrin Justice" to "Platonish". Druthers is a condescending architect who is Ted's boss at their architecture firm. Druthers designs a building in Spokane, Washington that, according to Ted and Lily, looks like an erect penis; their client accepts Ted's design instead. Druthers is then forced to work under Ted. It was announced in 2013 that Cranston would return to the show. In the ninth season (during "Platonish"), Druthers offers Ted a new job but Ted declines; an editor for Vulture criticized Cranston's appearance in this episode. Janice Aldrin : Played by Meagen Fay; appears in 3 episodes from "Bachelor Party" to "The Sexless Innkeeper". Janice is Lily's mother, who divorced Lily's father (Mickey) in 1985. She and Lily do not have a good relationship. Jen : Played by Lindsay Sloane; appears in "Double Date". Ted and Jen are set up on a blind date in 2002 and again in 2009. Jefferson Coatsworth : Played by John Cho; appears in "I'm Not That Guy". He interviews Marshall for the Nicholson, Hewitt & West law firm. Jenkins : Played by Amanda Peet; appears in "Jenkins". Jenkins is a lawyer at Goliath National Bank. She kisses Marshall when drunk and is attacked by Lily when she finds out. Jerome Whittaker : Played by John Lithgow; appears in 4 episodes from "Legendaddy" to "The End of the Aisle". Barney begins to wonder who his real father is after James meets his own biological father in "Cleaning House". Though Barney refuses Loretta's initial offer to reveal his father, he discovers in "Natural History" that it is Jerome, although Barney was told as a child that Jerome was his uncle. Barney is disappointed that Jerome is a "lame suburban dad". Jerome has a wife named Cheryl and two children: J.J. (Jerome Junior) and Carly. Kara : Played by Aisha Kabia; appears in "" and "World's Greatest Couple". Marshall's friend from law school and Brad's old girlfriend. Karen : Played by Laura Prepon; appears in 3 episodes from "Sorry, Bro" to "Say Cheese", as well as being mentioned in several others. Ted's first real girlfriend, Karen is depicted as highly sarcastic and snooty, which results in Marshall and Lily loathing her. The feeling is mutual, as Karen also has a low opinion of Ted's friends. Karen enjoys berets, Bordeaux wine and Baudelaire's erotic poetry. While Ted is deeply in love with her, Karen cheats on him every time she wants to break up. Karen is often described by critics as "Ted's worst girlfriend". Katie Scherbatsky : Played by Lucy Hale; appears in 2 episodes from "First Time in New York" to "Vesuvius". Katie visits Robin (her sister) in New York and Robin reacts badly when she discovers Katie is planning to lose her virginity to a boy named Kyle. Bustle ranked her second in a list of best guest stars in the series. Klaus : Played by Thomas Lennon; appears in "Farhampton" and "The Pre-Nup". Klaus is Victoria's fiancé. They were classmates at Victoria's culinary fellowship in Germany but enter a relationship roughly a day after Ted and Victoria break up. He appears on-screen in "Farhampton" as Victoria's groom, but both of them get cold feet at their wedding. The failure of the wedding sends Klaus into a spiral and he briefly stays at Ted's apartment. Professor Lewis : Played by Jane Seymour; appears in "Aldrin Justice". Professor Lewis is Marshall's recently divorced law professor who is considered a "cougar" by Barney. He has sex with her several times. Liddy Gates : Played by Mircea Monroe; appears in "Romeward Bound". She is Barney and Robin's wedding planner, and has a "ridonkulous" body according to Ted and Barney. Mary : Played by Erinn Bartlett; appears in "Mary the Paralegal". Although she is a paralegal, Barney tells Ted she is a prostitute. After initially refusing, Ted tries to have sex with Mary but when he calls her a prostitute she slaps him. Maggie Wilks: Played by JoAnna Garcia; appears in "The Window". She is described by Ted as so perfect that every person that meets her falls in love with her. Ted tries three times to start a relationship with her, between her long-term relationships with other men, but fails each time as when he arrives she is already dating another man. Marissa Heller : Played by Darby Stanchfield; appears in "Robots Versus Wrestlers". She used to live in Ted and Marshall's apartment and they occasionally receive mail supposed to go to her. Mrs. Matsen : Played by Renée Taylor; appears in 3 episodes from "As Fast as She Can" to "The Magician's Code – Part 2". She is Ted's neighbor and helps Marshall reunite Ted and Zoe in "Oh Honey". Max : Played by Geoff Stults; appears in "Subway Wars" and "Architect of Destruction". He dated Robin briefly. 'Crazy' Meg : Played by April Bowlby; appears in 4 episodes from "Dowisetrepla" to "". A girl who appears obsessed with commitment, Meg initially hooks up with Barney in an apartment that Marshall and Lily later buy, but was arrested for trespassing when Barney leaves her there. In "The Rough Patch", she is part of Lily's plan to break up Robin and Barney, with whom she is still obsessed. Naomi the 'Slutty Pumpkin' : Played by Katie Holmes; appears in "The Slutty Pumpkin Returns", after being the subject of "Slutty Pumpkin". After meeting her at a Halloween party ten years earlier, Ted believed that they were very compatible but lost the candy bar where she had written her phone number. For years, Ted wore the same costume and attended the same party in hopes of running into her again. By chance, he finally finds her costume and tracks her down, but finds that they are not as well-matched as they believed. They break up. Nate "Scooby" Scooberman : Played by Robbie Amell; appears in "A Change of Heart" and "The Exploding Meatball Sub". Robin finds this enthusiastic guy in the park and is slow to realize his dog-like qualities. Nora Zinman : Played by Danneel Ackles; appears in "Shelter Island". Nora is Stella's sister. After her fiancé ran off, Stella offered to take over her sister's wedding with Ted. Penelope : Played by Amy Acker; appears in "Come On". A girl who hooked up with Barney twice, Penelope tries to teach Ted how to do a rain dance. PJ : Played by Ryan Sypek; appears in "Mosbius Designs". For a brief time, he is Ted's office assistant and dates Robin. Punchy : Played by Chris Romano; appears in 4 episodes from "Sandcastles in the Sand" to "The Best Man". Adam "Punchy" Punciarello is Ted's high school buddy. Ted experiences "revertigo" when he is around Punchy: he acts the way he was in high school. The gang attends Punchy's wedding in "The Best Man". Randy Wharmpess : Played by Will Forte; appears in "Rebound Bro" and "Canning Randy". An employee of Goliath National Bank's legal department, Randy worships Barney. Randy's ineffectiveness results in his sacking, but is rehired as Marshall feels guilty. Randy then resorts to destroying Marshall's office to get fired again, wanting a severance package so he can establish a new microbrewery for his signature beer. Rhonda French : Played by Stephanie Faracy; appears in "The Yips". A friend of Loretta Stinson, Rhonda is known as the "man-maker" as she has made many men lose their virginity, including Barney. Sam Gibbs : Played by Ben Vereen; appears in 4 episodes from "Cleaning House" to "The End of the Aisle". He is James Stinson's father, who was absent from his childhood as Loretta did not want him around. James meets him at the age of 37. Sam officiates at Barney and Robin's wedding. Sarah O'Brien : Played by Beth Lacke; appears in "Matchmaker". She is an engaged dermatologist deemed to be extremely compatible with Ted by Love Solutions, a dating service. Sascha : Played by Carla Toutz; appears in "Sweet Taste of Liberty". An airport security officer, Sascha invites Barney and Ted back to her house for an incredibly disappointing "party". Shelly : Played by Eva Amurri; appears in "The Playbook" and "". Shelly is a teacher who works at Lily's school. After she sees Ted stuffing himself with chicken wings, Lily waits three years before trying to fix them up again. However, Barney sleeps with her before Ted can meet her. Simon Tremblay : Played by James Van Der Beek; appears in 3 episodes from "Sandcastles in the Sand" to "Bedtime Stories". Robin's Canadian ex-boyfriend, who broke up with her to date Louise Marsh. Years later, he visits Robin in New York and they briefly date; he breaks up with her a second time, again to date Louise Marsh. He later becomes engaged to Louise and Robin steals and eats his wedding cake. Dr. Sonya : Played by Vicki Lewis; appears in three episodes from "The Stinson Missile Crisis" to "The Magician's Code – Part One". She is Lily's doctor and helps her give birth to Marvin, as well as being the doctor who tells Robin she is infertile. Stacy Gusar : Played by Janet Varney; appears in "Little Boys". Barney and Ted try to sleep with her in order to determine who has the most "game". Steve Biel : Played by Kevin Heffernan; appears in "I'm Not That Guy". He is a porn star who performs under the name "Ted Mosby". Steve 'Blitz' Henry : Played by Jorge Garcia; appears in "Blitzgiving" and "Gary Blauman". He is a college friend of Ted and Marshall, who gets his nickname from the curse he has: amazing events occur whenever he leaves. He passes the curse on to several other characters, including Barney and Ted, before the curse gets passed back to him. He makes numerous allusions to Jorge Garcia's Lost character. Tom : Played by Jai Rodriguez; appears in "The Rebound Girl" and "Gary Blauman". Tom marries James Stinson and they adopt two children, Eli and Sadie. James cheats on Tom and they almost get divorced. Lucy Zinman : Played by Darcy Rose Byrnes. Daughter of Stella and Tony, she is often seen happily around Ted and her parents. "Appears in 5 episodes from "Rebound Bro" to "Happily Ever After" Tony Grafanello : Played by Jason Jones; appears in three episodes from "Shelter Island" to "As Fast as She Can". He dated Stella and they have a child together. Stella leaves Ted at the altar and gets back together with Tony. Feeling guilty for "stealing" Stella, Tony gets Ted a college teaching position. Subsequently, Tony made a movie about their love triangle called The Wedding Bride, and two sequels were later released. Ted is infuriated at his portrayal as a stereotypical, over-the top antagonist, although his friends find it hilarious and, at times, quite accurate. Trudy : Played by Danica McKellar; appears in "The Pineapple Incident" and "Third Wheel". She ends up in Ted's bed after he gets really drunk. In a later episode, Ted tries to have a threesome with her and another girl, although it is never said whether he did or not. Professor Vinick : Played by Peter Gallagher; appears in "The Final Page – Part 1". He told Ted he'd never make it as an architect, damaging Ted's self- esteem and causing him to bear a grudge. How I Met Your Mother (often abbreviated as HIMYM) is an American sitcom created by Craig Thomas and Carter Bays for CBS. The series, which ran from 2005 to 2014, follows the main character, Ted Mosby, and his group of friends in New York City's Manhattan. As a framing device, Ted, in the year 2030, recounts to his son and daughter the events that led him to meet their mother. How I Met Your Mother is a joint production by Bays & Thomas Productions and 20th Century Fox Television and syndicated by 20th Television. The series was loosely inspired by Thomas and Bays' friendship when they both lived in New York City. Among the 208 episodes, there were only four directors: Pamela Fryman (196 episodes), Rob Greenberg (7 episodes), Michael Shea (4 episodes), and Neil Patrick Harris (1 episode). Known for its unique structure, humor, and incorporation of dramatic elements, How I Met Your Mother was popular throughout its run. The show initially received positive reviews, while the later seasons received more mixed reviews. The show was nominated for 30 Emmy Awards and won ten. In 2010, Alyson Hannigan won the People's Choice Award for Favorite TV Comedy Actress. In 2012, seven years after its premiere, the series won the People's Choice Award for Favorite Network TV Comedy, and Neil Patrick Harris won the award for Favorite TV Comedy Actor. The series follows the adventures of Ted Mosby (played by Josh Radnor), who narrates the story of how he met the mother of his children. The story goes into a flashback and starts in 2005 with the 27-year-old Ted Mosby living in New York City and working as an architect. The narrative deals primarily with his best friends, including the long-lasting couple Marshall Eriksen (Jason Segel) and Lily Aldrin (Alyson Hannigan), womanizing playboy Barney Stinson (Neil Patrick Harris), and Canadian news reporter Robin Scherbatsky (Cobie Smulders); all of the characters' lives are entwined. The series explores many storylines, including a "will they or won't they" relationship between Robin and each of the two single male friends, Marshall and Lily's relationship, and the ups and downs of the characters' careers. The show's frame story depicts Ted (voice of Bob Saget, uncredited) verbally retelling the story to his son Luke (David Henrie) and daughter Penny (Lyndsy Fonseca) as they sit on the couch in the year 2030. This future-set frame is officially the show's "present day", and How I Met Your Mother exploits this framing device in numerous ways: to depict and re-depict events from multiple points of view; to set up jokes using quick and sometimes multiple flashbacks nested within the oral retelling; to substitute visual, verbal, or aural euphemisms for activities Ted does not want to talk about with his children (sexual practices, use of illicit substances, vulgar language, etc.); and even to add some elements of humor: in the episode "How I Met Everyone Else", Ted describes his dates with a girlfriend whose name he has forgotten, leading all characters to act as though her given name were "Blah-Blah"; later in the series, Ted remembers her name is Carol. While the traditional love story structure begins when the romantic leads first encounter each other, How I Met Your Mother does not introduce Ted's wife (Cristin Milioti) until the eighth- season finale and only announces her name (Tracy McConnell) during the series finale. The show instead focuses on Ted's prior relationships and his dissatisfaction with those women, thus setting the stage for his eventual happiness with Tracy. Finally in present 2030, six years after Tracy's death, Ted gets back with Robin, which viewers may have assumed at the series finale when Ted is standing outside Robin's window. Ted's children were the ones to realize first that Ted was still in love with Robin, through the stories he told. How I Met Your Mother was inspired by Carter Bays and Craig Thomas' idea to "write about our friends and the stupid stuff we did in New York", where they previously worked as writers for Late Show with David Letterman, among others. The two drew from their friendship in creating the characters. Ted is based loosely on Bays, and Marshall and Lily are based loosely on Thomas and his wife. Thomas' wife Rebecca was initially reluctant to have a character based on her but agreed if they could get Alyson Hannigan to play her. Hannigan was looking to do more comedy work and was available. Josh Radnor and Jason Segel, who were cast as Ted and Marshall, respectively, were not well known, although Segel had been a cast member on the short-lived Freaks and Geeks and a recurring guest star on Judd Apatow's follow-up show, Undeclared. The role of Barney was initially envisioned as a "John Belushi-type character" before Neil Patrick Harris won the role after being invited to an audition by the show's casting director Megan Branman. Pamela Fryman invited Bob Saget to be the voiceover narrator, Future Ted, explaining to him that the show would be like The Wonder Years but "kind of into the future". Saget either went to the television studio and recorded the narration while watching the episode, or did so separately and rerecorded with the episode if necessary. He normally did not attend table readings but did so for the last episode. In various interviews Bays and Thomas have stated that "a pretty famous actress" turned down the role of Robin, whom they revealed in February 2014 was Jennifer Love Hewitt. They then cast the unknown Cobie Smulders; Bays and Thomas later said, "Thank God we did for a million reasons... when Ted's seeing her for the first time, America's seeing her for the first time—the intriguingness of that propelled the show going forward and kept the show alive". Although Ted is initially smitten by Robin in the pilot, it is quickly established at the end of the episode that she is not the mother, which Thomas said was done so they would not repeat the "will they or won't they" Ross and Rachel storyline from Friends. According to an Entertainment Weekly article, the writers adopted facets of each main actor's personality and incorporated them into their characters. This includes Neil Patrick Harris' skills with magic, Jason Segel's passion for songwriting, Alyson Hannigan's absent-mindedness while pregnant, and Josh Radnor's intellectualism. MacLaren's, an Irish bar in the middle of New York City, in which some of the show is set, is loosely based on four favorite bars of Bays, Thomas, and others' from the Late Show staff. Others include: McGee's, a Midtown tavern near the Ed Sullivan Theater where the Late Show is taped; McHale's, a legendary Hell's Kitchen bar which closed in 2006; Chumley's, a since-closed historic Greenwich Village pub; and Fez, another closed bar on the Upper West Side. McGee's had a mural that Bays and Thomas both liked and wanted to incorporate into the show. The name for the bar is from Carter Bays' assistant, Carl MacLaren; the bartender in the show is also named Carl. Episodes were generally shot over a three-day period in the Los Angeles-based Soundstage Studio 22 and featured upwards of 50 scenes with quick transitions and flashbacks. However, the "Pilot" episode was filmed at CBS Radford. The laugh track was later created by recording an audience being shown the final edited episode. Thomas claimed that shooting before a live audience would have been impossible because of the structure of the show and the numerous flashforwards in each episode and because doing so "would blur the line between 'audience' and 'hostage situation'". Later seasons started filming in front of an audience on occasion, when smaller sets were used. The theme song is a portion of "Hey Beautiful" by The Solids, of which Bays and Thomas are members. Episodes from season 1 generally started with the opening credits. A cold opening has been used since season 2. Viewers then occasionally see Ted's children on a couch and hear him talking to them, telling the story of how he met their mother. Alternatively, scenes from previous episodes or shots of New York City with Ted narrating over the top are shown. Thomas has stated that Future Ted is an unreliable narrator, since he is trying to tell a story that happened over 20 years earlier; this has been a plot point in several episodes including "The Goat", "Oh Honey", "How I Met Everyone Else", and "The Mermaid Theory". Nevertheless, Thomas has also emphasized maintaining a coherent and consistent universe and trying to avoid continuity errors, a problem he noticed in other shows. A scene relating to the identity of the mother, involving Ted's future children, was filmed in 2006 for the show's eventual series finale. This was done because the teenage actors portraying them would be adults by the time the final season was shot. During the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike, How I Met Your Mother shut down production; when the strike ended, the show returned on March 17, 2008, with nine new episodes. The network announced a change in the timeslot to 8:30 pm ET/7:30 pm CT, flip-flopping from the summer schedule with The Big Bang Theory. CBS renewed the show for a fourth season on May 14, 2008, which premiered on September 22, 2008. In September 2008, Lifetime Television announced it had purchased the cable rerun rights to How I Met Your Mother at a rate of about $725,000 per episode. The four-year syndication contract stipulated that the studio deliver at least 110 half-hour episodes by the year 2010 and allowed for up to eight seasons of the show. At the end of the fourth season only 88 episodes had been produced, and a further 22 episodes were required, ensuring that there would be a fifth season. There also was a complication with the writing of the show because of actress Alyson Hannigan's absence due to her pregnancy; in response, the writers had to create episodes that did not include one of the five main characters. On May 19, 2009, the fifth-season renewal was announced. May 20, 2009, CBS announced that How I Met Your Mother would again be aired at 8 pm, leading into the new comedy Accidentally on Purpose. On January 12, 2010, the show aired its 100th episode, and CBS announced that the series would return for a sixth season. Upon learning that the series would be syndicated, Thomas said, "We're thrilled that it will live on in other forms," and they were proud of the show and it was great to see the strong demand. Reruns of the series began airing on local U.S. broadcast television stations and on Chicago-based cable superstation WGN America September 13, 2010. Featured in these airings are vanity cards previously unseen in the CBS and Lifetime airings due to marginalized credit sequences used by the two networks. Shown in between the closing credits and the production company credits, these vanity cards show portions of "The Bro Code", a list of rules frequently referenced by Harris' character, Barney Stinson, on how men should interact with each other, with an emphasis on activities involving pursuing members of the opposite sex. The opening theme song for the syndicated reruns is also slightly edited, running shorter and not using all the pictures seen in the opening montage that runs on DVD and the original CBS broadcasts. The episodes are also slightly edited, leaving out a few details. One of the series' ongoing traditions involves giving guest roles to actors from various Joss Whedon productions, many of whom co-starred with Hannigan on Buffy the Vampire Slayer. Bays attributes this to their being "huge fans" and to those casts representing "a big talent pool". On March 4, 2011, CBS announced that the show had been renewed for two more seasons, with the seventh season premiering with back-to-back episodes on September 19, 2011. On July 27, 2011, the FX channel announced it had picked up the series for syndication. On September 5, 2011, FX began airing the series. Although cast members had previously stated that the show would not run longer than eight seasons, a ninth season was secured in December 2012 amidst tense negotiations with the studios and the actors – especially Jason Segel, who had wanted to move on to other ventures after the eighth season. During these negotiations, Bays and Thomas originally approached the eighth season as if it were the show's last year, but had a "Plan B" in case the show were renewed. After producers secured a ninth and final season, they implemented plans to secretly cast the titular future mother, with Cristin Milioti eventually winning the role, having bested at least two other contenders. Milioti first appeared in the last scene in the season eight finale "Something New" and was a regular cast member in the show's final season. This marked the first time that the show had expanded its core roster. In January 2013, How I Met Your Mother was renewed for a ninth and final season. Carter Bays stated to Entertainment Weekly that season 9 "will feature some of the most non-linear episodes we've ever done". The season 9 premiere episode aired on September 23, 2013, and the one-hour series finale aired on March 31, 2014. Josh Radnor as Ted Mosby, an architect, college professor and the central character of the series. He is the main protagonist since he tells the story of his adult years from his late twenties to his early thirties and about all the obstacles he has to overcome before he meets "The One" aka the Mother. This story is told by the Older Ted Mosby, and narrator of the series, Bob Saget. Ted moved to New York City with his friends Marshall and Lily after graduating from Wesleyan University. In New York, he met Barney at the urinal of MacLaren's and Robin, to whom he was immediately attracted. Ted is on a quest for happiness and "The One", the woman he will marry. Ted experiences many relationships, one of them being Robin, that reveal the qualities he wants in his future wife. At the end of each relationship Ted, with levity, reflects upon what went wrong. Although hope to find “the one” diminishes with each failed relationship, Ted does not give up. Ted prefers more elegant and high-class interests than his friends have. He goes to great lengths to profess his love to the women in his life, but they all falter eventually. Despite these qualities, Ted often acts immaturely, such as partaking in wild activities with Barney. In the show's finale, he says, that, in Tracy, he had met the love of his life (the titular Mother), but only after he was finished telling the story he realized that Robin was the love of his life., Jason Segel as Marshall Eriksen, Ted Mosby's other best friend. Marshall and Ted are assigned to be roommates at Wesleyan University, and remained living together when they move to New York City. In season 2 Marshall marries Lily, with whom he has been in love since his freshman year of college; they have a child during season 7. Marshall was born in St. Cloud, Minnesota, where his family and culture are the foundation to major conflicts he faces in the series. He has an interest in the paranormal phenomenon, and mythical creatures, particularly Sasquatch. His dream to be an environmental lawyer, conflicts with his immediate need for money, such as for his wedding and to raise his children., Cobie Smulders as Robin Scherbatsky, a news anchor who is trying to make it as a journalist and dates both Ted and Barney. Robin emigrated from Canada to take a job in a news station and met Ted at MacLaren's; her Canadian background is a source of many jokes from her friends, for instance, ‘Robin Sparkles’. She is shown to be very career-centric and rejects traditional roles, such as getting married and having kids. Robin often drinks scotch and smokes cigars, and she is an avid gun fan. She and Barney get engaged and later marry in the first part of the series finale, but divorce in the second part, three years later. Smulders' husband Taran Killam appeared in six episodes as Gary Blauman., Neil Patrick Harris as Barney Stinson is a serial playboy, using his relative wealth and an array of outrageous strategies to seduce women with no intention of engaging in a relationship. His catchphrases include 'Suit Up' and 'Legend-wait-for-it-Dary'. He is Ted's best friend although Ted knew Marshall since college and Marshall is Ted's first best friend prior to the two meeting Barney. Abandoned by his father at a young age, Barney has abandonment issues and clings to his friends. Barney tells his friends extravagant lies about events in his life as a defence mechanism for his substandard childhood. He marries Robin in the series finale but they divorce after three years. In 2020, a failed one-night stand gives him a daughter, Ellie. Harris' husband David Burtka has appeared in seven episodes as Scooter., Alyson Hannigan as Lily Aldrin, a kindergarten teacher, an aspiring artist, and Marshall's wife. She is terrible at keeping secrets and can be manipulative at times. She marries Marshall in season 2 and gives birth to Marvin in season 7. Though appearing sweet and cute, Lily can be quite unexpectedly fierce. Lily Aldrin's best girl friend is Robin Scherbatsky, who she met through Ted as he dated Robin. Hannigan's husband Alexis Denisof appeared in ten episodes as Sandy Rivers., Cristin Milioti as Tracy McConnell (), (although only appearing occasionally, 28 episodes out of 208, she plays an integral part in the show in the build-up to the finale) the future wife of Ted Mosby, The Mother. Tracy McConnell is first seen in the finale of season 8, though her name is hinted at season 1 (01x09 "Belly full of Turkey") and officially revealed in the series finale. Ted falls madly in love with her, but in 2024 she passes away., Bob Saget as Future Ted Mosby () in the year 2030 telling his children the story of how he met their mother. In the year 2030, Ted Mosby (voiced by Bob Saget) sits his daughter and son down to tell them the story of how he met their mother. The series begins in September 2005 with Ted (Josh Radnor) as a single, 27-year-old architect living with his two best friends from his college years: Marshall Eriksen (Jason Segel), a law student, and Lily Aldrin (Alyson Hannigan), a kindergarten teacher and an aspiring artist. Lily and Marshall have been dating for almost nine years when Marshall finally proposes. Their engagement causes Ted to think about marriage and finding his soul mate, much to the disgust of his self-appointed best friend Barney Stinson (Neil Patrick Harris), whom he met in the restroom at a bar four years earlier. Barney is a serial womanizer who concocts elaborate con games, usually involving costumes and fake identities, designed to bed women, only to lose interest in them immediately afterward. Ted begins his search for his perfect soul mate and meets an ambitious young reporter from Canada, Robin Scherbatsky (Cobie Smulders), with whom he quickly falls in love. Robin, however, does not want to rush into a relationship and the two decide to be friends. Future Ted reveals that Robin is not the mother after referring to her as "Aunt Robin". Ted begins dating a baker, Victoria (Ashley Williams), whom he meets at Stuart and Claudia's wedding, causing Robin to become jealous, and realize she does have feelings for Ted. Victoria is offered a fellowship in pastry-making, moves to Germany and she and Ted try a long-distance relationship. Once Ted learns Robin has feelings for him, he tells her he broke up with Victoria, even though he has not. They almost have sex when Victoria calls and Robin answers, mistaking Ted's phone for her own. Ted and Victoria then break up and an angry Robin distances herself from Ted, but they eventually reconcile and decide to date. Meanwhile, Lily begins to wonder if she has missed any opportunities because of her relationship with Marshall, and decides to pursue an art fellowship in San Francisco, breaking-up with Marshall in the process. The season ends with Ted returning to the apartment, the morning after spending the night with Robin for the first time, to find Marshall sitting in the rain with Lily's engagement ring, devastated by their sudden break-up after nine years. Marshall must then call off their wedding. Ted and Robin are now a couple; meanwhile, a heartbroken Marshall tries to continue his life without Lily. After enduring numerous emotional breakdowns, Marshall's friends step in, and Barney, using sly catchphrases and pick-up lines, tries to get Marshall back in the dating game. Marshall becomes Barney's new ‘wingman’ as Ted is now in a relationship with Robin. Barney mentors Marshall in the art of flirting with women. Marshall fails at impressing women, but he finally obtains a barista's number. Later, Lily, after finally realizing she is not meant to be an artist, returns to New York. They remain separated as Marshall begins to date another girl, described by the gang as having 'crazy eyes'. The date with the girl does not end well and eventually leads to Lily and Marshall becoming reunited, and their engagement eventually resumes. When Robin refuses to go to the mall or explain why, Marshall suspects she is married, and Barney suspects she has performed in adult films. They bet on it, appointing Lily as "Slap Bet Commissioner." Lily oversees the search for the truth, as they discover that Robin was a teenage pop star named "Robin Sparkles", and Marshall eventually earns the right to slap Barney five times whenever he wishes. He uses one slap immediately and another later in the season. It is revealed that Barney has a gay African American half-brother named James (Wayne Brady) and, unaware that his mother lied to him, believes that Bob Barker is his father. As a result of this he takes a trip to California to be a contestant on The Price Is Right to meet his "father". While on the show, Barney wins all the prizes and gives them to Lily and Marshall as a 'happy early wedding' present. In the season finale, Ted reveals to Barney that he and Robin have been broken up for some time due to their conflicting views on marriage and children. They did not tell anyone, in order to avoid taking attention away from Lily and Marshall's wedding. The season ends with Barney's excitement by the prospect of being an unfettered single man with Ted again. Barney's final words are "this is going to be legen- wait for it...". Barney begins the season with the word, "-dary!" Robin returns from a trip to Argentina with her new boyfriend, Gael (Enrique Iglesias), and Ted must adjust to life as just her friend, while watching Robin and Gael fawning over each other. Marshall and Lily decide to move out on their own, falling in love with a place they cannot afford. Marshall is fighting his temptation to take a corporate job with high pay and focusing instead to follow his dream of becoming an environmental lawyer to protect the world from pollution. Robin learns of Lily's bad credit rating due to her compulsive shopping for designer brands, and forces Lily to tell Marshall. Despite this, they are able to finally secure their dream apartment, in Dowisetrepla, only to discover it is in a bad location (DOwnWInd of the SEwage TREatment PLAnt) and more poorly constructed than they thought (the floor is tilted). Barney is slapped for the third time on Thanksgiving, which Marshall dubs "Slapsgiving." Ted tells his children he met their mother through a story concerning her yellow umbrella. He finds the umbrella at a club and takes it home after attending a St. Patrick's Day party where his future wife was, although they did not meet. Ted attempts to woo Stella (Sarah Chalke), a dermatologist he sees to remove an embarrassing butterfly tattoo. This culminates in a memorable "two-minute date," which incorporates small talk, dinner, a movie, coffee, two cab rides, and a goodnight kiss, all within two minutes. Robin sleeps with Barney after he comforts her following a break-up with a past Canadian love; Ted is infuriated, and decides to stop being friends with Barney. Meanwhile, an unknown woman begins to sabotage Barney's attempts to hook up. His saboteur is revealed to be Abby (Britney Spears), Stella's receptionist, with a vendetta against him for not calling her after they had sex. In the season finale, Ted gets into a car accident and ends up in hospital after breaking up with Stella. Subsequently, Barney is hit by a bus while he is on his way to visit Ted and receives treatment in the same hospital. Ted realizes Barney really cares about him and they renew their friendship. Barney's true feelings for Robin are revealed while Ted proposes to Stella in an arcade with a toy kangaroo. Stella says yes to Ted's proposal. Robin takes a new job in Japan, but quickly resigns and returns to New York to attend Ted's wedding, after realizing how much she misses her friends. Stella leaves Ted at the altar to get back together with Tony (Jason Jones), the father of her daughter. Barney struggles with his feelings for Robin as his company shifts him to the management team of a new acquisition, Goliath National Bank (GNB), where Marshall has accepted a position. Marshall and Lily move to their new apartment and debate over whether or not they are ready to have children. Robin is threatened to be deported for not having a job in her field which opens an opportunity for Barney to spend time with Robin. Robin becomes roommates with Ted and gets a job as an anchor for a 4 AM news show after Barney submits her video resume. Ted and Robin decide to sleep together constantly so they will not fight over each other's bad co-living habits. Barney attempts to make them stop fighting to prevent this, revealing to Ted his love for Robin. Ted finds out Lily has sabotaged all of his relationships with anyone she does not approve of and indirectly may have inspired his breakup with Robin. Robin and Ted end up talking about it, causing their friendship to begin moving toward a positive note. After Barney finally sleeps with his 200th woman (and rubs it in the face of the childhood bully who taunted him into pursuing it), he begins to question the purpose of the remainder of his life, leaving him more certain of his feelings for Robin. Ted starts his own architectural design company, Mosbius Designs, after getting laid off. Ted is too afraid of failing so refuses to call clients. Barney finds him a job to design the new Goliath National Bank headquarters. When the company suspends the project, Marshall and Barney try to hide this fact from Ted. Ted, while carrying the yellow umbrella, bumps into Stella and Tony. Tony later decides to visit him, sympathizing with Ted over his loss of Stella. Tony offers him a job as a professor of architecture, which Ted initially turns down. In the season finale Robin finds out that Barney loves her, and initially refuses to commit to anything but a sex-only relationship; they seemingly end up together anyway. Ted decides that being an architect is leading nowhere, and finally decides instead to become a college professor. The finale ends with Ted preparing to teach his first class and Future Ted revealing to his children that one of the women in the class is their mother. Ted begins his job as a professor of architecture, standing in the middle of a classroom – although the mother was present, it turns out to be an economics class as he's in the wrong lecture hall. Barney and Robin have had a sexual relationship throughout the summer and Lily locks them in a room, forcing them to come to terms with their relationship. After a rough patch they decide to break up. Robin describes it instead as "two friends getting back together." Barney immediately goes back to his old ways, using the playbook to score with women. Throughout the season Barney and Robin show feelings of regret over their break-up. Ted dates a graduate student named Cindy (Rachel Bilson) and it is revealed her roommate is his future wife. Robin meets Don Frank (Benjamin Koldyke), her new co-anchor on her 4 AM TV show. Though she initially dislikes him, the two start dating and eventually she moves in with him. At the end of the season they break up when Don takes a job in Chicago — a job which Robin had previously turned down to stay in New York with Don. Lily's father, Mickey (Chris Elliott), who was absent during her childhood, makes an appearance at Thanksgiving. Mickey and Lily are able to mend their relationship at the end of the meal, where Marshall uses his fourth slap on Barney. Ted discovered that Tony, who stole Stella away from Ted at the altar, wrote a movie on Ted and Stella's relationship. The movie, “The Wedding Bride,” portrays Tony as the hero and Ted as the villain. The movie becomes popular and Ted unexpectedly sees it while on a date with another girl. Ted is infuriated by how he is portrayed in the movie, and views the actual story as the complete opposite. Ted buys a house, which needs to be fixed up badly, but is later revealed to be the future home for Ted and his children. Lily and Marshall are still unsure about having children. After watching four doppelgangers of their group (Lesbian Robin, Moustache Marshall, Stripper Lily and Mexican Wrestler Ted) they decide to leave the big decision to the universe's "infinite wisdom" and start trying when they have seen Barney's Doppelganger. In the season finale, Barney disguises himself to have sex with a girl from every country in the world, and Lily and Marshall mistake him for the final doppelganger. When Marshall finds out, he decides not to tell Lily, fearing she will want to wait even longer to have children. Lily eventually finds out and decides to wait. In the season finale, Lily thinks she sees Barney's doppelganger as a hot dog vendor, which causes the group to realize she is seeing what she wants to see, and play along. Eventually Barney agrees having babies is not a stupid idea and Lily and Marshall should go forth. The season ends with Lily asking Marshall to "put a baby in my belly". In the season opening, Ted sees Cindy again with a girl who he thinks to be her roommate, but she turns out to be Cindy's girlfriend whom she later marries. After prodding by Barney, Ted is eventually hired by GNB once more as the architect of the bank's new headquarters, which was originally scrapped in Season 4. However, he encounters opposition when he meets Zoey Pierson (Jennifer Morrison), a woman who is protesting against GNB for selecting a decrepit hotel, the Arcadian, to be torn down for the headquarters. Over the season, Ted's encounters with Zoey eventually blossom into a relationship after she divorces her rich husband, the Captain (Kyle MacLachlan), but they break up as he puts his career and friends over love, leading to the Arcadian's demolition. Ted also resolves not to get back with Zoey. Having agreed to conceive a baby at the end of the previous season, Lily and Marshall keep having sex, hoping she will get pregnant. Around Christmas, they have a false alarm and later seek fertility testing. The fertility specialist, Dr. Stangel, turns out to be Barney's doppelgänger, fulfilling their promise with the universe in regard to their decision to have a child. However, tragedy strikes when Marshall's father passes away, leaving him devastated and the gang comforting him. Marshall tries to get over his father's death and live again. Despite a pledge to Lily to work harder for their future, Marshall resigns from GNB and follows his dream of being an environmental lawyer. Zoey also hires him as her lawyer in what became a futile battle to save the Arcadian. At the end of the season, Lily reveals that she is pregnant. Barney finally admits to the gang that Bob Barker is not his real father, especially when his mother decides to sell the house he grew up in and his brother, James, meets his own father. Loretta offers the identity of Barney's father on a sheet of paper, but Barney tears this up after realizing her efforts as a single mother. At the funeral of Marshall's father, Barney tells Loretta that he wants to see his father at last. The man, Jerry Whittaker (John Lithgow), is eventually revealed to be someone whom Barney thought was his uncle. Barney, who remembers Jerry as a fun-loving man, is disappointed after learning how Jerry has grown out of his free-wheeling ways. Although he tries to bring back Jerry's old behaviors, Barney admits that he wants to settle down someday. He is also introduced to Nora (Nazanin Boniadi), a co-worker of Robin, for whom he develops feelings. After an initial falling out, the two reconcile at the end of the season after Barney asks her for coffee. Robin continues to work at her talk show, Come On, Get Up, New York!, but the presence of a new hyperactive co-host forces her to leave. She is accepted as a researcher in another network, World Wide News. The gang also discovers more of her past as the Canadian pop star Robin Sparkles. Robin also encounters a man (Michael Trucco) she has had a secret crush on since first seeing him when she and Ted were dating, and Future Ted hints that they will see more of him later. In the season finale, Ted makes the decision that he wants to get back with Zoey. Robin and Barney try to stop them from getting back together. Marshall's interview goes wrong as food poisoning hits him during the meeting. Barney and Robin get closure by helping Ted not get back together with Zoey. Short scenes during the season premiere and finale feature a wedding set sometime in the future, where Ted will meet his future wife. In the final scene of the season, the groom is revealed to be Barney. Season seven opens with another flash forward, in which Ted is helping Barney get ready for his wedding to a still-unknown bride. In the present, Marshall gets a job in environmental law while Lily's pregnancy progresses. Barney proves to Nora that he can be a good boyfriend to her, while Robin is revealed to still have feelings for Barney. After a court case for assault, Robin receives mandated therapy. Robin meets a therapist Kevin (Kal Penn) and they start to date. Meanwhile, after a period of unemployment since leaving GNB, Marshall finally manages to land his dream job at a top environmental law firm. After losing a bet, Barney is forced to wear a tie with a duck pattern on it (nicknamed the 'Ducky Tie') which he hates. Marshall allows him to take it off when meeting Nora's parents on the condition that Barney has three slaps added to the one still remaining from the Slap Bet. Marshall uses two slaps immediately, leaving two left. While reminiscing about Hurricane Irene, Lily and Marshall reveal that they conceived their baby in Barney's apartment, and Barney and Robin end up sleeping together. Barney and Robin decide to break up with their partners, but Robin reneges on the deal, returning to Kevin and leaving Barney alone and heartbroken. Robin has a pregnancy scare at Thanksgiving and tells Barney the child is his, since she and Kevin had not yet slept together. However, Robin's doctor informs her that she cannot have children at all. Kevin, who wants children, proposes to Robin, who decides that they must break up. Ted comforts Robin and reveals he still loves her, but the gesture is unrequited. Eventually, she moves out to give him some space. Marshall and Lily decide they want to move to Long Island, after Lily's paternal grandparents offer them their house there. Eventually, they move back to the old apartment in New York City after realizing suburban life is not for them. Ted gives them his apartment because he believes he cannot move on from Robin while living there, while he and Robin become estranged and do not speak for several weeks. Robin is eventually offered a news anchor job and subsequently achieves recognition after preventing a helicopter she is flying in from crashing. Barney starts dating a stripper named Quinn, to the group's initial apprehension. The gang begins to meddle in their relationship, but Barney and Quinn outsmart their attempts and win their approval. Quinn moves in with Barney, while Ted buys Quinn's old apartment. Lily goes into labor and frantically calls Barney and Marshall, who are out at a casino. After many attempts to escape, Barney helps Marshall arrive in time for Lily's delivery and chooses the middle name for the baby, Marvin Waitforit Eriksen. Ted and Robin's friendship also recovers as a result of Marvin's birth. As the season conclude, Marshall and Lily begin a new family with their baby, Marvin. Barney proposes to Quinn performing an extravagant magic trick in airport security. Ted contacts his old girlfriend Victoria, unhappy with her own impending wedding, she leaves her fiancé for Ted and the pair drive off into the sunset. A final flash forward shows the day of Barney's wedding, where Robin is revealed as the bride. Ted visits Robin on the day of her wedding to Barney, causing him to remember how he and Victoria ran away from her wedding to be together. The summer is spent with Ted, Barney, and Robin enjoying their current relationships; however, all subsequently break up with their partners. The breakups with all four couples happen in this season; future Ted (Bob Saget) refers to this period as the ‘autumn of breakups’. Victoria splits up with Ted over his friendship with Robin, Barney and Quinn break up due to their inability to trust each other, and Robin breaks up with Nick realizing his immaturity. Robin and Barney kiss but decide not to get together, despite Barney's wishes. Barney then begins dating Robin's hated co-worker Patrice (Ellen D. Williams), a relationship later exposed as a ruse to make Robin realize her true feelings for him. In a culminating scene Barney proposes to Robin, who says yes. Marshall and Lily attempt to get used to being parents, which causes a brief estrangement from the gang as Baby Marvin takes up the majority of their time. Lily's father Mickey becomes Marvin's nanny, freeing the two up to spend more time with their friends. The Captain, ex-husband of Ted's old girlfriend Zoey, offers Lily a job as an art consultant after she identifies a painting that made a huge profit for him. Lily accepts, happy to finally achieve her dream of having a job in the art industry, while Marshall decides to apply to become a judge. The Captain offers Lily a year's work in Rome, which she accepts with Marshall's blessing. However, just before Barney and Robin's wedding, Marshall is informed that his application to become a judge has been granted, a development that would require them to stay in the US. Ted briefly dates Jeanette (Abby Elliott), a girl who stalked him after he appeared on the cover of New York Magazine for designing GNB headquarters. He quickly realizes he's made a mistake and breaks up with her. Ted's feelings of loneliness grow, especially as he is now the only single member of the group, and he decides he is truly ready to settle down. He argues with Lily over hiring a DJ or a band for Barney and Robin's wedding, but is forced to provide a band at short notice when Lily concedes the argument. During a chance meeting on the subway, Cindy offers the services of her roommate's wedding band. This roommate is Ted's future wife. As the week of the wedding approaches, Robin has doubts about marrying Barney and shares an emotional moment with Ted. Guilty, Ted realizes he cannot be around Barney and Robin after they are married and decides to move to Chicago the day after the wedding. The season concludes with everyone travelling to Barney and Robin's wedding, including the mother of Ted's children (revealed on screen for the first time and portrayed by Cristin Milioti), who is seen buying a train ticket to the venue and holding her yellow umbrella. With the exception of the very last episode, the entirety of season nine takes place in the 56 hours leading up to Barney and Robin's wedding. Marshall, who is stuck in Minnesota, desperately tries to find a way to get to the wedding in time. Meanwhile, in Farhampton, the time is slowly counting down to the wedding, with a new problem arising in almost every episode. It is revealed that Lily is pregnant and that she and Marshall will have a daughter. It is also revealed that Ted's children are named Penny and Luke. In the 200th episode, the Mother's eight years before meeting Ted are revealed, while later episodes give viewers a glimpse of Ted and the Mother together in flash forward scenes. Also, Marshall uses his final two slaps from the slap bet: the first being used as an apology present for missing the rehearsal dinner, and the second when Barney begins to panic just before the beginning of the wedding ceremony. In the series finale, it is revealed that after three years of marriage, Barney and Robin decided to divorce. Barney ends up fathering a child during a one-night stand. Marshall eventually becomes a judge, and he and Lily have three children. Ted's wife Tracy dies of an unknown illness in 2024, six years prior to the time of Ted telling his children the full story of how they met. Upon finishing the story, at the urging of his kids, Ted decides to ask Robin out. Alluding to the first episode (pilot), the finale ends with Robin looking out her apartment window to see Ted on the street holding the blue French horn. The first season was met with generally favorable reviews from critics, although some compared the series unfavorably to Friends. On Metacritic, a review aggregation site that collected 25 reviews for the series, it scored a 69 out of 100. Michael Abernethy of PopMatters gave the season a negative review, writing that "The comedy that does occur in How I Met Your Mother isn't enough to compensate for its inconsistencies." Tom Shales of The Washington Post gave the season a lukewarm review, saying it's "a little better than most other sitcoms, past and present -- especially those featuring wacky urban friends in their twenties experiencing the bittersweet mysteries of life." On the other hand, Melanie Macfarlane gave the season a positive review, saying the show "may not break any comedic ground, but it's the sort of comfortable, reliable hitter CBS needs on Monday nights." The second season received critical acclaim. Staci Krause of IGN gave the season a positive review, calling it "great". The third season was met with mostly positive reviews. Michelle Zoromski of IGN gave the season a positive review, saying that "the season was fun and clever, a good, consistent flow from the first two seasons". The fourth season received critical acclaim and is generally considered the best season of the series. Michelle Zoromski of IGN gave Season 4 an overall rating of 8.5 out of 10, stating that "This fourth season seemed to settle down the chase for the titular mother. While Ted was busy dating Stella, the gang settled into many stand alone episodes which were every bit as entertaining as episodes devoted to Ted's love life". Zoromski went on to say: "A stellar Robin-Marshall episode, titled 'Little Minnesota', makes it clear that these two do not get enough screen time together. With Robin homesick and unemployed (and at risk of being deported), this pairing brought out the best Robin Sparkles reference of the season, when Marshall leads a rousing karaoke version of 'Let's Go to the Mall! The fifth season received mostly positive reviews. Cindy McLennan of Television Without Pity gave the season a mixed review, and at the end of the season wrote: "I'm okay with any given season not being primarily focused on mother-meeting, but this season, the characters seemed to regress -- particularly Barney and Ted. Usually, when a season ends, I have to deal with a week or two weeks' worth of letdown. Right now, all I'm feeling is relief." The sixth season received generally positive reviews. Justin Fowler of Later Reviews gave the season a positive review, saying that the season was "a pretty good season of television" and better than the "poor" fifth season. He also said that "Seventeen out of the 24 episodes are what I would consider good". The seventh season received mixed reviews. Alan Sepinwall gave the season a mixed review and criticized the flash-forwards throughout the season, saying that "the show is just much, much stronger when its stories dwell on matters of the present or the past, and where the writers don't have to act like magicians trying to keep the audience from figuring out how the trick works. And the finale affirmed that belief for me. The parts that had little or nothing to do with things to come were quite good; the parts that were all about the future made me roll my eyes and ask, for the umpteenth time, 'Really? This is where you're going with this? The eighth season was widely criticized, with Rotten Tomatoes reporting that 40% of critics gave the show a positive review. The consensus reads: "How I Met Your Mother wears out its welcome this season, with an anticlimactic reveal and rote, less-than-fruitful humor." The ninth season received mixed to positive reviews by critics, though fans found it worse than prior seasons. Rotten Tomatoes reported that 80% of critics gave the show a positive review, with an average rating of 7.3 out of 10. Gareth Mitchell at "House of Geekery" responded negatively, mostly criticizing the structure of the season, stating that they are "struggling to come up with stories that last out the 22 minutes". The finale of the show received a largely negative reaction from critics and fans. Some complained that the last few seasons had built towards an end game that was discarded within the hour-long episode, while others defended it as true to both the initial concept of the show and to life itself. In the years succeeding its airing, it continued to be singled out as one of the worst television series finales, e.g., topping USA Today's list of "Worst Series Finales of All Time". The Bro Code, cited by Barney many times throughout the series, is a set of written rules for bros to follow, and has been published as a tie-in novel, an audiobook, an iPhone Application and an Android Application. Barney alleges it was written by Barnabus Stinson, a contemporary of George Washington and Benjamin Franklin. Many of the rules listed in this book also appear in the show's closing vanity cards in syndication., Bro on the Go, a companion to The Bro Code, released in 2009., Bro Code for Parents: What to Expect When You're Awesome, released in 2012., The Playbook, based on the fifth season episode of the same name, by Barney Stinson and Matt Kuhn., How I Met Your Mother and Philosophy, released in 2013. A soundtrack album entitled How I Met Your Music: Original Songs from the Hit Series was released digitally to iTunes on September 24, 2012, featuring songs from the first seven seasons, A second soundtrack album entitled How I Met Your Music: Deluxe was released digitally to iTunes on September 23, 2014, featuring songs from the final two seasons. After the end of the series, the officials released a short video, explaining the running mystery of the pineapple in the Pineapple Incident (season 1, episode 10). The extra footage revealed that a character revealed in the 6th season, the Captain, had put a pineapple in front of his door as a tradition and Ted took the pineapple while he was drunk. On November 15, 2013, it was announced that CBS and the series' producer 20th Century Fox Television would launch How I Met Your Dad, a woman-centric variation executive-produced by Bays, Thomas, and Emily Spivey. The new series would possibly have featured a new bar and would not have tied into the original series. The primary cast of the series was revealed to be Greta Gerwig, Drew Tarver, Nicholas D'Agosto and Andrew Santino. On April 23, 2014, Meg Ryan was announced to voice future Sally. On May 14, 2014, CBS passed on picking up How I Met Your Dad since show creators Craig Thomas and Carter Bays did not want to reshoot the pilot. Nina Tassler, the entertainment president at CBS, stated that "there were elements of the pilot that didn't work out". Talks of the series being "shopped" to other networks emerged. Netflix, FOX and NBC were named as possible candidates for picking up the show. Ultimately, nothing came of those talks. It was reported that the options on the cast contracts had expired and they had been released from their contracts and co- creator Carter Bays denied any rumours that the spin-off pilot will be reshot. On July 11, 2014, Bays confirmed that the spin-off project was officially dead. Six days later, Nina Tassler said that CBS would "love the opportunity to take another shot" at the pilot and that she would continue to "hound" Carter Bays and Craig Thomas – even though they shot down the idea of a new version of the project stating that they had both moved on. On December 14, 2016, it was reported that Isaac Aptaker and Elizabeth Berger were set to write a new version of the previous spin-off's pilot, re-titled How I Met Your Father, with Bays and Thomas serving as executive producers. On March 6, 2017, it was announced that following signing new contracts with 20th Century Fox Television that would see both Aptaker and Berger being promoted to executive producers and co-showrunners on This Is Us alongside Dan Fogelman, their completed spec script for How I Met Your Father would be placed on the back burner in light of their new duties. The idea was later completely abandoned. On August 8, 2017, Fox chairman Dana Walden told Deadline that the studio was set to try a third attempt at a spin-off with different writers. It was also stated that all ideas from the previous two attempts will not be carried over and the new attempt will be created from scratch. On August 11, 2017, Deadline reported that Alison Bennett had been selected to write the spin-off. It was also confirmed that this incarnation would be developed under the title used for the Aptaker and Berger project, and that Bays and Thomas are once again attached as executive producers. The GoodStoryMedia, a Russian production company, made a remake of the series which was broadcast on STS and ran for two seasons. The show's highest viewed episode was the series finale, "Last Forever", watched by 13.13 million viewers. Previously, the most viewed episode was the season 1 episode "The Pineapple Incident", watched by 12.3 million viewers. The lowest-viewed episode was the season 6 episode "Landmarks", watched by 6.4 million viewers, approximately 52% of the show's series high. Season nine was the highest watched season overall and among the 18-49 adults, scoring a 4.5 rating in that sector up from the second-highest rating of 4.1 in season seven. The show has been nominated for 72 awards, winning 19. The show has been nominated for 28 Emmy Awards, including a nomination for Outstanding Comedy Series. Stars Alyson Hannigan and Neil Patrick Harris have each received acting accolades, with both winning People's Choice Awards, and Harris receiving Emmy and Golden Globe nominations. In 2012, seven years after its premiere, the series won the People's Choice for Favorite Network TV Comedy. The show's art direction, editing and cinematography have also been awarded. Seasons 1 through 9 are available to stream on Netflix in Austria, Canada, Ireland, Italy, Latin America, The Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, and the UK; season 9 was released on September 26, 2014. Seasons 1-9 were removed from Netflix in the United States as of November 13, 2017 and are now available on Hulu. Seasons 1 through 9 are available to stream on Hotstar in India. How I Met Your Music is an album containing 20 of the series various songs including "Let’s Go To The Mall" and "You Just Got Slapped." It was released on the 24th of September 2012. Note: The whole story DVD had a different package in Region 1 as opposed to Region 2 + 4

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In United States law, the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, together with that Amendment's Free Exercise Clause, form the constitutional right of freedom of religion. The relevant constitutional text is: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof...". The Establishment Clause was based on a number of precedents, including the Constitutions of Clarendon, the Bill of Rights 1689, and the Pennsylvania and New Jersey colonial constitutions. An initial draft by John Dickinson was prepared in conjunction with his drafting the Articles of Confederation. In 1789, then-congressman James Madison prepared another draft which, following discussion and debate in the First Congress, would become part of the text of the First Amendment of the Bill of Rights. The second half of the Establishment Clause includes the Free Exercise Clause, which allows individual citizens freedom from governmental interference in both private and public religious affairs. The Establishment Clause is a limitation placed upon the United States Congress preventing it from passing legislation forcing an establishment of religion, broadly making it illegal for the government to promote theocracy or promote a specific religion with taxes. The second half of the Establishment Clause inherently prohibits the government from preventing the free exercise of religion. While the Establishment Clause does prohibit Congress from preferring or elevating one religion over another, it does not prohibit the government's entry into the religious domain to make accommodations for religious observances and practices in order to achieve the purposes of the Free Exercise Clause. Furthermore, it does not prevent the placement of religious symbols on government premises. The Constitutions of Clarendon, a 12th-century English law, had prohibited criminal defendants' using religious laws (at that time, in medieval England, canon law of the Roman Catholic Church) to seek exemption from criminal prosecution. The 1689 English Bill of Rights secured the rights of all "persons" to be free from establishment of Roman Catholic laws in the government of England. The original Mason-Dixon line was the demarcation line between the Catholic colony of Maryland and the New Jersey and Pennsylvania colonies, which followed the 1689 Bill of Rights and their own colonial constitutions which provided similar protections against the establishment of Catholic laws in government. A possible additional precursor of the Free Exercise Clause was the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. The statute was drafted by Thomas Jefferson in 1777 and was introduced in the Virginia General Assembly in 1779. It did not pass the General Assembly until 1786. James Madison played an important role in its passage. The statute disestablished the Church of England in Virginia and guaranteed freedom of religion exercise to men of all religious faiths, including Catholics and Jews as well as members of all Protestant denominations. The First Amendment is part of a group of 10 Amendments to the United States Constitution known as the Bill of Rights. The idea of adding a Bill of Rights to the Constitution was proposed by George Mason five days before the conclusion of the Constitutional Convention held in Philadelphia in 1787. His proposal was rejected by the other delegates. Alexander Hamilton later argued in The Federalist Papers that a Bill of Rights was unnecessary, claiming that since the Constitution granted limited powers to the federal government, it did not grant the new government the power to abuse the rights that would be secured by a Bill of Rights. Nevertheless, the supporters of the Constitution (known as Federalists) in order to secure its ratification in Massachusetts, agreed to add a group of Amendments to the Constitution after its ratification that would serve as a Bill of Rights. Later, six more states likewise recommended the addition of a Bill of Rights, and the idea also gained the support of Jefferson and Madison. When the First Federal Congress met in 1789, Madison implemented the idea by introducing 17 Amendments to the Constitution. By December 1791, ten of his Amendments were ratified by the necessary three quarters of the states, and they became part of the US Constitution, thereafter becoming known as "the Bill of Rights". The Establishment Clause addressed the concerns of members of minority faiths who did not want the federal government to establish a state religion for the entire nation. The Baptists in Virginia, for example, had suffered discrimination prior to the disestablishment of the Anglican church in 1786. As Virginia prepared to hold its elections to the state ratifying convention in 1788, the Baptists were concerned that the Constitution had no safeguard against the creation of a new national church. In Orange County, Virginia, two federalist candidates, James Madison and James Gordon Jr., were running against two anti-federalists (opponents of the Constitution), Thomas Barbour and Charles Porter. Barbour requested to John Leland, an influential Baptist preacher and fervent lifelong proponent of religious liberty, that he write a letter to Barbour outlining his objections to the proposed Constitution. Leland stated in the letter that, among his other concerns, the Constitution had no Bill of Rights and no safeguards for religious liberty and freedom of the press. A number of historians have concluded on the basis of compelling circumstantial evidence that, just prior to the election in March 1788, Madison met with Leland and gained his support of ratification by addressing these concerns and providing him with the necessary reassurances. In any event, Leland cast his vote for Madison. Leland's support, according to Scarberry, was likely key to the landslide victory of Madison and Gordon. Prior to the enactment of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1868, the Supreme Court generally held that the substantive protections of the Bill of Rights did not apply to state governments. Subsequently, under the Incorporation doctrine, the Bill of Rights has been broadly applied to limit state and local government as well. The process of incorporating the two Religion Clauses in the First Amendment was twofold. The first step was the Supreme Court's conclusion in 1940 that the Free Exercise Clause was made applicable to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment. Conceptually, this raised few difficulties: the Due Process Clause protects those rights in the Bill of Rights "implicit in the concept of ordered liberty," and free exercise of religion is a quintessential individual right (and had been recognized as such at the state level from the beginning). Incorporation of the Establishment Clause in 1947 proved to be problematic in several ways and subject to critique. The controversy surrounding Establishment Clause incorporation primarily stems from the fact that one of the intentions of the Establishment Clause was to prevent Congress from interfering with state establishments of religion that existed at the time of the founding (at least six states had established religions at the founding) – a fact conceded by even those members of the Court who believe the Establishment Clause was made applicable to the states through incorporation. Critics have also argued that the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment is understood to incorporate only individual rights found in the Bill of Rights; the Establishment Clause, unlike the Free Exercise Clause (which critics readily concede protects individual rights), does not purport to protect individual rights. The Supreme Court first considered the question of financial assistance to religious organizations in Bradfield v. Roberts (1899). The federal government had funded a hospital operated by a Roman Catholic institution. In that case, the Court ruled that the funding was to a secular organizationthe hospitaland was therefore permissible. In the twentieth century, the Supreme Court more closely scrutinized government activity involving religious institutions. In Everson v. Board of Education (1947), the Supreme Court upheld a New Jersey statute funding student transportation to schools, whether parochial or not. Justice Hugo Black held, The New Jersey law was upheld, for it applied "to all its citizens without regard to their religious belief." After Everson, lawsuits in several states sought to disentangle public monies from religious teaching, the leading case being the 1951 Dixon School Case out of New Mexico. The Jefferson quotation cited in Black's opinion is from a Jefferson wrote in 1802 to the Baptists of Danbury, Connecticut, that there should be "a wall of separation between church and state." Critics of Black's reasoning (most notably, former Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist) have argued that the majority of states did have "official" churches at the time of the First Amendment's adoption and that James Madison, not Jefferson, was the principal drafter. However, Madison himself often wrote of "perfect separation between the ecclesiastical and civil matters" (1822 letter to Livingston), which means the authority of the church (that which comes from the church) is decided by church authority, and that which is decided in civil government is decided by civil authorities; neither may decree law or policy in each other's realm. Another description reads: "line of separation between the rights of religion and the civil authority... entire abstinence of the government" (1832 letter Rev. Adams), and "practical distinction between Religion and Civil Government as essential to the purity of both, and as guaranteed by the Constitution of the United States" (1811 letter to Baptist Churches). In Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971), the Supreme Court ruled that government may not "excessively entangle" with religion. The case involved two Pennsylvania laws: one permitting the state to "purchase" services in secular fields from religious schools, and the other permitting the state to pay a percentage of the salaries of private school teachers, including teachers in religious institutions. The Supreme Court found that the government was "excessively entangled" with religion, and invalidated the statutes in question. The excessive entanglement test, together with the secular purpose and primary effect tests thereafter became known as the Lemon test, which judges have often used to test the constitutionality of a statute on establishment clause grounds. The Supreme Court decided Committee for Public Education & Religious Liberty v. Nyquist and Sloan v. Lemon in 1973. In both cases, states--New York and Pennsylvania-- had enacted laws whereby public tax revenues would be paid to low-income parents so as to permit them to send students to private schools. It was held that in both cases, the state unconstitutionally provided aid to religious organizations. The ruling was partially reversed in Mueller v. Allen (1983). There, the Court upheld a Minnesota statute permitting the use of tax revenues to reimburse parents of students. The Court noted that the Minnesota statute granted such aid to parents of all students, whether they attended public or private schools. While the Court has prevented states from directly funding parochial schools, it has not stopped them from aiding religious colleges and universities. In Tilton v. Richardson (1971), the Court permitted the use of public funds for the construction of facilities in religious institutions of higher learning. It was found that there was no "excessive entanglement" since the buildings were themselves not religious, unlike teachers in parochial schools, and because the aid came in the form of a one-time grant, rather than continuous assistance. One of the largest recent controversies over the amendment centered on school vouchers--government aid for students to attend private and predominantly religious schools. The Supreme Court, in Zelman v. Simmons-Harris (2002), upheld the constitutionality of private school vouchers, turning away an Establishment Clause challenge. Further important decisions came in the 1960s, during the Warren Court era. One of the Court's most controversial decisions came in Engel v. Vitale in 1962. The case involved the mandatory daily recitation by public school officials of a prayer written by the New York Board of Regents, which read "Almighty God, we acknowledge our dependence upon Thee, and we beg Thy blessings upon us, our parents, our teachers and our Country". The Supreme Court deemed it unconstitutional and struck it down, with Justice Black writing "it is no part of the official business of government to compose official prayers for any group of American people to recite as part of a religious program carried out by the Government." The reading of the Lord's Prayer or of the Bible in the classroom of a public school by the teacher was ruled unconstitutional in 1963. The ruling did not apply to parochial or private schools in general. The decision has been met with both criticism and praise. Many social conservatives are critical of the court's reasoning, including the late Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist. Conversely, the ACLU and other civil libertarian groups hailed the court's decision. In Abington Township v. Schempp (1963), the case involving the mandatory reading of the Lord's Prayer in class, the Supreme Court introduced the "secular purpose" and "primary effect" tests, which were to be used to determine compatibility with the establishment clause. Essentially, the law in question must have a valid secular purpose, and its primary effect must not be to promote or inhibit a particular religion. Since the law requiring the recital of the Lord's Prayer violated these tests, it was struck down. The "excessive entanglement" test was added in Lemon v. Kurtzman (vide supra). In Wallace v. Jaffree (1985), the Supreme Court struck down an Alabama law whereby students in public schools would observe daily a period of silence for the purpose of private prayer. The Court did not, however, find that the moment of silence was itself unconstitutional. Rather, it ruled that Alabama lawmakers had passed the statute solely to advance religion, thereby violating the secular purpose test. The 1990s were marked by controversies surrounding religion's role in public affairs. In Lee v. Weisman (1992), the Supreme Court ruled unconstitutional the offering of prayers by religious officials before voluntarily attending ceremonies such as graduation. Thus, the Court established that the state could not conduct religious exercises at public occasions even if attendance was not strictly compulsory. In Lee the Court developed the coercion test. Under this test the government does not violate the establishment clause unless it (1) provides direct aid to religion in a way that would tend to establish a state church, or (2) coerces people to support or participate in religion against their will. In Santa Fe Independent School Dist. v. Doe (2000), the Court ruled that a vote of the student body could not authorize student-led prayer prior to school events. In 2002, controversy centered on a ruling by the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit in Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow (2002), which struck down a California law providing for the recitation of the Pledge of Allegiance (which includes the phrase "under God") in classrooms. Each House of Congress passed resolutions reaffirming their support for the pledge; the Senate vote was 99–0 and the House vote was 416–3. The Supreme Court heard arguments on the case, but did not rule on the merits, instead reversing the Ninth Circuit's decision on standing grounds. The inclusion of religious symbols in public holiday displays came before the Supreme Court in Lynch v. Donnelly (1984), and again in Allegheny County v. Greater Pittsburgh ACLU (1989). In the former case, the Court upheld the public display of a crèche, ruling that any benefit to religion was "indirect, remote, and incidental." In Allegheny County, however, the Court struck down a crèche display, which occupied a prominent position in the county courthouse and bore the words Gloria in Excelsis Deo, the words sung by the angels at the Nativity (Luke 2:14 in the Latin Vulgate translation). At the same time, the Allegheny County Court upheld the display of a nearby menorah, which appeared along with a Christmas tree and a sign saluting liberty, reasoning that "the combined display of the tree, the sign, and the menorah ... simply recognizes that both Christmas and Hanukkah are part of the same winter-holiday season, which has attained a secular status in our society." In Lynch v. Donnelly the Supreme Court also developed with the endorsement test a further test to determine the constitutionality under the Establishment Clause of certain government actions. In 2001, Roy Moore, then Chief Justice of Alabama, installed a monument to the Ten Commandments in the state judicial building. In 2003, he was ordered in the case of Glassroth v. Moore by a federal judge to remove the monument, but he refused to comply, ultimately leading to his removal from office. The Supreme Court refused to hear the case, allowing the lower court's decision to stand. On March 2, 2005, the Supreme Court heard arguments for two cases involving religious displays, Van Orden v. Perry and McCreary County v. ACLU of Kentucky. These were the first cases directly dealing with display of the Ten Commandments the Court had heard since Stone v. Graham (1980). These cases were decided on June 27, 2005. In Van Orden, the Court upheld, by a 5–4 vote, the legality of a Ten Commandments display at the Texas State Capitol due to the monument's "secular purpose". In McCreary County, however, the Court ruled 5–4 that displays of the Ten Commandments in several Kentucky county courthouses were unconstitutional because they were not clearly integrated with a secular display, and thus were considered to have a religious purpose. In the 1964 case McGowan v. Maryland, the Supreme Court held that blue laws which restricted the sale of goods on Sundays (and were originally intended to increase Church attendance) did not violate the Establishment Clause because they served a present secular purpose of providing a uniform day of rest for everyone. Faith-based initiatives, Lassonde v. Pleasanton Unified School District, No Religious Test Clause, Separation of church and state in the United States, Torcaso v. Watkins, United States religious history First Amendment Library entry for Establishment Clause Cases (with links to all of the Supreme Court's Establishment Clause cases), Defending Jefferson's "wall of separation" metaphor, Religious Expression in American Public Life: A Joint Statement of Current Law Royal C. Gilkey, "The Problem of Church and State in Terms of the Nonestablishment and Free Exercise of Religion", William & Mary Law Review, Vol. 9, Issue I, 1967, 149-165 The Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution each contain a due process clause. Due process deals with the administration of justice and thus the due process clause acts as a safeguard from arbitrary denial of life, liberty, or property by the government outside the sanction of law. The Supreme Court of the United States interprets the clauses broadly, concluding that these clauses provide four protections: procedural due process (in civil and criminal proceedings), substantive due process, a prohibition against vague laws, and as the vehicle for the incorporation of the Bill of Rights. The clause in the Fifth Amendment reads: While the clause in the Fourteenth Amendment says: Clause 39 of Magna Carta provided: The phrase "due process of law" first appeared in a statutory rendition of Magna Carta in 1354 during the reign of Edward III of England, as follows: New York was the only state that asked Congress to add "due process" language to the U.S. Constitution. New York ratified the U.S. Constitution and proposed the following amendment in 1788: In response to this proposal from New York, James Madison drafted a due process clause for Congress. Madison cut out some language and inserted the word without, which had not been proposed by New York. Congress then adopted the exact wording that Madison proposed after Madison explained that the due process clause would not be sufficient to protect various other rights: The Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution provides: Section One of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution provides: The Supreme Court has interpreted the due process clauses in the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendment identically, as Justice Felix Frankfurter once explained in a concurring opinion: In 1855, the Supreme Court explained that, to ascertain whether a process is due process, the first step is to "examine the constitution itself, to see whether this process be in conflict with any of its provisions". Also in 1855, the U.S. Supreme Court said, In the 1884 case of Hurtado v. California, the Court said: Due process also applies to the creation of taxing districts, as taxation is a deprivation of property. Due process typically requires public hearings prior to the creation of a taxing district. Due process applies to Puerto Rico, although it is not a State. The due process clauses apply to both natural persons as well as to "legal persons" (that is, corporate personhood) as well as to individuals, including both citizens and non-citizens. The Fifth Amendment due process was first applied to corporations in 1893 by the Supreme Court in Noble v. Union River Logging. Noble was preceded by Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad in 1886. The due process clauses also apply to non-citizens who are within the United States – no matter whether their presence may be or is "unlawful, involuntary or transitory" – although the U.S. Supreme Court has recognized that non-citizens can be stopped, detained, and denied past immigration officials at points of entry (e.g. at a port or airport) without the protection of the Due Process Clause because, while technically on U.S. soil, they are not considered to have entered the United States. In Bucklew v. Precythe, 587 U.S. ___ (2019), the Supreme Court held that the Due Process Clause expressly allows the death penalty in the United States because "the Fifth Amendment, added to the Constitution at the same time as the Eighth, expressly contemplates that a defendant may be tried for a ‘capital’ crime and ‘deprived of life’ as a penalty, so long as proper procedures are followed". The U.S. Supreme Court has interpreted the term "liberty" in the due process clauses broadly: The prohibitions, generally, of the due process clauses apply only to the actions of state actors, and not against private citizens. However, where a private person is acting jointly with state officials in a prohibited action, they are said to be acting under the "color of the law" for the purposes of 42 U.S.C. § 1983. While private actors are not generally held to the actions of private citizens, it remains that private citizens may be held criminally liable for a federal felony or misdemeanor, if they conspire with the government to commit actions which violate the due process clauses of the constitution. Procedural due process requires government officials to follow fair procedures before depriving a person of life, liberty, or property. When the government seeks to deprive a person of one of those interests, procedural due process requires the government to afford the person, at minimum, notice, an opportunity to be heard, and a decision made by a neutral decisionmaker. This protection extends to all government proceedings that can result in an individual's deprivation, whether civil or criminal in nature, from parole violation hearings to administrative hearings regarding government benefits and entitlements to full-blown criminal trials. The article "Some Kind of Hearing" written by Judge Henry Friendly created a list of basic due process rights "that remains highly influential, as to both content and relative priority". These rights, which apply equally to civil due process and criminal due process, are: 1. An unbiased tribunal. 2. Notice of the proposed action and the grounds asserted for it. 3. Opportunity to present reasons why the proposed action should not be taken. 4. The right to present evidence, including the right to call witnesses. 5. The right to know opposing evidence. 6. The right to cross-examine adverse witnesses. 7. A decision based exclusively on the evidence presented. 8. Opportunity to be represented by counsel. 9. Requirement that the tribunal prepares a record of the evidence presented. 10. Requirement that the tribunal prepares written findings of fact and reasons for its decision. Procedural due process is essentially based on the concept of "fundamental fairness". For example, in 1934, the United States Supreme Court held that due process is violated "if a practice or rule offends some principle of justice so rooted in the traditions and conscience of our people as to be ranked as fundamental". As construed by the courts, it includes an individual's right to be adequately notified of charges or proceedings, the opportunity to be heard at these proceedings, and that the person or panel making the final decision over the proceedings be impartial in regards to the matter before them. To put it more simply, where an individual is facing a deprivation of life, liberty, or property, procedural due process mandates that he or she is entitled to adequate notice, a hearing, and a neutral judge. The Supreme Court has formulated a balancing test to determine the rigor with which the requirements of procedural due process should be applied to a particular deprivation, for the obvious reason that mandating such requirements in the most expansive way for even the most minor deprivations would bring the machinery of government to a halt. The Court set out the test as follows: "[I]dentification of the specific dictates of due process generally requires consideration of three distinct factors: first, the private interest that will be affected by the official action; second, the risk of an erroneous deprivation of such interest through the procedures used, and the probable value, if any, of additional or substitute procedural safeguards; and, finally, the Government's interest, including the function involved and the fiscal and administrative burdens that the additional or substitute procedural requirement would entail." Procedural due process has also been an important factor in the development of the law of personal jurisdiction, in the sense that it is inherently unfair for the judicial machinery of a state to take away the property of a person who has no connection to it whatsoever. A significant portion of U.S. constitutional law is therefore directed to what kinds of connections to a state are enough for that state's assertion of jurisdiction over a nonresident to comport with procedural due process. The requirement of a neutral judge has introduced a constitutional dimension to the question of whether a judge should recuse himself or herself from a case. Specifically, the Supreme Court has ruled that in certain circumstances, the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment requires a judge to recuse himself on account of a potential or actual conflict of interest. For example, in Caperton v. A. T. Massey Coal Co. (2009), the Court ruled that a justice of the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia could not participate in a case involving a major donor to his election to that court. In criminal cases, many of these due process protections overlap with procedural protections provided by the Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which guarantees reliable procedures that protect innocent people from being executed, which would be an obvious example of cruel and unusual punishment. An example of criminal due process rights is the case Vitek v. Jones, 445 U.S. 480 (1980). The due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment requires certain procedural protections for state prisoners who may be transferred involuntarily to a state mental hospital for treatment of a mental disease or defect, such protections including written notice of the transfer, an adversary hearing before an independent decisionmaker, written findings, and effective and timely notice of such rights. As established by the district court and upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in Vitek v. Jones, these due process rights include: 1. Written notice to the prisoner that a transfer to a mental hospital is being considered; 2. A hearing, sufficiently after the notice to permit the prisoner to prepare, at which disclosure to the prisoner is made of the evidence being relied upon for the transfer and at which an opportunity to be heard in person and to present documentary evidence is given; 3. An opportunity at the hearing to present testimony of witnesses by the defense and to confront and cross-examine witnesses called by the state, except upon a finding, not arbitrarily made, of good cause for not permitting such presentation, confrontation, or cross-examination; 4. An independent decisionmaker; 5. A written statement by the factfinder as to the evidence relied on and the reasons for transferring the inmate; 6. Availability of legal counsel, furnished by the state, if the inmate is financially unable to furnish his own (a majority of Justices rejected this right to state-furnished counsel.); and 7. Effective and timely notice of all the foregoing rights. By the middle of the 19th century, "due process of law" was interpreted by the U.S. Supreme Court to mean that "it was not left to the legislative power to enact any process which might be devised. The due process article is a restraint on the legislative as well as on the executive and judicial powers of the government, and cannot be so construed as to leave Congress free to make any process 'due process of law' by its mere will." The term "substantive due process" (SDP) is commonly used in two ways: first to identify a particular line of case law, and second to signify a particular attitude toward judicial review under the due process clause. The term "substantive due process" began to take form in 1930s legal casebooks as a categorical distinction of selected due process cases, and by 1950 had been mentioned twice in Supreme Court opinions. SDP involves liberty-based due process challenges which seek certain outcomes instead of merely contesting procedures and their effects; in such cases, the Supreme Court recognizes a constitutionally-based "liberty" which then renders laws seeking to limit said "liberty" either unenforceable or limited in scope. Critics of SDP decisions typically assert that those liberties ought to be left to the more politically accountable branches of government. Courts have viewed the due process clause, and sometimes other clauses of the Constitution, as embracing those fundamental rights that are "implicit in the concept of ordered liberty". Just what those rights are is not always clear, nor is the Supreme Court's authority to enforce such unenumerated rights clear. Some of those rights have long histories or "are deeply rooted" in American society. The courts have largely abandoned the Lochner era approach (c. 1897-1937) when substantive due process was used to strike down minimum wage and labor laws in order to protect freedom of contract. Since then, the Supreme Court has decided that numerous other freedoms that do not appear in the plain text of the Constitution are nevertheless protected by the Constitution. If these rights were not protected by the federal courts' doctrine of substantive due process, they could nevertheless be protected in other ways; for example, it is possible that some of these rights could be protected by other provisions of the state or federal constitutions, and alternatively they could be protected by legislatures. The Court focuses on three types of rights under substantive due process in the Fourteenth Amendment, which originated in United States v. Carolene Products Co., , footnote 4. Those three types of rights are: the first eight amendments in the Bill of Rights (e.g., the Eighth Amendment);, restrictions on the political process (e.g., the rights of voting, association, and free speech); and, the rights of "discrete and insular minorities". The Court usually looks first to see if there is a fundamental right, by examining if the right can be found deeply rooted in American history and traditions. Where the right is not a fundamental right, the court applies a rational basis test: if the violation of the right can be rationally related to a legitimate government purpose, then the law is held valid. If the court establishes that the right being violated is a fundamental right, it applies strict scrutiny. This test inquires into whether there is a compelling state interest being furthered by the violation of the right, and whether the law in question is narrowly tailored to address the state interest. Privacy, which is not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, was at issue in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965), wherein the Court held that criminal prohibition of contraceptive devices for married couples violated federal, judicially enforceable privacy rights. The right to contraceptives was found in what the Court called the "penumbras", or shadowy edges, of certain amendments that arguably refer to certain privacy rights. The penumbra-based rationale of Griswold has since been discarded; the Supreme Court now uses the due process clause as a basis for various unenumerated privacy rights. Although it has never been the majority view, some have argued that the Ninth Amendment (addressing unenumerated rights) could be used as a source of fundamental judicially enforceable rights, including a general right to privacy, as discussed by Justice Goldberg concurring in Griswold. The courts have generally determined that laws which are too vague for the average citizen to understand deprive citizens of their rights to due process. If an average person cannot determine who is regulated, what conduct is prohibited, or what punishment may be imposed by a law, courts may find that law to be void for vagueness. See Coates v. Cincinnati, where the word "annoying" was deemed to lack due process insertion of fair warning. Incorporation is the legal doctrine by which the Bill of Rights, either in full or in part, is applied to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment's due process clause. The basis for incorporation is substantive due process regarding substantive rights enumerated elsewhere in the Constitution, and procedural due process regarding procedural rights enumerated elsewhere in the Constitution. Incorporation started in 1897 with a takings case, continued with Gitlow v. New York (1925), which was a First Amendment case, and accelerated in the 1940s and 1950s. Justice Hugo Black famously favored the jot-for-jot incorporation of the entire Bill of Rights. Justice Felix Frankfurter, however—joined later by Justice John M. Harlan—felt that the federal courts should only apply those sections of the Bill of Rights that were "fundamental to a scheme of ordered liberty". It was the latter course that the Warren Court of the 1960s took, although almost all of the Bill of Rights has now been incorporated jot-for-jot against the states. The latest Incorporation is the 2nd Amendment which made the individual and fundamental right to "keep and bear arms" fully applicable to the States; see McDonald v. City of Chicago, 561 U.S. (2010). The role of the incorporation doctrine in applying the guarantees of the Bill of Rights to the states is just as notable as the use of due process to define new fundamental rights that are not explicitly guaranteed by the Constitution's text. In both cases, the question has been whether the right asserted is "fundamental", so that, just as not all proposed "new" constitutional rights are afforded judicial recognition, not all provisions of the Bill of Rights have been deemed sufficiently fundamental to warrant enforcement against the states. Some people, such as Justice Black, have argued that the Privileges or Immunities Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment would be a more appropriate textual source for the incorporation doctrine. The Court has not taken that course, and some point to the treatment given to the Privileges or Immunities Clause in the 1873 Slaughter-House Cases as a reason why. Although the Slaughter-House Court did not expressly preclude application of the Bill of Rights to the states, the clause largely ceased to be invoked in opinions of the Court following the Slaughter-House Cases, and when incorporation did begin, it was under the rubric of due process. Scholars who share Justice Black's view, such as Akhil Amar, argue that the Framers of the Fourteenth Amendment, like Senator Jacob Howard and Congressman John Bingham, included a due process clause in the Fourteenth Amendment for the following reason: "By incorporating the rights of the Fifth Amendment, the privileges or immunities clause would ... have prevented states from depriving 'citizens' of due process. Bingham, Howard, and company wanted to go even further by extending the benefits of state due process to aliens." The Supreme Court has consistently held that Fifth Amendment due process means substantially the same as Fourteenth Amendment due process, and therefore the original meaning of the former is relevant to the incorporation doctrine of the latter. When the Bill of Rights was originally proposed by Congress in 1789 to the states, various substantive and procedural rights were "classed according to their affinity to each other" instead of being submitted to the states "as a single act to be adopted or rejected in the gross", as James Madison put it. Roger Sherman explained in 1789 that each amendment "may be passed upon distinctly by the States, and any one that is adopted by three fourths of the legislatures may become a part of the Constitution". Thus, the states were allowed to reject the Sixth Amendment, for example, while ratifying all of the other amendments including the due process clause; in that case, the rights in the Sixth Amendment would not have been incorporated against the federal government. The doctrine of incorporating the content of other amendments into "due process" was thus an innovation, when it began in 1925 with the Gitlow case, and this doctrine remains controversial today. In Bolling v. Sharpe , the Supreme Court held that "the concepts of equal protection and due process, both stemming from our American ideal of fairness, are not mutually exclusive." The Court thus interpreted the Fifth Amendment's due process clause to include an equal protection element. In Lawrence v. Texas the Supreme Court added: "Equality of treatment and the due process right to demand respect for conduct protected by the substantive guarantee of liberty are linked in important respects, and a decision on the latter point advances both interests." When a law or other act of government is challenged as a violation of individual liberty under the due process clause, courts nowadays primarily use two forms of scrutiny, or judicial review, which is used by the Judicial Branch. This inquiry balances the importance of the governmental interest being served and the appropriateness of the government's method of implementation against the resulting infringement of individual rights. If the governmental action infringes upon a fundamental right, the highest level of review—strict scrutiny—is used. To pass strict scrutiny review, the law or act must be narrowly tailored to further a compelling government interest. When the governmental restriction restricts liberty in a manner that does not implicate a fundamental right, rational basis review is used. Here a legitimate government interest is enough to pass this review. There is also a middle level of scrutiny, called intermediate scrutiny, but it is primarily used in Equal Protection cases rather than in Due Process cases. The Court held in 1967 that "we cannot leave to the States the formulation of the authoritative ... remedies designed to protect people from infractions by the States of federally guaranteed rights". Critics of a substantive due process often claim that the doctrine began, at the federal level, with the infamous 1857 slavery case of Dred Scott v. Sandford. However, other critics contend that substantive due process was not used by the federal judiciary until after the Fourteenth Amendment was adopted in 1869. Advocates of a substantive due process who assert that the doctrine was employed in Dred Scott claim that it was employed incorrectly. Additionally, the first appearance of a substantive due process as a concept arguably appeared earlier in the case of Bloomer v. McQuewan, , so that Chief Justice Taney would not have been entirely breaking ground in his Dred Scott opinion when he pronounced the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional because, among other reasons, an "act of Congress that deprived a citizen of his liberty or property merely because he came himself or brought his property into a particular territory of the United States, and who had committed no offence against the laws, could hardly be dignified with the name of due process of law". Dissenting Justice Curtis disagreed with Taney about what "due process" meant in Dred Scott. Criticisms of the doctrine continue as in the past. Critics argue that judges are making determinations of policy and morality that properly belong with legislators (i.e. "legislating from the bench"), or argue that judges are reading views into the Constitution that are not really implied by the document, or argue that judges are claiming the power to expand the liberty of some people at the expense of other people's liberty (e.g. as in the Dred Scott case), or argue that judges are addressing substance instead of process. Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., a realist, worried that the Court was overstepping its boundaries, and the following is from one of his last dissents: Originalists, such as Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas, who rejects substantive due process doctrine, and Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia, who has also questioned the legitimacy of the doctrine, call a substantive due process a "judicial usurpation" or an "oxymoron". Both Scalia and Thomas have occasionally joined Court opinions that mention the doctrine, and have in their dissents often argued over how substantive due process should be employed based on Court precedent. Many non- originalists, like Justice Byron White, have also been critical of a substantive due process. As propounded in his dissents in Moore v. East Cleveland and Roe v. Wade, as well as his majority opinion in Bowers v. Hardwick, White argued that the doctrine of a substantive due process gives the judiciary too much power over the governance of the nation and takes away such power from the elected branches of government. He argued that the fact that the Court has created new substantive rights in the past should not lead it to "repeat the process at will". In his book Democracy and Distrust, non- originalist John Hart Ely criticized "substantive due process" as a glaring non-sequitur. Ely argued the phrase was a contradiction-in-terms, like the phrase green pastel redness. Originalism is usually linked to opposition against substantive due process rights, and the reasons for that can be found in the following explanation that was endorsed unanimously by the Supreme Court in a 1985 case: "[W]e must always bear in mind that the substantive content of the [due process] clause is suggested neither by its language nor by preconstitutional history; that content is nothing more than the accumulated product of judicial interpretation of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments." Originalists do not necessarily oppose protection of the rights heretofore protected using substantive due process; rather, most originalists believe that such rights should be identified and protected through legislation, through passing amendments to the constitution, or via other existing provisions of the Constitution. The perceived scope of the due process clause was originally different than it is today. For instance, even though many of the Framers of the Bill of Rights believed that slavery violated the fundamental natural rights of African-Americans, a "theory that declared slavery to be a violation of the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment ... requires nothing more than a suspension of reason concerning the origin, intent, and past interpretation of the clause". No state or federal constitution in the U.S. had ever before utilized any "due process" wording, prior to 1791 when the federal Bill of Rights was ratified. In New York, a statutory bill of rights was enacted in 1787, and it contained four different due process clauses. Alexander Hamilton commented on the language of that New York bill of rights: "The words 'due process' have a precise technical import, and are only applicable to the process and proceedings of the courts of justice; they can never be referred to an act of the legislature." Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973), was a landmark decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in which the Court ruled that the Constitution of the United States protects a pregnant woman's liberty to choose to have an abortion without excessive government restriction. It struck down many U.S. state and federal abortion laws, and prompted an ongoing national debate in the United States about whether and to what extent abortion should be legal, who should decide the legality of abortion, what methods the Supreme Court should use in constitutional adjudication, and what the role of religious and moral views in the political sphere should be. Roe v. Wade reshaped U.S. politics, dividing much of the United States into pro-life and pro-choice camps, while activating grassroots movements on both sides. The decision involved the case of a woman named Norma McCorveyknown in her lawsuit under the pseudonym "Jane Roe"who in 1969 became pregnant with her third child and wanted an abortion. However, McCorvey lived in Texas, where abortion was illegal except when necessary to save the mother's life. She was referred to lawyers Sarah Weddington and Linda Coffee, who filed a lawsuit on her behalf in U.S. federal court against her local district attorney, Henry Wade, alleging that Texas's abortion laws were unconstitutional. A three-judge panel of the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Texas heard the case and ruled in her favor. Texas then appealed this ruling directly to the U.S. Supreme Court, which agreed to hear the case. In January 1973, the Supreme Court issued a 7–2 decision holding that the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution provides a "right to privacy" that protects a pregnant woman's right to choose whether or not to have an abortion. However, it held that this right is not absolute, and must be balanced against the government's interests in protecting women's health and protecting prenatal life. The Court resolved this balancing test by tying state regulation of abortion to the three trimesters of pregnancy: during the first trimester, governments could not prohibit abortions at all; during the second trimester, governments could require reasonable health regulations; during the third trimester, abortions could be prohibited entirely so long as the laws contained exceptions for cases when they were necessary to save the life or health of the mother. The Court classified the right to choose to have an abortion as "fundamental", which required courts to evaluate challenged abortion laws under the "strict scrutiny" standard, the highest level of judicial review in the United States. Roe was criticized by some in the legal community, and some have called the decision a form of judicial activism. In a prominent Yale Law Journal article published soon after the decision was issued, the legal scholar John Hart Ely criticized Roe as a decision that "is not constitutional law and gives almost no sense of an obligation to try to be." In 1992, the Supreme Court revisited and modified its legal rulings in Roe in the case of Planned Parenthood v. Casey. In Casey, the Court reaffirmed Roe holding that a woman's right to choose to have an abortion is constitutionally protected, but abandoned Roe trimester framework in favor of a standard based on fetal viability, and overruled Roe requirement that government regulations on abortion be subjected to the strict scrutiny standard. According to the Court, "the restrictive criminal abortion laws in effect in a majority of States today are of relatively recent vintage." Providing a historical analysis on abortion, Justice Harry Blackmun noted that abortion was "resorted to without scruple" in Greek and Roman times. Blackmun also addressed the permissive and restrictive abortion attitudes and laws throughout history, noting the disagreements among leaders (of all different professions) in those eras and the formative laws and cases. In the United States, in 1821, Connecticut passed the first state statute criminalizing abortion. Every state had abortion legislation by 1900. In the United States, abortion was sometimes considered a common law crime, though Justice Blackmun would conclude that the criminalization of abortion did not have "roots in the English common-law tradition." Rather than arresting the women having the abortions, legal officials were more likely to interrogate these women to obtain evidence against the abortion provider in order to close down that provider's business. In 1971, Shirley Wheeler was charged with manslaughter after Florida hospital staff reported her illegal abortion to the police. She received a sentence of two years' probation and, under her probation, had to move back into her parents' house in North Carolina. The Boston Women's Abortion Coalition held a rally for Wheeler in Boston to raise money and awareness of her charges as well as had staff members from the Women's National Abortion Action Coalition (WONAAC) speak at the rally. Wheeler was possibly the first woman to be held criminally responsible for submitting to an abortion. Her conviction was overturned by the Florida Supreme Court. In June 1969, 21-year-old Norma McCorvey discovered she was pregnant with her third child. She returned to Dallas, Texas, where friends advised her to assert falsely that she had been raped in order to obtain a legal abortion (with the incorrect assumption that Texas law allowed abortion in cases of rape and incest). This scheme would also fail because there was no police report documenting the alleged rape. In any case, the Texas statute allowed abortion only ”for the purpose of saving the life of the mother”. She attempted to obtain an illegal abortion, but found that the unauthorized facility had been closed down by the police. Eventually, she was referred to attorneys Linda Coffee and Sarah Weddington. McCorvey would end up giving birth before the case was decided, and the child was put up for adoption. In 1970, Coffee and Weddington filed suit in the United States District Court for the Northern District of Texas on behalf of McCorvey (under the alias Jane Roe). The defendant in the case was Dallas County District Attorney Henry Wade, who represented the State of Texas. McCorvey was no longer claiming her pregnancy was a result of rape, and later acknowledged that she had lied about having been raped. "Rape" is not mentioned in the judicial opinions in the case. On June 17, 1970, a three-judge panel of the District Court, consisting of Northern District of Texas Judges Sarah T. Hughes, William McLaughlin Taylor Jr. and Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals Judge Irving Loeb Goldberg, unanimously declared the Texas law unconstitutional, finding that it violated the right to privacy found in the Ninth Amendment. In addition, the court relied on Justice Arthur Goldberg's 1965 concurrence in Griswold v. Connecticut. The court, however, declined to grant an injunction against enforcement of the law. Roe v. Wade reached the Supreme Court on appeal in 1970. The justices delayed taking action on Roe and a closely related case, Doe v. Bolton, until they had decided Younger v. Harris (because they felt the appeals raised difficult questions on judicial jurisdiction) and United States v. Vuitch (in which they considered the constitutionality of a District of Columbia statute that criminalized abortion except where the mother's life or health was endangered). In Vuitch, the Court narrowly upheld the statute, though in doing so, it treated abortion as a medical procedure and stated that physicians must be given room to determine what constitutes a danger to (physical or mental) health. The day after they announced their decision in Vuitch, they voted to hear both Roe and Doe. Arguments were scheduled by the full Court for December 13, 1971. Before the Court could hear the oral arguments, Justices Hugo Black and John Marshall Harlan II retired. Chief Justice Warren Burger asked Justice Potter Stewart and Justice Blackmun to determine whether Roe and Doe, among others, should be heard as scheduled. According to Blackmun, Stewart felt that the cases were a straightforward application of Younger v. Harris, and they recommended that the Court move forward as scheduled. In his opening argument in defense of the abortion restrictions, attorney Jay Floyd made what was later described as the "worst joke in legal history." Appearing against two female lawyers, Floyd began, "Mr. Chief Justice and may it please the Court. It's an old joke, but when a man argues against two beautiful ladies like this, they are going to have the last word." His remark was met with cold silence; one observer thought that Chief Justice Burger "was going to come right off the bench at him. He glared him down." After a first round of arguments, all seven justices tentatively agreed that the Texas law should be struck down, but on varying grounds. Burger assigned the role of writing the Court's opinion in Roe (as well as Doe) to Blackmun, who began drafting a preliminary opinion that emphasized what he saw as the Texas law's vagueness. (At this point, Black and Harlan had been replaced by Justices William Rehnquist and Lewis F. Powell Jr., but they arrived too late to hear the first round of arguments.) But Blackmun felt that his opinion did not adequately reflect his liberal colleagues' views. In May 1972, he proposed that the case be reargued. Justice William O. Douglas threatened to write a dissent from the reargument order (he and the other liberal justices were suspicious that Rehnquist and Powell would vote to uphold the statute), but was coaxed out of the action by his colleagues, and his dissent was merely mentioned in the reargument order without further statement or opinion. The case was reargued on October 11, 1972. Weddington continued to represent Roe, and Texas Assistant Attorney General Robert C. Flowers replaced Jay Floyd for Texas. Blackmun continued to work on his opinions in both cases over the summer recess, even though there was no guarantee that he would be assigned to write them again. Over the recess, he spent a week researching the history of abortion at the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota, where he had worked in the 1950s. After the Court heard the second round of arguments, Powell said he would agree with Blackmun's conclusion but pushed for Roe to be the lead of the two abortion cases being considered. Powell also suggested that the Court strike down the Texas law on privacy grounds. Justice Byron White was unwilling to sign on to Blackmun's opinion, and Rehnquist had already decided to dissent. Prior to the decision, the justices discussed the trimester framework at great length. Justice Powell had suggested that the point where the state could intervene be placed at viability, which Justice Thurgood Marshall supported as well. In an internal memo to the other justices before the majority decision was published, Justice Blackmun wrote: "You will observe that I have concluded that the end of the first trimester is critical. This is arbitrary, but perhaps any other selected point, such as quickening or viability, is equally arbitrary." Roe supporters are quick to point out, however, that the memo only reflects Blackmun's uncertainty about the timing of the trimester framework, not the framework or the holding itself. Contrary to Blackmun, Justice Douglas preferred the first-trimester line. Justice Stewart said the lines were "legislative" and wanted more flexibility and consideration paid to state legislatures, though he joined Blackmun's decision. Justice William J. Brennan Jr. proposed abandoning frameworks based on the age of the fetus and instead allowing states to regulate the procedure based on its safety for the mother. On January 22, 1973, the Supreme Court issued a 7–2 decision in favor of Roe that held that women in the United States have a fundamental right to choose whether or not to have abortions without excessive government restriction, and struck down Texas's abortion ban as unconstitutional. The decision was issued together with a companion case, Doe v. Bolton, that involved a similar challenge to Georgia's abortion laws. Seven justices formed the majority and joined an opinion written by Justice Harry Blackmun. The opinion recited the facts of the case, then dealt with issues of procedure and justiciability before proceeding to the main constitutional issues of the case. Though not often discussed, the Court's opinion first addressed the issues of standing and mootness. Under the traditional interpretation of these rules, Jane Roe's appeal was "moot" because she had already given birth to her child and thus would not be affected by the ruling; she also lacked "standing" to assert the rights of other pregnant women. As she did not present an "actual case or controversy" (a grievance and a demand for relief), any opinion issued by the Supreme Court would constitute an advisory opinion. The Court concluded that the case came within an established exception to the rule: one that allowed consideration of an issue that was "capable of repetition, yet evading review." This phrase had been coined in 1911 by Justice Joseph McKenna in Southern Pacific Terminal Co. v. ICC. Blackmun's opinion quoted McKenna and noted that pregnancy would normally conclude more quickly than an appellate process: "If that termination makes a case moot, pregnancy litigation seldom will survive much beyond the trial stage, and appellate review will be effectively denied." After dealing with justiciability, the Court then proceeded to the main issue of the case: the legality of abortion laws. The opinion began with a historical survey of the status of abortion under the Anglo-American common law and Roman law. It also reviewed the developments of medical procedures and technology to perform abortions, which had only become reliably safe in the early 20th century. With its historical survey as background, the Court introduced the concept of a constitutional "right to privacy" that was intimated in earlier cases involving parental control over childrearing (Meyer v. Nebraska and Pierce v. Society of Sisters) and reproductive autonomy with the use of contraception (Griswold v. Connecticut). Then, "with virtually no further explanation of the privacy value", the Court ruled that regardless of exactly which of its provisions were involved, the U.S. Constitution's guarantees of liberty covered a right to privacy that generally protected a pregnant woman's decision whether or not to abort a pregnancy. The Court reasoned that outlawing abortions would infringe a pregnant woman's right to privacy for several reasons: having unwanted children "may force upon the woman a distressful life and future"; it may bring imminent psychological harm; caring for the child may tax the mother's physical and mental health; and because there may be "distress, for all concerned, associated with the unwanted child." However, after recognizing this right, the Court then rejected the notion that a pregnant woman's right to abort her pregnancy was absolute, holding instead that it must be balanced against certain other government interests. The Court found two government interests that were sufficiently "compelling" to permit states to impose some limitations on the right to choose to have an abortion: first, protecting the mother's health; second, protecting the life of the fetus. The state of Texas had argued that total bans on abortion were justifiable because "life" begins at the moment of conception, and therefore its governmental interest in protecting prenatal life applied to all pregnancies regardless of their stage. But the Court found that there was no indication that the Constitution's uses of the word "person" were meant to include fetuses, and so it rejected Texas's argument that a fetus should be considered a "person" with a legal and constitutional right to life. It noted that there was still great disagreement over when an unborn fetus becomes a living being. The Court settled on the three trimesters of pregnancy as the framework to resolve the problem. During the first trimester, when it was believed that the procedure was safer than childbirth, the Court ruled that the government could place no restriction on a woman's ability to choose to abort a pregnancy other than minimal medical safeguards such as requiring a licensed physician to perform the procedure. From the second trimester on, the Court ruled that evidence of increasing risks to the mother's health gave the state a compelling interest, and that it could enact medical regulations on the procedure so long as they were reasonable and "narrowly tailored" to protecting mothers' health. Since the beginning of the third trimester was normally considered to be the point at which a fetus became viable under the level of medical science available in the early 1970s, the Court ruled that during the third trimester the state had a compelling interest in protecting prenatal life, and could legally prohibit all abortions except where necessary to protect the mother's life or health. The Court concluded that Texas's abortion statutes were unconstitutional, and struck them down: "A state criminal abortion statute of the current Texas type, that excepts from criminality only a life-saving procedure on behalf of the mother, without regard to pregnancy stage and without recognition of the other interests involved, is violative of the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment." Several other members of the Supreme Court filed concurring opinions in the case. Justice Potter Stewart wrote a concurring opinion in which he stated that even though the Constitution makes no mention of the right to choose to have an abortion without interference, he thought the Court's decision was a permissible interpretation of the doctrine of substantive due process, which says that the Due Process Clause protection of liberty extends beyond simple procedures and protects certain fundamental rights. Justice William O. Douglas wrote a concurring opinion in which he described how he believed that while the Court was correct to find that the right to choose to have an abortion was a fundamental right, it would be better to derive it from the Ninth Amendmentwhich states that the fact that a right is not specifically enumerated in the Constitution shall not be construed to mean that American people do not possess itrather than through the Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process Clause. Chief Justice Warren Burger wrote a concurrence in which he wrote that he thought it would be permissible to allow a state to require two physicians to certify an abortion before it could be performed. Justices Byron White and William Rehnquist dissented from the Court's decision, and their dissents touched on the points that would lead to later criticism of the Roe decision. White's dissent was issued with Roe companion case, Doe v. Bolton, and describes his belief that the Court had no basis for deciding between the competing values of pregnant women and unborn children. He believed that the issue of the legality of abortion should "be left with the people and the political processes the people have devised to govern their affairs." Rehnquist's dissent compared the majority's use of substantive due process to the Court's repudiated use of the doctrine in the 1905 case Lochner v. New York. He elaborated on several of White's points, asserting that the Court's historical analysis was flawed: From this historical record, Rehnquist concluded, "There apparently was no question concerning the validity of this provision or of any of the other state statutes when the Fourteenth Amendment was adopted." Therefore, in his view, "the drafters did not intend to have the Fourteenth Amendment withdraw from the States the power to legislate with respect to this matter." A statistical evaluation of the relationship of political affiliation to pro- choice and anti-abortion issues shows that public opinion is much more nuanced about when abortion is acceptable than is commonly assumed. The most prominent organized groups that mobilized in response to Roe are the National Abortion Rights Action League and the National Right to Life Committee. Advocates of Roe describe it as vital to the preservation of women's rights, personal freedom, bodily integrity, and privacy. Advocates have also reasoned that access to safe abortion and reproductive freedom generally are fundamental rights. Some scholars (not including any member of the Supreme Court) have equated the denial of abortion rights to compulsory motherhood, and have argued that abortion bans therefore violate the Thirteenth Amendment: Supporters of Roe contend that the decision has a valid constitutional foundation in the Fourteenth Amendment, or that the fundamental right to abortion is found elsewhere in the Constitution but not in the articles referenced in the decision. Every year, on the anniversary of the decision, opponents of abortion march up Constitution Avenue to the Supreme Court Building in Washington, D.C., in the March for Life. Around 250,000 people attended the march until 2010. Estimates put the 2011 and 2012 attendances at 400,000 each, and the 2013 March for Life drew an estimated 650,000 people. Opponents of Roe assert that the decision lacks a valid constitutional foundation. Like the dissenters in Roe, they maintain that the Constitution is silent on the issue, and that proper solutions to the question would best be found via state legislatures and the legislative process, rather than through an all-encompassing ruling from the Supreme Court. A prominent argument against the Roe decision is that, in the absence of consensus about when meaningful life begins, it is best to avoid the risk of doing harm. In response to Roe v. Wade, most states enacted or attempted to enact laws limiting or regulating abortion, such as laws requiring parental consent or parental notification for minors to obtain abortions; spousal mutual consent laws; spousal notification laws; laws requiring abortions to be performed in hospitals, not clinics; laws barring state funding for abortions; laws banning intact dilation and extraction, also known as partial-birth abortion; laws requiring waiting periods before abortions; and laws mandating that women read certain types of literature and watch a fetal ultrasound before undergoing an abortion. In 1976, Congress passed the Hyde Amendment, barring federal funding of abortions (except in cases of rape, incest, or a threat to the life of the mother) for poor women through the Medicaid program. The Supreme Court struck down some state restrictions in a long series of cases stretching from the mid-1970s to the late 1980s, but upheld restrictions on funding, including the Hyde Amendment, in the case of Harris v. McRae (1980). Some opponents of abortion maintain that personhood begins at fertilization or conception, and should therefore be protected by the Constitution; the dissenting justices in Roe instead wrote that decisions about abortion "should be left with the people and to the political processes the people have devised to govern their affairs." Perhaps the most notable opposition to Roe comes from Roe herself: In 1995, Norma L. McCorvey revealed that she had become pro-life, and from then until her death in 2017, she was a vocal opponent of abortion. Justice Blackmun, who authored the Roe decision, stood by the analytical framework he established in Roe throughout his career. Despite his initial reluctance, he became the decision's chief champion and protector during his later years on the Court. Liberal and feminist legal scholars have had various reactions to Roe, not always giving the decision unqualified support. One argument is that Justice Blackmun reached the correct result but went about it the wrong way. Another is that the end achieved by Roe does not justify its means of judicial fiat. Justice John Paul Stevens, while agreeing with the decision, has suggested that it should have been more narrowly focused on the issue of privacy. According to Stevens, if the decision had avoided the trimester framework and simply stated that the right to privacy included a right to choose abortion, "it might have been much more acceptable" from a legal standpoint. Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg had, before joining the Court, criticized the decision for ending a nascent movement to liberalize abortion law through legislation. Ginsburg has also faulted the Court's approach for being "about a doctor's freedom to practice his profession as he thinks best... It wasn't woman-centered. It was physician-centered." Watergate prosecutor Archibald Cox wrote: "[Roes] failure to confront the issue in principled terms leaves the opinion to read like a set of hospital rules and regulations... Neither historian, nor layman, nor lawyer will be persuaded that all the prescriptions of Justice Blackmun are part of the Constitution." In a highly cited Yale Law Journal article published in the months after the decision, the American legal scholar John Hart Ely strongly criticized Roe as a decision that was disconnected from American constitutional law. Professor Laurence Tribe had similar thoughts: "One of the most curious things about Roe is that, behind its own verbal smokescreen, the substantive judgment on which it rests is nowhere to be found." Liberal law professors Alan Dershowitz, Cass Sunstein, and Kermit Roosevelt have also expressed disappointment with Roe v. Wade. Jeffrey Rosen and Michael Kinsley echo Ginsburg, arguing that a legislative movement would have been the correct way to build a more durable consensus in support of abortion rights. William Saletan wrote, "Blackmun's [Supreme Court] papers vindicate every indictment of Roe: invention, overreach, arbitrariness, textual indifference." Benjamin Wittes has written that Roe "disenfranchised millions of conservatives on an issue about which they care deeply." And Edward Lazarus, a former Blackmun clerk who "loved Roes author like a grandfather," wrote: "As a matter of constitutional interpretation and judicial method, Roe borders on the indefensible... Justice Blackmun's opinion provides essentially no reasoning in support of its holding. And in the almost 30 years since Roe's announcement, no one has produced a convincing defense of Roe on its own terms." The assertion that the Supreme Court was making a legislative decision is often repeated by opponents of the ruling. The "viability" criterion is still in effect, although the point of viability has changed as medical science has found ways to help premature babies survive. Americans have been equally divided on the issue; a May 2018 Gallup poll indicated that 48% of Americans described themselves as pro-choice and 48% described themselves as pro-life. A July 2018 poll indicated that only 28% of Americans wanted the Supreme Court to overturn Roe vs. Wade, while 64% did not want the ruling to be overturned. A Gallup poll conducted in May 2009 indicated that 53% of Americans believed that abortions should be legal under certain circumstances, 23% believed abortion should be legal under any circumstances, and 22% believed that abortion should be illegal in all circumstances. However, in this poll, more Americans referred to themselves as "Pro-Life" than "Pro-Choice" for the first time since the poll asked the question in 1995, with 51% identifying as "Pro-Life" and 42% identifying as "Pro-Choice". Similarly, an April 2009 Pew Research Center poll showed a softening of support for legal abortion in all cases compared to the previous years of polling. People who said they support abortion in all or most cases dropped from 54% in 2008 to 46% in 2009. In contrast, an October 2007 Harris poll on Roe v. Wade asked the following question: In reply, 56% of respondents indicated favour while 40% indicated opposition. The Harris organization concluded from this poll that "56 percent now favours the U.S. Supreme Court decision." Anti-abortion activists have disputed whether the Harris poll question is a valid measure of public opinion about Roes overall decision, because the question focuses only on the first three months of pregnancy. The Harris poll has tracked public opinion about Roe since 1973: Regarding the Roe decision as a whole, more Americans support it than support overturning it. When pollsters describe various regulations that Roe prevents legislatures from enacting, support for Roe drops. Opposition to Roe on the bench grew when President Reagan, who supported legislative restrictions on abortion, began making federal judicial appointments in 1981. Reagan denied that there was any litmus test: "I have never given a litmus test to anyone that I have appointed to the bench…. I feel very strongly about those social issues, but I also place my confidence in the fact that the one thing that I do seek are judges that will interpret the law and not write the law. We've had too many examples in recent years of courts and judges legislating." In addition to White and Rehnquist, Reagan appointee Sandra Day O'Connor began dissenting from the Court's abortion cases, arguing in 1983 that the trimester-based analysis devised by the Roe Court was "unworkable." Shortly before his retirement from the bench, Chief Justice Warren Burger suggested in 1986 that Roe be "reexamined"; the associate justice who filled Burger's place on the Court – Justice Antonin Scalia – vigorously opposed Roe. Concern about overturning Roe played a major role in the defeat of Robert Bork's nomination to the Court in 1987; the man eventually appointed to replace Roe-supporter Lewis Powell was Anthony Kennedy. The Supreme Court of Canada used the rulings in both Roe and Doe v. Bolton as grounds to find Canada's federal law restricting access to abortions unconstitutional. That Canadian case, R. v. Morgentaler, was decided in 1988. In a 5–4 decision in 1989's Webster v. Reproductive Health Services, Chief Justice Rehnquist, writing for the Court, declined to explicitly overrule Roe, because "none of the challenged provisions of the Missouri Act properly before us conflict with the Constitution." In this case, the Court upheld several abortion restrictions, and modified the Roe trimester framework. In concurring opinions, O'Connor refused to reconsider Roe, and Justice Antonin Scalia criticized the Court and O'Connor for not overruling Roe. Blackmun – author of the Roe decision – stated in his dissent that White, Kennedy and Rehnquist were "callous" and "deceptive," that they deserved to be charged with "cowardice and illegitimacy," and that their plurality opinion "foments disregard for the law." White had recently opined that the majority reasoning in Roe v. Wade was "warped." During initial deliberations for Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992), an initial majority of five Justices (Rehnquist, White, Scalia, Kennedy, and Thomas) were willing to effectively overturn Roe. Kennedy changed his mind after the initial conference, and O'Connor, Kennedy, and Souter joined Blackmun and Stevens to reaffirm the central holding of Roe, saying, "Our law affords constitutional protection to personal decisions relating to marriage, procreation, contraception, family relationships, child rearing, and education. [...] These matters, involving the most intimate and personal choices a person may make in a lifetime, choices central to personal dignity and autonomy, are central to the liberty protected by the Fourteenth Amendment. At the heart of liberty is the right to define one's own concept of existence, of meaning, of the universe, and of the mystery of human life." Only Justice Blackmun would have retained Roe entirely and struck down all aspects of the statute at issue in Casey. Scalia's dissent acknowledged that abortion rights are of "great importance to many women", but asserted that it is not a liberty protected by the Constitution, because the Constitution does not mention it, and because longstanding traditions have permitted it to be legally proscribed. Scalia concluded: "[B]y foreclosing all democratic outlet for the deep passions this issue arouses, by banishing the issue from the political forum that gives all participants, even the losers, the satisfaction of a fair hearing and an honest fight, by continuing the imposition of a rigid national rule instead of allowing for regional differences, the Court merely prolongs and intensifies the anguish." During the 1990s, the state of Nebraska attempted to ban a certain second- trimester abortion procedure known as intact dilation and extraction (sometimes called partial birth abortion). The Nebraska ban allowed other second-trimester abortion procedures called dilation and evacuation abortions. Ginsburg (who replaced White) stated, "this law does not save any fetus from destruction, for it targets only 'a method of performing abortion'." The Supreme Court struck down the Nebraska ban by a 5–4 vote in Stenberg v. Carhart (2000), citing a right to use the safest method of second trimester abortion. Kennedy, who had co-authored the 5–4 Casey decision upholding Roe, was among the dissenters in Stenberg, writing that Nebraska had done nothing unconstitutional. In his dissent, Kennedy described the second trimester abortion procedure that Nebraska was not seeking to prohibit, and thus argued that since this dilation and evacuation procedure remained available in Nebraska, the state was free to ban the other procedure sometimes called "partial birth abortion." The remaining three dissenters in Stenberg – Rehnquist, Scalia, and Thomas – disagreed again with Roe: "Although a State may permit abortion, nothing in the Constitution dictates that a State must do so." In 2003, Congress passed the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act, which led to a lawsuit in the case of Gonzales v. Carhart. The Court had previously ruled in Stenberg v. Carhart that a state's ban on "partial birth abortion" was unconstitutional because such a ban did not have an exception for the health of the woman. The membership of the Court changed after Stenberg, with John Roberts and Samuel Alito replacing Rehnquist and O'Connor, respectively. The ban at issue in Gonzales v. Carhart was a federal statute, rather than a state statute as in the Stenberg case, but was otherwise nearly identical to Stenberg, replicating its vague description of partial-birth abortion and making no exception for the consideration of the woman's health. On April 18, 2007, the Supreme Court handed down a 5 to 4 decision upholding the constitutionality of the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act. Kennedy wrote the majority opinion, asserting that Congress was within its power to generally ban the procedure, although the Court left the door open for as-applied challenges. Kennedy's opinion did not reach the question of whether the Court's prior decisions in Roe v. Wade, Planned Parenthood v. Casey, and Stenberg v. Carhart remained valid, and instead the Court stated that the challenged statute remained consistent with those past decisions whether or not those decisions remained valid. Chief Justice John Roberts, Scalia, Thomas, and Alito joined the majority. Justices Ginsburg, joined by Stevens, Souter, and Breyer, dissented, contending that the ruling ignored Supreme Court abortion precedent, and also offering an equality-based justification for abortion precedent. Thomas filed a concurring opinion, joined by Scalia, contending that the Court's prior decisions in Roe v. Wade and Planned Parenthood v. Casey should be reversed. They also noted that the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act may exceeded the powers of Congress under the Commerce Clause but that the question was not raised before the court. In the case of Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt, the most significant abortion rights case before the Supreme Court since Planned Parenthood v. Casey in 1992, the Supreme Court in a 5–3 decision on June 27, 2016, swept away forms of state restrictions on the way abortion clinics can function. The Texas legislature enacted in 2013 restrictions on the delivery of abortions services that created an undue burden for women seeking an abortion by requiring abortion doctors to have difficult-to-obtain "admitting privileges" at a local hospital and by requiring clinics to have costly hospital-grade facilities. The Court struck down these two provisions "facially" from the law at issue – that is, the very words of the provisions were invalid, no matter how they might be applied in any practical situation. According to the Supreme Court the task of judging whether a law puts an unconstitutional burden on a woman's right to abortion belongs with the courts and not the legislatures. Norma McCorvey became a member of the anti-abortion movement in 1995; she supported making abortion illegal until her death in 2017. In 1998, she testified to Congress: As a party to the original litigation, she sought to reopen the case in U.S. District Court in Texas to have Roe v. Wade overturned. However, the Fifth Circuit decided that her case was moot, in McCorvey v. Hill. In a concurring opinion, Judge Edith Jones agreed that McCorvey was raising legitimate questions about emotional and other harm suffered by women who have had abortions, about increased resources available for the care of unwanted children, and about new scientific understanding of fetal development. However, Jones said she was compelled to agree that the case was moot. On February 22, 2005, the Supreme Court refused to grant a writ of certiorari, and McCorvey's appeal ended. After arguing before the Court in Roe v. Wade at the age of 26, Sarah Weddington went on to be a representative in the Texas House of Representatives for three terms. Weddington has also had a long and successful career as General Counsel for the United States Department of Agriculture, Assistant to President Jimmy Carter, lecturer at Texas Wesleyan University, and speaker and adjunct professor at the University of Texas at Austin. President Richard Nixon did not publicly comment about the decision. In private conversation later revealed as part of the Nixon tapes, Nixon said "There are times when an abortion is necessary... ." However, Nixon was also concerned that greater access to abortions would foster "permissiveness," and said that "it breaks the family." Generally, presidential opinion has been split between major party lines. The Roe decision was opposed by Presidents Gerald Ford, Ronald Reagan, and George W. Bush. President George H.W. Bush also opposed Roe, though he had supported abortion rights earlier in his career. President Jimmy Carter supported legal abortion from an early point in his political career, in order to prevent birth defects and in other extreme cases; he encouraged the outcome in Roe and generally supported abortion rights. Roe was also supported by President Bill Clinton. President Barack Obama has taken the position that "Abortions should be legally available in accordance with Roe v. Wade." President Donald Trump has publicly opposed the decision, vowing to appoint pro-life justices to the Supreme Court. Upon Justice Kennedy's retirement in 2018, Trump nominated Brett Kavanaugh to replace him, and he was confirmed by the Senate in October 2018. A central point of Kavanaugh's appointment hearings was his stance on Roe v. Wade, of which he said to Senator Susan Collins that he would not "overturn a long- established precedent if five current justices believed that it was wrongly decided". Despite Kavanaugh's statement, there is concern that with the Supreme Court having a strong conservative majority, that Roe v. Wade will be overturned given an appropriate case to challenge it. Further concerns were raised following the May 2019 Supreme Court 5-4 decision along ideological lines in Franchise Tax Board of California v. Hyatt. While the case had nothing to do with abortion rights, the decision overturned a previous 1979 decision from Nevada v. Hall without maintaining the stare decisis precedent, indicating the current Court makeup would be willing to apply the same to overturn Roe v. Wade. Pro-abortion organizations like Planned Parenthood are planning on how they will operate should Roe v. Wade be overturned. Several states have enacted so-called trigger laws which would take effect in the event that Roe v. Wade is overturned, with the effect of outlawing abortions on the state level. Those states include Arkansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Dakota and South Dakota. Additionally, many states did not repeal pre-1973 statutes that criminalized abortion, and some of those statutes could again be in force if Roe were reversed. Other states have passed laws to maintain the legality of abortion if Roe v. Wade is overturned. Those states include California, Connecticut, Hawaii, Maine, Maryland, Nevada and Washington. The Mississippi Legislature has attempted to make abortion unfeasible without having to overturn Roe v. Wade. The Mississippi law as of 2012 was being challenged in federal courts and was temporarily blocked. Alabama House Republicans passed a law on April 30, 2019 that will criminalize abortion if it goes into effect. It offers only two exceptions: serious health risk to the mother or a lethal fetal anomaly. Alabama governor Kay Ivey signed the bill into law on May 14, primarily as a symbolic gesture in hopes of challenging Roe v. Wade in the Supreme Court. According to a 2019 study, if Roe v. Wade is reversed and abortion bans are implemented in trigger law states and states considered highly likely to ban abortion, the increases in travel distance are estimated to prevent 93,546 to 143,561 women from accessing abortion care. List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 410 The concurring opinions of Burger and Douglas, as well as White's dissenting opinion, were issued along with Doe v. Bolton and may be found at:, Cornell LLI, Audio of oral argument at www.oyez.org, Summary of Roe v. Wade at Lawnix.com, Major Decisions – Roe v Wade, "Supreme Court Landmark Case Roe v. Wade" from C-SPAN's

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The Canberra Times is a daily newspaper in Canberra, Australia, which is published by Australian Community Media, formerly part of Fairfax Media. The Canberra Times was launched in 1926 by Thomas Shakespeare along with his oldest son Arthur Shakespeare and two younger sons Christopher and James. The newspaper's headquarters were originally located in the Civic retail precinct, in Cooyong Street and Mort Street, in blocks bought by Thomas Shakespeare in the first sale of Canberra leases in 1924. The newspaper's first issue was published on 3 September 1926. It was the second paper to be printed in the city, the first being The Federal Capital Pioneer. Between September 1926 and February 1928, the newspaper was a weekly issue. The first daily issue was 28 February 1928. In June 1956, The Canberra Times converted from broadsheet to tabloid format. Arthur Shakespeare sold the paper to John Fairfax Ltd in 1964, on the condition that it continue to advocate for Canberra. Soon after, in July 1964, the format was switched back to broadsheet and printing was moved to Fairfax's newly installed press in Fyshwick. Offices remained open in the civic retail precinct until April 1987 when The Canberra Times moved its entire operation to the new office of The Federal Capital Press of Australia, also in Fyshwick. The paper was later sold to Publishing and Broadcasting Limited, which in turn sold it to Kerry Stokes in 1989 for $110 million. Rural Press Limited bought the paper from Stokes in 1998 for $160 million. The Times rejoined the Fairfax stable in 2007 when Rural Press merged with Fairfax. The paper first went online on 31 March 1997. In 2008, The Canberra Times printed a formal apology after the paper published an essay in which Irfan Yusuf falsely accused American historian Daniel Pipes of suggesting that Muslims deserved to be slaughtered as Jews were during the Holocaust. On 17 October 2008, The Canberra Times was distributed with a sticker advertising the ACT Labor Party on the front page. Complaints about the sticker prompted the general manager, Ken Nichols, to issue an explanation. In October 2013, Fairfax Media announced that The Canberra Times would be restructured to join the Australian Community Media Group of regional, agricultural and community newspapers, shifting from the metropolitan news division of Fairfax. A new editorial leadership team was appointed in November 2015, with Grant Newton as editor of the newspaper and Scott Hannaford as deputy editor and news director. In March 2016, staff at the newspaper were told there would be a restructure at The Canberra Times and that the paper would move from a broadsheet format to a tabloid. Fairfax Media also announced they would be cutting 12 jobs from the newspaper's staff. The paper's editors have included Jack Waterford and Michelle Grattan (1993–95), the first female editor of a metropolitan daily newspaper in Australia. A recent editor-in-chief, Peter Fray, left in January 2009 to edit The Sydney Morning Herald. He was succeeded by Rod Quinn, who announced the formation of a new senior editorial team in 2012. Editorial cartoonists have included Geoff Pryor, David Pope and Pat Campbell. List of newspapers in Australia The Canberra Times John Edward O'Brien Waterford AM (born 12 February 1952), better known as Jack Waterford, is an Australian journalist and commentator. He has a long affiliation with The Canberra Times. Waterford graduated in law from the Australian National University. He began his journalism career as a cadet with The Canberra Times in 1972, covering a broad range of rounds before being appointed Deputy Editor in 1987, Editor in 1995, and Editor-in-Chief in 2001. Waterford is well known for his investigative journalism using Freedom of Information legislation and for his work and advocacy on indigenous health issues and on the national trachoma and eye health program. He has delivered papers at many public forums and written book chapters on areas as diverse as press freedom, the High Court of Australia, public administration and the Petrov Affair. He was appointed to a Jefferson Fellowship at the East–West Center in 1987. He is a board member of the Asia Pacific Journalism Centre. Waterford faced criticism when the then Chief Police Officer for the Australian Capital Territory (ACT), Audrey Fagan, killed herself two weeks after he wrote an editorial criticising the Australian Federal Police and their media management practices. Waterford received the Graham Perkin Australian Journalist of the Year Award in 1985. He was named a Member of the Order of Australia (AM) in the 2007 Australia Day Honours, "for service to journalism, particularly as a commentator on national politics, the law, to raising debate on ethical issues and public sector accountability, and to the community in the area of Indigenous affairs". In March 2007, Waterford was named Canberra Citizen of the Year. Presenting the award, ACT Chief Minister Jon Stanhope said Waterford was a champion of many causes and a leading figure in his trade. Lawrence Pickering (18 October 1942 – 19 November 2018) was an Australian political cartoonist, caricaturist, and illustrator of books and calendars. The winner of four Walkley Awards for his work, Pickering largely retired from political cartooning in the 1980s but returned to the field in 2011. Pickering was born in Australia on 18 October 1942. Initially employed as a proofreader, Pickering was able to gain the attention of John Allan, the editor of The Canberra Times. Allan gave Pickering the opportunity to work for the paper as a political cartoonist, and Pickering's early work coincided with the Whitlam and Fraser governments. It was at this time his first book of cartoons, The Hansard Papers, written by Reuters Economic Services Canberra correspondent Michael Guy and illustrated by Pickering was published and went to No. 1 on the Australian bestseller lists. Pickering was awarded two Walkley Awards with The Canberra Times for his work, one in 1971 and a second the following year in 1972. Pickering went on to win the award a further two times, in 1973 with The National Times, and in 1974 with The Sydney Morning Herald. In 1976, Pickering moved to The Australian, where his "Jungle Series" was featured in the newspaper's weekend edition. He remained with The Australian for five years, before largely retiring from political cartooning in 1981 – although he continued to publish the "Pickering’s Playmates" calendars, and some of his work continued to appear in The Bulletin. For the next thirty years Pickering focused on other pursuits, such as training racehorses and growing tomatoes, but in 2011 he returned to political cartooning. Publishing his cartoons online, Pickering became involved in political commentary through his blog "The Pickering Post," where he ran a series of posts in 2012 attacking Prime Minister Julia Gillard over the AWU affair. Gillard responded by referring to the website as "vile and sexist", and described Pickering as a "misogynist". In 2010, Pickering was made an undischarged bankrupt on petition from the father of his former de facto, but in reply denied he owed any money and stated his "only asset is a $250 set of golf clubs". Pickering acknowledged he helped establish Cohen Strachan Investments, a betting software company which went into bankruptcy in 2010 with millions of dollars lost by gamblers. Pickering stated that he "feels sorry for people who lost money" but that he "had nothing to do" with the company. A private investigator employed by the gamblers presented a report to the Queensland Police and the Australian Securities and Investments Commission claiming ongoing links between the companies and Pickering, a claim he denied. In November 2015, Queensland Fraud Squad detectives reopened the investigation into Pickering's involvement in Cohen Strachan Investments. It was reported that police had interviewed him at his Gold Coast home. The Supreme Court of Queensland found that Pickering derived "significant financial benefits" from Hamlyn Crest, the Australian distributor of the betting software, and that his denial of involvement in the management of the company was "thoroughly implausible". On 10 February 2017, at a speech for the far-right Q Society, Pickering denounced Muslims and homosexuals, saying "I can't stand Muslims. If they are in the same street as me, I start shaking. They are not all bad [because] they do chuck pillow- biters off buildings." Pickering lived on the Gold Coast, Queensland. He had eleven children. Pickering, a smoker, had lung cancer and had most of one lung removed in January 2016. After the operation, his doctors told him that he would be 'unlikely to survive to the end of 2016'. By 2018 Pickering was still posting on his blog, The Pickering Post. Pickering died on the evening of 19 November 2018 at an Arundel Hospital, aged 76, with his wife and family at his side. Pickering, Larry (1973) The best of Pickering: a collection of some of the best cartoons of Larry Pickering, Australia's most popular and successful political cartoonist, Federal Capital Press, Canberra., Pickering, Larry (1976) It's Pickering's best, Pickering Promotions Ltd, Gosford, NSW., Pickering, Larry (1980) A decade of Pickering, HEL Productions, Milsons Point, NSW. The Pickering Post

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Pretty Little Liars is an American teen drama television series created by I. Marlene King for Freeform. It is based on Sara Shepard's novel series of the same name. Below is a list consisting of the many characters who have appeared throughout the series' seven-season run. The following table contains an overall look on the main, recurring and guest characters. The recurring and guest characters, marked in red and blue, respectively, have appeared in more than five episodes in the respective season they are pointed out. The main characters, marked in green, are those whose portrayer has had received ensemble cast billing in at least one episode in the season they are denoted. Notes The following list features characters that are considered fundamental to the series' storylines, consisting of the central group deemed as "the Liars" and the main antagonist "A." Considered the "de facto leader" of the group, Spencer Hastings, portrayed by Troian Bellisario, is intelligent, extremely ambitious, and strives for perfection in everything she does in an attempt to live up to the high expectations of her parents. Spencer's biggest rival is her older sister, Melissa, and the two are constantly fighting over something. Their relationship is often strained by the fact that Spencer has a habit of crushing on Melissa's boyfriends. In the first season, she begins a relationship with fellow student and strained Rosewood student Toby Cavanaugh. Throughout the series, Spencer is revealed to be the biological daughter of Mary Drake and the sister of Charlotte Drake. Considered the "alternative" one of the group, Aria Montgomery, portrayed by Lucy Hale, is more outgoing in fashion and what she sees as acceptable behavior. She moves back to Rosewood with her family after living in Iceland for a year. Before Alison's death, she and Alison discovered that Aria's father was having an affair with one of his former students, Meredith, who became his coworker at Hollis College. Alison encourages Aria to tell her mother the truth, but instead, Aria reluctantly agrees to keep her father's secret. On top of that, she finds herself involved with her high school English teacher, Ezra Fitz, after making out with him in a pub bathroom and discovering he was her English teacher on the first day of school. Pretty and fierce, Hanna Marin, portrayed by Ashley Benson, is the diva and "it girl" of the group, having taken Alison's place as the most popular girl at Rosewood High. Prior to Alison's death, Hanna suffered from bulimia, which Alison frequently teased her over. Since her parents divorced, Hanna permanently lives with her mother. She feels betrayed by her father, who has remarried, and she does not get along well with his new wife and daughter. When Hanna's mother falls upon financial hardship, she steals thousands of dollars from the bank she worked at, which Hanna is forced to keep a secret. The "jock" of the group, Emily Fields, portrayed by Shay Mitchell, is a highly competitive swimmer, considered the star of Rosewood's swimming team. She is shown as a sweet and shy young. For a short time, Emily lives with Hanna, after her mother moves to Texas to live with Emily's father, who is stationed in Fort Hood. She begins to question her sexuality because of her feeling for Alison, but later accepts the fact that she is a lesbian and starts to date girls. She eventually begins a relationship with Sara Harvey, until she discovers that she is an ally of the antagonist. The former "queen bee" of her clique, Alison DiLaurentis, portrayed by Sasha Pieterse, used to be the most popular girl in school before her disappearance and alleged death. Although she cared for her friends, she enjoyed using their deepest secrets against them to keep them in line. Charming and manipulative, Alison was skilled at finding ways to blackmail everyone, and many people hated her. She knew everybody's secrets, but since she's been gone her friends are beginning to realize how little they really knew about her. She is revealed to be alive and on the run from "A." A former "unpopular" girl at Rosewood, Mona Vanderwaal, portrayed by Janel Parrish, longed to be accepted into Alison's group and was continuously mocked by her. After Alison's disappearance, Mona befriended Hanna and they underwent an "extreme makeover" together; as a result, they both became popular students. When "A" appears, Mona becomes jealous of Hanna rekindling her friendships with the other Liars. She dislikes Caleb and makes attempts to break Hanna and Caleb up, though to no avail. She becomes romantically involved with Noel, much to Hanna's disapproval, but is later dumped by him for Jenna. When "A" begins sending Mona threatening notes, she grows closer to the Liars. In the second-season finale, she is in fact revealed to actually be "A" when she and Spencer travel to the Lost Woods Resort to uncover "A"'s lair. She is committed to a mental institution, Radley, after being diagnosed with borderline personality disorder. The main antagonist, "A" is stalking and torturing the Liars in relentless and creative ways and also threatens their friends and family. In the second- season finale, it is revealed that Mona is "A". She is also the one who stalked Alison before her disappearance. However, when she is sent to Radley sanitarium, she is visited by CeCe Drake, who offers her a partnership and takes over the team of "A's", known as the A-Team. The team consists of Mona, Toby, Spencer, Sara, Lucas, Melissa, Wilden, Jenna, Noel, and Wren. Five years later, Alex Drake takes over and becomes Uber A, known as "A.D.", and forms the A.D. Team, consisting of Jenna, Sydney, Aria, Wren, Mona, and Mary. The following characters are all family members and acquaintances of Aria Montgomery, one of the protagonists of the series. Ella Montgomery (Holly Marie Combs) (seasons 1 – 7) is Aria's mother, as well as a teacher at Rosewood High. Ella believes in treating her children as friends, not as property. She has mentioned that she doesn't want to push into Aria's private life, and she thinks that Aria should be allowed to keep secrets. Ella was unaware of her husband's affair with a student until "A" sent her a letter. After asking Byron to move out, and his refusal, she left the home. Eventually, Aria found out her parents were secretly getting back together, and Ella decides to move back in. When her son, Mike, is depressed, she doesn't feel he needs medication, and remains somewhat in denial about his illness. She finally receives her wake-up call when he attacks her in his bedroom. When Ella found out Aria was dating Ezra, she was angry, but she believed Aria when she said she had broken it off, and tried to win her back her freedom, which Byron didn't think she deserved. Later, she finds out that Aria and Ezra are still together, and decides she is going to try to understand their relationship. Ella is aware of A, and tries to send Aria to a boarding school to get away. Aria is furious, and blackmails her mother into not going through with it. Ella tearfully tells Aria how ashamed she is, and how she doesn't know how to save their relationship. In season 3, she and Byron have divorced and Ella tries to move on with her life not knowing how. Aria creates a profile for her on a dating website under the nickname "Hot Mamma." Ella is furious at Aria but later she likes the idea and starts dating again. She befriends and starts dating the owner of the brew who is much younger than her. In season 4, she leaves Rosewood so she can go live with her boyfriend in Europe but returns at the end of season 4., Byron Montgomery (Chad Lowe) (seasons 1 – 7) is Aria's father and a history professor at Hollis College. He asked Aria to keep his affair with a student, Meredith, a secret after Aria witnessed them kissing. Regretting the affair and wanting them to be a family again, Byron moves the family to Iceland for a year as a sabbatical. The relationship between Byron and Ella becomes strained after A sends her a letter revealing Byron's affair. After spending some time apart, Ella and Byron slowly begin to rebuild their relationship. When Mike becomes depressed, Byron reveals that his brother Scott, who committed suicide, also suffered from mental illness; Byron feels guilty for not doing anything to help his brother. Byron finds out that Ezra is involved in a relationship with Aria after they tell him and Ella and is furious about it. In an effort to get Ezra away from Aria, Byron recommends him for a job in New Orleans. He also plots to send Aria to an all girls boarding school in Vermont. When Aria threatens to reveal his affair to his boss, he backs off from her but gets Ezra fired from Hollis. In season 3, Byron and Ella have divorced and Ella has moved out of the house. Byron starts seeing Meredith again. He informs Aria that Meredith got a job at Rosewood High, were Aria attends and Ella teaches. In the Halloween episode, it is revealed by Garrett that Byron may have seen Alison on the night she died. Alison told him,"you know what I'm capable of!", Mike Montgomery (Cody Christian) (seasons 1–2, 4–6) is Aria's younger brother. A lacrosse player, he suffers from a mental illness, which causes him to burst into fits of anger and later leads him to break into people's houses for fun, before he begins to shut down emotionally and withdraw completely from his family. He blames Aria for the trouble between their parents. Mike accidentally discovered that Jenna and Garrett knew each other when he stole a pot made Jenna from Garrett's house. Mike reveals to Aria that the only reason he punched Ezra was because after Ezra and Aria announced they are a couple, he feared what Byron would have done to hurt Ezra judging by the look on his face and thought, "better I do it, than him." Throughout the rest of the series he appears to have improved after going to a therapist. It does not tell when or if he was still seeing his therapist. He seemed to forgive Aria and their relationship is better. He stopped being rebellious and more focused of his family's problems and helping them out. He is dating Mona Vanderwaal. Holden Strauss (Shane Coffey) (seasons 2–3, 7) is a childhood friend of Aria's who returns with his family from a year abroad in Portugal in the middle of Season 2. He asks Aria out on a date, and discovers that she only agreed so she could get out of the house unsupervised and try to meet Ezra. Instead of becoming upset, he suggest that they continue the cover, though he remains secretive about what he does during their fake dates. We later find out that his secret is more serious than it seemed at first when he accidentally reveals a very large bruise on his stomach, but he tells Aria not to worry about it. He eventually tells her that he is doing Tae Kwan Do, a Korean martial art, and that his parents forbid him to keep training, that is why he needs a cover. The situation turns out to be more complicated, though, when Ella tells Aria that Holden has a heart condition that could kill him any time. Aria goes to watch one of Holden's fights and she sees how much he loves to fight. In the sixth episode in season 3, he attends the same church party as Hanna and when Emily arrives, he runs into her and sparks a conversation. When he grabs a cupcake his wrist is exposed revealing a stamp from that night and Noel Kahn's party., Clark Wilkins (Titus Makin Jr.) (season 6) is a friend of Aria's whom she met in a photography class at Hollis. Clark is later revealed to be an undercover cop, hired to protect Aria. Ezra Fitz (Fitzgerald) (Ian Harding) (seasons 1 – 7) is a former English teacher at Rosewood High School and later teaches at Hollis College. He became romantically involved with Aria after the two met at a bar and instantly bonded. When he discovered that Aria was his student, he attempted to break things off, but found himself unable to do so. He broke up with Aria for a little while in order to take time to think about their relationship. He quit his teaching position at Rosewood just before Noel threatened to expose Aria and Ezra's relationship. Ezra later explains to Aria that he was engaged to a girl named Jackie when he was in college, but that she broke it off; Jackie later returns to Rosewood after getting a teaching position at Hollis. Although Ezra loves Aria, he seems to still have some lingering feelings for Jackie, and the two remain close. His relationship with Aria is often strained by the fact that they have to hide that they are together. He confesses to Ella that he loves Aria (though she misunderstands and believes he is talking about Spencer) when he comes to comfort Aria after her arrest. In "Through Many Danger, Toils, and Snares" we find out that Aria broke up with Ezra because of Jackie threatening to expose their relationship but they later get back together after Aria explains to Ezra that Jackie was the reason why she broke up with him. Ezra and Aria later tell Byron and Ella that they are a couple which leads him to getting punched by Mike (though it's told he only did it fearing what Byron what would have done instead). Ezra later tells Jackie, who comes into his office trying to convince him it'll never work out for him and Aria due to age difference and the fact she's still a teenager, to get out of his office, saying he will not let her do anything to harm or hurt Aria ever again and that he wants nothing more to do with Jackie herself. Aria continues to attempt to convince her parents to allow her to date Ezra but in the meantime they try to set her up with someone else. When Aria calls Ezra, he tells her not to call him again. The two later rekindle their relationship when Aria leaves him a voice mail telling Ezra that, if he doesn't meet up with her, their relationship is over for good. Ezra turns up at the last minute after a student tells him to 'be bold' and the two kiss in the rain. Aria decides not to tell her friends that the two are back together, hoping that, by keeping it from them, she can also keep it from "A". They later have sex in his apartment after Ezra finds out that he has been fired from Hollis. In season 3, Aria and Ezra celebrate their one-year anniversary. Their relationship seems to be going smoothly until Ezra's younger brother Wesley "Wes" drops by unexpectedly. Bumps are soon formed in their relationship when Aria learns of Ezra getting his high school girlfriend Maggie pregnant and his mother paying her to disappear from his life, even though he wanted to do the right thing. Aria tracks Maggie down and discovers that she kept the baby, who is now a healthy 7-year-old boy named Malcolm, whom Ezra finds out about from a distraught Spencer. This leads him to leave Rosewood and seek out Maggie and his son; Ezra is back in Rosewood but only one day after he's back he gets a phone call from Maggie; Mrs. Fitzgerald sold Maggie's condo. Maggie asked Ezra if she and Malcolm can stay in Rosewood near him for a couple of days. Later when Spencer is part of the A-team, she picks up Malcolm from his karate class but is actually kidnapping him. Aria frantically tries to find him and when she does he tells her that Aria's friend Alison picked him up. Ezra gets a job at Rosewood High as a substitute teacher. After all the incidents with Malcolm, Aria decides that it is best that her and Ezra break up just after kissing him on the school stairs. In season four Ezra starts teaching full-time at Rosewood High again. After Aria has a dream that Ezra got arrested because of her she decided they should see other people, something Ezra had already suggested. Ezra would still do anything for Aria, as whenever she is having trouble he still steps up to help her. Ezra finds out Malcolm isn't really his son. In the season four summer finale, the Liars find a lair that they believe belongs to "A" and we see that Ezra is the owner, leading fans to believe him to be "A". However, he reveals in "Free Fall" that he is writing a book about Alison. He is also Board Shorts but is not the guy Alison met with at Cape May known as "Beach Hottie". He is shot by someone in a black hoodie, whom he claims was Shana, in the season four finale but survives and later rekindles his relationship with Aria and begins helping them out with "A". In season 7 Ezra Aria become engaged and get married in the show's finale episode. It is revealed that Aria can't have children so her and Ezra make plans to adopt after their honeymoon., Noel Kahn (Brant Daugherty) (seasons 1–5, 7) is a popular jock and friends with Sean and Mike. He has feelings for Aria and briefly dates her, ending things when he discovers that Aria is seeing Ezra. Noel attempts to blackmail Ezra with this information, but ends up getting framed by "A" (for apparently stealing mid-term exams). After a suspension, he returns to school and becomes somewhat romantically involved with Mona, but eventually breaks up with her and starts dating Jenna. On the security tape Noel sent Spencer it shows that Jenna was dating Noel. It was revealed in the season four finale that Noel is helping Alison. Noel is revealed to be a member of the A-Team in Season 7 and was the person who poured blood on Spencer in the Dollhouse. He returned to Rosewood to begin working with Jenna, as well as Sara Harvey, to find Charlotte's sister, later revealed as Alex Drake. However, Noel kills Sara when she threatens their operation. He and Jenna trap the Liars and attempt to kill them but he ends up accidentally getting decapitated., Jake (Ryan Guzman) (season 4) is a martial arts instructor in Rosewood. Aria begins to take private lessons to help protect herself from "A". During one of the sessions, Aria kisses him and apologizes. But later, they start to hang out more and go on dates. On one of the dates, he learns about Ezra. With time, Aria and Jake's relationship heads to the next level. When Jake meets Ezra for the first time, he tells him to let Aria move on., Liam Greene (Roberto Aguire) (season 6 - 7) was Aria's boyfriend during and after the time-jump. He works with her and encourages her to send Ezra to finish his book. Aria later breaks up with him due to not having feelings for him anymore after sleeping with Ezra. Meredith Sorenson (Amanda Schull) (seasons 1–3) is a former student at Hollis whom Byron had an affair with. She ignores Aria's pleas for her to stay away from Byron and in an effort to get close to Byron again, attempts to befriend Ella, who was unaware of the affair. In the beginning of season 3, "A" forces Aria to reveal a past secret that Aria and Alison trashed Byron's office and framed Meredith for the crime when Aria believes an earring she found proves that Byron and Meredith were still together after Aria found out about the affair. After the incident Byron did end all ties with Meredith because he felt threatened. But when "A" forces Aria to confess it was her, it gives now divorced Byron and Meredith another chance at a relationship. When Aria is forced to confess and apologize to Meredith, she returns the earring "A" gave her, which was taken from Alison's grave, only to find out the earring is not hers. Meredith became a teacher at Rosewood High. She later was burnt in a fire and led to believe that Aria did it (She's Better Now). In the episode "Misery Loves Company!", when Aria is sick, Meredith plays mom by taking care of her, when in reality she drugs Aria's tea to search her house. After Aria becomes suspicious, Meredith lures Aria down to the basement where she falls and becomes unconscious. When Hanna and Emily check on Aria, they too are tricked down into the basement. Byron finds them and Meredith escapes. It is revealed that Byron didn't kill Alison, even though she was blackmailing him about the affair., Jackie Molina (Paloma Guzman) (seasons 1–2, 5) is Ezra's ex-fiancée. After getting a teaching job at Hollis, she hints at wanting to reconcile her relationship with Ezra. She discovers that Aria and Ezra are in a relationship, and uses this as leverage when Aria attempts to force her out of Ezra's life by threatening to expose a paper that Jackie plagiarized. Jackie forces Aria to break up with Ezra but the two later get back together and reveal their relationship to her parents when Ezra overhears Jackie threatening Aria. Ezra later tells Jackie to get out of his office when she comes by his office and to stay away from Aria after Jackie makes a comment about his relationship with Aria being "a terrible mistake", and that he wants nothing to do with Jackie again., Zack (Steve Talley) (seasons 3–5) is the former owner of The Brew and used to be engaged to Ella Montgomery., Maggie Cutler (Larisa Oleynik) (seasons 3–4) is Ezra's ex, who was impregnated by Ezra after high school. She was paid a large sum of money to disappear from Ezra's life and to take care of his unborn child, whom he doesn't know about. In the eleventh episode, Aria pays her a visit at her school, where she reveals that she has a son named Malcolm. In the summer finale, she pays Ezra a visit, leaving Aria out. At the end of the season 4 summer finale, she reveals Malcolm is not Ezra's son. She soon leaves Rosewood with Malcolm to Seattle., Simone (Alona Tal) (season 1) is Aria's former babysitter. She comes back to Rosewood to visit her parents and also to help Ella Montgomery with her English class, where she is asked to be a speaker as an experienced freelance writer. She befriends Ezra Fitz thanks to the suggestion of Ella, much to Aria's chagrin. Simone develops a crush on Ezra, much to Aria's horror. Simone is oblivious to Aria's feelings, and the two have coffee together. After that, Ezra picks up on Aria's envying Simone, who is a talented writer and also age appropriate for Ezra. He admits to enjoying the time spent with her, but assures her that it's nothing more than that., Malcolm Cutler (Teo Briones) (season 3-4) is Maggie Cutler's son and was believed to be Ezra Fitz's seven year old son. His father is revealed not to be Ezra, but some "mistake" made by Maggie with another man. The following characters are all family members and acquaintances of Spencer Hastings, one of the protagonists of the series. Melissa Hastings (Torrey DeVitto) (seasons 1 – 7) is Spencer's older sister, who was engaged to Wren at the start of the series, but later returns to Ian. A perfectionist and the favored daughter, she was Spencer's rival for most of their lives. Their competition led to Spencer kissing both Ian and Wren, which culminated in Melissa breaking off her engagement with Wren. After their breakup, Melissa rekindled her relationship with Ian and the two eloped; after which Melissa confided in Spencer that she just wanted the fighting between them to stop. Shortly after marrying Ian, Melissa becomes pregnant, which again causes a rift between her and Spencer, who suspects Melissa is covering for Ian. When Ian goes missing, Melissa refuses to believe Spencer's claims that he is dead, thinking that she is receiving text messages from Ian, who is in hiding. After the discovery of Ian's body, Melissa becomes depressed and apologizes to Spencer for choosing Ian over her. When Melissa finds Ian's phone in Spencer's bag, (although "A" put the phone in there), she believes it was Spencer sending the texts to her phone and vows she will never forgive Spencer for this. Melissa discovers that Jason is their half-brother and says that she can't be around their parents because they lied to her and Spencer. She still loiters around the house and Spencer and her friends begin to suspect that Melissa knows more about "A" and Ali's disappearance than she is letting on. They find a video taken inside Alison's room the night she disappeared, and Melissa is shown throwing open the door and yelling "where is she?!" The Liars also find out that Melissa was sending Ali threatening text messages, and had worked at a law firm that Ali had suspected of assisting "A" in messing with her life. Spencer and Melissa's father's gun goes missing, and Spencer fears Melissa took it. Even though Melissa didn't take the gun, her parents still feared that she killed Alison through jealousy, so her mother hired a private investigator to watch her. Toward the end of the second season, Melissa makes some odd statements that implies she knows some secrets about Alison and/or the N.A.T. club. Melissa lost her baby after Ian died. In the third-season finale it is revealed that Melissa is working with Jenna and Shana. In the fourth-season premiere it is revealed that she was the Queen of Hearts that drugged Aria on the Halloween train and put her in a box, along with Wilden. Spencer mentions to Melissa that Wilden was blackmailing her to do so, but Melissa never confirms this suspicion. In the fifth season, it is revealed that Melissa is Bethany Young's killer. She saw Spencer carrying a shovel and then found Bethany's body. She wouldn't look her in the face and assumed that it was Alison whom she thought Spencer had killed. She pushed Bethany into the ground and buried her, unaware that she was still alive, thereby killing her. After telling this to Spencer, Melissa flies back to England and it is revealed that she and Wren are seeing each other again., Peter Hastings (Nolan North) (seasons 1–present) is the biological father to Spencer, Melissa, and Jason DiLaurentis. A lawyer who places a great emphasis on winning, he destroys evidence that he fears will indicate Spencer's involvement in Alison's murder. Initially he disapproves of Spencer and Toby dating; he warns Toby after he begins to work for him. Peter strongly dislikes the DiLaurentis family, who he claims are "always crossing lines". In Season 2, Episode 19, it is revealed that Peter did have an affair with Jessica DiLaurentis, that he is Jason's father and that Jason, Spencer and Melissa are all half-siblings. He paid a private investigator to look into Ali's disappearance, as he was afraid that Melissa had something to do with it since he found out Melissa had been sending Ali threatening text messages., Veronica Hastings (Lesley Fera) (seasons 1–present) is Spencer's and Melissa's mother. She had a breast cancer scare that she kept a secret from her family, not wanting to worry them. A lawyer, she frequently helps the girls out with legal situations. She dislikes Toby and his relationship with Spencer in the beginning, but she eventually becomes more tolerant of it. In Season 3, she defends Garrett after he gets arrested and eventually gets the judge to allow him to walk free., Alex Drake (Troian Bellisario) (season 7) is the twin sister to Spencer Hastings and the half-sister of Charlotte Drake, Melissa Hastings, and Jason DiLaurentis, as well as the daughter of Mary Drake and Peter Hastings. Alex was given up for adoption to a British family by Mary during her birth. Alex grew up in orphanages, not knowing anything of her real family, until the day that Wren Kingston came into her bar and immediately thought she was Spencer. She clarified her real identity and he revealed Spencer and everything to her. Wren introduced Alex to Charlotte and the two of them formed an immediate bond together, spending every moment with each other until Charlotte left to go back to the U.S. to play the game some more. Alex eventually learned of Charlotte's death and decided to avenge her by becoming Uber A. At first, Alex sent the Liars threats, using only Emojis to sign the texts. However, after kidnapping Hanna, Alex begins using the alias "A.D." to sign off her texts. Alex convincingly masquerades as Spencer multiple times to be with Toby and trick the Liars. After the game ends, Alex goes back to London but returns a year later to kidnap Spencer and take her place, along with Mary and Mona's help. Alex explains herself to Spencer and reveals her entire story, also revealing that she has killed Wren to avoid having to break up with him. She also kidnaps Ezra. Spencer and Ezra escape and Alex is detained. However, Mona manages to kidnap both Alex and Mary and locks them away in her own personal dollhouse in France. Andrew Campbell (Brandon W. Jones) (seasons 3–6) is a secretary of the Decathlon team of which Spencer is a member. He and the rest of the team vote to remove Spencer from the team following her loss to Mona in a quiz-off, resulting in her not appearing at practices. Spencer challenged him to a strip version of quiz-off in order to get his vote to keep her on the team. In season five, he starts dating Aria, after he had been tutoring her. Later on the season Andrew becomes dark and shady, leading the Liars to assume that he is in fact "A". However, he turns out to be innocent after he was apprehended by police and released due to evidence proving he isn't "A". He claims that he intended to be the hero and find them after their kidnapping by CeCe Drake., Eddie Lamb (Reggie Austin) (seasons 3–5) is a nurse at Radley Sanitarium. Toby used his name as his alias while he was working with Mona. Ian Thomas (Ryan Merriman) (seasons 1–2, 4) is Melissa's late husband. He attended high school with Jason and Garrett and was part of their "N.A.T." club (the initials of a Latin phrase meaning "We See All"). Ian dated Melissa prior to Alison's death, although he was secretly having an affair with Alison, he also flirted and tried to get with Spencer, who had a crush on him. He returned to Rosewood shortly after Melissa broke off her engagement with Wren; after a small courtship, the two eloped and took up residency in the Hastings' renovated barn while their apartment in Philadelphia was being renovated. He had an uneasy relationship with Spencer, who became suspicious of him and believed he was Alison's killer. It is later revealed that Ian liked to secretly videotape the girls when they were getting undressed, and other videos such as Jenna threatening Toby to sleep with her. When Spencer confronts Ian about Alison's death, he claims he only pushed her, not intended for her to hit her head. After this he approaches Spencer and tries to kill her, stating that he's doing it for Melissa's benefit, but is killed by "A", who surprisingly intervenes. His body goes missing and he is presumed to be in hiding. However, his body is eventually discovered with his death staged to look like a suicide; leaving Melissa with his unborn child. "A" drops its phone in season 2, and the girls enlist Caleb's help. He finds videos of Ian, Garrett, Jenna, and Melissa in Alison's room that night. He hides the camera and they begin to argue about the videos. In the premiere episode of season 4, Mona reveals that even though she was "A", she was not the one who killed Ian, confessing she doesn't know who did. The person who pushed Ian is revealed to be Alison in the season finale of season 4, though she says she wasn't the killer. Carlo Marks who plays Ian in the pilot episode., Wren Kingston (Julian Morris) (seasons 1–4, 7) is a medical student who was engaged to Melissa. He was attracted to Spencer and later kissed her, which resulted in Melissa calling off their engagement. However, he later returns to Rosewood to help Melissa out with Ian, who at the time, they believe to still be alive. He obtains a job at the hospital in Rosewood, telling Spencer he came back for her, he then asks her if she wants to go out for a coffee but she says 'I have a boyfriend now', they leave it at that and go. He then comforts Spencer after her breakup with Toby, leaving her confused. After Mona is revealed to be "A", Wren develops a friendship with Hanna, as he volunteers at Radley Sanitarium where Hanna goes to visit Mona there on a regular basis. Eventually, the board at Radley threatens to transfer Mona to New York, and Wren helps Hanna testify to the board and gets her to remain at Radley. Hanna accidentally kisses Wren from happiness when she finds out Mona will not be transferred based on Hanna's testimony. Wren tends to get an unrequited crush on Hanna after the kiss and tries to woo her at times, but gets rejected. Most likely because he's Spencer's ex and she's secretly dating Caleb again. In Season 4, it is implied he knows about Red Coat. He goes with Melissa to London for unknown reasons. In Season 7, it is revealed that he is on the A-Team and an accomplice to "A.D.", who is revealed to be Wren's girlfriend and Spencer's twin sister Alex Drake. He is murdered by her later on., Alex Santiago (Diego Boneta) (season 1) is an employee of Rosewood's exclusive country club. He meets Spencer after observing her practicing serves, and the two quickly enter into a relationship. Their relationship becomes strained after Melissa plants doubts about Spencer's feelings for him in Alex's mind, leading Alex to think Spencer is using him. Veronica is initially uncomfortable around Alex, which Spencer thinks is because of Alex being of a lower economic class, however, Alex explains that he comforted Veronica after her cancer scare. Alex breaks up with Spencer for good after "A" makes him believe Spencer applied for him to go to Europe for a tennis camp after he asked her explicitly not to., Toby Cavanaugh (Keegan Allen) (seasons 1–7) is Jenna's stepbrother, who forced him into a physical relationship with her through blackmail, and took the blame for the Liars accidentally blinding Jenna. After he returns to Rosewood, he strikes up a tentative friendship with Emily after saving her from Ben. Spencer disapproves of their friendship, believing that Toby is Alison's murderer. Emily goes to Homecoming with Toby and later confesses to him that she is a lesbian; her openness makes Toby try to confess to her about having a thing with Jenna, which Emily misunderstands, leading to a physical confrontation. Toby drops her off at the hospital before running away; he is later caught by the police, who had been tipped off by Jenna. After witnessing Toby being taunted in the street, Spencer begins to sympathize with him, and they bond even more when they realize they are both being framed for Alison's murder. Despite Spencer's parents distrust and dislike of Toby, they begin to date. After "A" threatens Spencer with Toby's safety, she decides to break up with him, not wanting him to get hurt. Later he gets injured, as a result of "A"'s tricks and ends up in hospital. He later learns that Wren kissed Spencer and had a one-day fling with her. Back in the hospital he tells Wren that he would beat him up if he tried anything like that again. When he is discharged he begins to act cold towards her. In the season 2 finale he admits that pretending not to love her was the hardest thing he has ever done, she then approaches him and gets ready to slap him but before she has a chance he pulls her close to him and kisses her. In season 3, Spencer and Toby seem to have moved past all the problems that plagued their relationship, seeming happier and more in love than they ever were. In the season 3 summer finale, Toby is revealed to be a member of the "A" team. After a while Spencer becomes aware of Toby's affiliation with the "A"-Team and she slaps him, as a response to his betrayal. Her mom then arrives home allowing him the moment he needs to sneak away. Spencer had not seen him since, and became quite bitter and broken from the betrayal. Spencer later finds a body and assumes it is Toby from the tattoo. Mona also tells her that it is his body. Later when Spencer joins the "A" team she finds out that Toby is alive and that he joined "A" team to find out about Red Coat. They go to a motel room together and re-kindle their love for each other. In season 4, Toby learns more information about his late mother. He finds out that she committed suicide at Radley. When Spencer and him go there, there is a long roof that goes around the whole building and Spencer thinks someone may have pushed her and covered it up to make it look like a suicide. Toby talks to his mother's therapist, the one she talked to the day she died. He said for her to stay away from that "blonde girl". It is later learned that the blonde may possibly be CeCe Drake. James Neate who plays Toby in the pilot episode., Jonny Raymond (Will Bradley) (season 5) is a painter who Spencer met at The Brew. During 5B, he was staying in Hastings' barn until Veronica kicked him out. He kissed Spencer before his departure., Marco Furey (Nicholas Gonzalez) (season 7) is a new detective at the Rosewood Police Department who hooks up with Spencer at the Radley Hotel Bar the night he arrives in town. Yvonne Cavanaugh (née Phillips) (Kara Royster) (season 6-7) is Toby's fiancé and later wife after the five year time jump. She is also the daughter of Kristine Phillips, Veronica Hasting's opponent in the race for Pennsylvania State Senate. She and Toby decide to move out of Rosewood but are in an accident before they get far. After hitting a deer, she and Toby are sent to the hospital and Yvonne is sent into a medically induced coma due to the severity of her injuries. She wakes up from her coma but is still very weak. She accepts Toby's idea that they marry that very day despite her being in the hospital bed. As she and Toby celebrate, they discuss where they want to go for their honeymoon. She tells Toby that she is happy before she breaths her last breath, dropping her flowers in the process and leaving Toby devastated. The following characters are all family members and acquaintances of Hanna Marin, one of the protagonists of the series. Ashley Marin (Laura Leighton) (seasons 1–7) is Hanna's mother, who worked at a bank in Rosewood and later for Jessica and Jason DiLaurentis. She is angered by Hanna's shoplifting, and has an affair with Detective Darren Wilden in order to keep Hanna from being charged. After some financial hardship caused by the divorce, Ashley falls behind on her bills and resorts to stealing money from the safety deposit box of a client; the money is later stolen (by "A", unbeknownst to Ashley) and Hanna is forced to slowly earn it back by hurting Lucas. Although she is divorced from Tom, Hanna's father, Ashley still has lingering feelings for him; when he comes for a visit, they end up spending the night together. However, she ends the affair when she realizes that Tom will never change. After Emily's parents move to Texas, Ashley invites Emily to come live with her and Hanna. She initially disapproves when Hanna starts dating Caleb, but eventually warms up to him even saying how she sees "herself" in him. In season 3, she begins to date a Pastor named Ted. In season 4, Ashley is framed for Detective Wildens murder by "A", and is arrested. Spencer tells Hanna that she could spend life in prison...or worse. In season five she has a brief affair with Jason DiLaurentis., Tom Marin (Roark Critchlow) (seasons 1–2, 4–5) is Hanna's father. He divorced Hanna's mother, Ashley, after having an affair with Isabel, his current wife. When he comes to Rosewood to visit Hanna, he begins to grow close to Ashley once more, something which is encouraged by Hanna. Tom eventually sleeps with Ashley, but she breaks things off with him when she realizes that he will never change. His wedding to Isabel is interrupted by Hanna, who reveals his affair with Ashley to Isabel. Despite Hanna ruining Tom's wedding to Isabel, Ashley reveals to Hanna that Tom still married her. Tom later reveals that he will be moving back to Rosewood with Isabel and Kate so he can be closer to Hanna., Kate Randall (Natalie Floyd, later Natalie Hall) (seasons 1–2) is Isabel's daughter and Hanna's stepsister. Although Hanna is friendly to Kate at first, she begins to resent her. Kate is shown to possess a malicious streak, with a willingness to use manipulation for her own purposes. Hanna had said some unkind things about Kate, but apologizes to her. Kate pretends to accept the apology, but makes comparisons of how to break in horses and how she would break in Hanna. She humiliates Hanna after getting her drunk at their parents' rehearsal dinner. Even though Hanna stopped Isabel's wedding to her father, Kate still becomes Hanna's stepsister when their parents get married at the courthouse. Tom later moves back to Rosewood with Isabel, and Kate is enrolled at Rosewood High. It appears that Kate actually wants to be friends with Hanna at school, but she was really trying to look like an innocent victim, even sending the school a naked photo of herself and framing Hanna for it. But after finding out the truth, Hanna neutralizes Kate for a time. Lucas Gottesman (Brendan Robinson) (seasons 1–3, 5–7) was an unpopular student at Rosewood, who harbored an unrequited crush on Hanna, with whom he developed a friendship. Having been frequently tormented by Alison, he often expressed his happiness at her death, going so far as to destroy Alison's memorial, believing her cruelty shouldn't have been forgiven posthumously. Although initially angered by Hanna's rejection of his romantic feelings, he eventually accepts it and even befriends Caleb. He seeks Hanna out for dating advice after he becomes involved with a girl named Danielle, however, it is unclear if any relationship developed between them. Soon afterward, due to a series of misunderstandings and coincidences, the Liars suspect Lucas may be "A"'s helper. It is later revealed that Lucas had gambled away thousands of dollars of Caleb's savings. Following this, his friendship with Hanna and Caleb is severely strained, and Lucas grew increasingly more troubled. It was revealed in the third season that he had been visiting Mona at Radley, because she had discovered he was selling test answers and was blackmailing him into working on the A-Team as her personal assistant. He moved away at the end of season 3, out of fear and as a way to start over. Mona soon reveals to the Liars that it was he who gave Emily the massage as "A". He returns to Rosewood in season 5 and begins helping Mona to take down Alison. After Mona's supposed death, Lucas begins helping the girls to stop Alison, who they believe killed Mona. Lucas is not seen after this but is revealed to have attended prom with Jenna Marshall., Gabriel Holbrook (Sean Faris) (seasons 4–5) is a Pennsylvania State Police Officer and the detective assigned to Darren Wilden's murder case. Sean Ackard (Chuck Hittinger) (season 1) was Hanna's boyfriend prior to the beginning of the series. Having crushed on Sean since before Alison's disappearance, motivated by insecurities about her weight, Hanna puts a lot of pressure on their relationship. When Sean refuses to have sex with Hanna, she becomes upset and wrecks his car, though Sean understands and forgives her. However, the mystery surrounding "A" and Alison's death begin to take a toll on their relationship and that, combined with Sean's treatment of Lucas as well as his attraction to Aria, leads to their breakup. Afterwards, Sean seeks out Emily's help in pursuing Paige, unaware that Paige is a lesbian., Caleb Rivers (Tyler Blackburn) (seasons 1–7, Ravenswood) is a Rosewood's resident "bad boy" who Hanna seeks out for help in hacking Emily's phone so that she can call Maya, her girlfriend at the time. Though initially annoyed and frustrated by Caleb, she becomes more sympathetic towards him when she discovers his poor home life as he is in foster care. The two eventually enter into a relationship. When she discovers that Caleb originally tried to get close to her while working for Jenna, she dumps him, feeling betrayed. He is brought back to Rosewood by Lucas, who wants Hanna and Caleb to make amends and reunite. After Caleb is contacted by his birth mother, he leaves Hanna to stay in California for a while. He returns in time for Tom's marriage to Isabel, accompanying Hanna to the wedding. Caleb then comes back after being in California and helps Hanna and her friends hack "A"'s phone without telling him whom the phone belongs to, but it backfires when "A" shuts the phone down. His surprise birthday party later gets ruined because Lucas has something to tell Hanna but Hanna takes it the wrong way and they both end up falling out the boat. The Liars (excluding Hanna) let Caleb continue to hack "A's" phone and, in order to get him to do it, they tell him about "A". The girls try to hide the truth from Hanna but when she finds out she is angry at them but reconciles with them a while later. Meanwhile, Caleb becomes obsessed with finding out who "A" is, which causes "A" to hack into Caleb's computer and plant secure school files, which lands him in trouble with the police. However, Hanna saves him by deleting the files. Caleb is the first person other than the Liars to help figure out who "A" is. Earlier, Lucas has some problems and starts to be a bad boy at school; when he is given a letter to give to his parents he drops it into a bin and sets it on fire. Hanna starts to worry about Lucas so she asks Caleb to talk to him. Later Caleb confronts Lucas and asks him why he nearly set fire to his girlfriend and why he is acting so strange; Lucas says sorry and walks off leaving Caleb wondering. In the third season, Hanna has trouble telling Caleb about what is going on in her life, causing him to break up with her. A couple episodes later it is revealed that they are back together in secret, unable to tell anyone. Caleb promises to help Hanna take down this new "A". In the summer finale, he accompanies the Liars to Ali's grave. Right after Emily's confrontation with Nate/Lyndon, he comforts Emily but is shot by the gun that Caleb put down beside the tower light assuming Nate was dead. He survives the gunshot. After some prodding, Hanna convinces him to meet with his actual father who was portraying himself as "Uncle Jamie". They hit it off and Hanna manages to get Caleb's father a job at the church so that he could be near his son. It is hinted that he (Caleb's father) stole money from the church as Hanna notices a bill in his wallet with the same red dice as the one she had donated earlier that day. When he returned the church's bell from repair, it turned out to be a much cheaper version. Hanna tells Caleb about this causing Caleb to break off his new relationship with his father, only for "A" to later reveal it was all a set-up. When Hanna's mom gets framed for Wilden's murder, Caleb teams up with Toby to search for other suspects. He then soon breaks up with Hanna when he's preparing to leave Rosewood to live in his new life in Ravenswood. He returns to Rosewood in season five., Travis Hobbs (Luke Kleintank) (seasons 4–5) first appears giving Hanna money in order to help her mother. Hanna then finds out that Travis was a witness to the confrontation between Hanna's mother and Wilden that landed her mother in jail. Two develop a friendship. After Hanna and Caleb break up, Hanna kisses Travis., Jordan Hobart (David Coussins) (season 6–7) is Hanna's fiancé after the time jump. He is described as a sophisticated-yet-approachable 27-year-old working in the fashion industry. Darren Wilden (Bryce Johnson) (seasons 1–4, 6) was a detective investigating Alison's murder. He is attracted to Hanna's mom, Ashley, whom he once drove home after she had been drinking and asked for a ride, later sleeping with her to make up for not charging Hanna, who was caught shoplifting. He is distrustful of the girls, frequently questioning them beyond normal means, such as when he humiliates Emily by outing her to her friends. The detective returns in season 2 episode 12, when the girls are arrested. Officer Reynolds suggests there could be a raise in this for him, as he had his suspicions of the girls to start with. He reveals to them that he knew the murder weapon all along, and the girls had just been caught with it. He had strong feelings towards them all especially Hanna, and was determined that they would be thrown into jail. The girls are very grateful for Spencer's mom for getting them out of it and landing them with community service. When Ashley begins to worry that someone is still trying to get to her daughter, she goes to Darren for help, asking him if he had anything to do with Hanna's police report being released. Darren says that information could get him fired, and he didn't release the report. The Liars find a picture of Wilden, CeCe, and Alison on his boat in Cape May the Summer Ali died. They think Wilden is the father of Alison's alleged baby. Later, Wilden confronts Ashley and when he reaches for his gun, she hits him with her car and flees the scene. When she returns with Hanna, his body is missing. His car was later found in Hanna's garage and she takes it to the lake and dumps it. In the season 4 premiere, Wilden was killed and his body was found next to his car. Also, it was revealed that he is one of the people dressed as the Queen of Hearts in the Halloween episode "This Is a Dark Ride" along with Melissa Hastings. The town believed that Ashley was responsible for the murder, but in the season 4 finale, it was revealed that CeCe Drake was responsible for Wilden's murder. It has been revealed that Wilden helped cover up for CeCe the night she escaped Radley and hit Ali. He was also responsible for the murder of Garrett Reynolds., Ted Wilson (Edward Kerr) (seasons 3–5, 7) is a priest at the local church in Rosewood. He starts dating Hanna's mom, Ashley. In season 5, they are engaged. In season 7, Hanna and Spencer visits Ted to know if he knows Mary Drake, but he tells the girls that he has never met her. After the girls left, Mary comes out of hiding and asks Ted what the girls want; Ted tells her that he didn't say anything to the girls just like what Mary asked but then asks her why she came to see him. Ted later visits Hanna at Lucas's apartment and tells her that he was hiding Mary and apologizes to her for lying to her about knowing Mary. He reveals to Hanna that he and Mary had met when he was in college but broke up for unknown reasons and reveals to Hanna the real reason why Mary came to visit him; Ted reveals to Hanna that he is Charlotte's biological father and explains that he met her as Charles when he used to worked at the camp for troubled children fifteen years prior, but was unaware that Charles was his son and was also not aware that Charles would later transitioned into Charlotte. After Hanna sees the picture of Ted, Charles and an unknown boy at the camp, she asks him who the other boy is. He tells her that the other boy was Charles's only friend at the camp and tells her that the other boy's name is Lucas. Hanna realizes that the other boy in the picture is Lucas Gottesman., Linda Tanner (Roma Maffia) (seasons 4–6) is a lieutenant working with state investigator Gabriel Holbrook in Rosewood, Pennsylvania. Lieutenant Tanner is assigned to Darren Wilden's murder case., Janet (Janet Borrus) (season 1) is Caleb's foster mom who takes the money for taking care of Caleb while he lives elsewhere, surviving off his own money. The following characters are all family members and acquaintances of Emily Fields, one of the protagonists of the series. Pam Fields (Nia Peeples) (seasons 1–7) is Emily's mother. Strict and traditional, she expresses great anger and sadness when she learns that Emily is gay. Believing that Maya corrupted her daughter, she holds a grudge against her, eventually discovering marijuana in Maya's bag and having her sent away. Her relationship with Emily becomes extremely strained after this, but begins to heal when Pam stands up to Paige's father for being homophobic and accusing Emily of getting preferential treatment. For a short time, she moved to Texas to be with her husband, Wayne, eventually returning to Rosewood at the end of season two., Wayne Fields (Eric Steinberg) (seasons 1–4) is Emily's father and an officer in the military. At the start of the series, he was stationed in Afghanistan, and when he returned home, Emily came out to him. He struggled to accept Emily's homosexuality at first, but took a liking to Maya after she came over for dinner. After a few weeks of being in Rosewood, he was sent to Fort Hood, Texas to help train new recruits. When Emily was hospitalized after getting an ulcer, he came to visit her, apologizing for pressuring her into getting a swimming scholarship and explaining that he won't mind if Emily gives up on swimming, as long as she is healthy. Near the end of the second season, he is called back to active duty for another tour in Afghanistan. Maya St. Germain (Bianca Lawson) (seasons 1–3) was Emily's first girlfriend and her first love. When Maya's family moves into the DiLaurentis' former house, the two quickly become friends, and their friendship gradually develops into romance. Though their relationship has a rocky start, Maya eventually helps Emily to come to terms with her sexuality. They are broken up by Pam, who discovers marijuana in Maya's bag and as a consequence, her family sent away to "True North," a camp for juvenile delinquents. After returning to Rosewood, Maya and Emily attempted to rekindle their relationship, though their new relationship is shaky. Maya fears that her parents might send her back to "True North" after finding an old joint of hers. She is also afraid of being sent back in part due to her "stalker" (a boy she dated while at True North who had begun to harass her). Maya plans to run away to San Francisco to live with some friends and she attempts to convince Emily to join her, but to had no luck. When Maya goes missing and stops responding to Emily's calls, texts, and emails, Emily makes attempts to track her down, but is unsuccessful. At the end of the second season, it is revealed that a body had been found, and they think it's Maya's. Garrett is arrested for Alison's murder, and it is assumed he killed Maya too. In the third season, the Liars discover more about Maya's death with help from Mona, who tells them about Maya's video blog site. The Liars find out she was staying at Noel's cabin, and he hands over security camera footage of the night she disappeared. It shows Maya returning her bicycle and being grabbed by someone off-camera. The day is the same as the day Garrett was arrested, and it was after midnight meaning he did not kill her. Her cousin Nate comes to town, and befriends Emily. Later, he takes her away for a trip near a lighthouse and it is revealed that he was Maya's "stalker-Ex-boyfriend" from True North, and that his real name is Lyndon James. He attempts to kill Paige in revenge for taking Maya away from him, but Emily escapes to the top of the lighthouse leaving Paige behind. They have a brief struggle with Lyndon trying to stab her, but Emily grabs the knife and kills him in self-defense., Paige McCullers (Lindsey Shaw) (season 1–5, 7) is a former captain of the swim team and the star swimmer in Emily's absence. Jealous of Emily's perceived ease of accomplishments, she makes homophobic remarks towards Emily and physically threatens her. She later apologizes to Emily, stating that she can understand if Emily hates her, because she hates herself. Later, she also apologizes for her father, who causes problems for Emily at school, as he believes Emily is getting preferential treatment for being gay. She then kisses Emily, revealing herself to be gay. The two begin an on-again, off-again relationship, which suffers due to Paige's fear of being outed. Emily breaks up with Paige after Paige becomes jealous of Samara flirting with Emily. Near the end of the second season, Emily starts hanging out with Paige once more, who has finally come out to her parents. While trying to console Emily, who is upset about Maya's disappearance, Paige tries to kiss Emily, but is rejected. Paige later apologizes and agrees that it's best for the two of them to remain friends. In the third season, Paige and Emily find it hard to remain just friends. Paige confesses to Emily that Emily visited her one evening, and the two shared a drunken kiss. Emily realizes that she wants to move on from Maya's death and rekindles her romance with Paige. When the Liars later suspect Paige of being "A", Emily staunchly defends her, causing a rift between herself and the other Liars. However, once it revealed that Paige was being framed by "A" to look guilty, the Liars reconcile with Emily and accept Paige. At the beginning of season 4, both declare their love for the other reaffirming their commitment. Their relationship at the end of season 4 however appears to be over due to Paige telling the cops that Ali is alive and thus breaking Emily's trust in her. In season 5, Paige moves to California with her family, and asks Emily to come with her but she refuses. In season 7, Paige returns to Rosewood from California. McCullers becomes the swim coach for the Rosewood High swim team, after an injury tarnishes her chances at the Olympics. Emily and Paige rekindle their romance and Paige is there for Emily since she understands the threat of A.D. After discovering that Emily is going to help raise Alison's child Paige goes to meet Alison. They discuss their years of hatred for each other and their feelings for Emily, both come to a mutual feeling of respect. Paige later ends her relationship with Emily when she sees her true feelings for Alison and realizes that Emily will never love her more than she loves Alison. Paige and Emily tearfully end their relationship and Paige leaves Emily and Rosewood for good., Samara Cook (Claire Holt) (seasons 1–2) is the president of a local private school's GSA. Upon meeting her, Emily is initially attracted to Samara because of the fact that she is out, unlike Paige, who Emily was secretly dating at the time. The two date for a short period of time, but Samara states that she does not want to be exclusive, causing Emily to doubt her feelings. After "A" blackmails Emily into giving Samara's friend her phone number, Samara thinks Emily is flirting and ends the relationship when Emily doesn't give her an honest answer., Talia Sandoval-Mendoza (Miranda Rae Mayo) (season 5) is Ezra Fitz's new cook at The Brew. A professional chef, she and Emily initially get off on the wrong foot but eventually form a friendship. Soon, Emily begins receiving mixed signals from Talia, despite her previously commenting on Ezra's "buns". One night Emily and Talia are both working late and Talia reveals that she has feelings for Emily and only mentioned Ezra to find out Emily's sexual orientation. From then on she and Emily begin a relationship and all is well until Emily sees Talia's file, which lists her surname as Mendoza. Talia had previously introduced herself as Talia Sandoval. Curious, Emily asks Ezra about this and he informs her that Talia's maiden name was Sandoval and her married name is Mendoza. Emily confronts Talia about her marriage but she tells Emily that her husband, Eric, is aware that Talia is interested in woman and that they love each other but no longer in that way. In the following episode, a man comes into The Brew looking for Talia and is revealed to be her husband. He tells Emily that he is okay with Emily and Talia having an experimentation with each other because he knows that he will get to love her forever., Sara Harvey (Dre Davis) (season 4, 6–7) is a young girl from Cortland who went missing around the same time as Alison did. Hanna theorized that Sara may have been the one buried in the place of Alison and contacted her friends to visit them. Nothing was heard about Sara after it was revealed that Bethany Young was the person in the grave, but in the sixth-season premiere, it is made known that Sara is alive and being held in "A's" dollhouse, forced to pretend to be Alison. Scared and confused, Sara is rescued by the police and taken to the hospital. Sara told Emily that she ran away from home the night she was taken and was hit over the head. Once she returns home, she runs away again and was living with Emily and her mother for a short period of time before returning home to Cortland to stay with one of her friends so she and Emily could have a real shot at a romantic relationship. Sara shows up at the Rosewood Prom and says that she felt its where she should be. She later travels with the Liars and Mona to the Carissimi Group building and helps the get into "A's" secret room, but waits outside the door on them. However, "A", who is revealed to be CeCe, reveals that Sara was actually Red Coat and the Black Widow, working alongside her. She was the person who got off the plane, meant to be a decoy, and rescued the Liars during the Thornhill Lodge Fire and went to Wilden's funeral to ensure his fate. The Liars see her, dressed as Red Coat, fixing a bomb inside Radley. Emily and the girls show up and confront her about it, disarming the bomb. Sara attempts to run but Emily grabs her and punches her. When Sara tries to get up she accidentally places her hand on an electrical box, severely damaging her hands. Sara is then diagnosed with Stockholm Syndrome after painting Charlotte in a bad image. Five years later, Sara returns to Rosewood after Charlotte is killed and reveals to Alison that she lied to the Judge and was actually very close with Charlotte, considering them to be like "sisters". Sara begins working with Jenna Marshall and they both keep resident at The Radley during their stays in Rosewood. When Noel Khan becomes involved Sara starts to regret her alliance with Jenna. After Sara attempts to warn Emily of the threat of Noel, he shows up to her room and murders Sara when she's in the shower., Sabrina (Lulu Brud) (season 6-7) is the manager of The Brew who has been known to dabble with marijuana, though its later revealed this was due to a previous cancer diagnosis. Sabrina and Emily develop a relationship but it is short lived due to Emily being unable to open up to Sabrina about A.D. Complications also grow when Paige returns to Rosewood and rekindles her relationship with Emily. Ezra later informs Emily that Sabrina quit her job at The Brew to move to Atlanta where she got an apprenticeship with an extremely successful baker. Sydney Driscoll (Chloe Bridges) (season 5, 7) is a member on the Rosewood High Swim Team, having recently transferred schools. She admires Emily and her swimming talent and would like to adapt her style to suit that of Emily's. In the 100th episode, it is revealed that Sydney is in league with Jenna and Mona to take down Alison. When Emily finds out, she tells her that she knew Jenna from when she volunteered at the blind school that Jenna attended prior to season 1. After Mona's death, Sydney and Jenna join Alison, believing she killed Mona and fearing what she would do to them if they opposed her. Sydney returns in Season 7, after the five years forward, and is revealed to be a member of the A-Team. She reveals herself to Aria and claims to be "A.D.", the one in charge of the new team, but is discovered to be their helper instead., Lyndon James/Nate St. Germain (Sterling Sulieman) (season 3) was Maya's stalker. Having met Maya while the two of them were at True North, he was angered after Maya broke off their relationship, and proceeded to harass and stalk her once she returned home and rekindled her relationship with Emily. After Maya's death, while pretending he didn't know she died, he approaches Emily with the intent to befriend and then kill her, assuming the false identity of "Nate", Maya's supposed cousin. After being turned down romantically by Emily, Lyndon subsequently kidnaps Paige and tricks Emily into leaving Rosewood with him, planning on killing Paige in front of Emily as "revenge" for "taking" Maya from him. When Emily attempts to escape, the two get into a physical confrontation which culminates in Emily stabbing Lyndon in self-defense, fatally wounding him, and he dies. The following characters are all family members and acquaintances of Alison DiLaurentis, one of the protagonists of the series. Jessica DiLaurentis (née Drake) (Anne Marie DeLuise, later Andrea Parker) (seasons 1–2, 4–7) is Alison, and Jason's mother and Charlotte's adoptive mother, who spearheaded a charity fashion show in Alison's memory. Jessica DiLaurentis had an affair with Peter Hastings which produced Jason. She returns in Season 4, and it is revealed that she was the one that buried Alison in order to protect the identity of the person who hit her with the rock. She is also thought to be one of Big "A's" minions, due to the fact that she is protecting them. In the season four finale, she is killed by an unknown person and buried by "A". In the season five finale, it is revealed that Mrs. DiLaurentis is actually the mother to Big "A", who is named Charles. In season six, it is revealed that Big "A" is CeCe Drake, who was born as Charles but allowed by Jessica to transition into Charlotte, despite Kenneth's disapproval. She lied to Kenneth, claiming that Charles died. In the finale, it is revealed that Jessica has a twin sister, named Mary Drake, who was actually Charlotte's biological mother. The DiLaurentis family adopted Charlotte. It is eventually revealed that Mary is the one who killed her., Jason DiLaurentis (Parker Bagley, later Drew Van Acker) (seasons 1–7) is the half-brother of Alison, Spencer and Melissa. He had an interesting relationship with his late sister; though they often fought, they were both conniving and willing to keep each other's secrets. Jason attended Rosewood High and was friends with Ian and Garrett, who then later formed a club called "N.A.T" (initials from a Latin phrase which means "We See All"). He revealed to Spencer that Alison blamed the accident where Jenna was blinded on her, though Spencer believes Jason knows this to be a lie. After Ian's death, Jason returns to Rosewood, moving back into his old house and papering up the windows, apparently looking for something that Alison hid. He explains to Aria, whom he has romantic feelings for, that he can't remember what he was doing on the night of Alison's murder and that someone sent him a note afterward with "I know what you did," written on them causing him to fear he might have killed Alison. We later find out that Spencer's father had had an affair with Jason's mother. When Spencer finds this out, she knows something's up, and she looks back on memories. When she remembers Ali telling her weird things on a night when her parents had been fighting about Jason and Melissa kissing, she figures out that Ali had subtly told her about Jason being her half-brother. When she approaches him he confirms her suspicions and they become closer and eventually he lends her $2,000., Kenneth DiLaurentis (Jim Abele) (seasons 3, 5–6) is the biological father of Alison and Charlotte DiLaurentis and the legal father of Jason DiLaurentis. He left Rosewood after Alison's disappearance, but returned after Alison was found to be alive., CeCe Drake (Vanessa Ray) (seasons 3–7) is an ex-girlfriend of Jason DiLaurentis, who was also friends with Alison. They spent a summer vacation together in Cape May. It seems that CeCe taught Ali her scheming ways, as both act quite similarly. When CeCe returns to Rosewood in Season 3, the girls immediately notice the similarities between the way she acts and how Ali acted. CeCe also learned a lot about the other girls from Alison. She was with Alison and Detective Wilden in Cape May the summer Ali died. It is hinted that she may be scared of Wilden as he was seen in a heated argument with her before she skipped town. In Season 4, it is revealed CeCe was expelled from college, because apparently Alison pushed that girl down the stairs at the frat party shown in Season 1. CeCe believes the other girls were part of it too. In the episode before the fourth midseason finale, it is revealed she's on "The A-Team" and it is revealed she is Red Coat. Aria kicks CeCe in the face, causing her Ali mask to come off. CeCe falls off the railing, and appears to be dead. However, her hand twitches, and her body disappears, meaning she survived the fall. She was taken into police custody where she admits to knowing who killed the girl in Ali's grave and tells them Ali is alive and that she can prove it. Later that night, she escapes and takes a police car. She heads to New York where she asks for Ali's help. It is revealed that Ezra was paying CeCe for information which is why she was in Ravenswood. Ali asked her to wear the Red Coat to distract "A" so she could turn off the saw. Alison gives CeCe her plane ticket and CeCe boards a plane to France, under the alias "Vivian Darkbloom". In "Game Over, Charles", it is revealed that CeCe is actually "A" and was born as Charles DiLaurentis. CeCe was admitted to Radley Sanitarium as a child, after a misinterpreted incident involving Alison as a baby. Their parents told Jason that she was imaginary. It is claimed that Charles committed suicide at age 16 so that CeCe could transition into Charlotte DiLaurentis. Mr. DiLaurentis was unaware of CeCe/Charlotte's existence and Charlotte eventually began dating Jason to get closer the family and became CeCe Drake. CeCe/Charlotte was given privileges to leave Radley to attend the University of Pennsylvania, and one night Bethany stole her clothes and escaped to hurt Mrs. DiLaurentis. CeCe stumbled upon Alison and hit her, believing it was Bethany. Later, CeCe made friends with Mona, who told her all about the "A" game and the Liars, and CeCe offered her a partnership and she helped CeCe escape, where she became "A". Sometime after this, CeCe hired Sara Harvey to become her accomplice by dressing up as Red Coat and The Black Widow. CeCe was also Red Coat, being the one to watch Mona dig up the grave, don the Emily mask and attend the Hoe Down. After declaring game over, Charlotte was admitted to a sanitarium for treatment. Once the Liars discover who she is, she ends the game. Five years later, Alison petitions the court to release Charlotte, asking the girls to testify in her favor. Charlotte is released and brought home to Alison. However, the next morning her body is found, seemingly having jumped from the bell tower, until the police discover that Charlotte was already dead upon "being thrown". In the season six finale, it is revealed that Charlotte was actually adopted and is the actual daughter of Mary Drake, Jessica's twin sister. She was revealed to be killed, in self-defense, by Mona Vanderwaal in season seven., Mary Drake (Andrea Parker) (season 4, 6–7) is the twin sister of Jessica DiLaurentis and the birth mother of Charlotte DiLaurentis. She was a patient at Radley Sanitarium, where she gave birth to Charles Drake, but allowed her sister Jessica to adopt Charlotte as a child. Mary's whereabouts after that are unknown but she returns to Rosewood after her daughter's death, where she is working with Elliott Rollins to drive Alison insane and get Charlotte's money. Mary visits Alison in the hospital and pretends to be Jessica, to fool Alison into thinking she is dreaming. She comforts Alison and tells her that Elliott is a good man for her. However, in the next episode, she disguises herself as a deceased Jessica, while Elliott dresses up as Wilden, and together they scare Alison into committing herself into a mental hospital. Mary is also currently the owner of the Lost Woods Resort. It is revealed in season seven that Mary gave birth to a second child while at Radley. In the summer finale, it is revealed that child was Spencer. In the series finale, Mary joins forces with Uber A to kidnap Spencer, after Uber A forces her. Uber A is revealed to be Mary's daughter, Alex Drake, who is Spencer's twin sister. Lorenzo Calderon (Travis Winfrey) (season 6) is a police officer that works with Toby. He has shown a liking towards Alison and convinced her to be a coach for a soccer youth group for girls. Alison's dad does not approve of her and Lorenzo, so he takes back the binder Alison was going to use to coach the girls' soccer team., Archer Dunhill, alias Elliott Rollins (Huw Collins) (season 6–present) is Charlotte's psychiatrist, and later, Alison's husband. Dr. Rollins knows the relationship with Ali is unusual, that's why he's always thinking of her wellness before taking a decision. In the season six finale, it is revealed that he is actually working with Mary Drake to drive Alison insane and take her half of the Carissimi Group funds. It is revealed in the seventh season that he is not actually Elliott Rollins. His real name is Archer Dunhill and he stole the real, deceased Elliott Rollins' identity. He begins torturing Alison inside Welby and takes her out one night as part of his plan. She manages to escape and while he is chasing her down, the Liars accidentally hit him with their car and kill him. After his death, it is revealed that he is also in league with Jenna Marshall. Duncan Albert (Lachlan Buchanan) (season 2) was a friend of Alison, when she was using the alias Vivian. When Aria meets him in Brookhaven he explains that he taught Vivian/Alison how to fly a plane, and that he might have loved her if Ian Thomas hadn't been in the way. He didn't know Alison was dead., Shana Fring (Aeriél Miranda) (seasons 3–5) is a clerk from the Rosewood Halloween Spooktacular Store. She made her first appearance in Pretty Dirty Secrets, a series of mini webisodes. She was reintroduced when Hanna saw Paige talking to her in a lesbian bar. Paige admitted that she had a thing with Shana during the summertime and that she was trying to find information on who bought the Halloween costumes of the people who attacked them on the train from Shana. It was revealed that Shana was the mysterious person that Jenna Marshall was talking to in the finale of season 2 when she met up with her again in the finale of season 3. As of "Close Encounters", she reveals that she is helping Alison and they knew each other since they were kids. In "EscApe From New York", Shana is revealed to have been the "A" who shot Ezra on the rooftop and admits to setting the Lodge on fire. Her motive is that she wants justice for Jenna after Ali blinded her. She almost kills them until Aria intervenes and knocks her off the theater stage to her death. The Liars believed that she was "A" and believed the game to be over, until the real "A" returns. Shana's death affected Aria and Jenna majorly, with the former feeling guilt over killing her., Cindy and Mindy (Melanie and Monica Moreno) (seasons 5–6) are twin sisters who attend Rosewood High. The two twins are recruited by Mona to join her army against Alison, as they were bullied by her in the past. When Alison returns to Rosewood, she greets Cindy and Mindy, while Emily and the Liars watch from a distance and Emily reveals that Ali used to call them "Gayrons" (standing for Gay Morons). After Alison and the Liars become enemies, the Liars ally with Mona. The five of them are in the bathroom discussing their plans when Cindy and Mindy enter. Mona greets them but they ignore her and enter the stalls. As soon as the Liars leave, the twins exit the stalls and exchange devious smiles with each other. It is revealed that they have joined forces with Ali. In "How the 'A' Stole Christmas", Ali gives the twins a makeover and they attend the Ice Ball with her, wearing matching (but different colored) dresses. They also dress up as CeCe and Ali, in order to trick the Liars into following them. Cindy and Mindy attend Ali's trial as well. When Ali is ruled as guilty for the murder, Cindy and Mindy stood up in shock, but then began to smile. Jenna Marshall (Tammin Sursok) (seasons 1–5, 7) is Toby's younger stepsister. Jenna was accidentally blinded after Alison threw a firecracker into Toby's shed, intending to play a prank on him. At the time, Jenna had been in a physical relationship with Toby (it is later discovered that Jenna had forced Toby into the relationship, threatening to tell their parents he had forced himself on her if he did not). Jenna attended a school for the blind in Philadelphia before returning a year later when Alison's body is found. This leads to conflicts with the girls, who feel guilty about what they did to Jenna, and having let Alison pin the blame on Toby. Prior to Alison's death, she and Jenna had been rivals after Jenna turned down Alison's offer of friendship. Jenna was engaged in a power struggle with Alison before her death; after Jenna's accident, Alison visited her and blackmailed Jenna with the knowledge of her affair with Toby. Jenna claims to know "exactly what kind of person [Alison] really was," hinting that she knows things about Alison that the girls did not. Jenna was a part of the N.A.T. club and later became romantically involved with Garrett Reynolds, as they both worked to "take down" the Liars. However, Jenna eventually breaks up with Garrett, and enters into a relationship with Noel Kahn. In the second season, Jenna undergoes surgery to fix her eyesight, and subsequently lies about the success of the surgery, leading everyone to believe she is still blind. The Liars discover that Jenna can see after Emily remembers being in Jenna's car, leading them to confront her. The Liars agree to keep her sight a secret; however, Jenna then reveals to everyone that she can "now" see. An accidental witness to Lyndon James' kidnapping of Maya, she leaves town after he discovers this. She returns in the Season 3 finale episode. It is then shown that she is in a relationship with Shana, to whom she reveals that her eyesight is getting worse and she will eventually lose her vision again. She is also linked to Melissa and Darren Wilden. In Season 4, it is revealed Melissa ordered Shana and Jenna to go to the lodge to spy on the Liars to see whom they were meeting, and that they didn't start the fire, Wilden did. At Wilden's funeral, she is shown wearing her sunglasses and holding hands with a man. It is revealed that man was a pilot named Nigel Wright, who flew Red Coat the night of the fire. He claims it was CeCe Drake. Later, he is seen making coffee for someone and says he's sorry and that he "screwed up". He also refers to this person as "babe", and she is revealed to be none other than Jenna, as we see Jenna's glasses and cane. Jenna was nearly drowned by "A"/Red Coat at Emily's birthday party. Shana seemed to believe it was CeCe and left town. Jenna returns in the 100th episode where she is revealed to be a part of Mona Vanderwaal's army and is friends with Sydney Driscoll. It is also revealed that Jenna truly cared for Shana. Sydney was volunteering at Jenna's blind school and when Jenna found out that Alison was returning she called Sydney for help. After Mona's supposed death Sydney and Jenna join Ali's army, believing that she was the one who killed Mona and fearing her. Jenna returns to Rosewood after Charlotte DiLaurentis' murder in 2017 and is now working for Uber A, as well working with Noel, Sydney, and Sara Harvey. It is also revealed that she was a part of the A-Team. She reveals that she was actually friends with Charlotte after her admission to Welby and was helping her track down Mary Drake. Jenna also knew Archer Dunhill and was working with him, as well. Jenna and Noel lure the Liars to a blind school to kill them, but their plan fails when Noel is killed and Jenna is knocked out by Mary Drake. Uber A rescues Jenna and takes her to an unknown lair, where she was assisting them in their final endgame. After the one year time jump, Jenna became a Life Skills Teacher at Rosewood High. She met with Alex Drake (who was pretending to be Spencer) and recognized her smell from when she was working for her. She called Toby and informed him that she didn't think Spencer was Spencer, leading them to discover the truth about the twins., Garrett Reynolds (Yani Gellman) (seasons 1–3) is a police officer investigating the case of Alison DiLaurentis' death, who is initially assigned to trail Spencer, a suspect in Alison's death. Although he appears to be sympathetic towards the girls, in reality he is secretly dating and in an alliance with Jenna Marshall. He was a member of N.A.T along with Jason and Ian, whom he went to high school with. Garrett and Jenna broke up. Aria and Spencer see Garrett watching them after they talk to the guy who Alison owed money to prior to her murder. Garrett then gets arrested for Alison's murder in front of Melissa. Later in season 3, Garrett is willing to tell Spencer everything he knows and tells her he will leave town right after. As he begins to tell her, they get interrupted. Aria is then seen trapped in a box, next to Garrett's dead body., Anne Sullivan (Annabeth Gish) (seasons 2–3, 6) is a therapist whom the girls are forced to see to deal with Alison's death. She is visited by A and attempts to reveal A's identity to the girls; A subsequently finds a way to keep her quiet. She returns once Mona ("A") has been caught and explains that Mona threatened the life of her son to get her to disappear. She then is the one to explain Mona's mental issues to the girls in the jail before Mona is put in a mental facility. She returns in season 3, relocating in Rosewood. She still helps the girls when they have problems, such as talking to Spencer when she was in Radley., Barry Maple (Jim Titus) (seasons 1–7) is a local police officer who is good friends with the parents of Rosewood. In a deleted scene for "Game Over, Charles", it is revealed that Barry actually helped CeCe Drake/"A" escape the night she was detained in "A Is for Answers". Barry told CeCe to hit him hard and take the car. CeCe suspects that her mother, Jessica, gave Barry an offer "he couldn't refuse"., Arthur Hackett (John O'Brien) (seasons 3–5, 7) is the vice principal at Rosewood High. Hackett is reintroduced to the series in the seventh season. He elists Emily to work as a swimming coach., Dianne Fitzgerald (Mary Page Keller) (season 3, 7) is the mother of Ezra and Wesley Fitzgerald. She is a rich and ruthless woman. Due to her controlling attitude, she is estranged from Ezra. On Season 7, Dianne returns to Ezra's wedding with Aria., Carla Grunwald (Meg Foster) (season 4, 5) is a psychic who lives in Ravenswood. First she denies knowing Alison, but later she admits that Alison had been calling her during the summer before she went missing. In season 5 Hanna asks her for help to search for Mona's body. List of Pretty Little Liars episodes Drew Van Acker (born April 2, 1986) is an American actor. He is known for playing Jason DiLaurentis, the older brother of Alison DiLaurentis (Sasha Pieterse), on Freeform's Pretty Little Liars (2010–2017) and Ian Archer in Cartoon Network's Tower Prep (2010). He has also starred as Remi Delatour on Lifetime's Devious Maids (2013–2015), and as Detective Tommy Campbell on the 2017 CBS police drama Training Day. Van Acker was born in New York, but lived in Medford, New Jersey his entire life. He attended Shawnee High School, where he began acting in their high school drama classes, where he also played on his school's soccer and lacrosse teams. His soccer abilities led him to receive a soccer scholarship to Towson University in Maryland. While attending Towson, Van Acker took a number of theater courses in order to refocus on acting. He then made the decision to move to New York City, followed by a move to Los Angeles. Van Acker's acting credits include Castle and ABC Family's Greek as well co- starring in the TheWB.com series The Lake. In 2010, Van Acker starred in the short-lived Cartoon Network live-action series Tower Prep. In June 2011, it was announced he had joined the cast of Pretty Little Liars as Jason DiLaurentis for the second season. Van Acker next appeared on Lifetime's Devious Maids as Remi Delatour. In 2017, he joined the CBS police drama Training Day as Detective Tommy Campbell. In 2019, Van Acker appeared as Garth/Aqualad in the DC Universe series Titans. Mona Vanderwaal is a fictional character in the Pretty Little Liars book series, its television adaptation, and the spin-off series . In the TV shows, she is portrayed by Janel Parrish. Introduced in Pretty Little Liars as Hanna Marin's best friend, Mona initially harbors a grudge against the protagonists, using her intelligence and resources to torment them anonymously as "A". In the third season of the TV series, Mona gains a partner who eventually takes control from her. Afterward, she forms an unstable alliance with the protagonists, becoming a victim of her own creation. Considered the most knowledgeable character in the series, Mona is versed in computer hacking, foreign languages, singing, empathy, and manipulation. Though introduced as a villainess, she eventually takes steps toward redemption. Mona is the first 'A' in the show and the book. Initially a supporting player, the TV character gained much popularity among viewers and critics, drawing recognition from Entertainment Weekly, CNN, MTV, and others, prompting producers to expand her role. In March 2015, PrettyLittleLiars.com named Mona the greatest Pretty Little Liars character. MTV also named her one of the best characters on television in 2014. During the TV series' run, producer I. Marlene King acknowledged Mona as a "beloved character." By the end of the show's run, Dana Getz of Bustle.com declared that Mona had become "the most important character in the series." Mona Vanderwaal was introduced in the first four Pretty Little Liars novels. A teenage resident of Rosewood, Pennsylvania, she has white-blonde hair, light blue eyes, and a few freckles. She is a formerly unpopular girl who was teased by Alison DiLaurentis and her friends, longing to be in their group. After Alison went missing, Mona befriended Alison's friend Hanna Marin, and they reinvented themselves as the 'it' girls of Rosewood Day. Mona is introduced as Hanna Marin's best friend. She was initially considered nerdy, but together with Hanna she transformed into a beautiful 'it' girl during the summer three years prior. She is invited to Noel Kahn's beginning of the semester party, where she kisses his older brother, Eric. Whenever the school's mean girls, Naomi and Riley, say something mean about Hanna, Mona is there for her. Mona and Hanna get into numerous fights and arguments about Hanna's old friends, Emily, Aria and Spencer, because Mona thinks that she has been spending more time with them than with her. As Mona's birthday is coming up, she chooses Naomi, Riley, Hanna and some other girls to be her "next-in-lines" so she goes to buy dresses with them. She chooses champagne-colored dresses, but gets in a fight with Hanna, whom she accuses of sabotaging her birthday party. Later on, Hanna gets a package with the champagne-colored dress, and thinks it was Mona who sent it. Happily, she puts it on and goes to Mona's party, even though the dress is too small. As she comes to the party, Naomi and Riley (who are in emerald dresses) give her weird looks, and when Mona comes out wearing the champagne-colored dress, Hanna realizes that "A" was the one who sent her the dress. Crying, she falls down and her dress rips, following the laughter of the party attendants, including Mona. Hanna tells Mona that she knows she got a liposuction because "A" sent her a message with the content, but Mona says that she should not believe everything she hears and calls her a liar. Later, Hanna gets a message from "A", but sees that it is not the usual blocked number. Even though she got a new phone and did not put in the phone-book yet, she recognizes the number and rushes to tell the girls, but gets hit by a car before she can do anything. After Hanna's car accident, Mona is there for her in the hospital every day, crying. When Hanna wakes up, Mona apologizes, making them friends again. Hanna cannot remember anything that happened at Mona's party, including the "who is A" part. Later, Mona gets in a fight with Lucas regarding a secret that she will not explain to Hanna. She gets a text message and tells Hanna that it is from a person named "A". Hanna has been getting the texts too and admits everything to Mona. Mona seems relieved and tells the other girls about it, too. As Spencer and Mona are on their way to the police station, Hanna remembers that "A" is Mona. The girls send a text message to Spencer, who tries to hide it, but Mona sees it and explains everything – how she discovered Alison's diary and found out all about her secret, and how she read that Alison was going to give Ian an ultimatum – either her or Melissa, bringing Mona to tell Spencer that Ian killed Alison. Mona tries to force Spencer to join her, but they get into a fight and Spencer pushes Mona to the Floating Man's Quarry, causing Mona to fall to her death. After that, Hanna is shaken up, is relieved to know who "A" is and who Alison's killer is. Mona is reported about in the news, and the residents of Rosewood find out about "A" and the Rosewood Stalker, who was also Mona. Hanna finds Mona's "A phone" and later deletes all the messages from Mona/"A" before handing it over to the police, protecting Mona because they were still best friends. Mona came to be "A" when she found Alison's diary when the St. Germain's moved into the DiLaurentis' old house and threw away Alison's old possessions. It is unclear if she knew about the twins or not when she was "A". In 2010, Pretty Little Liars was adapted into a television series. Janel Parrish initially auditioned for the role of Spencer Hastings, which went to Troian Bellisario. The Hollywood Reporter later revealed that Parrish had won the role of Mona Vanderwaal. In March 2012, she was promoted from recurring to series regular for the third season. In a 2014 interview, Parrish noted her fondness for the role she'd received, stating, "I'm in love with my character and in love with the show." Mona is introduced as an alluring and witty teenager, whose full intelligence is gradually revealed as the series progresses. It is eventually discovered that she can speak French, hack computers, sing, and do voice impressions. Her high IQ is further established in the Season 3 episode "Mona-Mania", when she competes against rival Spencer Hastings in a high-school quiz game, and ultimately wins. Mona was initially an unpopular girl in Rosewood who longed to be accepted into Alison DiLaurentis's clique and was continuously mocked by Alison. In the Season 2 finale, Alison's friends learn that Mona has used her talents to manipulate and torment them anonymously. It is also discovered that she has multiple personality disorder, according to her doctor. After Alison's disappearance, Mona befriended Hanna and together they underwent an "extreme makeover". During the process they became best friends, as well as two of the most popular students. With her newfound popularity, Mona behaves similarly to Alison, constantly bullying Lucas Gottesman in the same sense Alison did and even telling Hanna that she will cut ties with her before she lets her drag her back down to the bottom. In the mid-season finale, Mona invites the Liars to her birthday party, but uninvites Hanna after "A" sends her a fake message. Hanna and Mona become enemies after this, until Mona begins feeling remorse after Hanna is hit by "A" in a car at the party. They rekindle their friendship but it gradually falls apart again when Mona attempts to break up Hanna's relationship with Caleb. She becomes romantically involved with Noel Kahn, much to Hanna's disapproval, but is later dumped by him for Jenna Marshall. She and Hanna eventually become best friends again and Mona tries to become accepting of Caleb. When "A" begins sending threatening notes to Mona, she grows closer to the Liars and becomes a part of their group. In "Unmasked", Mona is still helping the Liars, who haven't fully accepted her yet, and volunteers to drive Spencer out to the Lost Woods Resort where they find "A's" lair. Here, it is revealed that "A" is actually Mona herself, who claims that she became "A" because of the Liars taking Hanna away from her and never doing anything to prevent Alison's bullying. She and Spencer get into a fight near a cliff and Mona is accidentally pushed off. She survives, however, and is committed to the Radley Sanitarium, after being diagnosed with multiple personality disorder. Here, she is approached by someone, who wants to start a partnership and form an "A" Team. Parrish, who had learned of "A's" identity in the novels, revealed she was pleased that the situation had not been changed in the TV series. Mona joins forces with a girl known as Red Coat and begins recruiting people for the "A" Team, including Toby Cavanaugh and Lucas Gottesman, while still staying at Radley. At Radley, Mona secretly gives answers to Hanna concerning Maya's death. Possibly unbeknownst to Big "A", she secretly gives Maya's website to Hanna in code, leading the Liars to eventually discover that Nate killed Maya. She is eventually released from Radley and returns to Rosewood High. She also recruits Spencer Hastings to join the team. In the finale, Mona reveals that she doesn't know the identity of Red Coat. She divulges to the Liars that Red Coat approached her in Radley and gave her a way in and out of Radley. Mona claims that the two of them were initially partners, and Mona considered it fun playing the game with someone else, but Red Coat eventually stole the Liars from her and took over. Mona later gets kicked off the "A" Team, becoming a victim of the monster she created and reluctantly joining the Liars. Mona is still allied with Liars until she begins helping Ezra Fitz with his book, because he blackmailed to expose her illegal "A" activities. She also begins dating Mike Montgomery, so that she may get closer to Aria, but actually falls for him during the process. In the finale, Alison reveals that Mona helped her the night she went missing and convinced her to go into hiding, giving Mona what she always wanted: Alison gone. Upon finding out that Alison is returning, Mona starts an army of Alison haters to prepare for her return. The team consists of Lucas, Melissa, Jenna, Sydney, and others treated badly by Alison. In the mid-season finale, she is supposedly killed by "A" after acquiring information that proves Alison is the alleged anonymous tormentor. In the second half of the season, it is revealed that Mona never believed Alison was "A" and that she faked her death as part of "A's" plan to get Alison into jail, so that she could find out their true identity. She now has blonde hair and is locked inside "A's" dollhouse, being forced to pretend to be Alison. In "Game On, Charles," Mona is locked outside of the dollhouse along with the other Liars as a punishment for trying to escape. They are eventually let back in the dollhouse but Mona is taken away by "A" and taken to the hole, while the other girls experience their own personal torture. Alison, Ezra and Caleb unite in a plan which leads to rescue. Mona's mother takes her away from Rosewood to recuperate from the trauma of the experience. Mona returns to Rosewood in "She's No Angel" and is nervous of what Alison will do to her after learning that she staged her death and framed her for it. She arrives at Hanna's house and they decide to go to the police station to report her return. They stop off at the Grill on the way and encounter Leslie. Leslie is not happy that Mona mentioned her name in her fake death and threatens both Hanna and Mona if her name is mentioned to do with Mona ever again. Later in the episode Spencer sees Mona posting a card into Alison's letterbox. Spencer asks Mona if she was in a room that appeared in Spencer's dream of the dollhouse. Mona says that it must exist in her head. The girls sneak into Radley to see if there is any evidence of Charles Dilaurentis. While there, they encounter Mona who is stealing Leslie's file. Mona tells the other girls that she met Leslie in Radley. This enforces the girls theory that Leslie is "A". At the end of the episode Mona is seen on the phone to Leslie saying that she failed to keep her time in Radley a secret. Leslie said that Mona is useless and messes everything up like usual. Mona appears at the ending of "No Stone Unturned". The Liars are investigating around Leslie's animal lab to see what she is hiding when suddenly the lights go out and Mona emerges. The girls ask why Mona is following them again and she explains that she is trying to stop the lab from suing them. Spencer shows Mona the records that Charles is dead and was a liver donor. Mona says that it is impossible that Charles was a liver donor because he would not have been an eligible donor with all the medication he was on. The security guard comes by the door and the girls turn off the light and Mona also hides. In "Oh Brother, Where Art Thou," Mona and the Liars go to Mona's bedroom expecting to meet Leslie. Leslie texts Mona to tell her that she will not be coming to meet them as confrontations could set her recovery back. Aria thinks that they should drive over to Leslie's house because she knows more about Charles than she is letting on. Mona says that if Leslie knew more about Charles then she would have told her. Later in the episode Mona and Mike reconcile with each other, but she thinks that he should stay away from her because she deserved to be in the dollhouse. Mike ends this by kissing Mona passionately. Alison gets a lift from Mona. Alison says that Mona was the only one that picked up the phone to her. Alison calls the police and confesses that Charles Dilaurentis is "A" and her brother. Mona says she shouldn't have done that. In "Game Over, Charles," it is revealed that CeCe Drake is Big "A". She joined forces with Mona to get in and out of Radley and took on the Red Coat disguise as well. She also hired Sara Harvey to act as Red Coat whenever she needed her to be, and Sara was the person who was communicating with Mona the night of the Lodge fire. It is also revealed that Mona is the person who hit Bethany Young with a shovel, believing her to be Alison. In the final season, Mona teams up with the others against the new "A", known as "A.D.". Mona helps them figure out that Aria is on the "A.D." Team. However, Mona is revealed to be Charlotte Drake's killer. She and Charlotte/CeCe got into a fight in the Bell Tower, after Mona threatened her. Mona accidentally pushed Charlotte into a sharp piece of metal on the wall, killing her. During the series finale, "A.D." sends Wren in her place to kill Mona, but Mona offers to join the "A.D." Team instead and works with Uber "A" against the girls, wearing a Melissa mask and delivering Spencer to them. However, she figures out that Spencer's twin, Alex Drake, is "A.D." and hatches a plan. She helps the Liars thwart Alex's plans and brings a police officer to arrest her and Mary. However, the "officer" is actually Mona's French boyfriend and Mona and her new boyfriend have brought Mary and Alex to France to live in her own personal Dollhouse, underneath the doll shop she owns, thus revealing that Mona has won the "A" game and is the final and ultimate "A". Appearing in the penultimate segment, she is the last of the longtime characters to be seen in the series, surpassing even the Liars, prior to an epilogue. The show's breakout player, Mona Vanderwaal was named the greatest character in the TV series by PrettyLittleLiars.com, which cited her cleverness, multiple layers, and chemistry with Spencer Hastings and Hanna Marin. MTV named Mona one of the best characters on television in 2014, labeling her "smart, ferocious, and consistently interesting." In reviews for Bustle.com, Kaitlin Reilly called Mona "complicated, brilliant, and perpetually paradoxical", while Caitlin Flynn stated, "No one keeps viewers guessing quite as much as Mona." In a related review, Dana Getz declared that Mona "quietly became the most important character in the series." Bustle also noted Mona's character development, declaring that she had "redeemed herself in the later seasons of the show". Similarly, Heather Hogan of AutoStraddle.com identified Mona as central to the show's theme of redemption, labeling the character "practically perfect in every way" and recognizing her as "the best and most beloved character on Pretty Little Liars." I. Marlene King, a producer of the TV series, acknowledged Mona as "a beloved character" during the series' run, prompting producers to expand Mona's role beyond her arc in the novels. Mona's revelation as "A" in the episode "UnmAsked" received much media attention. Zach Johnson of Us Weekly called the development "shocking" and "intense." Bustle.coms Kaitlin Reilly labeled the scene "amazing." Stephanie Goldberg of CNN was less positive, finding the revelation "obvious" while also citing a lack of change from the book series. Seventeen magazine's Michelle King noted that the episode sent "chills up our spine," and reviewed it favorably. At the conclusion of the TV series, an article from Hypable.com lauded Mona's impact on the show, calling her "Brilliant, hilarious, brave, and beautiful," also labeling the character "always fun to watch". In a review of the series finale, Louise McCreesh of Digital Spy called Mona the show's "one true hero", citing her role in bringing down the final antagonist. Janel Parrish felt that her character got a perfect ending. Writers for numerous media outlets, including Entertainment Weekly, Hypable.com, BuddyTV, and Bustle.com, called for a spin-off focusing on Mona Vanderwaal. Jessica Goldstein of Vulture highlighted Mona's fashion choices while also praising her relationship with Mike Montgomery, saying, "I like her little Breakfast at Tiffany's look, her winged eyeliner, and even her overdone updo, because such devotion to hairspray seems very Mona-esque to me." ABC Family Biography

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LeBron Raymone James Sr. (; born December 30, 1984) is an American professional basketball player for the Los Angeles Lakers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). Often compared to Michael Jordan for the title of the greatest basketball player of all time, his accomplishments include three NBA championships, four NBA Most Valuable Player Awards, three NBA Finals MVP Awards, and two Olympic gold medals. James has appeared in fifteen NBA All-Star Games and been named NBA All-Star MVP three times. He is the all- time NBA playoffs scoring leader, is fourth in all-time NBA points scored, and is eighth in all-time NBA assists. He has been voted onto the All-NBA First Team a record twelve times and the All-Defensive First Team five times. James played basketball for St. Vincent–St. Mary High School in his hometown of Akron, Ohio, where he was heavily touted by the national media as a future NBA superstar. A prep-to-pro, he joined the Cleveland Cavaliers in 2003 as the first overall draft pick. Named the 2003–04 NBA Rookie of the Year, he soon established himself as one of the league's premier players; he won the NBA Most Valuable Player Award in 2009 and 2010. After failing to win a championship with Cleveland, James left in 2010 to sign as a free agent with the Miami Heat. This move was announced in an ESPN special titled The Decision, and is one of the most controversial free agent decisions in American sports history. James won his first two NBA championships while playing for the Miami Heat in 2012 and 2013; in both of these years, he also earned league MVP and Finals MVP. After his fourth season with the Heat in 2014, James opted out of his contract to re-sign with the Cavaliers. In 2016, he led the Cavaliers to victory over the Golden State Warriors in the NBA Finals, delivering the franchise's first championship and ending Cleveland's 52-year professional sports title drought. His teams appeared in the NBA Finals in eight consecutive seasons (from 2011 to 2018). In 2018, James opted out of his contract with the Cavaliers to sign with the Lakers. Off the court, James has accumulated additional wealth and fame from numerous endorsement contracts. His public life has been the subject of much scrutiny, and he has been ranked as one of America's most influential and popular athletes. He has been featured in books, documentaries, and television commercials. He has also hosted the ESPY Awards and Saturday Night Live, and appeared in the 2015 film Trainwreck. James was born on December 30, 1984 in Akron, Ohio to Gloria Marie James, who was 16 at the time of his birth. His father, Anthony McClelland, has an extensive criminal record and was not involved in his life. When James was growing up, life was often a struggle for the family, as they moved from apartment to apartment in the seedier neighborhoods of Akron while Gloria struggled to find steady work. Realizing that her son would be better off in a more stable family environment, Gloria allowed him to move in with the family of Frank Walker, a local youth football coach who introduced James to basketball when he was nine years old. James began playing organized basketball in the fifth grade. He later played Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) basketball for the Northeast Ohio Shooting Stars. The team enjoyed success on a local and national level, led by James and his friends Sian Cotton, Dru Joyce III, and Willie McGee. The group dubbed themselves the "Fab Four" and promised each other that they would attend high school together. In a move that stirred local controversy, they chose to attend St. Vincent–St. Mary High School, a private Catholic school with predominantly white students. As a freshman, James averaged 21 points and 6 rebounds per game for the St. Vincent-St. Mary varsity basketball team. The Fighting Irish went 27–0 en route to the Division III state title, making them the only boys high school team in Ohio to finish the season undefeated. As a sophomore, James averaged 25.2 points and 7.2 rebounds with 5.8 assists and 3.8 steals per game. For some home games during the season, St. Vincent-St. Mary played at the University of Akron's 5,492-seat Rhodes Arena to satisfy ticket demand from alumni, fans, as well as college and NBA scouts who wanted to see James play. The Fighting Irish finished the season 26–1 and repeated as state champions. For his outstanding play, James was named Ohio Mr. Basketball and selected to the USA Today All-USA First Team, becoming the first sophomore to do either. Before the start of his junior year, James was featured in Slam, an American basketball magazine, and writer Ryan Jones lauded him as possibly "the best high school basketball player in America right now". During the season, he also appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated, becoming the first high school basketball underclassman to do so. With averages of 29 points, 8.3 rebounds, 5.7 assists, and 3.3 steals per game, he was again named Ohio Mr. Basketball and selected to the USA Today All-USA First Team, and became the first junior to be named male basketball Gatorade National Player of the Year. St. Vincent-St. Mary finished the year with a 23–4 record, ending their season with a loss in the Division II championship game. Following the loss, James unsuccessfully petitioned for a change to the NBA's draft eligibility rules in an attempt to enter the 2002 NBA draft. During this time, he used marijuana, which he said was to help cope with the stress that resulted from the constant media attention he was receiving. Throughout his senior year, James and the Fighting Irish traveled around the country to play a number of nationally ranked teams, including a game against Oak Hill Academy that was nationally televised on ESPN2. Time Warner Cable, looking to capitalize on James's popularity, offered St. Vincent-St. Mary's games to subscribers on a pay-per- view basis throughout the season. For the year, James averaged 31.6 points, 9.6 rebounds, 4.6 assists, and 3.4 steals per game, was named Ohio Mr. Basketball and selected to the USA Today All-USA First Team for an unprecedented third consecutive year, and was named Gatorade National Player of the Year for the second consecutive year. He participated in three year-end high school basketball all-star games—the EA Sports Roundball Classic, the Jordan Capital Classic, and the McDonald's All-American Game—losing his National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) eligibility and making it official that he would enter the 2003 NBA draft. Also during his senior year, James was the centerpiece of several controversies. For his 18th birthday, he skirted state amateur bylaws by accepting a Hummer H2 as a gift from his mother, who had secured a loan for the vehicle by utilizing James's future earning power as an NBA superstar. This prompted an investigation by the Ohio High School Athletic Association (OHSAA) because its guidelines stated that no amateur may accept any gift valued over $100 as a reward for athletic performance. James was cleared of any wrongdoing because he had accepted the luxury vehicle from a family member and not from an agent or any outside source. Later in the season, James accepted two throwback jerseys worth $845 from an urban clothing store in exchange for posing for pictures, officially violating OHSAA rules and resulting in him being stripped of his high school sports eligibility. James appealed the ruling and his penalty was eventually dropped to a two-game suspension, allowing him to play the remainder of the year. The Irish were also forced to forfeit one of their wins, their only official loss that season. In his first game back after the suspension, James scored a career-high 52 points. St. Vincent-St. Mary went on to win the Division II championship, marking their third division title in four years. As an underclassman, James played wide receiver for St. Vincent-St. Mary's football team. He was recruited by some Division I programs, including Notre Dame. At the conclusion of his sophomore year, he was named first team all- state, and as a junior, he helped lead the Fighting Irish to the state semifinals. He did not play during his senior year because of a wrist injury that he sustained in an AAU basketball game. Some sports analysts, football critics, high school coaches, former and current players have speculated that James could have played in the National Football League. James was selected by his hometown team, the Cleveland Cavaliers, as the first overall pick of the 2003 NBA draft. In his first regular season game, he scored 25 points against the Sacramento Kings, setting an NBA record for most points scored by a prep-to-pro player in his debut performance. At the conclusion of the season, he became the first Cavalier to receive the NBA Rookie of the Year Award, and with final averages of 20.9 points, 5.5 rebounds, and 5.9 assists per game, he also became just the third player in league history to average at least 20 points, 5 rebounds, and 5 assists per game as a rookie. Cleveland ultimately finished the season 35–47, failing to make the playoffs despite an 18-game improvement over the previous year. James earned his first NBA All-Star Game selection in 2004–05, contributing 13 points, 8 rebounds, and 6 assists in a winning effort for the Eastern Conference. Around the league, teams took note of his rapid development, with Denver Nuggets coach George Karl telling Sports Illustrated, "It's weird talking about a 20-year-old kid being a great player, but he is a great player ... He's the exception to almost every rule." On March 20, James scored 56 points against the Toronto Raptors, setting Cleveland's new single-game points record. With final averages of 27.2 points, 7.4 rebounds, 7.2 assists, and 2.2 steals per game, he was named to his first All-NBA Team. Despite a 30–20 record to start the year, the Cavaliers again failed to make the playoffs, finishing the season 42–40. At the 2006 All-Star Game, James led the East to victory with 29 points and was named the NBA All-Star Game Most Valuable Player. Behind final season averages of 31.4 points, 7 rebounds, and 6.6 assists per game, he also finished second in overall NBA Most Valuable Player Award voting to Steve Nash. Under James's leadership, the Cavaliers qualified for the playoffs for the first time since 1998. In his postseason debut, James recorded a triple-double in a winning effort versus the Washington Wizards. In Game 3 of the series, he made the first game-winning shot of his career, making another in Game 5. Cleveland would go on to defeat the Wizards before being ousted by the Detroit Pistons in the second round. In 2006–07, James's averages declined to 27.3 points, 6.7 rebounds, 6 assists, and 1.6 steals per game. Some analysts attributed the fall to a regression in his passing skills and shot selection, which stemmed from a lack of effort and focus. The Cavaliers finished the season with 50 wins for the second consecutive year and entered the playoffs as the East's second seed. In Game 5 of the NBA Conference Finals, James notched 48 points with 9 rebounds and 7 assists, scoring 29 of Cleveland's last 30 points, including the game-winning layup with two seconds left, against the Pistons. After the game, play-by-play announcer Marv Albert called the performance "one of the greatest moments in postseason history" and color commentator Steve Kerr described it as "Jordan- esque". In 2012, ESPN ranked the performance the fourth greatest in modern NBA playoff history. The Cavaliers went on to win Game 6 and claim their first- ever Eastern Conference championship, earning them a matchup with the San Antonio Spurs in the NBA Finals. During the championship round, James struggled, averaging 22 points, 7.0 rebounds, and 6.8 assists per game on just 35.6 percent shooting, and Cleveland was eliminated in a sweep. In February of the 2007–08 season, James was named All-Star Game MVP for the second time behind a 27-point, 8-rebound, and 9-assist performance. On March 21, he moved past Brad Daugherty as the Cavaliers' all-time leading scorer in a game against the Raptors, doing so in over 100 less games than Daugherty. His 30 points per game were also the highest in the league, marking his first scoring title. Despite his individual accomplishments, Cleveland's record fell from the year before to 45–37. Seeded fourth in the East entering the playoffs, the Cavaliers defeated the Wizards in the first round for the third consecutive season before being eliminated in seven games by the eventual-champion Boston Celtics in the next round. During the decisive seventh game in Boston, James scored 45 points and Paul Pierce scored 41 in a game the Associated Press described as a "shootout". At the conclusion of the 2008–09 season, James finished second in NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award voting and made his first NBA All-Defensive Team, posting 23 chase-down blocks and a career-high 93 total blocks. He also became only the fourth postmerger player to lead his team in points, rebounds, assists, steals, and blocks in a single season. Behind his play and the acquisition of All-Star guard Mo Williams, Cleveland went a franchise record 66–16 and fell just one game short of matching the best home record in league history. With final averages of 28.4 points, 7.6 rebounds, 7.2 assists, 1.7 steals, and 1.2 blocks per game, James became the first Cavalier to win the MVP Award. Reflecting on James's performance for ESPN, John Hollinger later wrote, "He's having what is arguably the greatest individual season in history, and it's time we gave him his due for it." In the playoffs, Cleveland swept the Pistons and the Atlanta Hawks to earn a matchup with the Orlando Magic in the Conference Finals. In Game 1 of the series, James scored 49 points on 66 percent shooting in a losing effort for the Cavaliers. In Game 2, he hit a game-winner to tie the series at 1–1. Cleveland would lose the series in six games, and following the loss in Game 6, James immediately left the floor without shaking hands with his opponents, which was an act that many media members viewed as unsportsmanlike. For the series, he averaged 38.5 points, 8.3 rebounds, and 8 assists per game, finishing the postseason with a career playoff-high 35.3 points per game. In February of the 2009–10 season, James was forced into a temporary point guard role following a series of injuries to players in the Cavaliers' backcourt. Behind his leadership, Cleveland lost no momentum, finishing the year with the best record in the league for the second consecutive season. Due in part to his increased minutes as the Cavaliers' primary ball handler, James increased his statistical production, averaging 29.7 points, 7.3 rebounds, 8.6 assists, 1.6 steals, and 1 block per game on 50 percent shooting en route to another MVP Award. To open the playoffs, Cleveland advanced past the Bulls to earn a matchup with the Celtics in the second round. James was heavily criticized for not playing well in Game 5 of the series, shooting only 20 percent on 14 shots and scoring 15 points. The team suffered its worst loss in franchise history, and at the conclusion of the game, James walked off the court to a smattering of boos from Cleveland's home crowd. The Cavaliers were officially eliminated from the postseason in Game 6, with James posting 27 points, 19 rebounds, 10 assists, and nine turnovers in the losing effort. James became an unrestricted free agent at 12:01 am EDT on July 1, 2010. During this time, he was contacted by several teams, including the Bulls, Los Angeles Clippers, Miami Heat, New York Knicks, New Jersey Nets, and Cavaliers. On July 8, he announced on a live ESPN special titled The Decision that he would sign with the Heat. The telecast was broadcast from the Boys & Girls Club of Greenwich, Connecticut and raised $2.5 million for the charity. An additional $3.5 million was raised from advertising revenue, which was donated to other charities. The day before the special, fellow free agents Chris Bosh and Dwyane Wade also announced that they would sign with Miami; reports later arose that back in 2006 the trio had discussed among themselves their upcoming 2010 free agencies. James decided to join with Bosh and Wade in part so that he could shoulder less of the offensive load; he thought that his improved teammates would give him a better chance of winning an NBA championship than had he stayed in Cleveland. Heat president Pat Riley played a major role in selling James on the idea of playing with Bosh and Wade. James would be relieved of the burden of scoring, and he thought he could be the first player since Oscar Robertson to average a triple-double in a season. Upon leaving the Cavaliers, James drew intense criticism from sports analysts, executives, fans, and current and former players. The Decision itself was also scrutinized and viewed as unnecessary. Many thought that the prolonged wait for James's choice was unprofessional as not even the teams courting him were aware of his decision until moments before the show. Upon learning that James would not be returning to Cleveland, Cavaliers owner Dan Gilbert published an open letter to fans in which he aggressively denounced James's actions. Some angry fans of the team recorded videos of themselves burning his jersey. Former NBA players, including Michael Jordan and Magic Johnson, were also critical of James, condemning him for joining with Bosh and Wade in Miami and not trying to win a championship as "the man". James drew further criticism in a September interview with CNN when he claimed that race might have been a factor in the fallout from The Decision. As a result of his actions during the 2010 free agency period, he quickly gained a reputation as one of America's most disliked athletes, which was a radical change from prior years. The phrase "taking my talents to South Beach" became a punch line for critics. In retrospect, James has expressed some regret over his handling of The Decision. James officially signed with the Heat on July 10, 2010. With the move, he became only the third reigning MVP to change teams and the first since Moses Malone in 1982. That evening, the Heat threw a welcome party for their new "big three" at the American Airlines Arena, an event that took on a rock concert atmosphere. During the gathering, James predicted a dynasty for the Heat and alluded to multiple championships. Outside of Miami, the spectacle was not well-received, furthering the negative public perception of James. Throughout the 2010–11 season, the media and opposing fanbases treated James and the Heat as villains. To begin the year, they struggled to adjust to these new circumstances, going only 9–8 after 17 games. James later admitted that the constant negativity surrounding the team made him play with an angrier demeanor than in years past. On December 2, James faced the Cavaliers in Cleveland for the first time since departing as a free agent. He scored 38 points and led Miami to a win while being booed every time he touched the ball. The Heat eventually turned their season around and finished as the East's second seed, with James averaging 26.7 points, 7.5 rebounds, and 7 assists per game on 51 percent shooting. In the conference semifinals, James and his teammates found themselves matched up with the Celtics for the second consecutive year. In Game 5, he scored Miami's last ten points to help seal a series-clinching win. After the final buzzer, he famously knelt on the court in an emotional moment, later telling reporters that it was an extremely personal victory for him and the team. The Heat eventually advanced to the Finals, where they were defeated by the Dallas Mavericks in six games. James received the brunt of the criticism for the loss, averaging only three points in fourth quarters in the series. His Finals scoring average of 17.8 points per game signified an 8.9-point drop from the regular season, the largest point drop-off in league history. James was humbled by the Heat's loss to the Mavericks, and the experience inspired him to leave behind the villain role that he had been embracing, which helped him regain a sense of joy on the court. He also decided that his post game needed improvement, so he worked with Hakeem Olajuwon during the offseason. Behind James's significantly-expanded skillset, Miami began the year with a franchise-best 18–6 record. He was eventually named MVP for the third time, finishing with averages of 27.1 points, 7.9 rebounds, 6.2 assists, and 1.9 steals per game on 53 percent shooting. In the second round of the playoffs, Miami temporarily lost Chris Bosh to an abdominal injury and found themselves trailing the Indiana Pacers 2–1. James responded with a 40-point, 18-rebound, and 9-assist outing in Game 4 to help even the series. To compensate for Bosh's absence, the Heat embraced a small-ball lineup with James at power forward, which they retained even after Bosh's return in the Conference Finals against the Celtics. Facing elimination in Game 6, James recorded 45 points and 15 rebounds to lead the Heat to victory in what The New York Times called a "career-defining performance". Miami won Game 7 to advance to the Finals, earning them a matchup with the Oklahoma City Thunder and James's budding rival, Kevin Durant. Late in Game 4 of the series, James hit a three-pointer to give the Heat a lead, helping them win the game despite missing time with leg cramps. In Game 5, he registered a triple-double as Miami defeated Oklahoma City for their second-ever championship and James's first championship. James was unanimously voted the Bill Russell NBA Finals Most Valuable Player with averages of 28.6 points, 10.2 rebounds, and 7.4 assists per game. His full postseason run, in which he averaged 30.3 points, 9.7 rebounds, and 5.6 assists per game, was later ranked the second best in modern NBA history by ESPN. In February of the 2012–13 season, James averaged 29.7 points and 7.8 assists per game while setting multiple shooting efficiency records. That same month, the Heat also began a 27-game winning streak, which is the third longest in NBA history. Based on these accomplishments, James's performance was described as a "month for the ages" by Sports Illustrated. Miami eventually finished the year with a franchise and league best 66–16 record, and James was named MVP for the fourth time, falling just one vote shy of becoming the first player in NBA history to win the award unanimously. His final season averages were 26.8 points, 8 rebounds, 7.3 assists, and 1.7 steals per game on 56.5 percent shooting. In Game 1 of the Conference Finals, James scored a buzzer-beating layup to give Miami a one- point victory against the Pacers. Throughout the series, his supporting cast struggled significantly, and his added scoring load prompted him to compare his responsibilities to those of his "Cleveland days". Despite these struggles, the Heat advanced to the Finals for a meeting with the Spurs, signifying a rematch for James from his first Finals six years earlier. At the beginning of the series, he was criticized for his lack of aggressiveness and poor shot selection as Miami fell behind 2–3. In Game 6, he recorded his second triple-double of the series, including 16 fourth quarter points, to lead the Heat to a comeback victory. In Game 7, he tied the Finals record for most points scored in a Game 7 victory, leading Miami over San Antonio with 37 points. He was named Finals MVP for the second straight season, averaging 25.3 points, 10.9 rebounds, 7 assists, and 2.3 steals per game for the championship round. On March 3 of the 2013–14 season, James scored a career-high and franchise- record 61 points in a game against the Charlotte Bobcats. Throughout the year, he was one of the few staples for a Heat roster that used 20 different starting lineups due to injuries, finishing with averages of 27.1 points, 6.9 rebounds, and 6.4 assists per game on 56.7 percent shooting. In the second round of the playoffs, he tied a career postseason-high by scoring 49 points in Game 4 against the Brooklyn Nets. In the next round, Miami defeated the Pacers to earn their fourth consecutive Finals berth, becoming one of only four teams in NBA history to do so. In Game 1 of the Finals, James missed most of the fourth quarter because of leg cramps, helping the Spurs take an early series lead. In Game 2, he led the Heat to a series-tying victory with 35 points on a 64 percent shooting rate. San Antonio eventually eliminated the Heat in five games, ending Miami's quest for a three-peat. For the Finals, James averaged 28.2 points, 7.8 rebounds, and 2.0 steals per game. On June 25, 2014, James opted out of his contract with the Heat, and on July 1, he officially became an unrestricted free agent. On July 11, he revealed via a first-person essay in Sports Illustrated that he intended to return to the Cavaliers. In contrast to The Decision, his announcement to return to Cleveland was well received. On July 12, he officially signed with the team, who had compiled a league-worst 97–215 record in the four seasons following his departure. A month after James's signing, the Cavaliers acquired Kevin Love from the Minnesota Timberwolves, forming a new star trio along with Kyrie Irving. In January of the 2014–15 season, James missed two weeks due to left knee and lower back strains, which represented the longest stretch of missed games in his career. In total, he played a career-low 69 games and his final averages were 25.3 points, 6 rebounds, and 7.4 assists per game. In the second round of the playoffs, he hit a baseline jumper at the buzzer to give Cleveland a 2–2 series tie with the Bulls. In the Conference Finals, the Cavaliers defeated the Hawks to advance to the Finals, making James the first player since the 1960s to play in five consecutive Finals. For most of the Finals against the Golden State Warriors, Irving and Love were sidelined due to injury, giving James more offensive responsibilities. Behind his leadership, the Cavaliers opened the series with a 2–1 lead before being eliminated in six games. Despite the loss, he received serious consideration for the Finals MVP Award, averaging 35.8 points, 13.3 rebounds, and 8.8 assists per game for the championship round. During the 2015–16 season, James was criticized for his role in several off-court controversies, including the midseason firing of Cavaliers' coach David Blatt. Despite these distractions, Cleveland finished the year with 57 wins and the best record in the East. James's final averages were 25.3 points, 7.4 rebounds, and 6.8 assists per game on 52 percent shooting. In the playoffs, the Cavaliers advanced comfortably to the Finals, losing only two games en route to a rematch with the Warriors, who were coming off a record-setting 73-win season. To begin the series, Cleveland fell behind 3–1, including two blowout losses. James responded by registering back-to-back 41 point games in Games 5 and 6, leading the Cavaliers to two consecutive wins to stave off elimination. In Game 7, he posted a triple-double and made a number of key plays, including "The Block" on Andre Iguodala, as Cleveland emerged victorious, winning the city's first professional sports title in 52 years and becoming the first team in NBA history to come back from a 3–1 series deficit in the Finals. James became just the third player to record a triple-double in an NBA Finals Game 7, and behind series averages of 29.7 points, 11.3 rebounds, 8.9 assists, 2.3 blocks, and 2.6 steals per game, he also became the first player in league history to lead both teams in all five statistical categories for a playoff round, culminating in a unanimous Finals MVP selection. The 2016–17 season was marred by injuries and unexpected losses for the Cavaliers; James later described it as one of the "strangest" years of his career. Following a January defeat to the New Orleans Pelicans, he publicly criticized Cleveland's front office for constructing a team that he felt was too "top heavy", for which he received countercriticism. The Cavaliers finished the season as the East's second seed, with James averaging 26.4 points and career highs in rebounds (8.6), assists (8.7), and turnovers (4.1) per game. In Game 3 of the first round of the postseason, he registered 41 points, 13 rebounds, and 12 assists against the Pacers, leading Cleveland to a comeback victory after trailing by 25 points at halftime, representing the largest halftime deficit overcome in NBA playoff history. In Game 5 of the Conference Finals against the Celtics, James scored 35 points and surpassed Michael Jordan as the league's all-time postseason scoring leader. The Cavaliers won the game and the series, advancing to their third consecutive Finals against the Warriors, who had signed James' rival Kevin Durant during the offseason. Behind averages of 33.6 points, 12 rebounds, and 10 assists per game, James became the first player to average a triple-double in the Finals, but Cleveland was defeated in five games. Prior to the start of the 2017–18 season, the Cavaliers overhauled their roster by trading Kyrie Irving to the Celtics, who requested a trade in part because he no longer wanted to play with James. After a slow start to the year, Cleveland rebounded by winning 18 of 19 games in December. Their turnaround began with a victory over the Wizards where James scored 57 points, which represented the second-highest point total of his career and tied a franchise record. In January, the Cavaliers had a losing record, and James was criticized for his lackluster effort. Following another round of trades in February, Cleveland returned to form and James reached a number of historical milestones; for example, on March 30, he set an NBA record with 867 straight games scoring in double digits. James eventually finished the season with averages of 27.5 points, 8.6 rebounds, and a career-high 9.2 assists and 4.2 turnovers per game. In the playoffs, he guided the Cavaliers to another Finals rematch with the Warriors. Along the way, he had some of the most memorable moments of his career, including a game-winning shot against the Pacers and another against the Raptors. In the first game of the Finals, James scored a playoff career-high 51 points, but Cleveland was defeated in overtime. Following the defeat, James injured his hand after punching a wall in the locker room, which hindered his effectiveness for the remainder of the series. The Cavaliers lost the series in four games, with James averaging 34 points, 8.5 rebounds, and 10 assists per game for the Finals. On June 29, 2018, James opted out of his contract with the Cavaliers and became an unrestricted free agent. On July 1, his management company, Klutch Sports, announced that he would sign with the Los Angeles Lakers; the deal was officially completed on July 9. In an interview with Sports Illustrated, James's agent, Rich Paul, explained, "In 2010, when he went to Miami, it was about championships. In 2014, when he went back to Cleveland, it was about delivering on a promise. In 2018, it was just about doing what he wants to do." Reaction to the move was more positive than his original departure from the Cavaliers, albeit still mixed, as some onlookers felt that Los Angeles was not his optimal destination. Following James's signing, the Lakers rounded out their roster with a controversial collection of playmakers and veterans. As a result, to begin the 2018–19 season, the team struggled to find effective lineups and recorded only two wins through their first seven games. In November, they began a turnaround, which included two of James's strongest performances of the season. On November 14, he registered 44 points, 10 rebounds, and nine assists in a victory against the Portland Trail Blazers, and four days later he scored a season-high 51 points in a win over the Heat. After blowing out the Warriors on Christmas Day, Los Angeles improved their record to 20–14, but James suffered a groin injury in the process. He ultimately missed a career-high 17 consecutive games, and the Lakers fell out of playoff contention without him. The team was unable to recover and failed to qualify for the postseason, marking the first time that James missed the playoffs since 2005 and the first time he failed to reach the Finals since 2010. On March 7, the Lakers announced that James would begin a minutes restriction, and on March 30, he was officially ruled out for the remainder of the season. James's final averages were 27.4 points, 8.5 rebounds, and 8.3 assists per game, and despite his inconsistent campaign, he was ultimately named to the All-NBA Third Team, marking the first time in 12 years that he did not make the All-NBA First Team. James made his debut for the United States national team at the 2004 Olympics in Athens, Greece. He spent the Games mostly on the bench, averaging 14.6 minutes per game with 5.8 points and 2.6 rebounds per game in eight games. Team USA finished the competition with a bronze medal, becoming the first U.S. basketball team to return home without a gold medal since adding active NBA players to their lineup. James felt his limited playing time was a "lowlight" and believed he was not given "a fair opportunity to play". His attitude during the Olympics was described as "disrespectful" and "distasteful" by columnists Adrian Wojnarowski and Peter Vecsey, respectively. At the 2006 FIBA World Championship in Japan, James took on a greater role for Team USA, averaging 13.9 points, 4.8 rebounds, and 4.1 assists per game as co-captain. The team finished the tournament with an 8–1 record, winning another bronze medal. James's behavior was again questioned, this time by teammate Bruce Bowen, who confronted James during tryouts regarding his treatment of staff members. Before naming James to the 2008 Olympic team, Team USA managing director Jerry Colangelo and coach Mike Krzyzewski gave James an ultimatum to improve his attitude, and he heeded their advice. At the FIBA Americas Championship 2007, he averaged 18.1 points, 3.6 rebounds, and 4.7 assists per game, including a 31-point performance against Argentina in the championship game, the most ever by an American in an Olympic qualifier. Team USA went 10–0, winning the gold medal and qualifying for the 2008 Olympics in Beijing, China. James credited the team's attitude and experience for their improvement, saying: "I don't think we understood what it meant to put on a USA uniform and all the people that we were representing in 2004. We definitely know that now." At the Olympics, Team USA went unbeaten, winning their first gold medal since 2000. In the final game, James turned in 14 points, 6 rebounds, and 3 assists against Spain. James did not play at the 2010 FIBA World Championship but rejoined Team USA for the 2012 Olympics in London, England. He became the leader of the team with Kobe Bryant, who would soon be 34, stepping back. James facilitated the offense from the post and perimeter, called the defensive sets, and provided scoring when needed. During a game against Australia, he recorded the first triple-double in U.S. Olympic basketball history with 11 points, 14 rebounds and 12 assists. Team USA went on to win their second straight gold medal, again defeating Spain in the final game. James contributed 19 points in the win, becoming the all-time leading scorer in U.S. men's basketball history. He also joined Michael Jordan as the only players to win an NBA MVP award, NBA championship, NBA Finals MVP, and Olympic gold medal in the same year. Afterwards, Krzyzewski said James "is the best player, he is the best leader and he is as smart as anybody playing the game right now." Standing and weighing , James has started at small forward and power forward, but he can also play the other three positions. His athletic and versatile playing style has drawn comparisons to Hall of Famers Oscar Robertson, Magic Johnson, and Michael Jordan. As of June 2019, James's career averages are 27.2 points, 7.4 rebounds, 7.2 assists, 1.6 steals, and 0.8 blocks per game. Since 2011, he has been ranked the best player in the NBA by ESPN and Sports Illustrated. As an 18-year-old rookie, James led the Cavaliers in scoring. He holds numerous "youngest to" distinctions, including being the youngest player to score 30,000 career points. During his first stint in Cleveland, he was primarily used as an on-ball point forward, and although his shooting tendencies were perimeter-oriented, he established himself as one of the best slashers and finishers in basketball. His combination of speed, quickness, and size often created matchup problems for opposing teams because he was capable of blowing by larger defenders and overpowering smaller ones. These qualities became more apparent in transition, where he developed a reputation for grabbing defensive rebounds and then beating the defense downcourt for highlight reel baskets. Around this time, James was frequently criticized for not having a reliable jump shot or post game. Teams would try to exploit these weaknesses by giving him space in the half court and forcing him to settle for three-pointers and long two-pointers, a strategy famously used by Spurs coach Gregg Popovich in the 2007 Finals, where James converted on only 36 percent of his field goals in four games. In Miami, Heat coach Erik Spoelstra changed James's role to a more unconventional one. James spent more time in the post and improved his shot selection and accuracy on jump shots. He also learned how to work as an off-ball cutter in the Heat's "pass-happy" offense. Behind these improvements, James's overall scoring efficiency rose to historically great levels. During this time, ESPN's Tom Haberstroh called James's free- throw shooting his biggest weakness, describing it as "average". Upon returning to the Cavaliers, James began to experience subtle age-related declines in productivity, posting his lowest scoring averages since his rookie season in 2015 and 2016. His shooting also temporarily regressed, and he briefly ranked as the NBA's worst high-volume shooter from outside the paint. Despite these changes, he remained an elite offensive player who beat defenses with body control, strength, and varying attacking speeds. For most of his career, James has controlled the offense as the primary ball handler on his team. His playmaking ability is generally considered one of his premier skills, and some analysts rank him among the greatest passers in NBA history. By exploiting his size, vision, and the attention he garners from opposing defenses, James creates easy points for his teammates with accurate assists. He executes unconventional passes, including after leaving his feet and through defensive traffic. His uncanny tendency to find the open man has helped force NBA teams to incorporate some elements of zone into their schemes to better cover the weak side of the court and prevent James from passing to open shooters. Early in James's career, he was criticized for overpassing in pressure situations; specifically, for passing instead of shooting in the waning seconds of close games. However, as his career progressed, James's clutch performance was viewed more favorably. At the beginning of James's NBA career, he was considered a poor defensive player, but he improved steadily through the years. In 2009, he became proficient at the chase-down block, which involves coming in from behind the opposition in transition to block their shot. In Miami, he developed into a more versatile defensive player, and the Heat relied on him to guard all five positions. Along with Shane Battier and Dwyane Wade, Miami used James in an ultra-aggressive defensive scheme, with James cheating off the ball to help out inside or get into rebounding position. Beginning in 2014, some analysts noted a regression in his defensive impact, stemming from a lack of effort and expected age-related declines. During his second stint in Cleveland, his defense progressively declined. After missed drives on offense, he often dawdled back on defense while complaining to the referees; he provided less help off the ball; and he was less aggressive in switching. James himself admitted to taking plays off at times, referring to this approach as "chill mode". He eventually developed a reputation for raising his defensive level in the playoffs, which some analysts referred to as "Playoff LeBron". James left high school as one of the most hyped NBA prospects of all-time. Upon entering the NBA, he made an immediate impact and was voted Rookie of the Year in his debut season. As of June 2019, he has been named to 15 All-NBA Teams, which is tied for the most in league history, and 12 All-NBA first teams, which is an NBA record. His four MVP awards are matched only by Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Wilt Chamberlain, Michael Jordan, and Bill Russell; James and Russell are the only players to win four MVP awards in a five-year span. James has also won three Finals MVP Awards, which is tied for the second-most all- time, and earned All-Defensive honors every season from 2009 to 2014. While James has never won the Defensive Player of the Year Award, he has finished second in the voting twice and lists it as one of his main goals. His teams have appeared in the Finals nine times and won three championships. Some analysts have criticized him for not having a better Finals record, while others have defended him, arguing that James usually performed well but his team was defeated by superior competition. James is widely considered to be one of the greatest basketball players ever. In February 2016, he was ranked fifth by Sports Illustrated; in March 2016, he was ranked third by ESPN; in February 2017, he was ranked second by CBS Sports; in December 2017, he was ranked second by Fox Sports; and in February 2018, he was ranked second by Slam Magazine. He is often mentioned as the greatest player of all-time, which has resulted in frequent comparisons to Michael Jordan. In February 2018, Bill Simmons' website, The Ringer, spent an entire week devoted to both players, with Simmons ultimately concluding that Jordan was still ahead. Coaches and players have also debated James's status, such as Steve Kerr, who posited that James and Jordan are the two best players in history. Brian Windhorst, who spent his career covering James, said, "No one has ever had as much hype as James has had to live up to, and James has delivered on every last drop." On December 29, 2019, The Associated Press named James as its Male Athlete of the Decade for the 2010s. James has three children with Savannah Brinson, his high school sweetheart: Bronny (b. 2004), Bryce (b. 2007), and Zhuri (b. 2014). James proposed to Brinson at a December 31, 2011, party celebrating New Year's Eve and his 27th birthday, and the two were married on September 14, 2013, in San Diego, California. During his stint with the Heat, James resided in Coconut Grove, where he bought a $9 million three-story mansion overlooking Biscayne Bay. In November 2015, James bought a 9,350 square-foot (870 m) East Coast-style mansion in Brentwood, Los Angeles, for about $21 million. By 2015, James was considered by many people, including his fellow NBA players, to be the "face of the NBA". His opinions have yielded significant influence on people who make important league decisions; for example, in 2014 he asked commissioner Adam Silver to increase the duration of the All-Star break, and the request was granted the following season. On February 13, 2015, James was elected the first vice president of the National Basketball Players Association (NBPA). Throughout his career, James has been ranked by Forbes as one of the world's most influential athletes, and in 2017, he was listed by Time as one of the 100 most influential people in the world. During his first stint with the Cavaliers, he was adored by local fans, and Sherwin-Williams displayed a giant Nike-produced banner of James on its world headquarters. Despite their affection for James, Cleveland fans and critics were frequently annoyed when he sported a Yankees hat when he attended Cleveland Indians baseball games versus the New York Yankees. Following his actions during the 2010 free agency period and, more specifically, The Decision, he was listed as one of most disliked athletes in the US. By 2013, his image had mostly recovered and he was reported by ESPN as the most popular player in the NBA for the second time in his career. In 2014, he was named the most popular male athlete in America by the Harris Poll. He has led the league in jersey sales six times. In March 2008, James became the first black manand third man overall after Richard Gere and George Clooneyto appear on the cover of Vogue, when he posed with Gisele Bündchen. In response, noted ESPN columnist Jemele Hill considered the cover offensive and "memorable for the wrong reasons", describing the demeanor of James and his holding Bündchen as a reference to classic imagery of the movie monster King Kong, a dark savage capturing his light-skinned love interest. During the 2019 Hong Kong protests, James has found himself in public controversy over a statement he made about a now- deleted tweet by Daryl Morey, in which Morey expressed support for the pro- democracy movement in Hong Kong. James said Morey was “misinformed”. James is represented by agent Rich Paul of Klutch Sports. His first agent was Aaron Goodwin, whom he left in 2005 for Leon Rose. Rose joined Creative Artists Agency (CAA) in 2007, and he worked with fellow CAA agent Henry Thomas, who represented Dwyane Wade and Chris Bosh, to bring James to Miami in 2010. James left CAA for Paul in 2012. James, Paul, Maverick Carter, and Randy Mims—all childhood friends—formed agent and sports-marketing company LRMR after James left Goodwin. LRMR handles James's marketing, including the marketing of The Decision, for which it was criticized. Throughout his career, James has taken a unique approach to his NBA contracts, usually opting to sign shorter-term deals in order to maximize his earnings potential and flexibility; for example, in 2006, he and the Cavaliers negotiated a three- year, $60 million contract extension instead of the four-year maximum as it allotted him the option of seeking a new contract worth more money as an unrestricted free agent following the 2010 season. This move ultimately allowed James, Dwyane Wade, and Chris Bosh to sign together with the Heat. During his second stint in Cleveland, he began opting out and re-signing on new contracts after each season in order to take advantage of higher salaries resulting from the NBA's rising salary cap. In 2016, he signed with the Cavaliers on a three-year deal, becoming the highest-paid player in the league for the first time in his career. James has signed numerous endorsement contracts; some of the companies that he has done business with are Audemars Piguet, Coca-Cola, Dunkin' Brands, McDonald's, Nike, State Farm and Beats by Dre. Coming out of high school, he was the target of a three-way bidding war among Nike, Reebok, and Adidas, eventually signing with Nike for approximately $90 million. His signature shoes have performed well for Nike. In 2011, Fenway Sports Group became the sole global marketer of his rights, and as part of the deal, he was granted a minority stake in the English Premier League football club Liverpool, who he has claimed his support for. As a result of James's endorsement money and NBA salary, he has been listed as one of the world's highest-paid athletes. In 2013, he surpassed Kobe Bryant as the highest paid basketball player in the world, with earnings of $56.5 million. In 2014, James realized a profit of more than $30 million as part of Apple's acquisition of Beats Electronics; he had originally struck a deal to get a small stake in the company at its inception in exchange for promoting its headphones. In 2015, he was ranked the sixth highest earning sportsperson, and third highest in 2016 (after Cristiano Ronaldo and Lionel Messi). James has stated that he would like to own an NBA team in the future, albeit in a hands-off capacity. In 2011, James co-founded the designer retail store UNKNWN in Miami, Florida. James and comedian Jimmy Kimmel co-hosted the 2007 ESPY Awards. In other comedic pursuits, he hosted the 33rd-season premiere of Saturday Night Live. He has also tried his hand at acting, appearing in a cameo role on the HBO series Entourage. In 2015, he played himself in the Judd Apatow film Trainwreck, receiving positive reviews for his performance. That same year, James's digital video company, Uninterrupted, raised $15.8 million from Warner Bros. Entertainment and Turner Sports to help expand the company's efforts to bring athlete-created content to fans. It is hosted on Bleacher Report and is used by several other athletes including New England Patriots tight end Rob Gronkowski and Seattle Seahawks cornerback Richard Sherman. James and his business partner Maverick Carter own production company SpringHill Entertainment, whose first work was the Lions Gate documentary More Than a Game, which was released in 2009 and chronicled James's high school years. Series produced by SpringHill include NBC game show The Wall, the Disney XD sports documentaries Becoming, Starz sitcom Survivor's Remorse, and animated web series The LeBrons. In 2016, CNBC aired an unscripted series hosted by James called Cleveland Hustles, where four up-and-coming Northern Ohio entrepreneurs will be financed on the condition of revitalizing a neighborhood in Cleveland. In the 2017 Toronto International Film Festival, a 60-minute Vince Carter documentary entitled The Carter Effect was executive produced by James and Maverick Carter along with rapper Drake and Future the Prince. In February 2018 it was announced that James's production company will produce a new film in the House Party series with James expected to make a cameo. Later that month, Fox News journalist Laura Ingraham told James to "Shut up and dribble" as a response to his political agendas. This largely contributed to James creating a documentary series looking at the changing role of athletes in the current political and cultural climate, aptly named, Shut Up and Dribble on Showtime. During the 2019 offseason, James filed for a trademark (through a shell company) on the term "Taco Tuesday" for use in downloadable audio/visual works, podcasts, social media, online marketing, and entertainment services. This was related to James' use of the term on Instagram for his family's taco dinners. The request was denied by the United States Patent and Trademark Office, stating that Taco Tuesday was "a commonplace term, message or expression widely used by a variety of sources that merely conveys an ordinary, familiar, well-recognized concept or sentiment." As of September 2019, James is the most followed basketball player on Instagram. In February 2019, it was revealed that James would executive produce rapper 2 Chainz's new album, Rap or Go to the League. A Def Jam press release said the intent of the album is "celebrating black excellence and focusing on the power of education and entrepreneurship." The press release also says the title "challenges the notion that the only way out of the inner city is either to become a rapper or a ball player". James is an active supporter of non-profit organizations, including After- School All-Stars, Boys & Girls Clubs of America, and Children's Defense Fund. He also has his own charity foundation, the LeBron James Family Foundation, which is based in Akron. Since 2005, the foundation has held an annual bike-a- thon to raise money for various causes. In 2015, James announced a partnership with the University of Akron to provide scholarships for as many as 2,300 children beginning in 2021. In 2016, he donated $2.5 million to the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture to support an exhibit on Muhammad Ali. In 2017, he received the J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award from the NBA for his "outstanding service and dedication to the community." In November of that same year, the Akron School Board approved the "I Promise School", a public elementary school created in a partnership with the LeBron James Family Foundation to help struggling elementary school students stay in school. James later reflected that it was his most important professional accomplishment of his life. The school officially opened on July 30, 2018. Throughout his career, James has taken stances on controversial issues. On several occasions, he mentioned a feeling of obligation to affect change using his status. Those include the War in Darfur, the Trayvon Martin case, the now-former NBA owner Donald Sterling's racist comments in 2014, the Michael Brown verdict, and the death of Eric Garner. Following a racist incident at his Los Angeles home in 2017, James expressed, "being black in America is tough. We got a long way to go for us as a society and for us as African Americans until we feel equal in America." Later on that year, in the aftermath of the Unite the Right rally, James questioned the "Make America Great Again" slogan and said, "It's sad what's going on in Charlottesville. Is this the direction our country is heading? Make America Great Again huh?" He then said that "Our youth deserve better!!" James also called Trump a "bum" after the president rescinded a White House invitation to Stephen Curry. During a 2018 interview with CNN journalist Don Lemon, James accused Trump for attempting to divide the country with sports, suggesting that "sports has never been something that divides people it's always been something that brings someone together." He declared he would "never sit across from him. I'd sit across from Barack though." In response, Trump tweeted, "LeBron James was just interviewed by the dumbest man on television, Don Lemon. He made LeBron look smart, which isn't easy to do." James has supported Colin Kaepernick in the aftermath of his participation in the national anthem protests, claiming that he was being "blackballed" from a new contract in the National Football League, and that he would hire him if he owned a football team. He has worn his clothing in a show of support several times. In June 2008, James donated $20,000 to a committee to elect Barack Obama as president. Later that year, James gathered almost 20,000 people at the Quicken Loans Arena for a viewing of Obama's 30-minute American Stories, American Solutions television advertisement. The advertisement was shown on a large screen above the stage, where Jay-Z later held a free concert. In November 2016, James endorsed and campaigned for Hillary Clinton for the 2016 presidential election. NBA 3× NBA Champion: , ,, 3× NBA Finals Most Valuable Player: , ,, 4× NBA Most Valuable Player: , , ,, 15× NBA All-Star: , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,, 3× NBA All-Star Game MVP: , ,, 15× All-NBA selection:, 12× First team: , , , , , , , , , , ,, 2× Second team: ,, Third team:, 6× NBA All-Defensive selection:, 5× First team: , , , ,, Second team:, NBA Rookie of the Year:, NBA All-Rookie First Team:, NBA Scoring Champion:, 3× NBA minutes leader: , ,, J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award: National team 2× Olympic Gold Medal winner: 2008, 2012, 2004 Olympic Bronze Medal winner, 2006 FIBA World Championship Bronze Medal winner, 2007 FIBA Americas Championship Gold Medal winner, 2012 USA Basketball Male Athlete of the Year, Commemorative banner in Miami's American Airlines Arena (for his 2012 gold medal won as a member of the Miami Heat) High school 2003 National Champion, 3× OHSAA Champion: 2000, 2001, 2003, 2003 Naismith Prep Player of the Year, 2× Gatorade National Player of the Year 2002, 2003, 2× USA Today High School Player of the Year 2002, 2003, 3× Ohio Mr. Basketball: 2001, 2002, 2003, 3× USA Today All-USA First Team: 2001, 2002, 2003, 2× PARADE High School Player of the Year: 2002, 2003, 2003 McDonald's National Player of the Year, 2003 McDonald's High School All-American, 2003 McDonald's All-American Game 2003, 2003 EA Sports Roundball Classic MVP, 2003 Jordan Capital Classic MVP, Number 23 retired by St. Vincent-St. Mary, St. Vincent-St. Mary Hall of Fame (class of 2011), St. Vincent-St. Mary home basketball court named The LeBron James Arena Other AP Athlete of the Decade (2010s), 3× AP Athlete of the Year (2013, 2016, 2018), 2× Sports Illustrated Sportsperson of the Year (2012, 2016), 2012 Sporting News Athlete of the Year, 3× Sporting News NBA MVP (2006, 2009, 2010), 2004 Sporting News Rookie of the Year, Sports Illustrated NBA All-Decade First Team (2000s), 6× Cleveland Sports Awards Professional Athlete of the Year: 2004, 2005, 2006, 2009, 2015, 2016, 19× ESPY Award winner in various categories (15 individually, four as part of a team), 2× Hickok Belt winner: 2012, 2013, 2011–12 EFL Cup Champion and 2018–19 UEFA Champions League Champion (as part owner of Liverpool F.C.), 2017 NAACP Image Awards – Jackie Robinson Award, South Main Street in downtown Akron renamed King James Way, Six-story commemorative banner in downtown Akron, Three-story mural in Venice, California honoring his signing with the Lakers, Honorary lockers at Ohio State's football and basketball facilities NBA regular season records, NBA post-season records, NBA All-Star Game records, List of National Basketball Association career scoring leaders, List of National Basketball Association career assists leaders, List of National Basketball Association career steals leaders, List of National Basketball Association career turnovers leaders, List of National Basketball Association career 3-point scoring leaders, List of National Basketball Association career free throw scoring leaders, List of National Basketball Association career games played leaders, List of National Basketball Association franchise career scoring leaders, List of National Basketball Association career playoff scoring leaders, List of National Basketball Association career playoff rebounding leaders, List of National Basketball Association career playoff assists leaders, List of National Basketball Association career playoff steals leaders, List of National Basketball Association career playoff blocks leaders, List of National Basketball Association career playoff turnovers leaders, List of National Basketball Association career playoff 3-point scoring leaders, List of National Basketball Association career playoff free throw scoring leaders, List of National Basketball Association players with most points in a game, List of National Basketball Association season minutes leaders, List of Olympic medalists in basketball, Cleveland Cavaliers draft history NBA.com Prospect Profile: LeBron James, USA Basketball – LeBron James, 100 Olympic Athletes to Watch: 1. LeBron James The 2009–10 Cleveland Cavaliers season was the 40th season of the franchise in the National Basketball Association (NBA). The Cavaliers finished with the best record in the NBA at 61-21, earning them first place in the East. The season saw LeBron James win his second MVP award. After defeating the Derrick Rose-led Chicago Bulls in the first round, the Cavs couldn't go any further as they lost to the 4th-seeded Boston Celtics in six games in the Semifinals. Following the season, head coach Mike Brown was fired, James signed as a free agent with the Miami Heat, but would return to the Cavaliers in 2014, Shaquille O'Neal signed as a free agent with the Boston Celtics, which turned out to be O'Neal's final season as a player, and Zydrunas Ilgauskas also left the team to join the Miami Heat. After LeBron's departure, the Cavaliers struggled greatly without him for four seasons, and entered a state of rebuilding. The Cavaliers would not make the playoffs again until 2015, when LeBron returned to the Cavaliers. As of 2019, this was the last time the team won 60 or more games. June 25 – The 2009 NBA draft took place in New York City. The Cavs also acquire Shaquille O'Neal, in a trade with the Phoenix Suns., July 8 – The free agency period started., July 13 – The Cavs sign with Anthony Parker., July 19 – Jamario Moon signs with the Cleveland Cavaliers., August 12 – The Cavaliers sign with Leon Powe., October 6 – The Cavs open the Pre-Season, with a victory over the Charlotte Bobcats, in The Q., October 21 – The Cavs close the Pre-Season, losing to the Boston Celtics, in the Value City Arena., October 27 – The Cleveland Cavaliers open the Regular Season, and are defeated by the Boston Celtics, in Quicken Loans Arena., February 17 – The Cavs acquire Antawn Jamison and Sebastian Telfair, in a three-team trade, with the Washington Wizards and the Los Angeles Clippers., March 17 – The Cavaliers clinched the Central Division title for the second straight year, and the third time in franchise history., March 23 – The Cavs waive Darnell Jackson and sign with Žydrūnas Ilgauskas., April 2 – The Cavaliers clinched best record in the Eastern Conference for the second straight year, and the second time in franchise history., April 4 – The Cavaliers clinched the best record in the league, and thus home court advantage throughout the playoffs for the second straight year, and the second time in franchise history., April 14 – The Cavs close the Regular Season, with a loss against the Atlanta Hawks and a 61–21 record., April 17 – The Cleveland Cavaliers open the First Round of the Playoffs, with a 96-83 victory, over the Chicago Bulls, in The Q., April 27 – The Cavaliers close the First Round Series at 4–1, with a 96–94 victory over the Bulls, in The Q., May 1 – The Cavs open the Eastern Conference Semifinals, with a 101–93 victory, over the Celtics, in the Quicken Loans Arena., May 13- The Cavaliers lose in the Eastern Conference Semifinals, at 4–2 to the underdog Boston Celtics., May 24 – Head Coach Mike Brown was fired. LeBron James – NBA Most Valuable Player (2x), LeBron James – All-NBA First Team (4x), LeBron James – NBA All-Defensive First Team (2x), Anderson Varejão – NBA All-Defensive Second Team (1x) LeBron James – Player of the Week (6x), LeBron James – Player of the Month (4x), Mike Brown – Coach of the Month (December) LeBron James – NBA All-Star Game Selection (6x) December 2, 2009: Zydrunas Ilgauskas set the record for most games played as a Cavalier with 771 and moved into third place on the Cavaliers' all-time scoring list behind LeBron James and Brad Daugherty., On March 19, 2010, LeBron James set a record as the youngest player in NBA history to record 15,000 career points., At the end of the season, LeBron James was the all-time scoring leader of the Cavs, with 15,251 points. On May 11, the Cavaliers suffered their worst playoffs defeat, against the Boston Celtics, by a margin of 32 points., On December 23, the Cavaliers set a franchise record and tied with the NBA record of fewest points allowed in an OT period, against Sacramento Kings. Daniel Gibson reached 200 career games and 5,000 minutes., , Danny Green played his first season in the NBA., , J.J. Hickson reached 100 career games and 2,000 minutes., , Zydrunas Ilgauskas reached 21,000 minutes and 4,000 field goals made., , LeBron James reached 15,000 career points, 500 career games, 22,000 minutes, 5,000 field goals made, 11,000 field goals attempted, 2,000 three-point shots attempted, 3,000 defensives rebounds, 1,000 fouls and 2,000 Playoffs points., , Cedric Jackson played his first season in the NBA., , Antawn Jamison reached 17,000 career points and 31,000 minutes., Jamario Moon reached 200 career games, 5,000 minutes and 1,000 rebounds., Shaquille O'Neal reached 41,000 minutes, 11,000 field goals made, 19,000 field goals attempted, 11,000 free-throws attempted, 3,000 assists and 4,000 fouls., Anthony Parker reached 300 career games, 10,000 minutes, 1,000 three-point shots attempted, 1,000 defensives rebounds, 1,000 rebounds and 3,000 career points., Leon Powe reached 200 career games., Anderson Varejão reached 9,000 minutes, 1,000 field goals made, 2,000 field goals attempted, 1,000 free throws attempted and 1,000 fouls., , Delonte West reached 10,000 minutes, 3,000 field goals attempted and 1,000 rebounds., Mo Williams reached 14,000 minutes, 5,000 field goals attempted, 1,000 free-throws attempted, 2,000 assists, 1,000 turnovers and 6,000 points. On December 30, the Cavs reached 3,200 regular seasons games, against the Atlanta Hawks., On February 4, the Cavs reached 1,500 regular seasons victories against the Miami Heat., On April 14, the Cavs reached 1,800 combined regular and post-seasons defeats, against the Atlanta Hawks, On May 7, the Cavs reached 70 post-season wins, against the Boston Celtics., The Cavaliers reached 30 playoff series, against the Boston Celtics. Leon Powe – Knee surgery (before arriving Cleveland), Jamario Moon – Abdominal (Side) Injury, Mo Williams – Left Shoulder Injury, Anderson Varejão – Left Hamstring Injury, Shaquille O'Neal – Right Thumb Surgery, LeBron James – Right Elbow Injury On February 17, the Cavaliers completed a three-team trade with the Washington Wizards and the Los Angeles Clippers, acquiring Antawn Jamison from Washington and Sebastian Telfair from L.A. The Cavs sent Zydrunas Ilgauskas to the Wizards, plus a first round draft pick in 2010 and the rights to Emir Preldžić. On March 23, the Cavaliers re-signed Zydrunas Ilgauskas for the remainder of the season after his contract was bought out by the Washington Wizards. The Cavaliers also waived Darnell Jackson to make room on the roster. The 2010–11 Cleveland Cavaliers season was the 41st season of the franchise in the National Basketball Association (NBA). They finished the regular season with 19 wins and 63 losses, the team's worst record since 2002–03. This was also their first season that LeBron James left the team to join the Miami Heat. The offseason included LeBron James becoming a free agent and signing with the Heat alongside Zydrunas Ilgauskas. The Cavaliers also missed the playoffs for the first time since James' sophomore season in 2005, as well as posting a then-record 26 game losing streak spanning from December 20, 2010 to February 11, 2011, beginning the losing streak with a 90–101 loss to the Utah Jazz, but finally ending their losing streak with a 126–119 victory over the Los Angeles Clippers. June 24 – The 2010 NBA Draft was held in New York City., July 1 – The free agency period started., July 2 – Byron Scott hired as new head coach., July 8 – LeBron James announces that he will leave Cleveland and play for the Miami Heat., July 23 – The Cavaliers sign with the 2009 first-round pick, Christian Eyenga., July 26 – The Cavaliers traded Delonte West to the Boston Celtics and Sebastian Telfair to the Minnesota Timberwolves for Ramon Sessions, Ryan Hollins and a 2013 second round Draft pick., July 30 – The Cavs sign with the free agent Joey Graham., August 16 – The Cavaliers sign with the Jamaican undrafted rookie, Samardo Samuels., September 20 – Jawad Williams resigns with the Cleveland Cavaliers., September 28 – The Training Camp begins., October 5 – The Cleveland Cavaliers open the pre-season with a victory over the Charlotte Bobcats, in Quicken Loans Arena., October 19 – After the victory over the Philadelphia 76ers the Cavs waived Danny Green and Manny Harris made the season roster., October 21 – The Cavaliers close the pre-season with a victory over the Milwaukee Bucks and with a 6–2 record, in Schottenstein Center., October 27 – The Cleveland Cavaliers open the regular reason with a victory over the Boston Celtics, in Quicken Loans Arena., November 18 – Christian Eyenga is sent to the Erie BayHawks, the Cavaliers' and Raptor's NBA D-League affiliate., December 27 – Jawad Williams is waived and Samardo Samuels is assigned to the NBA D-League., December 28 – The Cleveland Cavaliers sign Alonzo Gee., January 1 – The Cavs recall Samardo Samuels, from the NBA D-League., January 2 – Eyenga is recalled from the Erie BayHawks., February 11 – The Cavaliers snap an NBA record 26 game losing streak with a 126–119 overtime victory against the Los Angeles Clippers., February 24 – The Cavs acquired the former All-Star Baron Davis and a 2011 First Round Draft Pick, from the L.A. Clippers, that received Mo Williams and Jamario Moon. The Cavs also sent a 2013 Second-Round Pick to the Boston Celtics, for Luke Harangody and Semih Erden. To clear the roster capacity, Leon Powe was waived., March 15 – The Indiana Pacers defeated the New York Knicks, and with this result, the Cavaliers are eliminated from the Playoffs., April 8 – Joe Tait is honored in the Quicken Loans Arena, and an honorary microphone banner is placed beside the other retired jerseys, on the rafters., April 13 – The Cleveland Cavaliers finish the season, defeating the Washington Wizards, in The Q, and with a 19–63 record. The Cleveland Cavaliers had no picks in the 2010 NBA Draft, along with Denver Nuggets and Charlotte Bobcats. The Cleveland Cavaliers did not qualify for the 2011 NBA Playoffs. No awards. No awards. Daniel Gibson - 3-PT Shootout (5th) At the end of the season, Baron Davis had 5,890 career assists, and he became the 31st player with more assists in the NBA., At the end of the season, Baron Davis had 1,496 career steals, and he became the 37th player with more steals in the NBA. On January 11, the Cavaliers set franchise records for fewest points in a game (57) and largest margin of defeat (55) against the Los Angeles Lakers., On January 15, the Cavaliers set a franchise record for most points given up in a half (80) against the Denver Nuggets., The Cavaliers had their first winless month (with at least 12 games) in franchise history, going 0–16 in January., On February 11, the Cavaliers snapped the NBA record for longest losing streak. After 26 consecutive losses, they defeated the Los Angeles Clippers., On March 4, the Cavs snapped their franchise record for most consecutive losses on the road, against the New York Knicks, at 26. Baron Davis reached 800 career games., Semih Erden played his first season in the NBA., Christian Eyenga played his first season in the NBA., , Alonzo Gee reached 1,000 minutes played., Daniel Gibson reached 300 career games, 7,000 minutes, 2,000 field goals attempted, 1,000 three-point shots attempted and 2,000 points., , Joey Graham reached 6,000 minutes played., Luke Harangody played his first season in the NBA., Manny Harris played his first season in the NBA., , J.J. Hickson reached 400 career games, 4,000 minutes, 1,000 field goals attempted, 1,000 rebounds and 2,000 points., , Ryan Hollins reached 3,000 minutes played and 1,000 points., Antawn Jamison reached 900 career games, 33,000 minutes played, 15,000 field goals attempted, 5,000 defensive rebounds, 7,000 rebounds and 18,000 points., Jamario Moon reached 6,000 minutes played., Anthony Parker reached 400 career games, 12,000 minutes, 3,000 field goals attempted, 1,000 assists and 4,000 points., Leon Powe reached 3,000 minutes played., Samardo Samuels played his first season in the NBA., , Ramon Sessions reached 200 career games, 6,000 minutes, 1,000 field goals made, 2,000 field goals attempted, 1,000 free throws attempted, 1,000 assists and 2,000 points., Anderson Varejão reached 400 career games and 10,000 minutes., , Jawad Williams reached 1,000 minutes played., , Mo Williams reached 500 career games, 15,000 minutes, 6,000 field goals attempted, 1,000 free throws made and 7,000 points. On November 2, the Cavaliers reached 3,400 combined regular and post-season games, against the Atlanta Hawks., On February 8, the Cavaliers reached 3,300 regular season games, against the Dallas Mavericks., On February 11, the Cavaliers reached 1,600 regular and post-season victories, against the Los Angeles Clippers. Mo Williams - Personal Reasons (October 27 - November 2), Anderson Varejão - Personal Reasons (October 29 - October 30), Antawn Jamison - Sore Left Knee (November 2 - November 9), Anderson Varejão - Right Rib Contusion (November 13 - November 16), Mo Williams - Left Adductor (Groin) Strain (November 13 - November 19), Joey Graham - Right Quad Strain (December 15 - January 21), Anthony Parker - Low Back Strain (January 2 - January 21 - January 25), Daniel Gibson - Left Ankle Sprain (January 5 - January 19), Leon Powe - Right Knee Torn Meniscus (January 5 - February 24 (Waived)), Anderson Varejão - Torn Peroneus Longus Tendon in Right Ankle/Foot (January 7 - April 13 (Season finished)), Christian Eyenga - Right Ankle Sprain (January 11 - January 21), Mo Williams - Left Hip Flexor Strain (January 15 - February 11), Daniel Gibson - Left Quad Injury (January 31 - February 5), Baron Davis - Sore Left Knee (March 2 - March 4), Semih Erden - Left/Right Adductor Strain (March 2 - March 6 - April 8), Daniel Gibson - Left Quad Contusion (March 2 - March 8), Antawn Jamison - Left Little Finger Fracture (March 2 - April 13 (Season finished)), Luke Harangody - Right Hip Pointer (March 8 - March 13), Baron Davis - Personal Reasons/Back Spasms (March 9 - March 17 - March 25), Samardo Samuels - Right Wrist Sprain (March 29 - April 3), Samardo Samuels - Left Groin Strain (April 5 - April 13 (Season finished)), Anthony Parker - Back Spasms (April 11 - April 13), Baron Davis - Back (April 13 (Season finished)), Semih Erden - Sore Right Heel (April 13 (Season finished))

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The role of the United States in the Vietnam War began after World War II and escalated into full commitment during the Vietnam War from 1955 to 1973. The U.S. involvement in South Vietnam stemmed from a combination of factors: France's long colonial history in French Indochina, the US War with Japan in the Pacific, and both Joseph Stalin and Mao Zedong's pledge in 1950 to support Ho Chi Minh and the Viet Minh's guerrilla forces. Related to this, Roosevelt was adamantly against providing any aide to France that would in any way prop up France's struggle to maintain its pre WWII colonial empire. However, Stalin and Mao's offering their support to the Viet Minh in 1950, changed the battlefield dynamic and geopolitical character of the struggle to one of a global conflict against Maoist and Stalinist expansionism. It was at the time, in September of 1950, that French forces began to be moderately backed by America. Beginning with $10M USD worth of military supplies, President Harry S. Truman from that initial support provided progressively increasing amounts of financial and military assistance to French forces fighting in what was still in the minds of the Western powers French Indochina. Beginning in 1950, US involvement increased from just assisting French collision forces to providing direct military assistance to the associated states (Annam, Tonkin, Laos, and Cambodia). Eventually, U.S. missions were carried out at a more consistent rate by sending out increasing amounts of military assistance from the United States. Their main intent was to restrict Communist expansion in Indochina as they thought it would soon lead to Communist takeovers in Thailand, Laos, Malaya, and all of what later became Vietnam. This would have resulted in a change in balance of power throughout Asia. The U.S. foreign policy establishment saw national security US and Western Europe's interests being marginalized due to the rise of this Communist expansion, and thus it strived to take measures to restrict it. Under Truman the support went from $10M in September of 1950 to $150M by the end of 1951. The struggle passed from Truman to Eisenhower who saw the fall of French Indochina, and in 1961 the Eisenhower administration passed the conflict to Kennedy. In May 1961 Kennedy sent 500 more military advisers, bringing American forces there to 1,400. With the budget increased and with American boot on the ground in Vietnam by at least 1961, these actions came to be questioned by other segments of the US government and among the people of the United States. Ultimately, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3,812,000. Current, 2017 records, report that the conflict resulted in 58,318 US fatalities. Wilson ignores petition by Ho Chi Minh for help in creating Vietnam independent from French rule and led by nationalist government. Roosevelt declines repeated requests from the French to assist France's attempts to recolonize Vietnam. August 15, 1945 — Japan surrenders to the Allies. In Indochina, the Japanese administration allows Hồ Chí Minh to take control over the country. This is called the August Revolution. Hồ Chí Minh fights with a variety of other political factions for control of the major cities., August 1945 — A few days after the Vietnamese "revolution", Nationalist Chinese forces enter from the north and, as previously planned by the Allies, establish an administration in the country as far south as the 16th parallel north., September 26, 1945: Office of Strategic Services (OSS) officer Lieutenant Colonel A. Peter Dewey — who was working with the Viet Minh to repatriate Americans captured by the Japanese — was killed by a member of the Viet Minh who mistakenly believed him to be French., October 1945 — British troops land in southern Vietnam and establish a provisional administration. The British free French soldiers and officials imprisoned by the Japanese. The French begin taking control of cities within the British zone of occupation., February 1946 — The French sign an agreement with China. France gives up its concessions in Shanghai and other Chinese ports. In exchange, China agrees to assist the French in returning to Vietnam north of the 17th parallel., March 6, 1946 — After negotiations with the Chinese and the Viet Minh, the French sign an agreement recognizing Vietnam within the French Union. Shortly after, the French land at Haiphong and occupy the rest of northern Vietnam. The Viet Minh use the negotiating process with France and China to buy time to use their armed forces to destroy all competing nationalist groups in the north., December 1946 — Negotiations between the Viet Minh and the French break down. The Viet Minh are driven out of Hanoi into the countryside., 1947–1949 — The Viet Minh fight a limited insurgency in remote rural areas of northern Vietnam., 1949 — Chinese communists reach the northern border of Indochina. The Viet Minh drive the French from the border region and begin to receive large amounts of weapons from the Soviet Union and China. The weapons transform the Viet Minh from an irregular large-scale insurgency into a conventional army., May 1, 1950 — After the capture of Hainan Island from Chinese Nationalist forces by the Chinese People's Liberation Army, President Truman approves $10 million in military assistance for anti-communist efforts in Indochina. The Defense Attaché Office was established in Saigon in May 1950, a formal recognition of Viet Nam (vice French IndoChina). This was the beginning of formal U.S. military personnel assignments in Viet Nam. U.S. Naval, Army and Air Force personnel established their respective attaches at this time., September 1950 — Truman sends the Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) Indochina to Vietnam to assist the French. The President claimed they were not sent as combat troops, but to supervise the use of $10 million worth of U.S. military equipment to support the French in their effort to fight the Viet Minh forces., Following the outbreak of the Korean War, Truman announces "acceleration in the furnishing of military assistance to the forces of France and the Associated States in Indochina...". and sends 123 non-combat troops to help with supplies to fight against the communist Viet Minh., 1951 — Truman authorizes $150 million in French support. 1953 — By November, French commander in Indochina, General Navarre, asked U.S. General McArthur to loan twelve Fairchild C-119 aircraft, to be flown by French crews, to facilitate Operation Castor at Dien Bien Phu., 1954 — In January, Navarre's Deputy asked for additional transport aircraft. Negotiations ended on March 3 with 24 CIA pilots (CAT) to operate 12 U.S. Air Force C-119s, flying undercover using French insignia, but maintained by the USAF., 1954 — General Paul Ely, the French Chief of Staff, proposed an American operation to rescue French forces. Operation Vulture was hastily planned but not approved due to lack of consensus., 1954 — The Viet Minh defeat the French at the battle of Dien Bien Phu. The defeat, along with the end of the Korean War the previous year, causes the French to seek a negotiated settlement to the war., 1954 — The Geneva Conference (1954), called to determine the post-French future of Indochina, proposes a temporary division of Vietnam, to be followed by nationwide elections to unify the country in 1956., 1954 — Two months after the Geneva conference, North Vietnam forms Group 100 with headquarters at Ban Namèo. Its purpose is to direct, organize, train and supply the Pathet Lao to gain control of Laos, which along with Cambodia and Vietnam formed French Indochina., 1955 — North Vietnam launches an 'anti-landlord' campaign, during which counter-revolutionaries are imprisoned or killed. The numbers killed or imprisoned are disputed, with historian Stanley Karnow estimating about 6,000 while others (see the book "Fire in the Lake") estimate only 800. Rudolph Rummel puts the figure as high as 200,000., November 1, 1955 — President Eisenhower deploys the Military Assistance Advisory Group to train the Army of the Republic of Vietnam. This marks the official beginning of American involvement in the war as recognized by the Vietnam Veterans Memorial., April 1956 — The last French troops leave Vietnam., 1954–1956 — 450,000 Vietnamese civilians flee the Viet Minh administration in North Vietnam and relocate in South Vietnam as part of the US government's Operation Passage to Freedom. Approximately 52,000 move in the opposite direction. Dr. Thomas Dooley works with the CIA to produce his influential disinformation book about the refugees Deliver Us from Evil., 1956 — National unification elections do not occur., December 1958 — North Vietnam invades Laos and occupies parts of the country, July 8, 1959 — Charles Ovnand and Dale R. Buis become the first two American Advisers to die in Vietnam., September 1959 — North Vietnam forms Group 959, which assumes command of the Pathet Lao forces in Laos., November 1960 — Coup attempt by paratroopers is foiled after Diệm falsely promises reform, allowing loyalists to crush the rebels., December 20, 1960 — The National Liberation Front of South Vietnam (NLF) is founded. January 1961 — Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev pledges support for "wars of national liberation" throughout the world. The idea of creating a neutral Laos is suggested to Kennedy., May 1961 — Kennedy sends 500 United States Army Special Forces personnel to South Vietnam to train South Vietnamese soldiers following a visit to the country by Vice-President Johnson., June 1961 — Kennedy meets with Khrushchev in Vienna. He protests North Vietnam's attacks on Laos and points out that the U.S. was supporting the neutrality of Laos. The two leaders agree to pursue a policy of creating a neutral Laos., June 1961 — Kennedy said, "Now we have a problem making our power credible and Vietnam looks like the place" to James Reston of The New York Times (immediately after meeting Khrushchev in Vienna)., August 10, 1961 — Test run of U.S. herbicidal warfare program in South Vietnam ("Operation Trail Dust"), October 1961 — Following successful NLF attacks, Defense Secretary Robert S. McNamara recommends sending six divisions (200,000 men) to Vietnam., February 8, 1962 — The Military Assistance Command Vietnam (MACV) is created by President Kennedy, February 1962 — Attempted assassination of Diệm by two air force officers who bombed his palace, fails., July 23, 1962 — International Agreement on the Neutrality of Laos is signed at Geneva, promising Laotian neutrality., August 1, 1962 — Kennedy signs the Foreign Assistance Act of 1962, which provides "... military assistance to countries which are on the rim of the Communist world and under direct attack"., October 1962 — Operation Ranch Hand begins. U.S. planes spray herbicides and defoliants over South Vietnam until 1971., January 3, 1963 — NLF victory in the Battle of Ap Bac., May 8, 1963 — Buddhists demonstrate in Huế, South Vietnam after the display of religious flags were prohibited, during the celebration of Vesak, Gautama Buddha's birthday; but, Catholic flags celebrating the consecration of Archbishop Ngô Đình Thục, brother of Ngô Đình Diệm were not prohibited. The police of Ngô Đình Cẩn, Diệm's younger brother, open fire, killing nine., May 1963 — Republican Barry Goldwater declares that the U.S. should fight to win or withdraw from Vietnam. Later on, during his presidential campaign against Lyndon B. Johnson, his Democratic opponents accuse him of wanting to use nuclear weapons in the conflict., June 11, 1963 — Photographs of protesting Buddhist monk, Thích Quảng Đức, burning himself to death in protest, in Saigon, appear in U.S. newspapers., Summer 1963 — Madame Nhu, de facto First Lady to the bachelor Diệm makes a series of vitriolic attacks on Buddhists, calling the immolations "barbecues". Diệm ignores U.S. calls to silence her., August 21, 1963 — ARVN special forces loyal to Ngô Đình Nhu, younger brother of Diệm, stage raids across the country, attacking Buddhist temples and firing on monks. The cremated remains of Thích Quảng Đức are confiscated from Xá Lợi Pagoda in Saigon. New U.S. ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge rebukes Diệm by visiting Xá Lợi and giving refuge to Buddhist leader Thích Trí Quang. The U.S. calls for Nhu to be dropped by Diệm, and threatens to cut aid to Colonel Lê Quang Tung's Special Forces if they are not sent into battle, rather than used to repress dissidents., September 2, 1963 — Kennedy criticises the Diệm regime in an interview with Walter Cronkite, citing the Buddhist repression and claiming that Diệm is out of touch., Late October 1963 — Nhu, unaware that Saigon region commander General Tôn Thất Đính is double-crossing him, draws up plans for a phony coup and counter-coup to reaffirm the Diệm regime. Đính sends Nhu's loyal special forces out of Saigon on the pretext of fighting communists and in readiness for the counter coup, and rings Saigon with rebel troops., November 1, 1963 — Military officers launch a coup d'état against Diệm, with the tacit approval of the Kennedy administration. Diệm and Nhu escape the presidential residence via a secret exit after loyalist forces were locked out of Saigon, unable to rescue them., November 2, 1963 — Diệm and Nhu are discovered in nearby Cholon. Although they had been promised exile by the junta, they are executed by Nguyễn Văn Nhung, bodyguard of General Dương Văn Minh. Minh leads the military junta., November 1963 — By this time, Kennedy had increased the number of military personnel from the 900 that were there when he became President to 16,000 just before his death., November 22, 1963 — Kennedy is assassinated. Feb 1965 - Operation Rolling Thunder begins March 8,1965 - Sent 3,500 US Marines, the first ground troops, to Vietnam for the first time 1966 - Lyndon B. Johnson expanded the number of troops being sent into Vietnam to 385,000., 1968 - American troop presence in Vietnam peaks at 536,100. 1969 - Richard Nixon continued the war, but with a reduced amount of US troops via Vietnamization strategy. In 1961 the new administration of President John F. Kennedy remained essentially committed to the bi-partisan, anti-communist foreign policies inherited from the administrations of Presidents Truman and Eisenhower. During 1961, his first year in office, Kennedy found himself faced with a three-part crisis: The failure of the Bay of Pigs invasion in Cuba; the construction of the Berlin Wall by the Soviets; and a negotiated settlement between the pro- Western government of Laos and the Pathet Lao communist movement. Fearing that another failure on the part of the U.S. to stop communist expansion would fatally damage U.S. credibility with its allies, Kennedy realized, "Now we have a problem in making our power credible... and Vietnam looks like the place." The commitment to defend South Vietnam was reaffirmed by Kennedy on May 11 in National Security Action Memorandum 52, which became known as "The Presidential Program for Vietnam". Its opening statement reads: U.S. objectives and concept of operations [are] to prevent communist domination of South Vietnam; to create in that country a viable and increasingly democratic society, and to initiate, on an accelerated basis, a series of mutually supporting actions of a military, political, economic, psychological, and covert character designed to achieve this objective. Kennedy was intrigued by the idea of utilizing United States Army Special Forces for counterinsurgency conflicts in Third World countries threatened by the new "wars of national liberation". Originally intended for use behind front lines after a conventional invasion of Europe, Kennedy believed that the guerrilla tactics employed by Special Forces would be effective in the "brush fire" war in South Vietnam. He saw British success in using such forces during the Malayan Emergency as a strategic template. Thus in May 1961 Kennedy sent detachments of Green Berets to South Vietnam. The Diệm regime had been initially able to cope with the insurgency of the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF, or derogatively, Viet Cong) in South Vietnam with the aid of U.S. matériel and advisers, and, by 1962, seemed to be gaining the upper hand. Senior U.S. military leaders received positive reports from the U.S. commander, General Paul D. Harkins of the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, or MACV. By the following year, however, cracks began to appear in the façade of success. In January a possible victory that was turned into a stunning defeat for government forces at the Battle of Ap Bac caused consternation among both the military advisers in the field and among politicians in Washington, D.C. JFK also indicated to Walter Cronkite that the war may be unwinnable, and that it was ultimately a Vietnamese war, not an American war. Diệm was already growing unpopular with many of his countrymen because of his administration's nepotism, corruption, and its apparent bias in favor of the Catholic minority—of which Diệm was a part—at the expense of the Buddhist majority. This contributed to the impression of Diệm's rule as an extension of the French Colonial regime. Promised land reforms were not instituted, and Diệm's strategic hamlet program for village self-defense (and government control) was a disaster. The Kennedy administration grew increasingly frustrated with Diệm. In 1963, a crackdown by Diệm's forces was launched against Buddhist monks protesting discriminatory practices and demanding a political voice. Diệm's repression of the protests sparked the so- called Buddhist crisis, during which several monks committed self-immolation, which was covered in the world press. The communists took full advantage of the situation and fueled anti-Diệm sentiment to create further instability. On July 27, 1964, 5,000 additional U.S. military advisers were ordered to the Republic of Vietnam (RVN or South Vietnam), bringing the total American troop level to 21,000. Shortly thereafter an incident occurred off the coast of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) that was destined to escalate the conflict to new levels and lead to the full scale Americanization of the war. On the evening of August 2, 1964, the destroyer was conducting an electronic intelligence collection mission in international waters (even as claimed by North Vietnam) in the Gulf of Tonkin when it was attacked by three P-4 torpedo boats of the North Vietnamese Navy. Reports later reached the Johnson administration saying that the Maddox was under attack. Two nights later, after being joined by the destroyer C. Turner Joy, the Maddox again reported that both vessels were under attack. Regardless, President Johnson addressed Congress asking for more political power to utilize American military forces in South Vietnam, using the attack on the Maddox as cause to get what he wanted. There was rampant confusion in Washington, but the incident was seen by the administration as the perfect opportunity to present Congress with "a pre-dated declaration of war" in order to strengthen weakening morale in South Vietnam through reprisal attacks by the U.S. on the North. Even before confirmation of the phantom attack had been received in Washington, President Johnson had decided that an attack could not go unanswered. Just before midnight he appeared on television and announced that retaliatory air strikes were underway against North Vietnamese naval and port facilities. Neither Congress nor the American people learned the whole story about the events in the Gulf of Tonkin until the publication of the Pentagon Papers in 1969. It was on the basis of the administration's assertions that the attacks were "unprovoked aggression" on the part of North Vietnam, that the United States Congress approved the Southeast Asia Resolution (also known as the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution) on August 7. The law gave the President broad powers to conduct military operations without an actual declaration of war. The resolution passed unanimously in the House of Representatives and was opposed in the Senate by only two members. National Security Council members, including United States Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, Secretary of State Dean Rusk, and General Maxwell Taylor, agreed on November 28 to recommend that Johnson adopt a plan for a two-stage escalation of the bombing of North Vietnam. In February 1965, a U.S. air base at Pleiku, in the Central Highlands of South Vietnam, was attacked twice by the NLF, resulting in the deaths of over a dozen U.S. personnel. These guerrilla attacks prompted the administration to order retaliatory air strikes against North Vietnam. Operation Rolling Thunder was the code name given to a sustained strategic bombing campaign targeted against the North by aircraft of the U.S. Air Force and Navy that was inaugurated on March 2, 1965. Its original purpose was to bolster the morale of the South Vietnamese and to serve as a signaling device to Hanoi. U.S. airpower would act as a method of "strategic persuasion", deterring the North Vietnamese politically by the fear of continued or increased bombardment. Rolling Thunder gradually escalated in intensity, with aircraft striking only carefully selected targets. When that did not work, its goals were altered to destroying North Vietnam's will to fight by destroying the nation's industrial base, transportation network, and its (continually increasing) air defenses. After more than a million sorties were flown and three-quarters of a million tons of bombs were dropped, Rolling Thunder was ended on November 11, 1968. Other aerial campaigns (Operation Barrel Roll, Operation Steel Tiger, Operation Tiger Hound, and Operation Commando Hunt) were directed to counter the flow of men and material down the PAVN logistical system that flowed from North Vietnam through southeastern Laos, and into South Vietnam known as the Ho Chi Minh Trail. President Johnson had already appointed General William C. Westmoreland to succeed General Harkins as Commander of MACV in June 1964. Under Westmoreland, the expansion of American troop strength in South Vietnam took place. American forces rose from 16,000 during 1964 to more than 553,000 by 1969. With the U.S. decision to escalate its involvement it had created the Many Flags program to legitimize intervention and ANZUS Pact allies Australia and New Zealand agreed to contribute troops and matériel to the conflict. They were joined by the Republic of Korea, Thailand, and the Philippines. The U.S. paid for (through aid dollars) and logistically supplied all of the allied forces. Meanwhile, political affairs in Saigon were finally settling down — at least as far as the Americans were concerned. On February 14 the most recent military junta, the National Leadership Committee, installed Air Vice-Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ as prime minister. In 1966, the junta selected General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu to run for president with Ky on the ballot as the vice-presidential candidate in the 1967 election. Thieu and Ky were elected and remained in office for the duration of the war. In the presidential election of 1971, Thieu ran for the presidency unopposed. With the installation of the Thieu and Ky government (the Second Republic), the U.S. had a pliable, stable, and semi- legitimate government in Saigon with which to deal. With the advent of Rolling Thunder, American airbases and facilities needed to be constructed and manned for the aerial effort. On March 8, 1965, 3,500 United States Marines came ashore at Da Nang as the first wave of U.S. combat troops into South Vietnam, adding to the 25,000 U.S. military advisers already in place. The US Government deployment of ground forces to Da Nang had not been consulted with the South Vietnamese government. Instead the initial deployment and gradual build-up was a unilateral decision by the US government.. On May 5 the U.S. 173rd Airborne Brigade became the first U.S. Army ground unit committed to the conflict in South Vietnam. On August 18, Operation Starlite began as the first major U.S. ground operation, destroying an NLF stronghold in Quảng Ngãi Province. The North Vietnamese had already sent units of their regular army into southern Vietnam beginning in late 1964. Some officials in Hanoi had favored an immediate invasion of the South, and a plan was developed to use PAVN units to split southern Vietnam in half through the Central Highlands. The two imported adversaries first faced one another during Operation Silver Bayonet, better known as the Battle of the Ia Drang. During the savage fighting that took place, both sides learned important lessons. The North Vietnamese, began to adapt to the overwhelming American superiority in air mobility, supporting arms, and close air support by moving in as close as possible during confrontations, thereby negating the effects of the above. On November 27, 1965, the Pentagon declared that if the major operations needed to neutralize North Vietnamese and NLF forces were to succeed, U.S. troop levels in South Vietnam would have to be increased from 120,000 to 400,000. In a series of meetings between Westmoreland and the President held in Honolulu in February 1966, Westmoreland claimed that the U.S. presence had succeeded in preventing the immediate defeat of the South Vietnamese government but that more troops would be necessary if systematic offensive operations were to be conducted. The issue then became in what manner American forces would be used. The nature of the American military's strategic and tactical decisions made during this period colored the conflict for the duration of the American commitment. The logistical system in Laos and Cambodia should be cut by ground forces, isolating the southern battlefield. However, political considerations limited U.S. military actions, mainly because of the memory of Chinese reactions during the Korean War. Ever present in the minds of diplomats, military officers, and politicians was the possibility of a spiraling escalation of the conflict into a superpower confrontation and the possibility of a nuclear exchange. Therefore, there would be no invasion of North Vietnam, the "neutrality" of Laos and Cambodia would be respected, and Rolling Thunder would not resemble the bombing of Germany and Japan during the Second World War. These limitations were not foisted upon the military as an afterthought. Before the first U.S. soldiers came ashore at Da Nang, the Pentagon was cognizant of all of the parameters that would be imposed by their civilian leaders, yet they still agreed that the mission could be accomplished within them. Westmoreland believed that he had found a strategy that would either defeat North Vietnam or force it into serious negotiations. Attrition was to be the key. The general held that larger offensive operations would grind down the communists and eventually lead to a "crossover point" in PAVN/NLF casualties after which a decisive (or at least political) victory would be possible. It is widely held that the average U.S. serviceman was nineteen years old, as evidenced by the casual reference in a pop song ("19" by Paul Hardcastle); the figure is cited by Lt. Col. Dave Grossman ret. of the Killology Research Group in his 1995 book (p. 265). However, it is disputed by the Vietnam Helicopter Flight Crew Network Website, which claims the average age of MOS 11B personnel was 22. This compares with 26 years of age for those who participated in World War II. Soldiers served a one-year tour of duty. The average age of the U.S. military men who died in Vietnam was 22.8 years old. The one-year tour of duty deprived units of experienced leadership. As one observer put it, "we were not in Vietnam for 10 years, but for one year 10 times." As a result, training programs were shortened. Some NCOs were referred to as "Shake 'N' Bake" to highlight their accelerated training. Unlike soldiers in World War II and Korea, there were no secure rear areas in which to get rest and relaxation. One unidentified soldier said to United Press International that there was nothing to do in Vietnam and therefore many of the men smoked marijuana. He said, "One of the biggest reasons that a lot of GIs do get high over here is there is nothing to do. This place is really a drag; it's a bore over here. Like right now sitting around here, we are getting loaded. Whereas, it doesn't really get you messed up; that's I guess the main reason why we smoke it." American forces would conduct operations against PAVN forces, pushing them further back into the countryside away from the heavily populated coastal lowlands. In the backcountry the U.S. could fully utilize its superiority in firepower and mobility to bleed the enemy in set-piece battles. The cleaning- out of the NLF and the pacification of the villages would be the responsibility of the South Vietnamese military. The adoption of this strategy, however, brought Westmoreland into direct conflict with his Marine Corps commander, General Lewis W. Walt, who had already recognized the security of the villages as the key to success. Walt had immediately commenced pacification efforts in his area of responsibility, but Westmoreland was unhappy, believing that the Marines were being underutilized and fighting the wrong enemy. In the end, MACV won out and Westmoreland's search and destroy concept, predicated on the attrition of enemy forces, won the day. Both sides chose similar strategies. PAVN, which had been operating a more conventional, large-unit war, switched back to small-unit operations in the face of U.S. military capabilities. The struggle moved to the villages, where the "hearts and minds" of the South Vietnamese peasants, whose cooperation was absolutely necessary to military success, would be won or lost. The U.S. had given responsibility for this struggle to the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN), whose troops and commanders were notoriously unfit for the task. For the American soldier, whose doctrine was one of absolute commitment to total victory, this strategy led to a frustrating small-unit war. Most of the combat was conducted by units smaller than battalion-size (the majority at the platoon level). Since the goal of the operations was to kill the enemy, terrain was not taken and held as in previous wars. Savage fighting and the retreat of the communists was immediately followed by the abandonment of the terrain just seized. Combined with this was the anger and frustration engendered among American troops by the effective tactics of the NLF, who conducted a war of sniping, booby traps, mines, and terror against the Americans. As a result of the conference held in Honolulu, President Johnson authorized an increase in troop strength to 429,000 by August 1966. The large increase in troops enabled MACV to carry out numerous operations that grew in size and complexity during the next two years. For U.S. troops participating in these operations (Operation Masher/White Wing, Operation Attleboro, Operation Cedar Falls, Operation Junction City and dozens of others) the war boiled down to hard marching through some of the most difficult terrain on the planet and weather conditions that were alternately hot and dry, or cold and wet. It was the PAVN/NLF that actually controlled the pace of the war, fighting only when their commanders believed that they had the upper hand and then disappearing when the Americans and/or ARVN brought their superiority in numbers and firepower to bear. North Vietnam, utilizing the Ho Chi Minh and Sihanouk Trails, matched the U.S. at every point of the escalation, funneling manpower and supplies to the southern battlefields. During the Vietnam War, the use of the helicopter, known as "Air Mobile", was an essential tool for conducting the war. In fact, the whole conduct and strategy of the war depended on it. Vietnam was the first time the helicopter was used on a major scale, and in such important roles. Search and destroy missions, for example, would have been nearly impossible without it. Helicopters allowed American commanders to move large numbers of troops to virtually anywhere, regardless of the terrain or roads. Troops could also be easily resupplied in remote areas. The helicopter also provided another new and vital capability: medical evacuation. It could fly wounded soldiers to aid stations very quickly, usually within the critical first hour. This gave wounded soldiers a higher chance of survival in Vietnam than in any previous war. The helicopter was also adapted for many other roles in Vietnam, including ground attack, reconnaissance, and electronic warfare. Without the helicopter, the war would have been fought very differently. By mid-1967, Westmoreland said that it was conceivable that U.S. forces could be phased out of the war within two years, turning over progressively more of the fighting to the ARVN. That fall, however, savage fighting broke out in the northern provinces. Beginning below the DMZ at Con Tien and then spreading west to the Laotian border near Dak To, large PAVN forces began to stand their ground and fight. This willingness of the communists to remain fixed in place inspired MACV to send reinforcements from other sectors of South Vietnam. The Border Battles had begun. Most of the PAVN/NLF operational capability was possible only because of the unhindered movement of men along the Ho Chi Minh Trail. To threaten this flow of supplies, the Marine Corps established a combat base on the South Vietnamese side of the Laotian frontier, near the village of Khe Sanh. The U.S. used the base as a border surveillance position overlooking Route 9, the only east-west road that crossed the border in the province. Westmoreland also hoped to use the base as a jump-off point for any future incursion against the Trail system in Laos. During the spring of 1967, a series of small-unit actions near Khe Sanh prompted MACV to increase its forces. These small unit actions and increasing intelligence information indicated that the PAVN was building up significant forces just across the border. Indeed, PAVN was doing just that. Two regular divisions (and later elements of a third) were moving toward Khe Sanh, eventually surrounding the base and cutting off its only road access. Westmoreland, contrary to the advice of his Marine commanders, reinforced the outpost. As far as he was concerned, if the communists were willing to mass their forces for destruction by American air power, so much the better. He described the ideal outcome as a "Dien Bien Phu in reverse". MACV then launched the largest concentrated aerial bombardment effort of the conflict (Operation Niagara) to defend Khe Sanh. Another massive aerial effort was undertaken to keep the beleaguered Marines supplied. There were many comparisons (by the media, Americans military and political officials, and the North Vietnamese) to the possibility of PAVN staging a repeat of its victory at Dien Bien Phu, but the differences outweighed the similarities in any comparison. MACV used this opportunity to field its latest technology against the North Vietnamese. A sensor-driven, anti-infiltration system known as Operation Igloo White was in the process of being field tested in Laos as the siege of Khe Sanh began. Westmoreland ordered that it be employed to detect PAVN troop movements near the Marine base and the system worked well. By March, the long-awaited ground assault against the base had failed to materialize and communist forces began to melt back toward Laos. MACV (and future historians) were left with only questions. What was the goal of the PAVN? Was the siege a real attempt to stage another Dien Bien Phu? Or had the battles near the border (which eventually drew in half of MACV's maneuver battalions) been a diversion, meant to pull forces away from the cities, where another PAVN offensive would soon commence? General Westmoreland's public reassurances that "the light at the end of the tunnel" was near were countered when, on January 30, 1968, PAVN and NLF forces broke the truce that accompanied the Tết holiday and mounted their largest offensive thus far, in hopes of sparking a general uprising among the South Vietnamese. These forces, ranging in size from small groups to entire regiments, attacked nearly every city and major military installation in South Vietnam. The Americans and South Vietnamese, initially surprised by the scope and scale of the offensive, quickly responded and inflicted severe casualties on their enemies. The NLF was essentially eliminated as a fighting force and the places of the dead within its ranks were increasingly filled by North Vietnamese. The PAVN/NLF attacks were speedily and bloodily repulsed in virtually all areas except Saigon, where the fighting lasted for three days, and in the old imperial capital of Huế, where it continued for a month. During the occupation of the historic city, 2,800 South Vietnamese were murdered by the NLF in the single worst massacre of the conflict. The hoped-for uprising never took place; indeed, the offensive drove some previously apathetic South Vietnamese to fight for the government. Another surprise for the communists was that the ARVN did not collapse under the onslaught, instead turning in a performance that pleased even its American patrons. After the Tet Offensive, influential news magazines and newspapers, including the Wall Street Journal, Time and The New York Times, increasingly began to characterize the war as a stalemate. What shocked and dismayed the American public was the realization that either it had been lied to or that the American military command had been dangerously overoptimistic in its appraisal of the situation in Vietnam. The public could not understand how such an attack was possible after being told for several years that victory was just around the corner. The Tet Offensive came to embody the growing credibility gap at the heart of U.S. government statements. These realizations and changing attitudes forced the American public (and politicians) to face hard realities and to reexamine their position in Southeast Asia. Moreover, the U.S. media coverage made it even more clear that an overall victory in Vietnam was not imminent. It also massively weakened the domestic support for the Johnson administration at the time. The days of an open-ended commitment to the conflict were over. The psychological impact of the Tet Offensive effectively ended the political career of Lyndon Johnson. On March 11, Senator Eugene McCarthy won 42 percent of the vote in the Democratic New Hampshire primary. Although Johnson was not on the ballot, commentators viewed this as a defeat for the President. Shortly thereafter, Senator Robert Kennedy announced his intention to seek the Democratic nomination for the 1968 presidential election. On March 31, in a speech that took America and the world by surprise, Johnson announced that "I shall not seek, and I will not accept the nomination of my party for another term as your President" and pledged himself to devoting the rest of his term in office to the search for peace in Vietnam. Johnson announced that he was limiting bombing of North Vietnam to just north of the Demilitarized Zone and that U.S. representatives were prepared to meet with North Vietnamese counterparts in any suitable place "to discuss the means to bring this ugly war to an end". A few days later, much to Johnson's surprise, North Vietnam agreed to contacts between the two sides. On May 13, what became known as the Paris peace talks began. On March 16, 1968, three companies of Task Force Barker, part of the Americal Division, took part in a search and destroy operation near the village of My Lai, in Quảng Nam Province. Although not all of the members of the company participated, a significant number of them, led by Calley, did. He personally ordered the executions of hundreds of villagers in large groups. The killings ended only when an American helicopter crew, headed by Warrant Officer Hugh Thompson, Jr., discovered Calley's unit in the act and threatened to attack them with his aircraft's weapons unless they stopped. One of the soldiers on the scene was Ron Haeberle, a photographer for the newspaper Stars and Stripes, who took unobtrusive official black-and-white photos of the operation through the lens of his military-issued camera and color shots of the massacre with his personal camera. Although the operation appeared suspicious to Calley's superiors, it was forgotten. In 1969, investigative journalist Seymour Hersh exposed the Mylai massacre in print, and the Haeberle photos were released to the world media. The Pentagon launched an investigation headed by General William R. Peers to look into the allegations. After a flurry of activity, the Peers Commission issued its report. It declared that "an atmosphere of atrocity" surrounded the event, concluding that a massacre had taken place and the crime had been covered up by the commander of the Americal Division and his executive officer. Perhaps 400 Vietnamese civilians, mostly old men, women, and children had been killed by Charlie company. Several men were charged in the killings, but only Calley was convicted. He was given a life sentence by a court-martial in 1970, but after numerous appeals, he was finally set free; he had served just over three years of house arrest. Although My Lai generated a lot of civilian recriminations and bad publicity for the military, it was not the only massacre. The Vietnam War Crimes Working Group Files made public in 1994 by the "Freedom of Information Act" reveals seven, albeit much smaller, massacres previously unacknowledged by the Pentagon, in which at least 137 civilians had died. Cover-ups may have occurred in other cases, as detailed in the Pulitzer Prize-winning series of articles concerning the Tiger Force of the 101st Airborne Division by the Toledo Blade in 2003. Richard Nixon had campaigned in the 1968 presidential election under the slogan that he would end the war in Vietnam and bring "peace with honor". However, there was no plan to do this, and the American commitment continued for another five years. The goal of the American military effort was to buy time, gradually building up the strength of the South Vietnamese armed forces, and re-equipping it with modern weapons so that they could defend their nation on their own. This policy became the cornerstone of the so-called Nixon Doctrine. As applied to Vietnam, it was labeled Vietnamization. Nixon's papers show that in 1968, as a presidential candidate, he ordered Anna Chennault, his liaison to the South Vietnam government, to persuade them to refuse a cease- fire being brokered by President Lyndon Johnson. Soon after Tet, General Westmoreland was promoted to Army Chief of Staff and he was replaced by his deputy, General Creighton W. Abrams. Because of the change in American strategy posed by Vietnamization, Abrams pursued a very different approach. The U.S. was gradually withdrawing from the conflict, and Abrams favored smaller-scale operations aimed at PAVN/NLF logistics, more openness with the media, less indiscriminate use of American firepower, elimination of the body count as the key indicator of battlefield success, and more meaningful cooperation with South Vietnamese forces. Vietnamization of the war, however, created a dilemma for U.S. forces: the strategy required that U.S. troops fight long enough for the ARVN to improve enough to hold its own against Communist forces. Morale in the U.S. ranks rapidly declined during 1969–1972, as evidenced by declining discipline, worsening drug use among soldiers, and increased "fraggings" of U.S. officers by disgruntled troops. One of Nixon's main foreign policy goals had been the achievement of a breakthrough in U.S. relations with the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union. An avowed anti-communist since early in his political career, Nixon could make diplomatic overtures to the communists without being accused of being "soft on communism". The result of his overtures was an era of détente that led to nuclear arms reductions by the U.S. and Soviet Union and the beginning of a dialogue with China. In this context, Nixon viewed Vietnam as simply another limited conflict forming part of the larger tapestry of superpower relations; however, he was still determined to preserve South Vietnam until such time as he could not be blamed for what he saw as its inevitable collapse (or a "decent interval", as it was known). To this end he and National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger employed Chinese and Soviet foreign policy gambits to successfully defuse some of the anti-war opposition at home and secured movement at the negotiations that had begun in Paris. China and the Soviet Union had been the principal backers of North Vietnam's effort through large- scale military and financial aid. The two communist superpowers had competed with one another to prove their "fraternal socialist links" with the regime in Hanoi. The North Vietnamese had become adept at playing the two nations off against one another. Even with Nixon's rapprochement, their support of North Vietnam increased significantly in the years leading up to the U.S. departure in 1973, enabling the North Vietnamese to mount full-scale conventional offensives against the South, complete with tanks, heavy artillery, and the most modern surface-to-air missiles. The credibility of the U.S. government again suffered in 1971 when The New York Times, The Washington Post and other newspapers serially published The Pentagon Papers (actually U.S.-Vietnam Relations, 1945–1967). This top-secret historical study of the American commitment in Vietnam, from the Franklin Roosevelt administration until 1967, had been contracted to the RAND Corporation by Secretary of Defense McNamara. The documents were leaked to the press by Daniel Ellsberg, a former State Department official who had worked on the study. The Pentagon Papers laid out the missteps taken by four administrations in their Vietnam policies. For example, they revealed the Johnson administration's obfuscations to Congress concerning the Gulf of Tonkin incidents that had led to direct U.S. intervention; they exposed the clandestine bombing of Laos that had begun in 1964; and they detailed the American government's complicity in the death of Ngô Đình Diệm. The study presented a continuously pessimistic view of the likelihood of victory and generated fierce criticism of U.S. policies. The importance of the actual content of the papers to U.S. policy-making was disputed, but the window that they provided into the flawed decision-making process at the highest levels of the U.S. government opened the issue for other questions. Their publication was a news event and the government's legal (Nixon lost to the Supreme Court) and extra-legal efforts (the "Plumbers" break-in at the office of Ellsberg's psychiatrist committed to gain material to discredit him, was one of the first steps on the road to Watergate) carried out to prevent their publication—mainly on national security grounds—then went on to generate yet more criticism and suspicion of the government by the American public. By 1969 the policy of non-alignment and neutrality had worn thin for Prince Sihanouk, ruler of Cambodia. Pressures from the right in Cambodia caused the prince to begin a shift away from the pro-left position he had assumed in 1965–1966. He began to make overtures for normalized relations with the U.S. and created a Government of National Salvation with the assistance of the pro- American General Lon Nol. Seeing a shift in the prince's position, President Nixon ordered the launching of a top-secret bombing campaign, targeted at the PAVN/NLF Base Areas and sanctuaries along Cambodia's eastern border. On March 18, 1970, Sihanouk, who was out of the country on a state visit, was deposed by a vote of the National Assembly and replaced by General Lon Nol. Cambodia's ports were immediately closed to North Vietnamese military supplies, and the government demanded that PAVN/NLF forces be removed from the border areas within 72 hours. On March 29, 1970, the Vietnamese had taken matters into their own hands and launched an offensive against the Cambodian army. A force of North Vietnamese quickly overran large parts of eastern Cambodia reaching to within of Phnom Penh allowing their allies, the Chinese-supported Khmer Rouge to extend their power. Nixon ordered a military incursion into Cambodia by U.S. and ARVN troops in order to both destroy PAVN/NLF sanctuaries bordering South Vietnam and to buy time for the U.S. withdrawal. During the Cambodian Campaign, U.S. and ARVN forces discovered and removed or destroyed a huge logistical and intelligence haul in Cambodia. The incursion also sparked large-scale demonstrations on and closures of American college campuses. The expansion of the conflict into Cambodia was seen as an expansion of the conflict into yet another country, nullifying Nixon's promises of de- escalating the war. During the ensuing protests, four students were killed and a score were wounded by Ohio National Guardsmen during a demonstration at Kent State University. Two other students were killed at Jackson State University in Mississippi. In an effort to lessen opposition to the U.S. commitment, Nixon announced on October 12 that the U.S. would withdraw 40,000 more troops from Vietnam before Christmas. Following the coup, Sihanouk arrived in Beijing, where he established and headed a government in exile, throwing his substantial personal support behind the Khmer Rouge, the North Vietnamese, and the Laotian Pathet Lao. In 1971 the U.S. authorized the ARVN to carry out an offensive operation aimed at cutting the Ho Chi Minh Trail in southeastern Laos. Besides attacking the PAVN logistical system (which would buy time for the U.S. withdrawal) the incursion would be a significant test of Vietnamization. Backed by U.S. air and artillery support (American troops were forbidden to enter Laos), the ARVN moved across the border along Route 9, utilizing the abandoned Marine outpost of Khe Sanh as a jumping-off point. At first, the incursion went well, but unlike the Cambodian operation of 1970, the PAVN decided to stand and fight, finally mustering around 60,000 men on the battlefield. The North Vietnamese first struck the flanks of the ARVN column, smashed its outposts, and then moved in on the main ARVN force. Unlike previous encounters during the conflict, the PAVN fielded armored formations, heavy artillery, and large amounts of the latest anti-aircraft artillery. After two months of savage fighting, the ARVN retreated back across the border, closely pursued by the North Vietnamese. One half of the invasion force was killed or captured during the operation, and Vietnamization was seen as a failure. On August 18, Australia and New Zealand decided to withdraw their troops from the conflict. The total number of U.S. forces in South Vietnam dropped to 196,700 on October 29, 1971, the lowest level since January 1966. On November 12, 1971, Nixon set a February 1, 1972 deadline for the removal of another 45,000 troops. Vietnamization received another severe test in the spring of 1972 when the North Vietnamese launched a massive conventional offensive across the Demilitarized Zone. Beginning on March 30, the Easter Offensive (known as the Nguyễn Huệ Offensive to the North Vietnamese) quickly overran the three northernmost provinces of South Vietnam, including the provincial capital of Quảng Trị City. PAVN forces then drove south toward Huế. Early in April, PAVN opened two additional operations. The first, a three-division thrust supported by tanks and heavy artillery, advanced out of Cambodia on April 5. The North Vietnamese seized the town of Loc Ninh and advanced toward the provincial capital of An Lộc in Bình Long Province. The second new offensive, launched from the tri-border region into the Central Highlands, seized a complex of ARVN outposts near Dak To and then advanced toward Kon Tum, threatening to split South Vietnam in two. The U.S. countered with a buildup of American airpower to support ARVN defensive operations and to conduct Operation Linebacker, the first offensive bombing of North Vietnam since Rolling Thunder had been terminated in 1968. The PAVN attacks against Huế, An Lộc, and Kon Tum were contained and the ARVN launched a counteroffensive in May to retake the lost northern provinces. On September 10, the South Vietnamese flag once again flew over the ruins of the Citadel of Quảng Trị City, but the ARVN offensive then ran out of steam, conceding the rest of the occupied territory to the North Vietnamese. South Vietnam had countered the heaviest attack since Tet, but it was very evident that it was totally dependent on U.S. airpower for its survival. Meanwhile, the withdrawal of American troops, who numbered less than 100,000 at the beginning of the year, was continued as scheduled. By June only six infantry battalions remained. On August 12, the last American ground combat division left the country. However, the U.S. continued to operate the base At Long Binh. Combat patrols continued there until November 11 when the U.S. handed over the base to the South Vietnamese. After this, only 24,000 American troops remained in Vietnam and President Nixon announced that they would stay there until all U.S. POW's were freed. At the beginning of the North Vietnamese invasion, the media, including conservative commentator William F. Buckley, predicted the downfall of the Republic of Vietnam; Buckley even called for the firing of General Creighton Abrams as an incompetent military leader. But the ARVN succeeded in defeating General Giap and his huge invading army. His forces were shattered at the Battle of An Lộc, where he threw several divisions at the entrenched South Vietnamese forces, ultimately losing over half of his army as casualties. General Giap's loss and subsequent retreat was viewed as so great a failure by the North Vietnamese Communist Party that Giap was relieved of his command. Although ARVN troops withstood and repelled the massive PAVN attack at An Lộc, American air power seems to have been a key to the ARVN success, just as it had been a key factor in supporting U.S. ground forces when they operated in South Vietnam prior to 1972. Thus, the 1973 withdrawal of U.S. military support and passage of Congressional resolutions cutting off U.S. funding for combat activities in Indochina (H.R. 9055 and H.J.Res. 636) opened the way for the 1975 defeat of the Republic of Vietnam. During the run-up to the 1972 presidential election, the war was once again a major issue. An antiwar Democrat, George McGovern, ran against President Nixon. The president ended Operation Linebacker on October 22 after the negotiating deadlock was broken and a tentative agreement had been hammered out by U.S. and North Vietnamese representatives at the peace negotiations in Paris. The head of the U.S. negotiating team, Henry Kissinger, declared that "peace is at hand" shortly before election day, dealing a death blow to McGovern's already doomed campaign. Kissinger had not, however, counted on the intransigence of South Vietnamese President Thieu, who refused to accept the agreement and demanded some 90 changes in its text. These the North Vietnamese refused to accept, and Nixon was not inclined to put too much pressure on Thieu just before the election, even though his victory was all but assured. The mood between the U.S. and North further turned sour when Hanoi went public with the details of the agreement. The Nixon Administration claimed that North Vietnamese negotiators had used the pronouncement as an opportunity to embarrass the President and to weaken the United States. White House Press Secretary Ron Ziegler told the press on November 30 that there would be no more public announcements concerning U.S. troop withdrawals from Vietnam since force levels were down to 27,000. Because of Thieu's unhappiness with the agreement, primarily the stipulation that North Vietnamese troops could remain "in place" on South Vietnamese soil, the negotiations in Paris stalled as Hanoi refused to accept Thieu's changes and retaliated with amendments of its own. To reassure Thieu of American resolve, Nixon ordered a massive bombing campaign against North Vietnam utilizing B-52s and tactical aircraft in Operation Linebacker II, which began on December 18 with large raids against both Hanoi and the port of Haiphong. Nixon justified his actions by blaming the impasse in negotiations on the North Vietnamese. Although this heavy bombing campaign caused protests, both domestically and internationally, and despite significant aircraft losses over North Vietnam, Nixon continued the operation until December 29. He also exerted pressure on Thieu to accept the terms of the agreement reached in October. On January 15, 1973, citing progress in peace negotiations, Nixon announced the suspension of all offensive actions against North Vietnam, to be followed by a unilateral withdrawal of all U.S. troops. The Paris Peace Accords on "Ending the War and Restoring Peace in Vietnam" were signed on January 27, officially ending direct U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. The agreement called for the withdrawal of all U.S. personnel and an exchange of prisoners of war. Within South Vietnam, a cease-fire was declared (to be overseen by a multi-national, 1,160-man International Commission of Control and Supervision force) and both ARVN and PAVN/NLF forces would remain in control of the areas they then occupied, effectively partitioning South Vietnam. Both sides pledged to work toward a compromise political solution, possibly resulting in a coalition government. To maximize the area under their control, both sides in South Vietnam almost immediately engaged in land-grabbing military operations, which turned into flashpoints. The signing of the Accords was the main motivation for the awarding of the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize to Henry Kissinger and to leading North Vietnamese negotiator Le Duc Tho. A separate cease-fire had been installed in Laos in February. Five days before the signing of the agreement in Paris, President Lyndon Johnson, whose presidency had been tainted with the Vietnam issue, died. The first U.S. prisoners of war were released by North Vietnam on February 11, and all U.S. military personnel were to leave South Vietnam by March 29. As an inducement for Thieu's government to sign the agreement, Nixon had promised that the U.S. would provide financial and limited military support (in the form of air strikes) so that the South would not be overrun. But Nixon was fighting for his political life in the growing Watergate scandal and facing an increasingly hostile Congress that withheld funding. The President was able to exert little influence on a hostile public long sick of the Vietnam War. Thus, Nixon (or his successor Gerald Ford) was unable to fulfill his promises to Thieu. At the same time, aid to North Vietnam from the Soviet Union increased. With the U.S. no longer heavily involved, both the U.S. and the Soviet Union no longer saw the war as significant to their relations. The balance of power shifted decisively in North Vietnam's favor, and the North subsequently launched a major military offensive, the Ho Chi Minh Campaign, against the South that culminated in the surrender of the Republic of Vietnam to PAVN forces on April 30, 1975. Battle of An Lộc, History of Vietnam, History of Laos, History of Cambodia, Democratic Kampuchea, Socialist Republic of Vietnam, Vietnam People's Army, Army of the Republic of Vietnam, Vietnam War casualties, Phoenix Program, Tiger Force, Opposition to the Vietnam War, Vietnam Veterans Against the War, Winter Soldier Investigation, Canada and the Vietnam War Military history of the United States, Cold War, Military history, United States Air Force In Thailand, Weapons of the Vietnam War, Aircraft losses of the Vietnam War, Cu Chi tunnels, Prisoner-of-war camp, Military Assistance Command, Vietnam Studies and Observations Group, News Media and the Vietnam War, List of Congressional opponents of the Vietnam War, United States assistance to Vietnam Why Did Vietnamization of The Vietnam War Fail? The Office of the Secretary of Defense & Joint Staff, FOIA Requester Service Center Vietnam & Southeast Asia (very large document collection) Essential Matters: History of the Cryptographic Branch of the People's Army of Vietnam 1945-1975. (1994), Gulf of Tonkin records CIA and the Generals, Covert Support to Military Government in South Vietnam, CIA and the House of Ngo, Covert Action in South Vietnam, 1954–63, CIA and Rural Pacification, Good Questions, Wrong Answers CIA's Estimates of Arms Traffic through Sihanoukville, Cambodia, During the Vietnam War., The Way We Do Things, Black Entry Operations into Northern Vietnam, Undercover Armies, CIA and Surrogate Warfare in Laos, CIA collection of Vietnam War documents released under the Freedom Of Information Act, CIA's collection of declassified Air America documents Foreign Relations series Under Eisenhower 1. Vietnam, 1955–1957 2. Vietnam, 1958–1960 Under Kennedy 1. Vietnam 1961 2. Vietnam 1962 3. Vietnam January–August 1963 4. Vietnam August–December 1963 Under Johnson 1. Vietnam 1964 2. Vietnam, January–June 1965 3. Vietnam June–December 1965 4. Vietnam 1966 5. Vietnam 1967 6. Vietnam January–August 1968 7. Vietnam September 1968 – January 1969 Under Nixon 1. Vietnam January 1969 – July 1970 2. Vietnam July 1970 – January 1972 3. Vietnam January–October 1972 4. Vietnam October 1972 – January 1973 Under Ford 1. Vietnam January 1973 – July 1975 The Gulf of Tonkin incident (), also known as the USS Maddox incident, was an international confrontation that led to the United States engaging more directly in the Vietnam War. It involved one real and one falsely claimed confrontation between ships of North Vietnam and the United States in the waters of the Gulf of Tonkin. The original American report blamed North Vietnam for both incidents, but the Pentagon Papers, the memoirs of Robert McNamara, and NSA publications from 2005, proved material misrepresentation by the US government to justify a war against Vietnam. On August 2, 1964, the destroyer , while performing a signals intelligence patrol as part of DESOTO operations, was monitored by three North Vietnamese Navy torpedo boats of the 135th Torpedo Squadron. Maddox initiated the incident by firing three "warning" shots, and the North Vietnamese boats replied with torpedoes and machine gun fire. Maddox expended over 280 and shells in a sea battle. One U.S. aircraft was damaged, three North Vietnamese torpedo boats were damaged, and four North Vietnamese sailors were killed, with six more wounded. There were no U.S. casualties. Maddox was "unscathed except for a single bullet hole from a Vietnamese machine gun round". It was originally claimed by the National Security Agency that a Second Gulf of Tonkin incident occurred on August 4, 1964, as another sea battle, but instead, evidence was found of "Tonkin ghosts" (false radar images) and not actual North Vietnamese torpedo boats. In the 2003 documentary The Fog of War, the former United States Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara admitted that the August 2 USS Maddox attack happened with no Defense Department response, but the August 4 Gulf of Tonkin attack never happened. In 1995, McNamara met with former Vietnam People's Army General Võ Nguyên Giáp to ask what happened on August 4, 1964, in the second Gulf of Tonkin Incident. "Absolutely nothing", Giáp replied. Giáp claimed that the attack had been imaginary. The outcome of these two incidents was the passage by US Congress of the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which granted US President Lyndon B. Johnson the authority to assist any Southeast Asian country whose government was considered to be jeopardized by "communist aggression". The resolution served as Johnson's legal justification for deploying U.S. conventional forces and the commencement of open warfare against North Vietnam. In 2005, an internal National Security Agency historical study was declassified; it concluded that Maddox had engaged the North Vietnamese Navy on August 2, but that there were no North Vietnamese naval vessels present during the incident of August 4. The report stated, regarding the first incident on August 2: at 1500G, Captain Herrick ordered Ogier's gun crews to open fire if the boats approached within ten thousand yards (9,150 m). At about 1505G, Maddox fired three rounds to warn off the communist [North Vietnamese] boats. This initial action was never reported by the Johnson administration, which insisted that the Vietnamese boats fired first. Although the United States attended the Geneva Conference (1954), which was intended to end hostilities between France and the Vietnamese at the end of the First Indochina War, it refused to sign the Geneva Accords (1954). The accords mandated, among other measures, a temporary ceasefire line, intended to separate Vietnamese and French forces, and elections to determine the future political fate of the Vietnamese within two years. It also forbade the political interference of other countries in the area, the creation of new governments without the stipulated elections, and foreign military presence. By 1961, South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem faced significant discontent among some quarters of the southern population, including some Buddhists who were opposed to the rule of Diem's Catholic supporters. After suppressing Vietminh political cadres who were legally campaigning between 1955 and 1959 for the promised elections, Diem faced a growing communist-led uprising that intensified by 1961, headed by the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF, or Viet Cong). The Gulf of Tonkin Incident occurred during the first year of the Johnson administration. While US President John F. Kennedy had originally supported the policy of sending military advisers to Diem, he had begun to alter his thinking due to what he perceived to be the ineptitude of the Saigon government and its inability and unwillingness to make needed reforms (which led to a U.S.-supported coup which resulted in the death of Diem). Shortly before Kennedy was assassinated in November 1963, he had begun a limited recall of U.S. forces. Johnson's views were likewise complex, but he had supported military escalation as a means of challenging what was perceived to be the Soviet Union's expansionist policies. The Cold War policy of containment was to be applied to prevent the fall of Southeast Asia to communism under the precepts of the domino theory. After Kennedy's assassination, Johnson ordered in more U.S. forces to support the Saigon government, beginning a protracted United States presence in Southeast Asia. A highly classified program of covert actions against North Vietnam known as Operation Plan 34-Alpha, in conjunction with the DESOTO operations, had begun under the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in 1961. In 1964 the program was transferred to the Defense Department and conducted by the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam Studies and Observations Group (MACV-SOG). For the maritime portion of the covert operation, a set of fast patrol boats had been purchased quietly from Norway and sent to South Vietnam. In 1963 three young Norwegian skippers traveled on a mission in South Vietnam. They were recruited for the job by the Norwegian intelligence officer Alf Martens Meyer. Martens Meyer, who was head of department at the military intelligence staff, operated on behalf of U.S. intelligence. The three skippers did not know who Meyer really was when they agreed to a job that involved them in sabotage missions against North Vietnam. Although the boats were crewed by South Vietnamese naval personnel, approval for each mission conducted under the plan came directly from Admiral U.S. Grant Sharp, Jr., CINCPAC in Honolulu, who received his orders from the White House. After the coastal attacks began, Hanoi lodged a complaint with the International Control Commission (ICC), which had been established in 1954 to oversee the terms of the Geneva Accords, but the U.S. denied any involvement. Four years later, Secretary McNamara admitted to Congress that the U.S. ships had in fact been cooperating in the South Vietnamese attacks against North Vietnam. Maddox, although aware of the operations, was not directly involved. What was generally not considered by U.S. politicians at the time were the other actions taken under Operations Plan 34-Alpha just prior to the incident. The night before the launching of the actions against North Vietnamese facilities on Hòn Mê and Hòn Ngư islands, the SOG had launched a covert long-term agent team into North Vietnam, which was promptly captured. That night (for the second evening in a row), two flights of CIA-sponsored Laotian fighter-bombers (piloted by Thai mercenaries) attacked border outposts well within southwestern North Vietnam. The Hanoi government (which, unlike the U.S. government, had to give permission at the highest levels for the conduct of such missions) probably assumed that they were all a coordinated effort to escalate military actions against North Vietnam. Daniel Ellsberg, who was on duty in the Pentagon the night of August 4, receiving messages from the ship, reported that the ship was on a secret electronic warfare support measures mission (codenamed "DESOTO") near Northern Vietnamese territorial waters. On July 31, 1964, had begun her intelligence collection mission in the Gulf of Tonkin. Captain George Stephen Morrison was in command of local American forces from his flagship . Maddox was under orders not to approach closer than eight miles (13 km) from the North's coast and four miles (6 km) from Hon Nieu island. When the SOG commando raid was being carried out against Hon Nieu, the ship was away from the attacked area. In July 1964, "the situation along North Vietnam's territorial waters had reached a near boil", due to South Vietnamese commando raids and airborne operations that inserted intelligence teams into North Vietnam, as well as North Vietnam's military response to these operations. On the night of July 30, 1964, South Vietnamese commandos attacked a North Vietnamese radar station on Hòn Mê island. According to Hanyok, "it would be attacks on these islands, especially Hòn Mê, by South Vietnamese commandos, along with the proximity of the Maddox, that would set off the confrontation", although the Maddox did not participate in the commando attacks. In this context, on July 31, Maddox began patrols of the North Vietnamese coast to collect intelligence, coming within a few miles of Hòn Mê island. A U.S. aircraft carrier, the USS Ticonderoga, was also stationed nearby. By August 1, North Vietnamese patrol boats were tracking Maddox, and several intercepted communications indicated that they were preparing to attack. Maddox retreated, but the next day, August 2, Maddox, which had a top speed of 28 knots, resumed her routine patrol, and three North Vietnamese P-4 torpedo boats with a top speed of 50 knots began to follow Maddox. Intercepted communications indicated that the vessels intended to attack Maddox. As the ships approached from the southwest, Maddox changed course from northeasterly to southeasterly and increased speed to 25 knots. On the afternoon of August 2, as the torpedo boats neared, Maddox fired three warning shots. The North Vietnamese boats then attacked and Maddox radioed she was under attack from the three boats, closing to within , while located away from the North Vietnamese coast in international waters. Maddox stated she had evaded a torpedo attack and opened fire with its five-inch (127 mm) guns, forcing the torpedo boats away. Two of the torpedo boats had come as close as and released one torpedo each, but neither one was effective, coming no closer than about after Maddox evaded them. Another P-4 received a direct hit from a five-inch shell from Maddox; its torpedo malfunctioned at launch. Four USN F-8 Crusader jets launched from the aircraft carrier and 15 minutes after Maddox had fired her initial warning shots, attacked the retiring P-4s, claiming one was sunk and one heavily damaged. Maddox suffered only minor damage from a single 14.5 mm bullet from a P-4's KPV heavy machine gun into her superstructure. Retiring to South Vietnamese waters, Maddox was joined by the destroyer . The North Vietnamese claimed that Maddox was hit by one torpedo, and one of the American aircraft had been shot down. The original account from the Pentagon Papers has been revised in light of a 2005 internal NSA historical study, which stated on page 17: Maddox, when confronted, was approaching Hòn Mê Island, three to four nautical miles (nmi) (6 to 7 km) inside the limit claimed by North Vietnam. This territorial limit was unrecognized by the United States. After the skirmish, Johnson ordered Maddox and Turner Joy to stage daylight runs into North Vietnamese waters, testing the limit and North Vietnamese resolve. These runs into North Vietnamese territorial waters coincided with South Vietnamese coastal raids and were interpreted as coordinated operations by the North, which officially acknowledged the engagements of August 2, 1964. Others, such as Admiral Sharp, maintained that U.S. actions did not provoke the August 2 incident. He claimed that the North Vietnamese had tracked Maddox along the coast by radar, and were thus aware that the destroyer had not actually attacked North Vietnam and that Hanoi (or the local commander) had ordered its craft to engage Maddox anyway. North Vietnamese general Phùng Thế Tài later claimed that Maddox had been tracked since July 31 and that she had attacked fishing boats on August 2 forcing the North Vietnamese Navy to "fight back". Sharp also noted that orders given to Maddox to stay off the North Vietnamese coast put the ship in international waters, as North Vietnam claimed only a limit as its territory (or off of its off-shore islands). In addition, many nations had previously carried out similar missions all over the world, and the destroyer had earlier conducted an intelligence-gathering mission in similar circumstances without incident. However Sharp's claims include some factually incorrect statements. North Vietnam never claimed an 8-kilometer (5 mi) limit for its territorial waters, instead it adhered to a limit claimed by French Indochina in 1936. Moreover it officially claimed a 12 nmi limit, which is practically identical to the old 20 km French claim, after the incidents of August, in September 1964. The North Vietnamese stance is that they always considered a 12 nautical mile limit, consistently with the positions regarding the law of the sea of both the Soviet Union and China, their main allies. On August 4, another DESOTO patrol off the North Vietnamese coast was launched by Maddox and Turner Joy, in order to "show the flag" after the first incident. This time their orders indicated that the ships were to close to no less than from the coast of North Vietnam. During an evening and early morning of rough weather and heavy seas, the destroyers received radar, sonar, and radio signals that they believed signaled another attack by the North Vietnamese navy. For some four hours the ships fired on radar targets and maneuvered vigorously amid electronic and visual reports of enemies. Despite the Navy's claim that two attacking torpedo boats had been sunk, there was no wreckage, bodies of dead North Vietnamese sailors, or other physical evidence present at the scene of the alleged engagement. President Johnson ordered retaliatory airstrikes on August 4, amid a cloud of confusion among officials in Washington about whether an attack had actually occurred. At 01:27, Washington time, Herrick sent a cable in which he acknowledged that the second attack may not have happened and that there may actually have been no Vietnamese craft in the area: "Review of action makes many reported contacts and torpedoes fired appear doubtful. Freak weather effects on radar and overeager sonarmen may have accounted for many reports. No actual visual sightings by Maddox. Suggest complete evaluation before any further action taken." One hour later, Herrick sent another cable, stating, "Entire action leaves many doubts except for apparent ambush at beginning. Suggest thorough reconnaissance in daylight by aircraft." In response to requests for confirmation, at around 16:00 Washington time, Herrick cabled, "Details of action present a confusing picture although certain that the original ambush was bona fide." It is likely that McNamara did not inform either the president or Admiral U. S. Grant Sharp Jr. about Herrick's misgivings or Herrick's recommendation for further investigation. At 18:00 Washington time (05:00 in the Gulf of Tonkin), Herrick cabled yet again, this time stating, "the first boat to close the Maddox probably launched a torpedo at the Maddox which was heard but not seen. All subsequent Maddox torpedo reports are doubtful in that it is suspected that sonarman was hearing the ship's own propeller beat". Within thirty minutes of August 4 incident, Johnson had decided on retaliatory attacks (dubbed "Operation Pierce Arrow"). That same day he used the "hot line" to Moscow, and assured the Soviets he had no intent in opening a broader war in Vietnam. Early on August 5, Johnson publicly ordered retaliatory measures stating, "The determination of all Americans to carry out our full commitment to the people and to the government of South Vietnam will be redoubled by this outrage." One hour and forty minutes after his speech, aircraft launched from U.S. carriers reached North Vietnamese targets. On August 5, at 10:40, these planes bombed four torpedo boat bases and an oil- storage facility in Vinh. Shortly before midnight, on August 4, Johnson interrupted national television to make an announcement in which he described an attack by North Vietnamese vessels on two U.S. Navy warships, Maddox and Turner Joy, and requested authority to undertake a military response. Johnson's speech repeated the theme that "dramatized Hanoi/Ho Chi Minh as the aggressor and which put the United States into a more acceptable defensive posture." Johnson also referred to the attacks as having taken place "on the high seas", suggesting that they had occurred in international waters. He emphasized commitment to both the American people, and the South Vietnamese government. He also reminded Americans that there was no desire for war. "A close scrutiny of Johnson's public statements ... reveals no mention of preparations for overt warfare and no indication of the nature and extent of covert land and air measures that already were operational." Johnson's statements were short to "minimize the U.S. role in the conflict; a clear inconsistency existed between Johnson's actions and his public discourse." While Johnson's final resolution was being drafted, US Senator Wayne Morse attempted to hold a fundraiser to raise awareness about possible faulty records of the incident involving Maddox. Morse supposedly received a call from an informant who has remained anonymous urging Morse to investigate official logbooks of Maddox. These logs were not available before Johnson's resolution was presented to Congress. After urging Congress that they should be wary of Johnson's coming attempt to convince Congress of his resolution, Morse failed to gain enough cooperation and support from his colleagues to mount any sort of movement to stop it. Immediately after the resolution was read and presented to Congress, Morse began to fight it. He contended in speeches to Congress that the actions taken by the United States were actions outside the constitution and were "acts of war rather than acts of defense." Morse's efforts were not immediately met with support, largely because he revealed no sources and was working with very limited information. It was not until after the United States became more involved in the war that his claim began to gain support throughout the United States government. Morse was defeated when he ran for re-election in 1968. Evidence was still being sought on the night of August 4 when Johnson gave his address to the American public on the incident. Messages recorded that day indicate that neither Johnson nor McNamara was certain of an attack. Various news sources, including Time, Life and Newsweek, published articles throughout August on the Tonkin Gulf incident. Time reported: "Through the darkness, from the West and south ... intruders boldly sped ... at least six of them ... they opened fire on the destroyers with automatic weapons, this time from as close as 2,000 yards." Time stated that there was "no doubt in Sharp's mind that the US would now have to answer this attack", and that there was no debate or confusion within the administration regarding the incident. The use of the set of incidents as a pretext for escalation of U.S. involvement followed the issuance of public threats against North Vietnam, as well as calls from American politicians in favor of escalating the war. On May 4, 1964, William Bundy called for the U.S. to "drive the communists out of South Vietnam", even if that meant attacking both North Vietnam and communist China. Even so, the Johnson administration in the second half of 1964 focused on convincing the American public that there was no chance of war between the United States and North Vietnam. North Vietnam's General Giap suggested that the DESOTO patrol had been sent into the gulf to provoke North Vietnam into giving an excuse for escalation of the war. Various government officials and men aboard Maddox have suggested similar theories. American politicians and strategists had been planning provocative actions against North Vietnam for some time. George Ball told a British journalist after the war that "at that time ... many people ... were looking for any excuse to initiate bombing". According to Raymond McGovern, a retired CIA officer (CIA analyst from 1963 to 1990, and in the 1980s, chairman of the National Intelligence Estimates), the CIA, "not to mention President Lyndon Johnson, Defense Secretary Robert McNamara and National Security Adviser McGeorge Bundy all knew full well that the evidence of any armed attack on the evening of Aug. 4, 1964, the so-called 'second' Tonkin Gulf incident, was highly dubious. ... During the summer of 1964, President Johnson and the Joint Chiefs of Staff were eager to widen the war in Vietnam. They stepped up sabotage and hit-and-run attacks on the coast of North Vietnam." Maddox, carrying electronic spying gear, was to collect signals intelligence from the North Vietnamese coast, and the coastal attacks were seen as a helpful way to get the North Vietnamese to turn on their coastal radars. For this purpose, it was authorized to approach the coast as close as 13 kilometers (8 mi) and the offshore islands as close as four; the latter had already been subjected to shelling from the sea. In his book, Body of Secrets, James Bamford, who spent three years in the United States Navy as an intelligence analyst, writes that the primary purpose of the Maddox "was to act as a seagoing provocateur—to poke its sharp gray bow and the American flag as close to the belly of North Vietnam as possible, in effect shoving its five-inch cannons up the nose of the communist navy. ... The Maddox mission was made even more provocative by being timed to coincide with commando raids, creating the impression that the Maddox was directing those missions ..." Thus, the North Vietnamese had every reason to believe that Maddox was involved in these actions. Provocative action against North Vietnam was considered after the August 1964 incidents. John McNaughton suggested in September 1964 that the U.S. prepare to take actions to provoke a North Vietnamese military reaction, including plans to use DESOTO patrols North. William Bundy's paper dated September 8, 1964, suggested more DESOTO patrols as well. By early afternoon of August 4, Washington time, Herrick had reported to the Commander in Chief Pacific in Honolulu that "freak weather effects" on the ship's radar had made such an attack questionable. In fact, Herrick was now saying, in a message sent at 1:27 pm Washington time, that no North Vietnamese patrol boats had actually been sighted. Herrick now proposed a "complete evaluation before any further action taken." McNamara later testified that he had read the message after his return to the Pentagon that afternoon. But he did not immediately call Johnson to tell him that the whole premise of his decision at lunch to approve McNamara's recommendation for retaliatory air strikes against North Vietnam was now highly questionable. Had Johnson been accurately informed about the Herrick message, he might have demanded fuller information before proceeding with a broadening of the war. Johnson had fended off proposals from McNamara and other advisers for a policy of bombing the North on four separate occasions since becoming president. Johnson, who was up for election that year, ordered retaliatory air strikes and went on national television on August 4. Although Maddox had been involved in providing intelligence support for South Vietnamese attacks at Hòn Mê and Hòn Ngư, Johnson denied, in his testimony before Congress, that the U.S. Navy had supported South Vietnamese military operations in the Gulf. He thus characterized the attack as "unprovoked" since the ship had been in international waters. As a result of his testimony, on August 7, Congress passed a joint resolution (H.J. RES 1145), titled the Southeast Asia Resolution, which granted Johnson the authority to conduct military operations in Southeast Asia without the benefit of a declaration of war. The resolution gave Johnson approval "to take all necessary steps, including the use of armed force, to assist any member or protocol state of the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty requesting assistance in defense of its freedom." Johnson commented privately: "For all I know, our navy was shooting at whales out there." In 1967, former naval officer, John White, wrote a letter to the editor of the New Haven (CT) Register. He asserted "I maintain that President Johnson, Secretary McNamara and the Joint Chiefs of Staff gave false information to Congress in their report about US destroyers being attacked in the Gulf of Tonkin." White continued his whistleblowing activities in the 1968 documentary In the Year of the Pig. White soon arrived in Washington to meet with Senator Fulbright to discuss his concerns, particularly the faulty sonar reports. In 1981, Captain Herrick and journalist Robert Scheer re-examined Herrick's ship's log and determined that the first torpedo report from August 4, which Herrick had maintained had occurred—the "apparent ambush"—was in fact unfounded. Although information obtained well after the fact supported Captain Herrick's statements about the inaccuracy of the later torpedo reports as well as the 1981 Herrick and Scheer conclusion about the inaccuracy of the first, indicating that there was no North Vietnamese attack that night, at the time U.S. authorities and all of the Maddoxs crew stated that they were convinced that an attack had taken place. As a result, planes from the aircraft carriers and were sent to hit North Vietnamese torpedo boat bases and fuel facilities during Operation Pierce Arrow. Squadron Commander James Stockdale was one of the U.S. pilots flying overhead during the second alleged attack. Stockdale wrote in his 1984 book Love and War: "[I] had the best seat in the house to watch that event, and our destroyers were just shooting at phantom targets—there were no PT boats there ... There was nothing there but black water and American fire power." Stockdale at one point recounts seeing pointing her guns at Maddox. Stockdale said his superiors ordered him to keep quiet about this. After he was captured, this knowledge became a heavy burden. He later said he was concerned that his captors would eventually force him to reveal what he knew about the second incident. In 1995, retired Vietnamese Defense Minister, Võ Nguyên Giáp, meeting with former Secretary McNamara, denied that Vietnamese gunboats had attacked American destroyers on August 4, while admitting to the attack on August 2. A taped conversation of a meeting several weeks after passage of the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution was released in 2001, revealing that McNamara expressed doubts to Johnson that the attack had even occurred. In the fall of 1999, retired Senior CIA Engineering Executive S. Eugene Poteat wrote that he was asked in early August 1964 to determine if the radar operator's report showed a real torpedo boat attack or an imagined one. He asked for further details on time, weather and surface conditions. No further details were forthcoming. In the end he concluded that there were no torpedo boats on the night in question, and that the White House was interested only in confirmation of an attack, not that there was no such attack. In October 2012 retired Rear Admiral, Lloyd "Joe" Vasey, was interviewed by David Day on Asia Review and gave a detailed account of the August 4 incident. According to Admiral Vasey, who was aboard , a guided missile cruiser, in the Gulf of Tonkin and serving as chief of staff to Commander Seventh Fleet, Turner Joy intercepted an NVA radio transmission ordering a torpedo boat attack on Turner Joy and Maddox. Shortly thereafter, radar contact of "several high speed contacts closing in on them" was acquired by the USS Turner Joy, which locked on to one of the contacts, fired and struck the torpedo boat. There were 18 witnesses, both enlisted and officers, who reported various aspects of the attack; smoke from the stricken torpedo boat, torpedo wakes (reported by four separate individuals on each destroyer), sightings of the torpedo boats moving through the water and searchlights. All 18 of the witnesses testified at a hearing in Olongapo, Philippines, and their testimony is a matter of public record. In 2014, as the incident's 50th anniversary approached, John White wrote The Gulf of Tonkin Events—Fifty Years Later: A Footnote to the History of the Vietnam War. In the foreword, he notes "Among the many books written on the Vietnamese war, half a dozen note a 1967 letter to the editor of a Connecticut newspaper which was instrumental in pressuring the Johnson administration to tell the truth about how the war started. The letter was mine." The story discusses Lt. White reading Admiral Stockdale's In Love and War in the mid 1980s, then contacting Stockdale who connected White with Joseph Schaperjahn, chief sonarman on Turner Joy. Schaperjahn confirmed White's assertions that Maddoxs sonar reports were faulty and the Johnson administration knew it prior to going to Congress to request support for the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. White's book explains the difference between lies of commission and lies of omission. Johnson was guilty of willful lies of omission. White was featured in the August 2014 issue of Connecticut Magazine. In October 2005 The New York Times reported that Robert J. Hanyok, a historian for the U.S. National Security Agency, concluded that the NSA distorted intelligence reports passed to policy makers regarding the August 4, 1964 incident. The NSA historian agency said staff "deliberately skewed" the evidence to make it appear that an attack had occurred. Hanyok's conclusions were initially published in the Winter 2000/Spring 2001 Edition of Cryptologic Quarterly about five years before the Times article. According to intelligence officials, the view of government historians that the report should become public was rebuffed by policy makers concerned that comparisons might be made to intelligence used to justify the Iraq War (Operation Iraqi Freedom) which commenced in 2003. Reviewing the NSA's archives, Hanyok concluded that the incident began at Phu Bai Combat Base, where intelligence analysts mistakenly believed the destroyers would soon be attacked. This would have been communicated back to the NSA along with evidence supporting such a conclusion, but in fact the evidence did not do that. Hanyok attributed this to the deference that the NSA would have likely given to the analysts who were closer to the event. As the evening progressed, further signals intelligence (SIGINT) did not support any such ambush, but the NSA personnel were apparently so convinced of an attack that they ignored the 90% of SIGINT that did not support that conclusion, and that was also excluded from any reports they produced for the consumption by the President. There was no political motive to their action. On November 30, 2005, the NSA released a first installment of previously classified information regarding the Gulf of Tonkin incident, including a moderately sanitized version of Hanyok's article. The Hanyok article stated that intelligence information was presented to the "in such a manner as to preclude responsible decision makers in the Johnson administration from having the complete and objective narrative of events." Instead, "only information that supported the claim that the communists had attacked the two destroyers was given to Johnson administration officials." With regard to why this happened, Hanyok wrote: Hanyok included his study of Tonkin Gulf as one chapter in an overall history of NSA involvement and American SIGINT, in the Indochina Wars. A moderately sanitized version of the overall history was released in January 2008 by the National Security Agency and published by the Federation of American Scientists. War Powers Clause, sinking, 1898, Sinking of the RMS Lusitania, Niger uranium forgeries, New Jewel Movement, USS Pueblo (AGER-2) incident, 1968, September 11 attacks, Assassination of John F. Kennedy, Attack on Pearl Harbor The Gulf of Tonkin Incident, 40 Years Later; Flawed Intelligence and the Decision for War in Vietnam – National Security Archive at George Washington University, The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution and the Escalation of the Vietnam War – EDSITEment lesson from the National Endowment for the Humanities, US Navy Historical Site showing charts and photos of the incident (archived), Tonkin Gulf Intelligence "Skewed" According to Official History and Intercepts – National Security Archive at George Washington University, Ronnie E. Ford "New Light on Gulf of Tonkin", Original Document: Tonkin Gulf Resolution, "Aboard the Maddox" LIFE Magazine Aug. 14, 1964 Declassified documents NSA Topic Collection Chronologies of Events, Signals Intelligence (SIGINT) Reports (R) and Translations (T) Mar–Oct 1964, Related Command and Technical Messages, 2–26 Aug 1964, Oral History Interviews OSD & Joint Staff FOIA Service Center Transcript of Telephone Conversations, Gulf of Tonkin Transcripts US Navy Formerly Classified Documents from 2 August 1964, Formerly Classified Documents Subsequent to 4 August 1964, 'Tonkin Gulf: Acronyms, Abbreviations, and Code Words Used in Original Documents US State Department U.S. Reaction To Events in the Gulf of Tonkin, August 1–10, FOREIGN RELATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES, 1964–1968, VOLUME I, VIETNAM, 1964. On December 1, 1969 the Selective Service System of the United States conducted two lotteries to determine the order of call to military service in the Vietnam War for men born from January 1, 1944 to December 31, 1950. These lotteries occurred during a period of conscription in the United States that lasted from 1947 to 1973. It was the first time a lottery system had been used to select men for military service since 1942. The reason for the lottery of 1969 was to address perceived inequities in the draft system as it existed previously, and to add more military personnel towards the Vietnam War. The Vietnam War had arisen from a series of conflicts dating back to the early stages of French colonialism and Japanese occupation of Vietnam in World War II. More recently in the conflict, in 1963, South Vietnamese generals seized power in Saigon in a coup. President Lyndon B. Johnson increased the number of U.S. personnel in South Vietnam due to the political instability in the country. More active US involvement in the war began in August 1964, when two U.S. warships were alleged to have been attacked by North Vietnamese torpedo boats. Johnson condemned North Vietnam, and Congress passed a motion which gave him more authority over military decisions. By the end of 1965, President Johnson had sent 82,000 troops to Vietnam, and his military advisors wanted another 175,000. Due to the heavy demand for military personnel, the United States increased the number of men the draft provided each month. In the 1960s anti-war movements started to occur in the U.S., mainly among students on college campuses and in more leftist circles, especially those who embraced the "hippie" lifestyle. College students were entitled to a deferment (2-S status) but were subject to the draft if they dropped out, stopped making "normal progress" in community college (i.e., started a fifth semester before transferring to a four-year college) or graduated. In 1967, the number of U.S. military personnel in Vietnam was around 500,000. The war was costing the U.S. $25 billion a year, and many of the young men drafted were being sent to a war they wanted no part of. Martin Luther King Jr. also started to support the anti-war movement, believing the war to be immoral and expressing alarm at the number of African- American soldiers that were being killed. November 15, 1969 marked the largest anti-war protest in the history of the United States. It featured many anti- war political speakers and popular singers of the time. Many critics at the time saw Richard Nixon as a liar; when he took office, he claimed that he would begin to withdraw American troops from Vietnam. After ten months of being in office, the president had yet to start withdrawals, and U.S. citizens felt he had lied. Later, President Nixon claimed to have been watching sports as the anti-war demonstration took place outside the White House. After much debate within the Nixon administration and Congress, Congress decided that a gradual transition to an all-volunteer force was affordable, feasible, and would enhance the nation's security. On November 26, 1969, Congress abolished a provision in the Military Selective Service Act of 1967 which prevented the president from modifying the selection procedure ("...the President in establishing the order of induction for registrants within the various age groups found qualified for induction shall not effect any change in the method of determining the relative order of induction for such registrants within such age groups as has been heretofore established..."), and President Richard Nixon issued an executive order prescribing a process of random selection. The 366 days of the year (including February 29) were printed on slips of paper. These pieces of paper were then each placed in opaque plastic capsules, which were then mixed in a shoebox and then dumped into a deep glass jar. Capsules were drawn from the jar one at a time and opened. The first number drawn was 258 (September 14), so all registrants with that birthday were assigned lottery number 1. The second number drawn corresponded to April 24, and so forth. All men of draft age (born January 1, 1944 to December 31, 1950) who shared a birth date would be called to serve at once. The first 195 birthdates drawn were later called to serve in the order they were drawn; the last of these was September 24. Also on December 1, 1969, a second lottery, identical in process to the first, was held with the 26 letters of the alphabet. The first letter drawn was "J", which was assigned number 1. The second letter was "G", and so on, until all 26 letters were assigned numbers. Among men with the same birthdate, the order of induction was determined by the ranks of the first letters of their last, first, and middle names. Anyone with initials "JJJ" would have been first within the shared birthdate, followed by "JGJ", "JDJ", and "JXJ"; anyone with initials "VVV" would have been last. A random procedure will not distribute the lottery numbers uniformly over the months of the year, but this was what some people expected. It happened that November and December births, or numbers 306 to 366, were assigned mainly to lower draft order numbers representing earlier calls to serve. This led to complaints that the lottery was not truly random as the legislation required. Only five days in December—December 2, 12, 15, 17, and 19—were higher than the last call number of 195. Had the days been evenly distributed, 14 days in December would have been expected to remain uncalled. From January to December, the rank of the average draft pick numbers were 5, 4, 1, 3, 2, 6, 8, 9, 10, 7, 11, and 12. A Monte Carlo simulation found that the probability of a random order of months being this close to the 1–12 sequence expected for unsorted slips was 0.09%. An analysis of the procedure suggested that "The capsules were put in a box month by month, January through December, and subsequent mixing efforts were insufficient to overcome this sequencing". The draft lottery had social and economic consequences because it generated further resistance to military service. Those who resisted were generally young, well-educated, healthy men. The fear of service in Vietnam influenced many young men to join the National Guard. They were aware that the National Guard would be unlikely to send its soldiers to Vietnam. Many men were unable to join the National Guard even though they had passed their physicals, because many state National Guards had long waiting lists to enlist. Still others chose legal sanctions such as imprisonment, showing their disapproval by illegally burning their draft cards or draft letters, or simply not presenting themselves for military service. Others left the country, commonly moving to Canada. The 1970s were a time of turmoil in the United States, beginning with the civil rights movement which set the standards for practices by the anti-war movement. The 1969 draft lottery only encouraged resentment of the Vietnam War and the draft. It strengthened the anti-war movement, and all over the United States, people decried discrimination by the draft system "against low-education, low-income, underprivileged members of society". The lottery procedure was improved the next year although public discontent continued to grow. For the draft lottery held on July 1, 1970 (which covered 1951 birthdates for use during 1971, and is sometimes called the 1971 draft), scientists at the National Bureau of Standards prepared 78 random permutations of the numbers 1 to 366 using random numbers selected from published tables. From the 78 permutations, 25 were selected at random and transcribed to calendars using 1 = January 1, 2 = January 2, ... 365 = December 31. Those calendars were sealed in envelopes. 25 more permutations were selected and sealed in 25 more envelopes without transcription to calendars. The two sets of 25 envelopes were furnished to the Selective Service System. On June 2, an official picked two envelopes, thus one calendar and one raw permutation. The 365 birthdates (for 1951) were written down, placed in capsules, and put in a drum in the order dictated by the selected calendar. Similarly, the numbers from 1 to 365 were written down and placed into capsules in the order dictated by the raw permutation. On July 1, the drawing date, one drum was rotated for an hour and the other for a half-hour (its rotating mechanism failed). Pairs of capsules were then drawn, one from each drum, one with a 1951 birthdate and one with a number 1 to 366. The first date and number drawn were September 16 and 139, so all men born September 16, 1951, were assigned draft number 139. The 11th draws were the date July 9 and the number 1, so men born July 9 were assigned draft number 1 and drafted first. Draft lotteries were conducted again from 1971 to 1975 (for 1952 to 1956 births). The draft numbers issued from 1972 to 1975 were not used to call any men into service as the last draft call was on December 7, and authority to induct expired July 1, 1973. They were used, however, to call some men born from 1953 to 1956 for armed forces physical examinations. The highest number called for a physical was 215 (for tables 1970 through 1976). Between 1965 and 1972 the draft provided 2,215,000 service members to the U.S. military. In the present, not much has changed regarding how the draft would be conducted if it were required in the future. The Selective Service Committee, which presides over draft procedures, has stored the large tumbler that holds all the numbers and dates that would be drawn to select candidates, and the only obvious change between the method of the past and the present is that instead of using pieces of paper in blue capsules, the SSC now uses ping-pong balls with the dates and numbers on them. Conscription in the United States Landscaper.net (2009). The Military Draft and 1969 Draft Lottery for the Vietnam War. Last modified 2009-03-24. Confirmed 2011-05-26. — contemporary news stories, images of Official Orders (call to physical exam, call to report), lottery results, Draft Board classifications, Vietnam troop levels, induction statistics 1917–73., David Lane (2003). Introduction to Graphs: Clearing Up the Draft with Graphs. Connexions. 18 July 2003. Confirmed 2011-05-26. — list of draft ranks, additional analysis., Selective Service System (2009). The Vietnam Lotteries. SSS: History and Records. Last updated 2015-09-19., Norton Starr (1997). "Nonrandom Risk: The 1970 Draft Lottery". Journal of Statistics Education 5.2 (1997). Confirmed 2011-05-26. — The online edition includes instructions for getting the data online and a lesson plan for statistics class using the 1970 and 1971 draft lottery data.

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"O Brother Where Art Thou?" is the 9th episode and midseason finale of the paranormal drama television series Supernaturals season 11, and the 227th overall. The episode was written by Eugenie Ross-Leming & Brad Buckner and directed by Robert Singer. It was first broadcast on December 9, 2015 on The CW. In the episode, Sam decides to go with Crowley to Hell to face Lucifer in the Cage for answers about the Darkness while Dean meets with Amara, who is unleashing her power upon the world. The episode received positive reviews with critics praising the shocking ending but some noted God's absence. Amara (Emily Swallow) kills a group of preachers in a park in an attempt to lure God. Sam (Jared Padalecki) is still trying to convince Dean (Jensen Ackles) to return to the Cage, stating that he can know how to kill the Darkness. They contact Crowley (Mark A. Sheppard) who may know how to enter. He decides to use a spell from the Book of the Damned as a way to neutralize Lucifer from leaving the Cage. He captures Rowena (Ruth Connell) so she can translate it with their supervision. Dean investigates the killings and deduces Amara is responsible. While walking through a park, Dean encounters Amara. She transports them to an isolated land where they talk and she states that she killed the preachers so God could face her. Sam, Crowley and Rowena go through Hell, reaching the Cage point. Rowena prepares a ritual and the Cage emerges from the dark, revealing Lucifer (Mark Pellegrino) inside. He seems to be an expert about the Darkness and knows how to stop it, but only if Sam accepts to be his vessel again. Meanwhile, Dean attempts to kill the Amara with the angel blade onto her but it shatters. Amara says he can't resist and they kiss. Soon, low-level angels arrive to escort Amara to Heaven for trial, otherwise, the angels in Heaven will unleash a powerful thunder. She kills all of them and transports Dean back to the park as the angels release the thunder onto her. In Hell, the Cage begins to lose the effect of the spell and Sam is immediately transported to the Cage. While Crowley stares in shock and confusion, Rowena tells them they need to leave. Lucifer reveals to Sam that he was in fact the one who gave him the visions and all the messages, not God. It was just a way to bring him to the Cage as the only way out is being his vessel. The episode was watched by 1.90 million viewers with a 0.7/2 share among adults aged 18 to 49. This was a 5% decrease in viewership from the previous episode, which was watched by 2.00 million viewers from a 0.9/3 share in the 18-49 demographics. 0.7 percent of all households with televisions watched the episode, while 2 percent of all households watching television at that time watched it. Supernatural ranked as the second most watched program on The CW in the day, behind Arrow. "O Brother Where Art Thou?" received positive reviews from critics. Amy Ratcliffe of IGN gave the episode a "great" 8.6 out of 10 and wrote in her verdict, "Supernaturals midseason finale left us with not one big bad, but two. The twist of having Sam's last ditch effort be a trick was brutal yet so smart. But have the writers painted themselves into a corner? It's going to take a lot for Sam to extricate himself and for the Winchesters to hold back the Darkness." Hunter Bishop of TV Overmind wrote, "We've been told that we were being given one story, but the subtext says different. All of the problems that the Winchesters have faced, they have buried, but never destroyed. They've been running for so long, and in the same direction, that they've forgotten what it means to actually score a victory. It's been one setback after another; one close shave after another; one last-second reprieve after another." Samantha Highfill of EW stated: "Well, that was intense. I can't say that I ever imagined an episode where I would not only get Lucifer back, but I'd also get an equally captivating, even more powerful villain in addition to him. But that's precisely what we got in this revealing hour, in which Sam faced the man he went to Hell to destroy all those years ago and Dean faced...his soulmate? We'll get to that." Sean McKenna from TV Fanatic, gave a 4.4 star rating out of 5, stating: "But even with some of my misgivings, I was engaged for most of the midseason finale. There were even times where it felt like a season finale – except we don't have to wait a whole year to find out what happens next. And of course, Pellegrino was a standout as Lucifer. If anything, the episode really has me looking forward to seeing just where the Darkness storyline will go, and what the aftermath of Lucifer and Sam will be. And who knows, maybe God will be stepping in soon?" MaryAnn Sleasman of TV.com wrote, "'O Brother Where Art Thou' is the darkest fall finale we've had in some time. Sam is back in Lucifer's cage. Dean tried — and failed — to end the Darkness. When Supernatural decides to crush its viewers' souls and abandon all hope just in time for the holiday season, ain't nothing gonna stop that pain-train from rolling. I hate this show. (I love this show.)" Bridget LaMonica of Den of Geek wrote, "The ending scene was nail-bitingly intense. The wards around Lucifer's cage break down, and Sam is spirited into the cage with Lucifer who tries his best to pick up on the harassment he inflicted upon Sam years ago. Sam, showing a great deal of bravery and faith, closes his eyes and looks calm for a few moments, remarking how this is how his vision went. Lucifer has a bit of a laugh at Sam's expense because he is actually the one who sent those visions. There have been a number of times in Supernatural when we've seen Sam in terror, but that moment in which he loses all hope and a single tear falls down his cheek hit hard." "Oh Brother, Where Art Thou?" is the fifteenth episode of The Simpsons' second season. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 21, 1991. In the episode, Grampa confesses that Homer has a half- brother, whom Homer immediately tries to track down. He eventually discovers that his brother is Herbert Powell, a car manufacturer. Herb immediately starts to bond with Bart and Lisa, and he invites Homer to design his own car. Homer's car design turns out to be a disaster, which causes Herb to go bankrupt. The episode was written by Jeff Martin and directed by Wes Archer. American actor Danny DeVito provided the voice of Herb. The episode features cultural references to cars such as the Edsel, the Tucker Torpedo, the Ford Mustang, and the Lamborghini Cheetah. Since airing, the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics. It acquired a Nielsen rating of 15.4, and was the highest-rated show on Fox the week it aired. Some fans were upset with the sad ending of the episode, and as a result the producers decided to write a sequel, "Brother, Can You Spare Two Dimes?", in which Herb regains his fortune and forgives Homer. After watching the latest McBain film, Grampa suffers a mild heart attack. Thinking he might die, he is prompted to confess a long-hidden secret: Homer has a half-brother. Grampa explains that he had met a carnival prostitute before marrying Homer's mother, and they had a son whom they left at the Shelbyville Orphanage. Determined to find his brother, Homer and his family go to the orphanage and find out that Grampa's love child, named Herbert, had been adopted by a Mr. and Mrs. Powell. Herbert "Herb" Powell, who looks just like Homer, except he is taller, slimmer and has more hair, is the head of the automobile manufacturer Powell Motors in Detroit, which is in need of new ideas. He is very rich, but is unhappy not knowing who he is and where he comes from. He is overjoyed upon hearing of his half-brother and invites the entire Simpson family to stay at his mansion. Bart, Lisa, and Maggie are enthralled by Herb's wealthy lifestyle and kind personality, although Marge constantly worries about spoiling her children. Herb then decides that Homer, being an average American, is the perfect person to design a new car for his company, being given entirely free rein in the design. Homer is initially overwhelmed with the design process, and is frequently shuffled aside by Herb's design team, who ignore his suggestions and don't take him seriously. Herb takes notice of this and encourages Homer to be more assertive with his ideas, and inspires him to take command of the project, and incorporate his own ideas. At the unveiling of the new car, Herb is horrified to find that the car is a badly designed monstrosity that costs US$82,000, sending Powell Motors out of business, resulting in Herb's mansion's being foreclosed on and Herb's losing everything he ever worked for. As he departs Detroit on a bus, Herb angrily remarks to Homer that he would have been better off if they had never met. While Marge tries to console Homer, Lisa agrees with Herb and laments on his life before he discovered he was a Simpson. Grampa soon arrives and asks about Herb, but before Homer can even answer what happened, Grampa remarks to Homer that he knew "[he'd] blow it", and leaves in the cab he just arrived in, rather than getting in the car with the rest of the Simpson family. While Homer drives the family home, Bart tells him that the car he built was great. Homer becomes relieved to discover that at least one person liked it. "Oh Brother, Where Art Thou?" was written by Jeff Martin and directed by Wes Archer. Both Homer's mother and Herb Powell make their first appearances on The Simpsons in the episode. Some fans were upset with the sad ending of the episode, and as a result the producers decided to write a sequel in which Herb would be given a kinder fate. The resulting episode, "Brother, Can You Spare Two Dimes?", aired at the end of the third season. In that episode, Herb briefly settled in the Simpson household, despite his intense continuing antipathy toward Homer. Homer loaned Herb US$2000, which Herb used to build an invention that translated infantile speech into comprehensible English, based on observations he made of Maggie. He proceeded to mass-produce his new product and regained his fortune. He then bought each member of the family gifts and paid Homer back with a vibrating chair, along with his forgiveness. The episode was recorded on August 13, 1990. The voice of Herb was provided by guest star Danny DeVito, an American actor who was suggested for the role by Simpsons executive producer Sam Simon. Bart's voice actor, Nancy Cartwright, writes in her autobiography My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy that DeVito had to record his lines quickly because he had another appointment, so the staff focused on recording only his scenes instead of the whole episode at once. Cartwright was a fan of DeVito's and recalls: "This morning, at the table read, I had just filled my plate with assorted fruits when Bonnie said to my backside, 'Nancy, I want to introduce you to...' and I turned and practically knocked over Danny DeVito, all four feet, eleven inches of him. How embarrassing!" While recording the scenes, Cartwright stood directly across the room from DeVito, which she appreciated since she got to see him in action. She thought DeVito "threw his body and soul" into his performance. While the recording took part, animation director Archer scribbled down some of DeVito's attitudes, gestures, and facial expressions on a piece of paper as he performed. In one scene of the episode, Herb tells Homer and the rest of the Simpson family to "[make] yourselves at home. We have a tennis court, a swimming pool, a screening room..." Cartwright said of it: The storyline of a controversially styled car causing the company to fail echoes that of the Edsel, the Tucker 48, and the later DeLorean. The Edsel was a controversially styled car named after Henry Ford's son, Edsel, which is now considered one of the biggest car flops in history, while production of the Tucker Torpedo, which introduced many new features, was shut down amidst scandal and accusations of stock fraud in 1949. Homer wants the horns of the car he is designing to play the traditional Spanish folk corrido "La Cucaracha". The Pope is in the audience for the unveiling of Homer's new car. Herb berates his staff for suggesting that the company name a new car "Persephone" after the Greek goddess of fertility in Greek mythology, telling them "People don't want cars named after hungry old Greek broads! They want names like 'Mustang' and 'Cheetah', vicious animal names," referencing the Ford Mustang and Lamborghini Cheetah cars. The title of the episode is a reference the name of the fictional book "O Brother, Where Art Thou?" in the 1941 film Sullivan's Travels. Herb lives in a house that looks like American architect Frank Lloyd Wright's house in Oak Park, Illinois, works in a studio that looks like the Taliesin school of architecture in Spring Green, Wisconsin, and his factory resembles the Johnson Wax Headquarters in Racine, Wisconsin, all three buildings designed by Wright. In its original broadcast, "Oh Brother, Where Art Thou?" finished twenty-sixth in the ratings for the week of February 18–24, 1991. With a Nielsen rating of 15.4, equivalent to approximately 14.1 million viewing households, it was the highest-rated show on Fox that week. Since airing, the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics. The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, wrote that although it is "inevitable" that Homer's car will be a disaster, the "joy of this episode is anticipating exactly what sort of disaster". A member of the IGN staff wrote in a season two review that "Oh Brother, Where Art Thou?" is one of the "real winners to be found in the second season". Dawn Taylor of The DVD Journal thought the most memorable line of the episode was Homer's idea of the perfect car, "You know that little ball you put on the aerial so you can find your car in a parking lot? That should be on every car! And some things are so snazzy they never go out of style — like tail fins! And bubble domes! And shag carpeting!" DVD Movie Guide's Colin Jacobson called the episode a solid episode and said that the introduction of Homer's brother "could have been gimmicky, especially with a big-name guest star like DeVito, but the concept fared nicely". Jacobson added that he thought DeVito "brought spark to his part and made Herb fun and lively. The parts in which Homer developed his car were also hilarious and offered some of the show's best bits. The program even showed some great little moments, like the hallmark Simpson five o'clock shadow on infant Herb." Jeremy Kleinman of DVD Talk said the episode "features another great guest voice, this time by Danny DeVito as the voice of Homer's long lost brother Herb, who reenters Homer's life and solicits his 'common man' prospective in building a car. Once again, Homer's sentimentality comes through." Total Film's Nathan Ditum ranked DeVito's performance as the 10th best guest appearance in the show's history. On June 29, 2013, Porcubimmer Motors debuted a real-life version of "The Homer," the car that was designed by Homer in this episode, at the 24 Hours of LeMons race in Buttonwillow, California. "Oh Brother, Where Art Thou?" at The Simpsons.com O Brother, Where Art Thou? is the soundtrack album of music from the 2000 American film of the same name, written, directed and produced by the Coen Brothers and starring George Clooney, John Turturro, Tim Blake Nelson, and John Goodman. The film is set in Mississippi during the Great Depression. The soundtrack, produced by T-Bone Burnett, uses bluegrass, country, gospel, blues, and folk music appropriate to the time period. With the exception of a few vintage tracks (such as Harry McClintock's 1928 single "Big Rock Candy Mountain"), most tracks are modern recordings. The soundtrack was reissued on August 23, 2011, with 14 new tracks that were not included in the original album, "including 12 previously unreleased cuts from music producer T-Bone Burnett's O Brother sessions." The soundtrack was conceived as a major component of the film, not merely as a background or support. For this reason it was decided to record the soundtrack before filming. T-Bone Burnett was invited to design collections of music. Dirges and other macabre songs recurring in Appalachian music, such as "O Death," "Lonesome Valley," "Angel Band," and "I Am Weary", appear in the film as a contrast to the bright, cheerful songs like "Keep On the Sunnyside" and "In the Highways." Ralph Stanley of The Stanley Brothers personally recorded the a cappella folk song "O Death." "I Am a Man of Constant Sorrow" has five variations: two are used in the film, one in the music video, and two in the album. Two of the variations feature the verses being sung back-to-back, and the other three variations feature additional music between each verse. The voices of the Soggy Bottom Boys were provided by Dan Tyminski (lead vocal on "I Am a Man of Constant Sorrow"), Nashville songwriter Harley Allen, and the Nashville Bluegrass Band's Pat Enright. O Brother, Where Art Thou? won the Grammy Award for Album of the Year in 2002, the Grammy Award for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals (for singer Dan Tyminski, whose voice overdubbed George Clooney's in the film on "I Am a Man of Constant Sorrow", Nashville songwriter Harley Allen, and the Nashville Bluegrass Band's Pat Enright), and the Grammy Award for Best Male Country Vocal Performance for "O, Death" by Ralph Stanley. The album won the Album of the Year Award (only the second soundtrack to ever do so) and Single of the Year Award for "I Am a Man of Constant Sorrow" at the Country Music Association Awards. It also won the Album of the Year Award at the Academy of Country Music Awards and took home 2 International Bluegrass Music Awards: Album of the Year and Gospel Recorded Performance of the Year (for Alison Krauss and Gillian Welch on "I'll Fly Away"). In 2006, the album ranked No. 38 on CMT's 40 Greatest Albums in Country Music. In 2009, Rhapsody ranked it No. 8 on the "Country's Best Albums of the Decade" list. Engine 145 Country Music Blog ranked it No. 5 on the "Country's Best Albums of the Decade" list. In 2010, All Songs Considered, a program on NPR, included the soundtrack on their list of "The Decade's 50 Most Important Recordings." Some of the artists on the soundtrack played a concert at the Ryman Auditorium in Nashville, Tennessee, which was recorded in the 2000 documentary film, Down from the Mountain. On August 23, 2011, a 10th anniversary edition was released featuring a bonus disc with 14 new tracks that were not included in the original album, all but two of which were previously unreleased songs from Burnett's original sessions. The album charted at No. 1 on Billboard 200 In 2001, and spent over 20 weeks on the Billboard Top Country Albums Chart. The soundtrack CD became a best seller; it was first certified Gold by the RIAA on February 9, 2001, and reached 8 times Platinum by October 10, 2007. It has sold 8,175,800 copies in the United States as of October 2019. Norman Blake – Performer, guitar, vocals, Jerry Douglas – Dobro, Alison Krauss – Vocals, harmony vocals, Chris Sharp – Rhythm guitar, The Stanley Brothers – Performers, Ralph Stanley – Performer, Sam Bush – Mandolin, Emmylou Harris – Performer, John Hartford – Fiddle, vocals, The Fairfield Four – Performer, Ed Haley – Arranger, The Whites:, Buck White – Mandolin, vocals, harmony vocals, Cheryl White – Bass, Vocals, harmony vocals, Sharon White – Guitar, vocals, Mike Compton – Guitar, mandolin, Alan Lomax – Arranger, Harley Allen – Vocals, harmony vocals, Barry Bales – Bass, Ron Block – Banjo, Curtis Burch – Dobro, T Bone Burnett – Arranger, producer, The Cox Family:, Evelyn Cox – Guitar, Sidney Cox – Banjo, vocals, harmony vocals, Suzanne Cox – Mandolin, vocals, Willard Cox – Vocals, harmony vocals, Stuart Duncan – Fiddle, Pat Enright – Vocals, harmony vocals, yodeling, Isaac Freeman – Bass, vocals, lead James Hill – Vocals, Harry McClintock – Performer, Tim O'Brien – Vocals, Maura O'Connell – Vocals, Carter Stanley – Arranger, Dan Tyminski – Guitar, vocals, Wilson Waters – Tenor sax, vocals, Robert K. Oermann – Liner notes, Sam Phillips – Vocals, Gillian Welch – Arranger, vocals, Dub Cornett – Vocals, Chris Thomas King – Guitar, vocals, David Rawlings – Vocals, Gavin Lurssen – Mastering, Mike Piersante – Mixing, Peter Kurland – Location recording, First Baptist Church of Norfolk Choir – Vocals, Chris Sharp – Guitar, Nathaniel Best – Lead, Robert Hamlett – Vocals, Joseph Rice – Vocals, The Peasall Sisters, Sarah Peasall – Vocals, harmony vocals, Hannah Peasall – Vocals, Leah Peasall – Vocals, harmony vocals, The Soggy Bottom Boys – Performer, Tim Blake Nelson – Vocals, performer, Porter McClister – Tenor backup vocals, James Carter and The Prisoners – Performers, Alan Larman – Musicologist Down from the Mountain BBC News: O Brother, why art thou so popular?

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The National Football Conference – South Division or NFC South is one of the four divisions of the National Football Conference (NFC) in the National Football League (NFL). It was created prior to the 2002 NFL season, when the league realigned divisions after expanding to 32 teams. The NFC South currently has four member clubs: the Atlanta Falcons, Carolina Panthers, New Orleans Saints, and Tampa Bay Buccaneers. Prior to the 2002 season, the Buccaneers belonged to the AFC West () and NFC Central (–), while the other three teams were part of the geographically inaccurate NFC West. The NFC South is one of two divisions to have each of its teams make a Super Bowl appearance since the 2002 realignment (along with the NFC West): Tampa Bay (2002), Atlanta (2016), Carolina (2003 and 2015) and New Orleans (2009). Also since 2002, each team has won at least three division titles, the only such division in the league. It is also the only NFL division to have zero division sweeps by any of its member teams. Entering 2019, the Saints have the most wins among division members. The Saints record is 375–438–5; their win in Super Bowl XLIV is the highlight of a 9–11 playoff record. The Falcons record is 365–461–6 with a playoff record of 10–14; the Falcons lost in Super Bowls XXXIII and LI, the latter in overtime. The Buccaneers record is 267–424–1 with a victory in their only Super Bowl appearance, Super Bowl XXXVII, and an overall playoff record of 6–9. The Panthers have the best playoff record (9–8) of any team in the division with losses in Super Bowls XXXVIII and 50, with a regular season record of 195-204-1. The NFC South is the only NFC division not to have any teams that predate the 1960 launch of the American Football League, the NFL’s former rival league. The oldest team is the Falcons, who began play in 1966, and the Saints began play only a year later in 1967. Each of the other NFC divisions has 3 teams that began play earlier than 1960, while the remaining three such teams are in the American Football Conference. The NFC South became the second division in five years to have a champion with a losing record, as the 2014 Carolina Panthers won the division with a 7–8–1 record. (The 2010 Seattle Seahawks won the NFC West with a 7–9 record.) Additionally, Carolina became the first team to repeat as NFC South champions since the creation of the division. The Panthers were the first team to win the NFC South three consecutive times, from 2013 to 2015; New Orleans followed from 2017 to 2019. On January 7, 2018, two NFC South teams (the Carolina Panthers and New Orleans Saints) met in the NFL playoffs for the first time since the division's creation in 2002. Before then, they were the only division left in the NFL who had never had teams face off against each other in the postseason. Place cursor over year for division champ or Super Bowl team. From 2003 to 2009, the team that placed last in the division the previous year would improve enough to reach the playoffs, usually by winning the division. Tampa Bay almost continued this trend in 2010, stopped only by losing a tiebreaker to Green Bay., Carolina finished last in 2002 (7–9) and finished first in 2003 (11–5)., Atlanta finished last in 2003 (5–11) and finished first in 2004 (11–5)., Tampa Bay finished last in 2004 (5–11) and finished first in 2005 (11–5)., New Orleans finished last in 2005 (3–13) and finished first in 2006 (10–6)., Tampa Bay finished last in 2006 (4–12) and finished first in 2007 (9–7)., Atlanta finished last in 2007 (4–12) and finished second with a wild-card berth in 2008 (11–5)., New Orleans finished last in 2008 (8–8) and finished first in 2009 (13–3)., Tampa Bay finished last in 2009 (3–13) but despite finishing third in 2010 with a 10–6 record, did not make the playoffs, due to Green Bay holding the wild-card tiebreakers., Carolina finished last in 2010 (2–14) and was eliminated from playoff contention in Week 14 of the 2011 season after going 4–9, becoming the first NFC South team to have a losing season after placing last in the division., From 2002 to 2009, no team in the NFC South earned back-to-back playoff appearances. In Week 16 of the 2010 season, New Orleans clinched a wild-card berth, becoming the first NFC South team to earn consecutive playoff appearances. New Orleans earned three consecutive playoff appearances in the 2009, 2010, and 2011 seasons. Atlanta also earned three consecutive playoff appearances, in 2010, 2011 and 2012 and Carolina in 2013, 2014 and 2015., Each team has won the division at least three times and made a playoff appearance at least three times since the division's formation. Tampa Bay is the only team which has not made the playoffs as a wild-card., Each team has finished last in the division at least twice since the division's formation. Prior to 2012, no team has finished last in the division in consecutive seasons. Tampa Bay became the first team in the division to place last in the division in consecutive seasons, and have recently finished last for the fourth consecutive season., The NFC South is the only NFL division where no member team has swept the division during a regular season., From 2002 to 2011, there was an outright last place finisher in the division (i.e.: tiebreakers were not necessary to determine who finished last). That streak came to an end during the 2012 season, when Tampa Bay, New Orleans, and Carolina all finished at 7–9. This happened again in 2013, where both Atlanta and Tampa Bay finished 4–12., In 2014, Carolina became the first team to defend the NFC South title. No other team in the division has managed to do so until New Orleans defeated Tampa Bay on December 9, 2018 and clinched the division for the second straight season., In 2014, Carolina became the second team in NFL history to win its division and advance to the playoffs with a losing record (7–8–1). The first team to accomplish this is the 2010 Seahawks, who won the NFC West with a 7–9 record and beat New Orleans in the Wild Card game., With Atlanta winning the , the NFC South became the first division since the 2002 realignment to have all four of its teams represent the NFC in the Super Bowl. (Tampa Bay 2002, Carolina 2003 and 2015, New Orleans 2009, Atlanta 2016)., In the 2017 NFL season the NFC South had three of its teams qualify for the playoffs (Atlanta, New Orleans, Carolina). It was also the first time where two NFC South teams met in the playoffs, when New Orleans hosted Carolina in the Wild Card playoffs. Falcons-Panthers rivalry, Falcons–Saints rivalry, Buccaneers–Panthers rivalry, Buccaneers–Saints rivalry The Carolina Panthers are a professional American football team based in Charlotte, North Carolina. The Panthers compete in the National Football League (NFL), as a member club of the league's National Football Conference (NFC) South division. The team is headquartered in Bank of America Stadium in uptown Charlotte; the stadium also serves as the team's home field. They are one of the few NFL teams to own the stadium they play in, which is legally registered as Panthers Stadium, LLC. The Panthers are supported throughout the Carolinas; although the team has played its home games in Charlotte since 1996, it played home games at Memorial Stadium in Clemson, South Carolina during its first season. The team hosts its annual training camp at Wofford College in Spartanburg, South Carolina. The Panthers were announced as the league's 29th franchise in 1993, and began play in 1995 under original owner and founder Jerry Richardson. The Panthers played well in their first two years, finishing in 1995 (an all-time best for an NFL expansion team's first season) and 12–4 the following year, winning the NFC West before ultimately losing to the eventual Super Bowl champion Green Bay Packers in the NFC Championship Game. They did not have another winning season until 2003, when they won the NFC Championship Game and reached Super Bowl XXXVIII, losing 32–29 to the New England Patriots. After recording playoff appearances in 2005 and 2008, the team failed to record another playoff appearance until 2013, the first of three consecutive NFC South titles. After losing in the divisional round to the San Francisco 49ers in 2013 and the Seattle Seahawks in 2014, the Panthers returned to the Super Bowl in 2015, but lost to the Denver Broncos. The Panthers have reached the playoffs eight times, advancing to four NFC Championship Games and two Super Bowls. They have won six division titles, one in the NFC West and five in the NFC South. The Carolina Panthers are legally registered as Panther Football, LLC. and are controlled by David Tepper, whose purchase of the team from founder Jerry Richardson was unanimously approved by league owners on May 22, 2018. The club is worth approximately US$2.3 billion, according to Forbes. On December 15, 1987, entrepreneur Jerry Richardson announced his bid for an NFL expansion franchise in the Carolinas. A North Carolina native, Richardson was a former wide receiver on the Baltimore Colts who had used his 1959 league championship bonus to co-found the Hardee's restaurant chain, later becoming president and CEO of TW Services. Richardson drew his inspiration to pursue an NFL franchise from George Shinn, who had made a successful bid for an expansion National Basketball Association (NBA) team in Charlotte, the Charlotte Hornets. Richardson founded Richardson Sports, a partnership consisting of himself, his family, and a number of businessmen from North and South Carolina were also recruited to be limited partners. Richardson looked at four potential locations for a stadium, ultimately choosing uptown Charlotte. To highlight the demand for professional football in the Carolinas, Richardson Sports held preseason games around the area from 1989 to 1991. The first two games were held at Carter–Finley Stadium in Raleigh, North Carolina, and Kenan Memorial Stadium in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, while the third and final game was held at Williams-Brice Stadium in Columbia, South Carolina. The matchups were between existing NFL teams. In 1991, the group formally filed an application for the open expansion spot, and on October 26, 1993, the 28 NFL owners unanimously named the Carolina Panthers as the 29th member of the NFL. The Panthers first competed in the 1995 NFL season; they were one of two expansion teams to begin play that year, the other being the Jacksonville Jaguars. The Panthers were put in the NFC West to increase the size of that division to five teams; there were already two other southeastern teams in the division, the Atlanta Falcons and the New Orleans Saints. Former Pittsburgh Steelers defensive coordinator Dom Capers was named the first head coach. The team finished its inaugural season , the best performance ever from a first- year expansion team. They performed even better in their second season, finishing with a record and winning the NFC West division, as well as securing a first-round bye. The Panthers beat the defending Super Bowl champions Dallas Cowboys in the divisional round before losing the NFC Championship Game to the eventual Super Bowl champions, the Green Bay Packers. The team managed only a finish in 1997 and slipped to in 1998, leading to Capers' dismissal as head coach. The Panthers hired former San Francisco 49ers head coach George Seifert to replace Capers, and he led the team to an record in 1999. The team finished in 2000 and fell to in 2001, winning their first game but losing their last 15. This performance tied the NFL record for most losses in a single season and it broke the record held by the winless 1976 Buccaneers for most consecutive losses in a single season (both records have since been broken by the 2008 Lions), leading the Panthers to fire Seifert. After the NFL's expansion to 32 teams in 2002, the Panthers were relocated from the NFC West to the newly created NFC South division. The Panthers' rivalries with the Falcons and Saints were maintained, and they would be joined by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. New York Giants defensive coordinator John Fox was hired to replace Seifert and led the team to a finish in 2002. Although the team's defense gave up very few yards, ranking the second-best in the NFL in yards conceded, they were hindered by an offense that ranked as the second-worst in the league in yards gained. The Panthers improved to in the 2003 regular season, winning the NFC South and making it to Super Bowl XXXVIII before losing to the New England Patriots, 32–29, in what was immediately hailed by sportswriter Peter King as the "Greatest Super Bowl of all time". King felt the game "was a wonderful championship battle, full of everything that makes football dramatic, draining, enervating, maddening, fantastic, exciting" and praised, among other things, the unpredictability, coaching, and conclusion. The game is still viewed as one of the best Super Bowls of all time, and in the opinion of Charlotte-based NPR reporter Scott Jagow, the Panthers' Super Bowl appearance represented the arrival of Charlotte onto the national scene. Following a start in 2004, the Panthers rebounded to win six of their last seven games despite losing 14 players for the season due to injury. They lost their last game to New Orleans, finishing the 2004 season at . Had they won the game, the Panthers would have made the playoffs. The team improved to in 2005, finishing second in the division behind Tampa Bay and clinching a playoff berth as a wild-card. In the first round of the playoffs, the Panthers went on the road to face the New York Giants, beating them 23–0 for the NFL's first playoff shutout against a home team since 1980. The following week, they beat Chicago 29–21 on the road, but lost key players Julius Peppers, a defensive end, and DeShaun Foster, a running back, who were both injured during the game. The Panthers were then defeated 34–14 by the Seattle Seahawks in the NFC Championship Game, ending their season. Although the Panthers went into the 2006 season as favorites to win the NFC South, they finished with a disappointing record. The team finished the 2007 season with a record after losing quarterback Jake Delhomme early in the season due to an elbow injury. In 2008, the Panthers rebounded with a regular season record, winning the NFC South and securing a first-round bye. They were eliminated in the divisional round of the playoffs, losing 33–13 to the eventual NFC Champion Arizona Cardinals after Delhomme turned the ball over six times. Delhomme's struggles carried over into the 2009 season, where he threw 18 interceptions in the first 11 games before breaking a finger in his throwing hand. The Panthers were at a record before Delhomme's season-ending injury, and his backup, Matt Moore, led the team to a finish to the season for an overall record. In 2010, after releasing Delhomme in the offseason, the Panthers finished with a league-worst () record; their offense was the worst in the league. John Fox's contract expired after the season ended, and the team did not retain him or his staff. The team hired Ron Rivera to replace Fox as head coach and drafted Auburn's Heisman Trophy-winning quarterback Cam Newton with the first overall pick in the 2011 NFL Draft. The Panthers opened the 2011 season , but finished with a record, and Newton was awarded the AP Offensive Rookie of the Year award after setting the NFL record for most rushing touchdowns from a quarterback (14) in a single season and becoming the first rookie NFL quarterback to throw for over 4,000 yards in a single season. He also was the first rookie quarterback to rush for over 500 yards in a single season. After strengthening the defense with future all-pro Luke Kuechly in the 2012 draft, the Panthers again opened the 2012 season poorly, losing five out of their first six games, leading longtime general manager Marty Hurney to be fired in response. The team slid to a record before winning five of their last six games, resulting in a record. This strong finish helped save Rivera's job. The Panthers had a winning season the following year, finishing with a record and winning their third NFC South title and another playoff bye, but they were beaten by the 49ers in the Divisional Round. In 2014, the Panthers opened the season with two wins, but after 12 games sat at due in part to a seven-game winless streak. A four-game winning streak to end the season secured the team their second consecutive NFC South championship and playoff berth, despite a losing record of . The Panthers defeated the Arizona Cardinals, 27–16, in the wild card round to advance to the divisional playoffs, where they lost to eventual NFC champion Seattle, 31–17. The 2015 season saw the Panthers start the season and finish the season , which tied for the best regular-season record in NFC history. The Panthers also secured their third consecutive NFC South championship, as well as their first overall top-seeded playoff berth. In the 2015–16 playoffs, the Panthers defeated the Seattle Seahawks in the NFC Divisional playoffs, 31–24, after shutting them out in the first half, 31–0, and the Arizona Cardinals, 49–15, in the NFC Championship Game to advance to Super Bowl 50, their first Super Bowl appearance since the 2003 season. The Panthers lost a defensive struggle to the AFC champion Denver Broncos, 24–10. In the 2016 season, the Panthers regressed on their 15–1 record from 2015, posting a 6–10 record and a last-place finish in the NFC South, missing the playoffs for the first time since 2012, and losing the division title to the second-seeded Falcons, who went on to represent the NFC in Super Bowl LI. In the 2017 season, the Panthers finished with an 11–5 record and a #5 seed and lost to the New Orleans Saints 31–26 in the Wild Card Round, their first loss in that round in franchise history. On May 16, 2018, David Tepper, formerly a minority owner of the Pittsburgh Steelers, finalized an agreement to purchase the Panthers. The sale price was nearly $2.3 billion, a record. The agreement was approved by the league owners on May 22, 2018. The sale officially closed on July 9, 2018. After starting 6-2, the Panthers finished the 2018 season 7-9. They began the 2019 season 5-3, but lost the last eight games to finish 5-11; late in the season, Tepper fired Rivera as head coach. Perry Fewell finished out the season as interim coach, going 0-4. On January 7th, 2020, the Panthers hired Baylor head coach Matt Rhule as head coach. On January 15, 2020, Luke Kuechly announced his retirement from the league. The shape of the Panthers logo was designed to mimic the outline of both North Carolina and South Carolina. The Panthers changed their logo and logotype in 2012, the first such change in team history. According to the team, the changes were designed to give their logo an "aggressive, contemporary look" as well to give it a more three-dimensional feel. The primary tweaks were made in the eye and mouth, where the features, particularly the muscular brow and fangs, are more pronounced, creating a more menacing look. The revised logo has a darker shade of blue over the black logo, compared to the old design, which had teal on top of black. By the time they had been announced as the 29th NFL team in October 1993, the Panthers' logo and helmet design had already been finalized, but the uniform design was still under creation. After discussion, the Panthers organization decided on jerseys colored white, black, and blue, and pants colored white and silver. The exact tone of blue, which they decided would be "process blue" (a shade lighter than Duke's and darker than North Carolina's), was the most difficult color to choose. The team's uniform has remained largely the same since its creation, with only minor alterations such as changing the sock color of the team's black uniforms from blue to black and changing the team's shoes from white to black. Richardson, a self-described traditionalist, said that no major uniform changes would be made in his lifetime. The Panthers have three main jersey colors: black, white, and blue. Their blue jerseys, designated their alternate uniforms, are the newest and were introduced in 2002. NFL regulations allow the team to use the blue jersey up to two times in any given season. In all other games, the team must wear either their white or black jerseys; in NFL games, the home team decides whether to wear a dark or white jersey, while the away team wears the opposite. Usually the Panthers opt for white or blue when the weather is expected to be hot and for black when the weather is expected to be cold. The Panthers typically pair their white jerseys with white pants, while the black and blue jerseys are paired with silver pants; there have only been a few exceptions to these combinations. The first such instance was in 1998, when the team paired their white jerseys with silver pants in a game against the Indianapolis Colts. The second instance was in 2012 during a game against the Denver Broncos, when they paired their black jerseys with new black pants; this created an all-black uniform, with the exception of blue socks and silver helmets. The decision to wear blue socks was made by team captain Steve Smith, who felt the blue socks gave the uniforms a more distinct appearance compared with other teams that have all- black uniforms. The all-black uniforms won the "Greatest Uniform in NFL History" contest, a fan-voted contest run by NFL.com in July 2013. In July 2013, the team's equipment manager, Jackie Miles, said the Panthers intended to use the all-black uniform more in the future. The Panthers wore the all- black uniform three times the following season, once each in the preseason and regular season, and the third time during the home divisional round playoff game vs the 49ers. During the Panthers' 2015 Thanksgiving Day game against the Dallas Cowboys, they debuted an all-blue uniform as part of Nike's "Color Rush" series. In the 2018 exhibition season, the Panthers wore the black pants with the blue jerseys for a home game vs. the New England Patriots, then paired the black pants with the white jerseys in an away game vs. the Pittsburgh Steelers. During the 2018 season, the team did not wear silver pants. Instead they wore the all-black uniforms and blue jerseys with white pants. The team's uniform did not change significantly after Nike became the NFL's jersey supplier in 2012, but the collar was altered to honor former Panthers player and coach Sam Mills by featuring the phrase "Keep Pounding". Nike had conceived the idea, and the team supported the concept as a way to expose newer fans to the legacy of Mills, who died of cancer in 2005. Mills had introduced the phrase, which has since become a team slogan, in a speech that he gave to the players and coaches prior to their 2003 playoff game against Dallas; in the speech, Mills compared his fight against cancer with the team's on-field battle, saying "When I found out I had cancer, there were two things I could do – quit or keep pounding. I'm a fighter. I kept pounding. You're fighters, too. Keep pounding!" In 2019, the Panthers unveiled new uniforms. The new uniforms are Nike's "Vapor Untouchable" and have only minor differences: the tapered strips on the pants are replaced by stripes that extend down to the socks, the reflective shoulder cloth was replaced and the hip logos were also removed. The uniforms keep the same basic look, colors, numbers as the originals. As the 2019 season was the team's 25th, the Panthers sported a 25th anniversary patch on their uniforms. The Panthers played their first season at Memorial Stadium in Clemson, South Carolina, as their facility in uptown Charlotte was still under construction. Ericsson Stadium, called Bank of America Stadium since 2004, opened in the summer of 1996. Bank of America Stadium is owned entirely by the Panthers, making them one of the few teams in the NFL to own the facility they play in. The stadium was specially designed by HOK Sports Facilities Group for football and also serves as the headquarters and administrative offices of the Panthers. On some days the stadium offers public tours for a fee. Private tours for groups are offered for a fee seven days a week, though there are some exceptions, and such tours must be arranged in advance. Two bronze panther statues flank each of the stadium's three main entrances; they are the largest sculptures ever commissioned in the United States. The names of the team's original PSL owners are engraved on the base of each statue. The first two people in the Panthers Hall of Honor, team executive Mike McCormack and linebacker Sam Mills, are honored with life-sized bronze statues outside the stadium. Mills, in addition to being the only player in the Hall of Honor for over 20 years, is the only player to have had his jersey number (#51) retired by the Panthers . The Panthers have three open-air fields next to Bank of America Stadium where they currently hold their practices; during the 1995 season, when the team played their home games in South Carolina, the team held their practices at Winthrop University in Rock Hill, South Carolina. Because the practice fields, along with the stadium, are located in uptown Charlotte, the fields are directly visible from skyscrapers as well as from a four-story condominium located across the street. According to Mike Cranston, a running joke said that the Panthers' division rivals had pooled their resources to purchase a room on the building's top floor, and that a fire at the condominium was caused by the Panthers organization. In order to prevent people from seeing inside the field while the team is practicing, the team has added "strategically planted trees and a tarp over the ... fence surrounding the fields". Additionally, they employ a security team to watch for and chase away any people who stop alongside the fence surrounding the field. In the event of bad weather, the team moves their practices to an indoor sports facility about from the stadium. The team does not own this facility. The Panthers have hosted their annual training camp at Wofford College in Spartanburg, South Carolina, since 1995. The Panthers are supported in both North Carolina and South Carolina; South Carolina Governor Nikki Haley declared July 30, 2012, "Carolina Panthers Day" in her state, saying that "when it comes to professional teams, the Carolina Panthers are the team that South Carolina calls their own". During the 2016 NFC Championship and Super Bowl, the hashtag #OneCarolina was used by college and professional sports teams from North Carolina and South Carolina to show unified support for the Panthers. Pat Yasinskas of ESPN.com observed that while there is "a bit of a wine-and-cheese atmosphere at Panthers games ... there is a strong core of die-hard fans who bring energy to Bank of America Stadium. Charlotte lives and dies with the Panthers because there aren't a lot of other options in the sports world". Sports Illustrated graded the Panthers as having the 10th highest "NFL Fan Value Experience" in 2007, attributing much of the fan atmosphere to the team's newness when compared to the established basketball fanbase. They also observed that the stadium has scattered parking lots, each of which has a different tailgating style. Some have fried chicken, pork, or Carolina-style barbecue, while others have live bands and televisions. Pickup football games in the parking lots are common, but fans tend to "behave themselves", in part due to blue laws that prevent the sale of alcohol before noon on Sundays. The Carolina Panthers have sold out all home games since December 2002, and their home attendance has ranked in the NFL's top ten since 2006. Sir Purr, an anthropomorphic black cat who wears a jersey numbered '00', has been the Panthers' mascot since their first season. During games, Sir Purr provides sideline entertainment through skits and "silly antics". The mascot participates in a number of community events year-round, including a monthly visit to the patients at Levine Children's Hospital. Sir Purr also hosts the annual Mascot Bowl, an event which pits pro and college mascots against each other during halftime at a selected Panthers home game. The team's cheerleaders are the Carolina Topcats, a group of 24 women who lead cheers and entertain fans at home games. The TopCats participate in both corporate and charity events. The team's drumline is PurrCussion, an ensemble of snare, tenor, and bass drummers as well as cymbal players. PurrCussion performs for fans outside the stadium and introduces players prior to home games; it consists of drummers from across the Carolinas. Starting with the 2012 season, the Panthers introduced the Keep Pounding Drum, inspired by the aforementioned motivational speech by Sam Mills before the team's 2004 playoff game against the Cowboys. Prior to each home game, an honorary drummer hits the six-foot tall drum four times to signify the four quarters of an American football game. According to the team, the drummers "come from a variety of backgrounds and occupations, but all have overcome a great trial or adversity that has not only made them strong but also pushes them to make others around them stronger". Drummers have included current and former Panthers players, military veterans, Make-A-Wish children, and athletes from other sports, including NBA MVP and Charlotte native Stephen Curry, US women's national soccer team players Whitney Engen and Heather O'Reilly, and 7 time NASCAR Cup Series champion Jimmie Johnson. During the inaugural season of the Panthers, the team had an official fight song, which the team played before each home game. The song, "Stand and Cheer", remains the team's official fight song, but the team does not typically play it before home games. Due to negative fan reaction "Stand and Cheer" was pulled in 1999. Since 2006, the song has returned. The team plays Neil Diamond's "Sweet Caroline" after home victories. A "keep pounding" chant was introduced during the 2015 season which starts before the opening kickoff of each home game. As prompted by the video boards, one side of the stadium shouts "keep" and the other side replies with "pounding". The chant is similar to ones that take place at college football games. The Carolina Panthers support a variety of non-profits in North and South Carolina through the Carolina Panthers Charities. Four annual scholarships are awarded to student athletes through the Carolina Panthers Graduate Scholarship and the Carolina Panthers Players Sam Mills Memorial Scholarship programs. Carolina Panthers Charities also offers grants to non-profits that support education, athletics, and human services in the community. The Panthers and Fisher Athletic has provided six equipment grants to high school football teams in the Carolinas each year since 2010. Carolina Panthers Charities raises funds at three annual benefits: the Countdown to Kickoff Luncheon, the team's first public event each season; Football 101, an educational workshop for fans; and the Weekend Warrior Flag Football Tournament, a two-day non- contact flag football tournament. Another annual benefit is Taste of the Panthers, a gourmet food tasting which raises funds for Second Harvest Food Bank of Metrolina. In 2003 the Panthers and Carolinas HealthCare Foundation established the Keep Pounding Fund, a fundraising initiative to support cancer research and patient support programs. The Panthers community has raised more than $1.4 million for the fund through direct donations, charity auctions, blood drives, and an annual 5k stadium run. The Panthers and Levine Children's Hospital coordinate monthly hospital visits and VIP game-day experiences for terminally ill or hospitalized children. In addition to these team-specific efforts, the Panthers participate in a number of regular initiatives promoted by the NFL and USA Football, the league's youth football development partner. These include USA Football Month, held throughout August to encourage and promote youth football; A Crucial Catch, the league's Breast Cancer Awareness Month program; Salute to Service, held throughout November to support military families and personnel; and PLAY 60, which encourages young NFL fans to be active for at least 60 minutes each day. Radio coverage is provided by flagship station WBT (1110 AM) and through the Carolina Panthers Radio Network, with affiliates throughout the Carolinas, Georgia, and Virginia. The Panthers' radio broadcasting team is led by play- by-play voice Mick Mixon, with Eugene Robinson as color analyst, and WBT sports director Jim Szoke as studio host. The radio network broadcasts pre- game coverage, games with commentary, and post-game wrap-ups. It also live- broadcasts Panther Talk, a weekly event at Bank of America Stadium which offers fans a chance to meet a player and ask questions of the staff. National broadcasting and cable television networks cover regular season games, as well as some preseason games. Locally, Fox owned and operated station WJZY airs most regular-season games, while any home games against an AFC team air on CBS affiliate WBTV. Any appearances on Monday Night Football are simulcast on ABC affiliate WSOC-TV, while any late-season appearances on Thursday Night Football are simulcast on WBTV. Sunday night and some Thursday night games are aired on NBC affiliate WCNC-TV. All preseason games and team specials are televised by the Carolina Panthers Television Network on flagship station WSOC-TV in Charlotte and fourteen affiliate stations throughout the Carolinas, Georgia, Virginia, and Tennessee. WSOC took over as the Panthers' television partner for the 2019 season, replacing longtime television partner WCCB, which had retained this role after losing the Fox affiliation to WJZY in 2013. The television broadcasting team consists of play-by-play commentator Mike Morgan, color analyst and former Panthers player Mike Rucker, and sideline reporter Pete Yanity. The network also hosts The Panthers Huddle, a weekly show focusing on the Panthers' upcoming opponent. Panthers Gameday, the Panthers' postgame show, is hosted by sports anchor Russ Owens and former Panthers lineman Kevin Donnalley on WCNC-TV. The Panthers also offer game broadcasts in Spanish on an eight-station network fronted by WGSP-FM in Pageland, South Carolina, as well as additional radio affiliates in Mexico. Jaime Moreno provides the play-by-play while his nephew, Luis Moreno Jr., is the color commentator. They have become popular even among English-speaking Panther fans for their high-energy, colorful announcing style. The Panthers have developed heated rivalries with the three fellow members of the NFC South (the Atlanta Falcons, Tampa Bay Buccaneers, and New Orleans Saints). The team's fiercest rivals are the Falcons and Buccaneers. The Falcons are a natural geographic rival for the Panthers, as Atlanta is only south on I-85. The two teams have played each other twice a year since the Panthers' inception, and games between the two teams feature large contingents of Panthers fans at Atlanta's Mercedes-Benz Stadium and large contingents of Falcons fans at Bank of America Stadium. The Panthers' rivalry with Tampa Bay has been described as the most intense in the NFC South. The rivalry originated in 2002 with the formation of the NFC South, but became particularly heated before the 2003 season with verbal bouts between players on the two teams. It escalated further when the Panthers went to Tampa Bay and beat them in what ESPN.com writer Pat Yasinskas described as "one of the most physical contests in recent memory". The rivalry has resulted in a number of severe injuries for players on both teams, some of which were caused by foul play. One of these plays, an illegal hit on Tampa Bay punt returner Clifton Smith, sparked a brief melee between the teams in 2009. During their time in the NFC West, the Panthers began developing a rivalry with the San Francisco 49ers. This rivalry faded after the NFL moved the Panthers out of the NFC West. A relatively new rivalry, this one dates to the 2005 NFC Championship Game, in which the Seahawks won the game 31–14. The rivalry started up again in 2012, when the Panthers lost a close regular season home game to a Seattle Seahawks team led by rookie quarterback Russell Wilson, 16–12. In the 2013 season, the Panthers opened the season at home versus Seattle. They again lost a close game, with the final score 12–7. The Seahawks would go on to win Super Bowl XLVIII. In the 2014 season, once more at Bank of America Stadium, the Seahawks defeated the Panthers in week eight, 13–9. In the divisional round of the playoffs, the Panthers faced Seattle in Seattle, notorious for being a tough opposing field to play in, and lost 31–17. The Seahawks would go on to lose Super Bowl XLIX. In the 2015 season the next year, the teams faced off in Seattle, where the Panthers won another close game, 27–23. In the divisional round of the playoffs, the Panthers faced Seattle at Bank of America stadium, where they had yet to beat a Russell Wilson-led Seahawks team. By halftime they led 31–0, but the Seahawks rebounded and scored 24 unanswered points before the Panthers were able to seal the victory, 31–24. The Panthers would go on to lose Super Bowl 50. In the 2016 season, the teams met in Seattle, where the Panthers were beaten, 40–7. The teams did not face each other during the 2017 season. In the 2018 season, the Panthers were defeated by the Seahawks at home by a score of 30–27. Since the 2012 season, Carolina is overall against Seattle and in the playoffs. The rivalry aspect stems from how close the majority of the matches have been and the fact that they have played each other eight times between 2012 and 2018—at least once a year. The Carolina Panthers Hall of Honor was established in 1997 to honor individuals for their contributions to the Carolina Panthers organization. Nominees for the Pro Football Hall of Fame, which "honor[s] individuals who have made outstanding contributions to professional football", are determined by a 46-member selection committee. At least 80% of voters must approve the nominee for him to be inducted. Jerry Richardson was the founder and first owner of the Carolina Panthers. Richardson and his family owned about 48% of the team, with the remaining 52% owned by a group of 14 limited partners. Richardson and the other investors paid $206 million for the rights to start the team in 1993. Mike McCormack, a Hall of Fame lineman for the Cleveland Browns and former coach and executive for the Seattle Seahawks, was the Panthers' first team president, presiding in that role from 1994 until his retirement in 1997; McCormack was inducted as the first person in the Carolina Panthers Hall of Honor later that year. Jerry Richardson's son, Mark, was appointed as the team's second president in 1997 and served in that role until he stepped down in 2009. His brother Jon, who had been president of Bank of America Stadium, stepped down at the same time. The resignations of Mark and Jon Richardson were unexpected, as it was thought that the two would eventually take over the team from their father. Mark Richardson was replaced by Danny Morrison, who had previously served as the athletic director of both Texas Christian University and Wofford College, Richardson's alma mater. Morrison resigned in early 2017. The role was vacant until August 2018, when Tom Glick was hired as team president. He had previously served as the COO of Manchester City. On May 16, 2018, David Tepper, formerly a minority owner of the Pittsburgh Steelers, finalized an agreement to purchase the Carolina Panthers, for nearly $2.3 billion, a record at the time. The agreement was approved by the league owners on May 22, 2018. According to Forbes, the Panthers are worth approximately $2.3 billion . They ranked the Carolina Panthers as the 21st- most valuable NFL team and the 36th-most valuable sports team in the world. The Carolina Panthers have had six head coaches. Dom Capers was the head coach from 1995 to 1998 and led the team to one playoff appearance. Counting playoff games, he finished with a record of 31–35 (.470). George Seifert coached the team from 1999 to 2001, recording 16 wins and 32 losses (.333); he is the only head coach in Panthers history not to have led the team to a playoff appearance. John Fox, the team's longest-tenured head coach, led the team from 2002 to 2010 and coached the team to three playoff appearances including Super Bowl XXXVIII which the Panthers lost. Including playoff games, Fox ended his tenure with a 78–74 (.513) record, making him the first Panthers coach to finish his tenure with the team with a winning record. Ron Rivera held the position from 2011 to 2019 and led the team to four playoff appearances including Super Bowl 50. Counting playoff games, he has a career record of 79–67–1 (.541). Statistically, Rivera holds the highest winning percentage of any Panthers head coach. On December 3, 2019, following a home loss against the Washington Redskins that sent the team's record to 5–7, Rivera was fired by David Tepper. Perry Fewell, then the defensive backs coach for the team, was named interim head coach the same day. On January 7, 2020, Matt Rhule was hired to be the Panthers head coach. Since they began playing football in 1995, the Panthers have been to four NFC Championship Games; they lost two (1996 and 2005) and won two (2003 and 2015). The Panthers have won six division championships: the NFC West championship in 1996 and the NFC South championship in 2003, 2008, 2013, 2014, and 2015. They have won the NFC South more times than any other team in the division. They have finished as runners-up in their division six times, finishing second- place in the NFC West in 1997 and 1999 and finishing second-place in the NFC South in 2005, 2006, 2007, and 2012. They have qualified for the playoffs 8 times, most recently in 2017. Kicker John Kasay is the team's career points leader. Kasay scored 1,482 points during his 16 seasons (1995–2010) with the Panthers. Quarterback Cam Newton, who has played for the Panthers since 2011, is the career passing leader, having thrown for 20,257 yards over his six seasons with the team. Running back Jonathan Stewart is the career rushing leader for the Carolina Panthers. Stewart, during his tenure with the team (2008–2018), rushed for 6,868 yards with the Panthers. Wide receiver Steve Smith, the team's leading receiver, recorded 12,197 receiving yards during his 13-year (2001–2013) tenure with the team. Notes Footnotes Carolina Panthers at NFL.com The 1995 Carolina Panthers season was the franchise's inaugural season in the National Football League and the 1st under head coach Dom Capers. They went 7–9, the best debut year for any expansion franchise since the NFL's inception. The Panthers would go on to make the playoffs in only their second season in 1996. The Panthers played their first season's home games at Clemson University because Bank of America Stadium was still under construction after a deadline point in 1995 for scheduling Carolina's first set of NFL games. The Panthers were jokingly called "Buffalo Bills South" because of the large number of former Bills on the roster. Quarterback Frank Reich, wide receiver Don Beebe, tight end Pete Metzelaars and linebacker Carlton Bailey had played key roles in the Bills' run of four consecutive Super Bowls earlier in the 1990s and were on the Panthers' inaugural roster. Furthermore, the team's general manager was longtime Bills GM and executive Bill Polian. (See also the 2001 San Diego Chargers season, in which a similar situation arose when John Butler brought several former Bills with him to San Diego after being fired.) Players dumped Gatorade on Dom Capers after the win. Most victories by an expansion team (7), First expansion team to have a winning record at home (5–3), First expansion team to have a four-game winning streak (weeks 7–10), First expansion team to defeat a defending Super Bowl champion in its inaugural season (13–7 over the San Francisco 49ers in San Francisco), First expansion team in NFL history to win its inaugural contest (20–14 over the Jacksonville Jaguars in the Hall of Fame Game).

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Thomas Forrester is a fictional character from The Bold and the Beautiful, an American soap opera on the CBS network. Created and introduced by Bradley Bell, the role has been portrayed by multiple child actors. In 2004, the role was rapidly aged with actor Drew Tyler Bell, who remained in the role until 2010. That same year, Adam Gregory was in the role, and remained through his exit in 2014. The following year, Pierson Fodé was cast in the role. Fodé departed the role in September 2017; he returned for a one-month guest stint from March to April 2018. In February 2019, it was announced that Matthew Atkinson had been cast in the role; he debuted on March 15, 2019. For his portrayal of Thomas, Bell earned a Daytime Emmy as Outstanding Younger Actor in a Drama Series. Thomas is the son of supercouple Ridge Forrester (Ronn Moss, later Thorsten Kaye) and Taylor Hayes (Hunter Tylo). He had two twin sisters, Phoebe (MacKenzie Mauzy) and Steffy (Jacqueline MacInnes Wood) and a half-brother, R. J. Forrester (Anthony Turpel) from his father's marriage to Brooke Logan (Katherine Kelly Lang). Between 1998 and 2001, the character of Thomas was played by various child actors. From January 15, 2002 to August 4, 2003 (on a recurring basis), child actor Patrick Dorn was the first non-twin child actors duo to play Thomas. From 2004 to 2005, Drew Tyler Bell began playing Thomas on a contract. He shifted to a recurring character from 2005 to 2009, and was on contract from 2009 to 2010. He won a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Younger Actor in a Drama Series in 2008. In 2010, it was announced that Bell had been dropped from the part, and that Adam Gregory was to take over the role. In December 2013, following Gregory's decreased screen time and removal from the opening credits, fans began to speculate that Gregory was let go from the series. Gregory and a rep for the series confirmed he was dropped to recurring to pursue other acting jobs. A rep for the series confirmed, "Adam is recurring. [...] And, he has more scenes to tape later this week." In May 2015, it was confirmed that Gregory was no longer in the role, and a casting call seeking a "handsome, tall, Caucasian man in his 20s with a great physique" to play Thomas was released. In June 2015, it was announced that Pierson Fodé would join the cast in the role of Thomas. Fodé made his debut on July 27, 2015. On September 7, 2017, Soap Opera Digest announced that Fodé would depart the role of Thomas. He last appeared on September 13, 2017. On the evening of February 16, 2018, it was announced that Fodé would reprise his portrayal of Thomas for a short-term storyline; he'll begin making appearances on March 9 until April 5, 2018. On February 11, 2019, it was announced that Matthew Atkinson had been cast in the role, and made his first appearance on March 15, 2019. Speaking on his casting, Atkinson told Soap Opera Digest: "It was actually a long time coming. I remember this role coming around a few years ago. When it came around this time, [having worked at Y&R;], I knew everyone there. I had met Brad [Bell, executive producer/head writer] before, and I couldn't say no … There's something very comforting now about being back in the same building." The character is described "As the extremely attractive and charming heir of Forrester Creations" and "this wide-eyed prodigy is a visionary and famed designer in the making, fully aware that the eyes of the fashion world, as well as every single girl in town, are fixated on his every move". There was brief speculation that the character was going gay; however this was never a storyline. Bell has stated that this new Thomas will become an exact replica of how his father Ridge Forrester was when he was a young playboy at the beginning of the show. When Dr. Taylor Hayes, Thomas' mother, discovered the pregnancy, she attempted to tell Ridge Forrester (his father) in a joyous mood. However once she saw him being seduced by Brooke Logan once again she nearly lost the baby due to stress. So that Ridge could be happy with Brooke, Taylor told everyone (and Brooke was in on this lie as well) that Thorne Forrester, Ridge's brother, was the father. Shortly after Thomas's birth Taylor saw the unmistakable bond between Ridge and her baby and realized that Ridge wasn't in love at the time to Brooke, so she confessed to Ridge that he was the father. She explained the reasons she went along with the deception. Furious with Brooke, Ridge was overjoyed and declared his love for Taylor and proposed to her and they were then married. Shortly after Thomas, Taylor and Ridge had twins, Steffy and Phoebe At long last, Taylor and Ridge had the child they had always wanted. Thomas' childhood was far from easy, at a young age his sister Steffy was thought to be dead, however was kidnapped. Also, his mother, Taylor was presumed dead in 2002 after being shot by Sheila Carter defending Brooke. After Taylor's death, Brooke took over as parent for the children and married Ridge. Thomas and Brooke end up in a plane crash when they go to promote the Taboo line overseas. They end up stranded, their bodies washed ashore. The whole family are extremely worried, and go on an agonizing search across the seas for them. Brooke eats poisonous berries on the island after she and Thomas have gone two to three days without food and gives some to him. It caused them to have weird dreams and imagine themselves in an odd alternate world. Ridge comes to the rescue of Brooke and his son. Both Thomas and Brooke wonder what happened on the Island, as they experienced strange feelings after eating the berries (they are both under the impression that they could have had sexual relations). Stephanie (always wanting to get rid of Brooke from the family) tells Thomas to lie to everyone and say that he and Brooke had sex on the island, so that Ridge would leave Brooke for Taylor. As Taylor and Ridge are about to get married, Stephanie and Thomas reveal the whole truth (which was eating Thomas alive). Thomas' girlfriend Dayzee (who encouraged him to tell the truth, knowing about the scandal) left him after that. The whole family find it hard to forgive him, but Taylor does and blames Stephanie for the incident. Ridge and Brooke don't forgive Thomas for this, and move him to the Shipping Department of Forrester Creations. Thomas later begins a relationship with Hope Logan (his adoptive step-sister). She was previously in a relationship with Liam Spencer who is now married to his younger sister Steffy. They share a kiss and begin to date, and he proposes to Hope in Mexico where she briefly accepts by saying 'its too soon now, but maybe someday it will happen.' After Hope finds out that Thomas had been encouraged to date her by Steffy to keep Hope away from Liam, Hope breaks up with Thomas, leaving him hurt because he genuinely wanted to be with Hope. Thomas meets the new designer at Forrester Creations, Caroline Spencer, whom Brooke had hired to set her up with Rick. However, Thomas catches Caroline's attention, and they go out on a date. They even kiss while they dance. Thomas and Caroline grow closer, and when she introduces him to her mother Karen, and Karen's partner Danielle, Thomas is at first surprised by Caroline's family situation but accepts it and supports it, which Caroline appreciates and they continue their relationship. Thomas and Caroline begin to get serious, even though Rick is interested in Caroline and intends to steal her away from Thomas. The relationship intensifies as they both spend more time together. However, Caroline is soon jealous of Thomas' ex-girlfriend Hope, who suddenly (thanks to Rick) is single. The chemistry between Hope and Thomas stirs up trouble for Caroline and Thomas' relationship, and Rick takes advantage by fueling Caroline's jealousy of Hope. Thomas' mother Taylor begins an affair with Eric and uses this to get Eric to make Thomas Vice President. Rick is angered by this but Eric orders Rick to include Thomas on everything at Forrester Creations and to work with him despite their differences. Rick begins spending most of his time at Dayzee's with Maya. The first quarter numbers come in and they are terrible due to Rick's ideas. Rick is not present at the meeting and Thomas uses this to convince Eric to support Thomas' idea of going into new trends but during his presentation Brooke comes out in her lingerie and convinces Eric to relaunch the highly successful Brooke's Bedroom, which he does much to the dismay of Thomas, Steffy, and Taylor. Thomas was said to have joined Steffy, Taylor and Ridge in Paris during fall 2013. Thomas (Pierson Fodé) returns in July 2015 to attend his cousin Aly's (Ashlyn Pearce) funeral and decides to stick around to support Steffy who is riddled with guilt being responsible for Aly's death. He wants to rejoin the design team at Forrester Creations but Ridge accuses him of not putting his all into his designs and wanting a handout because he is a Forrester. Meanwhile, Thomas questions Caroline's relationship with Ridge because of the dramatic age difference. Despite this, he continues to offer Caroline friendship. It all comes to a head when, after Ridge breaks up with Caroline, he comforts her and they sleep together; he is unaware that she has taken anxiety pills before drinking. Ridge then quickly calls Caroline back and they marry. Thomas then becomes a confidante of Steffy during her war against Ivy. Caroline learns she is pregnant, and is at first joyful, before Ridge tells her he had a vasectomy in Paris. Realizing that the baby must be Thomas', she tells Ridge about their night together, but defends him, refusing to believe he had taken advantage of her. Ridge, angry at what Thomas has done, including a fight over an affair Thomas had with an intern which led to a fight where Thomas punched him, forces Thomas to return to Paris, leaving Forrester employees baffled. He tells Caroline the baby is his and they decide to raise it together as theirs. He later returns after Caroline convinces Ridge to stop acting angry to keep Thomas from being suspicious about the baby. He does question the baby's lineage, but accepts Caroline's claim of Ridge. Afterwards, Ridge continues to make Thomas suspicious. Thomas turns his attentions to fighting the Spencers and pursues Ivy believing her to be someone his dad can't disapprove of. Her resolve slowly breaks following an incident at Pam's Halloween party where Thomas saves her from a falling light. During a thunder storm where only the two of them are in the Forrester Mansion, they begin an affair while Wyatt, her boyfriend at the time, is out of town on business. Thomas (Matthew Atkinson) returns to Los Angeles with his son Douglas in 2019, following the sudden death of Caroline. He sets his sights on Hope as a potential replacement mother for Douglas, noting the rapport they share with each other. He eventually finds out that Hope's daughter, Beth, is still alive and threatens everyone with knowledge of this to secrecy to prevent her from going back to Liam, resulting in him killing Emma Barber (Nia Sioux) by running her off the road when she flees to confess the truth to Hope. Thomas is able to persuade Hope to get married, all the while keeping the secret that her infant daughter Beth is still alive. When the truth finally comes out, Thomas goes into hiding and Hope pursues an annulment of their marriage. After learning that Hope has gone to the beach house, Thomas surprises her there and tries to apologize for what he has done. As Hope is trying to get away from Thomas, Brooke arrives and sees Hope struggling to break free from Thomas. Brooke comes between the two and pushes Thomas away, causing him to fall over the cliff. He is rushed to the hospital in a coma, but eventually regains consciousness. When Ridge confronts him about all that he has done, Thomas tearfully confesses and begs for forgiveness. John Matthew Atkinson (born December 31, 1988) is an American actor and musician. Atkinson was born in Marietta, Georgia. Atkinson's family moved around several times living in Alabama and Mississippi before settling in Kennesaw, Georgia. After high school, Atkinson moved to Atlanta taking college courses, while simultaneously pursuing acting, and Atkinson eventually moved to Los Angeles. Atkinson made his television debut on The WB/CW drama series One Tree Hill. Atkinson appeared in the Academy Award winning film The Blind Side. Atkinson has also appeared in and Drop Dead Diva. Atkinson is best known as Nick Fadden in the ABC Family series, Jane by Design and Austin Travers on The Young and the Restless. Most recently Atkinson has portrayed Finn in the ABC series The Middle and Jason on the ABC Family series Young & Hungry. In March 2019, Atkinson joined the cast of The Bold and the Beautiful as Thomas Forrester. Nellie Andreeva, November 15, 2012, Nellie Andreeva, April 13, 2011, CBS, March, 2014, Michael Ausiello, August 12, 2013 Hope Logan is a fictional character from The Bold and the Beautiful, an American soap opera on the CBS network. The character was portrayed by several child actors and actresses since Hope's birth in 2002, most notably Rachel and Amanda Pace. In 2010, the role was rapidly aged and recast with actress Kim Matula, who made her first appearance in January 2010. Matula departed the serial as a series regular in December 2014; she made several guest appearances in 2015 and 2016. As of 2018, the role is portrayed by actress Annika Noelle. Introduced in 2002, Hope is the result of an affair between Brooke Logan and Deacon Sharpe, Brooke's ex-son-in-law. Upon Matula's casting, her main storylines revolved around relationships with former love interests Liam and Wyatt Spencer, and a rivalry with Steffy Forrester, the latter of which mirrors the rivalry between their mothers, Brooke Logan and Dr. Taylor Hayes. Between the years of 2002 and 2009, the character was played by child actresses, and appeared as a young girl around 5 years old by 2007. On December 4, 2009, it was announced that Hope was to be dramatically aged and portrayed by Kim Matula. Matula signed on as a contract character. Matula began taping The Bold and the Beautiful on November 19, 2009 and made her first appearance on January 11, 2010. On November 5, 2014, it was announced that after five years with the series, Matula would be departing the series. Matula taped her final scene on November 6 and made her final appearance on December 12. In March 2015, Soap Opera Digest reported news that Matula would make a return to the series, in a guest appearance as Hope. She is set to report to set on March 4, 2015, she aired on April 17 and 20, 2015. In February 2016, Matula was reported to make a guest return to the soap; she appeared on March 16, 2016. In November 2017, Soap Opera Digest announced that actress Annika Noelle had been cast in the role of Hope; she made her first appearance on January 8, 2018. The young adult character of Hope was first described as "A polar opposite of what her mother Brooke once was, Hope makes no secret of her more traditional and reserved views on sex and marriage". Matula has described Hope as "Unlucky in love". Speaking about the character's dramatic aging and her storyline, head writer Bradley Bell stated: "Aging the character of ‘Hope’ to a teenager allows us to bring the next generation of ‘Logans’ to the forefront, as well as play a broader range of the ‘Forrester’ vs. ‘Logan’ story. ‘Hope’s’ presence at Forrester Creations, as well as in ‘Brooke’ and ‘Ridge’s’ home, sparks an intense competition between ‘Hope’ and her step-sister ‘Steffy’ as well as creates new conflict between long-time rivals ‘Brooke’ and ‘Taylor’ as each woman is determined to protect her own daughter." Hope was conceived during an affair between Brooke Logan (Katherine Kelly Lang) and Deacon Sharpe (Sean Kanan). At the time, Deacon was married to Hope's half-sister, Bridget Forrester. Hope was born at the Big Bear Cabin. Deacon signed over his paternal rights in 2007 to Ridge Forrester when RJ and Hope were taken from Brooke when she was proven to be an unfit mother by Social Services, reported by Stephanie Forrester (Susan Flannery). Nick Marone (Jack Wagner) was also a father figure for Hope when he was married to Brooke. After the character was dramatically aged (SORASed), Hope is almost raped by a photographer, Graham Derros. but she is saved by Nick and Aggie Jones. As high school graduation approaches, she meets Oliver Jones, a DJ who becomes her first serious boyfriend. Instantly, the assertive Steffy takes an interest in Oliver and tries to lure him away from Hope and engineers a series of events designed to humiliate Hope. At a Forrester fashion show she tampers with a sign by removing the letters 'p' and 'e' out of Hope's name to create a sign that reads "Ho Logan". Then, at Hope's graduation party (with a mask theme), Brooke has sex with Oliver, thinking it's her husband Ridge behind the mask; this is revealed by a video which Steffy put together (however, it was later revealed the video was tampered by Justin Barber, who worked for Spencer Publications — who are against Forrester Creations). Despite unresolved feelings and never getting a chance with Oliver again, Hope forgives her mother. Hope meets Liam Cooper, who was soon to be revealed to be the son of Bill Spencer Jr., Hope & Liam forge a friendship but there is something more there which Oliver, her ex-boyfriend sees whenever they are together. Hope & Oliver had broken up after he had accidentally slept with her mother which hurt her greatly. Liam and Hope fall deeply in love. Their love grows despite Oliver trying to win back Hope by making her jealous, by being in a relationship with Amber Moore. Then their relationship faces hardship when Amber falls pregnant after supposedly raping Liam, and Liam is thought to be the father during the whole pregnancy. She manipulates the situation every chance she gets and causes problems for Liam and Hope. Hope finds it difficult to deal with Amber having Liam's child & decides she must move on but the baby is born and it is quite evident the baby is not Liam's, turns out to be Marcus' baby instead. Liam and Hope reunite and he proposes to her. However, she wanted to use this as a way to promote her fashion line, so their wedding was planned for months ahead. Hope tells Liam she wants to wait to consummate their relationship after marriage, of course Steffy manipulates Liam every chance she gets. She decided she wanted him even though he was with Hope and was jealous after he saved her from drowning because his father rejected her and went back to his wife Katie. As Hope focuses more on her work, Steffy again finds an opportunity to manipulate Liam and he kisses Steffy. After witnessing the kiss, Hope takes off her engagement ring and leaves it at Liam's house. Heartbroken, Liam takes the ring and proposes to Steffy, who accepts. Liam and Steffy travel to Aspen, where they are married. Then Thomas set his eyes on Hope which Steffy very much encouraged. They shared a kiss despite Hope's unresolved feelings for Liam. Thomas whisks her away to Mexico upon Steffy's encouragement so he could get her mind off of Liam. Both couples accidentally end up in Mexico. Thomas proposes to Hope upon Steffy's encouragement again and she briefly acknowledges that she might not be ready at the time, but she tells him no that she is in love with Liam.; she tells Thomas, 'I feel safe with you' unbeknownst to his and Steffy's manipulations and intentions. Liam and Steffy are staying at the same resort also, and once Liam finds out, he goes after Thomas and Hope on a dirt-bike chase, chasing Hope. Then Steffy gets her own bike & goes after Liam and is injured after falling off her bike while trying to get to Liam. She ends up in the hospital and everyone flies down and Bill decides to manipulate the situation because he knows that Liam is still in love with Hope and is about to leave Steffy to be with the woman he loves. Bill wants to keep Steffy near and perpetuates a lie about Steffy's health. Of course Liam finds out about the lie eventually and leaves Steffy in the end. Katie had gotten suspicious and uncovered the truth. Bill even locks her in a tower to keep her from telling Liam and Hope about what Bill had done because he and Steffy had been trying to keep Liam and Hope apart. Liam, feeling gutted and betrayed by Bill and Steffy, immediately leaves to find Hope. He finds her on the rooftop where he proposed to her and tells her that he loves her and that he wants to be with her to give their relationship a true chance without manipulations. When they later confront Bill with what they know and what they want from him, Bill refuses to give in, reminding Liam that Steffy is his wife and that he doesn't support his attempt to reunite with Hope. Liam, however, does not take that as an answer, making up his mind that his marriage to Steffy is over. Despite her pleading that they can get through this rough patch, Liam ends his relationship with Steffy and chooses to be with Hope. After she leaves, Liam goes outside where Hope is and reveals his left hand, which has no wedding ring on it. Brooke, worried that Steffy may try to pull a scheme to keep Liam, arranges for a wedding for Hope and Liam in her home, convinced that her son Rick would seduce Steffy into signing the annulment papers. Steffy refuses, and demands a full, legal divorce. Fearing again that Steffy would somehow scheme Liam into staying with her, Brooke insists that Hope take her relationship with Liam to the next level. The night did not go as well as Hope had wished, and she ended up traumatized. Brooke showed up early the next morning to see how the night went and found Hope in tears. Her mother then suggests that Hope needs to start seeing a sex therapist to help her with her trauma and so she can be with Liam. All this accomplishes though is getting Hope hooked on anxiety pills and when she passes out at the Forrester pool, he starts to worry and then she and Liam go to Aspen for a ski trip which Steffy ends up there too, she accidentally runs into her on the slopes and she confesses to Liam that she is hooked on the pills she is taking. At first he questions their future and in the heat of the moment he ends up kissing Steffy because she is crying because she doesn't want an annulment and is sorry he has hurt her. Then he goes and finds Hope and makes up with her and then they decide that the wedding is back on. Once the divorce becomes final, Liam and Hope went to Italy at Brooke's insistence to remarry. Bill tries to shanghai the wedding by bringing in Deacon Sharpe, which causes Hope to be late to the wedding and Liam to think that she had once again walked out on him. He turned to Steffy for comfort and asked her to leave with him and marry him again. Hope went to Liam's hotel suite, however, and Steffy hid in the bathroom while Hope told Liam what happened. Steffy insisted that Liam go ahead and marry Hope, so the wedding went off without a hitch. Once back in the States, Hope saw a video of Steffy and Liam kissing and falling into bed together on Hope's wedding day and out of that hurt, refuses to sign papers making their marriage legal in the US, wanting another wedding. Liam agrees, and Hope plans another wedding at the Forrester home. On the day of their re-do wedding, however, Liam arrives drunk, on the back of Steffy's motorcycle with dyed hair and a tattoo after a night out with Steffy, which is exactly what she wanted to do, cause a rift in their relationship, she planned the whole scheme hoping for these results. Outraged by Liam's continued reliance on Steffy, Hope calls off the wedding and her relationship with Liam. Thomas and Hope then becomes friends. While Hope is apart from Liam, he turns again to Steffy for comfort and he thinks he's in love, deciding to give her a chance since things fell apart with Hope. Finding out that Liam and Hope had been lied to by Rick about what went on the night before their wedding, Hope once is hurt by manipulations and lies. Once again, to try to stop Steffy from being with Liam, Brooke sets up a commitment ceremony on Liam's property without his knowledge while Liam is telling Rick that he thinks his future with Hope is over and calls Steffy, but Brooke has the priest from Italy to tell Liam that he can marry him and Hope. Steffy, however, finds out that she was pregnant several days earlier and waited to tell Liam about it until after he made his choice on which woman he wanted to be with. But she finds out that he has chosen Hope is going to marry her so she runs over to Liam's house to find him and tell him she was pregnant. After finding out that Steffy was pregnant with his child, Liam decided that they needed to be together because he wants to raise his child full time since he didn't have a dad growing up. Devastated, Hope found solace in Oliver, who finally somehow admitted he still had feelings for her, particularly by showing her the Chinese symbol for "hope" he got tattooed on his leg for her. Hope is touched, and she decides to give him a second chance since Liam was giving Steffy a second chance because of their child. On the professional front, Hope steps down as spokeswoman for her line, Hope for the Future, and approves Rick's decision to hire Maya. During Steffy's pregnancy, she ignores warnings of riding her motorcycle which results in an accident, causing her to lose the baby and become infertile. After Steffy learns of her infertility, she tells Hope she is leaving for good and that Liam is now Hope's, not telling Hope or Liam the real issue. She and Liam go to Bear Cabin together to talk. While on a walk, she sees a naked stranger taking a shower. She takes a photo of him, only for him to turn around and see her. She runs away and he chases her. She then falls and is knocked unconscious. The stranger then carries her to safety and when she wakes up he kisses her. The mysterious stranger turns out to be Wyatt Fuller. After doing some digging, she learns he is the son of Bill Spencer, Jr., therefore the half-brother of Liam. Wyatt and Hope get closer after Liam flies off to see Steffy, asking Steffy why she left the way she did. Steffy rejects him and Liam comes home and proposes to Hope, who accepts. Wyatt moves in with Liam, but when Liam catches him kissing Hope, he punches Wyatt, and after a fight between Bill and Wyatt, he moves out, but Hope later selects Quinn and Wyatt's jewelry business to accompany 'Hope for the Future'. When Liam finds out, he convinces Hope to try and break the contract. Hope asks Eric to do so but he doesn't agree, knowing that it is a personal reason for wanting to end the contract. So the contract stands, much to Liam's dismay, and Hope and Wyatt fly to Mexico to get the Hope Diamond for the line, which makes problems for Liam. Hope and Liam get engaged, but when Hope receives a goodbye video Liam made for Steffy, it creates tension between them. Liam, thinking it was Wyatt that sent the video, later finds out it was actually Quinn, and Liam quickly informs Hope. Confronting them both, Hope finds out that Quinn did send the video, but Wyatt had no idea of it until the Hope Diamond reveal. Hope forgives them both. She later ends her engagement to Liam when she is feeling insecure about Liam always falling for Steffy's manipulations. They soon reconcile, but Hope wants to wait before they get married. Aly Forrester, who has a crush on Liam, sends him a picture of Wyatt and Hope kissing at a photoshoot. Liam decides to confront Hope about her refusal to marry, demands that they do so and that she cut all professional and personal ties with Wyatt and Quinn Artisan Jewelers. Hope chooses Liam over Wyatt and Eric reluctantly agrees to break the contract. Wyatt tries desperately to change Hope's mind but she won't, confessing to her mother that she had never met Liam & fallen in love with him, then Wyatt might have had a chance. On the day of the wedding, Hope gets a note to go see Liam, but she finds him with Steffy at the cabin. Knowing that Steffy is back from Paris, and guessing she would be back to fight for Liam, Hope decides to rehire Quinn, and she and Wyatt go to Hawaii together. Liam follows soon after to explain to Hope that Steffy had informed him that she is now able to conceive again, and that it was Quinn who once again interfered with their relationship. He then asks her to marry him immediately. Hope declines and ends her relationship with him, finally choosing Wyatt over Liam. Their happiness is short-lived when it is revealed by Liam that Wyatt took the Hope diamond as a P.R stunt, before the real jewel thieves had intentions to steal it. It almost ends their relationship completely, but Hope decides to give Wyatt another chance, much to Liam's dismay. Hope then endures a pregnancy scare, and with Liam's persuasion about making the right decision for her life before getting pregnant or married, she dates both brothers, agreeing that she will choose who she wants to spend the rest of her life with at the end of it. Finally, Hope chooses Liam and they become engaged. Quinn becomes outraged when Hope ends things with Wyatt, and threatens both Liam and Hope's lives. When Quinn tries to kill Liam once and for all, Wyatt and Deacon Sharpe save him. Wyatt declares his support for Liam and Hope's relationship. Because of this, Liam and Hope decide to rehire Wyatt at Forrester Creations. Wyatt inherits the Hope for the Future Diamond after Ricardo Montemayor dies. He gifts it to Hope, which causes friction between Liam and Hope, and the two brothers. When Liam demands Hope give it back to Wyatt, Hope refuses, and publicly declares at a press conference that she is keeping the diamond. Wyatt and Rick decide to take Hope and the diamond on a promotion tour, starting with a photo shoot in Paris. Hope asks Liam to come with her, or meet her there to marry her. But Liam, still angry, does not know if he will go. Hope tells him to meet her at 3pm the next day after the photo shoot if he wants to continue their relationship. Wyatt begs Hope not to marry Liam, though she insists that she and Liam belong together. Liam misses his deadline with Hope, who then leaves with Wyatt on the Spencer jet. Wyatt takes her to Bill's yacht in Monte Carlo, where he insists that Liam wasted all of his chances with Hope, but that he will always be there for her. Wyatt proposes to Hope using the HFTF diamond, and Hope accepts and marries Wyatt. Out of the hurt she feels at that moment, Hope decides to marry Wyatt and give him a chance of making her happy although she still loves Liam but she feels like if he really wanted a life with her, all these obstacles would not keep getting in the way. However, about a month later, Hope gets an urgent call from Liam. She finds out that Quinn orchestrated her and Wyatt's marriage by pushing Ivy off the Seine causing Liam to miss his chance to be with Hope. After confronting Quinn for her role and Wyatt for defending his mother, though she also feel sympathy for him, she had already married Wyatt and felt she should honor her commitment and then she found out that she was pregnant with Wyatt's child. She explains that she doesn't want her child to grow up with multiple fathers and have a complicated relationship like she did. She ended things with Liam for good and told him that she wanted to give her marriage to Wyatt a chance now with the baby on the way. This is all changed when she suffers a miscarriage, because Wyatt's mother Quinn had caused alot of problems for her with her aggressive way of intruding in her life. She was relentless in meddling and being way over the top with what she wanted and not being sensitive to what Wyatt and Hope wanted in their life and the baby mostly. It got so out of hand that finally she had to get a restraining order on Quinn. Quinn had grown quite obsessive with the baby & Wyatt. Finally when Quinn was not invited to the baby shower, she went ballistic and tells Liam that she will always love him. Hope visits Brooke in Milan, Italy, and does not return to L.A. with Brooke to get over the loss of her child. In 2015, Brooke attempts to stop Deacon's wedding to Quinn by getting Hope to talk to him via a video message on her tablet. Hope tells Deacon that Quinn is evil, but he marries her anyway. In early 2016, Liam is kidnapped by Quinn, and Steffy calls Hope, thinking that she may have information on Liam's whereabouts. She tells Steffy that she hasn't heard from Liam. Hope returns to Los Angeles in January 2018, on Ridge's request, to surprise her mother. She makes her intentions known of returning to Forrester and potentially relaunching the Hope for the Future line. When Hope meets Sally Spectra, she finds out that Liam and Steffy’s marriage is in trouble and so she visits Liam to offer her support and friendship. Hope learns of Steffy and Bill sleeping together, and confronts Steffy. However Hope supports Steffy and Liam, and tries to fix their marriage. Hope later starts to fall in love with Liam again, and wants Liam to leave Steffy because of her ruining their relationship in the past and her betrayal with Bill. Bill manipulates Liam to believe that Bill and Steffy are involved; Liam leaves Steffy and their daughter, Kelly, and proposes to Hope. The two almost marry, until Wyatt reveals that Bill set up the whole thing. Liam decides to give Steffy another chance for the sake of Kelly, but Hope soon discovers she's pregnant, from the one night she and Liam spent together before their aborted wedding. Steffy catches Liam and Hope making out behind the scenes of the Hope for the Future fashion show and she breaks up with him; Steffy steps back and "gives" Liam to Hope because she can no longer be involved in a triangle for Liam's heart and she needs to do what is best for Kelly. In August 2018, Hope and Liam wed in front of their friends, families, Steffy, and Taylor and were finally together like they had always wanted to be. They blissfully awaited the birth of their daughter & basked in the happiness they had always longed for. In January 2019, Hope and Liam are devastated when their infant daughter Elizabeth 'Beth' Avalon Spencer is "stillborn". It is revealed that Dr. Reese Buckingham stole Hope and Liam's daughter Beth Spencer and gave them a stillborn baby girl. Reese later brought baby Beth Spencer to his apartment and his friend Flo pretended to be the birth mother. Steffy adopted the baby and named her Phoebe after Steffy's late sister. Hope holds Phoebe for the first time (Beth) and has a connection to her. Steffy then worries about Hope when she starts to get too much conformable with Beth, and about her mental health due to Beth being gone. After Steffy takes Kelly and Phoebe to Paris for Hope and Liam to work out their marriage, Hope and Liam's marriage starts to crumble. Hope and later meets Wyatt's ex girlfriend Flo, and learn that she was Phoebe's birth mother and is looking for her biological father. The Logan family learns that Flo is Storm's daughter revealing that Hope and Flo are cousins. Happy, Hope welcomes Flo into their family and in the Forester Company. Thomas Forester returns to L.A with devastating news, about Caroline passing away. Afterwards Thomas starts to have an obsession with Hope and manipulates Caroline's death by writing a fake letter saying that Douglas needs a mother and wants Hope to be that mother figure for him. Also uses Douglas to convince Hope to be with his dad. Which lead to Hope and Liam getting an annulment, and wanting to fulfill Caroline's wish. However Hope tells Thomas that she is marrying him for Douglas, not him. When Hope and Thomas are married, she still loves Liam, but wants to move forward with Beth being gone. However Hope feels unconformable with Thomas's advances and not wanting to have sex with him. When Hope is about to go on her honeymoon with Thomas, Douglas reveals to Hope and Liam that their daughter Beth is alive. Hope believes that Douglas is just confused, and goes on her Honeymoon with Thomas. Their Honeymoon is cut short when Hope still refuses to have sex with Thomas and Thomas receiving a call from Douglas. Thomas and Hope goes back to L.A at Forester's, and Hope locks the office door. Liam storms in the office to tell Hope that Douglas is telling the truth about, Beth is alive and Flo lied to them. Hope tries to process Liam's information, but Thomas breaks down the door, punches Liam, and grabs Hope to the helicopter. Hope tries to calm him down and asks Thomas to tell her the truth about Beth. Thomas lies to her, and tells her to forget about Beth. Liam sprints and attacks Thomas. After Thomas trying to escape to the helicopter, Liam has him in a headlock and forces Thomas to tell Hope about keeping Beth away from her. When Hope realizing that Thomas could not look her in the eye, she finally realize that Beth is alive. Thomas then punches Liam again and escapes to his helicopter. Hope and Liam cry and hug each other, and Liam says that their daughter was here this whole time, and Steffy had her, but Steffy did not know about Beth. Finally, Hope and Liam go over Steffy's house and Hope holds her daughter Beth for the first time, realizing she is alive. When Hope asks how Steffy had their daughter Beth. Liam reveals that he overheard Thomas and Flo arguing at her wedding with Thomas and Thomas says that Hope cannot know about a secret. Liam asks Wyatt to talk to Flo about her daughter Phoebe, and Flo accidentally revealed that she never had a baby to Wyatt. After what Douglas had told them about Phoebe being Beth, Liam called the hospital in Vegas where Flo supposedly had Phoebe, and it turns out that Flo was never was a patient at the hospital in Vegas, there was no medical records of her being there according to Flo's supposed doctor. Also Flo revealed to him and Wyatt that Dr. Buckingham owed some people for a gambling dept and needed to pay them or they would kill his daughter Zoe. Liam goes on reveal that a woman was also Dr. Buckingham's patient lost her baby which was stillborn in Catalina. When Hope passed out after giving birth to Beth, he switch the babies. Hope learns that she hold the unknown woman's stillborn baby, believing that Beth was dead. Liam says that Taylor told Reese that Steffy was looking to adopt a sister for Kelly and Reese told that there was a woman who is willing to adopt, in which Flo comes in. Liam then tells Hope that Taylor did not know about Phoebe being Beth and that she gave Dr Buckingham a lot money in cash for their daughter. In shocked and crying, Hope asks Liam who else knew about Beth. Liam says that Zoe knew but did not want her dad to get arrested, Xander (Maya's cousin), and Emma. However Liam reveals that Emma found out when Zoe and Xander was arguing and was on her way to tell Hope the truth before she died. Finally Liam warns Hope that Thomas knew about Beth around the time they got an annulment and that he was chasing Emma and crashed her car in a ditch. Hope apologizes to Liam, and vows to leave Thomas for his deceit. When Steffy returns Hope and Liam tells her about Flo not being Phoebe's birth mother and that Phoebe is Beth. Hope and Steffy argue about Beth and that Steffy still wants to keep her, but realizes that Hope was robbed of being Beth's mother and decides to give Beth back to Hope and Liam, much to Steffy's sadness. Afterwards Hope and Liam go to the cabin and Douglas arrives. Hope lets Douglas knows that she is happy that she has her daughter back, and that she thanks him for telling the truth. Also she tells Douglas that she will still take care of him. Hope and Liam have a celebration on having Beth back with their family. While going back to the cabin Flo is there. After putting Beth down, Hope confront Flo about her betrayal, and tells her that she would never forgive her for keeping her daughter away from her for months. Hope and Liam talks with Justin about reversing the adoption and to serve Thomas annulment papers for his deceit. Hope later contacts Thomas to confront him on keeping Beth away from her, manipulating her grief, and using Douglas and announces that they are getting a divorce. When Hope is getting the rest of Beth's things from Steffy's house, Thomas shows up and wants to convince her to not end their marriage. Hope does not want to hear him, and tries to leave but Thomas grabs her. Hope breaks free and runs outside but Thomas tries to tell her that if he would had told the truth she would leave him for Liam. Hope tries to get out of his grip to tell him that it is over between them. Brooke worried about her daughter, arrives to the Steffy's house gets Hope out of Thomas grips. When Thomas tries to explain and apologize, Brooke shoves him away and he falls over the cliff onto the sand below. At the hospital Hope angrily wants Thomas to wake up so that he can face the consequences of his action, Thomas then awakens. Thomas tells Detective Sanchez that his fall was an accident in front of Brooke, Ridge, Liam and Hope. Also he apologizes to Hope for lying to her and hopes she can forgive him. Hope, Liam, and Beth are at the cabin, and Hope tells Liam that she will never forgive Thomas for keeping Beth away from them, and believes that he only told Detective Sanchez that Brooke pushed him by accident in hopes to get back in her good graces. Liam tells her that they still got a lot of time with Beth, and to only worry about the present. Hope Logan profile - Soapcentral.com

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Trinidad and Tobago first participated in the Summer Olympic Games in 1948, before they attained their independence from Great Britain. Despite being a small nation in the Caribbean, Trinidad and Tobago has been able to place themselves firmly in international sports. In 1946, Sir Lennox O’Reilly organized the nation’s first Olympic committee. Trinidad and Tobago have participated in sixteen Summer Olympiads and three Winter Olympics (as well as two Summer Paralympics). The Games of the XIV Olympiad were held in 1948 in London, United Kingdom. This was the first time Trinidad & Tobago was represented in the Olympics. The Trinidad & Tobago Olympic Committee sent nine athletes and officials to represent the nation in three disciplines. Errol Knowles was the Chef de Mission Three athletes and one official represented this discipline. George Lewis- 100 m & 200 m, Manny Ramjohn- 500 m & 1000 m, Wilfred Tull- 800 m & 1500 m, A.E. Browne- Manager/Coach Trinidad & Tobago did not win any medals in 1948 for this discipline. One athlete and one official represented this discipline. Compton Gonsalves- Kilometer Time Trial, Laurie Rogers- Manager/Coach Trinidad & Tobago did not win any medals in 1948 for this discipline. Compton Gonsalves placed 17th in the kilometer time trial with a time of 1 minute and 32 seconds. One athlete and one official represented this discipline. Rodney Wilkes- Featherweight, Lionel Seemungal- Manager/Coach Rodney Wilkes won the first medal for Trinidad and Tobago lifting 317.5 kilograms in three lifts. The Games of the XV Olympiad were held in 1952 in Helsinki, Finland. This was the second time Trinidad & Tobago was represented in the Olympics. The Trinidad & Tobago Olympic Committee sent four athletes and officials to represent the nation in one discipline. Errol Knowles was the Chef de Mission Two athletes and one official represented this discipline. Rodney Wilkes- Featherweight, Lennox Kilgour- Middle Heavy, Freddy Mendes- Coach Both athletes won medals for Trinidad & Tobago. Rodney Wilkes lift 322.5 kilograms and Lennox Kilgour lift 402.5 kilograms. The Games of the XVI Olympiad were held in 1956 in Melbourne, Australia. This was the third time Trinidad & Tobago was represented in the Olympics. The Trinidad & Tobago Olympic Committee sent eight athletes and officials to represent the nation in one discipline. Dr. Roderick Marcano was the Chef de Mission. Three athletes represented this discipline. Mike Agostini - 100 m & 200 m, Joseph Goddard - 100 m & 200 m, Edmund Turton Michael Agostini placed 6th in the 100 m and 4th in the 200 m. One athlete represented this discipline. Hilton Mitchell- Match Sprint & Kolo Time Trial Two athletes and one official represented this discipline. Lennox Kilgour- Middle Heavy, Rodney Wilkes- Featherweight, Alexander Chapman- Coach Lennox Kilgour placed 6th. Rodney Wilkes placed 4th lifting 330 kilograms. The Games of the XVII Olympiad were held in 1960 in Rome, Italy. In 1958 the West Indies joined together to become a Confederation. Because of this, a West Indian Team was entered in the Olympics. Trinidad and Tobago however contributed four athletes to the team. Clifton Bertrand- Athletics, Clyde Rimple- Cycling, Richard Bennett- Sailing, David Farfan- Sailing The British West Indies won two bronze medals, none of which were attributed to Trinidad & Tobago. The Games of the XVIII Olympiad were held in 1964 in Tokyo, Japan. This was the fourth time Trinidad & Tobago was represented in the Olympics. The Trinidad & Tobago Olympic Committee sent twenty athletes and officials to represent the nation in four disciplines. Knolly Henderson was the Chef de Mission. Seven athletes and two official represented this discipline. Kent Bernard- 4 × 400 m relay, Clifton Bertrand, Wilton Jackson, Wendell Mottley- 400 m & 4 × 400 m relay, Edwin Roberts- 200 m & 4 × 400 m relay, Edwin Skinner- 4 × 400 m relay, E. McDonald Bailey- Coach, Broderick Lynch- Manager Edwin Roberts won bronze in the 200 m in 20.3 seconds. The men’s relay team also won bronze. Wendell Mottley won silver for the 400 m in 45.2 seconds. Three athletes and two official represented this discipline. Ronald Cassidy- Track, Roger Gibbon- Track, Fitzroy Hoyte- Track, Gordon Carew- Coach, Compton Gonsalves- Mechanic Two athletes and one official represented this discipline. Cordell Barrow- Flying Dutchman, Rawle Barrow- Flying Dutchman, Bob Levorsen- Coach The sailing team placed 20th. Two athletes and one official represented this discipline. Brandon Bailey- Heavyweight, Hugo Gittens- Lightweight, Alexander Chapman- Coach Hugo Gittens placed 11th in the lightweight class with 367.5 kg (810 lb). Brandon Bailey placed 20th in the heavyweight division. List of flag bearers for Trinidad and Tobago at the Olympics, Trinidad and Tobago at the Paralympics, Tropical nations at the Winter Olympics Trinidad and Tobago National Olympic Committee, "Trinidad and Tobago at the Olympics", Trinidad and Tobago government website Ato Jabari Boldon (born 30 December 1973) is a former track and field athlete and politician from Trinidad and Tobago and four-time Olympic medal winner. He holds the Trinidad and Tobago national record in the 50, 60 and 200 metres events with times of 5.64, 6.49 and 19.77 seconds respectively, and also the Commonwealth Games record in the 100 m. He also held the 100m national record at 9.86s, having run it four times until Richard Thompson ran 9.85s on 13 August 2011. After retiring from his track career, Boldon was an Opposition Senator in the Trinidad and Tobago Parliament, representing the United National Congress from 2006-2007\. He is now an NBC Sports television broadcast analyst for track and field. Boldon was born in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago to a Jamaican mother and Trinidadian father. He attended Fatima College (Secondary School) in Trinidad before leaving for the United States at age fourteen. In December 1989, as a soccer player at Jamaica High School in Queens, New York City, head track and field coach Joe Trupiano noticed his sprinting abilities during a soccer practice session. In his first track season at age 16, Boldon finished with 21.20 seconds in the 200 metres and 48.40 seconds in the 400 metres, recording a double win at the Queens County Championships in 1990, and earning MVP honours. After transferring for his final year from Jamaica High to Piedmont Hills High School in San Jose, California, Boldon was selected to the San Jose Mercury News' Santa Clara all-county soccer team. He also continued to sprint, placing third in the 200 m at the CIF California State Meet in 1991. Athletics became his primary focus and he won the Junior Olympic Title that summer in Durham, North Carolina, in 200 m. At 18, Boldon represented Trinidad and Tobago at 100 metres and 200 m in the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona but did not qualify in the first round of either event. Boldon returned to the junior circuit, winning the 100 m and 200 m titles at the IAAF World Junior Championships in Athletics in Seoul, South Korea to become the first double sprint champion in World Junior Championships history. Boldon was also an NCAA Champion while enrolled as a sociology major at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) in 1995 in the 200 m. In 1996, he secured an NCAA 100 m Championship in Eugene, Oregon in the final race of his collegiate career, setting an NCAA meet record of 9.92 s, which still stands. Boldon also held the collegiate 100 m record with 9.90 s from 1996 until it was broken by Travis Padgett, who ran 9.89s, in 2008. Ngonidzashe Makusha later equalled this record at the 2011 NCAA Championships in Des Moines, Iowa Boldon won his first international senior-level medal at the 1995 World Championships, taking home the bronze in the 100 m. At the time, he was the youngest athlete ever at 21 years of age to win a medal in that event. The following year at the 1996 Summer Olympics, he again placed third in the 100 m and 200 m events, both behind world records. In 1997, he won the 200 m at the World Championships in Athens, Greece; his country's first world title in the Athletics World Championships. This made him one of only a few male sprinters to win both a World Junior and World Senior title. The following year saw Boldon reaching the peak of his career, setting a new personal best and national record of 9.86 s in the 100 m at the Mt. SAC Relays in Walnut, California on 19 April and repeating the feat in Athens on 17 June. He picked up gold in the 100 m at the 1998 Commonwealth Games held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, setting a record time of 9.88 s, beating Namibia's Frankie Fredericks (9.96 s) and Barbados' Obadele Thompson (10.00 s). The Commonwealth Games 100 m record remains unbroken. In 1999, Boldon ran 9.86 s twice in the 100 m before sustaining a serious hamstring injury which forced him to miss the World Championships in Seville - the only Championship he missed in his career due to injury. A silver medal in the 100 m and a bronze in the 200 m were Boldon's results of the 2000 Summer Olympics, which was a personal victory, considering his comeback from a career-threatening injury the year before. In 2001, Boldon tested positive at an early-season relay meet for the stimulant ephedrine, and was given a warning, but was not suspended or sanctioned, since ephedrine is a substance found in many over the counter remedies, and Boldon had been treating a cold. "It is in no way something where the blame is laid on the athlete," said IAAF General Secretary István Gyulai of the positive result. Also in 2001, at the World Championships in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, Boldon finished fourth and out of the medals in the 100 m with 9.98 s, and then ran the second leg of his country's 4 x 100 metre relay, finishing third in the finals. This was Trinidad and Tobago's first 4 x 100 m relay medal in either World or Olympic competition and Boldon states that making national history with this team of young men (the average age of his teammates was 19) was his greatest accomplishment in his career. The colours of his 2001 World Championship medals would change in 2005 as both his placings were improved – he received bronze in the 100 m and the bronze relay medals were upgraded to silver after all the times and performances of the American sprinter Tim Montgomery (who was second in the 100 m and won the 4 x 100 m with the US team) were nullified due to serious doping violations. That brought Boldon's career total to four World Championship medals, to match his four Olympic medals. Boldon was seriously injured in a head-on crash with a drunk driver in Barataria, Trinidad and Tobago, in July 2002, and never again ran sub-ten seconds in the 100 m or sub-twenty seconds for 200 m, something he had done on 37 separate occasions prior to 2002. In 2006, a judge in Trinidad found that Boldon was not at fault in that accident, and he was paid substantial damages as a result. That accident left Boldon with a serious hip injury, and he was a shadow of his former self as a sprinter. In 2004 at the Athens Olympic Games, he failed to advance out of the first round of the 100 m heats but captained his country's 4 x 100 m relay team to their first-ever Olympic final, where they finished seventh. Boldon is the eighth person to win a medal for Trinidad and Tobago at the Olympics and currently has the third most wind-legal sub-10 second 100 m performances in history with 28, behind former training partner Maurice Greene, who has 52, and Jamaica's former 100 m World Record holder Asafa Powell, who leads with 97. On 20 April 2008 The Observer published the contents of a letter believed to be by Boldon to John Smith, his former coach, accusing Smith, Maurice Greene of betraying him by obtaining banned drugs without his knowledge, lying about Greene competing without drugs and damaging his own career. But for a quote on the matter to HellenicAthletes.com, a website he wrote for at the time, Boldon has had no further official comment. At the 1999 World Championships in Seville, Spain, Boldon could not compete due to a serious injury. The British Broadcasting Corporation hired him to do commentary and analysis for their coverage of those Championships. He proved popular with the audience and was invited back as a track-side analyst for the BBC coverage of the U.S. Olympic Track and Field Trials in 2000, from Sacramento, California. From 2005–2009, Boldon was in the broadcast booth for the U.S. Television network CBS as part of their commentary team for the NCAA Outdoor Track and Field Championships. In June 2007, he made his debut for NBC Sports as an analyst for the 2007 U.S. National Championships, and he also was an integral part of Versus and NBC's coverage of 2007 Osaka World Championships. In 2008, he was the sprint analyst at the US Olympic Track and Field Trials and the 2008 Summer Olympics for NBC Sports. Boldon was widely praised for his NBC work by the press, including the Los Angeles Times, USA Today and The New York Times which called him "one of NBC's best analysts, a blend of athletic smarts, charisma, precise analysis and brashness." In 2010, Boldon joined the only U.S. track and field broadcast team he had not previously been a regular part of, ESPN, after the departure of their long- time analyst, Larry Rawson. In 2012, he continued his role as the NBC track and field analyst for the 2012 Summer Olympics. In 2013, for his 2012 London Olympic commentary, Boldon became the first and only track and field broadcaster in US history to be nominated for a Sports Emmy Award. He was nominated in the category of Outstanding Sports Personality, Sports Event Analyst. Cris Collinsworth, his friend and colleague from NBC Sports' Sunday Night Football, eventually won the Emmy, his fifth win in a row. Alongside Tom Feuer, Boldon has served as a game analyst for Track & Field events for the Pac-12 Network In 2017, Boldon joined NASCAR on NBC broadcast as a features contributor. Boldon was sworn in on 14 February 2006 as a Senator representing the Opposition United National Congress following the resignation of former Senator Roy Augustus, who resigned on 13 February in a dispute over the leadership style of then Leader of the Opposition Basdeo Panday. Boldon resigned on 11 April 2007 after 14 months as a senator, also citing issues with Panday's leadership ability. In 2006, Boldon wrote, produced and directed a 73-minute DVD film entitled Once in a Lifetime: Boldon in Bahrain which documented his voyage with fellow fans and Trinidad and Tobago nationals to the Kingdom of Bahrain, where the country's soccer team, the Soca Warriors, defeated Bahrain 1-0 in a playoff to become the smallest country ever to qualify for the FIFA World Cup, qualifying to play at the Germany 2006 tournament. Boldon began coaching Khalifa St. Fort around 2012 and helped her improve her 100 m from 12.3 to 11.5 seconds after one month. St. Fort won the silver medal at the 2015 World Youth Championships in Athletics and a bronze in the relay at the 2015 World Championships in Athletics. Boldon married entertainment executive/manager Cassandra Mills in 1998 after a three-year courtship. Boldon and Mills divorced in 2005. They had no children together. He has two daughters from previous relationships. He resides in Florida. In 2000, Boldon was made a sports ambassador by the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago and given a diplomatic passport. He is widely viewed as one of the all-time leading sportsmen in the history of the Caribbean, as well as one of its most internationally recognizable spokesman. When Trinidad and Tobago hosted the 2001 FIFA U-17 World Championship in association football, one of the new stadiums constructed for the tournament was located in Couva and named Ato Boldon Stadium. The only other island sprinter to have a stadium named after him is 1976 Olympic champion Hasely Crawford (Hasley Crawford Stadium located in the capital Port of Spain). Boldon is a qualified pilot, having earned his private pilot's licence in August 2005. He is a member of the AOPA, Aircraft Owners and Pilot's Association. On 4 November 2011, Boldon was inducted into the UCLA Athletics Hall of Fame. Trinidad and Tobago competed at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, United Kingdom from 27 July to 12 August 2012. This was Trinidad and Tobago's most successful Summer Olympics. It was the nation's largest ever delegation sent to the Olympics, with a total of 30 athletes, 21 men and 9 women, in 6 sports. Trinidad and Tobago's participation in these games marked its sixteenth Olympic appearance as an independent nation, although it had previously competed in four other games (including the 1948 debut in the same host city London) as a British colony, and as part of the West Indies Federation. The nation was awarded four Olympic medals based on the efforts by the athletes who competed in the track and field. Javelin thrower Keshorn Walcott became the first Trinidadian athlete to win an Olympic gold medal since the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, where Hasely Crawford won for the sprint event. Marc Burns, a four-time Olympic athlete and a relay sprinter who led his team by winning the silver medal in Beijing, was the nation's flag bearer at the opening ceremony. Trinidad and Tobago's participation in these Olympic games marked its sixteenth appearance as an independent nation since 1964, although it had previously competed in four Olympic games under two different colonies; one as a British colony in 1948, when the nation marked its debut in the same host city for these games, and the other as part of the West Indies Federation, together with Jamaica and Barbados. Although the athletes from Trinidad and Tobago had competed at every Olympic games since its debut, the nation's delegation to the London Olympics has become the most successful performance at any other Olympic games. It was the largest at any previous Games, with 30 athletes, competing only in 6 sports (athletics, boxing, cycling, sailing, shooting, and swimming). Trinidad and Tobago had also created its historical record by winning the most Olympic medals in the overall standings (4 medals, surpassing the nation's performance at the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo by less than a single medal). At the London Games, javelin thrower Keshorn Walcott set the nation's historic Olympic record by winning its first ever gold medal since 1976, and the first medal in the field events. Walcott, at age 19, also became Trinidad and Tobago's youngest ever Olympic champion, and the first non-European athlete to win the men's javelin throw since United States' Cy Young at the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki. Furthermore, he was able to break the national record in the javelin throw event, and to surpass Norway's Andreas Thorkildsen, the defending champion and the Olympic record holder, who finished sixth in the final. Three other medals were awarded in the track events. Sprinter Lalonde Gordon received the bronze medal in the men's 400 metres. He also led the relay team by winning another medal in the men's 4 × 400 metres relay. Richard Thompson, silver medalist in the men's 100 metres at the Beijing games, and Marc Burns, a four-time Olympic athlete, on the other hand, led their team this time to settle for the silver medal in the men's 4 × 100 metres relay. Apart from the track and field, Trinidad and Tobago also excelled in cycling and swimming. Njisane Phillip qualified for the men's sprint and Keirin events in track cycling, but narrowly missed the bronze medal to Australia's Shane Perkins, finishing only in fourth place. Meanwhile, swimmer and former Olympic bronze medalist George Bovell had competed in the freestyle and backstroke events, particularly in the men's 50 m freestyle. After his dismal performance in Beijing, Bovell performed tremendously in these Olympic games by finishing first in the overall heats, and fifth in the semi-finals, allowing him to take the qualifying spot for the finals. In the end, he finished abruptly in seventh place. In May 2014, the US 4 × 100 metres relay team member Tyson Gay received a one- year suspension for anabolic steroid use and was stripped of his medals after 15 July 2012 when he first used. In May 2015, the IOC wrote to US Olympic Committee telling them to collect the medals from teammates Trell Kimmons, Justin Gatlin, Ryan Bailey, Jeffery Demps and Darvis Patton. Two of Gay's teammates who ran with him in the final, Kimmons and Bailey, had previously also served suspensions. The medals were reallocated, with Trinidad and Tobago awarded silver, and France taking bronze. Athletes from Trinidad & Tobago have so far achieved qualifying standards in the following athletics events (up to a maximum of 3 athletes in each event at the 'A' Standard, and 1 at the 'B' Standard): Men Track & road events Field events Women Track & road events Field events Trinidad and Tobago has qualified boxers for the following events. Men Sprint Keirin Trinidad and Tobago has qualified 1 boat for each of the following events Men Men Swimmers from Trinidad and Tobago have further achieved qualifying standards in the following events (up to a maximum of 2 swimmers in each event at the Olympic Qualifying Time (OQT), and potentially 1 at the Olympic Selection Time (OST)): Men Trinidad and Tobago at the 2012 Summer Paralympics, Trinidad and Tobago at the 2011 Pan American Games

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The Brady Bunch Movie is a 1995 American comedy film based on the 1969–1974 television series The Brady Bunch. The film was directed by Betty Thomas, with a screenplay by Laurice Elehwany, Rick Copp, Bonnie and Terry Turner, and stars Shelley Long, Gary Cole and Michael McKean. It also features cameos from Davy Jones, Micky Dolenz, Peter Tork and RuPaul, and the original cast of The Brady Bunch (except Robert Reed, who died in 1992, and Eve Plumb) in new roles. The film places the original sitcom characters, with their 1970s fashion sense and sitcom family morality, in a contemporary 1990s setting, drawing humor from the resulting culture clash. The Brady Bunch Movie was released in the United States on February 17, 1995, and grossed $46.6 million. A sequel titled A Very Brady Sequel was released on August 23, 1996, and a television film titled The Brady Bunch in the White House was aired on November 29, 2002. Larry Dittmeyer, an unscrupulous real estate developer, explains to his supervisor that almost all the families in his neighborhood -- except for the Brady family -- have agreed to sell their property as part of a plan to turn the area into a shopping mall. At the Bradys' house, Mike and Carol are having breakfast prepared by their housekeeper, Alice, while the six children prepare for school. Jan is jealous of her elder, popular sister Marcia. Cindy is tattling about everything she's hearing. Greg is dreaming of becoming a singer (but sings folk songs more appropriate to the seventies). Peter is on the onset of puberty with his voice starting to break and the numerous titillations he is exposed to, notably sex education and his very attractive teacher Miss Linley, contrasting with the puritan and desexualised early 70's from a societal but also mediatic stance. He is also trying to win the affection of the girl he loves, Holly, but his adorkable personality prevents him from doing so, or so he thinks. Bobby is excited about his new role as hall monitor at school. Cindy gives Mike and Carol a tax delinquency notice (which was earlier mistakenly delivered to the Dittmeyers) stating that they face foreclosure on their house if they do not pay $20,000 in back taxes. The two initially ignore the crisis, but when Mike's architectural design (which is exactly the same as their house) is turned down by two potential clients, he tells Carol that they may have to sell the house. Cindy overhears this and tells her siblings and they look for work to raise money to save the house, but their earnings are nowhere near enough to reach the required sum. Mike manages to sell a Japanese company on one of his dated designs, thereby securing the money, only for Larry to sabotage it by claiming that Mike's last building collapsed. On the night before the Bradys have to move out, Marcia suggests that they enter a "Search for the Stars" contest, the prize of which is exactly $20,000. Jan, having originally suggested this and been rejected, runs away from home. Cindy sees her leave and tattles, and the whole family goes on a search for her. They use their car's citizens' band radio, and their transmission is heard by Schultzy (Ann B. Davis), a long-haul trucker who picks up Jan and convinces her to return home. The next day, the children join the "Search for the Stars" contest. Peter finally builds the confidence to stand up for himself and Holly when faced with Eric Dittmeyer, Peter's tormentor & Holly's boyfriend, ending up with having the object of his affection reciprocating his feelings by lovingly kissing him and turning him into a man. Their dated performance receives poor audience response compared to the more modern performances of other bands. However, the judges — Davy Jones, Micky Dolenz, and Peter Tork of The Monkees — vote for them, and they win the contest as a result. The tax bill is paid and their neighbors withdraw their homes from the market, foiling Larry's plan and securing the neighborhood. Later, Carol's mother (Florence Henderson) arrives and finally convinces Jan to stop being jealous of Marcia, only for Cindy to start feeling jealous of Jan. Gary Cole as Mike Brady, Shelley Long as Carol Brady, Henriette Mantel as Alice Nelson, Christopher Daniel Barnes as Greg Brady, Christine Taylor as Marcia Brady, Paul Sutera as Peter Brady, Jennifer Elise Cox as Jan Brady, Jesse Lee Soffer as Bobby Brady, Olivia Hack as Cindy Brady, David Graf as Sam Franklin, Michael McKean as Larry Dittmeyer, Jean Smart as Dina Dittmeyer, Jack Noseworthy as Eric Dittmeyer, Moriah Snyder as Missy Dittmeyer, James Avery as Steve Yeager, R. D. Robb as Charlie Anderson, Shane Conrad as Doug Simpson, Marissa Ribisi as Holly, Alanna Ubach as Noreen, Megan Ward as Donna Leonard, Elisa Pensler-Gabrielli as Miss Linley, RuPaul as Mrs. Cummings, Darion Basco as Eddie, David Leisure as Jason (The modeling firm owner), Davy Jones as himself, Micky Dolenz as himself, Peter Tork as himself, "Mudd Pagoda" David Darling, vocals; Marc Danzeisen, drums; Roger Joseph Manning, Jr., keyboards; Eric Dover, guitar; and Sheldon Strickland, bass guitar as members of the high school band Cameos by original Brady Bunch actors Florence Henderson (the original Carol) as the family's grandmother, Carol's mother, Ann B. Davis (the original Alice) as Schultzy, a trucker ("Schultzy" is a reference to her most famous role prior to The Brady Bunch on The Bob Cummings Show), Barry Williams (the original Greg) as a record producer who rejects the film's Greg's attempts to sell his song, Christopher Knight (the original Peter) as a coach who stops Eric and Leon from bullying the film's Peter in a cafeteria scene, Maureen McCormick (the original Marcia) as a reporter (scenes deleted), Mike Lookinland (the original Bobby) as a cop (scenes deleted), Susan Olsen (the original Cindy) as a lemonade Lady (scenes deleted) Robert Reed (the original Mike) died in 1992, and Eve Plumb (the original Jan) declined to appear in the film. The film was shot almost entirely in Los Angeles, California, with the Brady house being located in Sherman Oaks. The school scenes were shot at Taft High School in Woodland Hills. Some scenes were filmed at Bowcraft amusement park in Scotch Plains, New Jersey. The producers had sought to film the original house that had been used for exterior shots during the original Brady Bunch series, but the owner of the Studio City, California home refused to restore the property to its 1969 appearance. The filmmakers instead erected a facade around a house in nearby Encino and filmed scenes in the front yard. The Brady Bunch Movie was released in theaters on February 17, 1995. The film opened at #1 at the box office with $14.8 million and grossed $46.6 million in the U.S. and Canada. Its television debut was on NBC November 29, 1997 with additional footage not shown in theaters or on home video releases. The Brady Bunch Movie was released on DVD June 10, 2003 and April 25, 2017. The film has also been released digitally on Google Play. The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 62% approval rating based on 42 reviews and an average rating of 5.7/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Though lightweight and silly, The Brady Bunch Movie still charms as homage to the 70s sitcom." Leonard Klady of Variety wrote, "For five years back in the early 1970s, U.S. TV homes were in the thrall of The Brady Bunch. Two decades after their small-screen demise, the clean-cut crew is back in mythic form as The Brady Bunch Movie. Part homage, part spoof, the deft balancing act is a clever adaptation—albeit culled from less than pedigreed source material." Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times wrote, "The film establishes a bland, reassuring, comforting Brady reality – a certain muted tone that works just fine but needs, I think, a bleaker contrast from outside to fully exploit the humor. The Brady Bunch Movie is rated PG-13, which is a compromise: The Bradys themselves live in a PG universe, and the movie would have been funnier if when they ventured outside it was obviously Wayne's World." He and Gene Siskel also agreed that the film offers charmingly bright and silly set decoration but fails to deliver genuine laughs. Common Sense Media said that "for those who grew up watching the TV show, The Brady Bunch Movie is deeply satisfying and the best part is its nostalgia. Sure, it's fun to see the Bradys treated as freaks. But the heart of the film is a campy, affectionate interpretation of the TV show." A Very Brady Sequel, directed by Arlene Sanford, was released theatrically on August 23, 1996. It sees the family routine thrown into disarray when a man claiming to be Carol's long-lost first husband arrives on their doorstep. The family must then follow Carol to Hawaii in order to set things straight. All of the main cast members reprised their roles. The second sequel, The Brady Bunch in the White House, sees a convoluted series of mishaps end with Mike and Carol Brady elected as President and Vice President of the United States. Despite innocent efforts to improve the country, the Brady family is beset on all sides by controversy and imagined scandals which threaten to tear them apart. Although the original actors for Mike and Carol return, the children and Alice are all recast for this film, which was released as a filmed-for-television movie. Allan John Melvin (February 18, 1923 – January 17, 2008) was an American character actor, voice actor and impressionist, who was cast in hundreds of television episodes from the 1950s to the early 1990s, often appearing in recurring roles on various series. Some of those roles and series include portraying various characters on The Andy Griffith Show, as real estate salesman Pete Dudley in My Favorite Martian, as Corporal Henshaw on The Phil Silvers Show, Sergeant Hacker on Gomer Pyle, USMC, Alice's boyfriend Sam the Butcher on The Brady Bunch, and as Archie Bunker's friend Barney Hefner on both All in the Family and Archie Bunker’s Place. Melvin was born in Kansas City, Missouri, to Marie and Richard Melvin but lived part of his childhood in New York City with his paternal grandparents, Helen (née Campbell) and Frank Melvin. Allan attended Columbia University, and after his graduation he served in the United States Navy during World War II. In 1944, he married Amalia Faustina Sestero in New York City. While working at a job in the sound effects department of NBC Radio, he did a nightclub act and appeared and won on the Arthur Godfrey’s Talent Scouts radio show. While appearing on Broadway in Stalag 17, he got his break into television by getting the role of Corporal Steve Henshaw on the popular The Phil Silvers Show program. U.S. Television fans of this era usually best remember his role as Henshaw, Sgt. Bilko’s right-hand man on that show. “He was proudest of that show,” Amalia Melvin said. “I think the camaraderie of all those guys made it such a pleasant way to work. They were so relaxed.” During this period, in addition to his role on The Phil Silvers Show, Melvin was often cast in slightly loud, occasionally abrasive, but generally friendly second banana roles. Melvin was also adept at “tough guy” roles; in an example of his range as an actor, one episode of The Phil Silvers Show featured Melvin doing a recognizable impersonation of Humphrey Bogart. In the 1960s, Melvin worked extensively at CBS for Sheldon Leonard and Aaron Ruben. He played Staff Sgt. Charlie Hacker who was Sgt. Vince Carter’s rival for four seasons on Gomer Pyle, USMC. He also made eight appearances on The Dick Van Dyke Show. He also provided the voices of cartoon character Magilla Gorilla, the lion Drooper on The Banana Splits Adventure Hour, archvillain Tyrone in The Secret Lives of Waldo Kitty and Bluto on The All New Popeye Hour. Melvin also made eight guest appearances on The Andy Griffith Show in eight different roles, usually as heavies. He also made three guest appearances on Perry Mason in various roles, including reporter Bert Kannon in the 1966 episode, "The Case of the Sausalito Sunrise." Also in 1966 Allan played the space enforcer on the series Lost in Space, in the episode “West Of Mars”. Melvin is remembered for supporting roles on two popular 1970s sitcoms. He played Sam Franklin, the owner of a local butcher shop and boyfriend of the Brady's housekeeper Alice (played by Ann B. Davis) on The Brady Bunch, and Barney Hefner, Archie Bunker’s neighbor and friend on All in the Family. In other contributions to 1970s pop culture, he appeared as a Mel’s Diner patron on Alice and worked as a voice artist (under the name “Al Melvin”). He provided several characters’ voices for the TV show H.R. Pufnstuf and the voice of Prince Thun of the Lion Men on The New Adventures of Flash Gordon. Some of his most prolific work was in television commercials, for products as diverse as Kellogg's Sugar Frosted Flakes and Remington electric razors. In the latter commercial, he sang a few bars of Frank Loesser’s song “I Believe in You” with a modified lyric. He was also featured as Al the Plumber on Liquid-Plumr drain opener commercials for fifteen years. In the early 1980s, Melvin appeared as a regular in Archie Bunker's Place, in which he reprised the now more important role of Barney Hefner. When the series ended in 1983, Melvin’s work was exclusively devoted to cartoon voice-overs. His voice acting career continued until 1994, with Scooby-Doo! in Arabian Nights being his final voice work (again as Magilla Gorilla) before retiring. Allan Melvin died of cancer on January 17, 2008, aged 84, and was buried at Westwood Memorial Cemetery in Southern California. Melvin is buried just yards from his TV best friend Carroll O'Connor, who played Archie Bunker in All In The Family. Coincidentally, later the same year, famed 1950s pin-up Bettie Page was interred in the grave beside Melvin. The following is a list and description of the primary characters from the classic American television series The Brady Bunch, that was broadcast from September 1969 to March 1974. The characters also appeared in all subsequent reunions, remakes, and theatrical/TV films. Michael Paul "Mike" Brady (bottom center in picture above), portrayed by Robert Reed in the TV show and Gary Cole in movies, is the male head of the Brady household. In episode #4 of The Bradys, "Hat in the Ring", when Mike is sworn in as City Councilman, his full name is given as Michael Thomas Brady. Mike, a widowed architect, brought three sons to his marriage with Carol Martin and became the stepfather to her three daughters. He was named "Father of the Year" by a local newspaper after his stepdaughter Marcia submitted an essay in his honor. The character's parents were sometimes mentioned but never seen (unless depicted without identification at the wedding in the pilot), but his paternal grandfather, Judge Hank Brady (Robert Reed in a dual role) appears in one episode. Shortly into the fourth season, Mike Brady grew his hair into a longer, curly style. Mike had a firm personal integrity (e.g. he refuses to participate in a commercial if it means saying that an inferior product is the best) coupled with a strong sense of ethics. Mike enjoyed fishing and camping. The writers imply that Mike Brady is a very highly qualified and well-respected architect. His "failures" tended to be successes. For instance, in A Very Brady Christmas, contractor Ted Roberts (who is looking to save money on his building project) fires Mike when he refuses to cut corners and take out important safety provisions. Mike, however, is later proven right when the structure begins to crumble (trapping two security guards, and later Mike, inside). In the episode "How to Succeed in Business?" Mike acknowledges that he has lost jobs. This is to reassure his son Peter that failure and getting fired are a part of life. Mike was one of the staff architects with the firm he worked at; the name was never mentioned in the series, and Mr. Ed Phillips was his boss until the final episodes of the series, when he was succeeded by Harry Matthews. By the time A Very Brady Christmas and The Bradys aired, he was the senior partner at the firm. Both Gene Hackman and Jeffrey Hunter were considered for the role of Mike Brady. Hackman was Sherwood Schwartz's first choice, but was rejected by Paramount for not having enough experience. Jeffrey Hunter approached Schwartz to play Mike Brady, but Schwartz felt Hunter was too attractive to play a down-to- earth architect. In 2004, TV Guide ranked him number 14 on its 50 Greatest TV Dads of All Time list. Carol Ann Brady – f/k/a Carol Martin, née Carol Ann Tyler (top center), portrayed by Florence Henderson in the TV series and Shelley Long in movies, is the wife of Mike Brady. At the beginning of the pilot, her last name is Martin from her first marriage, during which she had had three daughters. She gains three stepsons when she marries Mike Brady. Carol enjoys singing in the church choir, and with her daughter Marcia in the high school Family Frolic Talent Show. In the episode "A Fistful of Reasons", in which Cindy is bullied because of her lisp, Carol confesses that she too overcame a lisp while growing up in Swampscott, Massachusetts. Her parents, Henry and Mrs Tyler (J. Pat O'Malley and Joan Tompkins), are depicted only in the pilot "The Honeymoon", and her maternal grandmother, Connie Hutchins (Florence Henderson), appears in "You're Never Too Old". She has an unseen brother, Jack, and sister-in-law, Pauline (the parents of Cousin Oliver). During the original Brady Bunch series, Carol is a stay-at-home mother. In the sequels, she becomes a real estate agent, converting the boys' old room into her home office. How Carol's previous marriage ended (i.e. due to a death or divorce) is not mentioned. Creator and Executive Producer Sherwood Schwartz had originally intended for Carol to be a divorcee; however, ABC refused to allow the fate of her first marriage to be revealed on the show. Sherwood Schwartz later wished to use her divorce to his advantage, and wanted to use Carol's previous husband as a mechanism to replace Robert Reed on the show should the show enter its sixth season. The show was canceled before Schwartz could execute his plan. In 2009, Carol was included in Yahoo!'s Top 10 TV Moms from Six Decades of Television for the time period 1969-1974. She was also listed in the Top 5 Classic TV Moms by Film.com. Greg Brady (top right), portrayed by Barry Williams in the TV show, Christopher Daniel Barnes in theatrical films, and Chad Doreck in the TV movie, is the oldest Brady son. Greg is a Westdale High School student who plays football, plays guitar, surfs, and aspires to be a singer. Greg is portrayed as self-confident and brassy at times, and generally acts as leader and spokesman for the other kids. Being the oldest of the Brady children, Greg is usually the one who devises their plans. As the series went on, Greg became somewhat of a "ladies' man" at school. Also as the character got older, Greg often attempted to disassociate himself from the younger siblings, eventually getting his own room in the attic. Greg is also the only one of the children to appear in every episode of the series. Despite this, Greg always sticks up for his younger siblings and helps them out whenever he can. He also frequently shows an ample sense of fair play, as when he refused to go along with a classmate's plan to spread a false rumor about Marcia at school. However, he has been known to cross the lines when he believes the situation warrants it (specifically, when he created a phony playbook to thwart a cheating quarterback from a rival high school). He has also been known to use the line, "Something suddenly came up", to break off a date (without giving a further explanation) so he can go out with a more desirable girl. Greg's dream of becoming a singer almost comes true when he was handpicked by record producers to be a pop singer under the stage name "Johnny Bravo"; however, he walked away from a potentially lucrative deal when he found out his recordings were being electronically "sweetened" and that the producers were more interested in the visual product than substance. "They didn't want me; they wanted a robot", he said about the incident. Greg eventually became an obstetrician (as mentioned in A Very Brady Christmas). He and his wife Nora, a nurse, have a son named Kevin. Marcia Brady – née Marcia Martin, later Marcia Brady-Logan (top left), portrayed by Maureen McCormick in the original TV show, The Brady Girls Get Married, The Brady Brides and A Very Brady Christmas, Leah Ayres in The Bradys, Christine Taylor in theatrical films and Autumn Reeser in the TV movie, is the oldest Brady daughter. Marcia is portrayed as a beautiful, mature, and popular girl at Westdale High School and acts as Greg's second-in- command for the other children. Her popularity is an ongoing source of contempt for her younger sister Jan. She is a great fan of TV-star idols Desi Arnaz Jr. and Davy Jones (both actors, portraying themselves, appeared in their own episode). Despite Marcia's reputation, she has her share of problems, such as unrequited crushes, insecurity over having braces, and insecurity over receiving a swollen nose from a stray football thrown by Peter and thereby acquiring the catchphrase "Oh, my nose!" She has a fragile ego that sometimes goes amok, as shown in "Juliet is the Sun," when after being cast in the lead female role in her school's production of Romeo and Juliet she becomes so hard to get along with that she is dismissed from the role. In The Brady Girls Get Married, Marcia had graduated from college, became a fashion designer, and marries Wally Logan. However, by the time A Very Brady Christmas aired, she was a stay-at-home mother (raising two children, daughter Jessica and son Michael "Mickey"). She was still unemployed at the beginning of The Bradys, and at this point her ego began to take such a beating she briefly turned to alcohol for solace. By the end of the series, Marcia and her husband, Wally (a toy salesman who was frequently out of work, due to either layoffs or getting fired) join their sisters-in-law (Nora and Tracy) to open a catering business. Peter Brady (center right), portrayed by Christopher Knight in the TV show, Paul Sutera in theatrical films, and Blake Foster in the TV movie, is the middle Brady son. Peter often thinks badly of himself, such as believing he has no personality in the episode "The Personality Kid". The clumsiest of the bunch, he sometimes gets overexcited and acts before thinking. Nevertheless, he is a fun-loving boy whom girls adored later in the original series. He has a non-related lookalike named Arthur Owens (also played by Christopher Knight), who is shown in the episode "Two Petes in a Pod". Peter is also the only one in the family with brown eyes—all the others had blue or green eyes. Peter later joined the military for career guidance, as seen in The Brady Girls Get Married. In later sequels, he is an administrative assistant (at one point, working under his fiancée, Valerie; they later end their engagement), and still later, a business partner with Bobby. Peter was the only Brady child to not have a spouse or significant other when The Bradys was cancelled. Jan Brady – née Jan Martin, later Jan Brady-Covington (center left) was portrayed by Eve Plumb in the TV series, The Brady Girls Get Married, The Brady Brides, A Very Brady Christmas and The Bradys. Since Plumb was unable to return at the time, Geri Reischl replaced her in The Brady Bunch Hour. Jennifer Elise Cox portrayed the character in the two theatrical films, and Ashley Drane in the TV movie. Jan is the middle Brady daughter, and many of her storylines often involve Jan being jealous of her seemingly more popular older sister, Marcia, or Jan's awkward position as the middle child. In addition, Jan is also insecure about having freckles and wearing glasses, embarrassed about the fact she does not have a boyfriend (later in the series she invents a fictional boyfriend named "George Glass" in an effort to save her reputation), and concerned about her future appearance. In January 2015, this became the subject of an internet meme. A typical plot line surrounding Jan would feature her attempting to carve out her niche in the family, or make a name for herself at school. In the episode "Her Sister's Shadow", in exasperation at her supposed inferiority to Marcia, she uttered the now famous catch phrase, "Marcia, Marcia, Marcia!". This line would later be parodied in both The Brady Bunch Movie and be used in a recurring Saturday Night Live sketch, as well as in the title of the Fanboy & Chum Chum episode "Marcia, Marcia, Marcia". As a young teen, Jan had a striking resemblance to her great- aunt Jenny (played by Imogene Coca) in her younger days. Jan is also occasionally absent-minded, once losing the tube containing her father's architectural plans while visiting Kings Island amusement park in Cincinnati. In her later high school years, Jan found she had a talent for painting (as does Eve Plumb), which likely led to her career choice as an architect, following in her stepfather's footsteps (as shown in later reunion films). In The Brady Girls Get Married Jan marries Phillip Covington. The two met in college (he was her professor). The Covingtons briefly separate in A Very Brady Christmas, but reconcile. However, they are unable to conceive their own children and in The Bradys adopt a Korean girl named Patty. Child actress Debi Storm (who later appeared on The Brady Bunch episode "My Fair Opponent" as Molly) was hand-picked by producer Sherwood Schwartz to play Jan Brady in the original series, until he decided to cast all blondes for the roles of the three daughters. Cox said in a 2015 interview that one of the reasons she auditioned for The Brady Bunch Movie was that she was a fan of the original series, and that she used method acting during the film. Film critic Roger Ebert praised the character in The Brady Bunch Movie, saying that "a lot of the humor in the movie comes from the burning jealousy Jan feels for her popular older sister, Marcia". Robert "Bobby" Brady (bottom right), portrayed by Michael Lookinland in the TV show, Jesse Soffer (credited as Jesse Lee) in the theatrical films, and Max Morrow in the TV movie, is the youngest Brady son. The precocious and often overlooked youngest boy, Bobby was often portrayed as a whimsical dreamer, fantasizing about having various adventurous lifestyles, such as being a race car driver, a cowboy, and an astronaut. On one occasion, one of his fantasies came true when he got to play football with Joe Namath. On another occasion, Bobby became a professional race car driver, which led to a crash and Bobby's paralysis on The Bradys. Bobby is going through rehabilitative therapy when he marries his girlfriend, Tracy (Martha Quinn). Bobby — who had dropped out of business school to pursue his dream of racing cars — resumes his originally intended career path, joining Peter in a business venture. Cynthia "Cindy" Brady – née Cynthia Martin (bottom left), portrayed by Susan Olsen in the TV show, The Brady Bunch Hour, The Brady Girls Get Married and The Bradys, Jennifer Runyon in A Very Brady Christmas, Olivia Hack in the theatrical films and Sofia Vassilieva in the 2002 TV movie, is the youngest Brady daughter. She was portrayed as a naive, but occasionally precocious little girl, who was most often seen wearing her hair in corkscrew curls or braids and had a pronounced lisp. She frequently liked to snoop and share secrets she had found out. In one episode, the family had to help her correct her habit of tattling. Cindy Brady also had various failed attempts at fame, such as attempting to break a world record for teeter-tottering, appearing on a game show (on which she suffered from stage fright and had a catatonic attack), and trying to become "the new Shirley Temple". However, she does play a pivotal role in helping Bobby meet boyhood idol Joe Namath by signing Bobby's name to a letter stating he is "really, really sick". On The Bradys, Cindy became a deejay (much like Susan Olsen herself did). At the radio station, she becomes romantically involved with her boss (Ken Michelman), a Jewish widower who is more than 15 years her senior and has two children. The relationship did not have time to develop before The Bradys was cancelled. Alice Nelson (center), best known to television viewers as simply Alice, is the housekeeper to the Brady family. She was portrayed by Ann B. Davis. Alice grew up in the same neighborhood as the Bradys, graduating from Westdale High School, the school Greg and Marcia attended in the series. Alice was the housekeeper to Mike Brady, his previous wife (who died before the series started), and their three boys. Alice stayed on, to be the housekeeper for not only his boys, but for his new wife Carol and her three daughters. Alice was generally impartial toward the children, although she presented Jan with a locket at one point, "from one middle sister to another". Alice was best known for telling jokes (often self-deprecating, and usually interspersed with drier humor than the rest of the Brady clan), which were almost invariably met with multiple "Oh, Alice!" responses. Alice was also known for her sky-blue housekeeping uniform, which she almost always wore. She also joined in the children's games (including playing basketball), and went along with the family on vacations. Physical activity would sometimes cause Alice to throw her back out, making her immobile for a short period of time. Alice had an identical cousin, Emma (also played by Davis), who was a retired master sergeant in the Women's Army Corps. Emma once filled in for Alice when Alice traveled out of town. Alice quit her job at one point when she felt the children no longer trusted her, becoming a waitress at a local restaurant. Her replacement Kay (Mary Treen), who did her work faithfully, but never tried to become close with the Bradys, told the kids where to find her ("The Golden Spoon at Fourth and Oak..."), and they begged Alice to come back. For most of the series, Alice dated Sam Franklin (Allan Melvin), who ran the local butcher shop. In the final season, Alice and Sam were engaged. Alice and Sam have won awards in Charleston dancing and bowling, which was parodied in The Brady Bunch Movie, in which Sam gave Alice a new bowling ball instead of an engagement ring. They were married some time after The Brady Bunch left the air in 1974 and before The Brady Girls Get Married. In the 1990s parody movies, Alice was played by actress Henriette Mantel. In the first film, Davis makes a cameo as a truck driver whose CB handle is "Schultzy". (Davis first became popular in the 1950s playing a character named Schultzy on The Bob Cummings Show.) The role of Alice was originally to have been played by Monty Margetts, but at the last minute the role was recast because producers of the show changed their mind about casting Joyce Bulifant, who was originally cast as Carol Brady, and instead replaced her with Florence Henderson, who took on the role. The producers felt a more comedic, zany housekeeper was called for, to balance Henderson's soft-spoken, laid-back presence. Sam Franklin is Alice's boyfriend, who owns the local butcher shop. While he is frequently mentioned in dialogue, Sam actually appears in only eight episodes, although his appearances span all of the seasons. In the made-for- television film The Brady Girls Get Married, Sam had been married to Alice for three and a half years. Sam was portrayed by Allan Melvin. Lewis Arquette portrayed Sam in A Very Brady Christmas, wearing a Santa Claus beard. The character is mentioned by the Beastie Boys in the lyrics to their 1989 song "Shake Your Rump" ("Like Sam the butcher bringing Alice the meat...") Cousin Oliver stays with the Brady family during the last six episodes of the fifth and final season of The Brady Bunch. As explained in the episode "Welcome Aboard" from season five, Carol's brother Jack Tyler and his wife Pauline are traveling to an archaeological dig in South America, and because their son Oliver is unable to accompany them, he is sent to live with the Bradys. Cousin Oliver was played by actor Robbie Rist. Cousin Oliver was eight years old (Rist was actually nine) and very young in contrast to the other kids, all of whom were twelve or older—an apparent attempt to restore some of the appeal the series had enjoyed when the other children were younger. Some fans would later call the addition of Cousin Oliver the moment when the series "jumped the shark". Similarly, in The Partridge Family a precocious four-year- old neighbor named Ricky (Ricky Segall) was added for its final season (the same year as the final season of The Brady Bunch). The addition of younger children to sitcoms that seem to have run their course, in an attempt to improve declining ratings, became a television trend popularly known as "Cousin Oliver Syndrome". Years later, Rist appeared with members of The Brady Bunch cast on a special "Brady" reunion charity episode of the game show The Weakest Link. Introducing himself, he joked: "I hope I don't kill this show too!" Rist ended up being the first "weakest link" of the episode, eliminated by the other contestants. Tiger is the Brady Family's dog, who appeared in many of the early episodes. The original dog used was run over by an automobile and died of his injuries before the fourth episode, but a replacement look-alike was found. This version stayed on until partway through the second season, when he was quietly dropped from the series. This paralleled the Bradys' Friday night companion show, The Partridge Family, whose dog Simone also disappeared that year without an explanation. Tiger appeared in a total of ten episodes. Fluffy is the cat owned by Carol and the Martin girls. Fluffy only appeared in "The Honeymoon" episode from season one, and was never seen again.

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Walt Before Mickey is a 2015 American biographical drama film about the early years of Walt Disney based on the book Walt Before Mickey: Disney's Early Years, 1919–1928 by Timothy S. Susanin, with a foreword written by Diane Disney. The film stars Thomas Ian Nicholas as Walt Disney, Armando Gutierrez as Ub Iwerks, and Jon Heder as Roy Disney. The film covers Walt Disney's early years in business, during which he started various businesses including Laugh- O-Gram Studio and The Walt Disney Company with fellow animator Ub Iwerks and Roy Disney. The film is narrated periodically by Walt Disney. At the age of thirteen, he develops a love for animation and film. In 1919, after returning from his time with the Red Cross, Walt moves in with his older brother Roy and his girlfriend Edna, in Kansas City. Roy later moves to California, staying in a veterans hospital to deal with tuberculosis. Walt is hired as an artist at Pesmen-Rubin Commercial Art Studio, meeting Ub Iwerks. However, Walt and Iwerks are made redundant weeks after when the company's revenue declines. Walt and Iwerks found their own business, Iwerks-Disney Commercial Artists, located in an old barn. They are joined by animators Fred and Hugh Harman, and come up with the "Laugh-O-Grams" to show in Frank L. Newman's theatres. With help from new investors, the Laugh-O-Gram Studio is founded. Walt hires new staff including Friz Freleng and Rudy Ising. The studio struggles financially, and Walt is unable to pay his animators, or keep up his rent. Walt finds solace in a mouse occupying the studio, and contacts New York City-based distributor Margaret Winkler, pitching her a live action-animated Alice series, which Winkler approves of. However, Laugh-O-Gram Studios goes bankrupt shortly after. Walt moves to Los Angeles in 1923, living with his relatives, relying on Roy for financial support. Walt finishes work on the original Alice film, which is approved by Winkler and her husband Charles Mintz. Walt and Roy found the Disney Brothers Studio in 1923, hiring Iwerks and the other animators. Lillian Bounds is hired as an ink artist, Walt eventually falling love with her, and they marry in 1925. Roy also marries Edna. The Alice Comedies are produced, starring Virginia Davis, distributed by Mintz. Mintz, unconfident in Walt's abilities, sends his brother-in-law, George Winkler, to supervise the studio. It also becomes apparent that Mintz continues to own the rights to all of the studio's creations. The Alice Comedies come to an end, and Walt and Iwerks create Oswald the Lucky Rabbit for Universal Studios. Guessing that the Disney brothers are running out of money, George begins talking with the animators, inviting them to join Mintz' new studio for better payment. Iwerks is the only one who refuses the offer. Walt and Lillian travel to New York, hoping to negotiate for a larger fee to make the Oswald shorts. Walt discovers a new contract would surrender all ownership of the Disney studios to Mintz, whose distributor Universal already owns the rights to Oswald, and learns his animators have left. Refusing to agree to the terms, Walt leaves Mintz and Oswald behind. On the train back to Los Angeles, Walt is inspired to create a new character which he owns the rights to. He and Iwerks subsequently create Mickey Mouse. In 1928, Mickey's first short Plane Crazy is screened, and met with a round of applause. Walt, Roy, and Iwerks exit the theatre in celebration, Walt spotting the mouse from the Laugh-O-Gram Studio, reminding him of how far he has come. Insertions during the end credits detail the success Walt, Roy, Iwerks, and the other animators would go on to have in their own careers. Thomas Ian Nicholas as Walt Disney, Owen Teague as young Walt, Demitri Vardoulias as young Walt, Jon Heder as Roy Disney, Noah Forgione as young Roy, Armando Gutierrez as Ub Iwerks, David Henrie as Rudy Ising, Taylor Gray as Friz Freleng, Jodie Sweetin as Charlotte Disney, Hunter Gomez as Hugh Harman, Ayla Kell as Bridget, Arthur L. Bernstein as Frank L. Newman, Kate Katzman as Lillian Disney, Frank Licari as George Winkler, Conor Dubin as Charles Mintz, Flora Bonfanti as Margaret Winkler, Briana Colman as Ruth Disney, Beatrice Taveras as Virginia Davis, Maralee Thompson as Dawn Paris, Natasha Sherritt as Edna Disney, Timothy Williams as Fred, Sheena Colette as Dessie, Randy Molnar as Uncle Robert Disney, Donn Lamkin as Elias Disney, Nancy J. Barber as Flora Call Disney The majority of the filming took place in DeLand and Orlando, Florida. In an interview with the Kansas City Star, director Khoa Le talked about the challenges of the project, having been hired at the last minute to direct and having little familiarity with Disney himself. He mentioned, '"I came from a short film background, indie stuff, so I knew how to work efficiently," Le said. "I'm an editor, too, so I was shooting to edit. For most scenes the actors got only two takes. I had to go back to my grassroots of guerrilla filmmaking."' The song "Just a Wish" was written and recorded especially for the film. It appears at the end of the film and over the credits, sung by Julie Zorrilla, American Idol finalist and written by Andrew Capra, Rob Graves and Jeremy Rubolino. It was released as an iTunes and digital single August 12, 2015. The film premiered at AMC Theatres Downtown Disney in Orlando and continued its nationwide release in AMC, Cobb, Harkins, Marcus, Logan, and other theatre chains. On Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 17% based on 6 reviews, with an average rating of 2.87/10. Cameron Meier of the Orlando Weekly gave the film one out of five stars. He praised the filmmakers' intentions, but criticized the production's rather low budget and execution, remarking, "...[the film is] conceived nobly but executed poorly by people who fell short of their dream." Scott Renshaw of the Salt Lake City Weekly gave the film one and a half stars, criticizing the creative team for "the decision to douse everything in a twinkly, romanticized tone that probably struck the filmmakers as apropos for Disney's life, but in fact loses all that was spiky and determined about the man". Common Sense Media gave the film two stars, remarking that, "Few visionaries are as fascinating as Walt Disney, so it's particularly frustrating that this drama is so uninspired. It seems more like an adaptation of a student's book report than a compelling look at one of the most influential men of the 20th century." Pop culture site NukeTheFridge, which gave it an 8/10 rating, proclaimed, "Where this film does great at is the fact that it's relatable. Let's face it, most or none of us have our own billion dollar companies but the fact that Walt and his animators struggled financially and failed to have others believe in their dream, is something we can all relate to." Saving Mr. Banks, another film dealing with Disney history, specifically about the making of Mary Poppins., , a 2001 documentary on the life of Walt Disney. Ub Iwerks (; March 24, 1901 – July 7, 1971) was an American animator, cartoonist, character designer, inventor, and special effects technician, who designed Oswald the Lucky Rabbit and Mickey Mouse. Iwerks produced alongside Walt Disney and won numerous awards, including multiple Academy Awards. Iwerks was born in Kansas City, Missouri. His father, Eert Ubbe Iwwerks, immigrated to the U.S. in 1869 from the village of Uttum in East Frisia (northwest Germany, today part of the municipality of Krummhörn). Ub's full name, Ubbe Ert Iwwerks, can be seen on early Alice Comedies that he signed. Several years later he simplified his name to "Ub Iwerks", sometimes written as "U. B. Iwerks". He is the father of Disney Legend Don Iwerks and grandfather of documentary film producer Leslie Iwerks. Iwerks was considered by many to be Walt Disney's oldest friend and spent most of his career with Disney. The two met in 1919 while working for the Pesmen- Rubin Art Studio in Kansas City, and would eventually start their own commercial art business together. Disney and Iwerks then found work as illustrators for the Kansas City Slide Newspaper Company (which would later be named The Kansas City Film Ad Company). While working for the Kansas City Film Ad Company, Disney decided to take up work in animation, and Iwerks soon joined him. He was responsible for the distinctive style of the earliest Disney animated cartoons, and was also responsible for designing Mickey Mouse. In 1922, when Disney began his Laugh-O-Gram cartoon series, Iwerks joined him as chief animator. The studio went bankrupt, however, and in 1923 Iwerks followed Disney's move to Los Angeles to work on a new series of cartoons known as “the Alice Comedies” which had live-action mixed with animation. After the end of this series, Disney asked Iwerks to design a character that became Oswald the Lucky Rabbit. The first cartoon Oswald starred in was animated entirely by Iwerks. Following the first cartoon, Oswald was redesigned on the insistence of Oswald’s owner and the distributor of the cartoons, Universal Pictures. The production company at the time, Winkler Pictures, gave additional input on the character’s design. In spring 1928, Disney was removed from the Oswald series, and much of his staff was hired away to Winkler Pictures. He promised to never again work with a character he did not own. Disney asked Iwerks, who stayed on, to start drawing up new character ideas. Iwerks tried sketches of frogs, dogs, and cats, but none of these appealed to Disney. A female cow and male horse were created at this time by Iwerks, but were also rejected. They would later turn up as Clarabelle Cow and Horace Horsecollar. Ub Iwerks eventually got inspiration from an old drawing. In 1925, Hugh Harman drew some sketches of mice around a photograph of Walt Disney. Then, on a train ride back from a failed business meeting, Walt Disney came up with the original sketch for the character that would eventually be called Mickey Mouse. Afterward, Disney took the sketch to Iwerks. In turn, he drew a more clean-cut and refined version of Mickey, but one that still followed the original sketch. The first few Mickey Mouse and Silly Symphonies cartoons were animated almost entirely by Iwerks, including Steamboat Willie and The Skeleton Dance. However, as Iwerks began to draw more and more cartoons on a daily basis, he soon found himself unable to cope under Disney's harsh command. Iwerks also felt he wasn't getting the credit he deserved for drawing all of Disney's successful cartoons. Eventually, Iwerks and Disney had a falling-out; their friendship and working partnership were severed in January 1930. According to an unconfirmed account, a child approached Disney and Iwerks at a party and asked for a picture of Mickey to be drawn on a napkin, to which Disney handed the pen and paper to Iwerks and stated, "Draw it." Iwerks became furious and threw the pen and paper, storming out. Iwerks accepted a contract with Disney competitor Pat Powers to leave Disney and start an animation studio under his own name. (Powers and Disney had an earlier falling-out over Disney's use of the Powers Cinephone sound-on- film system—actually copied by Powers from DeForest Phonofilm without credit—in early Disney cartoons.) The Iwerks Studio opened in 1930. Financial backers led by Pat Powers suspected that Iwerks was responsible for much of Disney's early success. However, while animation for a time suffered at Disney from Iwerks' departure, it soon rebounded as Disney brought in talented new young animators. Despite a contract with MGM to distribute his cartoons, and the introduction of a new character named “Flip the Frog”, and later “Willie Whopper”, the Iwerks Studio was never a major commercial success and failed to rival either Disney or Fleischer Studios. Newly-hired animator Fred Kopietz recommended that Iwerks employ a friend from Chouinard Art School, Chuck Jones, who was hired and put to work as a cel washer. The Flip and Willie cartoons were later distributed on the home-movie market by Official Films in the 1940s. From 1933 to 1936, he produced a series of shorts (independently distributed, not part of the MGM deal) in Cinecolor, named ComiColor Cartoons. The ComiColor series mostly focused on fairy tales with no continuing character or star. Later in the 1940s, this series would receive home-movie distribution by Castle Films. Cinecolor produced the 16 mm prints for Castle Films with red emulsion on one side and blue emulsion on the other. Later in the 1970s Blackhawk Films released these for home use, but this time using conventional Eastmancolor film stock. They are now in the public domain and are available on VHS and DVD. He also experimented with stop-motion animation in combination with the multiplane camera, and made a short called The Toy Parade, which was never released in public. In 1936, backers withdrew financial support from the Iwerks Studio, and it folded soon after. In 1937, Leon Schlesinger Productions contracted Iwerks to produce four Looney Tunes shorts starring Porky Pig and Gabby Goat. Iwerks directed the first two shorts, while former Schlesinger animator Robert Clampett was promoted to director and helmed the other two shorts before he and his unit returned to the main Schlesinger lot. Iwerks then did contract work for Screen Gems (then Columbia Pictures' cartoon division) where he was the director of several of the Color Rhapsodies shorts before returning to work for Disney in 1940. After his return to the Disney studio, Iwerks mainly worked on developing special visual effects. He is credited as developing the processes for combining live- action and animation used in Song of the South (1946), as well as the xerographic process adapted for cel animation. He also worked at WED Enterprises, now Walt Disney Imagineering, helping to develop many Disney theme park attractions during the 1960s. Iwerks did special effects work outside the studio as well, including his Academy Award nominated achievement for Alfred Hitchcock's The Birds (1963). Iwerks' most famous work outside creating and animating Mickey Mouse was Flip the Frog from his own studio. Iwerks was known for his fast work at drawing and animation and his quirky sense of humor. Animator Chuck Jones, who worked for Iwerks' studio in his youth, said “Iwerks is Screwy [Skrewi] spelled backwards.” Iwerks died in 1971 of a myocardial infarction in Burbank, California, aged 70, and his ashes interred in a niche in the Columbarium of Remembrance at Forest Lawn Memorial Park, Hollywood Hills Cemetery. The Ub Iwerks Award for Technical Achievement, as part of the Annie Awards, is named in his honour. A rare self-portrait of Iwerks was found in the garbage bin at an animation studio in Burbank. The portrait was saved and is now part of the Animation Archives in Burbank, California. After the Second World War, much of Iwerks' early animation style would be imitated by legendary manga artists Osamu Tezuka and Shōtarō Ishinomori. In 1989, Iwerks was named a Disney Legend. In the 1996 The Simpsons episode "The Day the Violence Died", a relationship similar to Iwerks' early relationship with Walt Disney is used as the main plot. A documentary film, The Hand Behind the Mouse: The Ub Iwerks Story, was released in 1999, followed by a book written by Iwerks' granddaughter Leslie Iwerks and John Kenworthy in 2001. The documentary, created by Leslie Iwerks, was released as part of (disc two of The Adventures of Oswald the Lucky Rabbit collection). A feature film released in 2014 Walt Before Mickey, showed how Ub Iwerks, portrayed by Armando Gutierrez, and Walt Disney, portrayed by Thomas Ian Nicholas, co-created Mickey Mouse. The sixth episode from the second season of Drunk History ("Hollywood"), tells about Ub's work relationship with Disney, with stress on the creation of Mickey Mouse. Iwerks was portrayed in the episode by Tony Hale. All Comicolor shorts. All Comicolor shorts. Contract work to Leon Schlesinger Productions - 2 cartoons, Contract work to Screen Gems/Columbia Pictures - 17 cartoons (Iwerks as only personally involved with 16 Color_Rhapsody, the last cartoon in the deal was completed by Paul Fennell after Iwerks had left his own studio). Gran'pop Monkey series of cartoons. Originally to be 24 cartoon only 3 were ever made. All filmed in cinecolor Walt Disney (2015 PBS film) Leslie Iwerks and John Kenworthy, The Hand Behind the Mouse (Disney Editions, 2001) and documentary of the same name (DVD, 1999), Leonard Maltin, Of Mice and Magic: A History of American Animated Cartoons (Penguin Books, 1987), Jeff Lenburg, The Great Cartoon Directors (Da Capo Press, 1993) Oswald the Lucky Rabbit (also known as Oswald the Rabbit or Oswald Rabbit) is an anthropomorphic cartoon rabbit created by Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks for Universal Pictures. He starred in several animated short films released to theaters from 1927 to 1938. A total of 27 animated Oswald one-reelers were produced at the Walt Disney Studio. When the Disney studio was removed from the Oswald series and several of its animators departed to Winkler, Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks created Mickey Mouse. In 2003, Buena Vista Games pitched a concept for an Oswald-themed video game to Disney President and COO Bob Iger, who then became committed to acquiring the rights to Oswald. In 2006, The Walt Disney Company managed to acquire the intellectual property of Oswald and the catalog of Disney-produced Oswald films (with NBCUniversal effectively trading Oswald for the services of Al Michaels as play-by-play announcer on NBC Sunday Night Football). Oswald returned to prominence in Disney's 2010 video game, Epic Mickey. The game's metafiction plot parallels Oswald's real- world history, dealing with the character's feelings of abandonment by Disney, and envy towards Mickey Mouse. He has since appeared in Disney theme parks and comic books, as well as two follow-up games, and . Oswald made his first appearance in a Disney animated production in 85 years through his cameo appearance in the 2013 animated short Get a Horse!. He was the subject of the 2015 feature film Walt Before Mickey. Oswald also appears as a townsperson in . A television series based on the character is confirmed to be in development in Disney+ While under Disney's creative control, Oswald was one of the first cartoon characters that had personality. As outlined by Walt himself: "Hereafter we will aim to [make] Oswald a younger character, peppy, alert, saucy and venturesome, keeping him also neat and trim." With Oswald, Disney began to explore the concept of "personality animation", in which cartoon characters were defined as individuals through their movements, mannerisms and acting, instead of simply through their design. Around this period, Disney had expressed, "I want the characters to be somebody. I don't want them just to be a drawing." Not only were gags used, but his humor differed in terms of what he used to make people laugh. He presented physical humor, used situations to his advantage, presented situational humor in general and frustration comedy best shown in the cartoon The Mechanical Cow. He would make use of animal limbs to solve problems and even use his own limbs as props and gags. He could be squished as if he was made of rubber and could turn anything into tools. His distinct personality was inspired by Douglas Fairbanks for his courageous and adventurous attitude as seen in the cartoon short Oh, What a Knight. In regards to Oswald's personality, Disney historian David Gerstein describes the difference between Mickey and Oswald: In order to make his Oswald cartoons look "real", Disney turned away from the styles of Felix the Cat, Koko the Clown and Krazy Kat and began emulating the camera angles, effects and editing of live-action films. To learn how to base gags on personality and how to build comic routines, rather than heaping one gag after another, he studied Laurel and Hardy, Harold Lloyd, Charlie Chaplin and Buster Keaton. In order to stir emotion in an audience, Disney studied and scrutinized the shadow effects, cross-cutting and staging of action in films featuring Douglas Fairbanks and Lon Chaney. Walt Disney did not want for Oswald to simply be "a rabbit character animated and shown in the same light as the commonly known cat characters", as well as merely just a peg for gags. Instead, his stated intention was "to make Oswald peculiarly and typically OSWALD." In 1927, because of cost and technical restrictions, Disney and his chief animator Ub Iwerks decided to end their work on the Alice Comedies series in search of new creative opportunities. Coincidentally, Universal Pictures wanted to get into the cartoon business and needed a cartoon character of its own. So Disney's distributor Charles Mintz told Disney and Iwerks to create a new character they could sell to Universal. Wanting to make cartoons with an all-animated look, Disney signed a contract with Universal Studios leading to the creation of Oswald the Lucky Rabbit and Universal's first cartoon series. Work on both the character and series began soon after Disney moved his studio to Hyperion Avenue. Disney chose to make the character a rabbit since there were already two popular animated cats at the time, Felix the Cat and Krazy Kat. Universal was given the right to name the rabbit and it selected a name out of a hat. The first Oswald cartoon, Poor Papa, was rejected by the Universal studio heads for its poor production quality and the sloppiness and age of Oswald. Disney, together with Iwerks, decided to create a second cartoon titled Trolley Troubles featuring a much younger, neater Oswald. The short, released on September 5, 1927, officially launched the series and proved to be Disney's greatest success to date. The storyline for Poor Papa was reused in a Mickey Mouse short five years later, in Mickey's Nightmare, 1932. Oswald the Lucky Rabbit became Disney's first major hit in 1927, rivaling other popular cartoon characters, such as Felix the Cat and Koko the Clown. The success of the Oswald series allowed the Walt Disney Studio to grow to a staff of nearly twenty. Walt's weekly salary from the series was $100 while Roy Disney's was $65. The Disney brothers earned $500 per Oswald short and split the year-end profits, with Walt receiving 60% ($5,361), and Roy receiving 40% ($3,574). With income gained from the Oswald series, Walt and Roy purchased ten acres of land in the desert. They also invested in an oil- drilling venture. Iwerks also invested his income in several stone mills to crush paint pigment he used to make paint formulas that were utilized by animators for decades. As time passed, Disney feared that Mintz would forgo renewal of the contract, partly due to Iwerks informing Disney that George Winkler, at the behest of Mintz, had been going behind Disney's back during pick-up runs for Oswald reels and hiring away his animators. Eventually, Walt traveled with his wife Lilly to New York to find other potential distributors for his studio's cartoons, including Fox and MGM, prior to meetings with Mintz. As Walt later recalled, he placed two Oswald prints under one arm and—feeling "like a hick"—marched "one half-block north" on Broadway to MGM to visit Fred Quimby. During this period, Walt and Lillian attended the premier of the Oswald short Rival Romeos, which debuted at the Colony on 53rd and Broadway. In the spring of 1928, Disney traveled to New York City in hopes of negotiating a more profitable contract with his producer Charles Mintz. But as economic problems were apparent at the time, Mintz figured Disney should settle for a 20% cut, although large turnarounds were promised if the studio's finances showed considerable growth. While most of his fellow animators left for Mintz's studio, Disney decided to quit working on the Oswald cartoons. On his long train ride home, he came up with an idea to create another character, and retain the rights to it. He and Iwerks would go on to develop a new cartoon in secret, starring a new character which would soon become the most successful cartoon character in film history and later became the foundation of a global entertainment empire. The first Mickey Mouse cartoon to be filmed was Plane Crazy in the summer of 1928, but it was produced as a silent and held back from release. The first Mickey Mouse film with a synchronized soundtrack, Steamboat Willie, reached the screen that fall and became a major hit, eclipsing Oswald. Plane Crazy was later given its own synchronized soundtrack and released on March 17, 1929. Mintz, meanwhile, opened his own studio consisting primarily of former Disney employees, where he continued to produce Oswald cartoons, among them the first Oswald with sound, Hen Fruit (1929). While things were going in Mintz's favor, animators Hugh Harman and Rudolf Ising asked Universal head Carl Laemmle to remove Mintz, suggesting they would be the ones to continue the Oswald series. But Laemmle denied their requests and even terminated Mintz's contract, opting to have the Oswald cartoons produced right on the Universal lot instead. Coincidentally, Disney and Mintz each produced nine cartoons the first year and 17 the next, before Oswald was taken over by others. Laemmle selected Walter Lantz to produce the new series of Oswald shorts (the first of which was 1929's Race Riot). Lantz consulted Disney about Oswald and he gave Lantz his blessing to continue the Oswald series as the Mickey Mouse shorts had become more successful, so the two became close friends. Over the next decade, Lantz produced 142 Oswald cartoons, making for a grand total of 194 films that the character starred in, spanning the work of all three producers. After Lantz took over production in 1929, the character's look was changed to some degree over the following years: Oswald got white gloves on his hands, shoes on his feet, a shirt, a "cuter" face with larger eyes, a bigger head, and shorter ears (pictured here). With 1935's Case of the Lost Sheep, an even more major makeover took place: the character was drawn more realistically now, with white fur rather than black, shoes are removed, plus wearing suspenders instead of a shirt and shorts. This new Oswald model was adapted directly from a non-Oswald character in another Lantz cartoon: the Cinecolor "Fox and the Rabbit" (1935), released some two months earlier as the last of the early Cartune Classics series. The redesign was done by Manuel Moreno. The cartoons containing the new, white-furred Oswald seemed to be different from their predecessors in more than one way, as the stories themselves became softer. Minor changes in the drawing style would continue, too. With Happy Scouts (1938), the second-to-last Oswald film produced, the rabbit's fur went from being all-white to a combination of white and gray. Unlike the Disney shorts, in which Oswald did not speak, Lantz's cartoons began to feature actual dialogue for Oswald, although most of the cartoons were still silent to begin with. Animator Bill Nolan did the voice of Oswald in Cold Turkey, the first Lantz cartoon with dialogue, and the following year Pinto Colvig, who was working as an animator and gag man at the studio, started voicing Oswald. When Colvig left the studio in 1931, Mickey Rooney took over the voicing of Oswald until early in the following year. Starting in 1932, Lantz ceased to use a regular voice actor for Oswald, and many studio staff members (including Lantz himself) would take turns in voicing the character over the years. June Foray provided Oswald's voice in The Egg Cracker Suite, which was the final theatrical short to feature the character. She later voiced him again for an unaired radio pilot, Sally in Hollywoodland (1947). Oswald made a cameo appearance in the first animated sequence with both sound and color (two-strip Technicolor), a 2½-minute animated sequence of the live action movie The King of Jazz (1930), produced by Laemmle for Universal. However, it was not until 1934 that Oswald got his own color sound cartoons in two-strip Technicolor, Toyland Premiere and Springtime Serenade. The Oswald cartoons then returned to black-and-white, except for the last one, The Egg Cracker Suite (1943), released as a part of the Swing Symphonies series. Egg Cracker was also the only Oswald cartoon to use three-strip Technicolor. Oswald's last cartoon appearance was a cameo in The Woody Woodpecker Polka (1951), also in three- strip Technicolor, which by then had become the norm in the cartoon industry. He also appeared in a 1952 theatrical commercial for the Electric Autolite Company, with his voice being provided by Dick Beals. Oswald made his first comic book appearance in 1935, when DC Comics featured him in the series New Fun (later More Fun). His adventures, drawn by Al Stahl, were serialized one page to an issue for the magazine's first year, after which they ceased. The original black-furred version of Oswald was featured, even though Oswald was by this time a white rabbit on screen. Oswald's second run in the comics began in 1942, when a new Oswald feature was initiated in Dell Comics' New Funnies, this time modeled after the latest cartoon version of Oswald and influenced by the drawing style of other Lantz comic book characters at the time. Following the typical development seen in most new comics, the New Funnies stories slowly morphed the character in their own direction. At the start of the New Funnies feature, Oswald existed in a milieu reminiscent of Winnie the Pooh: he was portrayed as a live stuffed animal, living in a forest together with other anthropomorphized toys. These included Toby Bear, Maggie Lou the wooden doll, Hi-Yah Wahoo the turtle-faced Indian, and Woody Woodpecker—depicted as a mechanical doll filled with nuts and bolts (hence his "nutty" behavior). In 1944, with the addition of writer John Stanley, the stuffed animal motif was dropped, as were Maggie Lou, Woody, and Wahoo. Oswald and Toby became flesh and blood characters living as roommates in "Lantzville". Initially drawn by Dan Gormley, the series was later drawn by the likes of Dan Noonan and Lloyd White. In 1948, Toby adopted two orphan rabbits for Oswald to raise. Floyd and Lloyd, "Poppa Oswald's" new sons, stuck around; Toby was relegated to the sidelines, disappearing for good in 1953. Later stories focused on Oswald adventuring with his sons, seeking odd jobs, or simply protecting the boys from the likes of rabbit-eating Reddy Fox and (from 1961) con man Gabby Gator—a character adapted from contemporary Woody Woodpecker cartoon shorts. This era of Oswald comics typically featured the art of Jack Bradbury, known also for his Mickey Mouse work. Post-1960s, Oswald comics tended to be produced outside the United States, for example in Mexico and Italy. Through the end of the 20th century, the foreign comics carried on the look and story style of the Dell Oswald stories. More recently, they featured a "retro" attempt at recreating the original Disney Oswald. In 2010, Oswald starred in the digi-comic series Epic Mickey: Tales of the Wasteland, a prequel to the Epic Mickey video game, sharing what the Wasteland was like before Mickey arrived there. In 2011, Oswald starred in the Norwegian Disney comic story "En magisk jul!", written by David Gerstein and drawn by Mark Kausler. It is based on and takes place in the times of the classic Oswald shorts from 1927–28. The story was later reprinted, as "Just Like Magic!", in the American Disney comic Walt Disney's Comics and Stories #726 (2015). In February 2006, Disney CEO Bob Iger initiated a trade with NBC Universal in which a number of minor assets, including the rights to Oswald, were acquired by The Walt Disney Company in exchange for sending sportscaster Al Michaels from Disney's ABC and ESPN to NBC Sports. At the time, ABC had lost its contract for NFL broadcast rights, and despite recently signing a long-term contract with ESPN, Michaels was interested in rejoining broadcast partner John Madden at NBC for the Sunday night package. Universal transferred the trademark of the character to Disney, and in exchange, Disney released Michaels from his employment contract, allowing him to sign with NBC. The deal included the rights to the character and the original 26 short films made and produced by Walt Disney. The rights to the Winkler and Lantz/Universal- produced Oswald films were retained by Universal and other products related to the character were not included in the deal. Iger had been interested in the property because of an internal design document for a video game, which would ultimately become Epic Mickey. Walt Disney's daughter, Diane Disney Miller, issued the following statement after the deal was announced: Around the same time, the Kansas City Chiefs and New York Jets made a similar deal, the Chiefs giving the Jets a draft pick as compensation for releasing coach Herm Edwards from his contract. Referring to this trade, Michaels said: In January 2007, a T-shirt line from Comme des Garçons seems to have constituted the first new Disney Oswald merchandise. Following in December was a two-disc DVD set, The Adventures of Oswald the Lucky Rabbit, included in of the Walt Disney Treasures DVD series. Several Oswald collectors' figurines and a limited edition grayscale plush toy appeared shortly after the DVD set's release. The Disney Store also began to introduce Oswald into its merchandise lines, starting with a canvas print and Christmas ornament that became available Fall 2007. A standard-issue color plush toy matching Oswald's appearance in Epic Mickey appeared in late 2010. This was followed by an ongoing roll-out of clothing and other products at the Disney Store, various chain stores, and the Disney California Adventure theme park. In 2012, the newly-redesigned Buena Vista Street at Disney California Adventure included Oswald's Filling Station, a merchandise stand themed as a gas station operated by Oswald. The shop sells "Oswald Ears" hats (a similar style to the popular Mickey Mouse Club caps), as well as shirts, plush toys and mugs. In 2014, an Oswald character began making appearances in the area near the shop. Leaks from online resumes and portfolios have led to speculation of an animated series starring Oswald launching on Disney+. On July 6, 2019, the Oswald animated series was said to be in development on Christopher Painter's online resume prior to being removed following online discussion regarding its inclusion. Disney has yet to officially confirm the existence of an Oswald animated series. Using Ub Iwerk's sketchbook drawings in 2012, archivists recreated a scene from an Oswald cartoon, Harem Scarem. In 1995, Oswald briefly appeared in Férias Frustradas do Pica-Pau, a Woody Woodpecker video game released for the Sega Master System and the Mega Drive in Brazil only. Oswald is one of the main characters in the video game franchise Epic Mickey. The world of Epic Mickey is called "Wasteland" and it is similar to Disneyland but for "forgotten" Disney characters, including Oswald, who rules the place. Actually, Oswald fashioned it after Disneyland, but he put images of himself in the place of Mickey in the statue with Walt Disney and other places throughout the town. Oswald was the first cartoon character to be "forgotten" and inhabit Wasteland. Oswald dislikes Mickey for stealing his popularity that he felt he deserved. Oswald tries to make Wasteland a better place for forgotten characters, especially his "bunny children" and his wife Ortensia. Tetsuya Nomura, creator and lead producer of the Kingdom Hearts franchise, had requested for Oswald's use in Kingdom Hearts III, but the response from Disney was that the character would be "too difficult" to use, with no further clarification or details from Disney. Nomura cites Oswald as one of his favorite Disney characters. Oswald starred in Harem Scarem, a new 2012 cartoon created by archivist from Walt Disney's sketchbook taking dozens of drawings. He made an appearance in a 2013 throwback style Mickey Mouse cartoon, Get a Horse! A couple of Oswald's lost cartoon were found in the 2010s as only 19 of 26 cartoons were previously known to have survived. In 2015, the British Film Institute's National Archives were found to hold his Sleigh Bells (1927) footage. The BFI and Walt Disney Animation Studios worked to restore the short. Long-term Disney animator David Bossert wrote a book, Oswald the Lucky Rabbit: The Search for the Lost Disney Cartoons which was released in 2017. A Japanese man, Yasushi Watanabe, read the book and discovered that he had a missing 1928 Oswald cartoon, Neck & Neck, since he was a teenager. At one point in July 2019, an animation writer, Christopher Painter, listed on his online resume that he was writer on Multiple episodes of Oswald the Lucky Rabbit series and was picked up by a couple of comic book news sites from a fan site as being a Disney+ series only for the resume to be removed from the writer's blog. In a reply to these rumors Eric Bauza, the voice of Bugs Bunny, Woody Woodpecker, and other renowned cartoon characters, tweeted, “Could you imaaaaagine!?!?!” Hinting to a possible role in the apparent show. Disney has yet to make an official comment on the rumored series. Shortly after the rabbit starred in his black and white animated silent shorts between 1927 and 1928, he was successfully able to sell merchandise for Universal: a chocolate-covered marshmallow candy bar, a stencil set, and a pin-backed button. Not long before Disney acquired the rights to Oswald, Universal started marketing the character actively overseas. Disney slowly reintroduced him with merchandise such as shirts, figurines and a DVD with 13 of his original cartoons. In 2004 and 2005, Oswald products became popular in Japan, and were primarily made available as prizes in UFO catchers and as official merchandise in Universal Studios Japan, where he was featured as part of the Woody Woodpecker cast of characters line-up. Typically manufactured by Taito and/or Medicom, these products included puppets, inflatable dolls, keyrings, and watches. They were generally based on a navy-blue version with yellow shorts of the original Disney/Iwerks character, and due to Disney's popularity in Japan, he was marketed as a Walt Disney creation. Oswald made his first Disneyland appearance at Tokyo Disneyland on March 31, 2010 as an Easter float. At the Magic Kingdom in Walt Disney World, a poster of Oswald can be seen at the Town Square Theater where Mickey Mouse is available for meet and greets. Also inside Mickey's meeting area, a doodle of Oswald and Mickey can be seen. Clothing products are also available at Disneyland Paris in Walt Disney Studios Park. As of October 4, 2017, Oswald now has a Service Station at Disney California Adventure that sells Oswald merchandise including Oswald ears, shirts, coats, mugs and key-chains. The Oswald character showed up at the parks in Florida and California on the day Disney reacquired Oswald, but made no further appearances at the time. In 2010, Tokyo Disneyland produced a float featuring Oswald for their first Easter holiday event. In 2011, Oswald appeared with other old Disney characters on the Construction walls for Disney California Adventure Park's new entrance. In 2011, Oswald appeared on a poster as a magician's rabbit in Town Square Theater in Magic Kingdom park. In 2011, Oswald appeared on various items of clothing available for purchase at Disneyland Paris in the shops on Main Street USA. In 2012, Disney California Adventure park at the Disneyland Resort reopened with a new entry area called Buena Vista Street, themed to 1920s Los Angeles. Oswald's Service Station is a 1920s gas station (housing a gift shop) located at the north end of the street and features Oswald prominently in its logo. Disney California Adventure also sells Oswald merchandise, while next door Disneyland Park offers Mickey Mouse merchandise exclusively. In 2012, Oswald ear hats appeared at the Emporium at Walt Disney World in Florida. As of May 28, 2014 Oswald can be spotted on the exit of The Seven Dwarves ride at Magic Kingdom, Orlando. He is carved into a tree near the exit door. On April 1, 2014, a new Oswald costumed character began meet- and-greets at Tokyo DisneySea. On September 14, 2014, Oswald began making appearances on Buena Vista Street at Disney California Adventure. As of October 4, 2017, Oswald now has a Service Station at Disney California Adventure and has been spotted making appearances. On June 2, 2018 at the FanDaze event Oswald's spouse, Ortensia accompanied him as a VIP guest In Disneyland Paris. They also performed in the show, “Oh My, Ortensia”. Some earlier Oswald shorts are in the public domain, and have thus been available for some years in various lower-quality video and DVD compilations. Some are lost., A professional restoration of the then surviving Disney Oswald shorts, under the title The Adventures of Oswald the Lucky Rabbit, appeared as a two-disc volume in , released December 11, 2007. The cartoons included Ozzie of the Mounted, Tall Timber, and a much-extended version of Bright Lights, all newly rediscovered at the time., Six Walter Lantz Oswald cartoons, including Hells Heels and Toyland Premiere, have been included in The Woody Woodpecker and Friends Classic Cartoon Collection DVD., Five additional Lantz Oswald shorts, including Wax Works and Springtime Serenade, are included in DVD., The full version of Oh, What a Knight is included as an unlockable cartoon in Epic Mickey by collecting various film reels in the game., The restored version of Hungry Hoboes is included as part of the bonus features in the release of the Walt Disney Signature Collection edition of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs on Blu-ray. Although the short is not included on the disc itself, a digital code is included with the Blu-ray so the short can be "unlocked" for viewing., The shorts My Pal Paul and Africa are fully restored and included as extras in the Criterion release of King of Jazz. During the 1920s, the Oswald shorts, as well as Oswald himself, proved extremely popular and had received substantial critical acclaim. The Film Daily noted that the series was "one of the best sellers of the 'U[niversal]' short subject program." According to The Moving Picture World, Oswald had "accomplished the astounding feat of jumping into the first-run favor overnight". With the release of Trolley Troubles, The Film Daily wrote, "As conductor on a 'Toonerville' trolley, Oswald is a riot. This ... you can book on pure faith, and our solemn word that they have the goods." The Moving Picture World noted Oswald was "good for a lot of smiles and real laughs. 'Trolley Troubles' presents Oswald as the skipper of a dinky little trolley on a wild ride over mountains." According to The Moving Picture World: With the release of Oh, Teacher, Moving Picture World wrote that it "lives up to the promise of the first ... as a clever, peppy, and amusing series of cartoons that should prove popular in any type of house. This one deals with Oswald as a school kid and introduces a cat as his rival. It contains some of the best gags we have seen in cartoons." With the release of The Mechanical Cow, Moving Picture World wrote that Oswald "has a wild and amusing time with his ingenuous milk producer". With the release of Great Guns, Moving Picture World wrote that Oswald is a "hero in action in the trenches and [in] a situation where two planes fight each other like pugilists". They found that Great Guns was "chock full of humor" and wrote, "This series is bound to be popular in all types of houses if the present standard is maintained." Moving Picture World also wrote of the series: In addition: In the modern era, animation historian David Gerstein notes: Oswald won Best New Character in both Readers' Choice and Editors' Choice in Nintendo Power's Best of 2010 awards. Tetsuya Nomura, creator and lead producer of the Kingdom Hearts franchise, lists Oswald as one of his favorite Disney characters. Animation in the United States during the silent era, Golden Age of American animation Oswald the Lukcy Rabbit at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on September 7, 2015., Oswald the Lucky Rabbit at the Big Cartoon DataBase, Of Rocks and Socks: The Winkler Oswalds (1928–29), The Walter Lantz Cartune Encyclopedia: Cartune Profiles: Oswald the Lucky Rabbit, Oswald the Lucky Rabbit on IMDb, Lost Disney film found in the BFI National Archive

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The 2018 Major League Baseball season began on March 29. The regular season ended on October 1, extended a day for tiebreaker games to decide the winners of the National League Central and National League West divisions. The postseason began on October 2. The World Series began on October 23, and ended on October 28 with the Boston Red Sox defeating the Los Angeles Dodgers in five games to win their ninth World Series championship. The 89th Major League Baseball All-Star Game was held on July 17 at Nationals Park, the home of the Washington Nationals. The American League won, 8–6, in 10 innings. This was also the last season for the August trade waivers. As has been the case since 2013, all teams will play their four division opponents 19 times each for a total of 76 games. They will play six or seven games against each of the other ten same-league opponents for a total of 66 games, and 20 interleague games. The primary interleague match-ups are AL East vs NL East, AL Central vs NL Central, and AL West vs NL West. Since "natural rivalry" matchups are part of the three-year divisional rotation, the schedule format for interleague games will be different from previous years. The 20 interleague games each team will play will consist of two three-game series (one home, one away) against its natural rival (total of six games), two two- game series (one home, one away) against each team for two other opponents (total of eight games), and a single three-game series against each team for the last two (one home, one away; total of six games). Under the new collective bargaining agreement reached in December 2016, the regular season was extended to 187 days in order to add four additional off-days for all teams. All teams were scheduled to play Opening Day, March 29 – the earliest domestic start of a regular season in league history until the 2019 season. The Sunday night game before the All-Star Game was replaced by a single, nationally-televised game on the Thursday after the All-Star Game (which for 2018, was played between the St. Louis Cardinals and Chicago Cubs), before all other teams returned from break the next day. The Minnesota Twins and the Cleveland Indians played a two-game series at Hiram Bithorn Stadium in San Juan, Puerto Rico, on April 17 and 18, while the Los Angeles Dodgers and San Diego Padres played a three-game series at Estadio de Béisbol Monterrey in Monterrey, Mexico, from May 4 to 6. The 2018 MLB Little League Classic at BB&T; Ballpark in Williamsport, Pennsylvania, coinciding with the Little League World Series, returned to the schedule. It was played between the Philadelphia Phillies and the New York Mets on August 19. Beginning in the 2018 season, MLB implemented new pace of play rules, which include limiting the number of mound visits for each team to six per nine innings. Teams will receive an additional visit for every extra inning played. Two "game 163" matchups were played to determine postseason seeding, as both the National League Central and National League West divisions ended the 162-game regular season schedule with two teams tied for first. Both games were played on October 1, with the winning teams advancing to the 2018 National League Division Series and the losers facing off in the Wild Card Game. The Brewers beat the Cubs for the NL Central division title, and the West was won by the Dodgers over the Rockies. Matt Davidson (CWS):, Became the fourth player in the live-ball era (since 1920) to hit three home runs on opening day joining Dmitri Young (2005), Tuffy Rhodes (1994), and George Bell (1988). Davidson accomplished this feat on March 29 against the Kansas City Royals., George Springer (HOU):, With his Opening Day lead-off home run on March 29 against the Texas Rangers, Springer became the first player in Major League history to lead off back-to-back seasons with a home run., Joe Panik (SF):, Became the first player in Major League history to hit a home run in consecutive 1–0 victories by his team on March 30., Became the first player in Major League history to score his team's first three runs in a season off solo home runs. This was during the team's home opener on April 3., Adrián Beltré (TEX):, With a second-inning double on April 5 against the Oakland Athletics, Beltré became the all-time leader in hits by a player from Latin America. Beltré, from the Dominican Republic, passed Rod Carew of Panama with the 3,054th hit in his career., With a fourth-inning double on June 13 against the Los Angeles Dodgers, Beltré became the all-time leader in hits by a non-U.S. native, passing Ichiro Suzuki., Recorded his 1,500th run scored in the sixth inning on July 30 against the Arizona Diamondbacks. He became the 73rd player to reach this mark., Joe Mauer (MIN):, Recorded his 2,000th career hit with a single in the seventh inning against the Chicago White Sox on April 12. He became the 287th player to reach this mark., Miguel Cabrera (DET):, Recorded his 550th career double in the seventh inning against the Baltimore Orioles on April 19. He became the 30th player to reach this mark., Ryan Braun (MIL):, Recorded his 1,000th career RBI with a pinch-hit home run in the sixth inning against the Miami Marlins on April 19. He became the 285th player to reach this mark., Rajai Davis (CLE):, Recorded his 400th career stolen base by stealing second base in the third inning against the Toronto Blue Jays on May 3. He became the 75th player to reach this mark., Albert Pujols (LAA):, Recorded his 3,000th career hit with a single in the fifth inning against the Seattle Mariners on May 4. He became the 32nd player to reach this mark. Pujols also becomes the fourth player in Major League history to collect 3,000 hits and hit 600 home runs in his career, joining Hank Aaron, Willie Mays and Alex Rodriguez., Gleyber Torres (NYY):, On May 25 Torres became the youngest player in American League history with home runs in four consecutive games. He homered against the Texas Rangers in back-to-back games as well as the Los Angeles Angels., Shin-Soo Choo (TEX):, Became the all-time leader in Major League history for most home runs hit by a player from Asia by hitting his 176th career home run in the 10th inning against the Kansas City Royals on May 26. He passed Hideki Matsui for the record., Wil Myers (SD):, Became the first player in Major League history to hit three home runs in a game that was lost by double-digits. The team lost 20–5 against the Arizona Diamondbacks on July 7., Lourdes Gurriel Jr. (TOR):, Became the first rookie of the live-ball era to have 11 consecutive multi-hit games, by collecting three hits against the Chicago White Sox on July 29. The last Major League rookie to accomplish such a feat was Shoeless Joe Jackson in 1911., Mike Trout (LAA):, With his 30th home run of the season on July 31 against the Tampa Bay Rays, Trout became the second player in Major League history (the other being Willie Mays) to hit 30 home runs and steal 20 bases in three seasons before their age-26 campaigns., José Reyes (NYM):, Became the second player in Major League history to give up multiple home runs as a pitcher in one game (on July 31) and hit multiple home runs the following game (on August 1). Both games were against the Washington Nationals. The only other player to accomplish this was Cap Anson from the Chicago White Stockings who gave up two home runs on August 5, 1884 and hit three home runs the following game on August 6. Both games were against the Cleveland Blues., Ronald Acuña Jr./Ozzie Albies (ATL):, With his 20th home run on the season by Acuna on August 22 against the Pittsburgh Pirates, Acuna and Albies became the first teammates under the age of 22 in Major League history to hit 20+ home runs in the same season., Christian Yelich (MIL):, With a 6-for-6 day and hitting for the cycle on August 29 against the Cincinnati Reds, Yelich became the fourth player in Major League history to record six hits while also hitting for the cycle. He is the first to accomplish the feat since Ian Kinsler in 2009., With his cycle on September 17, Yelich became the first player in Major League history to have multiple cycles against the same team in the same season., Rowdy Tellez (TOR):, Became the first player in Major League history (in the live ball era) to record extra-base hits in each of his first three plate appearances. Tellez recorded pinch-hit double during his debut against the Tampa Bay Rays on September 5. On September 6, Tellez doubled in the second and fourth innings against the Cleveland Indians. Tellez flied out in his next at bat., Juan Soto (WAS):, With his multi-homer game against the Philadelphia Phillies on September 11, Soto became the first teenager in Major League history to have three multi-homer games in a season., Trevor Story (COL):, With his first-inning double on September 11 against the Arizona Diamondbacks, Story became the first shortstop in National League history to amass 30+ home runs, 40+ doubles and drive in more than 100 runs in a season., Brock Holt (BOS):, Became the first player in Major League history to hit for the cycle in a postseason game, doing so in a 16–1 rout in Game 3 of the 2018 American League Division Series on October 8 against the New York Yankees. Sean Manaea (OAK):, Threw his first career no-hitter by defeating the Boston Red Sox 3–0 on April 21, at the Oakland Coliseum. Manaea struck out ten batters, walked two and threw one wild pitch, throwing 75 of his 108 pitches for strikes. The game included two controversial out calls: in the fifth inning, a batter reached base on an error that Manaea reportedly assumed was ruled a hit; in the sixth inning, Andrew Benintendi was initially ruled safe on an infield single, but after some discussion by the umpiring crew, he was called out for having left the baseline on the play. Benintendi later called this a "missed call" and insinuated that the umpires were biased in favor of Manaea., Walker Buehler/Tony Cingrani/Yimi García/Adam Liberatore (LAD):, Threw the first combined no-hitter in franchise history by defeating the San Diego Padres 4–0 on May 4, during a series played at the Estadio de Béisbol in Monterrey, Mexico. Buehler struck out eight and walked three over six innings, throwing 59 of his 93 pitches for strikes. Cingrani struck out one and walked two over one inning, throwing 13 of 24 pitches for strikes. García struck out two and walked none over one inning, throwing 11 of 14 pitches for strikes. Liberatore also did not walk a batter, striking out two and throwing 10 of 15 pitches for strikes. This was the 12th combined no-hitter in Major League history and the 23rd no-hitter in franchise history., James Paxton (SEA):, Threw his first career no-hitter, and the sixth in franchise history, by defeating the Toronto Blue Jays 5–0 on May 8, at Rogers Centre. Paxton struck out seven and walked three, throwing 64 of his 99 pitches for strikes. Paxton became the second Canadian-born player to throw a no-hitter, joining Dick Fowler of the 1945 Philadelphia Athletics. As the game was played in Toronto, this made Canada the third country in which an MLB no-hitter was thrown in 2018, the other two being the USA and Mexico. Max Scherzer (WAS):, Became the second pitcher in the live-ball era (since 1920) to pitch a shutout, strike out at least 10 batters and steal a base in the same game by accomplishing this feat on April 9 against the Atlanta Braves. He joins Nolan Ryan who did this against the Pittsburgh Pirates on May 16, 1984., Became the first pitcher in Major League history to finish with no more than 6 innings and strike out 15 batters in a 5–4 win against the Philadelphia Phillies on May 6. He did not factor into the decision., Recorded his 150th career win with a victory against the Baltimore Orioles on May 30. He became the 259th player to reach this mark., With his first-inning strikeout of Matt Carpenter of the St. Louis Cardinals on September 3, Scherzer recorded his fifth consecutive season of at least 250 strikeouts. He becomes the second pitcher in Major League history to accomplish this feat. He joins Randy Johnson who accomplished this in six consecutive seasons from 1997 to 2002., With his seventh-inning strikeout of Austin Dean of the Miami Marlins on September 25, Scherzer reached his 300th strikeout of the season. He becomes the 17th pitcher since 1900 to record 300 strikeouts in a season., Roberto Osuna (HOU)/:, On April 10, at the age of 23 years and 62 days, Osuna became the youngest pitcher in Major League history to record his 100th career save. Osuna was over a year younger than the previous record holder Francisco Rodríguez, who had accomplished the feat at the age of 24 years and 246 days., Josh Hader (MIL):, Became the first pitcher in Major League history to strike out eight batters in an outing of less than three innings. Hader struck out eight Cincinnati Reds on April 30 in 2 innings., Craig Kimbrel (BOS):, Recorded his 300th career save by closing out a 6–5 win over the Texas Rangers on May 5. He is the 29th player, and the fastest, to reach this mark., Justin Verlander (HOU):, Recorded his 2,500th career strikeout by fanning Shohei Ohtani of the Los Angeles Angels on May 16. He became the 33rd player to reach this mark., Recorded his 200th career victory by defeating the Oakland Athletics on August 19. He became the 117th player to reach this mark., Cole Hamels (CHC)/:, Recorded his 150th career win with a victory against the New York Yankees on May 22. He became the 258th player to reach this mark, Bartolo Colón (TEX):, Recorded his 2,500th career strikeout by getting Max Muncy of the Los Angeles Dodgers on June 12. He became the 34th player to reach this mark., With his victory on June 18 against the Kansas City Royals, Colón became the winningest pitcher in Major League history from the Dominican Republic. His 244th career win passed Hall of Famer Juan Marichal., With his victory on August 7 against the Seattle Mariners, Colón became the winningest Latin American-born pitcher in Major League history, passing Nicaragua's Dennis Martínez., Clayton Kershaw (LAD):, Recorded his 150th career win with a victory against the Seattle Mariners on August 19. He became the 260th player to reach this mark., Edwin Díaz (SEA):, Recorded his 50th save of the season by closing out a win against the Arizona Diamondbacks on August 25. With this save, he became the 16th player in Major League history, and the youngest to do so, to record 50 saves., Jacob deGrom (NYM):, Against the Miami Marlins on September 11, deGrom allowed two runs in seven innings of work. This was his 26th consecutive start of allowing three or fewer runs, setting a new Major League record. The old record was set by Leslie "King" Cole in 1910., With his quality start – at least six innings pitched and three earned runs or fewer allowed – on September 21 against the Washington Nationals, deGrom set the Major League record for most consecutive quality starts in history with his 23rd straight. This broke the record set by Bob Gibson (1968) and Chris Carpenter (2005)., German Marquez (COL):, Tied a modern Major League record (since 1900) by fanning the first eight Philadelphia Phillies he faced on September 26. He tied a record that is shared by Jim Deshaies and Jacob deGrom. The Arizona Diamondbacks became the first National League team since the 1907 Cubs to start the season with nine consecutive series wins., For the first time in Major League history, there were more strikeouts than hits in a month. At the end of April, there were 7,335 strikeouts and 6,992 hits. This happened again two other times. In June, there were 6,776 strikeouts and 6,641 hits. In September, there were 7,074 strikeouts and 6,641 hits., Houston Astros:, broke the record for the fewest runs allowed since 1920 (live ball era) in a 50-game span with 126 runs. The previous record was 128 set by the Cleveland Indians in 1968., On August 29, the Houston Astros' Tyler White hit the 81st walk-off home run of the season, which set a Major League single-season record, breaking the previous record set in 2004., Set an American League record for fewest runs allowed by a pitching staff in the Designated Hitter era with 534 runs allowed. The previous record was 551 runs allowed by the Oakland Athletics in 1974. The Astros also set a Major League record for strikeouts by a pitching staff with 1687 total strikeouts on the 2018 season. The previous record was 1614 strikeouts by the Cleveland Indians in 2017., On August 16, the Texas Rangers pulled off a 5–4 triple play in their 8–6 win over the Los Angeles Angels. It was only the third 5–4 triple play in the expansion era (since 1961), with the most recent one having occurred in 2007. In addition, it was the first triple play since 1912 in which the batter was not retired., Francisco Arcia (LAA):, On September 20 against the Oakland Athletics, Arcia became the first player in Major League history to catch, pitch, and hit a home run in the same game., For the first time in Major League history, there were more strikeouts than hits for the season. Hitters struck out 41,207 times and recorded 41,019 hits., The Yankees eclipsed the 1997 Mariners for the most home runs in a single season. They would finish the season with 267. The Yankees are also the first team in major league history to score at least 20 home runs in each of the nine batting order positions., On October 26 the Boston Red Sox and Los Angeles Dodgers squared off in what would become the longest World Series game in history, both by innings and time. Game 3 ran 18 innings over 7 hours and 20 minutes. The Dodgers would emerge victorious 3–2, off an opposite field walk-off home run hit by Max Muncy. This would cut Boston's lead in the series to 2–1. The Sporting News Player of the Year Award: Mookie Betts (BOS), Comeback Players of the Year: David Price (BOS, American); Jonny Venters (ATL, National), Hank Aaron Award: J.D. Martinez (BOS, American); Christian Yelich (MIL, National), Roberto Clemente Award (Humanitarian): Yadier Molina (STL), Mariano Rivera AL Reliever of the Year Award (Best AL reliever): Edwin Díaz (SEA), Trevor Hoffman NL Reliever of the Year Award (Best NL reliever): Josh Hader (MIL), Warren Spahn Award (Best left-handed pitcher): Blake Snell (TB) The Detroit Tigers modified the Olde English 'D' on the home jersey to match the 'D' on the cap. Other than a one-season hiatus of 'D' usage in 1960, this is the first major change to the Tigers' home jersey since 1934. The Cleveland Indians have confirmed this will be the final season using the Chief Wahoo logo on its uniforms. It will be replaced at the start of the 2019 season. The team wore a Wahoo-less uniform through their September 6–9 series with the Blue Jays, as the team had been sued unsuccessfully by a group in Ontario in October 2016 to prevent the team from donning the logo during Toronto home games through the 2016 ALCS. The Oakland Athletics added a kelly green alternate jersey to commemorate the franchise's 50th anniversary in Oakland. The uniforms are used during every Friday home game. The Washington Nationals added a second navy blue jersey to commemorate the team's hosting of the 2018 All-Star Game. The uniform features the script "Nationals" in white with red trim and numerals in red with white trim. Both the Cincinnati Reds and the Pittsburgh Pirates replaced their camouflage uniforms with new white alternate jerseys featuring olive and military green logos, letters and numbers. The following teams will wear commemorative patches for special occasions: As is the custom for the reigning World Series champions, the Astros wore gold-lettered uniforms at their home opener April 2 and April 3. Players, managers and coaches wore #42 on April 15, the 71st anniversary of Jackie Robinson's debut in the majors. The Orioles wore special caps and green uniforms on April 22, Earth Day. The Reds and Diamondbacks wore Spanish language "Los Rojos" and "Los D-backs" uniforms May 5, Cinco de Mayo. The Diamondbacks wore them again September 8. The Reds wore them again September 28. The Royals wore an alternate uniform with a crown atop the R, and a cap with a crown instead of the "KC", on June 30 in Seattle. The Blue Jays wore red uniforms on July 1, Canada Day. They wore a cap with a gold maple leaf, as well. All US-based teams wore Stars and Stripes caps and uniforms from July 2–4, ending with Independence Day. Teams wore caps denoting what league they play for (there were nine interleague series during the time period). For the second straight year, MLB sponsored Players Weekend, an event for which all teams wore special uniforms with design cues reminiscent of typical Little League uniforms. The event was held August 24 to 26, again coinciding with the final weekend of the Little League World Series. The Royals wore Spanish- language "Los Reales" uniforms September 1. The Orioles wore Braille uniforms September 18 to mark the 40th anniversary of the National Federation of the Blind's headquarters moving to Baltimore. They became the first pro sports team ever to wear such uniforms. The uniforms had the name "Orioles" in Braille, and the players' last names were in Braille. The Phillies will wear their 1980s powder blue uniforms for select Thursday home games. The Athletics and White Sox wore 1968 throwbacks April 17 to mark the 50th anniversary of the Athletics' first season in Oakland. The Tigers and Royals wore Negro Leagues throwbacks May 6. The Tigers wore the uniforms of the Detroit Stars, and the Royals wore the uniforms of the Kansas City Monarchs. The Padres wore 1998 throwbacks May 12 to mark the 20th anniversary of their 1998 NL title. They will wear them again at select Wednesday games. The Royals wore 1969 throwbacks May 19 to mark the franchise's 50th season. The uniforms also had the MLB 100th anniversary patch, which all teams wore that season. The White Sox and Brewers wore 1980s throwbacks June 2 and 3. The Marlins wore 1993 throwbacks June 8 to 10 to mark their 25th anniversary. The Braves wore 1974 throwbacks June 22 and 23 to celebrate Hank Aaron Heritage Weekend. The Mariners marked the 20th anniversary of their 1998 "Turn Ahead the Clock" promotion by wearing the uniforms from that game June 30 against Kansas City. The Brewers and Pirates wore Negro League throwbacks July 13. The Brewers wore the uniforms of the Milwaukee Bears, and the Pirates wore the uniforms of the Pittsburgh Crawfords. The Brewers wore Milwaukee Bears uniforms August 2. Their opponents, the Rockies, wore their regular uniforms. The Mariners and Astros wore throwbacks on August 10; the Mariners wore their 1979 throwbacks, and the Astros wore their "Tequila Sunrise" uniforms. The Angels wore California Angels throwbacks from 1976-1985 on August 27. The Rays wore their 1998 inaugural throwbacks on March 31 against the Boston Red Sox, on June 9 against the Seattle Mariners, and on June 23 against the New York Yankees, along with September 8 against the Baltimore Orioles. The Tigers wore their 1968 road uniforms September 8 at home to mark the 50th anniversary of their winning the 1968 World Series title. This was the fifth year of the current eight-year deals with Fox Sports, ESPN and TBS. Fox aired eight weeks of baseball on Saturday Nights leading up to the 2018 Major League Baseball All-Star Game which also aired on Fox. Fox also televised Saturday afternoon games for the last four weeks of the regular season. FS1 televised games on Tuesday and on Saturdays both during the afternoon and night. ESPN televised games on its flagship telecast Sunday Night Baseball as well as Monday and Wednesday Nights. TBS televised Sunday afternoon games for the last 13 weeks of the regular season. Fox and ESPN Sunday Night Baseball telecasts were exclusive; all other national telecasts were subject to local blackout. TBS televised the American League Wild Card Game, Division Series and televised the Championship Series. ESPN televised the National League Wild Card, along with the National League West and Central tie-breaker games. FS1 and MLB Network televised the National League Division Series. Fox and FS1 will televise the National League Championship Series. The World Series will air exclusively on Fox for the 19th consecutive year. On September 6, Fox Sports Detroit suspended Detroit Tigers play-by-play announcer Mario Impemba and color commentator Rod Allen for the remainder of the season after an alleged physical altercation that occurred on September 4, in which Allen reportedly placed Impemba in a choke hold at Chicago's Guaranteed Rate Field after a game they called between the Tigers and the Chicago White Sox, a claim Allen's agent has denied. Backup announcers Matt Shepard and Kirk Gibson replaced them for the rest of the season. It was later announced that Impemba and Allen's contracts were not renewed for future seasons, ending their 17 years together as broadcast partners. The Minnesota Twins returned to Entercom's WCCO/Minneapolis after twelve years on KSTP, followed by the Twins-owned FM station KQGO; WCCO has been the flagship for the Twins' network for 46 of the team's 58 years of existence. Entercom also took over all existing play-by-play contracts from their newly acquired stations from CBS Radio after the two companies merged their radio assets on November 17, 2017., The Chicago White Sox took on a new flagship station in Tribune Broadcasting's WGN/Chicago, after Cumulus Media asked to void their agreement to carry the team's games on WLS as part of its Chapter 11 bankruptcy filing, and Cumulus ending several high-profile talent and sports rights agreements due to their cost. The deal allows WGN to return to MLB play-by-play after a three-year hiatus after the end of their long association with the Chicago Cubs, who moved to WBBM in the 2015 season, then WSCR in 2016. WGN had previously carried White Sox broadcasts from 1927 until 1943., The San Diego Padres obtained a new flagship station after Entercom moved the team's broadcasts from KBZT to KEGY (both FM stations), which had flipped from a contemporary hit radio format to a short-lived hot talk format at the beginning of the season. After the team and fans reacted negatively to the schedule and personalities surrounding Padres games following a controversial social media post involving a never-launched morning show (to the point of consideration by the Padres to void the broadcast contract only three games into the season), Entercom switched KEGY within two weeks to a straight sports radio format and new calls in KWFN. ESPN Radio aired its 21st season of national coverage, including Sunday Night Baseball, Saturday games, Opening Day and holiday games, the All-Star Game, and Home Run Derby, and the entire Major League Baseball postseason. Nine regular season games were broadcast exclusively in the United States on Facebook Watch, beginning with the April 4 game between the New York Mets and Philadelphia Phillies. Kyle Lohse announced his retirement on May 10., Kris Medlen announced his retirement on May 27., Aaron Laffey announced his retirement on June 7 after allowing 14 runs (12 earned) in a minor league game., Brayan Pena announced his retirement on June 18., Jayson Werth announced his retirement on June 27., Shane Victorino announced his retirement on July 2 and retired on August 3 after signing a 1-day contract with the Philadelphia Phillies., Colby Rasmus announced his retirement on July 3., Chase Utley announced on July 13 that he would retire at the end of the season., Andre Ethier announced his retirement on July 25., Johnny Giavotella announced his retirement on August 11., Luke Hochevar announced his retirement on August 13., Brandon McCarthy announced on August 14 that he would retire at the end of the season., Victor Martinez announced on August 15 that he would retire at the end of the season., Ryan Howard announced his retirement on September 4., David Wright announced on September 13 that he would retire at the end of the season., Brad Ziegler announced his retirement on October 10., Joe Mauer announced his retirement on November 9., Adrián Beltré announced his retirement on November 20., Mike Napoli announced his retirement on December 8., Steve Johnson announced his retirement on December 21., Jaime García announced his retirement on January 9, 2019., Shawn Tolleson announced his retirement on January 16, 2019., Steve Delabar announced on February 4, 2019 that he is "ready to move on", though he hasn't filed the formal retirement paperwork at this time., Doug Fister announced his retirement on February 13, 2019., Rob Whalen announced his retirement on February 25, 2019., Peter Moylan announced his retirement from Major League Baseball on February 27, 2019., Julio Borbón announced his retirement on March 1, 2019., Charlie Furbush announced his retirement on March 7, 2019., Jon Moscot announced his retirement on March 7, 2019. Roy Halladay had his #32 retired posthumously by the Toronto Blue Jays on March 29. It is the third number retired by the franchise., Barry Bonds had his #25 retired by the San Francisco Giants on August 11. It is the 11th number retired by the franchise., Jack Morris had his #47 retired by the Detroit Tigers on August 12. It is the eighth number retired by the franchise., Jim Thome had his #25 retired by the Cleveland Indians on August 18. This is the ninth number retired by the franchise., Alan Trammell had his #3 retired by the Detroit Tigers on August 26. This is the ninth number retired by the franchise. 2018 in baseball, 2018 Nippon Professional Baseball season 2018 Major League Baseball season schedule The 2011 Major League Baseball season began on Thursday, March 31, and ended on Wednesday, September 28. This marked the first time a season began on a Thursday since 1976, and the first time a regular season ended on a Wednesday since 1990. The 82nd edition of the Major League Baseball All-Star Game was played at Chase Field in Phoenix, Arizona, on July 12 with the National League defeating the American League for the second straight year, by a score of 5–1. As has been the case since 2003, the league winning that game has home field advantage in the World Series. Accordingly, the World Series began on October 19, and ended on October 28, with the St. Louis Cardinals winning in seven games over the Texas Rangers. Only two teams were unable to complete the entire 162-game regular season schedule, as the make-up game between the Los Angeles Dodgers and the Washington Nationals at Nationals Park on September 8 was cancelled due to rain and not made up, owing to scheduling constraints and the game being inconsequential to the playoffs. Green backgrounds indicate teams that made the postseason. Numbers in parentheses indicate seedings for the postseason, determined by won-lost records. On the last day of the 2011 regular season, the post-season fate of four teams fighting for two playoff spots across both leagues was decided. In the National League, the St. Louis Cardinals defeated their National League Central division rival Houston Astros to win the National League wild card berth after the Atlanta Braves lost to their National League East division rivals, the Philadelphia Phillies. In the American League, the Tampa Bay Rays defeated their American League East division rivals the New York Yankees with dramatic home runs in the 9th inning by Dan Johnson and later in extra innings by Evan Longoria to win the American League wild card berth after the Baltimore Orioles defeated the Boston Red Sox, both also rivals in the American League East, on a walk-off single. This has been cited as the "most thrilling 129 minutes in baseball history." The Rays returned to the playoffs for the second consecutive year despite losing many players from the year before. The Red Sox and Braves suffered two of the most epic collapses their respective franchises had ever had, losing their playoff spots on the last day and in the last game of the season despite leading the next contending teams by multiple games at the start of the last month of the season. The Cardinals eventually rode the momentum of their win to win the NLDS and NLCS on their way to defeating the Texas Rangers for their 11th World Series title. The 2011 season was the final season of the single wildcard format, as MLB added second wildcard teams to each league starting with the 2012 season. The excitement of the final day of the 2011 season was cited as an argument against this change in format, as the new format would not have allowed for such an ending to the season. Wednesday, September 28, 2011 – 7:05 pm (EDT) at Oriole Park at Camden Yards in Baltimore, Maryland The Red Sox were favored by pundits to win the American League pennant prior to the start of the season due to acquisitions of Adrián González, Carl Crawford and Bobby Jenks. Despite a slow start, Boston darted to the top of the division during the summer months. Injuries plagued the team and they slowly lost first place to the Yankees, but were still in comfortable contention for the wild card. The month of September started an epic slump for the team where the team had allowed the Rays to get back into contention. However, Boston still controlled its own destiny going into their final series with the last place Orioles, but wound up having the season come down to the last game. The Red Sox had taken a lead for a good part of the game, but the Orioles mounted a comeback. The game was interrupted by a rain delay in the middle of the 7th with Boston ahead 3–2. After play had resumed almost an hour and a half later, the Orioles still trailed by a run in the bottom of the 9th. When leading after eight innings, the Red Sox were 77–0 in 2011. Facing closer Jonathan Papelbon, Chris Davis and Nolan Reimold hit back-to-back doubles with two outs, which tied the game. The next batter, Robert Andino, hit a line drive to left field which Carl Crawford was unable to catch, allowing Reimold to score and the Orioles walked off with the win. After the Orioles won, Andino, who had been a Red Sox killer of late, said, "End of season like this, to make Boston go home sad, crying, I'll take it all day." Wednesday, September 28, 2011 – 7:10 pm (EDT) at Tropicana Field in St. Petersburg, Florida The Yankees had already won the American League East several days prior to this contest. The Rays had been in third place behind both the Yankees and the Red Sox for much of the season. However, Boston had slowly started to lose many games in September due to poor starting and relief pitching, disappointing hitting from newly acquired free agent Carl Crawford throughout the year, and injuries to key players like Kevin Youkilis. The Rays, who had won the division in 2010, had lost many of their players to free agency. Despite the losses, the Rays had crawled back into contention and faced the Yankees in the final series of the year. Yankees manager Joe Girardi indicated that he would approach the final games so that the team's pitching staff would be set up for the 2011 ALDS against the Detroit Tigers. Suspicions rose to whether or not the Yankees would compete intensely due to them wanting to rest their aging players for the playoffs and to keep the Red Sox out, their fierce rivals whom they had a lopsided losing record to that season. Girardi indicated that many of his post-season pitchers would not be pitching that game. The Yankees, however, started the game strong by taking a 5–0 lead by the 2nd inning. Their lead grew to 7–0, which they held as the game entered the bottom of the 8th inning. In the 8th inning, the Rays scored six runs, capped off by a three-run home run by Evan Longoria. In the bottom of the 9th inning, down to his final strike, struggling Rays first baseman Dan Johnson hit a solo home run to tie the game. Already depleted from wanting to get pitchers who were not going to be on the post-season roster in, the Yankees went into extra innings with struggling pitchers. During Tampa Bay's half of the 12th inning, Evan Longoria hit his second home run of the game, a walk-off home run that cleared a short wall near the left field foul pole to win the game for the Rays just minutes after the Orioles' victory over the Red Sox. The win clinched the American League Wild Card for the Rays. Seat No. 10 in the first row behind the right-field foul pole has been painted white in honor of Dan Johnson's, game-tying, ninth-inning, pinch-hit blast during Game 162. They have also renamed the section beyond the left field foul pole "162 Landing" in honor of Longoria's game winning, 12th-inning home run. The National League wildcard race came down to the fate of two games on the last day of the regular season. Wednesday, September 28, 2011 – 7:05 pm (CDT) at Minute Maid Park in Houston, Texas The National League Central had been a two-way race late into the season with the Cardinals and Milwaukee Brewers vying for contention. After the Reds had fallen off, the Brewers had clinched the division. The Cardinals battled back despite perennial all-star Albert Pujols serving on the disabled list and not having pitcher Adam Wainwright. Upon Pujols' return, the Cardinals came within one game by defeating the Astros under nine innings of dominant pitching by ace pitcher Chris Carpenter. Wednesday, September 28, 2011 – 7:10 pm (EDT) at Turner Field in Atlanta, Georgia The Philadelphia Phillies had clinched a playoff berth, the division title, and the best league record for weeks. For most of the season, the Atlanta Braves had been in 2nd place in the National League East by a good margin and well ahead in the wildcard standings. The Phillies had something to play for, a franchise record in wins. They battled back to force the game into extra innings where they won and in effect, not only eliminated the Braves from post-season contention, but also set that record with 102, surpassing the previous record of 101 set back-to-back in 1976 and 1977 during their run of three straight division championships from 1976–1978. Charlie Manuel also became the winningest manager in the history of the Phillies with 646 wins, surpassing Gene Mauch, the manager of the Phillies when they collapsed in a similar way the Braves did in 1964. Note: Two teams in the same division could not meet in the division series The St. Louis Cardinals and the Milwaukee Brewers squared off in a season long division race and by the beginning of August, they were only a few games apart in the division. The Brewers would pull away for the crown, and the Cardinals continued poorly until they were games back of the wild card on August 25. They made a historical comeback in September to win the wild card from the Atlanta Braves on the last day of the season. Both teams would advance through the NLDS in five games setting up a 1982 World Series rematch. The Cardinals won the pennant in six games, clinching the series on the road. Four teams announced new managers for the 2011 season after the former manager retired from baseball. At the end of the 2010 season, three teams fired their managers and made replacements: The following managers who were interim managers for 2010 will lead their respective teams in 2011: One team has hired a new manager: David Ortiz (BOS):, Set the major league record for RBI by a designated hitter (1004) by driving in a run with a groundout in the fourth inning against the Texas Rangers on April 2. He broke the record that was previously held by Edgar Martínez., Recorded his 1,000th career run scored in the sixth inning against the Cleveland Indians on May 25. He became the 311th player to reach this mark., Ian Kinsler (TEX):, Became the first person in Major League history to hit leadoff home runs in his team's first two games of the season., Became the 12th player in Major League history to record two 30 (home runs)/30 (stolen bases) seasons. He reached this mark on September 27 with his 30th stolen base against the |Los Angeles Angels., Nelson Cruz (TEX):, Became the third player in Major League history, joining Willie Mays and Mark McGwire, and the first American League player to hit a home run in his fourth straight game to begin the baseball season., Became the first player in Major League history to hit an official walk-off grand slam in postseason history (against the Detroit Tigers in Game 2 of the 2011 American League Championship Series). With that, Cruz also became the first batter to hit a walk-off hit in postseason for the Texas Rangers., Set two postseason records with six home runs and 13 RBIs in the American League Championship Series against the Detroit Tigers. Cruz won the American League Championship Series Most Valuable Player Award., Chipper Jones (ATL):, Passed Mickey Mantle for second all-time for RBI by a switch-hitter by driving in his 1,510th run with a RBI groundout in the first inning against the San Diego Padres on April 27. Eddie Murray is the all-time leader with 1,917 RBIs., Jimmy Rollins (PHI):, Recorded his 1,000th career run scored in the eighth inning against the Washington Nationals on April 12. He became the 310th player to reach this mark., Recorded his 100th career triple in the ninth inning against the St. Louis Cardinals on September 19. He became the 161st player to reach this mark., Johnny Damon (TB):, Became the first player in Major League history to hit a walk-off home run with five different teams by hitting the game-winning home run against the Minnesota Twins on April 14. He also hit walk-off home run with the Kansas City Royals, New York Yankees, Detroit Tigers and Boston Red Sox., Michael Young (TEX):, Recorded his 2,000th career hit with a single in the seventh inning against the Cleveland Indians on August 7. He became the 265th player, and first Rangers player, to reach this mark., Recorded his 1,000th career run in the third inning against the Oakland Athletics on September 20. He became the 313th player to reach this mark., Adam Dunn (CHW):, Tied the Major League record with his 16th game this season that he went hitless and struck out at least three times in the game on August 1 against the New York Yankees. He joins Mark Reynolds, who set the record in 2009. He set the Major League record with his 17th such game on August 10 against the Baltimore Orioles. He finished the season with 18 such games., Andre Ethier (LAD):, Set a Major League record by hitting in 23 consecutive games in April with a double in first inning against the Florida Marlins on April 26. He broke the record that was held by Joe Torre in 1971. Ethier extended his April hitting streak to 26 games on April 30., Tied the franchise record for consecutive seasons with 30-plus doubles with his double on September 6 against the Washington Nationals. Ethier tied Jackie Robinson with five consecutive seasons., Ben Zobrist (TB):, Became the fourth player in Major League history to record at least seven hits and 10 RBIs in a single day since RBIs became an official stat in 1920. The other three are Jim Bottomley (1929), Pete Fox (1935) and Nate Colbert (1972)., Carlos Lee (HOU):, Recorded his 2,000th career hit in the first inning with a single against the New York Mets on May 14. He became the 261st player to reach this mark., Brian McCann (ATL):, Became the second player in Major League history to hit a pinch-hit, game-tying home run in the ninth inning and end the game in extra innings with another home run on May 17 against the Houston Astros. Jeff Heath, of the Boston Braves accomplished this feat on August 27, 1949, against the Cincinnati Reds., Wilson Ramos (WSH):, Became the fifth catcher (joining Jarrod Saltalamacchia, Jody Davis, Wes Westrum and Walker Cooper) since 1920 to score five runs in a single game and just the second catcher (the other is Westrum in 1950) to score five runs, hit a home run and a triple in the same game on May 20 against the Baltimore Orioles., Asdrúbal Cabrera (CLE):, Became the fifth shortstop (joining Barry Larkin, John Valentin, Cal Ripken, Jr. and Roy McMillan) since 1920 to have five hits and two home runs in a game on May 22 against the Cincinnati Reds., Wilson Valdez (PHI):, Became the first position player to earn a win since Colorado Rockies catcher Brent Mayne on August 22, 2000, by recording the victory against the Cincinnati Reds on May 25., Brandon Crawford (SF):, Became the sixth player in Major League history to hit a grand slam in his first Major League game on May 27 against the Milwaukee Brewers., José Reyes (NYM):, After 1,000 career major-league games, Reyes has 98 triples and 360 stolen bases. The only other player in history with that many triples and stolen bases in their first 1000 games is Ty Cobb, who had 106 triples and 391 steals., Became the first player in the Mets' 50-year history to win the batting title by hitting .337., José Bautista (TOR):, With 11 home runs during the month of May, the most in the American League, it was the fifth straight month in which he led the American League in home runs (excluding March and October) joining Jimmie Foxx in 1933–1934., Danny Espinosa (WSH):, Became the first rookie second-baseman in Major League history to hit 10 home runs before June 1., Curtis Granderson (NYY):, Became the second player in Major League history to have 17 or more home runs and five or more triples in a season before June 1. He joins Babe Ruth, who did it for the Yankees in 1928., Became the third player in American League history (tenth in Major League history) to record at least 30 home runs, 20 steals and 10 triples in the same season with his triple on August 18 against the Minnesota Twins. The other American Leaguers were Ken Williams (1922) and Nomar Garciaparra (1997)., Became the second player in Major League history to have hit 40 home runs, 10 triples and have 20 stolen bases in a season on September 17 against the Toronto Blue Jays. Willie Mays accomplished this feat in 1955., Paul Konerko (CHW):, Recorded his 1,000th career run scored in the second inning against the Seattle Mariners on June 7. He became the 312th player to reach this mark., Recorded his 2,000th career hit in the eighth inning against the |Los Angeles Angels on August 23. He became the 266th player to reach this mark., Orlando Cabrera (SF):, Recorded his 2,000th career hit with a single in the second inning against the New York Yankees on June 12. He became the 262nd player to reach this mark., Vladimir Guerrero (BAL):, With his single in the sixth inning against the Boston Red Sox on September 26, Guerrero became the all-time hits leader (2,587 hits) among Dominican-born players, passing Julio Franco., Mark Teixeira (NYY):, Set the Major League record for most switch-hitting home runs in the same game by hitting home runs from both sides of the plate for the 12th game of his career against the Chicago White Sox on August 2. He broke the record that he shared with Eddie Murray and Chili Davis., Scott Rolen (CIN):, Recorded his 2,000th career hit with a single in the first inning against the St. Louis Cardinals on July 4. He became the 263rd player to reach this mark., Derek Jeter (NYY):, Recorded his 3,000th career hit with a home run in the third inning against the Tampa Bay Rays on July 9. He became the 28th player to reach this mark., Mike Cameron (FLA):, Became the first player in Major League history with a multiple-home run game for eight different teams by hitting two home runs against the Washington Nationals on July 27. He broke the record that he shared with Jeromy Burnitz and Reggie Sanders., Albert Pujols (STL):, Recorded his 2,000th career hit with a double in the eighth inning against the Chicago Cubs on July 29. He became the 264th player to reach this mark., Reached 30 home runs for the 11th straight season with his home run on August 16 against the Pittsburgh Pirates. Barry Bonds (13), Alex Rodriguez (13) and Jimmie Foxx (12) are the only other players to have streaks of more than ten seasons with at least 30 home runs., Jason Kipnis (CLE):, Became the first player in Major League history to homer in four consecutive games within two weeks of his debut with his home run against the Boston Red Sox on August 3., J. D. Martinez (HOU):, Became the fifth player in Major League history to have as many as four home runs and 12 RBIs through his first ten games in the majors. He joins Dino Restelli (1949 Pirates), Alvin Davis (1984 Mariners), Mark Quinn (1999 Royals) and Taylor Teagarden (2008 Rangers)., Dan Uggla (ATL):, With a home run on August 12 against the Chicago Cubs, Uggla became the fourth player in Major League history to have at least a 32-game hitting streak and 25-or-more home runs in the same season. The others were Roger Hornsby (1922), Joe DiMaggio (1941), Tommy Holmes (1945) and Chase Utley (2006)., With his 15th home run during his hitting streak on August 13 against the Chicago Cubs, Uggla tied the Major League record for most home runs during a hitting streak of any length. Joe DiMaggio hit 15 home runs during his 56-game hitting streak in 1941, Willie McCovey hit 15 home runs during his 24-game hitting streak in 1963 and Alex Rodriguez hit 15 home runs during a 23-game hitting streak that spanned the 2006 and 2007 seasons., With his 30th home run on August 22 against the Chicago Cubs, Uggla became the first second baseman in modern baseball history (since 1900) with five seasons of at least 30 home runs., Ryan Zimmerman (WSH):, Became the first player in Major League history to have hit eight walk-off home runs in his first seven seasons with his walk-off grand slam on August 19 against the Philadelphia Phillies., Ryan Howard (PHI):, Played the 1,000th game of his big-league career on August 24. His 279 home runs is the most in Major League history through 1000 games breaking the old record of 277 that was held by Ralph Kiner., Matt Kemp (LAD):, Became the 55th player in Major League history to record a 30 (home runs)/30 (stolen bases) season. He reached this mark on August 26 with his 30th home run against the Colorado Rockies., Became the second player in Major League history to record a season in which he hit .320 or better with at least 35 home runs, 125 RBIs and 35 stolen bases. The other was Ken Williams who accomplished this feat in 1922 for the St. Louis Browns., Adrián Beltré (TEX):, Recorded his 2,000th career hit with a single in the sixth inning against the Boston Red Sox on September 4. He became the 267th player to reach this mark., Juan Pierre (CHW):, Recorded his 2,000th career hit with a single in the seventh inning against the Cleveland Indians on September 8. He became the 268th player to reach this mark., Ryan Braun (MIL):, Became the 56th player in Major League history to record a 30 (home runs)/30 (stolen bases) season. He reached this mark on September 16 with his 30th home run against the Cincinnati Reds., Drew Stubbs (CIN):, Became the second player in Major League history to have struck out at least 200 times in a season on September 20 against the Houston Astros. He joins Mark Reynolds who accomplished this feat in 2008, 2009 and 2010., Starlin Castro (CHC):, With his 200th hit coming against the St. Louis Cardinals on September 23, he is the fifth youngest player in the last 100 years at the time of his 200th hit of a season. Castro was 21 years and 183 days. The four players that were younger than Castro at the time of their 200th hit in the season was Al Kaline, 1955 Detroit Tigers (20 years, 279 days), Vada Pinson, 1959 Cincinnati Reds (21 years, 39 days), Alex Rodriguez, 1996 Seattle Mariners (21 years, 48 days) and Buddy Lewis, 1937 Washington Senators (21 years, 50 days)., At the age of 21 years, became the youngest player ever to lead the National League in hits with 207, breaking the record held by Charlie Hollocher (22 years, 83 days old on final day of season) in 1918., Jacoby Ellsbury (BOS):, Became the 57th player in Major League history to record a 30 (home runs)/30 (stolen bases) season. He reached this mark on September 25 with his 30th home run against the New York Yankees. Ellsbury also became the first player in Red Sox history to join the 30/30 club., Ryan Lavarnway (BOS):, Became the third player in Major League history to hit multiple home runs in the first game that he had started behind the plate on September 27 against the Baltimore Orioles. The others were J. P. Arencibia (August 7, 2010) and Bobby Pfeil (July 27, 1971). Lavarnway also became the first player in Major League history to hit his first two big-league homers in the same game for a team trying to earn a postseason berth, in either of the season's last two scheduled games (excluding tie-breaker games)., Evan Longoria (TB):, Became the second player in Major League history to hit a walk-off home run in the team's final game of the regular season and clinch a postseason berth for his club. The other was Bobby Thomson's 1951 "shot heard 'round the world"., Eugenio Vélez (LAD):, With his ground out as a pinch hitter in the eighth inning on September 28 against the Arizona Diamondbacks, he set a modern-day record for non-pitchers with his 46th straight hitless at-bat breaking the record that was held by Bill Bergen, Dave Campbell and Craig Counsell. He finished the season hitless in 37 at-bats, which broke the record of 35 that was set by Hal Finney in 1936., Alex Rodriguez (NYY):, Became the first hitter to strike out to end a game that eliminated them from competition in the post-season twice in a row (against the Texas Rangers in the 2010 American League Championship Series and the Detroit Tigers in the 2011 American League Division Series) Francisco Liriano (MIN):, Threw the fifth no-hitter in Minnesota Twins history and the seventh in franchise history (the other two came when the club was known as the Washington Senators) in a 1–0 win over the Chicago White Sox in Chicago on May 3. It was also Liriano's first complete game in 95 major league starts. Liriano also became just the fifth pitcher in the last 30 years to throw a no-hitter that included more walks (6) than strikeouts (2). In addition, he carried the second-highest ERA (minimum three starts) of 9.13 into the outing of any pitcher to go on to throw a no-hitter, according to the Elias Sports Bureau., Justin Verlander (DET):, Threw the seventh no-hitter in Tigers history by defeating the Toronto Blue Jays in Toronto on May 7. This was Verlander's second no-hitter, his first coming against the Milwaukee Brewers in 2007. Verlander allowed one walk but still faced the minimum of 27 batters. He became the second Tigers pitcher (Virgil Trucks) and the 30th pitcher in Major League history to throw multiple career no-hitters., Ervin Santana (LAA):, Threw the ninth no-hitter in Angels history by defeating the Cleveland Indians 3–1 in Cleveland on July 27. This was Santana's first career no-hitter. Santana walked only one batter while striking out 10, but he allowed one unearned run, a wild pitch in the 1st. His no-no improved him to 6–8 on the year. Jered Weaver (LAA):, Became the first pitcher in Major League history with six wins by April 25. He defeated the Oakland Athletics to set this record. He also became the sixth pitcher since 1900 with six wins by the end of April joining Vida Blue (1971), Dave Stewart (1988), Randy Johnson (2000, 2002) and Brandon Webb (2008)., Vin Mazzaro (KC):, According to The Elias Sports Bureau, Mazzaro became the first pitcher to give up at least 14 runs in fewer than three innings (2.1) in baseball's modern era (since 1900) against the Cleveland Indians on May 16., Jo-Jo Reyes (BAL)/:, Tied the major league record by making his 28th consecutive start without recording a win on May 25 against the New York Yankees. He ties the record that is currently held by Matt Keough (1978–79) and Cliff Curtis (1910–11)., Mariano Rivera (NYY):, Became the first pitcher in Major League history to have appeared in 1,000 games for one team by closing out the Yankees win on May 25 against the Toronto Blue Jays. Rivera became the 15th pitcher overall to reach this plateau., Recorded his 20th save of the season by closing out a win against the Colorado Rockies on June 26. This is the 15th time that Rivera has reached 20 saves in one season, tying Trevor Hoffman for the most 20-plus save seasons in Major League history., Recorded his 25th save of the season by closing out a win against the Oakland Athletics on July 24. This extends his record to 15 consecutive seasons with 25 or more saves., Set a Major League record for consecutive 30-save seasons with nine by closing out the win against the |Los Angeles Angels on August 11., With his save on September 5 against the Baltimore Orioles, Rivera set the Major League record for the most saves by any pitcher against any team. His 69th save against the Orioles broke the record that Trevor Hoffman had against the Los Angeles Dodgers., Recorded his 600th career save by closing out a win against the Seattle Mariners on September 13. He became the 2nd player to reach this mark., With his save on September 19 against the Minnesota Twins, Rivera became the all-time saves leader in Major League history with his 602nd save, breaking Trevor Hoffman's record., Francisco Cordero (CIN):, Recorded his 300th career save by closing out a win against the Milwaukee Brewers on June 1. He became the 22nd player to reach this mark., With his 321st save on September 6 against the Chicago Cubs, Cordero tied José Mesa for the most saves by any pitcher from the Dominican Republic., Craig Kimbrel (ATL):, Tied the Major League record for most saves by a rookie before the All-Star break since 1969 that was set by Jonathan Papelbon in 2006 by closing out the game against the Colorado Rockies on July 5. It was Kimbrel's 26th save. He set the rookie record on July 7 with his 27th save by closing out a win against the Colorado Rockies. He finished with 28 saves before the All-Star Game., Tied the Major League record for most saves by a rookie by recording his 40th save on August 23 against the Chicago Cubs. He tied the record that was set by Neftalí Feliz that was set in 2010. He then broke the record with his 41st against the Washington Nationals on August 31. He finished with 46 saves., Zach Britton (BAL):, Became the first player in Major League history to allow eight-or-more runs while lasting less than an inning in each of two consecutive starts. He allowed eight runs in two-thirds of an inning on July 8 against the Boston Red Sox and then in his next start on July 30 against the New York Yankees allowed nine runs in one-third of an inning., Sergio Santos (CHW):, Set the Major League record for most consecutive scoreless road games to begin a season on August 11 against the Baltimore Orioles. He hasn't been charged with a run in 25 appearances in road games this year. He broke the record that was previously held by Mariano Rivera., Jason Isringhausen (NYM):, Recorded his 300th career save by closing out a win against the San Diego Padres on August 15. He became the fourth-oldest pitcher at his time of his 300th save, behind Doug Jones, Dennis Eckersley and Todd Jones. He became the 23rd player to reach this mark., Alfredo Aceves (BOS):, With his victory in relief against the Oakland Athletics on August 27, Aceves lifted his career record to 23–2. This set the Major League record for the most wins by a pitcher in his first 25 decisions, breaking the record held by Larry Corcoran who had 22 wins in his first 25 decisions in 1880., Cliff Lee (PHI):, Became the first pitcher in Major League history to have two months in one season with at least five wins, no losses and an ERA under 0.50. Lee went 5–0 with a 0.21 ERA in June and then went 5–0 with a 0.45 ERA in August., Yoshinori Tateyama (TEX):, Became the second player in Major League history to allow grand slams to consecutive batters faced. He gave up a grand slam to Carl Crawford on September 3 then in his next appearance on September 10, allowed a grand slam to the first batter he faced, Scott Sizemore. Greg McCarthy did this in 1998., Roy Halladay (PHI):, Became the sixth player in Major League history to finish at least seven games over .500 in seven consecutive seasons. The other pitchers to do that are in the Hall of Fame: Tim Keefe (seven years, 1883–89), John Clarkson (nine, 1884–92), Kid Nichols (nine, 1890–98), Christy Mathewson (12, 1903–14) and Lefty Grove (seven, 1927–33)., Micah Owings (ARI):, Became the second pitcher in modern Major League history to earn a victory in which he recorded three-or-fewer outs while allowing five-or-more runs on September 27 against the Los Angeles Dodgers. Jack Knott was the other pitcher who accomplished this on May 22, 1934. Mike Scioscia (LAA):, Became the 56th manager in Major League history to have 1,000 or more victories as his Angels defeated the Cleveland Indians on May 8. Scioscia is also the 23rd manager to get 1000 or more victories with a single team. He began his career as a manager in 2000, and reached this mark in 1817 games., Houston Astros, During their 5-1 loss to the Tampa Bay Rays on June 24, the Astros become the first team to use three pitchers with the same last name in a single game. Starter Wandy Rodríguez is followed to the mound by Fernando Rodríguez in the seventh and eighth inning, with Aneury Rodríguez pitching a scoreless ninth inning., San Francisco Giants:, Became the first team in Major League history to sweep a homestand of six games or more without scoring more than four runs in any of the games. They defeated the Colorado Rockies 4–3, 3–2, and 3–0 and defeated the Arizona Diamondbacks 1–0, 4–3, and 3–2. The games took place May 6 through May 12., Tied the Major League record for consecutive solo home runs by hitting their 19th consecutive on August 10 against the Pittsburgh Pirates. Pablo Sandoval home run matched the record set by the Philadelphia Phillies in 1914. The Giants finished with 21 straight solo home runs when Cody Ross hit a 2-run home run on August 14 against the Florida Marlins., Tampa Bay Rays:, Became the first team in Major League history to avoid having more than one error in its first 49 games, according to statistics provided by the Rays from the Elias Sports Bureau. The streak stopped after 52 games., Set the American League record for consecutive starts by a pitcher under the age of 30 on July 27 against the Oakland Athletics. James Shields start gave the Rays their 705th consecutive start which broke the record set by the Washington Senators from 1913 to 1917. The last Rays pitcher that was at least 30 years old to start was Jae Seo on May 24, 2007, which happened to be his 30th birthday., Won their 1,000th game against the Texas Rangers on September 7. The Rays have lost 1245 games., Became the first American League team to start a season 0–6 and make the postseason., Arizona Diamondbacks:, Became the first team in Major League history to enter the month of May with at least a 6½-game deficit in their league (pre 1969) or division (since 1969) and gain sole possession of first place during the month on May 29., With their 90th win against the Pittsburgh Pirates on September 21, the Diamondbacks become the eighth team in Major League history to win 90 games in a season after losing at least 90 games in each of the previous two seasons., With their division clinching victory on September 23, the Diamondbacks tied the Major League record for most losses in the previous season (65–97) by a team that finished in first place. The other two teams were the 1991 Atlanta Braves and the 1999 Diamondbacks., Tony La Russa (STL):, Joins Connie Mack (7,755 games) as the only manager or coach in American professional sports history to reach 5,000 games managed on June 10 against the Milwaukee Brewers., Pittsburgh Pirates/Houston Astros:, The Pirates (six) and Astros (four) used ten pitchers in the Pirates 1–0 victory on June 14. That is the most pitchers used in a 9-inning 1–0 game played without expanded rosters in Major League history., New York Yankees:, All four starting infielders (Mark Teixeira, Robinson Canó, Eduardo Núñez, Ramiro Peña) hit home runs on June 15 becoming the second time in team history that the Yankees had home runs from each of their starting infielders. The previous quartet to do so was Babe Dahlgren, Joe Gordon, Frankie Crosetti and Red Rolfe on August 22, 1939., Became the third team in modern Major League history (since 1900) to issue no walks while sweeping a four-game series. They swept the Chicago White Sox from August 1–4. They join the Boston Red Sox who accomplished this feat against the White Sox in 1968 (August 5–8) and against Washington in 1905 (June 29 – July 3)., Became the first team in Major League history to hit three grand slams in a game on August 25 against the Oakland Athletics. Robinson Canó, Russell Martin and Curtis Granderson hit the grand slams in the 22–9 victory., Set the Major League record (since 1900) for best winning percentage in day games with a 44–12 (.786) record. This broke the record of .748 that was held by the 1906 Chicago Cubs., Kansas City Royals:, On September 15, Melky Cabrera hit his 40th double as an outfielder (he had one as a designated hitter) to become the first team in Major League history to have three outfielders with 40 or more doubles in a season. Joining him is Alex Gordon and Jeff Francoeur., On September 21, Billy Butler hit his 40th double this season to become the fourth Royals player to reach 40 doubles in a season. The Royals become the fourth team in Major League history to have four player reach that many doubles in a season, joining the Texas Rangers (2006), Philadelphia Phillies (1932) and the Detroit Tigers (1929)., San Diego Padres/San Francisco Giants:, The Padres (17) and Giants (19) pitching staffs combined to strike out 36 batters in their 14-inning game on July 6. This is the most combined strikeouts in a game of 14 or fewer innings since 1900. The previous record was 35, that was set in August 2007, by the Oakland Athletics (21) and Texas Rangers (14) in 13-innings., Atlanta Braves:, Became the fifth franchise in Major League history to record 10,000 wins in league history by defeating the Washington Nationals on July 15., Became the fourth franchise in Major League history to score 90,000 runs as Dan Uggla scored in the seventh inning against the Florida Marlins on July 29. They join the Chicago Cubs, San Francisco Giants and the St. Louis Cardinals., Became the second franchise in Major League history to record 10,000 losses in league history by losing to the Florida Marlins on July 31. They join the Philadelphia Phillies as the only other franchise to reach this mark., Boston Red Sox/Tampa Bay Rays:, The Red Sox (five) and Rays (three) combined for only eight hits in Boston's 16-inning, 1–0 victory on July 17. This is the lowest hit total in any Major League game of 14 or more innings in the live-ball era (since 1920)., Terry Francona:, Became the 57th manager in Major League history to have 1,000 or more victories as his Red Sox defeated the Seattle Mariners on July 23. Francona reached this mark in 1880 games., CC Sabathia/Carlos Zambrano:, Both pitchers allowed five home runs on August 12. This was the second time in Major League history that two pitchers allowed at least five home runs on the same day. The other was September 21, 1996, and Jeff D'Amico and Dave Telgheder were the pitchers., Milwaukee Brewers:, Became the first team in Major League history to earn a shutout win, hit at least three home runs, and execute a triple play in the same game on August 15 against the Los Angeles Dodgers., Philadelphia Phillies:, With their loss to the New York Mets on September 24, the Phillies extended their losing streak to eight games. This set a Major League record for most consecutive losses by a team that had at least 95 wins breaking the old record of seven that was held by the 1987 Toronto Blue Jays., Pittsburgh Pirates:, With their loss to the St. Louis Cardinals on September 14, the Pirates extended their record for most consecutive losing season to 19. Their last winning record was in 1992., Mike Carp/Eric Hosmer:, Both rookies went 5-for-5 on September 20. This marked the first time in modern Major League history (since 1900) that two rookies both went 5-for-5 or better on the same day., Toronto Blue Jays:, With their extra-inning victory on September 22 against the Los Angeles Angels, it was their 14th consecutive extra-inning win at the Rogers Centre, which tied the Major League record that was set by the Chicago Cubs from July 1928 to August 1930., Major League Baseball:, The 200,000th regular-season game in Major League Baseball history was recognized on September 24 at Minute Maid Park as the Colorado Rockies and Houston Astros game became official around 8:45pm EDT. The Rockies won the game in extra-innings., Boston Red Sox:, With their 20th loss (in 27 games) to the Baltimore Orioles on September 28, the Red Sox tied a Major League record for most losses from September 1 to the end of a season by a team that entered the month in first place. The 1914 New York Giants went 21–20 to finish the season. Comeback Players of the Year: Jacoby Ellsbury (BOS, American); Lance Berkman (STL, National), Hank Aaron Award: José Bautista (TOR, American); Matt Kemp (LAD, National), Roberto Clemente Award (Humanitarian): David Ortiz (BOS), Delivery Man of the Year (Best Reliever): José Valverde (DET), Warren Spahn Award (Best left-handed pitcher): Clayton Kershaw (LAD), Clutch Performer of the Year: Two more teams joined the growing cable-exclusive telecast teams in 2011. Fox Sports Midwest produced and televised all St. Louis Cardinals games on the cable station, along with selected areas of the Cardinals' DMA outside St. Louis including Fox Sports Tennessee in Tennessee, Fox Sports Indiana in parts of Indiana, and SportsSouth in Arkansas and parts of Oklahoma. The 2010 season was their last season of splitting games with KSDK. The Minnesota Twins also joined the group, with Fox Sports North becoming their exclusive local home. The 2010 season was their last season of splitting games with WFTC. Atlanta Braves games that aired on WPCH-TV were be produced by and simulcast on Fox Sports South or SportSouth, marking the first season since 1972 which local Braves telecasts weren't be produced by Turner Sports. The national telecast breakdown is as follows, along with the maximum number of appearances per team: Fox: Saturday afternoon Game of the Week on a regional basis; up to nine appearances per team. In addition, the network broadcast the All-Star Game, ALCS, and World Series. Fox Deportes held Spanish broadcast rights to the World Series. Most Saturday games started at 4 PM US EDT/1 pm PDT, except for games on April 9, April 30 and May 7, when those telecasts began at 1 PM US EDT/10 AM US PDT due to NASCAR coverage and on May 14, 21 and 28, the latter because of the UEFA Champions League final as those games were scheduled to start at 7 PM ET/4 PM PT., ESPN/ESPN2: Sunday Night Baseball on a weekly basis; five appearances per team. A new broadcast team with Dan Shulman and Orel Hersheiser joined Bobby Valentine, replacing Jon Miller and Joe Morgan. In addition, there were games on Monday and Wednesday nights (with the Monday games moving to either Wednesday nights to form a doubleheader or Friday nights when the 2011 NFL season began), Opening Day games on both March 31 and April 1, and the Home Run Derby on July 11. ESPN Deportes held Spanish rights to the Sunday night package., TBS: Sunday afternoon games starting on April 3; 13 appearances per team. TBS also carried the announcement of the All-Star teams in the National and American Leagues on July 3 as well as the Division Series and the NLCS as per an alternating contract with Fox. Blackout rules applied as HLN broadcast in the teams' markets during the regular season., MLB Network: The network again aired a Thursday Night Game of the Week, games on Tuesday, Friday and Saturday nights, and selected afternoon games. Thursday night games were mostly produced in-house, while all other games came from home teams' video productions. Blackouts applied, as viewers in competing teams' markets saw an alternative game from the feed of selected home teams. In addition, holiday games on Memorial Day (May 30), day games on July 4, Labor Day (September 5) and in addition, commencing in August, expanded coverage of the pennant races took place. In Canada, Toronto Blue Jays games were televised on Rogers Sportsnet, which also held the Canadian rights to air the Fox and ESPN/ESPN2 games if they did not conflict with Blue Jays' games, and additional regular season games on a regional basis on Rogers Sportsnet One as well as the All-Star Game and the entire postseason. TSN2 held rights to the ESPN Sunday Night Baseball telecasts. In Australia, it was free to air channel One HD and showed up to five games live per week, and European channel ESPN America broadcast games as well. For international viewers, MLB International broadcast the All-Star Game, the NLCS and the World Series. ESPN Radio served as MLB's national radio network, broadcasting Sunday Night Baseball as well as selected Saturday and holiday games during the regular season, the Home Run Derby and All-Star Game, and all postseason series. ESPN Deportes Radio held the Spanish language rights to the Fall Classic. The San Diego Padres changed the color of their road uniforms from the khaki/sand color to the standard gray road uniform., The Washington Nationals unveiled new uniforms on November 10. The road uniform remained unchanged except for the minor modifications in the letter W and a navy cap with red bill. The home and alternate uniforms featured the 'pretzeled W' logo exclusively on the left side, with the number on the right side. The gold accents were also removed. The blue alternates featured the 'pretzeled W' in the Stars and Stripes motif and were used on holiday games and accompanied with the official MLB commemorative cap., The Cleveland Indians unveiled a new road uniform featuring 'Cleveland' in block lettering and in navy with red trim. The accompanying cap featured a red block 'C' in navy blue, previously accompanying the cream retro home alternates, which were dressed with an alternate cap featuring a navy block 'C' in red., The Chicago White Sox added the Old English Sox logo on the left sleeve of the road uniforms, replacing the 'Pale Hose' logo. The Braves and Phillies wore Negro League uniforms for the May 14 with the Braves donning the Atlanta Black Crackers replicas, and the Phillies wore Philadelphia Stars uniforms. In addition, for the Civil Rights Game the following day, both teams donned 1974 uniforms with a special 'Civil Rights Game' patch on the upper back of the jersey., The Padres were involved in four Turn Back the Clock games, their first was on June 11 at home against the Nationals as both donned 1936 uniforms (The Pacific Coast League version) and the Nats wore 1936 American League forerunners unis. On July 1, the Padres donned their brown, orange and yellow 1984 championship unis against the Seattle Mariners at Safeco Field, then honored their late manager Dick Williams wearing a patch with his initials ("RHW") on July 14 at home against the Giants, and again on July 22 in Philadelphia with the Ray Kroc initials., Fans of the Los Angeles Dodgers chose in an online survey the 1944 light blue uniforms worn in Brooklyn for night games, which were made of satin; however, they wore those for six weekday day games at Dodger Stadium and they were made from polyester. The opponents for all the weekday games wore throwbacks as well, starting with the Atlanta Braves on April 21, the Chicago Cubs on May 4, the Cincinnati Reds on June 15, and the Detroit Tigers on June 22. The Phillies and Padres opted to wear their regular uniforms for their August 10 and 31 games., On May 21, the Red Sox and Cubs wore 1918 uniforms to mark the Cubs' first visit to Fenway Park since the 1918 World Series., On June 21, during the interleague series between the Pittsburgh Pirates and the Baltimore Orioles, the teams donned replica uniforms that were used in the 1971 World Series. The Pirates were the first team to wear the standard double knit unis in 1970, when they moved from Forbes Field to Three Rivers Stadium that summer., The Minnesota Twins announced on May 16 a change to 1961 throwbacks at all their home games for the remainder of the season, as a tribute to Harmon Killebrew., On July 2, the Tampa Bay Rays wore 1950s throwback uniforms of the minor league team Tampa Smokers at home against the St. Louis Cardinals, who wore their 1950s throwbacks as well. The cigar located at the bottom of the Smokers wordmark was removed to avoid connotations with smoking., July 9 saw a tribute to the Negro Leagues in Milwaukee, with the Brewers donning the 1921 Milwaukee Bears set, while the Cincinnati Reds wore 1930s Cincinnati Tigers uniforms. A week later, during the 9th Annual Negro League weekend at Detroit, the Chicago White Sox wore the jerseys of the Chicago American Giants and the Detroit Tigers honored the Detroit Stars during the 17th Annual Negro League Tribute Game. Another Nego League tribute game was held at PNC Park where the Pirates (Homestead Grays) faced the Cardinals (St. Louis Stars)., On July 17, the A's and Angels wore 1980s throwbacks for "80's Day" at Oakland. As part of the promotion, fans got a MC Hammer bobblehead, who was once an executive under Charles O. Finley's ownership in the late 1970s., On September 9–11, the Diamondbacks wore their purple pinstripe uniforms that were used in Game 7 of the 2001 World Series. They wore the old uniforms in honor of the 10th anniversary reunion of the 2001 team that defeated the Yankees to win their only World Series. Besides the Diamondbacks wearing the All-Star Game logo on their uniforms, the following teams have added several memorial patches:, Both the Cincinnati Reds and the Detroit Tigers honored Sparky Anderson with a memorial on their sleeves. Cincinnati featured "SPARKY", while the Tigers wore both "Sparky" and his uniform #11 on a patch. In addition, the Tigers retired Anderson's #11., The Indians honored Bob Feller with a patch featuring his retired #19 and an illustration of him in his famous windup., The Dodgers saluted Duke Snider with a patch in a black circle with his retired #4 in white on their right sleeve., The Mariners honored their long-time play-by-play announcer Dave Niehaus with a patch on their sleeve, featuring his famous call "My Oh My!", The Chicago Cubs wore a patch with Ron Santo's retired #10 this season., The Phillies honored the Buck Brothers, Alexander and John, who both died in the winter by wearing a black patch with a white Phillies script "B" on their left chest., The Pittsburgh Pirates had patch with former manager Chuck Tanner's #7 on a Stargell Star for the season, Following the passing of Harmon Killebrew, the Twins added his retired number 3 to the right sleeve, and wore their pinstriped throwback alternate home uniforms for the rest of the season at Target Field., Following the death of Paul Splittorff, the winningest pitcher in the history of the Kansas City Royals, as well as one of their color commentators, the team started wearing a black circular patch as of May 26 with "SPLITT" in white lettering., Both the Royals and Cardinals wore patches during their interleague series from June 17 to 19 that remembered the May 22, 2011 tornado that struck Joplin, Missouri, killing over 150 people. The patches featured an outline of the state of Missouri, both teams' logos and the words "TEAMS UNITE FOR JOPLIN"., The Texas Rangers and Oakland Athletics sported black ribbons on their uniforms on July 8, 2011, in memory of Rangers fan Shannon Stone, who died from a 20-foot fall after catching Josh Hamilton's toss into the left field stands off the foul ball during the second inning of Texas' 6–0 win over the A's at Rangers Ballpark in Arlington the night before. They sported the ribbons for the remainder of their series., The Atlanta Braves wore "Ernie" patches on their sleeves starting with their August 21 game against the Arizona Diamondbacks to honor former pitcher and longtime broadcaster Ernie Johnson, Sr., who died on August 12 at the age of 87., The Baltimore Orioles honored the late pitcher and broadcaster Mike Flanagan by sporting a black circular patch with his nickname "FLANNY" on their right sleeve. Orioles broadcasters also wore it on their jackets., The Milwaukee Brewers honored long-time groundskeeper Gary Vanden Berg by sporting a navy blue patch with the initials "GV" in the front left of their uniforms. Vanden Berg died on October 12., The San Francisco Giants wore a patch on their right sleeve to commemorate their 2010 World Series championship. The Seattle Mariners wore their teal alternative jerseys from the 1990s on Monday and Friday home games. Their navy jerseys were worn only on the road., The Oakland Athletics revealed their new yellow alternate home jersey on January 27, marking the first time the team has had a gold jersey since 1986. The A's also began to wear their yellow alternates on select road games, beginning on June 21 with the interleague series against the New York Mets, instead of their customary green alternates., The Minnesota Twins had a new alternate for the road based on the same concept as the navy jersey except it featured "Minnesota" across the chest in the same font as the gray jersey., The Padres also updated their camouflage jerseys to the current MARPAT digital pattern used by the Marine Corps and eliminated the green tones. In honor of Hispanic Night, the Milwaukee Brewers and St. Louis Cardinals wore special uniforms on June 11 at Miller Park. The Cardinals wore their gray road uniforms, but with the word "Cardenales", while the Brewers wore special gold uniforms with the word "Cerveceros." On August 13, the Brewers and Pirates celebrated German Heritage Day donning jerseys with German names ("Bierbrauer" for Milwaukee and "Piraten" for Pittsburgh); Milwaukee pitcher Zach Greinke, in the game as a pinch hitter, accidentally wore a "Bierbrauer" jersey during the previous night's game as well. The team also again wore gold jerseys (with the "Brewers" name) on September 10 as part of a "gold out" against the Phillies., On August 5, the New York Mets wore special alternate jerseys against the Atlanta Braves for Fiesta Latina night at Citi Field honoring Latino culture. They were similar to their black alternate jerseys, but are blue with orange piping and feature "Los Mets" written in orange lettering and white trim. The Mets wore the blue "Los Mets" jerseys again on September 1 against the Florida Marlins for Hispanic Heritage Night., On August 20, the Houston Astros also wore Latin-inspired jerseys against the San Francisco Giants at Minute Maid Park. They used their non-pinstriped white home jerseys, with the addition of the word "Los" atop the word "Astros" in brick red with sand trim., On September 24, the Arizona Diamondbacks also wore Latin-inspired jerseys for Hispanic Heritage Day against the Giants at Chase Field. The jersey was similar to their black alternate uniforms, but with "Los D-Backs" substituting for the 'A' logo. Majestic Athletic provided new button-down front spring training/batting practice jerseys with a modified design, and new jackets for all teams that started with the 2010 postseason., On April 15, all players on all teams – and all umpires – wore #42 on the commemoration of the 64th anniversary of Jackie Robinson's debut in the majors., Special caps were worn on Memorial Day and July 4 (For the Blue Jays, also on Canada Day as well). The caps were either red or blue with a white front and the team's logo in a Stars-and-Stripes motif (Toronto's caps have a Canadian flag). A portion of the proceeds made from sales of the caps will help Welcome Home Veterans. The New York Mets hosted Sunday night game on ESPN on September 11 to mark the tenth anniversary of the September 11 attacks; their city was targeted by the terrorists on September 11, 2001, and they hosted the first major professional sporting event held in New York City since the attacks, on September 11, 2001., Teams were scheduled to wear their special patriotic caps on September 11, but it was decided that they will wear their regular caps with a few alterations. All American-based teams sported a patch of the American flag behind their uniforms as well as on both sides of their baseball caps, in commemoration of the September 11 attacks. The Toronto Blue Jays sported a patch containing both the American and Canadian flags crossing each other on their uniforms, while their caps contained the American flag on the left and the Canadian flag on the right., Selected players who participated in the All-Star Game wore uniforms with two stars on each side of the MLB logo as well as the All-Star Game patch on the baseball cap to indicate their All-Star status. They wore them on the games played from July 4–10, the week before the All-Star Game., The Cleveland Indians and Minnesota Twins wore green caps in honor of Earth Day. The game, originally scheduled on April 22 but postponed due to rain, was held July 18 as part of a day-night doubleheader. The Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim celebrated their 50th Anniversary in 2011. Founded by Gene Autry in 1961, the team played at Los Angeles' Wrigley Field in their first season, then shared Dodger Stadium (called "Chavez Ravine" by Angels management) with the Dodgers before moving to Anaheim in 1966 and their own stadium, Anaheim Stadium (later to become Edison International Field of Anaheim and finally Angel Stadium of Anaheim). That year, the team name was altered to the California Angels. After being purchased by The Walt Disney Company in 1997, the team name was changed to the Anaheim Angels and after Arte Moreno purchased the team, the name was changed to its current moniker to the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim in 2005. For the season, in addition to the patch, the Angels changed the color of the halo from silver to gold on their uniforms, just as it looked from 1971 through 1996. In addition, on selected Friday night games, the team donned replicas of five of the six styles of uniforms they have worn, the most notable omission being that of the "Periwinkle Blue" era from 1997 to 2001, when Disney owned the team. This was the Florida Marlins' final season at Sun Life Stadium, after 19 years, they moved to their new ballpark in downtown Miami, where they became the Miami Marlins. Due to the U2 360° Tour concert scheduled June 29 at Sun Life Stadium and the needed time to set up the stage, the Marlins were forced to move their scheduled home games for June 24–26 against the Seattle Mariners to the Mariners' park at Safeco Field. As the Marlins were the home team, NL rules (no designated hitter) were applied. Mariners and Marlins did not meet again in Miami until 2014. The Houston Astros were sold by Drayton McLane for US $680 million to a group led by Jim Crane, the founder of a transit logistics company. The Detroit Tigers retired Sparky Anderson's #11 on June 26. Bert Blyleven, elected to the Class of 2011 of the Baseball Hall of Fame, was honored with the retirement of his uniform #28 by the Twins on July 16. Roberto Alomar, also a 2011 Hall of Fame class member, became the first member of the Toronto Blue Jays to have his number (#12) retired on July 31. The Atlanta Braves retired Bobby Cox's #6 prior to their game against the Chicago Cubs on August 12. Trevor Hoffman, who had been the all-time saves leader until Mariano Rivera surpassed him on September 19, had his #51 retired by the San Diego Padres on August 21. List of Major League Baseball teams by payroll in 2011, 2011 Korea Professional Baseball season, 2011 Nippon Professional Baseball season 2011 Major League Baseball season schedule at ESPN, 2011 Major League Baseball season schedule at Baseball Reference The Major League Baseball (MLB) season schedule consists of 162 games for each of the 30 teams in the American League (AL) and National League (NL), played over approximately six months—a total of 2,430 games, plus the postseason. The regular season runs from late March/early April to late September/early October, followed by the postseason which can run to early November. The season begins with the official Opening Day, and, as of 2018, runs 26½ weeks through the last Sunday of September or first Sunday of October. One or more International Opener games may be scheduled outside the United States before the official Opening Day. It is possible for a given team to play a maximum of 20 games in the postseason in a given year, provided the team is a wild card and advances to each of the Division Series, Championship Series, and World Series with each series going the distance (5 games in the Division Series, 7 games each in the League Championship Series/World Series). The regular season is constructed from series. Due to travel concerns and the sheer number of games, pairs of teams are never scheduled to play single games against each other (except in the instance of making up a postponed game, or more rarely, a one-game playoff to determine a postseason berth); instead they play games on several consecutive days in the same ballpark. Most often the series are of three or four games, but two-game series are also scheduled. Teams play one mid-week series and one weekend series per week. Depending on the length of the series, mid-week series games are usually scheduled between Monday and Thursday, while weekend games are scheduled between Thursday and Monday. Beginning in 2018, teams start and end their season on a weekend for a total of 26½ weeks. Due to the mid-week all-star break in July, teams are scheduled to play 27 weekend series and 25 mid-week series for a total of 52 series (24 divisional series, 20 inter-divisional series, 8 inter-league series). A team's road games are usually grouped into a multi-series road trip; home series are grouped into homestands. Note that rainouts and other cancellations are often rescheduled ad hoc during the season, sometimes as doubleheaders. However, if two teams are scheduled to meet for the final time in the last two weeks of the season, and the game is cancelled, it may not be rescheduled if there is no impact on the divisional or wild card races. For example, in 2016, the September 29 game between the Cleveland Indians and Detroit Tigers was cancelled due to rain because the teams were unable to reschedule a make-up date before the end of the season on October 2, and it did not affect the divisional race. In contrast, a 2008 AL Central division game between Detroit and the Chicago White Sox needed to be made up following the last day of the regular season because it affected a division race involving the White Sox and the Minnesota Twins. This account gives the length of the major league "championship season" schedule by league and year. It does not cover the curtailment of play by war (1918) or by strikes and lockouts (1972, 1981, 1994). The schedules for 1995 were revised and shortened from 162 to 144 games, after late resolution of the strike that had begun in 1994 required a delay in the season to accommodate limited spring training. The listed years are those in which the league revised its schedule. For example, the National League (NL) scheduled 84 games during 1879, 1880, 1881, and 1882 – that is, four seasons from 1879, ending before 1883, the next listing. 1876 is listed here for convenience although the NL did not schedule games (see 1871 to 1876, below). 1882 – 1891 Thus the AA expanded its schedule to 140 games two years before the National League did so. After 1891 four AA clubs joined the NL and four were bought out, nominally creating one big league, the "National League and American Association" of 12 clubs. 1884 1890 1914: 1915 The National Association of Professional Base Ball Players (1871–1875) did not schedule games, nor did it control the number of teams, a major reason for its demise after the 1875 season. Clubs paid a $10 entry fee, later $20, to enter the Association for one season, and thereby declare for that year's national championship. Without continuing membership or heavy investment, there was little to deter a team from breaking a commitment, and though it happened, it was mainly due to clubs going out of business. The National League organized for 1876 on a different basis, granting exclusive memberships to eight clubs that would continue from year to year — it was generally expected, if only because membership would be profitable. But the new league followed its predecessor in merely agreeing that each club would play a certain number of matches to a decision (excluding ties) by a certain date. Boston played 70 games with its quota of ten decisions against every rival. The others achieved 56 to 68 decisions, 64 to 66 for the four western teams as the teams from New York and Philadelphia (eastern) abandoned their schedule-concluding road trips. For all six early seasons, prior to the first league schedule in 1877, member clubs scheduled their own matches by mutual arrangement, including championship games necessarily with member clubs, other games with members, and games with non-member clubs. Some may have practically dictated their arrangements with some others, but there was no central control or coordination. This listing gives the greatest number of games played by any club for each season. Naturally, the leader by games played was always a strong club fielding one of the better gate attractions. The leading numbers of games played to a decision were 33, 54, 59, 71, 82, and 70 decisions; by the listed teams except the Mutuals in 1872. Since 1998, there have been 30 major league teams with a single advance schedule for every season that comprises 2430 games. Each team plays 162 games, 81 as the "home" team, 81 as the "visitor". (This is true even on the rare occasion when a game is played at a ballpark not home to either team.) Occasionally, the advance schedule is subsequently altered due to a game postponement or a one-game tie-breaker to determine which team will play in the postseason. Before 2013, the schedule included 252 "interleague games" that matched one team from the American League and one from the National League; the other 2178 games matched a pair from within one league. About half of the latter matched teams from within one division and about half matched teams from different divisions in one league. In the Central Division of the National League, which alone had six teams, every pair of division rivals played 15 or 16 games. Within the other, smaller divisions every pair of teams played 18 or 19 games. These interleague games were played from mid-to-late May to late June or early July. Division games (1091). There are 61 pairs of teams from within one division. 25 pairings will play 19 games each (475 games), 21 pairings will play 18 games each (378 games), 13 pairings will play 16 games each (208 games) – most NL Central pairings, 2 pairings will play 15 games each (30 games) – two NL Central pairings, Total: 1091 games. Other intraleague games (1087). There are 150 pairs of teams from two different divisions within one league. 23 pairings will play 10 games each (230 games), 15 pairings will play 9 games each (135 games), 8 pairings will play 8 games each (64 games), 34 pairings will play 7 games each (238 games), 70 pairings will play 6 games each (420 games), Total: 1087 games. The schedule for interleague play comprised 84 three-game series in each season from 1998 to 2012, divided as six series (18 games) for each of fourteen AL teams and as many as six for each of sixteen NL teams. Among the 224 interleague pairs of teams, 11 played six games every year, which were scheduled in two three-game series "home and home", or one at each home ballpark. Five of these 11 special arrangements matched two teams in the same city or in neighboring cities, where they wholly or partly share territorial rights. Six were regional matches at greater distance, four of which were in the same state. Baltimore vs. Washington, Chicago Cubs (North Side) vs. Chicago White Sox (South Side), Cincinnati vs. Cleveland, Miami vs. Tampa Bay (Tampa/St. Petersburg), Houston vs. Texas (Arlington), Kansas City vs. St. Louis, Los Angeles Angels vs. Los Angeles Dodgers, Milwaukee vs. Minnesota (Minneapolis/St. Paul), New York Mets (Queens) vs. New York Yankees (Bronx), Oakland vs. San Francisco, San Diego vs. Seattle These special local and regional series accounted for 66 interleague games annually from 1998-2012, and the other 186 games were determined by rotation. The 2001 season was suspended for one week due to the September 11 terrorist attacks and resulting disruptions in travel, resulting in games scheduled for September 11–16 being rescheduled to the first week of October and the playoffs and World Series being rescheduled one week later than their originally planned dates. This resulted in the World Series continuing into early November for the first time. Schedule changes for 2013, precipitated by realignment that created two equal- sized leagues of 15 teams each, gave every team 20 interleague games. Sixteen of which were determined by a match of divisions, one from each league; all teams in a given division play all teams in a given division from the other league. (Each plays a three-game series against four teams from the designated division and two two-game series against the remaining team.) With this change, interleague games were now scattered throughout the season. The matched divisions rotate annually: AL East vs. NL West (2013), vs. NL Central (2014), AL Central vs. NL East (2013), vs. NL West (2014), AL West vs. NL Central (2013), vs. NL East (2014) Each team played its four other interleague games against a designated "natural rival", with two games in each club's city. Thus all 30 teams, rather than 22 of 30 as previously, were deemed to have a natural rival in the other league. In 2013 the natural rivalry games were all scheduled for May 27 to May 30 (Memorial Day weekend) but in 2014 their scheduled dates range from May to August. Ten of the natural rivalries from 2012 and earlier continued, while the Houston–Texas "Lone Star" rivalry had been transformed into an intra- division one with 19 games played. Five of the special arrangements were new in 2013 , including one each for Houston and Texas. Baltimore vs. Washington, Boston vs. Philadelphia, New York Mets (Queens) vs. New York Yankees (Bronx), Miami vs. Tampa Bay (Tampa/St. Petersburg), Toronto vs. Atlanta, Chicago Cubs (North Side) vs. Chicago White Sox (South Side), Cincinnati vs. Cleveland, Detroit vs. Pittsburgh, Kansas City vs. St. Louis, Milwaukee vs. Minnesota (Minneapolis/St. Paul), Houston vs. Colorado, Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim vs. Los Angeles Dodgers, Oakland vs. San Francisco, San Diego vs. Seattle, Texas vs. Arizona For 2014, four (4) of the five (5) new rivalries have been revised (‡), all except Detroit and Pittsburgh. Baltimore and Washington, Boston vs. Atlanta (until 1952, both teams were based in Fenway–Kenmore), New York Mets (Queens) vs. New York Yankees (Bronx), Miami vs. Tampa Bay (Tampa/St. Petersburg), Toronto vs. Philadelphia, Chicago Cubs (North Side) vs. Chicago White Sox (South Side), Cincinnati vs. Cleveland, Detroit vs. Pittsburgh, Kansas City vs. St. Louis, Milwaukee vs. Minnesota (Minneapolis/St. Paul), Houston vs. Arizona, Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim vs. Los Angeles Dodgers, Oakland vs. San Francisco, San Diego vs. Seattle, Texas vs. Colorado Every team now plays 19 games against each of 4 opponents within its division (76 games), as well as 6 games each against 4 opponents and 7 games against each of the other 6 opponents from other divisions within its own league (66 games). When corresponding divisions (i.e. NL East vs. AL East) play each other, a slight adjustment was made to the interleague games. Teams now play 6 games against their rival and 4 games (home and home) against two opponents plus one home and one away 3 game series (14 total) against the other two teams in the opposing division. This was done in 2015 and 2018, and will next occur in 2021. Under the collective bargaining agreement reached in December 2016, several changes were made to the scheduling pattern for the 2018 season. The overall length of the season was extended to 187 days with the addition of four off- days for all teams. All teams were scheduled to play on Opening Day, which for 2018 was March 29. Sunday Night Baseball will no longer be played on the final Sunday before the All-Star Game, in order to ease travel time for those who are participating in the Home Run Derby. A single, nationally televised night game will be played the following Thursday, with all other teams returning to play on Friday. Start of Major League Baseball games depends on days of the week, game number in series, holidays, and other factors. Most games start at 7pm in the local time zone, so there are more night games than day games even though baseball is traditionally played during the day. The reason why there are more night baseball games is to attract more fans to ballparks as well as viewers from home because most fans would be at work or school during the day. On Mondays (excluding Opening Day and holidays), Tuesdays, and Fridays, games are almost exclusively played at night except for Cubs home games. Getaway days, days on which teams play their last game of the series before departing for another series in another city the next day, are often day games, mainly Sundays, Wednesdays, and Thursdays. On Sundays, usually all but one are day games, with the final game reserved for ESPN's Sunday Night Baseball. About half of Saturday games are day games (1, 2 or 4pm ET). In some markets, Saturday night start an hour earlier than usual night start times, but other cities start Saturday night games at the same time as weeknight games. In conclusion, weekday games are only played at night except for getaway days while many weekend games are played during the day. The initial pitch typically occurs 5 or 10 minutes after the hour, in order to allow time for pre-game ceremonies. The Sporting News Baseball Guide, The MacMillan Baseball Encyclopedia, Retrosheet. "The Directory of Major League Years". Retrieved 2006-09-05.

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Compulsory figures or school figures were formerly a segment of figure skating, and gave the sport its name. They are the "circular patterns which skaters trace on the ice to demonstrate skill in placing clean turns evenly on round circles". For approximately the first 50 years of figure skating as a sport, until 1947, compulsory figures made up 60 percent of the total score at most competitions around the world. These figures continued to dominate the sport, although they steadily declined in importance, until the International Skating Union (ISU) voted to discontinue them as a part of competitions in 1990. Learning and training in compulsory figures instilled discipline and control; some in the figure skating community considered them necessary to teach skaters basic skills. Skaters would train for hours to learn and execute them well, and competing and judging figures would often take up to eight hours during competitions. Skaters traced compulsory figures, and were judged according to their smoothness and accuracy. The circle is the basis of all figures. Other elements in compulsory figures include curves, change of foot, change of edge, and turns. Skaters had to trace precise circles while completing difficult turns and edges. The simple "figure eight" shape was executed by connecting two circles; other figures included the three turn, the counter turn, the rocker turn, the bracket turn, and the loop. Although few skaters continue to practice compulsory figures, and few coaches still teach them to skaters, some skaters and coaches believe compulsory figures give skaters an advantage in developing alignment, core strength, body control, and discipline. The World Figure Sport Society has conducted festivals and competitions of compulsory figures, endorsed by the Ice Skating Institute, since 2015. Compulsory figures, also called school figures, are the "circular patterns which skaters trace on the ice to demonstrate skill in placing clean turns evenly on round circles". Compulsory figures are also called "patch", a reference to the patch of ice allocated to each skater to practice figures. Skaters were required to trace these circles using one foot at a time, demonstrating their mastery of control, balance, flow, and edge to execute accurate and clean tracings on the ice. The compulsory figures used by the International Skating Union (ISU) in 1897 for international competitions consisted of "two or three tangent circles with one, one and a half, or two full circles skated on each foot, in some with turns or loops included on the circles". The patterns skaters left on the ice, rather than the shapes the body made executing them, became the focus of artistic expression in figure skating up until the 1930s. The highest quality figures had tracings on top of each other; their edges were placed precisely, and the turns lined up exactly. The slightest misalignment or shift of body weight could cause errors in the execution of figures. American figure skating champion Irving Brokaw insisted that form was more essential to the production of figures than the tracings themselves because the skater needed to find a comfortable and natural position in which to perform them. He expected skaters to trace figures without looking down at them because it gave "a very slovenly appearance", and recommended that they not use their arms excessively or for balance like tightrope walkers. Brokaw wanted skaters to remain upright and avoid bending over as much as they could. Brokaw also thought that the unemployed leg, which he called the "balance leg", was as important as the tracing leg because it was used as much in the execution of a figure as the tracing leg. The balance leg also should be bent only slightly, since he believed bending it too much removed its usefulness and appeared clumsy. Writer Ellyn Kestnbaum noted that skaters who were adept at performing compulsory figures had to practice for hours to have precise body control and to become "intimately familiar with how subtle shifts in the body's balance over the blade affected the tracings left on the ice". She added that many skaters found figures and their visible results calming and rewarding. Sports writer Christie Sausa insisted that training in figures "helps create better skaters and instills discipline, and can be practiced over a lifetime by skaters of all ages and abilities". The German magazine Der Spiegel declared in 1983 that compulsory figures stifled skaters' creativity because not much about figures had changed in 100 years of competitions. All compulsory figures had the following: circles, curves, change of foot, change of edge, and turns. The circle, the basis of all figures, was performed on both its long and short axes. Skaters had to trace precise circles, while completing difficult turns and edges. Each figure consisted of two or three tangent circles. Each circle's diameter had to be about three times the skater's height, and the radii of all half-circles and circles had to be approximately the same length. Half-circles and circles had to begin and end as near as possible to the point in which the long and short axes intersected. The figure's long axis divided it longitudinally into equal-sized halves, and the figure's short axes divided the figures into equal-sized lobes. Curves, which are parts of circles, had to be performed with an uninterrupted tracing and with a single clean edge, with no subcurves or wobbles. Brokaw insisted that curves had to be done on all four edges of the skate, as well as on the inside and outside edges while skating both backwards and forwards. He stated, "It is the control of these circles that gives strength and power, and the holding of the body in the proper and graceful attitudes, while it is the execution of these large circles, changes of edges, threes and double-threes, brackets, loops, rockers and counters, which makes up the art of skating". Curves also included the forced turn (or bracket) and the serpentine. A change of foot, which happened during the short time the skater transferred weight from one foot to the other, was allowed in the execution of figures, but had to be done in a symmetrical zone of each side of the long axis. Skaters could choose the exact point in which they placed their foot in this zone, although it typically was just after the long axis, with the full weight of the body on the skate. It was at this point when the tracing began. A change of edge happened at the point in which the long and short axes intersected. Its trace had to be continuously and symmetrically traced and could not be S-shaped. The edge change had to be as short as possible, and could not be longer than the length of the skate blade. Turns were skated with a single clean edge up to and after the turn, but with no double tracings, no skids or scrapes, or no illegal edge change either before, during, or after a turn. The turns' cusps had to be the same size, and the entry into and out of a turn had to be symmetrical. The simple "figure eight" shape was executed by connecting two circles "about three times the height of the skater with one circle skated on each foot". The figure eight has four variations: inside edges, outside edges, backward, and forward. A turn added at the halfway point of each circle increased the level of complexity. Other figures included three-lobed figures with a counter turn or a rocker turn, which were completed at the points where the lobes touched. Counters and rockers had to be executed symmetrically, with no change of edge, with the points of their turns either pointing up or down or lying along the figure's long axis, and could not be beaked or hooked. Brackets, like threes, had to be skated on a circle, its turns' points either pointing up or down or lying along the figure's long axis. Skaters also performed a group of smaller figures called loops. The diameter of the loop's circular shape had to be about the same height of the skater, and they could not have any scrapes or points on the ice. The place in which the skater entered into or exited out of the crossing of both the loop tracing and the center of the loop had to sit on the figure's long axis, where the loop was divided into symmetrical halves. The center of the loop figure to the place in which the skater entered into or exited out of the loop's crossing had to measure five-sixths of the circle's diameter. The loop's length had to be about one-third of the distance from the place in which the skater entered into or exited out of the loop's crossing of the loop tracing to the figure's short axis. The loop's width had to be about two-thirds of its length. There were three types of three turns: the standard three, the double three, and the paragraph double three. The three turn had to be skated on a circle, its turns' points either pointing up or down or lying along the figure's long axis. For the double three, the points of both threes had to be directed towards the center of each circle, and had to divide the circle into three equal curves. The middle curve had to divide the circles into halves by the figure's long axis. The paragraph double three, which was executed at the highest levels of competition, was done by tracing "two circles with two turns at each circle, all on one foot from one push-off". The paragraph double three was difficult to accomplish because the shape and placement of the turns had to be perfectly symmetrical, the turns had to be done on a true edge with no scrapes on the ice, and the circles had to be the same size and exactly round. Until 1947, for approximately the first 50 years of the existence of figure skating as a sport, compulsory figures made up 60 percent of the total score at most competitions around the world. According to Ellyn Kestnbaum, the Edinburgh Skating Club, which was established before 1784, required prospective members to pass proficiency tests in what became compulsory figures. The Skating Club, founded in 1830 in London, also required proficiency tests for members and pioneered "combined skating", a series of symmetrical patterns created on the ice that contributed to the evolution of school figures. In 1868, the American Skating Congress, precursor to U.S. Figure Skating, adopted a series of movements used during competitions between skaters from the U.S. and Canada. Other competitions held in the late 19th and early 20th centuries included special figures, freeskating, and compulsories, most of the points they earned going towards how they performed the same set of compulsory moves. The first international figure skating competition was in Vienna in 1882; according to Kestnbaum, it established a precedent for future competitions. Skaters were required to perform 23 compulsory figures, as well as a four-minute freeskating program, and a section called "special figures", in which they had to perform moves or combinations of moves that highlighted their advanced skills. Compulsory figures were an important part of figure skating for the rest of the 19th century until the 1930s and 1940s. The first European Championships in 1891 consisted of only compulsory figures. In 1896, the newly formed ISU sponsored the first annual World Figure Skating Championships in St. Petersburg. The competition consisted of compulsory figures and freeskating. Skaters had to perform six compulsory moves, or figures, so that judges could compare skaters according to an established standard. Compulsory figures were worth 60 percent of the competitors' total scores. Special figures were not included in World Championships, although they were included as a separate discipline in other competitions, including the Olympics in 1908. In 1897, the ISU adopted a schedule of 41 school figures, each of increasing difficulty, which were proposed by the British. They remained the standard compulsory figures used throughout the world in proficiency testing and competitions until 1990, and U.S. Figure Skating continued to use them as a separate discipline in the 1990s. After World War II, more countries were sending skaters to international competitions, so the ISU cut the numbers of figures to a maximum of six due to the extended time it took to judge them all. After 1968, figures began to be progressively devalued. First, values were decreased to 50 percent. In 1973, the number of figures was decreased from six to three, and their overall weight was decreased to 30 percent, to make room for the introduction of the short program. According to sports writer Sandra Loosemore, television was "the driving force" for the rule changes regarding figures in 1968 and the years following. Figures were not broadcast on television because they were not exciting enough, so viewers "found it incomprehensible that competitions could be won by skaters who had built up huge leads in the figures portion of the event but gave mediocre performances in the part of the competition shown on TV". Loosemore attributed the decrease in the importance of figures to a "lack of public accountability" from the judges of international competitions and other discrepancies in judging, which Loosemore called "dirty judging". She speculated that television coverage of the sport, which brought more attention to how it was judged, was also responsible and "since figures competitions weren't televised, fans could not be certain that the judges were on the level". Loosemore also speculated that "the relative scarcity of rinks and practice ice for figures in Europe as compared to North America" ultimately made the difference in the removal of figures from competitions. Kestnbaum agreed, stating that the elimination of figures was motivated by finances, countries with an affluent middle class or government-supported training for athletes having more of a competitive advantage over less affluent and smaller countries with fewer ice rinks and resources to spend the time necessary to train for proficiency in figures. By the late 1970s and into the 1980s, there were discussions about eliminating them from international competitions. In 1988, the ISU voted to remove compulsory figures from international single skating competitions, for both men and women, starting in the 1990–1991 season. Of 31 voting national associations, only the U.S., Canada, Britain, and New Zealand voted against the decision. The last two seasons that compulsory figures were competed at an international competition were in 1989 and 1990; only two figures were skated and they were worth only 20 percent of the competitors' overall scores. Compulsory figures have not been a part of any international or most national competitions since 1990. The U.S. was one of the last skating federations to keep figures as a part of skills tests for the lower levels. The last time figures were contested at the U.S. Figure Skating Championships was in 1999. The U.S. created a separate track for figures instead of eliminating them as most other countries did, and finally voted to eliminate them in 1997. Canada also ended proficiency tests in figures in 1997. According to Loosemore, the U.S.' decision to replace the remaining figure proficiency test requirements for competition eligibility in the mid-1990s with moves in the field to test skating proficiency "killed figures as a separate competition discipline". Sports writer Randy Harvey of the Los Angeles Times predicted that the free skate would become the focus in international competitions. According to Loosemore, after figures were no longer required, most skaters stopped doing them, resulting in rinks cutting back on the amount of time they offered to skaters who wanted to continue to practice them and a reduction in the number of judges capable of scoring them. Despite the apparent demise of compulsory figures from figure skating, coaches continued to teach figures and skaters continued to practice them because figures gave skaters an advantage in developing alignment, core strength, body control, and discipline. Proponents stated that figures taught basic skating skills, insisting that if skaters did not become proficient in figures, they would not be able to perform well-done short and long programs. The World Figure Sport Society has conducted festivals and competitions of compulsory figures, endorsed by the Ice Skating Institute, since 2015. Der Spiegel compared judging compulsory figures to the work of forensic scientists. After the skaters completed tracing figures, the judges scrutinized the circles made, and the process was repeated twice more. According to Harvey, compulsory figures took five hours to complete at U.S. National Championships and eight hours at World Championships. At the 1983 European Championships, the compulsory segment began at 8 am, and lasted six hours. The ISU published a judges' handbook describing what judges needed to look for during compulsory figure competitions in 1961. Skaters were judged on the ease and flow of their movement around the circles, the accuracy of the shapes of their bodies, and the accuracy of the prints traced on the ice. Judges took note of the following: scrapes, double tracks that indicated that both edges of their blades were in contact with the ice simultaneously, deviations from a perfect circle, how closely the tracings from each repetition followed each other, how well the loops lined up, and other errors. Brokaw, Irving (1915). The Art of Skating. New York: American Sports Publishing Company. Retrieved 16 November 2019., Hines, James R. (2011). Historical Dictionary of Figure Skating. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. ., Kestnbaum, Ellyn (2003). Culture on Ice: Figure Skating and Cultural Meaning. Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press. ., Special Regulations for Figures. U.S. Figure Skating Association. Retrieved 14 November 2019. World Figure Sport.org At the 2002 Winter Olympics held in Salt Lake City, allegations arose that the pairs' figure skating competition had been fixed. The controversy led to two pairs teams receiving gold medals: the original winners Elena Berezhnaya and Anton Sikharulidze of Russia and original silver-medalists Jamie Salé and David Pelletier of Canada. The scandal was one of the causes for the revamp of scoring in figure skating to the new ISU Judging System. In the figure skating pairs competition, Elena Berezhnaya and Anton Sikharulidze of Russia won the short program over Jamie Salé and David Pelletier of Canada. During the short program, Salé and Pelletier had tripped and fallen on their closing pose. Because the fall was not on an element, it did not receive a deduction, but it marred the program enough to land the pair in second place behind Berezhnaya and Sikharulidze. In the free skate, Berezhnaya and Sikharulidze made a minor, yet obvious, technical error when Sikharulidze stepped out of a double axel. Meanwhile, Salé and Pelletier opted to skate to "Love Story", a free skate program they had used in previous seasons and that had been well received at the Grand Prix Final before the Olympics. They skated a flawless program, albeit one that some experts considered to be of lesser difficulty than the Russians'. Salé and Pelletier received 5.9s and 5.8s for technical merit, while the Russians received mostly 5.8s and 5.7s. However, the Canadians received only four 5.9s for presentation versus the Russians' seven. Presentation was weighted more heavily than technical merit, so the Canadians had needed at least five 5.9s in presentation to overtake the Russians for first. Since they did not receive that many, Berezhnaya and Sikharulidze took the gold and the Canadians won silver. During the live broadcast, both the American (NBC Sports' Tom Hammond, Scott Hamilton and Sandra Bezic) and Canadian (CBC Sports' Paul Martini and Barbara Underhill) television commentators proclaimed that Salé and Pelletier had won as they finished, and expressed outrage when the judges' marks were announced. There was immediate suspicion of cheating, according to ABC's Good Morning America and USA Today. Judges from Russia, the People's Republic of China, Poland, Ukraine, and France had placed the Russians first; judges from the United States, Canada, Germany, and Japan chose the Canadians. Suspicion fell quickly on the French judge, Marie-Reine Le Gougne. When Le Gougne returned to the officials' hotel, Sally Stapleford, chair of the International Skating Union's Technical Committee, confronted her. Le Gougne had an emotional breakdown in which she allegedly said that she had been pressured by the head of the French skating organization, Didier Gailhaguet, to vote for the Russian pair regardless of how the others performed. She reportedly repeated this at the post-event judges' meeting the next day. It was alleged that this was part of a deal to get an advantage for French couple Marina Anissina and Gwendal Peizerat in the ice dance competition that was to follow a few days later. However, in a later signed statement Le Gougne denied taking part in such a deal and also stated that she had truly believed the Russian pair deserved to win. The Canadian press and public were outraged by the result. The American press were also quick to take up the cause of the Canadian pair. NBC, in particular, continued to play up the story and advocate the Canadians' cause. Some in the United States and many in Russia, however, felt that Berezhnaya and Sikharulidze had deserved their win, and that it should not be marred by the alleged dishonesty of a single judge. Sikharulidze contrasted the reactions to Salé/Pelletier's win at the 2001 World Championships, held in Canada. The Canadians were awarded gold despite Salé falling on the triple toe loop in the short program and then singling her double axel in the long. There was no media controversy and no investigation was launched. In response to Canadian and American outcry, International Skating Union (ISU) President Ottavio Cinquanta announced in a press conference a day after the competition that the ISU would conduct an "internal assessment" into the judging decision at its next scheduled council meeting. After many hostile questions from the press, Cinquanta also admitted that the event referee, Ronald Pfenning, had filed an official complaint about the judging. Later on February 13, International Olympic Committee (IOC) Director-General François Carrard held a press conference in which he publicly urged the ISU to resolve the matter as quickly as possible. On February 15, Cinquanta and IOC President Jacques Rogge, in a joint press conference, announced that Salé and Pelletier's silver medals would be upgraded to gold. Berezhnaya and Sikharulidze were to keep their gold medals as well, since there was no evidence of wrongdoing on their part. Four of the nine judges on the panel felt they deserved it. Both pairs' point totals were thrown out. For the first time in history, the awarding ceremony was repeated, which Berezhnaya and Sikharulidze attended. The Chinese pair, Shen Xue and Zhao Hongbo, declined to attend the ceremony. Le Gougne was suspended effective immediately for "misconduct". On April 30, 2002, Le Gougne and Gailhaguet were suspended by the ISU for three years and barred from the 2006 Winter Olympics for their roles in the scandal. Although at least one eye-witness to Le Gougne's outburst in the hotel lobby reported that she had specifically confessed to a deal with the Russians, Cinquanta claimed there was no evidence that the Russians were involved in the incident, and so the ISU never made any serious investigation of their alleged involvement. On July 31, 2002, Russian organized crime boss Alimzhan Tokhtakhounov was arrested by Italian authorities in Venice on U.S. charges that he masterminded the fix. He was released from Italian police custody without being charged, amidst attempts to have him extradited to the United States in 2002–2003. In addition to disciplining Le Gougne and Gailhaguet, in 2002 the ISU adopted a policy of "secret judging", in which judges' marks are posted anonymously, as part of the new ISU Judging System for figure skating. While the ISU has claimed this secrecy frees judges from pressure from their federations, critics have pointed out that instead of preventing judges from cheating, secrecy only prevents the public and media from being able to identify cheating. The policy of anonymous judging was discontinued at the ISU Congress following the 2014 Sochi Olympics. In March 2003, a group of skating officials who were unhappy with the ISU's leadership and handling of the crisis in the sport announced the formation of the World Skating Federation, in an attempt to take control of competitive figure skating away from the ISU. This attempt to set up a new federation failed, and several of the persons involved with its formation were subsequently banished from the sport by the ISU and/or their national federations. These officials included Ronald Pfenning, the referee of the pairs competition at the Salt Lake City Olympics, Sally Stapleford, Jon Jackson, and other witnesses to Le Gougne's outburst. ISU Judging System Jamie Salé and David Pelletier 2002 Olympic Free Program with scoring reactions (video) at YouTube, Official free skate results before the second gold was awarded, Official overall results before the second gold was awarded, Goodwin, Joy. The Second Mark. ., Jackson, Jon and James R. Pereira. On Edge : Backroom Dealing, Cocktail Scheming, Triple Axels, and How Top Skaters Get Screwed. . Pair skating is a figure skating discipline defined by the International Skating Union (ISU) as "the skating of two persons in unison who perform their movements in such harmony with each other as to give the impression of genuine Pair Skating as compared with independent Single Skating". The ISU also states that a pairs team must consist of "one Lady and one Man". Pair skating, along with men's and women's single skating, has been an Olympic discipline since figure skating, the oldest Winter Olympic sport, was introduced at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London. The ISU World Figure Skating Championships introduced pair skating in 1908. Like the other disciplines, pair skating competitions consist of two segments, the short program and the free skating program. There are seven required elements in the short program, which lasts 2 minutes and 40 seconds for both junior and senior pair teams. Free skating for pairs "consists of a well balanced program composed and skated to music of the pair's own choice for a specified period of time". It also should contain "especially typical Pair Skating moves" such as pair spins, lifts, partner assisted jumps, spirals and other similar moves, "linked harmoniously by steps and other movements". Its duration, like the other disciplines, is 4 minutes for senior teams, and 3 1/2 minutes for junior teams. Pair skating required elements include lifts, twist lifts, throw jumps, jumps, spin combinations, death spirals, step sequences, and choreographic sequences. The elements performed by pairs teams must be "linked together by connecting steps of a different nature" and by other comparable movements and with a variety of holds and positions. Pair skaters must only execute the prescribed elements; if they do not, the extra or unprescribed elements will not be counted in their score. Violations in pair skating include falls, time, music, and clothing. Pair skating is the most dangerous discipline in figure skating; it has been compared to playing in the National Football League. Pair skaters have more injuries than skaters in other disciplines, and women pair skaters have more injuries than male pair skaters. The International Skating Union (ISU) defines pair skating as "the skating of two persons in unison who perform their movements in such harmony with each other as to give the impression of genuine Pair Skating as compared with independent Single Skating". The ISU also states that a pairs team must consist of "one Lady and one Man" and that "attention should be paid to the selection of an appropriate partner". Pair skating, along with men's and women's single skating, has been an Olympic discipline since figure skating, the oldest Winter Olympic sport, was introduced at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London. The ISU World Figure Skating Championships introduced pair skating, along with women's singles, also in 1908. According to writer Ellyn Kestnbaum, the rising popularity of skating during the 19th century led to the development of figure skating techniques, especially the "various forms of hand-in-hand skating that would become the basis of pair skating". Madge Syers, the first female figure skater to compete and win internationally, stated that from the beginning of the introduction of pair skating in international competitions, it was a popular sport for audiences to watch, and that "if the pair are well matched and clever performers, it is undoubtedly the most attractive to watch". Syers stated that Viennese skaters were responsible for pair skating's popularity at the beginning of the 20th century. Syers also credited the Austrians for adding dance moves to pair skating. German pair skater Heinrich Burger, in his article in Irving Brokaw's The Art of Skating (1915), stated that he and his partner, Anna Hübler, inserted figures skated by single skaters into "our several dances according to the music" until the figures became more complicated and developed into a different appearance; as Burger put it, "the fundamental character of the figure, however, has remained the same". Hübler and Burger were the first Olympic gold medalists in pair skating in 1908; they also won the 1908 and 1910 World Championships. In 1936, Maxi Herber and Ernst Baier won the gold medal at the Olympics and went on to win the World Championships from 1936–1939. Soviet and Russian domination in pair skating began in the 1950s and continued throughout the rest of the 1900s. Only five non-Soviet or Russian teams won the World Championships after 1965, until 2010. Soviet pair teams won gold medals in seven consecutive Olympics, from 1964 in Innsbruck to 1988 in Calgary. Kestnbaum credited the Soviets for emphasizing ballet, theater, and folk dance in all disciplines of figure skating, noting the influence of Soviet pair team and married couple Liudmila Belousova and Oleg Protopopov. The Protopopovs, as they were called, won gold medals at the 1964 and 1968 Olympics, as well as the 1968 World Championships, "raised by several degrees the level of translating classical dance to the ice". Irina Rodnina, with her partner Alexei Ulanov and later Alexander Zaitsev, also from the Soviet Union, dominated pair skating throughout the 1970s and "led the trend of female pair skaters as risk-taking athletes". Pair skating, which has never included a compulsory phase like the other figure skating disciplines, did not require a short program until the early 1960s, when the ISU "instituted a short program of required moves" as the first part of pair competitions. The arrangement of the specific moves, also unlike compulsory figures for single skaters and the compulsory dance for ice dancers, were up to each pair team. The short programs introduced in single men and women competitions in 1973 were modeled after the pair skating short program, and the structure of competitions in both single and pair competitions have been identical since the elimination of compulsory figures in 1990. A judging scandal at the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah "ushered in sweeping reforms in the scoring system" of figure skating competitions. The scandal, which centered around Canadian pair team Jamie Sale and David Pelletier and Russian pair team Elena Berezhnaya and Anton Sikharulidze, brought about the end of the 6.0 scoring system and the implementation of the ISU Judging System, starting in 2004. According to Caroline Silby, a consultant with U.S. Figure Skating, pair teams, as well as ice dance teams, have the added challenge of strengthening partnerships and ensuring that teams stay together for several years. Silby states, "Conflict between partners that is consistent and unresolved can often lead to the early demise or break-up of a team". Challenges for both pairs and dancers, which can make conflict resolution and communication difficult, include: the fewer number of available boys for girls to find partnerships; different priorities regarding commitment and scheduling; differences in partners' ages and developmental stages; differences in family situations; the common necessity of one or both partners moving to train at a new facility; and different skill levels when the partnership is formed. Silby estimates that due to the lack of effective communication among pairs teams, there is a "six-fold increase in the risk of national-level figure skating teams splitting". Teams with strong skills in communication and conflict resolution, however, tend to produce "highest-placing finishers at national championship events". The short program is the first segment of single skating, pair skating, and synchronized skating in international competitions, including all ISU championships, the Olympic Winter Games, the Winter Youth Games, qualifying competitions for the Olympic Winter Games, and ISU Grand Prix events for both junior and senior-level skaters (including the finals). The short program must be skated before the free skate, the second component in competitions. The short program lasts, for both senior and junior pair skaters, two minutes and 40 seconds. Vocal music with lyrics has been allowed in pair skating and in all disciplines since the 2014–2015 season. Both junior and senior pair skaters have seven required elements: a lift, a twist lift, a throw jump, a jump; a solo spin combination, a death spiral, and a step sequence. The sequence of the elements is optional. Like single skaters, the short programs of pair teams must be skated in harmony with the music, which they choose. The short program for pair skating was introduced at the 1963 European Championships, the 1964 World Championships, and the Olympics in 1968; previously, pair skaters only had to perform the free skating program in competitions. Russian team Evgenia Tarasova and Vladimir Morozov hold the highest pair skating short program score of 81.21 points, which they earned at the 2019 World Figure Skating Championships. According to the ISU, free skating for pairs "consists of a well balanced program composed and skated to music of the pair's own choice for a specified period of time". The ISU also considers a well-done free skate one that contains both single skating moves performed either in parallel (called "shadow skating") or symmetrically (called "mirror skating"). It also should contain "especially typical Pair Skating moves" such as pair spins, lifts, partner assisted jumps, spirals and other similar moves, "linked harmoniously by steps and other movements". A well-balanced free skate for senior pairs must consist of the following: up to three pair lifts, not all from the same group, with the lifting arm or arms fully extended; exactly one twist lift, exactly one solo jump; exactly one jump sequence or combination; exactly one pair spin combination; exactly one death spiral of a different type than what the skaters performed during their short program; and exactly one choreographic sequence. Its duration, like the other disciplines, is four minutes for senior teams, and three-and-one-half minutes for junior teams. Chinese team Wenjing Sui and Cong Han hold the highest pair free skating program score of 155.60 points, which they earned at the 2019 World Figure Skating Championships. Pair skating required elements include pair lifts, twist lifts, throw jumps, jumps, spin combinations, death spirals, step sequences, and choreographic sequences. The elements performed by pair teams must be "linked together by connecting steps of a different nature" and by other comparable movements and with a variety of holds and positions. The team does not have to always execute the same movements and can separate from time to time, but they have to "give an impression of unison and harmony of composition of program and of execution of the skating". They must limit movements executed on two feet, and must fully use the entire ice surface. The ISU also states, about how programs are performed by pair skating teams, "Harmonious steps and connecting movements, in time to the music, should be maintained throughout the program". The ISU published a judges' handbook describing what judges needed to look for during pair skating competitions in 1966. There are five groups of lifts, categorized in order of increasing level of difficulty, and determined by the hold at the moment the woman passes the man's shoulder. For the 2019–2020 season, any Group Five lasso lift take-off is required in pair skating short programs for both juniors and seniors, and only the prescribed overhead lift is allowed. In the free skate, seniors can perform up to three lifts, but not all from the same group; juniors can perform up to two lifts, also not all from the same group. The lifts in groups three, four, and five require that the full extension of the lifting arm or arms be accomplished. If senior pair teams execute two lifts with take-offs that have different natures, the lifts are categorized as Group Five lifts; if they are the same, the second lift is not a Group Five lift. Judges look for the following when evaluating pair lifts: speed of entry and exit; control of the woman's free leg when she is exiting out of the lift, with the goal of keeping the leg high and sweeping; the position of the woman in the air; the man's footwork; quick and easy changes of position; and the maintenance of flow throughout the lift. Judges begin counting how many revolutions pair teams execute from the moment when the woman leaves the ice until when the man's arm (or arms) begin to bend after he has made a full extension and the woman begins to descend. If he is in a spread-eagle position or in another sideways position, the rotation count is determined by the position of his front foot at the moment the woman leaves the ice. When the man changes the direction of the rotation of the lift, it must include one rotation before and after the change, and only once per program. A complete pair skating lift must include full extension of the lifting arm or arms, if required for the type of lift being performed. Small lifts, or ones in which the man does not raise his hands higher than his shoulders, or lifts that include movements in which the man holds the woman by the legs, are also allowed. Small lifts can be either descending and ascending or rotational in character. The man must complete at least one revolution. A simple take-off includes, but is not limited to, a change of hand hold during ascent. A difficult take-off includes, but is not limited to, the following: a somersault take-off; a one-hand take-off, an Ina Bauer, a spread-eagle, spirals as the entry curve executed by one or both partners; or a dance lift followed immediately by a pair lift take-off, but when the woman does not touch the ice between each lift. Simple landings include a change of hold during the descent. Difficult landings include, but are not limited to, the following: somersaults; one-hand landings; variations in holds; and spread-eagle positions of the man during dismounting, but "only if the spread-eagle lasts long enough: from the moment the Man starts bending his arms till the moment the Lady is placed on the ice". The only times pair skating partners can give each other assistance in executing lifts are "through hand-to-hand, hand-to-arm, hand-to-body and hand to upper part of the leg (above the knee) grips". They are allowed changes of hold, or going from one of the grips to another or from one hand to another in a one-hand hold, during lifts. There must be one full revolution after a change of hold is made for it to count towards a team's score, but the man can change holds from his left to right arms, or from his right to left arms, with at least one revolution in each hold. Teams earn fewer points if the woman's position and a change of hold is executed at the same time. They earn more points if the execution of the woman's position and the change in hold are "significantly different from lift to lift". Teams can increase the difficulty of lifts in any group by using a one-hand hold. There are three types of positions performed by the woman: upright, or when her upper body is vertical; the star, or when she faces sideways with her upper body parallel to the ice; and the platter, or when her position is flat and facing up or down with her upper body parallel to the ice. The lifts ends when the man's arm or arms begins to bend after he completes a full extension and when the woman begins to descend. If the woman changes position, from upright with her head upwards to upright with her head downwards, or from "Platter to Platter, Star to Star with half a rotation of the lady in any direction". Pair teams earn more points if the variation of the woman's position in the air "significantly impacts the balance of the Lady in the lift or requires specific strength and/or flexibility", and "only if the variations are significantly different from lift to lift". Carry lifts are defined as "the simple carrying of a partner without rotation" and do not count as overhead lifts; instead, they are considered as transition elements. They occur when the man makes at least one continuous revolution, although only the first carry counts towards their score. Carry lifts do not count as features in the short program and count towards the score only the first time they are performed during the free skate. Only half a revolution made by the man is allowed on the carry lift's take-off and/or exit. There are no restrictions of holds in carry lifts, and the "carrying of one partner by the other on the back, shoulders or knees is allowed". A simple carry lift lasts at least three seconds. A difficult carry includes at least one of the following features, for at least three seconds: the man skates on one foot, he performs crossovers, or he holds his partner on one arm, and he performs spread eagles or similar moves. Skate Canada calls twist lifts "sometimes the most thrilling and exciting component in pair skating". They can also be most difficult movement to perform correctly. According to the ISU, the "Lady must be caught in the air at the waist by the Man prior to landing and be assisted to a smooth landing on the ice on a backward outside edge on one foot" during a twist lift. In their short programs, both senior and junior pair teams can perform two or three rotations in the air, but the woman can only perform either a flip or lutz during her take-off. In the free skate, pair teams must include one twist lift, and the woman's take-off can include the lutz, flip, toe loop, or axel. There are no limit to the number of revolutions executed. Judges look for the following when evaluating twist lifts: speed at entry and exit; whether or not the woman performs a split position while on her way to the top of the twist lift; her height once she gets there; clean rotations; a clean catch by the male (accomplished by placing both hands at the woman's waist and without any part of her upper body touching him); and a one-foot exit executed by both partners. Pair teams can earn more points if the woman executes a split position (each leg is at least 45° from her body axis and her legs are straight or almost straight) before rotating. They also earn more points when the man's arms are sideways and straight or almost straight after he releases the woman. They lose points for not having enough rotations, one-half a rotation or more. The first quadruple twist lift performed in international competition was by Russian pair team Marina Cherkasova and Sergei Shakhrai at the European Championship in 1977. Pair teams, both juniors and seniors, must perform one solo jump during their short programs; it can include a double flip or double axel for juniors, or any kind of double or triple jump for seniors. In the free skate, both juniors and seniors must perform only one solo jump and only one jump combination or sequence. A jump sequence consists of two jumps, with no limitations on the number of revolutions per jump. It starts with any type of jump, immediately followed by an axel-type jump. Skaters must, during a jump combination, make sure that they land on the same foot they took off on, and that they execute a full rotation on the ice between the jumps. They can, however, execute an Euler between the two jumps. When the Euler is performed separately, it is considered a non-listed jump. Junior pairs, during their short programs, earn no points for the solo jump if they perform a different jump than what is required. Both junior and senior pairs earn no points if, during their free skating programs, they repeat a jump with over two revolutions. All jumps are considered in the order in which they were performed. If the partners do not execute the same number of revolutions during a solo jump or part of a jump sequence or combination (which can consist of two or three jumps), only the jump with the fewer revolutions will be counted in their score. The double axel and all triple and quadruple jumps, which have more than two revolutions, must be different from one another, although jump sequences and combinations can include the same two jumps. Extra jumps that do not fulfill the requirements are not counted in the team's score. Teams are allowed, however, to execute the same two jumps during a jump combination or sequence. If they perform any or both jump or jumps incorrectly, only the incorrectly-done jump is not counted and it is not considered a jump sequence or combination. Both partners can execute two solo jumps during their short programs, but the second jump is worth less points than the first. A jump attempt, in which one or both partners execute a clear preparation for a take-off but step to the entry edge or place their skate's toe pick into the ice and leave the ice with or without a turn, counts as one jump element. If the partners execute an unequal number of rotations during a solo jump or as part of a jump combination or sequence, the jump with the lesser number of revolutions will be counted. They receive no points if they perform different types of jumps. A small hop or a jump with up to one-half revolution (considered "decoration") is not marked as a jump and called a "transition" instead. Non-listed jumps do not count as jumps, either, but can also be called a transition and can be used as "a special entrance to the jump". If the partners execute a spin and a jump back to back, or vice versa, they are considered separate elements and the team is awarded more points for executing a difficult take-off or entry. They lose points if the partners fall or step out of a jump during a jump sequence or combination. Throw jumps are "partner assisted jumps in which the Lady is thrown into the air by the Man on the take-off and lands without assistance from her partner on a backward outside edge". Skate Canada says, "the male partner assists the female into flight". Many pair skaters consider the throw jump "a jump rather than a throw". The throw jump is also considered an assisted jump, performed by the woman. The man supports the woman, initiates her rotations, and assists her with her height, timing, and direction. The types of throw jumps include: the throw axel, the throw salchow, the throw toe loop, the throw loop, the throw flip, and the throw lutz. The speed of the team's entry into the throw jump and the number of rotations performed increases its difficulty, as well as the height and/or distance they create. Pair teams must perform one throw jump during their short programs; senior teams can perform any double or triple throw jump, and junior teams must perform a double or triple toe loop, flip, or lutz. If the throw jump is not done correctly, including if it has the wrong number of revolutions, it receives no value. Pair teams must perform at least two different throw jumps with a different number of revolutions in their free skating programs. A throw jump is judged as a jump with a higher number of revolution if it is over-rotated more than a quarter revolution; for example, if a pair attempts a double throw jump but over-rotates it, the judges record it as a downgraded triple throw jump. The first throw triple axel jump performed in competition was by American pair team Rena Inoue and John Baldwin, Jr. at the 2006 U.S. Championships. They also performed it at the Four Continents Championships in 2006 and the 2006 Winter Olympics. The throw triple axel is a difficult throw to accomplish because the woman must perform three-and-one-half revolutions after being thrown by the man, a half- revolution more than other triple jumps, and because it requires a forward take-off. The solo spin combination must be performed once during the short program of pair skating competitions, with at least two revolutions in two basic positions. Both partners must include all three basic positions in order to earn the full points possible. There must be a minimum of five revolutions made on each foot. Spins can be commenced with jumps and must have at least two different basic positions, and both partners must include two revolutions in each position. A solo spin combination must have all three basic positions (the camel spin, the sit spin, and upright positions) performed by both partners, at any time during the spin to receive the full value of points, and must have all three basic positions performed by both partners to receive full value for the element. A spin with less than three revolutions is not counted as a spin; rather, it is considered a skating movement. If a skater changes to a non-basic position, it is not considered a change of position. The number of revolutions in non-basic positions, which may be considered difficult variations, are counted towards the team's total number of revolutions. Only positions, whether basic or non-basic, must be performed by the partners at the same time. If a skater falls while entering into the spin, he or she can perform another spin or spinning movement immediately after the fall, to fill the time lost from the fall, but it is not counted as a solo spin combination. A change of foot, in the form of a jump or step over, is allowed, and the change of position and change of foot can be performed separately or at the same time. Pair teams require "significant strength, skill and control" to perform a change from a basic position to a different basic position without performing a nonbasic position first. They also have to execute a continuous movement throughout the change, without jumps to execute it, and they must hold the basic position for two revolutions both before and after the change. They lose points if they take a long time to reach the necessary basic position. Pair teams earn more points for performing difficult entrances into their spins. Difficult flying entrances count, although backward entry into the spin and a flying camel do not. All entrances must have a "significant impact" on the spin's execution, balance, and control, and the intended spin position must be achieved within the team's first two revolutions. The rules surrounding difficult variations, which also apply to single skaters and to both partners, are also worth more points. There are 11 categories of difficult solo spin variations. Both junior and senior pair teams must perform one pair spin combination, which may begin with a fly spin, during their free skating programs. Pair spin combinations must have at least eight revolutions, which must be counted from "the entry of the spin until its exit". If spins are done with less than two revolutions, pairs receive zero points; if they have less than three revolutions, they are considered a skating movement, not a spin. Pair teams cannot, except for a short step when changing directions, stop while performing a rotation. Spins must have at least two different basic positions, with two revolutions in each position performed by both partners anywhere within the spin; full value for pair spin combinations are awarded only when both partners perform all three basic positions. A spin executed in both clockwise and counter-clockwise directions is considered one spin. When a team simultaneously performs spins in both directions that immediately follow each other, they earn more points, but they must execute a minimum of three revolutions in each direction without any changes in position. Both partners must execute at least one change of position and one change of foot (although not necessarily done simultaneously); if not, the element will have no value. Like the solo spin combination, the spin combination has three basic positions: the camel spin, the sit spin, and the upright spin. Also like the solo spin combination, changes to a non-basic position is counted towards the team's total number of revolutions and are not considered a change of position. A change of foot must have at least three revolutions, before and after the change, and can be any basic or non-basic position, in order for the element to be counted. Fluctuations of speed and variations of positions of the head, arms, or free leg are allowed. Difficult variations of a combined pair spin must have at least two revolutions. They receive more points if the spin contains three difficult variations, two of which can be non-basic positions, although each partner must have at least one difficult variation. The same rules apply for difficult entrances into pair spin combinations as they do for solo spin combinations, except that they must be executed by both partners for the element to count towards their final score. A difficult exit, in which the skaters exit the spin in a lift or spinning movement, is defined as "an innovative move that makes the exit significantly more difficult". If one or both partners fall while entering a spin, they can execute a spin or a spinning movement to fill up time lost during the fall. The death spiral is "a circular move in which the male lowers his partner to the ice while she is arched backwards gliding on one foot". There are four types of death spirals: the forward inside death spiral, the backward inside death spiral, the backward outside death spiral, and the forward outside death spiral. According to Skate Canada, the forward inside death spiral is the easiest one to execute, and the forward outside death spiral is the most difficult. In the 2019–2020 season, both junior and senior pair teams must perform the backward inside death spiral, and the death spiral performed in the short program at the senior level must be different than the death spiral during the free skating program. If a different death spiral other than what has been prescribed is executed, it receives no points. One death spiral is required for juniors and seniors during their free skate. The man is not allowed an opposite hand-hold as the team enters a death spiral during the short program, although it is allowed during the free skate. The woman, however, can use an opposite hand-hold during both programs. Both partners can execute a change of arm hold in both programs as well. Step sequences in pair skating should be performed "together or close together". Step sequences must be a part of the short program, but they are not required in the free skating program. There is no required pattern, but pair teams must fully use the ice surface. The step sequence must be "visible and identifiable", in any shape they like (oval, circle, straight line, or serpentine). Step sequences can include any unlisted jump, regardless of the number of revolutions, and short stops, if they are done "in accordance with the music", are allowed. All turns and steps must be performed on one foot, and they should have variety, which the ISU defines as at least nine difficult turns and steps executed by both partners. The ISU also considers simple variety in step sequences at least seven difficult turns and steps, and a minimum variety of at least five difficult turns and steps. The types of turns and steps can only be counted once per sequence. The team must skate three meters or less near each other while executing the crossing feature of the sequence. They must not separate, with no breaks, for at least half of the sequence. Changes of holds, which can include "a brief moment" when the partners do not touch, are permitted during the step sequence. The workload between the partners must be even to help them earn more points. More points are rewarded to teams when they change places or holds, or when they perform difficult skating moves together. Teams also earn more points for the following: if they use difficult skating moves together and change holds and places during step sequences; if they execute rotations to either the right or the left, "with full body rotation covering at least 1/3 of the pattern in total for each rotational direction"; if they use their body movements for at least one-third of the pattern; changes in position (defined as "crossing at least three times while doing steps and turns") for at least a third of the sequence but not over half of it; and if the partners execute two different combinations of three difficult turns. Both partners must execute the combinations of difficult turns at the same time and with a clear rhythm and continuous flow, but without the free foot touching the ice, although they do not have to execute the same kind of turns. Partners can perform rockers, counters, brackets, loops, and twizzles during combinations of difficult turns. Three turns, changes of edges, jumps and/or hops, and changes of feet are not allowed, and "at least one turn in the combination must be of a different type than the others". Two combinations of difficult turns are the same if they consist of the same turns performed in the same order, on the same foot and on the same edges. Rotations to either the right or the left can be accomplished with any listed and unlisted steps and turns, as long as they are done continuously in one direction for at least 1/3 of the sequence and "then continuously for at least 1/3 of the sequence in the opposite direction (clockwise and anti-clockwise)". Rotations can also be performed throughout the length of the sequence the skaters are rotating with any unlisted and listed steps and turns they choose, for at least a third of the total sequence and at least a third of the total sequence in the opposite direction (also clockwise and anti-clockwise). Use of body movements is defined as the visible use by both partners any movements of the arms, and/or hips and/or legs and/or head and/or torso. These movements must affect the balance of the main body core, which affect the balance of the entire body and influence the balance on their blades. Pair teams must perform one choreographic sequence during their free skating programs. According to the ISU, a choreographic sequence "consists of any kind of movements like steps, turns, spirals, arabesques, spread eagles, Ina Bauers, hydroblading, any jumps with maximum of 2 revolutions, spins, small lifts, etc." It begins at the first skating movement and ends when the team begins to prepare to execute the next element, unless the sequence is the last element performed during the program. Judges do not evaluate individual elements in a choreographic segment; rather, they note that it was accomplished. There are no restrictions limiting the sequence of the movements, but the sequence must be "clearly visible". Pair skaters, in order to earn the most points possible, must include the following in their choreographic sequences: they must have originality and creativity; the sequence must match the music and reflect the program's concept and character; and they must demonstrate effortlessness of the element as a sequence. They must also do the following: "have good ice coverage" or perform an interesting pattern; demonstrate good unison between the partners; and demonstrate "excellent commitment" and control of the whole body. Skaters must only execute the prescribed elements; if they do not, the extra or unprescribed elements will not be counted in their score. Only the first attempt of an element will be included. Violations in pair skating include falls, time, music, and clothing. According to the ISU, a fall is defined as the "loss of control by a Skater with the result that the majority of his/her own body weight is on the ice supported by any other part of the body other than the blades; e.g. hand(s), knee(s), back, buttock(s) or any part of the arm". Australian single skater and coach Belinda Noonan stated, "Pairs skating is literally physically more dangerous than the other three disciplines". American pair skater Nathan Bartholomay agreed, comparing the danger in pair skating to playing in the National Football League. Sportswriter Sandra Loosemore, in her discussion of the accidents in all figure skating disciplines, stated that the "very nature" of pair skating "adds an extra dimension of danger and risk of injury" because of the high speed and close proximity pair teams skate to each other, and the lifts and other elements in pair skating. Both members of a pair skating team can receive broken noses and other injuries from performing twist lifts incorrectly, and although male partners are taught to protect their partners in case of a fall from an overhead lift, concussions and serious head injuries are common. The ISU has banned and restricted dangerous tricks and moves from pair skating, but both skating audiences and skaters have demanded them. Skaters have resisted using protective gear, even during practice, because it interferes with developing self-confidence and is seen as incompatible with "the aesthetic aspects of the sport". Pair skaters have 1.83 injuries per athlete, the most of any figure skating discipline. Single skaters and ice dancers have more lower body injuries, but pair skaters suffer more upper body injuries, "with 50% occurring to the head (e.g., facial lacerations, concussions)". According to figure skating researchers Jason Vescovi and Jaci VanHeest, these injuries are "an obvious consequence of the throws and side- by-side jumps performed in this discipline". A study conducted in 1989 found that ice dancers and pair skaters, during a nine-month period of time, can experience serious injuries (defined as the athletes missing seven or more consecutive days of training after their injuries), and that women pair skaters have more injuries than men, which Vescovi and VanHeest attributed to the demands of pair skating. For pair skaters, one point is deducted for every fall by one partner, and two points are deducted for every fall by both partners. According to former American figure skater Katrina Hacker, falls occur for the following reasons: the skater makes an error during his or her takeoff; his or her jump is under-rotated, or not fully rotated while the skater is in the air; the skater executes a tilted jump and is unable to land upright on his or her feet; and the skater makes an error during the first jump of a combination jump, resulting in not having enough smoothness, speed, and flow to complete the second jump. If there is an interruption while performing their program, skaters can lose one point if it lasts more than 10 seconds but not over 20 seconds. They can lose two points if the interruption lasts 20 seconds but not over 30 seconds, and three points if it lasts 30 seconds but not more than 40 seconds. They can lose five points if they can resume their program three minutes after the interruption begins. ISU rules leave stopping a program for medical reasons up to the discretion of the competition referee, who decides, after consulting with the skaters' team physician or the doctor provided by the competition's organizer, to end a program, but it must be done within three minutes after the fall or interruption; if not, the skater or team must withdraw. As for all skating disciplines, judges penalize pair skaters one point up to every five seconds for ending their programs too early or too late. If they start their programs between one and 30 seconds late, they can lose one point.S&P;/ID 2018, p. 18 Restrictions for finishing the short program and the free skating program are similar to the requirements of the other disciplines in figure skating. They can complete these programs within plus or minus 10 seconds of the required times; if they cannot, judges can deduct points if they finish up to five seconds too early or too late. If they begin skating any element after their required time (plus the required 10 seconds they have to begin), they earn no points for those elements. The pair team receive no points if the duration of their program is completed less than 30 seconds or more seconds early. The ISU defines the interpretation of the music in all figure skating disciplines as "the personal, creative, and genuine translation of the rhythm, character and content of music to movement on ice".S&P;/ID 2018, p. 83 Judges take the following things into account when scoring the short program and the free skating program: the steps and movement in time to the music; the expression of the character of the music; and the use of finesse. The use of vocals was expanded to pair skating, as well as to single skating, starting in 2014; the first Olympics affected by this change was in 2018 in PeongChang, South Korea. The ISU's decision, done to increase the sport's audience, to encourage more participation, and to give skaters and choreographers more choice in constructing their programs, had divided support among skaters, coaches, and choreographers. As for the other disciplines of figure skating, the clothing worn by pair skaters at ISU Championships, the Olympics, and international competitions must be "modest, dignified and appropriate for athletic competition—not garish or theatrical in design".S&P;/ID 2018 p. 78 Props and accessories are not allowed. Clothing can reflect the character of the skaters' chosen music and must not "give the effect of excessive nudity inappropriate for the discipline". All men must wear trousers, a rule that has been in effect since the 1994–1995 season. Since 2003, women skaters have been able to wear skirts, trousers, tights, and unitards. Decorations on costumes must be "non- detachable"; judges can deduct one point per program if part of the competitors' costumes or decorations fall on the ice. If there is a costume or prop violation, the judges can deduct one point per program. If competitors do not adhere to these guidelines, the judges can deduct points from their total score, if most of the panel, including the referee, thinks a skater's outfit is inappropriate. However, costume deductions are rare. Juliet Newcomer from U.S. Figure Skating stated that by the time skaters get to a national or world championship, they have received enough feedback about their costumes and are no longer willing to take any more risks of losing points. Former competitive skater and designer Braden Overett told the New York Post that there is "an informal review process before major competitions such as the Olympics, during which judges communicate their preferences". Also according to the New York Post, one of the goals of skaters and designers is to ensure that a costume's design, which can "make or break a performance", does not affect the skaters' scores. According to former competitive skater and fashion writer Shalayne Pulia, figure skating costume designers are part of a skater's "support team". Designers collaborate with skaters and their coaches to help them design costumes that fit the themes and requirements of their programs for months before the start of each season. There have been calls to require figure skaters to wear uniforms like other competitive sports, in order to make the sport less expensive and more inclusive, and to emphasize its athletic side. Hines, James R. (2011). Historical Dictionary of Figure Skating. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. ., Kestnbaum, Ellyn (2003). Culture on Ice: Figure Skating and Cultural Meaning. Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press. ., Sibly, Caroline. (2018). "Mental skills training". In Vescovi, Jason D.; VanHeest, Jaci L. The Science of Figure Skating. New York: Routledge. pp. 85–97. ., "Special Regulations & Technical Rules Single & Pair Skating and Ice Dance 2018". International Skating Union. June 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2019 (S&P;/ID 2018), "Technical Panel Handbook: Pair Skating 2019/2020" (PDF). ISU Judging System. International Skating Union. 23 July 2019. Retrieved 28 September 2019 (Tech Panel).

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In a written or published work, an initial or drop cap is a letter at the beginning of a word, a chapter, or a paragraph that is larger than the rest of the text. The word is derived from the Latin initialis, which means standing at the beginning. An initial is often several lines in height and in older books or manuscripts, sometimes ornately decorated. In illuminated manuscripts, initials with images inside them, such as those illustrated here, are known as historiated initials. They were an invention of the Insular art of the British Isles in the eighth century. Initials containing, typically, plant-form spirals with small figures of animals or humans that do not represent a specific person or scene are known as "inhabited" initials. Certain important initials, such as the Beatus initial or "B" of Beatus vir... at the opening of Psalm 1 at the start of a vulgate Latin psalter, could occupy a whole page of a manuscript. These specific initials, in an illuminated manuscript, also were called initiums. The classical tradition was slow to use capital letters for initials at all; in surviving Roman texts it often is difficult even to separate the words as spacing was not used either. In the Late Antique period both came into common use in Italy, the initials usually were set in the left margin (as in the third example below), as though to cut them off from the rest of the text, and about twice as tall as the other letters. The radical innovation of insular manuscripts was to make initials much larger, not indented, and for the letters immediately following the initial also to be larger, but diminishing in size (called the "diminuendo" effect, after the musical notation). Subsequently, they became larger still, coloured, and penetrated farther and farther into the rest of the text, until the whole page might be taken over. The decoration of insular initials, especially large ones, was generally abstract and geometrical, or featured animals in patterns. Historiated initials were an Insular invention, but did not come into their own until the later developments of Ottonian art, Anglo-Saxon art, and the Romanesque style in particular. After this period, in Gothic art large paintings of scenes tended to go in rectangular framed spaces, and the initial, although often still historiated, tended to become smaller again. In the very early history of printing the typesetters would leave blank the necessary space, so that the initials could be added later by a scribe or miniature painter. Later initials were printed using separate blocks in woodcut or metalcut techniques. Since 2003, the W3C is working for initial letter modules for CSS Inline Layout Module Level 3, which standardized the output of initial letters for web pages. The initials are morphologically classified: the rubricated letter (red); the epigraphic letter, imitating ancient Roman majuscules; the figurated initial (usually in miniatures); the historiated initial, that gives spatial support to scenes of a narrative character; etc. The initial may sit on the same baseline as the first line of text, at the same margin, as it does here. This is the easiest to typeset on a computer, including in HTML. An example follows: Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. Excepteur sint occaecat cupidatat non proident, sunt in culpa qui officia deserunt mollit anim id est laborum. Alternatively, the initial may be in the left margin, with the text indented, as shown here. In word processors and HTML, this may be implemented using a table with two cells, one for the initial and one for the rest of the text. The difference between this and a true drop cap may be seen when the text extends below the initial. For example: With a drop cap, the initial sits within the margins and runs several lines deep into the paragraph, indenting some normal-sized text in these lines. This keeps the left and top margins of the paragraph flush. In modern computer browsers, this may be achieved with a combination of HTML and CSS by using the float: left; setting. A CSS-only solution alternatively can use the :first-letter pseudo-element. An example of this format is the following paragraph: orem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. Excepteur sint occaecat cupidatat non proident, sunt in culpa qui officia deserunt mollit anim id est laborum. In some older manuscripts, the first letter of normal sized text after a drop cap also would be capitalized, as may be seen in the Mainz Psalter above, and in the original 1609 printing of Shakespeare's sonnets. This evoked the handwritten "diminuendo" style of gradually reducing the text size over the course of the first line. This style now is rare, except in newspapers. Monogram, Typography Typolis.de, Types of illuminated initials in the Glossary of Medieval Art and Architecture, Ornamento Ornamento contains close to a quarter of a million ornate letters, ornaments, borders, musical notation, diagrams, and illustrations drawn from Iberian print before 1701., Initials and Ornaments by Book Historian on Flickr.com, Alphabets & Letters at Reusableart.com Letter case (or just case) is the distinction between the letters that are in larger upper case (also uppercase, capital letters, capitals, caps, large letters, or more formally majuscule) and smaller lower case (also lowercase, small letters, or more formally minuscule) in the written representation of certain languages. The writing systems that distinguish between the upper and lower case have two parallel sets of letters, with each letter in one set usually having an equivalent in the other set. The two case variants are alternative representations of the same letter: they have the same name and pronunciation and are treated identically when sorting in alphabetical order. Letter case is generally applied in a mixed-case fashion, with both upper- and lower-case letters appearing in a given piece of text for legibility. The choice of case is often prescribed by the grammar of a language or by the conventions of a particular discipline. In orthography, the upper case is primarily reserved for special purposes, such as the first letter of a sentence or of a proper noun, which makes the lower case the more common variant in regular text. In some contexts, it is conventional to use one case only. For example, engineering design drawings are typically labelled entirely in upper-case letters, which are easier to distinguish individually than the lower case when space restrictions require that the lettering be very small. In mathematics, on the other hand, letter case may indicate the relationship between objects, with upper-case letters often representing "superior" objects (e.g. X could be a set containing the generic member x). The terms upper case and lower case may be written as two consecutive words, connected with a hyphen (upper-case and lower-case particularly if they pre- modify another noun), or as a single word (uppercase and lowercase). These terms originated from the common layouts of the shallow drawers called type cases used to hold the movable type for letterpress printing. Traditionally, the capital letters were stored in a separate shallow tray or "case" that was located above the case that held the small letters. Majuscule ( or ), for palaeographers, is technically any script in which the letters have very few or very short ascenders and descenders, or none at all (for example, the majuscule scripts used in the Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209, or the Book of Kells). By virtue of their visual impact, this made the term majuscule an apt descriptor for what much later came to be more commonly referred to as uppercase letters. Minuscule refers to lower-case letters. The word is often spelled miniscule, by association with the unrelated word miniature and the prefix mini-. This has traditionally been regarded as a spelling mistake (since minuscule is derived from the word minus), but is now so common that some dictionaries tend to accept it as a nonstandard or variant spelling. Miniscule is still less likely, however, to be used in reference to lower-case letters. The glyphs of lower-case letters can resemble smaller forms of the upper-case glyphs restricted to the base band (e.g. "C/c" and "S/s", cf. small caps) or can look hardly related (e.g. "D/d" and "G/g"). Here is a comparison of the upper and lower case variants of each letter included in the English alphabet (the exact representation will vary according to the typeface and font used): Typographically, the basic difference between the majuscules and minuscules is not that the majuscules are big and minuscules small, but that the majuscules generally have the same height (although, depending on the typeface, there may be some exceptions, particularly with Q and sometimes J having a descending element; also, various diacritics can add to the normal height of a letter). There is more variation in the height of the minuscules, as some of them have parts higher (ascenders) or lower (descenders) than the typical size. Normally, b, d, f, h, k, l, t are the letters with ascenders, and g, j, p, q, y are the ones with descenders. In addition, with old-style numerals still used by some traditional or classical fonts, 6 and 8 make up the ascender set, and 3, 4, 5, 7 and 9 the descender set. Writing systems using two separate cases are bicameral scripts. Languages that use the Latin, Cyrillic, Greek, Coptic, Armenian, Adlam, Warang Citi, Cherokee, and Osage scripts use letter cases in their written form as an aid to clarity and legibility. Other bicameral scripts, which are not used for any modern languages, are Old Hungarian, Glagolitic, and Deseret. The Georgian alphabet has several variants, and there were attempts to use them as different cases, but the modern written Georgian language does not distinguish case. Many other writing systems make no distinction between majuscules and minuscules a system called unicameral script or unicase. This includes most syllabic and other non-alphabetic scripts. In scripts with a case distinction, lower case is generally used for the majority of text; capitals are used for capitalisation and emphasis when bold is not available. Acronyms (and particularly initialisms) are often written in all-caps, depending on various factors. Capitalisation is the writing of a word with its first letter in uppercase and the remaining letters in lowercase. Capitalisation rules vary by language and are often quite complex, but in most modern languages that have capitalisation, the first word of every sentence is capitalised, as are all proper nouns. Capitalisation in English, in terms of the general orthographic rules independent of context (e.g. title vs. heading vs. text), is universally standardised for formal writing. Capital letters are used as the first letter of a sentence, a proper noun, or a proper adjective. The names of the days of the week and the names of the months are also capitalised, as are the first- person pronoun "I" and the interjection "O" (although the latter is uncommon in modern usage, with "oh" being preferred). There are a few pairs of words of different meanings whose only difference is capitalisation of the first letter. Honorifics and personal titles showing rank or prestige are capitalised when used together with the name of the person (for example, "Mr. Smith", "Bishop O'Brien", "Professor Moore") or as a direct address, but normally not when used alone and in a more general sense. It can also be seen as customary to capitalise any word in some contexts even a pronoun referring to the deity of a monotheistic religion. Other words normally start with a lower-case letter. There are, however, situations where further capitalisation may be used to give added emphasis, for example in headings and publication titles (see below). In some traditional forms of poetry, capitalisation has conventionally been used as a marker to indicate the beginning of a line of verse independent of any grammatical feature. Other languages vary in their use of capitals. For example, in German all nouns are capitalised (this was previously common in English as well, mainly in the 17th and 18th centuries), while in Romance and most other European languages the names of the days of the week, the names of the months, and adjectives of nationality, religion, and so on normally begin with a lower-case letter. On the other hand, in some languages it is customary to capitalise formal polite pronouns, for example De, Dem (Danish), Sie, Ihnen (German), and Vd or Ud (short for usted in Spanish). Informal communication, such as texting, instant messaging or a handwritten sticky note, may not bother to follow the conventions concerning capitalisation, but that is because its users usually do not expect it to be formal. The German letter "ß" only used to exist in lower case. The orthographical capitalisation does not concern "ß", which never occurs at the beginning of a word, and in the all-caps style it has traditionally been replaced by the digraph "SS". Since June 2017, however, capital ẞ is accepted as an alternative in the all-caps style., The Greek upper-case letter "Σ" has two different lower-case forms: "ς" in word-final position and "σ" elsewhere. In a similar manner, the Latin upper-case letter "S" used to have two different lower-case forms: "s" in word-final position and " ſ " elsewhere. The latter form, called the long s, fell out of general use before the middle of the 19th century, except for the countries that continued to use Blackletter typefaces such as Fraktur. When Blackletter type fell out of general use in the mid-20th century, even those countries dropped the long s., Unlike most Latin-script languages, which link the dotless upper-case "I" with the dotted lower-case "i", Turkish has both a dotted and dotless I, each in both upper and lower case. Each of the two pairs ("İ/i" and "I/ı") represents a distinctive phoneme., In some languages, specific digraphs may be regarded as single letters, and in Dutch, the digraph "IJ/ij" is even capitalised with both components written in uppercase (for example, "IJsland" rather than "Ijsland"). In other languages, such as Welsh and Hungarian, various digraphs are regarded as single letters for collation purposes, but the second component of the digraph will still be written in lower case even if the first component is capitalised. Similarly, in South Slavic languages whose orthography is coordinated between the Cyrillic and Latin scripts, the Latin digraphs "Lj/lj", "Nj/nj" and "Dž/dž" are each regarded as a single letter (like their Cyrillic equivalents "Љ/љ", "Њ/њ" and "Џ/џ", respectively), but only in all-caps style should both components be in upper case (e.g. Ljiljan–LJILJAN, Njonja–NJONJA, Džidža–DŽIDŽA). Unicode designates a single character for each case variant (i.e., upper case, title case and lower case) of the three digraphs., In the Hawaiian orthography, the okina is a phonemic symbol that visually resembles a left single quotation mark. Representing the glottal stop, the okina can either be characterized as a letter or a diacritic. As a unicase letter, the okina is unaffected by capitalisation; it is the following letter that is capitalised instead. According to the Unicode standard, the okina is formally encoded as , but it is not uncommon to substitute this with a similar punctuation character, such as the left single quotation mark or an apostrophe. Similar orthographic and graphostylistic conventions are used for emphasis or following language-specific or other rules, including: Font effects such as italic type or oblique type, boldface, and choice of serif vs. sans-serif., Typographical conventions in mathematical formulae include the use of Greek letters and the use of Latin letters with special formatting such as blackboard bold and blackletter., Some letters of the Arabic and Hebrew alphabets and some jamo of the Korean hangul have different forms depending on placement within a word, but these rules are strict and the different forms cannot be used for emphasis., In the Arabic and Arabic-based alphabets, letters in a word are connected, except for several that cannot connect to the following letter. Letters may have distinct forms depending on whether they are initial (connected only to the following letter), medial (connected to both neighboring letters), final (connected only to the preceding letter), or isolated (connected to neither a preceding nor a following letter)., In the Hebrew alphabet, several letters have a distinct form that it is used when they are word-final., In Georgian, some authors use isolated letters from the ancient Asomtavruli alphabet within a text otherwise written in the modern Mkhedruli in a fashion that is reminiscent of the usage of upper-case letters in the Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic alphabets., In the Japanese writing system, an author has the option of switching between kanji, hiragana, katakana, and rōmaji. In particular, every hiragana character has an equivalent katakana character, and vice versa. Romanised Japanese sometimes uses lowercase letters to represent words that would be written in hiragana, and uppercase letters to represent words that would be written in katakana. Some kana characters are written in smaller type when they modify or combine with the preceding sign (yōon) or the following sign (sokuon). In English, a variety of case styles are used in various circumstances: Sentence case Title case (capital case, headline style) All caps (all uppercase) Small caps All lowercase In English-language publications, various conventions are used for the capitalisation of words in publication titles and headlines, including chapter and section headings. The rules differ substantially between individual house styles. The convention followed by many British publishers (including scientific publishers, like Nature, magazines, like The Economist and New Scientist, and newspapers, like The Guardian and The Times) and also U.S. newspapers, is sentence-style capitalisation in headlines, i.e. capitalisation follows the same rules that apply for sentences. This convention is usually called sentence case. It may also be applied to publication titles, especially in bibliographic references and library catalogues. An example of a global publisher whose English-language house style prescribes sentence-case titles and headings is the International Organization for Standardization. For publication titles it is, however, a common typographic practice among both British and U.S. publishers to capitalise significant words (and in the United States, this is often applied to headings, too). This family of typographic conventions is usually called title case. For example, R. M. Ritter's Oxford Manual of Style (2002) suggests capitalising "the first word and all nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, but generally not articles, conjunctions and short prepositions". This is an old form of emphasis, similar to the more modern practice of using a larger or boldface font for titles. The rules which prescribe which words to capitalise are not based on any grammatically inherent correct-incorrect distinction and are not universally standardised; they differ between style guides, although most style guides tend to follow a few strong conventions, as follows: Most styles capitalise all words except for short closed-class words (certain parts of speech, namely, articles, prepositions, and conjunctions); but the first word (always) and last word (in many styles) are also capitalised, regardless of their part of speech. Many styles capitalise longer prepositions such as "between" and "throughout", but not shorter ones such as "for" and "with". Typically, a preposition is considered short if it has up to three or four letters., A few styles capitalise all words in title case (the so-called start case), which has the advantage of being easy to implement and hard to get "wrong" (that is, "not edited to style"). Because of this rule's simplicity, software case-folding routines can handle 95% or more of the editing, especially if they are programmed for desired exceptions (such as "FBI" rather than "Fbi")., As for whether hyphenated words are capitalised not only at the beginning but also after the hyphen, there is no universal standard; variation occurs in the wild and among house styles (e.g., "The Letter-Case Rule in My Book"; "Short-term Follow-up Care for Burns"). Traditional copyediting makes a distinction between temporary compounds (such as many nonce [novel instance] compound modifiers), in which every part of the hyphenated word is capitalised (e.g. "How This Particular Author Chose to Style His Autumn-Apple-Picking Heading"), and permanent compounds, which are terms that, although compound and hyphenated, are so well established that dictionaries enter them as headwords (e.g., "Short-term Follow-up Care for Burns"). Title case is widely used in many English-language publications, especially in the United States. However, its conventions are sometimes not followed strictly especially in informal writing. In creative typography, such as music record covers and other artistic material, all styles are commonly encountered, including all-lowercase letters and special case styles, such as studly caps (see below). For example, in the wordmarks of video games it is not uncommon to use stylised upper-case letters at the beginning and end of a title, with the intermediate letters in small caps or lower case (e.g., , , and ). Single-word proper nouns are capitalised in formal written English, unless the name is intentionally stylised to break this rule (such as the first or last name of danah boyd). Multi-word proper nouns include names of organisations, publications, and people. Often the rules for "title case" (described in the previous section) are applied to these names, so that non-initial articles, conjunctions, and short prepositions are lowercase, and all other words are uppercase. For example, the short preposition "of" and the article "the" are lowercase in "Steering Committee of the Finance Department". Usually only capitalised words are used to form an acronym variant of the name, though there is some variation in this. With personal names, this practice can vary (sometimes all words are capitalised, regardless of length or function), but is not limited to English names. Examples include the English names Tamar of Georgia and Catherine the Great, "van" and "der" in Dutch names, "von" and "zu" in German, "de", "los", and "y" in Spanish names, "de" or "d'" in French names, and "ibn" in Arabic names. Some surname prefixes also affect the capitalisation of the following internal letter or word, for example "Mac" in Celtic names and "Al" in Arabic names. Some case styles are not used in standard English, but are common in computer programming, product branding, or other specialised fields: Camel case :"theQuickBrownFoxJumpsOverTheLazyDog" or "TheQuickBrownFoxJumpsOverTheLazyDog" Spaces and punctuation are removed and the first letter of each word is capitalised. If this includes the first letter of the first word ("CamelCase", "PowerPoint", "TheQuick...", etc.), the case is sometimes called upper camel case (or, illustratively, CamelCase), Pascal case, or bumpy case. When the first letter of the first word is lowercase ("iPod", "eBay", "theQuickBrownFox..."), the case is usually known as lower camel case (illustratively: camelCase). This format has become popular in the branding of information technology products and services. Snake case :"the_quick_brown_fox_jumps_over_the_lazy_dog" Punctuation is removed and spaces are replaced by single underscores. Normally the letters share the same case (e.g. "UPPER_CASE_EMBEDDED_UNDERSCORE" or "lower_case_embedded_underscore") but the case can be mixed, as in OCaml modules. The style may also be called pothole case, especially in Python programming, in which this convention is often used for naming variables. Illustratively, it may be rendered snake_case, pothole_case, etc. When all- upper-case, it may be referred to as screaming snake case (or SCREAMING_SNAKE_CASE). Kebab case :"the-quick-brown-fox-jumps-over-the-lazy-dog" Similar to snake case, above, except hyphens rather than underscores are used to replace spaces. It is also known as spinal case, param case, Lisp case, and dash case (or illustratively as kebab-case) If every word is capitalised, the style is known as train case (TRAIN-CASE). Raku supports kebab case style. Studly caps : e.g. "tHeqUicKBrOWnFoXJUmpsoVeRThElAzydOG" Mixed case with no semantic or syntactic significance to the use of the capitals. Sometimes only vowels are upper case, at other times upper and lower case are alternated, but often it is simply random. The name comes from the sarcastic or ironic implication that it was used in an attempt by the writer to convey their own coolness. It is also used to mock the violation of standard English case conventions by marketers in the naming of computer software packages, even when there is no technical requirement to do soe.g., Sun Microsystems' naming of a windowing system NeWS. Illustrative naming of the style is, naturally, random: stUdlY cAps, StUdLy CaPs, etc. In the International System of Units (SI), a letter usually has different meanings in upper and lower case when used as a unit symbol. Generally, unit symbols are written in lower case, but if the name of the unit is derived from a proper noun, the first letter of the symbol is capitalised (nevertheless, the name of the unit, if spelled out, is always considered a common noun and written accordingly): 1 s (one second) when used for the base unit of time., 1 S (one siemens) when used for the unit of electric conductance and admittance (named after Werner von Siemens)., 1 Sv (one sievert), used for the unit of ionising radiation dose (named after Rolf Maximilian Sievert). For the purpose of clarity, the symbol for litre can optionally be written in upper case even though the name is not derived from a proper noun: 1 l, the original form, for typefaces in which "digit one" , "lower-case ell" , and "upper-case eye" look different., 1 L, an alternative form, for typefaces in which these characters are difficult to distinguish, or the typeface the reader will be using is unknown. A "script l" in various typefaces (e.g.: 1 l) has traditionally been used in some countries to prevent confusion; however, the separate Unicode character which represents this, , is deprecated by the SI. Another solution sometimes seen in Web typography is to use a serif font for "lower-case ell" in otherwise sans-serif material (1 l). The letter case of a prefix symbol is determined independently of the unit symbol to which it is attached. Lower case is used for all submultiple prefix symbols and the small multiple prefix symbols up to "k" (for kilo, meaning 10 = 1000 multiplier), whereas upper case is used for larger multipliers: 1 ms, a small measure of time ("m" for milli, meaning 10 = 1/1000 multiplier)., 1 Ms, a large measure of time ("M" for mega, meaning 10 = 1 000 000 multiplier)., 1 mS, a small measure (in millisiemens) of electric conductance., 1 MS, a large measure (megasiemens) of electric conductance., 1 mm, a small measure of length (the latter "m" for metre)., 1 Mm, a large measure of length. In the character sets developed for computing, each upper- and lower-case letter is encoded as a separate character. In order to enable case folding and case conversion, the software needs to link together the two characters representing the case variants of a letter. (Some old character-encoding systems, such as the Baudot code, are restricted to one set of letters, usually represented by the upper-case variants.) Case-insensitive operations can be said to fold case, from the idea of folding the character code table so that upper- and lower-case letters coincide. The conversion of letter case in a string is common practice in computer applications, for instance to make case-insensitive comparisons. Many high-level programming languages provide simple methods for case conversion, at least for the ASCII character set. Whether or not the case variants are treated as equivalent to each other varies depending on the computer system and context. For example, user passwords are generally case sensitive in order to allow more diversity and make them more difficult to break. On the other hand, when performing a keyword search, differentiating between the upper and lower case might narrow down the search result too much. Unicode defines case folding through the three case-mapping properties of each character: upper case, lower case, and title case (in this context, "title case" relates to ligatures and digraphs encoded as mixed-case single characters, in which the first component is in upper case and the second component in lower case). These properties relate all characters in scripts with differing cases to the other case variants of the character. As briefly discussed in Unicode Technical Note #26, "In terms of implementation issues, any attempt at a unification of Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic would wreak havoc [and] make casing operations an unholy mess, in effect making all casing operations context sensitive […]". In other words, while the shapes of letters like A, B, E, H, K, M, O, P, T, X, Y and so on are shared between the Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic alphabets (and small differences in their canonical forms may be considered to be of a merely typographical nature), it would still be problematic for a multilingual character set or a font to provide only a single code point for, say, uppercase letter B, as this would make it quite difficult for a wordprocessor to change that single uppercase letter to one of the three different choices for the lower-case letter, the Latin b (U+0062), Greek β (U+03B2) or Cyrillic в (U+0432). Therefore, the corresponding Latin, Greek and Cyrillic upper-case letters (U+0042, U+0392 and U+0412, respectively) are also encoded as separate characters, despite their appearance being basically identical. Without letter case, a "unified European alphabet"such as ABБCГDΔΕЄЗFΦGHIИJ...Z, with an appropriate subset for each languageis feasible; but considering letter case, it becomes very clear that these alphabets are rather distinct sets of symbols. Most modern word processors provide automated case conversion with a simple click or keystroke. For example, in Microsoft Office Word, there is a dialog box for toggling the selected text through UPPERCASE, then lowercase, then Title Case (actually start caps; exception words must be lowercased individually). The keystroke does the same thing. In some forms of BASIC there are two methods for case conversion: C and C++, as well as any C-like language that conforms to its standard library, provide these functions in the file ctype.h: Case conversion is different with different character sets. In ASCII or EBCDIC, case can be converted in the following way, in C: This only works because the letters of upper and lower cases are spaced out equally. In ASCII they are consecutive, whereas with EBCDIC they are not; nonetheless the upper-case letters are arranged in the same pattern and with the same gaps as are the lower-case letters, so the technique still works. Some computer programming languages offer facilities for converting text to a form in which all words are capitalised. Visual Basic calls this "proper case"; Python calls it "title case". This differs from usual title casing conventions, such as the English convention in which minor words are not capitalised. Originally alphabets were written entirely in majuscule letters, spaced between well-defined upper and lower bounds. When written quickly with a pen, these tended to turn into rounder and much simpler forms. It is from these that the first minuscule hands developed, the half-uncials and cursive minuscule, which no longer stayed bound between a pair of lines. These in turn formed the foundations for the Carolingian minuscule script, developed by Alcuin for use in the court of Charlemagne, which quickly spread across Europe. The advantage of the minuscule over majuscule was improved, faster readability. In Latin, papyri from Herculaneum dating before 79 CE (when it was destroyed) have been found that have been written in old Roman cursive, where the early forms of minuscule letters "d", "h" and "r", for example, can already be recognised. According to papyrologist Knut Kleve, "The theory, then, that the lower-case letters have been developed from the fifth century uncials and the ninth century Carolingian minuscules seems to be wrong." Both majuscule and minuscule letters existed, but the difference between the two variants was initially stylistic rather than orthographic and the writing system was still basically unicameral: a given handwritten document could use either one style or the other but these were not mixed. European languages, except for Ancient Greek and Latin, did not make the case distinction before about 1300. The timeline of writing in Western Europe can be divided into four eras: Greek majuscule (9th–3rd century BCE) in contrast to the Greek uncial script (3rd century BCE – 12th century CE) and the later Greek minuscule, Roman majuscule (7th century BCE – 4th century CE) in contrast to the Roman uncial (4th–8th century CE), Roman Half Uncial, and minuscule, Carolingian majuscule (4th–8th century CE) in contrast to the Carolingian minuscule (around 780 – 12th century), Gothic majuscule (13th and 14th century), in contrast to the early Gothic (end of 11th to 13th century), Gothic (14th century), and late Gothic (16th century) minuscules. Traditionally, certain letters were rendered differently according to a set of rules. In particular, those letters that began sentences or nouns were made larger and often written in a distinct script. There was no fixed capitalisation system until the early 18th century. The English language eventually dropped the rule for nouns, while the German language keeps it. Similar developments have taken place in other alphabets. The lower-case script for the Greek alphabet has its origins in the 7th century and acquired its quadrilinear form (that is, characterized by ascenders and descenders) in the 8th century. Over time, uncial letter forms were increasingly mixed into the script. The earliest dated Greek lower-case text is the Uspenski Gospels (MS 461) in the year 835. The modern practice of capitalising the first letter of every sentence seems to be imported (and is rarely used when printing Ancient Greek materials even today). The individual type blocks used in hand typesetting are stored in shallow wooden or metal drawers known as "type cases". Each is subdivided into a number of compartments ("boxes") for the storage of different individual letters. The Oxford Universal Dictionary on Historical Advanced Proportional Principles (reprinted 1952) indicates that case in this sense (referring to the box or frame used by a compositor in the printing trade) was first used in English in 1588. Originally one large case was used for each typeface, then "divided cases", pairs of cases for majuscules and minuscules, were introduced in the region of today's Belgium by 1563, England by 1588, and France before 1723. The terms upper and lower case originate from this division. By convention, when the two cases were taken out of the storage rack, and placed on a rack on the compositor's desk, the case containing the capitals and small capitals stood at a steeper angle at the back of the desk, with the case for the small letters, punctuation, and spaces being more easily reached at a shallower angle below it to the front of the desk, hence upper and lower case. Though pairs of cases were used in English-speaking countries and many European countries in the seventeenth century, in Germany and Scandinavia the single case continued in use. Various patterns of cases are available, often with the compartments for lower-case letters varying in size according to the frequency of use of letters, so that the commonest letters are grouped together in larger boxes at the centre of the case. The compositor takes the letter blocks from the compartments and places them in a composing stick, working from left to right and placing the letters upside down with the nick to the top, then sets the assembled type in a galley. All caps, CamelCase, Capitalisation, Drop cap, Punctuation, Roman cursive, Roman square capitals, Shift key, Small caps, Studly caps, Text figures, Unicase One of this paper's conclusions: all-caps is harder to read. Capitalization (North American English) or capitalisation (British English) is writing a word with its first letter as a capital letter (uppercase letter) and the remaining letters in lower case, in writing systems with a case distinction. The term also may refer to the choice of the casing applied to text. Conventional writing systems (orthographies) for different languages have different conventions for capitalization, for example the capitalization of titles. Conventions also vary, to a lesser extent, between different style guides. The full rules of capitalization for English are complicated. The rules have also changed over time, generally to capitalize fewer words. The conventions used in an 18th-century document will be unfamiliar to a modern reader; for instance many common nouns are capitalized. The systematic use of capitalized and uncapitalized words in running text is called "mixed case". Owing to the essentially arbitrary nature of orthographic classification and the existence of variant authorities and local house styles, questionable capitalization of words is not uncommon, even in respected newspapers and magazines. Most publishers require consistency, at least within the same document, in applying a specified standard: this is described as "house style". In English, the subjective form of the singular first-person pronoun, "I", is capitalized, along with all its contractions such as I'll and I'm. Objective and possessive forms "me", "my", and "mine" are not., Many European languages traditionally capitalize nouns and pronouns used to refer to God, including references to Jesus Christ (reverential capitals): hallowed be Thy name, look what He has done. Some English authors capitalize any word referring to God: the Lamb, the Almighty; some capitalize "Thy Name". These practices have become much less common in English in the 20th and 21st centuries., In the Bahai Scriptures, singular and plural object, subject, and possessive forms get capitalization if referring to a Rasul, the Twelve Imams, or 'Abdu'l-Baha., Some languages capitalize a royal we (), e.g. it is capitalized in German. Many languages distinguish between formal and informal 2nd person pronouns. In German, the formal 2nd person plural pronoun is capitalized along with all its case-forms (, , etc.), but these words are not capitalized when used as 3rd person feminine singular or plural pronouns. Until the recent German spelling reform(s), the traditional rules (which are still widely adhered to, although not taught in schools) also capitalized the informal 2nd person singular pronoun (and its derivatives, such as ) when used in letters or similar texts, but this is no longer required., Italian also capitalizes its formal pronouns, and , and their cases (even within words, e.g. "goodbye", formal). This is occasionally also done for the Dutch , though this is formally only required when referring to a deity and may be considered archaic., In Spanish, the abbreviations of the pronouns and , , , , and , are usually written with a capital., In Finnish, the second-person plural pronoun can be used when formally addressing a single person, and in writing the pronoun is sometimes capitalized as to indicate special regard. In a more familiar tone, one can also capitalize the second-person singular pronoun ., Similarly, in Russian the formal second-person pronoun , and its oblique cases , etc., are capitalized (usually in personal correspondence); also in Bulgarian., Slovenian, Croatian, Serbian capitalize the formal second-person pronoun along with its oblique cases (, , ) and personal pronoun ( etc.) in formal correspondence. Historically, the familiar second-person pronoun and its cases (, , ) were capitalized as well, but new orthography prohibits such use., In Danish, the plural second-person pronoun, , is capitalized, but its other forms and are not. This distinguishes it from the preposition ("in"). The formal second-person pronoun is also capitalized in all its forms (, , ), distinguishing it from the otherwise identical third-person plural pronouns., In Norwegian, both second person singular and plural have a capitalized alternative form (, , in Bokmål; , , in Nynorsk) to express formality for both subject and object of a sentence, but is very rarely used in modern speech and writing., In formally written Polish, Czech, Slovak and Latvian, most notably in letters and e-mails, all pronouns referring to the addressee are capitalized. This includes ("thou") and all its related forms such as and . This principle extends to nouns used formally to address the addressee of a letter, such as ("sir") and ("madam")., In Indonesian, capitalizing the formal second-person pronoun along with all references to the addressee, such as "" ((to) Sir/Madam), is required in practice of (Perfected Orthography). However, some people do not know of or choose not to adhere to this spelling rule. In contrast, Malay orthography used in Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei does not require the capitalization of ., In Tagalog and its standard form, Filipino, the formal second-person pronouns and and their oblique form are customarily and reverentially capitalized as such, particularly in most digital and printed media related to religion and its references. Purists who consider this rule as nonstandard and inconsistent do not apply it when writing., In Tajik, capitalization is used to distinguish the second person formal pronoun from the second person plural pronoun ., In Swedish, since , the second person singular pronoun may be capitalized as when addressed formally. The various languages and dialects in the High German family, including Standard German and Luxembourgish, are the only major languages using the Latin alphabet in which all nouns are generally capitalized. This was also practiced in other Germanic languages (mainly due to German influence):, In German, all nouns are capitalized., Danish, before the spelling reform of 1948, Swedish, during the 17th and 18th centuries, English, during the 17th and 18th century (as in Gulliver's Travels, and most of the original 1787 United States Constitution), Some regional languages, such as Saterland Frisian, In nearly all European languages, single-word proper nouns, including personal names, are capitalized (like France or Moses). Multiple-word proper nouns usually follow the traditional English rules for publication titles (as in Robert the Bruce)., Where placenames are merely preceded by the definite article, this is usually in lower case (as in the Philippines)., Sometimes, the article is integral to the name, and thus is capitalized (as in , ). However, in French this does not occur for contractions and (as in , "I come from Le Havre"). In other European languages, it is much more common for the article to be treated as integral to the name, but it may not be capitalized (, , , etc.)., A few English names are written with two lowercase "f"s: ffrench, ffoulkes, etc. This originated as a variant script for capital F., A few individuals have chosen not to use capitals in their names, such as k.d. lang and bell hooks. E. E. Cummings, whose name is often written without capitals, did not do so himself: the usage derives from the typography used on the cover of one of his books., Most brand names and trademarks are capitalized (e.g., Coca-Cola, Pepsi), although some have chosen to deviate from standard rules (e.g., easyJet, id Software, eBay, iPod) to be distinctive. When capitals occur within a word, it is sometimes referred to as camel case., In English, the names of days of the week, months and languages are capitalized, as are demonyms like Englishman, Arab. In other languages, practice varies, but most languages other than German (which capitalizes all nouns) do not., In English-language addresses, the noun following the proper name of a street is capitalized, whether or not it is abbreviated: "Main Street", "Fleming Ave.", "Montgomery Blvd.", but in French, street names are capitalized when they are proper names; the noun itself (, ) is normally not capitalized: , ., In Italian the name of a particular concept or object is capitalized when the writer wants to emphasize its importance and significance., Capitalization is always used for most names of taxa used in scientific classification of living things, except for species-level taxa or below. Example: Homo sapiens sapiens., Controversially, some authors capitalize common names of some animal and plant species. As a general rule, names are not capitalized, unless they are part of an official list of names, in which case they have become proper nouns and are capitalized. This is most common for birds and fishes. Names referring to more than one species (e.g., horse or cat) are always in lower case. Botanists generally do not capitalize the common names of plants, though individual words in plant names may be capitalized for another reason: (Italian stone pine). See the discussion of official common names under common name for an explanation., Common nouns may be capitalized when used as names for the entire class of such things, e.g. what a piece of work is Man. French often capitalizes such nouns as (the state) and (the church) when not referring to specific ones., Names by which gods are known are capitalized, including God, Athena, and Vishnu. The word god is generally not capitalized if it is used to refer to the generic idea of a deity, nor is it capitalized when it refers to multiple gods, e.g. Roman gods. There may be some confusion because Judaism, Christianity, and Islam rarely refer to the Deity by a specific name, but simply as God (see Writing divine names). Other names for the God of these three Abrahamic faiths, such as Elohim, Yahweh, and Lord, are also capitalized., While acronyms have historically been written in all-caps, British usage is moving towards capitalizing only the first letter in cases when these are pronounced as words (e.g. Unesco and Nato), reserving all-caps for initialisms (e.g. UK, USA, UNHCR)., In life stance orthography, in order to distinguish life stances from general -isms. For instance, Humanism is distinguished from humanism., In legal English, defined terms that refer to a specific entity, such as "Tenant" and "Lessor", are often capitalized. More specifically, in legal documents, terms which are formally defined elsewhere in the document or a related document (often in a schedule of definitions) are capitalized to indicate that that is the case, and may be several words long, e.g. "the Second Subsidiary Claimant", "the Agreed Conditional Release Date"., Most English honorifics and titles of persons, e.g. Sir, Dr Watson, Mrs Jones, His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh. This does not apply where the words are not titles; e.g. Watson is a doctor, Philip is a duke. In English, adjectives derived from proper nouns (except the names of characters in fictional works) usually retain their capitalization: e.g. a Christian church, Canadian whisky, a Shakespearean sonnet, but not a quixotic mission nor malapropism. Where the original capital is no longer at the beginning of the word, usage varies: anti-Christian, and either Presocratic, pre-Socratic, Pre-Socratic or presocratic. Never preSocratica hyphen must precede a capital in a compound word., Such adjectives do not receive capitals in French (socratique, présocratique), Spanish (socrático, presocrático), Swedish (sokratisk, försokratisk), Polish (sokratejski, presokratejski) nor partly in German (sokratisch, präsokratisch, but Ohm'sches Gesetz ("Ohm's Law")). In German, if the adjective becomes a noun by using an article or numeral in front of it (das/die Bunte (the colorful thing(s)), eine Schöne (a beautiful one)), it is capitalized like any other noun, as are nouns formed from proper nouns (der Urgoethe). The same applies to verbs (das Laufen (the (practice of) running), das Spazierengehen (the (practice of) going for a walk))., Whether geographic adjectives – adjectives referring to cities, countries and other geographic places – are capitalized in German depends on their ending: Geographic adjectives ending in "-er" in their base form are capitalized, others are not. This can feel strange where both forms of the adjective exist for a particular place. For example, one can refer to something being from Mecklenburg by calling it either "Mecklenburger" or "mecklenburgisch"., Adjectives referring to nationality or ethnicity are not capitalized in German, French or Czech, even though nouns are: ein kanadisches Schiff, un navire canadien, kanadská loď, a Canadian ship; ein Kanadier, un Canadien, Kanaďan, a Canadian. Both nouns and adjectives are capitalized in English when referring to nationality or ethnicity., In very formal British English the Queen is referred to as The Queen., The governing body of English solicitors is correctly referred to as The Law Society. (In general any organisation may choose a name starting with a capitalized "The".) The capitalization of geographic terms in English text generally depends on whether the author perceives the term as a proper noun, in which case it is capitalized, or as a combination of an established proper noun with a normal adjective or noun, in which case the latter are not capitalized. There are no universally agreed lists of English geographic terms which are considered as proper nouns. The following are examples of rules that some British and U.S. publishers have established in style guides for their authors: In general, the first letter is capitalized for well-defined regions, e.g. South America, Lower California, Tennessee Valley, This general rule also applies to zones of the Earth’s surface (North Temperate Zone, the Equator), In other cases, do not capitalize the points of the compass (north China, south-east London) or other adjectives (western Arizona, central New Mexico, upper Yangtze, lower Rio Grande), Capitalize generic geographic terms that are part of a place name (Atlantic Ocean, Mt. Muztagata, River Severn), Otherwise, do not capitalize a generic term that follows a capitalized generic term (Yangtze River valley), Use lower case for plurals of generic terms (Gobi and Taklamakan deserts); but "the Dakotas", Only capitalize "the" if it is part of the (short-form) formal place name (The Hague vs. the Netherlands, the Sudan, and the Philippines) Upper case: East Asia, South-East Asia, Central Asia, Central America, North Korea, South Africa, the North Atlantic, the Middle East, the Arctic, The Hague Lower case: western China, southern Beijing, western Mongolia, eastern Africa, northern North Korea, the central Gobi, the lower Yangtze River. Abbreviated When a term is used as a name and then subsequently a shorter term is used then that shorter term maybe used generically. If that is the case do not capitalize. ("The Tatra National Park is a tourist destination in Poland. Watch out for bears when visiting the national park.") In all modern European languages, the first word in a sentence is capitalized, as is the first word in any quoted sentence. (For example, in English: Nana said, "There are ripe watermelons in the garden!"), The first word of a sentence is not capitalized in most modern editions of ancient Greek and, to a lesser extent, Latin texts. The distinction between lower and upper case was not introduced before the Middle Ages; in antiquity only the capital forms of letters were used., For some items, many style guides recommend that initial capitalization be avoided by not putting the item at the beginning of a sentence, or by writing it in lowercase even at the beginning of a sentence. Such scientific terms have their own rules about capitalization which take precedence over the standard initial capitalization rule. For example, pH would be liable to cause confusion if written PH, and initial m and M may even have different meanings, milli and mega, for example 2 MA (megamperes) is a billion times 2 mA (milliamperes). Increasingly nowadays, some trademarks and company names start with a lowercase letter, and similar considerations apply., When the first letters of a word have been omitted and replaced by an apostrophe, the first letter in a sentence is usually left uncapitalized in English and certain other languages, as "'tis a shame ..." In Dutch, the second word is capitalized instead in this situation: "'t Was leuk" vs. "Het was leuk" (both meaning "It was fun")., Traditionally, the first words of a line of verse are capitalized in English, e.g.:Meanwhile the winged Heralds, by commandOf sovereign power, with awful ceremonyAnd trumpet's sound, throughout the host proclaimA solemn council forthwith to be heldAt Pandemonium, the high capitalOf Satan and his peers. [...] (Milton, Paradise Lost I:752–756), Modernist poets often ignore or defy this convention., In the U.S., headlines and titles of works typically use title case, in which certain words (such as nouns, adjectives and verbs) are capitalized and others (such as prepositions and conjunctions) are not. The following names are given to systems of capitalization: "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog." The standard case used in English prose. Generally equivalent to the baseline universal standard of formal English orthography mentioned above; that is, only the first word is capitalized, except for proper nouns and other words which are generally capitalized by a more specific rule. "The Quick Brown Fox Jumps Over The Lazy Dog."or"The Quick Brown Fox Jumps Over the Lazy Dog."Also known as headline style and capital case. All words capitalized, except for certain subsets defined by rules that are not universally standardized, often minor words such as "the" (as above), "of", or "and". The standardization is only at the level of house styles and individual style manuals. (See Headings and publication titles.) A simplified variant is start case, where all words, including articles, prepositions, and conjunctions, start with a capital letter. Also known/written as "all-caps". Capital letters only. This style can be used for headlines and book or chapter titles at the top of a book page. It is commonly used in transcribed speech to indicate that a person is shouting, or to indicate a hectoring and obnoxious speaker. For this reason, it is generally discouraged. Long spans of Latin-alphabet text in all uppercase are harder to read because of the absence of the ascenders and descenders found in lowercase letters, which can aid recognition. In professional documents, a commonly preferred alternative to all–caps text is the use of small caps to emphasize key names or acronyms, or the use of italics or (more rarely) bold. In addition, if all–caps must be used it is customary in headings of a few words to slightly widen the spacing between the letters, by around 10% of the point height. This practice is known as tracking or letterspacing. In German, the particle (meaning "of", pronounced ) or (meaning "named") in a surname (e.g. ) is not capitalized (unless it is the first letter of a sentence)., In Swedish, the particle or , or a borrowed particle like German , is not capitalized, even if it is the first letter of a sentence., In Dutch, all particles like , or , or , or in a surname are capitalized unless a given name or initial precedes it. With compound particles like only the first one is capitalized. However, particles are capitalized in Belgium, except when introducing a title of nobility or when use of the lower case has been granted to some noble family. Thus in a sentence about the location of Van Gogh's most productive period:, would be, without the given name Vincent, In Dutch, , , or are never capitalized, even at the start of sentences — capitalization begins with the first complete word of the sentence. They are short for the articles , and the old possessive form . Examples: , .. In poetry, , the shortened / unemphasized form of ("I") follows the same rule., In English, practice varies when the name starts with a particle with a meaning such as "from" or "the" or "son of"., Some of these particles (Mac, Mc, M, O) are always capitalized; others (, ) are usually capitalized; still others often are not (, , , ). The compound particle is usually written with the 'L' capitalized but not the 'd'., The remaining part of such a name, following the particle, is always capitalized if it is set off with a space as a separate word, or if the particle was not capitalized. It is normally capitalized if the particle is Mc, M, or O. In other cases (including Mac), there is no set rule (both Macintyre and MacIntyre are seen, for example)., In French, nouns in surnames following the plural article "Du" is always capitalized, such as "DuBois". Sometimes when it is translated into other languages, such as English, the noun is not capitalized. For example, fictional character Marinette Dupain-Cheng's first surname is always spelled Dupain and almost always never "DuPain". The titles of many English-language artistic works (plays, novels, essays, paintings, etc.) capitalize the first word and the last word in the title. Additionally, most other words within a title are capitalized as well; articles and coordinating conjunctions are not capitalized. Sources disagree on the details of capitalizing prepositions. For example, the Chicago Manual of Style recommends rendering all prepositions in lowercase, whereas the APA style guide instructs: Capitalize major words in titles of books and articles within the body of the paper. Conjunctions, articles, and short prepositions are not considered major words; however, capitalize all words of four letters or more. In other languages, such as the Romance languages, only the first word and proper names are capitalized. Acronyms are usually capitalized, with a few exceptions: Acronyms which have become regular words such as laser and scuba., Some acronyms of proper nouns in which function words are not capitalized, such as TfL (Transport for London) and LotR (The Lord of the Rings). The English vocative particle O, an archaic form of address, e.g. Thou, O king, art a king of kings. However, lowercase o is also occasionally seen in this context. In most languages that use diacritics, these are treated the same way in uppercase whether the text is capitalized or all-uppercase. They may be always preserved (as in German) or always omitted (as in Greek) or often omitted (as in French). Some attribute this to the fact that diacritics on capital letters were not available earlier on typewriters, and it is now becoming more common to preserve them in French and Spanish (in both languages the rule is to preserve them, although in France and Mexico, for instance, schoolchildren are often erroneously taught that they should not add diacritics on capital letters). However, in the polytonic orthography used for Greek prior to 1982, accents were omitted in all-uppercase words, but kept as part of an uppercase initial (written before rather than above the letter). The latter situation is provided for by title-case characters in Unicode. When Greek is written with the present day monotonic orthography, where only the acute accent is used, the same rule is applied. The accent is omitted in all-uppercase words but it is kept as part of an uppercase initial (written before the letter rather than above it). The (diaeresis) should also always be used in all-uppercase words (even in cases where they are not needed when writing in lowercase, e.g. ). Some languages treat certain digraphs as single letters for the purpose of collation. In general, where one such is formed as a ligature, the corresponding uppercase form is used in capitalization; where it is written as two separate characters, only the first will be capitalized. Thus Oedipus or Œdipus are both correct, but OEdipus is not. Examples with ligature include in Danish, where Æ/æ is a completely separate letter rather than merely a typographic ligature (the same applies in Icelandic); examples with separate characters are in Welsh, where Ll is a single letter; and in Welsh where Ff is equivalent to English F (whereas Welsh F corresponds to English V). Presentation forms, however, can use doubled capitals, such as the logo of the National Library of Wales (). The position in Hungarian is similar to the latter. An exception is the Dutch digraph IJ. Both letters are capitalized even though they are printed separately when using a computer, as in . In the past the digraph was written as Y, and this still survives in some surnames., A converse exception exists in the Croatian alphabet, where digraph letters (Dž, Lj, Nj) have mixed-case forms even when written as ligatures. With typewriters and computers, these "title-case" forms have become less common than 2-character equivalents; nevertheless they can be represented as single title-case characters in Unicode (Dž, Lj, Nj)., In Czech the digraph ch (usually considered as a single letter) can be capitalized in two ways: Ch or CH. In general only the first part is capitalized (Ch), unless the whole text is written in capital letters (then it is written CH). In acronyms both parts are usually capitalized, such as VŠCHT for Vysoká škola chemicko-technologická (University of Chemistry and Technology). However, the practice is not unified when writing initial letters of personal names (first name and surname), for example Jan Chudoba can be abbreviated both J. Ch. or J. CH. In languages where inflected forms of a word may have extra letters at the start, the capitalized letter may be the initial of the root form rather than the inflected form. For example, in Irish, in the placename , "(the) mountain of the women" (anglicized as Slievenamon), the word-form written contains the genitive plural of the noun , "woman", mutated after the genitive plural definite article (i.e., "of the"). The written B is mute in this form. Other languages may capitalize the initial letter of the orthographic word, even if it is not present in the base, as with definite nouns in Maltese that start with certain consonant clusters. For example, (the United States) capitalize the epenthetic , even though the base form of the word — without the definite article — is . In English, there are a few capitonyms, which are words whose meaning (and sometimes pronunciation) varies with capitalization. For example, the month August versus the adjective august. Or the verb polish versus the adjective Polish. camelCase, Capitalization of "Internet", Capitalization in English, Letter case, Orthography, Sentence case, Capitalization conspiracy Council of Science Editors, Style Manual Committee. Scientific Style and format: the CSE manual for authors, editors, and publishers, 7th ed. Reston (VA): The Council; 2006. Section 9.7.3, Pg. 120 Capitalization Rules for Song Titles at the Aichi Institute of Technology, Text::Capitalize, a Perl module for English capitalization, Lingua::EN::NameCase, a Perl module for Western European name capitalization, Bilingual Experiments on Automatic Recovery of Capitalization and Punctuation of Automatic Speech Transcripts

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Harappa (; Urdu/) is an archaeological site in Punjab, Pakistan, about west of Sahiwal. The site takes its name from a modern village located near the former course of the Ravi River which now runs to the north. The current village of Harappa is less than from the ancient site. Although modern Harappa has a legacy railway station from the British Raj period, it is a small crossroads town of 15,000 people today. The site of the ancient city contains the ruins of a Bronze Age fortified city, which was part of the Indus Valley Civilization centred in Sindh and the Punjab, and then the Cemetery H culture. The city is believed to have had as many as 23,500 residents and occupied about with clay brick houses at its greatest extent during the Mature Harappan phase (2600 BC – 1900 BC), which is considered large for its time. Per archaeological convention of naming a previously unknown civilization by its first excavated site, the Indus Valley Civilization is also called the Harappan Civilization. The ancient city of Harappa was heavily damaged under British rule, when bricks from the ruins were used as track ballast in the construction of the Lahore–Multan Railway. In 2005, a controversial amusement park scheme at the site was abandoned when builders unearthed many archaeological artifacts during the early stages of building work. A plea from the Pakistani archaeologist Mohit Prem Kumar to the Ministry of Culture resulted in a restoration of the site. The Harappan Civilization has its earliest roots in cultures such as that of Mehrgarh, approximately 6000 BC. The two greatest cities, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, emerged circa 2600 BC along the Indus River valley in Punjab and Sindh. The civilization, with a possible writing system, urban centers, and diversified social and economic system, was rediscovered in the 1920s also after excavations at Mohenjo-daro in Sindh near Larkana, and Harappa, in west Punjab south of Lahore. A number of other sites stretching from the Himalayan foothills in east Punjab, India in the north, to Gujarat in the south and east, and to Pakistani Balochistan in the west have also been discovered and studied. Although the archaeological site at Harappa was damaged in 1857 when engineers constructing the Lahore-Multan railroad used brick from the Harappa ruins for track ballast, an abundance of artifacts have nevertheless been found. The bricks discovered were made of red sand, clay, stones and were baked at very high temperature. As early as 1826 Harappa, located in west Punjab, attracted the attention of Daya Ram Sahni, who gets credit for preliminary excavations of harappa. The Indus Valley civilization was mainly an urban culture sustained by surplus agricultural production and commerce, the latter including trade with Sumer in southern Mesopotamia. Both Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa are generally characterized as having "differentiated living quarters, flat-roofed brick houses, and fortified administrative or religious centers." Although such similarities have given rise to arguments for the existence of a standardized system of urban layout and planning, the similarities are largely due to the presence of a semi-orthogonal type of civic layout, and a comparison of the layouts of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa shows that they are in fact, arranged in a quite dissimilar fashion. The weights and measures of the Indus Valley Civilization, on the other hand, were highly standardized, and conform to a set scale of gradations. Distinctive seals were used, among other applications, perhaps for identification of property and shipment of goods. Although copper and bronze were in use, iron was not yet employed. "Cotton was woven and dyed for clothing; wheat, rice, and a variety of vegetables and fruits were cultivated; and a number of animals, including the humped bull, were domesticated," as well as "fowl for fighting". Wheel-made pottery—some of it adorned with animal and geometric motifs—has been found in profusion at all the major Indus sites. A centralized administration for each city, though not the whole civilization, has been inferred from the revealed cultural uniformity; however, it remains uncertain whether authority lay with a commercial oligarchy. Harappans had many trade routes along the Indus River that went as far as the Persian Gulf, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. Some of the most valuable things traded were carnelian and lapis lazuli. What is clear is that Harappan society was not entirely peaceful, with the human skeletal remains demonstrating some of the highest rates of injury (15.5%) found in South Asian prehistory. Paleopathological analysis demonstrated that leprosy and tuberculosis were present at Harappa, with the highest prevalence of both disease and trauma present in the skeletons from Area G (an ossuary located south-east of the city walls). Furthermore, rates of cranio-facial trauma and infection increased through time demonstrating that the civilization collapsed amid illness and injury. The bioarchaeologists who examined the remains have suggested that the combined evidence for differences in mortuary treatment and epidemiology indicate that some individuals and communities at Harappa were excluded from access to basic resources like health and safety, a basic feature of hierarchical societies worldwide. The excavators of the site have proposed the following chronology of Harappa's occupation: 1. Ravi Aspect of the Hakra phase, c. 3300 – 2800 BC. 2. Kot Dijian (Early Harappan) phase, c. 2800 – 2600 BC. 3. Harappan Phase, c. 2600 – 1900 BC. 4. Transitional Phase, c. 1900 – 1800 BC. 5. Late Harappan Phase, c. 1800 – 1300 BC. By far the most exquisite and obscure artifacts unearthed to date are the small, square steatite (soapstone) seals engraved with human or animal motifs. A large number of seals have been found at such sites as Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. Many bear pictographic inscriptions generally thought to be a form of writing or script. Despite the efforts of philologists from all parts of the world, and despite the use of modern cryptographic analysis, the signs remain undeciphered. It is also unknown if they reflect proto-Dravidian or other non- Vedic language(s). The ascribing of Indus Valley Civilization iconography and epigraphy to historically known cultures is extremely problematic, in part due to the rather tenuous archaeological evidence for such claims, as well as the projection of modern South Asian political concerns onto the archaeological record of the area. This is especially evident in the radically varying interpretations of Harappan material culture as seen from both Pakistan- and India-based scholars. In February 2006 a school teacher in the village of Sembian-Kandiyur in Tamil Nadu discovered a stone celt (tool) with an inscription estimated to be up to 3,500 years old. Clay and stone tablets unearthed at Harappa, which were carbon dated 3300–3200 BC., contain trident-shaped and plant-like markings. "It is a big question as to if we can call what we have found true writing, but we have found symbols that have similarities to what became Indus script" said Dr. Richard Meadow of Harvard University, Director of the Harappa Archeological Research Project. This primitive writing is placed slightly earlier than primitive writings of the Sumerians of Mesopotamia, dated c.3100 BC. These markings have similarities to what later became Indus Script. The earliest radiocarbon dating mentioned on the web is 2725±185 BC (uncalibrated) or 3338, 3213, 3203 BC calibrated, giving a midpoint of 3251 BC. Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991) Urban process in the Indus Tradition: A preliminary report. In Harappa Excavations, 1986–1990: A multidisciplinary approach to Second Millennium urbanism, edited by Richard H. Meadow: 29–59. Monographs in World Archaeology No.3. Prehistory Press, Madison Wisconsin., Periods 4 and 5 are not dated at Harappa. The termination of the Harappan tradition at Harappa falls between 1900 and 1500 BC., Mohenjo-daro is another major city of the same period, located in Sindh province of Pakistan. One of its most well-known structures is the Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro. Charles Masson – First European explorer of Harappa, Dholavira, Lothal, Harappan architecture, Mandi, Uttar Pradesh, India, Sheri Khan Tarakai, Sokhta Koh, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Taxila, Chanhudaro, Daimabad, Adichanallur, Kankali Tila Harappa.com, Harappa.info, "Harappa Town Planning"-article by Dr S. Srikanta Sastri, Art of the Bronze Age: Southeastern Iran, Western Central Asia, and the Indus Valley, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Harappa Dholavira () is an archaeological site at Khadirbet in Bhachau Taluka of Kutch District, in the state of Gujarat in western India, which has taken its name from a modern-day village south of it. This village is from Radhanpur. Also known locally as Kotada timba, the site contains ruins of an ancient Indus Valley Civilization/Harappan city. Dholavira’s location is on the Tropic of Cancer. It is one of the five largest Harappan sites and most prominent archaeological sites in India belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization. It is also considered as having been the grandest of cities of its time. It is located on Khadir bet island in the Kutch Desert Wildlife Sanctuary in the Great Rann of Kutch. The quadrangular city lay between two seasonal streams, the Mansar in the north and Manhar in the south. The site was occupied from c.2650 BCE, declining slowly after about 2100 BCE. It was briefly abandoned then reoccupied until c.1450 BCE. The site was discovered in 1967-68 by J. P. Joshi, of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), and is the fifth largest of eight major Harappan sites. It has been under excavation since 1990 by the ASI, which opined that "Dholavira has indeed added new dimensions to personality of Indus Valley Civilisation." The other major Harappan sites discovered so far are Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Ganeriwala, Rakhigarhi, Kalibangan, Rupnagar and Lothal. Ravindra Singh Bisht, the director of the Dholavira excavations, has defined the following seven stages of occupation at the site: Excavation was initiated in 1989 by the ASI under the direction of Bisht, and there were 13 field excavations between 1990 and 2005. The excavation brought to light the urban planning and architecture, and unearthed large numbers of antiquities such as, animal bones, gold, silver, terracotta ornaments, pottery and bronze vessels. Archaeologists believe that Dholavira was an important centre of trade between settlements in south Gujarat, Sindh and Punjab and Western Asia. Estimated to be older than the port-city of Lothal, the city of Dholavira has a rectangular shape and organization, and is spread over . The area measures in length, and in width. Unlike Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, the city was constructed to a pre-existing geometrical plan consisting of three divisions – the citadel, the middle town, and the lower town. The acropolis and the middle town had been furnished with their own defence-work, gateways, built-up areas, street system, wells, and large open spaces. The acropolis is the most thoroughly fortified and complex area in the city, of which it appropriates the major portion of the southwestern zone. The towering "castle" stands is defended by double ramparts. Next to this stands a place called the 'bailey' where important officials lived. The city within the general fortifications accounts for . There are extensive structure-bearing areas which are outside yet integral to the fortified settlement. Beyond the walls, another settlement has been found. The most striking feature of the city is that all of its buildings, at least in their present state of preservation, are built of stone, whereas most other Harappan sites, including Harappa itself and Mohenjo-daro, are almost exclusively built of brick. Dholavira is flanked by two storm water channels; the Mansar in the north, and the Manhar in the south. Bisht, who retired as the Joint Director-General of the ASI, said, "The kind of efficient system of Harappans of Dholavira, developed for conservation, harvesting and storage of water speaks eloquently about their advanced hydraulic engineering, given the state of technology in the third millennium BCE." One of the unique features of Dholavira is the sophisticated water conservation system of channels and reservoirs, the earliest found anywhere in the world, built completely of stone. The city had massive reservoirs, three of which are exposed. They were used for storing fresh water brought by rains or to store water diverted from two nearby rivulets. This clearly came in response to the desert climate and conditions of Kutch, where several years may pass without rainfall. A seasonal stream which runs in a north-south direction near the site was dammed at several points to collect water. In 1998, another reservoir was discovered in the site. The inhabitants of Dholavira created sixteen or more reservoirs of varying size during Stage III. Some of these took advantage of the slope of the ground within the large settlement, a drop of from northeast to northwest. Other reservoirs were excavated, some into living rock. Recent work has revealed two large reservoirs, one to the east of the castle and one to its south, near the Annexe. The reservoirs are cut through stone vertically, and are about deep and long. They skirt the city, while the citadel and bath are centrally located on raised ground. There is also a large well with a stone-cut trough connecting it to a drain meant for conducting water to a storage tank. The bathing tank had steps descending inwards. In October 2014, excavation began on a rectangular stepwell which measured long, wide, and deep, making it three times bigger than the Great Bath of Mohenjedaro. Some of the seals found at Dholavira, belonging to Stage III, contained animal only figures, without any type of script. It is suggested that these type of seals represent early conventions of Indus seal making. A huge circular structure on the site is believed to be a grave or memorial, although it contained no skeletons or other human remains. The structure consists of ten radial mud-brick walls built in the shape of a spoked wheel. A soft sandstone sculpture of a male with phallus erectus but head and feet below ankle truncated was found in the passageway of the eastern gate. Many funerary structures have been found (although all but one were devoid of skeletons), as well as pottery pieces, terra cotta seals, bangles, rings, beads, and intaglio engravings. Seven hemispherical constructions were found at Dholavira, of which two were excavated in detail, which were constructed over large rock cut chambers. Having a circular plan, these were big hemispherical elevated mud brick constructions. One of the excavated structures was designed in the form of a spoked wheel. The other was also designed in same fashion, but as a wheel without spokes. Although they contained burial goods of pottery, no skeletons were found except for one grave, where a skeleton and a copper mirror were found. A necklace of steatite beads strung to a copper wire with hooks at both ends, a gold bangle, gold and other beads were also found in one of the hemispherical structures. These hemispherical structures bear similarity to early Buddhist stupas. The Archaeological Survey of India, which conducted the excavation, opines that "the kind of design that is of spoked wheel and unspoked wheel also remind one of the Sararata-chakra-citi and sapradhi-rata- chakra-citi mentioned in the Satapatha Brahmana and Sulba-sutras". Painted Indus black-on-red-ware pottery, square stamp seals, seals without Indus script, a huge signboard measuring about in length, containing ten letters of Indus script. One poorly preserved seated male figure made of stone has also been found, comparable to high quality two stone sculptures found at Harappa. Large black-slipped jars with pointed base were also found at this site. A giant bronze hammer, a big chisel, a bronze hand-held mirror, a gold wire, gold ear stud, gold globules with holes, copper celts and bangles, shell bangles, phallus-like symbols of stone, square seals with Indus inscription and signs, a circular seal, humped animals, pottery with painted motifs, goblets, dish-on-stand, perforated jars, Terracotta tumblers in good shape, architectural members made of ballast stones, grinding stones, mortars, etc., were also found at this site. Stone weights of different measures were also found. It is suggested that a coastal route existed linking Lothal and Dholavira to Sutkagan Dor on the Makran coast. The Harrapans spoke an unknown language and their script has not yet been deciphered. It is believed to have had about 400 basic signs, with many variations. The signs may have stood both for words and for syllables. The direction of the writing was generally from right to left. Most of the inscriptions are found on seals (mostly made out of stone) and sealings (pieces of clay on which the seal was pressed down to leave its impression). Some inscriptions are also found on copper tablets, bronze implements, and small objects made of terracotta, stone and faience. The seals may have been used in trade and also for official administrative work. A lot of inscribed material was found at Mohenjo-daro and other Indus Valley Civilisation sites. One of the most significant discoveries at Dholavira was made in one of the side rooms of the northern gateway of the city, and is generally known as the Dholavira Signboard. The Harappans had arranged and set pieces of the mineral gypsum to form ten large symbols or letters on a big wooden board. At some point, the board fell flat on its face. The wood decayed, but the arrangement of the letters survived. The letters of the signboard are comparable to large bricks that were used in nearby walls. Each sign is about high and the board on which letters were inscribed was about long. The inscription is one of the longest in the Indus script, with one symbol appearing four times, and this and its large size and public nature make it a key piece of evidence cited by scholars arguing that the Indus script represents full literacy. A four sign inscription with large letters on sandstone is also found at this site, considered first of such inscription on sandstone at any of Harappan sites. Excavations at Dholavira in Archaeological Survey of India website, Dholavira Pictures by Archaeological Survey of India website, Jurassic Park: Forest officials stumble upon priceless discovery near Dholavira; Express news service; 8 Jan 2007; Indian Express Newspaper, ASI’s effort to put Dholavira on World Heritage map hits roadblock; by Hitarth Pandya; 13 Feb 2009; Indian Express Newspaper, ASI to take up excavation in Kutch's Khirasara; by Prashant Rupera, TNN; 2 November 2009; Times of India Keezhadi is a village near the village of Silaiman, on the border between Madurai and Sivagangai districts, in Tamil Nadu, India. The Keeladi excavation site is located in this area: excavations carried out by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and the Tamil Nadu Archaeology Department (TNAD) have revealed a Sangam era settlement dated to the 6th century BCE by radiocarbon dating. An archaeological survey team under Archaeologist Amarnath Ramakrishna was first conducted in 2013 in the vicinity of the Vaigai river from Theni district to Ramanathapuram district where the river meets the sea. During the study, 293 sites, including Keeladi, were identified to have archaeological residues. The first three phases of excavation at Keeladi were conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India, and they dropped it from doing further research. A public interest litigation was filed and following that the court ordered the regional depart to carry forward, following which the fourth and fifth phases were conducted by the Tamil Nadu Archaeology Department. Sivaganga

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The San Jacinto Valley is a valley located in southwestern Riverside County, in Southern California, in the Inland Empire.The valley is located at the base of the San Jacinto Mountains in the east and Santa Rosa Hills to the south with the San Gorgonio Pass to the north. The elevation on average is 1500 feet, with the highest points in the foothills south of Hemet and the western slopes of the San Jacinto Mountains. It is home to two cities, Hemet and San Jacinto, and several unincorporated communities. The valley has a combined population of over 165,000 residents, including more than 130,000 residents within the city limits of Hemet and San Jacinto. The valley is also where the story and play "Ramona" was set; the story was written after author Helen Hunt Jackson visited the valley in the 1880s. The valley is also known for being an area of agriculture, which has given way to more urbanized development as time goes on. The first native people settled in the San Jacinto Valley thousands of years ago. Later, the Serrano and Cahuilla people arrived, whose villages were located along and near streams and springs. They were hunters and gatherers and they subsisted primarily on small game and acorns. The Soboba Indian Reservation, just east of San Jacinto, is now the home to the descendants of some of these people. The first Spanish explorers entered the San Jacinto Valley in the early 1770s. In 1774, and again in 1775, Colonel Juan Bautista de Anza led two expeditions up from Mexico, crossing the Colorado River at Yuma and continuing across the Borrego Desert and up Coyote Canyon. For a few years, the Valley was on the main overland route to California. In the early 19th century, the area became a cattle ranch for the Spanish Mission San Luis Rey, which is located in the modern-day city of Oceanside. The area was known as Rancho San Jacinto. When the missions were broken up by the Mexican government, the land was given to José Antonio Estudillo in 1842. This land grant eventually became the towns of San Jacinto and Hemet. There are two incorporated cities in the San Jacinto Valley, Hemet and San Jacinto. The two cities in the valley have experienced significant growth since the 1980s, and make up one of the fastest-growing areas in the state of California and Riverside County. Hemet has an area of about , and a population of 83,166. Hemet was founded in 1887 and was incorporated on January 20, 1910. It also makes up most of the valley population. The city is home to the Ramona Bowl which is where "Ramona", the official outdoor play of California, is performed. Hemet is located at the southern end of the valley. The city is home to the Western Science Center, and Diamond Valley Lake. This city was also named a Tree City USA by the National Arbor Day Foundation, and is home to the only hospital in the valley. San Jacinto has an area of , most of it land. The population is 48,146 as of a 2018 estimate. It was named after Saint Hyacinth and is located at the north end of the valley. The city was founded in 1870, and was incorporated on April 9, 1888, making it one of the oldest cities in the county. The city is also home to Mt. San Jacinto College, a community college which has served the valley and the Inland Empire since 1965. The city will also be home to part of the Mid County Parkway, a new major transportation corridor in Riverside County that will link to I-215 in Perris. East Hemet is an unincorporated area just east of Hemet. Its population was 17,418 in the 2010 Census. It contains an area of of land. It is located in between Hemet and Valle Vista. Once a favorite vacation spot, Gilman Hot Springs is now home to the Church of Scientology Headquarters (Gold Base), Golden Era Studios and Golden Era Productions. Green Acres was once home to a famous past resident: Dan Blocker from the Bonanza TV show. Homeland is a census-designated place located approximately west of Hemet, California. It had a population of 5,969 as of the 2010 census. Soboba Hot Springs was the vacation ground in the 1900s for many Hollywood movie stars. Valle Vista is an unincorporated area east of Hemet, that extends south to Bautista Canyon and to the east to the base of the San Jacinto Mountains. Valle Vista has an area of , of which is land. The population at the 2010 Census was 11,036. Fairview Avenue, which runs from Bautista Canyon to the city of San Jacinto, is part of the old historic Juan Bautista de Anza National Historic Trail, an old trail that went from Nogales, Arizona on the U.S. and Mexican Border, to a Presidio in San Francisco. This was one of the first overland routes to California. The area will possibly be annexed by Hemet in the near future according to the proposed land use map on the City of Hemet's general plan website, but since the general plan is still under draft, this may not necessarily happen. Winchester is a census-designated place (CDP) in Riverside County, California, USA. As of the 2010 census, the CDP had a total population of 2,534, up from 2,155 at the 2000 census. Winchester is mostly rural and contains many ranches and several local businesses, and it was once home to the Winchester Cheese Company. Hemet Unified School District The Hemet unified school district has a total of 22,512 students. It serves the Hemet area including the unincorporated areas east of Hemet, as well as in the Aguanga area. It has total of 15 elementary schools, 5 middle schools, 5 high schools, and one preschool. It also provides 3 alternative schools. District headquarters are located on 1791 West Acacia Avenue in Hemet. San Jacinto Unified School District serves approximately 9,000 students in the city of San Jacinto. The district contains five elementary schools, two middle schools, two high schools, and also provides head start and preschool programs. The valley is served by a community college. Mt. San Jacinto College has served the valley since 1963. The college district was created in 1962 by a vote of the citizens of Banning, Beaumont, Hemet, and San Jacinto. The college enrolled its first students in the fall of 1963, holding classes in rented facilities. The San Jacinto Campus was opened in 1965 with two buildings and has grown into a full college campus serving the students and the community. In 1975, the residents of Temecula, Lake Elsinore, Perris and adjacent areas voted to join the Mt. San Jacinto Community College District, increasing the college’s area to the present . The San Jacinto Campus has been master-planned and essentially will be rebuilt over the next 15 to 20 years to accommodate 12,000 to 15,000 students. In the fall of 1993, the Alice P. Cutting Business & Technology Center opened to students with new laboratories for Business, Computer Information Science, Engineering Technologies, Electronics and Photography. In the fall of 1995, a state-of-the-art music building opened on the San Jacinto Campus. The Estudillo Mansion Museum is located in San Jacinto off Seventh Street and across from the San Jacinto train depot (no longer standing) where Agri-Empire offices are located. The Hemet Museum is located in downtown Hemet, at the intersection of Florida Avenue and State Street, housed inside the historic Hemet Depot. It contains exhibits of the area's history, Native American artifacts found in the area, and information about the valley's agricultural past. It also includes exhibits on the "Ramona" pageant, as well as railroad exhibits. The Ramona Bowl Museum is located at the Ramona Bowl, home of the Ramona Outdoor Play. The Ryan Field Museum is located on the Hemet-Ryan Field off Stetson Avenue. The San Jacinto Museum was founded in 1939 by citizens of the city. It features exhibits on the natural and human history of San Jacinto and surrounding areas. Local Indians relics, artifacts from pioneer families, and material on the community, its businesses and institutions are featured. Special exhibits highlight the record-breaking 1937 Soviet transpolar flight which landed in San Jacinto, and the development of downtown. The Museum also maintains a large collection of historic photographs and memorabilia, which is available to researchers. Group tours are available by appointment. The Western Science Center is located in the southern area of Hemet. It features exhibits of Ice Age mammals, including 'Max', the largest mastodon found in the western United States, and as 'Xena', a Columbian Mammoth. It also has special exhibits that are a limited time only event. Recently it featured an exhibit called "The Music behind the Magic" which featured exhibits on the music in Walt Disney films. The museum also features an Immersion Theater that has a 270 degree screen. The Patterson House was built in 1891 to replace a former adobe structure. The house measures 30 feet by 30 feet and is constructed of brick. The house is presently owned by The Winchester Historical Society of Pleasant Valley. The house is the oldest private residence still standing in what is now known as the community of Winchester. The Patterson family, John, wife Maria, daughters Tilla, Ida, and Jessie, and son Clarence, arrived in what was known as Rockhouse in 1883. They had traveled from Yountville through Los Angeles to come to their new home. The area they settled in was soon to become known as Pleasant Valley and later in 1887 as Winchester. As they passed through Los Angeles, Maria gathered pepper tree seeds which she planted at their new home. Some of these trees are still standing today. The family would soon become very influential in many aspects of the communities growth and prosperity. Listed below are some of the families accomplishments: John Patterson The Patterson House is a museum in Winchester, and is the oldest building in the town. It is located just off Highway 79 (Winchester Road), on the southeast corner of Patterson Ave and East Grand Avenue. The residence was built by Winchester pioneer John Patterson, over the ruins of an adobe home that was the headquarters of a Mexican rancho before 1850. Some museum visitors have claimed to experience poltergeist activities including phantom knocking, doors opening, and objects moving. Some claim it is the spirit of Lloyd Patterson, who died in the house of tuberculosis as a young man in the early 1900s. The San Jacinto Valley Historical Connection is an online resource spawned from community interest in retaining the valley's history. In Hemet, the Historic Harvard District holds special events thought the year. In San Jacinto, one can find several Historic homes on Main Street including the Vosburg Hotel and the Virginia Lee Hotel. Two state highways make their way through the valley: SR 74 and SR 79. SR 74 begins in San Juan Capistrano at Interstate 5, heading through rural, mountainous portions of Orange County before reaching Riverside County. It descends into the city of Lake Elsinore and later reaches Perris, eventually overlapping with I-215 for roughly two miles. Continuing east, it passes through Romoland and Homeland, entering the San Jacinto Valley as Florida Avenue. At the eastern end of the valley, it begins to wind through the San Jacinto Mountains and eventually ends in Palm Desert. SR 79 begins at Interstate 8, a few miles east of Alpine in San Diego County. It heads north to Julian and Warner Springs, eventually reaching Riverside County and the city of Temecula. After an overlap with I-15, SR 79 also makes its way into the valley. In Hemet, SR 79 overlaps State Route 74 (Florida Avenue), following it eastward for a few miles before heading north again through San Jacinto. It follows San Jacinto Avenue, North Ramona Boulevard, State Street, Ramona Expressway and Sanderson Avenue before going over a range of hills (Lambs Canyon) and ending in Beaumont at Interstate 10. There is one airport located in the San Jacinto valley: Hemet-Ryan Airport. In nearby French Valley, the French Valley Airport is located southwest of the San Jacinto Valley. Hemet-Ryan Airport is located southwest of central Hemet, and serves as a municipal general aviation airport. Its elevation is 1,512 ft (460.9 m). It has two runways, one of which is 4,314 by 100 ft (1315 by 30 m) and has an asphalt surface. The other is 2,045 by 25 ft (623 by 8 m) and also has an asphalt surface. There are 236 airplanes based at the airport, 114 of which are single engine airplanes, 22 are multi-engine airplanes, 1 jet plane, and 9 helicopters. The airport is also home to a California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (Riverside Unit) joint Air Attack/Helitack base. It is statistically one of the most active in the nation. The airport is owned and operated by Riverside County. The Hemet-Ryan field was used during the war times and is home to the fire-fighter airplanes. Mass Transit in the valley is provided by the RTA. The area is also served by an Amtrak bus stop near the corner of Sanderson Avenue and Florida Avenue in Hemet. The bus system provides a connection to other cities and communities in the Inland Empire, including Riverside, Temecula, Winchester, Banning, and Corona, as well as a new commuter link to Escondido in San Diego County. RTA routes are 31, 32, 42, 74, 212, 217. Metrolink is also in the planning stages for two stations in the area: one on the west side of Hemet and another in downtown Hemet. Sanjacintovalley.info: San Jacinto Valley information, San Jacinto Unified School District, Hemet Unified School District, San Jacinto Valley Eagles Youth Football and Cheer. — established 1963. USS San Jacinto (CG-56) is a in the United States Navy. She is named for the Battle of San Jacinto, the decisive battle of the Texas Revolution. The "San Jac" was built at Pascagoula, Mississippi and commissioned 23 January 1988 by then vice-president George H. W. Bush in Houston, Texas. She completed her fitting out and work-ups, then deployed to the Mediterranean Sea in late May 1989, returning in November. While San Jacinto and her sister ship were underway off the Virginia coast performing testing of CEC, the Iraqi army invaded and occupied Kuwait. The next day, Leyte Gulf detached and headed back to Mayport, Florida. The day after, San Jacinto returned to her homeport of Norfolk, Virginia, to prepare for the massive sortie to the Middle East. After CINCLANT had all their ships provisioned, barely five days later, San Jacinto headed for the Mediterranean. Other ships in the battle group included the cruiser and the aircraft carriers and . She fired the opening shots of Operation Desert Storm with the launch of two BGM-109 Tomahawk cruise missiles, firing a total of 16 missiles during the 43-day war. She was also the first ship of her class to be deployed with a full load of 122 missiles. While stationed in a search area at the southern tip of the Sinai Peninsula in the Red Sea, her Visit, Boarding, Search & Seizure (VBSS) teams inspected several dozen ships for contraband being smuggled for the Iraqi government. The crew came to call that duty station 'San-Jacircles' or 'San-Jac in the Box'. During her 2000-2001 deployment with Carrier Group Two. she had aboard Helicopter Antisubmarine Squadron Light 42 (HSL-42) Det 8 with two SH-60B Seahawks. On 26 May 2010 San Jacintos VBSS team rescued 5 Yemenis hostages from 13 suspected pirates. The master stated his dhow had been under pirate control for one day only. The VBSS team detained the pirates on the dhow without conflict. On 13 October 2012, San Jacinto was involved in a collision with US nuclear submarine off the coast of northeastern Florida. The cruiser suffered damage to its sonar dome. San Jacinto would have been unable to join Carrier Strike Group Ten and aircraft carrier to the Persian Gulf, had they deployed on schedule, due to the emergency dry docking. The cruiser has undergone approximately $11 million in repairs since the accident. USS San Jacinto webpage San Jacinto Plaza is a historic park located on the corner of Oregon and Mills in the heart of Downtown El Paso, Texas. When the US government leased land from Smith's ranch, for the first Post opposite El Paso (meaning El Paso del Norte, later renamed Ciudad Juarez), U.S. Army troops would drill in the plaza. The city of El Paso acquired the property on which the Plaza is located in 1881 from William T. Smith. Smith had bought the land from the heirs of its early owner, Juan Maria Ponce de Leon, a prominent El Paso figure, who had owned the spot since 1827. The square had since been the location of the corrals for de León’s ranch. The city cleared and cleaned the dry, sandy, mesquite-filled property and in 1903 the City Council officially named the park in honor of the famous battle Texas fought for its independence. J. Fisher Satterwaite, El Paso Parks and Streets Commissioner, contracted with Fisher Satterthwaite to create beauty out of this desert patch. By 1883, the park was surrounded by a fence, a walled pond was created, a gazebo was erected and 75 Chinese Elm trees were planted. Satterthwaite then introduced three alligators into the pond. During the Mexican Revolution of the 1910s, cannons decoratively placed in the park were stolen for use in the conflict. The alligators were the central attraction and thrived. At one time the pond contained as many as seven of the reptiles. Most visitors to the park would rest on the wall surrounding the pond and watch the alligators. The reptiles quickly became a staple of the El Paso Culture. In 1952, an alligator named Oscar was hauled to Texas Western College and, as a prank, placed inside geology Professor Howard Quinn's office. On another occasion an alligator was found in the swimming pool at the college right before an intramural swim meet. Sally, one of the first alligators placed in the pond, was the object of a weight-guessing contest. The closest guess won $100 and a trip to Mexico. In 1952, Minnie, a 54-year-old female alligator, laid an egg in the pond and spectators were delighted when they saw a protective Minnie spring to life and rush towards her egg as park employees cleaned the pond. In March 1953, Oscar was found dead at the bottom of the pond, the result of internal injuries after vandals removed him and threw him back into the pond when police arrived. Seven months later, El Pasoan Myrtle Price donated two alligators named Jack and Jill to the Plaza in place of Oscar. The alligators were finally moved to the El Paso Zoo in 1965 after two were stoned to death and another had a spike driven through its left eye. The alligators were briefly returned to the plaza in 1972 only to be removed once again in 1974 at a cause of vandals. The pond was permanently removed shortly after. Many people still fondly refer to the plaza as “La Plaza de los Lagartos,” or Alligator Plaza. Today, a fiberglass sculpture by nationally acclaimed local artist Luis Jiménez honors the original alligators. Another distinctive feature of the Plaza in the 1950s was a statue known as “The Boy with the Leaking Boot.” This statue stood in City Hall Park for 50 years before it was moved to San Jacinto Plaza. There it was surrounded by a moat and guarded by alligators. The statue currently stands on the first floor of El Paso's Museum of History. Preachers trying to spread the word of the gospel have always culminated at the plaza. In August 1952, a delegation of Baptist ministers held revivals in the park. The ceremonies attracting hundreds at a time. The ministers said they picked San Jacinto Plaza as a revival site because of the need to cut down on evil, drunkenness and communism. Since 1954, the traditional lighting of the city christmas tree in the Plaza has officially begun the Christmas season in El Paso. Mayor Fred Hervey was the first to officially light the thousands of multi-colored lights that covered the tree, fountains and nativity scenes. Thousands of El Pasoans watched this 20 minute ceremony which included music from the 62nd Army Band and featured Ted Bender as the Master of Ceremony. San Jacinto Plaza has always served as a transportation terminal in El Paso. In 1907, horse-drawn carriages lined up around the Plaza. Before buses existed, trolleys made their daily stops at the Plaza. In the 1950s, the Plaza became a major boarding site for city buses as well as a pick-up point for private transportation such as taxicabs. San Jacinto Plaza continues to be the heart of downtown El Paso, but like most public places, it has its share of problems. The plaza has experienced several remodelings since its origination. The plaza is still a transportation center, and volumes of people remain seated on benches almost daily. Friends still gather to eat and socialize. Concerns over beggars aggressively approaching park goers, as well as pickpockets have arisen. In recent years, the park has begun to attract transients, peddlers, the poor, and the homeless. Fountains are dry, furnishings are warped. Recently, the city has responded positively to the refurbishment of the park. In 2003, the entire park was once again cleared, cleaned, and rebuilt. As of February 2016 the park is undergoing a $5.3 million renovation. The money for the renovation is from a quality of life bonds that was approved by the citizens of El Paso in November 2012. Funding is also from the Tax Increment Reinvestment Zone Fund which are special zones created by City Council to attract new investment in certain areas. For the past several months contractors have been working on excavation for irrigation and to add 10 feet of park on all sides, along with new sidewalks and gutters drains. All these improvements will be done in Phase 1 of the renovation. The second phase of the renovation started in February 2014. Which will include different amenities such as a full service café, a huacha court, reflecting pool, and splash pad. Crews will also be installing benches around the new modern park, along with landscaping and irrigation. San Jacinto Plaza faced many delays throughout renovations which ranged from design changes to shipment delays. These delays pushed the completion date back more than a year. The original completion date was set for February 2015, but due to these delays the project was not complete until April 2016. Due to these delays mayor Oscar Leeser has stated that the city will bill the contracting company, Basic IDIQ, for these delays. The official reopening date was April 16, 2016, at 9:30 a.m., where a ceremony was held at the Plaza in downtown El Paso. Followed by a celebration from 10 a.m. to 7 p.m. El Paso Historic Registry, Mention of History by UTEP, El Paso Community College Local History Project

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"Wish You Were Here" is the title track on Pink Floyd's 1975 album Wish You Were Here. David Gilmour and Roger Waters collaborated to write the music, and Gilmour sang the lead vocal. In 2011, the song was ranked No. 324 on Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. In the original album version, the song segues from "Have a Cigar" as if a radio had been tuned away from one station, through several others (including a radio play and one playing the opening of the finale movement of Tchaikovsky's Fourth Symphony), and finally to a new station where "Wish You Were Here" is beginning. The radio was recorded from Gilmour's car radio. He performed the intro on a twelve-string guitar, processed to sound like it was playing through an AM radio, and then overdubbed a fuller-sounding acoustic guitar solo. This passage was mixed to sound as though a guitarist were listening to the radio and playing along. As the acoustic part becomes more complex, the 'radio broadcast' fades away and Gilmour's voice enters, while the rest of the band joins in. The intro riff is repeated several times, before Gilmour plays further solos with scat singing accompaniment. A third verse follows, featuring an increasingly expressive vocal from Gilmour and audible backing vocals. At the end of the recorded song, the final solo crossfades with wind sound effects, and finally segues into the second section of the multi-part suite "Shine On You Crazy Diamond". Lyrically, the song is often considered to be a direct tribute to Syd Barrett. However, on the documentary The Story of Wish You Were Here, Gilmour and Waters separately describe the original concept that differs from this interpretation. Waters, who mainly wrote the lyrics complementing Gilmour's initial riff idea and subsequent joint composition, describes the lyrics as being directed at himself, as his lyrics often are. Being present in one's own life and freeing one's self in order to truly experience life is a main topic in this song. Gilmour, on the other hand, recognizes that he does not ever perform the song without remembering Syd Barrett. Waters later adds that the song is nevertheless open to interpretation. Both David Gilmour and Roger Waters have praised the song as one of Pink Floyd's finest. Roger Waters has noted that the collaboration between himself and David Gilmour on the song was "... really good. All bits of it are really, really good. I'm very happy about it." David Gilmour has playfully called "Wish You Were Here" "a very simple country song" and stated that "because of its resonance and the emotional weight it carries, it is one of our best songs." "Wish You Were Here" was recorded at Abbey Road Studios, as part of the sessions for the entire album. A noted part of the song was a planned contribution by Stéphane Grappelli. A jazz violinist popular at the time and well known for his collaborations with Yehudi Menuhin, both violinists were recording in a downstairs studio at Abbey Road at the time. Gilmour had suggested that there be a little "country fiddle" at the end of the song and invited them to participate. Grappelli duly obliged (Menuhin declined) on arranging a session fee of £300, equivalent to £ in 2020. Ultimately during mixing it was decided to almost remove his contribution, although it can just be heard around 5:21. According to Waters it was decided that it would be insulting to credit Grappelli in the sleeve notes for something so inaudible, although he did receive the agreed-upon fee. As part of the Why Pink Floyd...? campaign, the Experience and Immersion versions of the Wish You Were Here album include an alternative version of the song where Grappelli's part is heard in the instrumental break after the second verse and throughout the third verse before a considerably extended outro. Other less obvious differences are audible, for example at the section leading into the second verse. The master tape of the original recording includes guitar solos that were not used in the final mix. "Wish You Were Here" made its stage debut on the band's 1977 tour, which featured a performance of the entire album at every show. It was not played live by the band for nearly ten years after this, yet became a concert staple after its reappearance in 1987, and was performed at nearly all subsequent Pink Floyd concerts. In the original 1977 concert performances, Gilmour would play his Fender Stratocaster instead of acoustic guitar, while Snowy White played a twelve-string Ovation acoustic guitar. At these shows, Nick Mason tuned an actual transistor radio on stage to a local radio station, seguing into the pre-recorded part from the album to start the song and Richard Wright would perform an extended piano coda as the wind effects played. A live version is included on Pulse. When Pink Floyd were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, Gilmour and Wright (Mason was in the audience) performed the song with the assistance of their presenter Billy Corgan on rhythm guitar. Gilmour has made the song a part of most of his tours, and included a live version on his Live in Gdansk album. On 13 December 2014 David Gilmour was a guest performer at a concert by the Bombay Bicycle Club at Earls Court Arena, their concert being the final event ever to take place there before its demolition. Band member Jamie MacColl introduced Gilmour, saying; "This man gave me my first guitar and was one of the first people to play this venue and by my count has played here more than 27 times." Gilmour then played with the band on their song "Rinse Me Down" before a performance of "Wish You Were Here". In 2005, Waters and Eric Clapton performed the song at the Tsunami Aid concert, and in 2005's Live 8, Waters rejoined his former bandmates in London to perform it, along with four other classic Pink Floyd songs. Waters sung half the verses during Live 8, while in the original version Gilmour did all the vocals. "Wish You Were Here" appeared as the fifth track on A Collection of Great Dance Songs in 1981 (with the radio intro following the end of a heavily edited "Shine On You Crazy Diamond") and as the 23rd track on the compilation in 2001 (with the radio intro following "Arnold Layne", and at the end crossfading with "Jugband Blues"). A live recording included on the 1995 live album Pulse was issued as a single/EP. Its intro replicates the sound of the original, semi-ambient intro. The cover of the EP features two men whose faces are distorted by fish bowls, referring to the line "We're just two lost souls swimming in a fish bowl, year after year". The Experience edition of Wish You Were Here from the 2011 Why Pink Floyd...? re-release campaign includes a version of "Wish You Were Here" featuring Stéphane Grappelli on violin much more prominently. The recording of Grappelli, which Nick Mason had thought he might have recorded over in subsequent sessions for "Wish You Were Here", was uncovered in the EMI vaults during re-mastering work for the Why Pink Floyd...? campaign. Mason discussed the alternative version on the BBC Radio 4 Front Row programme, and revealed that Yehudi Menuhin, who was recording with Grappelli in Abbey Road's Studio Two, was also invited to play on "Wish You Were Here" but declined, as he was not as comfortable as Grappelli at improvising. David Gilmour – lead and harmony vocals, scat singing, six and twelve-string acoustic guitars, pedal steel guitar, tape effects, Nick Mason – drums, tape effects, Roger Waters – bass, tape effects, Richard Wright – Steinway piano, Minimoog "Wish You Were Here (Live)" is a live recording of Pink Floyd's title track off their ninth studio album Wish You Were Here, recorded by the band for their third live album, Pulse. "Wish You Were Here (Live)" was released as a single on 20 July 1995 in the United Kingdom and Europe, notably the very last single released by the band until October 2014. "Wish You Were Here" served as the fourth and final single from Wyclef Jean's second studio album, . It was released in December 2001, peaking at #28 on the UK Singles Chart. UK CD single "Wish You Were Here" (Radio edit) – 4:04, "No Woman, No Cry" (Live version) – 4:33, "911" (Live version) – 4:23, "Wish You Were Here" (Video) – 4:25 UK cassette "Wish You Were Here" (LP version) – 4:25, "Perfect Gentleman" (Remix radio edit) – 3:59 Irish band Aslan covered the song on their 1999 live album, Made in Dublin., British singer-songwriter Ed Sheeran performed a cover at the Closing Ceremonies of the London Summer Olympic Games in 2012 with Mike Rutherford of Genesis on guitar, Richard Jones of The Feeling on bass, David Arnold and Nick Mason on drums, used in the soundtrack of A Symphony of British Music. A performer, dressed in a suit, tightrope-walked across the stadium and shook hands with a mannequin at the end, which then burst into flames, referencing the album's cover used., American heavy metal band, Avenged Sevenfold performed a cover and received warm welcome in terms of viewership., Country singer Cody Jinks released a cover of the song in 2017 as a stand-alone single., Comedy band Ninja Sex Party feature "Wish You Were Here" as part of their cover album "Under The Covers". Pink Floyd's version on Last.fm, Wyclef Jean's version on Last.fm Wish You Were Here is the ninth studio album by the English rock band Pink Floyd, released on 12 September 1975 through Harvest Records and Columbia Records, their first release for the latter. Based on material Pink Floyd composed while performing in Europe, Wish You Were Here was recorded over numerous sessions throughout 1975, at Abbey Road Studios in London. The album's themes include criticism of the music business, alienation, and a tribute to founding member Syd Barrett, who left seven years earlier with deteriorating mental health. Like their previous record, The Dark Side of the Moon (1973), Pink Floyd used studio effects and synthesisers. Guest singers included Roy Harper, who provided the lead vocals on "Have a Cigar", and Venetta Fields, who added backing vocals to "Shine On You Crazy Diamond". To promote the album, the band released the double A-side single "Have a Cigar" / "Welcome to the Machine". Wish You Were Here received mixed reviews from critics on its release, who found its music to be uninspiring and inferior to their previous work. It has retrospectively received critical acclaim, hailed as one of the greatest albums of all time and was cited by keyboardist Richard Wright and guitarist David Gilmour as their favourite Pink Floyd album. The album reached number one in the US and UK and Harvest's parent company, EMI, was unable to keep up with the demand. Since then, the record has sold an estimated 13 million copies. During 1974, Pink Floyd sketched out three new compositions, "Raving and Drooling", "You Gotta Be Crazy" and "Shine On You Crazy Diamond". These songs were performed during a series of concerts in France and England, the band's first tour since 1973's The Dark Side of the Moon. As Pink Floyd had never employed a publicist and kept themselves distant from the press, their relationship with the media began to sour. Mason said later that a critical NME review of the band's new material, written by Syd Barrett devotee Nick Kent, may have had influence in keeping the band together, as they returned to the studio in the first week of 1975. Wish You Were Here is Floyd's second album with a conceptual theme written entirely by Roger Waters. It reflects his feeling that the camaraderie that had served the band was, by then, largely absent. The album begins with a long instrumental preamble and segues into the lyrics for "Shine On You Crazy Diamond", a tribute to Syd Barrett, whose mental breakdown had forced him to leave the group seven years earlier. Barrett is fondly recalled with lines such as "Remember when you were young, you shone like the sun" and "You reached for the secret too soon, you cried for the moon". Wish You Were Here is also a critique of the music business. "Shine On" crosses seamlessly into "Welcome to the Machine", a song that begins with an opening door (described by Waters as a symbol of musical discovery and progress betrayed by a music industry more interested in greed and success) and ends with a party, the latter epitomising "the lack of contact and real feelings between people". Similarly, "Have a Cigar" scorns record industry "fat-cats" with the lyrics repeating a stream of cliches heard by rising newcomers in the industry, and including the question "by the way, which one's Pink?" asked of the band on at least one occasion. The lyrics of the next song, "Wish You Were Here", relate both to Barrett's condition and to the dichotomy of Waters' character, with greed and ambition battling with compassion and idealism. "I had some criticisms of Dark Side of the Moon…" noted David Gilmour. "One or two of the vehicles carrying the ideas were not as strong as the ideas that they carried. I thought we should try and work harder on marrying the idea and the vehicle that carried it, so that they both had an equal magic… It's something I was personally pushing when we made Wish You Were Here." Alan Parsons, EMI staff engineer for Pink Floyd's previous studio album, The Dark Side of the Moon, had declined the band's offer to continue working with them. The group had worked with engineer Brian Humphries on More, recorded at Pye Studios, and again in 1974 when he replaced an inexperienced concert engineer. Humphries was therefore the natural choice to work on the band's new material, although being a stranger to EMI's Abbey Road set-up, he encountered some early difficulties. On one occasion, Humphries inadvertently spoiled the backing tracks for "Shine On", a piece that Waters and drummer Nick Mason had spent many hours perfecting, with echo. The entire piece had to be re- recorded. The sessions for Wish You Were Here at Abbey Road's Studio Three lasted from January until July 1975, recording on four days each week from 2:30 pm until very late in the evening. The group found it difficult at first to devise any new material, especially as the success of The Dark Side of the Moon had left all four physically and emotionally drained. Keyboardist Richard Wright later described these sessions as "falling within a difficult period", and Waters recalled them as "torturous". Mason found the process of multi- track recording drawn-out and tedious, while Gilmour was more interested in improving the band's existing material. Gilmour was also becoming increasingly frustrated with Mason, whose failing marriage had brought on a general malaise and sense of apathy, both of which interfered with his drumming. Humphries gave his point of view regarding these struggled sessions in a 2014 interview: “There were days when we didn't do anything. I don't think they knew what they wanted to do. We had a dartboard and an air rifle and we'd play these word games, sit around, get drunk, go home and return the next day. That’s all we were doing until suddenly everything started falling into place.” After several weeks, Waters began to visualise another concept. The three new compositions from 1974's tour were at least a starting point for a new album, and "Shine On You Crazy Diamond" seemed a reasonable choice as a centrepiece for the new work. Mostly an instrumental twenty-minute-plus piece similar to "Echoes", the opening four-note guitar phrase reminded Waters of the lingering ghost of former band-member Syd Barrett. Gilmour had composed the phrase entirely by accident, but was encouraged by Waters' positive response. Waters wanted to split "Shine On You Crazy Diamond", and sandwich two new songs between its two halves. Gilmour disagreed, but was outvoted three to one. "Welcome to the Machine" and "Have a Cigar" were barely veiled attacks on the music business, their lyrics working neatly with "Shine On" to provide an apt summary of the rise and fall of Barrett; "Because I wanted to get as close as possible to what I felt ... that sort of indefinable, inevitable melancholy about the disappearance of Syd." "Raving and Drooling" and "You Gotta Be Crazy" had no place in the new concept, and were set aside until the following album, 1977's Animals. On 5 June 1975, on the eve of Pink Floyd's second US tour that year, Gilmour married his first wife, Ginger. That day, the band were completing the mix of "Shine On You Crazy Diamond" when an overweight man with shaven head and eyebrows entered, carrying a plastic bag. Waters did not recognise him. Gilmour presumed he was an EMI staff member. Wright presumed he was a friend of Waters, but realised it was Barrett. Mason also failed to recognise him and was "horrified" when Gilmour identified him. In Mason's Pink Floyd memoir , he recalled Barrett's conversation as "desultory and not entirely sensible". Storm Thorgerson reflected on Barrett's presence: "Two or three people cried. He sat round and talked for a bit but he wasn't really there." Waters was reportedly reduced to tears by the sight of his former bandmate. When fellow visitor Andrew King asked how Barrett had gained so much weight, Barrett said he had a large refrigerator in his kitchen and had been eating lots of pork chops. He mentioned that he was ready to help with the recording, but while listening to the mix of "Shine On", showed no signs of understanding its relevance to him. Barrett joined Gilmour's wedding reception in the EMI canteen, but left without saying goodbye. It was the last time the band members saw him. Barrett's appearance may have influenced the final version of "Shine On You Crazy Diamond"; a subtle refrain performed by Wright from "See Emily Play" is audible towards the end. As with The Dark Side of the Moon, the band used synthesizers such as the EMS VCS 3 (on "Welcome to the Machine"), but softened with Gilmour's acoustic guitar, and percussion from Mason. The beginning of "Shine On" contains remnants from a previous but incomplete studio recording by the band known as "Household Objects". Wine glasses had been filled with varying amounts of fluid, and recordings were made of a wet finger circling the edge of each glass. These recordings were multi-tracked into chords. Jazz violinist Stéphane Grappelli and classical violinist Yehudi Menuhin were performing in another studio in the building, and were invited to record a piece for the new album. Menuhin watched as Grappelli played on the song "Wish You Were Here"; however, the band later decided his contribution was unsuitable and, until 2011, it was believed that the piece had been wiped. It turns out his playing was included on the album, but so low in the final mix that the band presumed it would be insulting to credit him. He was paid £300 for his contribution (equivalent to £ in 2020). Dick Parry again played saxophone, on "Shine On You Crazy Diamond". The opening bars of "Wish You Were Here" were recorded from Gilmour's car radio, with somebody turning the dial (the classical music heard is the finale of Tchaikovsky's Fourth Symphony). Recording sessions had twice been interrupted by US tours (one in April and the other in June 1975), and the final sessions, which occurred after the band's performance at Knebworth, proved particularly troublesome for Waters. He struggled to record the vocals for "Have a Cigar", requiring several takes to perform an acceptable version. His problems stemmed in part from the stresses placed upon his voice while recording the lead vocals of "Shine On You Crazy Diamond". Gilmour was asked to sing in his place, but declined, and eventually colleague and friend Roy Harper was asked to stand in. Harper was recording his own album in another of Abbey Road's studios, and Gilmour had already performed some guitar licks for him. Waters later regretted the decision, believing he should have performed the song. The Blackberries recorded backing vocals for "Shine On You Crazy Diamond". The band played much of Wish You Were Here on 5 July 1975 at the Knebworth music festival. Roy Harper, performing at the same event, on discovering that his stage costume was missing, proceeded to destroy one of Pink Floyd's vans, injuring himself in the process. This delayed the normal setup procedure of the band's sound system. As a pair of World War II Supermarine Spitfire had been booked to fly over the crowd during their entrance, the band were not able to delay their set. The result was that a power supply problem pushed Wright's keyboards completely out of tune, damaging the band's performance. At one point he left the stage, but the band were able to continue with a less sensitive keyboard, a piano and a simpler light show. Following a brief intermission, they returned to perform The Dark Side of the Moon, but critics displeased about being denied access backstage savaged the performance. Wish You Were Here was sold in one of the more elaborate packages to accompany a Pink Floyd album. Storm Thorgerson had accompanied the band on their 1974 tour and had given serious thought to the meaning of the lyrics, eventually deciding that the songs were, in general, concerned with "unfulfilled presence", rather than Barrett's illness. This theme of absence was reflected in the ideas produced by his long hours spent brainstorming with the band. Thorgerson had noted that Roxy Music's Country Life was sold in an opaque green cellophane sleeve – censoring the cover image – and he copied the idea, concealing the artwork for Wish You Were Here in a black-coloured shrink-wrap (therefore making the album art "absent"). The concept behind "Welcome to the Machine" and "Have a Cigar" suggested the use of a handshake (an often empty gesture), and George Hardie designed a sticker containing the album's logo of two mechanical hands engaged in a handshake, to be placed on the opaque sleeve (the mechanical handshake logo would also appear on the labels of the vinyl album this time in a black and blue background). The album's cover images were photographed by Aubrey "Po" Powell, Storm's partner at the design studio Hipgnosis, and inspired by the idea that people tend to conceal their true feelings, for fear of "getting burned", and thus two businessmen were pictured shaking hands, one man on fire. "Getting burned" was also a common phrase in the music industry, used often by artists denied royalty payments. Two stuntmen were used (Ronnie Rondell and Danny Rogers), one dressed in a fire- retardant suit covered by a business suit. His head was protected by a hood, underneath a wig. The photograph was taken at the Warner Bros. studios in Los Angeles. Initially the wind was blowing in the wrong direction, and the flames were forced into Rondell's face, burning his moustache. The two stuntmen changed positions, and the image was later reversed. The album's back cover depicts a faceless "Floyd salesman", in Thorgerson's words, "selling his soul" in the desert (shot in the Yuma Desert in California again by Aubrey "Po" Powell). The absence of wrists and ankles signifies his presence as an "empty suit". The inner sleeve shows a veil concealing a nude woman in a windswept Norfolk grove, and a splash-less diver at Mono Lake – titled Monosee (the German translation of Mono Lake) on the liner notes – in California (again emphasising the theme of absence). The decision to shroud the cover in black plastic was not popular with the band's US record company, Columbia Records, who insisted that it be changed (they were over-ruled). EMI were less concerned; the band were reportedly extremely happy with the end product, and when presented with a pre-production mockup, they accepted it with a spontaneous round of applause. The album was released on 12 September 1975 in the UK, and on the following day in the US. It was Pink Floyd's first album with Columbia Records, an affiliate of CBS; the band and their manager Steve O'Rourke had been dissatisfied with the efforts of EMI's US label Capitol Records. The band remained with EMI's Harvest Records in Europe. In Britain, with 250,000 advance sales, the album went straight to number one, and demand was such that EMI informed retailers that only 50 percent of their orders would be fulfilled. With 900,000 advance orders (the largest for any Columbia release) it reached number one on the US Billboard chart in its second week. Wish You Were Here was Pink Floyd's fastest-selling album ever. The album was certified Silver and Gold (60,000 and 100,000 sales respectively) in the UK on 1 August 1975, and Gold in the US on 17 September 1975. It was certified six times platinum on 16 May 1997, and by 2004 had sold an estimated 13 million copies worldwide. "Have a Cigar" was chosen by Columbia as their first single, with "Welcome to the Machine" on the B-side in the US. The album was a commercial hit in Europe, topping Dutch, English and Spanish charts – in Spain, the album remained at number one for 20 weeks. On release, the album received mixed reviews. Ben Edmunds wrote in Rolling Stone that the band's "lackadaisical demeanor" leaves the subject of Barrett "unrealised; they give such a matter-of-fact reading of the goddamn thing that they might as well be singing about Roger Waters's brother-in-law getting a parking ticket." Edmunds concluded the band is "devoid" of the "sincere passion for their 'art'" that contemporary space rock acts purportedly have. Melody Maker reviewer wrote: "From whichever direction one approaches Wish You Were Here, it still sounds unconvincing in its ponderous sincerity and displays a critical lack of imagination in all departments." A positive review came from Robert Christgau in The Village Voice: "The music is not only simple and attractive, with the synthesizer used mostly for texture and the guitar breaks for comment, but it actually achieves some of the symphonic dignity (and cross-referencing) that The Dark Side of the Moon simulated so ponderously." Years later, he reflected further on the record: "My favorite Pink Floyd album has always been Wish You Were Here, and you know why? It has soul, that's why – it's Roger Waters's lament for Syd, not my idea of a tragic hero but as long as he's Roger's that doesn't matter." Wish You Were Here has since been frequently regarded as one of the greatest albums. According to Acclaimed Music, it is the 185th-most ranked record on critics' all-time lists. In 2012, it was voted 211th on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the "500 Greatest Albums of All Time". In 2015, it was chosen as the fourth- greatest progressive rock album by that magazine. In 1998, Q readers voted Wish You Were Here the 34th-greatest album of all time. In 2000, the same magazine placed it at number 43 in its list of the 100 Greatest British Albums Ever. In 2000 it was voted number 38 in Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums. In 2007, one of Germany's largest public radio stations, WDR 2, asked its listeners to vote for the 200 best albums of all time. Wish You Were Here was voted number one. In 2004, Wish You Were Here was ranked number 36 on Pitchfork Media's list of the Top 100 albums of the 1970s. IGN rated Wish You Were Here as the eighth-greatest classic rock album, and Ultimate Classic Rock placed Wish You Were Here second best in its list of "Worst to Best Pink Floyd Albums". Despite the problems during production, the album remained Wright's favourite: "It's an album I can listen to for pleasure, and there aren't many Floyd albums that I can." Gilmour shares this view: "I for one would have to say that it is my favourite album, the Wish You Were Here album. The end result of all that, whatever it was, definitely has left me an album I can live with very very happily. I like it very much." Wish You Were Here has been remastered and re-released on several formats. In the UK and US the album was re-issued in quadraphonic using the SQ format in 1976, and in 1980 a special Hi-Fi Today audiophile print was released in the UK. It was released on CD in Japan in October 1982, in the US in 1983, and in the UK in 1985, and again as a remastered CD with new artwork in 1994. In the US, Columbia's CBS Mastersound label released a half-speed mastered audiophile LP in 1981, and in 1994 Sony Mastersound released a 24-carat gold-plated CD, remastered using Super Bit Mapping, with the original artwork from the LP in both longbox and jewel case forms, the latter with a cardboard slipcover. The album was included as part of the box set Shine On, and five years later Columbia Records released an updated remastered CD, 17 seconds longer than the EMI remasters from 1994, giving a running time of 44:28. The label was a recreation of the original machine handshake logo, with a black and blue background. The album was subsequently re-released in 2000 for its 25th anniversary, on the Capitol Records label in the US. The album was re-released and remixed in 2011 in multiple editions as part of the Why Pink Floyd...? reissue campaign. The Wish You Were Here – Immersion Box Set includes the new stereo digital remaster (2011) by James Guthrie on CD, an unreleased 5.1 Surround Mix (2009) by James Guthrie on DVD and Blu-ray, a Quad Mix (which had been released only on vinyl LP and 8-track tape) on DVD, as well as the original stereo mix (1975) on DVD and Blu-ray. This campaign also featured the 2011 stereo remaster on 180g heavyweight vinyl, as well as the 2011 stereo remaster and the 5.1 surround sound mix (2009) as a hybrid Super Audio CD (SACD). In 2016, the 180g vinyl was re-released on the band's own Pink Floyd Records label this time remastered by James Guthrie, Joel Plante and Bernie Grundman. David Gilmour – vocals , guitars , pedal steel guitar , EMS Synthi AKS, additional bass , glass harmonica , tape effects, Roger Waters – vocals , bass guitar , EMS VCS 3 , additional guitar , glass harmonica , tape effects, Nick Mason – drums , percussion , tape effects, Richard Wright – Hammond organ , ARP String Ensemble , Minimoog , Steinway piano , EMS VCS 3 , Hohner Clavinet D6 , Wurlitzer EP-200 electric piano , glass harmonica , backing vocals Dick Parry – tenor and baritone saxophone, Roy Harper – lead vocals, Venetta Fields – backing vocals, Carlena Williams – backing vocals Brian Humphries – engineering, Peter James – engineering, assistant engineering, Bernie Caulder, Phil Taylor – additional photography (remaster), Hipgnosis – design, photography, Peter Christopherson, Jeff Smith, Howard Bartrop and Richard Manning – design assistants, George Hardie – graphics, Jill Furmanovsky – additional photography (remaster), James Guthrie – remastering producer, Doug Sax – remastering Informational notes Citations Bibliography For a television documentary on the album, see Official Pink Floyd website Wish You Were Here is the twelfth studio album from Australian vocal group The Ten Tenors, released in April 2017. The album is a "homage" to many great artists who have deceased. The Ten Tenors say "This isn’t intended to be sombre, rather a celebration of the happiness these people brought to the world. Put simply, to all the lost artists, we wish you were here". In an interview with Today show on 10 April, the band say it was inspired by David Bowie's death. The album was promoted with a national tour across August 2017 and peaked at number 18 on the ARIA Charts.

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Chinese New Year (or generally referred to as Lunar New Year globally) is the Chinese festival that celebrates the beginning of a new year on the traditional Chinese calendar. The festival is usually referred to as the Spring Festival in mainland China, and is one of several Lunar New Years in Asia. Observances traditionally take place from the evening preceding the first day of the year to the Lantern Festival, held on the 15th day of the year. The first day of Chinese New Year begins on the new moon that appears between 21 January and 20 February. In 2020, the first day of the Chinese New Year will be on Saturday, 25 January, initiating the Year of the Rat. Chinese New Year is a major holiday in Greater China and has strongly influenced lunar new year celebrations of China's neighbouring cultures, including the Korean New Year (seol), the Tết of Vietnam, and the Losar of Tibet. It is also celebrated worldwide in regions and countries with significant Overseas Chinese populations, including Singapore, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, the Philippines, and Mauritius, as well as many in North America and Europe. Chinese New Year is associated with several myths and customs. The festival was traditionally a time to honour deities as well as ancestors. Within China, regional customs and traditions concerning the celebration of the New Year vary widely, and the evening preceding Chinese New Year's Day is frequently regarded as an occasion for Chinese families to gather for the annual reunion dinner. It is also traditional for every family to thoroughly clean their house, in order to sweep away any ill-fortune and to make way for incoming good luck. Another custom is the decoration of windows and doors with red paper-cuts and couplets. Popular themes among these paper- cuts and couplets include that of good fortune or happiness, wealth, and longevity. Other activities include lighting firecrackers and giving money in red paper envelopes. For the northern regions of China, dumplings are featured prominently in meals celebrating the festival. It often serves as the first meal of the year either at mid-night or as breakfast of the first day. The lunisolar Chinese calendar determines the date of Lunar New Year. The calendar is also used in countries that have been influenced by, or have relations with, China – such as Korea, Japan and Vietnam, though occasionally the date celebrated may differ by one day or even one moon cycle due to using a meridian based on a different capital city in a different time zone or different placements of intercalary months. Chinese calendar defines the lunar month with winter solstice as the 11th month, which means that Chinese New Year usually falls on the second new moon after the winter solstice (rarely the third if an intercalary month intervenes). In more than 96% of the years, the Chinese New Year's Day is the closest new moon to lichun () on 4 or 5 February, and the first new moon after Dahan (). In the Gregorian calendar, the Lunar New Year begins at the new moon that falls between 21 January and 20 February. To determine whether a year has an intercalary month, one only needs to check whether Chinese New Year is within the month of January. The Gregorian Calendar dates for Chinese New Year from 1912 to 2101 are below, along with the year's presiding animal zodiac and its Stem-branch. The traditional Chinese calendar follows a Metonic cycle, a system used by the modern Jewish Calendar, and returns to the same date in Gregorian calendar roughly. The names of the Earthly Branches have no English counterparts and are not the Chinese translations of the animals. Alongside the 12-year cycle of the animal zodiac there is a 10-year cycle of heavenly stems. Each of the ten heavenly stems is associated with one of the five elements of Chinese astrology, namely: Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water. The elements are rotated every two years while a yin and yang association alternates every year. The elements are thus distinguished: Yang Wood, Yin Wood, Yang Fire, Yin Fire, etc. These produce a combined cycle that repeats every 60 years. For example, the year of the Yang Fire Rat occurred in 1936 and in 1996, 60 years apart. Many people inaccurately calculate their Chinese birth-year by converting it from their Gregorian birth-year. As the Chinese New Year starts in late January to mid-February, the previous Chinese year dates through 1 January until that day in the new Gregorian year, remaining unchanged from the previous Gregorian year. For example, the 1989 year of the Snake began on 6 February 1989. The year 1989 is generally aligned with the year of the Snake. However, the 1988 year of the Dragon officially ended on 5 February 1989. This means that anyone born from 1 January to 5 February 1989 was actually born in the year of the Dragon rather than the year of the Snake. Many online Chinese Sign calculators do not account for the non-alignment of the two calendars, using Gregorian-calendar years rather than official Chinese New Year dates. One scheme of continuously-numbered Chinese calendar years assigns 4709 to the year beginning in 2011, but this is not universally accepted; the calendar is traditionally cyclical, not continuously numbered. Although the Chinese calendar traditionally does not use continuously numbered years, outside China its years are sometimes numbered from the purported reign of the mythical Yellow Emperor in the 3rd millennium BC. But at least three different years numbered 1 are now used by various scholars, making the year beginning CE 2015 the "Chinese year" 4712, 4713, or 4652. According to tales and legends, the beginning of the Chinese New Year started with a mythical beast called the Nian during the annual Spring Festival. The Nian would eat villagers, especially children in the middle of the night. One year, all the villagers decided to go hide from the beast. An old man, Yanhuang, appeared before the villagers went into hiding and said that he would stay the night, and would get revenge on the Nian. All the villagers thought he was insane. The old man put red papers up and set off firecrackers. The day after, the villagers came back to their town and saw that nothing had been destroyed. They assumed that the old man was a deity who came to save them. The villagers then understood that Yanhuang had discovered that the Nian was afraid of the color red and loud noises. So the tradition grew that when New Year was approaching, the villagers would wear red clothes, hang red lanterns, and red spring scrolls on windows and doors. People also used firecrackers to frighten away the Nian. From then on, Nian never came to the village again. The Nian was eventually captured by Hongjun Laozu, an ancient Taoist monk. After that, Nian retreated to a nearby mountain. The name of the mountain has long been lost over the years. There is also a saying that the beast is "Xi", rather than Nian. Spring Festival included New Year’s Eve and New Year. Xi is a kind of faint monster, and Nian is not related to the animal beasts in terms of meaning, it is more like a mature harvest. There is no record of the beast in the ancient texts; it is only in Chinese folklore. The word "Nian" is composed of the words "he" and "Qian". It means that the grain is rich and the harvest is good. The farmers review the harvest at the end of the year and are also full of expectations for the coming year. According to Chinese historical documents, since the beginning of the era, people have celebrated the harvest in the New Year and welcomed the new folk customs. Later, they gradually became an established traditional festival. While Spring Festival has since become the official name of Chinese New Year, the Chinese outside mainland China still prefer to call it Lunar New Year. “Chinese New Year” is a popular and convenient translation for people of non- Chinese cultural backgrounds. Along with the Han Chinese in and outside China, as many as 29 of the 55 ethnic minority groups in China also celebrate Chinese New Year. Korea, Vietnam, Singapore, Malaysia, and Indonesia celebrate it as an official festival. Chinese New Year is observed as a public holiday in some countries and territories where there is a sizable Chinese and Korean population. Since Chinese New Year falls on different dates on the Gregorian calendar every year on different days of the week, some of these governments opt to shift working days in order to accommodate a longer public holiday. In some countries, a statutory holiday is added on the following work day when the New Year falls on a weekend, as in the case of 2013, where the New Year's Eve (9 February) falls on Saturday and the New Year's Day (10 February) on Sunday. Depending on the country, the holiday may be termed differently; common names are "Chinese New Year", "Lunar New Year", "New Year Festival", and "Spring Festival". For New Year celebrations that are lunar but are outside of China and Chinese diaspora (such as Korea's Seollal and Vietnam's Tết), see the article on Lunar New Year. For other countries where Chinese New Year is celebrated but not an official holiday, see the table below. During the festival, people around China will prepare different gourmet for families and guests. Influenced by the flourished cultures, foods from different places look and taste totally different. Among them, the most well- known ones are dumplings from northern China and Tangyuan from southern China. On the eighth day of the lunar month prior to Chinese New Year, the Laba holiday (), a traditional porridge, Laba porridge (), is served in remembrance of an ancient festival, called La, that occurred shortly after the winter solstice. Pickles such as Laba garlic, which turns green from vinegar, are also made on this day. For those that practice Buddhism, the Laba holiday is also considered Bodhi Day. Layue () is a term often associated with Chinese New Year as it refers to the sacrifices held in honor of the gods in the twelfth lunar month, hence the cured meats of Chinese New Year are known as larou (). The porridge was prepared by the women of the household at first light, with the first bowl offered to the family's ancestors and the household deities. Every member of the family was then served a bowl, with leftovers distributed to relatives and friends. It's still served as a special breakfast on this day in some Chinese homes. The concept of the "La month" is similar to Advent in Christianity. Many families eat vegetarian on Chinese New Year eve, the garlic and preserved meat are eaten on Chinese New Year day. On the days immediately before the New Year celebration, Chinese families give their homes a thorough cleaning. There is a Cantonese saying "Wash away the dirt on nin ya baat" (), but the practice is not restricted to nin ya baat (the 28th day of month 12). It is believed the cleaning sweeps away the bad luck of the preceding year and makes their homes ready for good luck. Brooms and dust pans are put away on the first day so that the newly arrived good luck cannot be swept away. Some people give their homes, doors and window-frames a new coat of red paint; decorators and paper-hangers do a year-end rush of business prior to Chinese New Year. Homes are often decorated with paper cutouts of Chinese auspicious phrases and couplets. Purchasing new clothing and shoes also symbolize a new start. Any hair cuts need to be completed before the New Year, as cutting hair on New Year is considered bad luck due to the homonymic nature of the word "hair" (fa) and the word for "prosperity". Businesses are expected to pay off all the debts outstanding for the year before the new year eve, extending to debts of gratitude. Thus it is a common practice to send gifts and rice to close business associates, and extended family members. In many households where Buddhism or Taoism is prevalent, home altars and statues are cleaned thoroughly, and decorations used to adorn altars over the past year are taken down and burned a week before the new year starts, to be replaced with new decorations. Taoists (and Buddhists to a lesser extent) will also "send gods back to heaven" (), an example would be burning a paper effigy of Zao Jun the Kitchen God, the recorder of family functions. This is done so that the Kitchen God can report to the Jade Emperor of the family household's transgressions and good deeds. Families often offer sweet foods (such as candy) in order to "bribe" the deities into reporting good things about the family. Prior to the Reunion Dinner, a prayer of thanksgiving is held to mark the safe passage of the previous year. Confucianists take the opportunity to remember their ancestors, and those who had lived before them are revered. Some people do not give a Buddhist prayer due to the influence of Christianity, with a Christian prayer offered instead. The biggest event of any Chinese New Year's Eve is the annual reunion dinner. Dishes consisting of special meats are served at the tables, as a main course for the dinner and offering for the New Year. This meal is comparable to Thanksgiving dinner in the U.S. and remotely similar to Christmas dinner in other countries with a high percentage of Christians. In northern China, it is customary to make jiaozi, or dumplings, after dinner to eat around midnight. Dumplings symbolize wealth because their shape resembles a Chinese sycee. In contrast, in the South, it is customary to make a glutinous new year cake (niangao) and send pieces of it as gifts to relatives and friends in the coming days. Niángāo [Pinyin] literally means "new year cake" with a homophonous meaning of "increasingly prosperous year in year out". After dinner, some families go to local temples hours before the new year begins to pray for a prosperous new year by lighting the first incense of the year; however in modern practice, many households hold parties and even hold a countdown to the new year. Traditionally, firecrackers were lit to scare away evil spirits with the household doors sealed, not to be reopened until the new morning in a ritual called "opening the door of fortune" (). Beginning in 1982, the CCTV New Year's Gala is broadcast in China four hours before the start of the New Year and lasts until the succeeding early morning. Watching it has gradually become a tradition in China. A tradition of going to bed late on New Year's Eve, or even keeping awake the whole night and morning, known as shousui (守岁), is still practised as it is thought to add on to one's parents' longevity. The first day is for the welcoming of the deities of the heavens and earth, officially beginning at midnight. It is a traditional practice to light fireworks, burn bamboo sticks and firecrackers and to make as much of a din as possible to chase off the evil spirits as encapsulated by nian of which the term Guo Nian was derived. Many Buddhists abstain from meat consumption on the first day because it is believed to ensure longevity for them. Some consider lighting fires and using knives to be bad luck on New Year's Day, so all food to be consumed is cooked the days before. On this day, it is considered bad luck to use the broom, as good fortune is not to be "swept away" symbolically. Most importantly, the first day of Chinese New Year is a time to honor one's elders and families visit the oldest and most senior members of their extended families, usually their parents, grandparents and great-grandparents. For Buddhists, the first day is also the birthday of Maitreya Bodhisattva (better known as the more familiar Budai Luohan), the Buddha-to-be. People also abstain from killing animals. Some families may invite a lion dance troupe as a symbolic ritual to usher in the Chinese New Year as well as to evict bad spirits from the premises. Members of the family who are married also give red envelopes containing cash known as lai see (Cantonese dialect) or angpow (Hokkien dialect/Fujian), or hongbao (Mandarin), a form of blessings and to suppress the aging and challenges associated with the coming year, to junior members of the family, mostly children and teenagers. Business managers also give bonuses through red packets to employees for good luck, smooth-sailing, good health and wealth. While fireworks and firecrackers are traditionally very popular, some regions have banned them due to concerns over fire hazards. For this reason, various city governments (e.g., Kowloon, Beijing, Shanghai for a number of years) issued bans over fireworks and firecrackers in certain precincts of the city. As a substitute, large-scale fireworks display have been launched by governments in such city-states as Hong Kong and Singapore. However, it is a tradition that the indigenous peoples of the walled villages of New Territories, Hong Kong are permitted to light firecrackers and launch fireworks in a limited scale. The second day of the Chinese New Year, known as "beginning of the year" (), was when married daughters visited their birth parents, relatives and close friends. (Traditionally, married daughters didn't have the opportunity to visit their birth families frequently.) During the days of imperial China, "beggars and other unemployed people circulate[d] from family to family, carrying a picture [of the God of Wealth] shouting, "Cai Shen dao!" [The God of Wealth has come!]." Householders would respond with "lucky money" to reward the messengers. Business people of the Cantonese dialect group will hold a 'Hoi Nin' prayer to start their business on the 2nd day of Chinese New Year so they will be blessed with good luck and prosperity in their business for the year. As this day is believed to be The Birthday of Che Kung, a deity worshipped in Hong Kong, worshippers go to Che Kung Temples to pray for his blessing. A representative from the government asks Che Kung about the city's fortune through kau cim. The third day is known as "red mouth" (). Chikou is also called "Chigou's Day" (). Chigou, literally "red dog", is an epithet of "the God of Blazing Wrath" (). Rural villagers continue the tradition of burning paper offerings over trash fires. It is considered an unlucky day to have guests or go visiting. Hakka villagers in rural Hong Kong in the 1960s called it the Day of the Poor Devil and believed everyone should stay at home. This is also considered a propitious day to visit the temple of the God of Wealth and have one's future told. In those communities that celebrate Chinese New Year for 15 days, the fourth day is when corporate "spring dinners" kick off and business returns to normal. Other areas that have a longer Chinese New Year holiday will celebrate and welcome the gods that were previously sent on this day. This day is the god of Wealth's birthday. In northern China, people eat jiaozi, or dumplings, on the morning of powu (). In Taiwan, businesses traditionally re-open on the next day (the sixth day), accompanied by firecrackers. It is also common in China that on the 5th day people will shoot off firecrackers to get Guan Yu's attention, thus ensuring his favor and good fortune for the new year. The sixth day is Horse's Day, on which people drive away the Ghost of Poverty by throwing out the garbage stored up during the festival. The ways vary but basically have the same meaning - to drive away the Ghost of Poverty, which reflects the general desire of the Chinese people to ring out the old and ring in the new, to send away the previous poverty and hardship and to usher in the good life of the New Year. The seventh day, traditionally known as Renri (the common person's birthday), is the day when everyone grows one year older. In some overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia, such as Malaysia and Singapore, it is also the day when tossed raw fish salad, yusheng, is eaten for continued wealth and prosperity. For many Chinese Buddhists, this is another day to avoid meat, the seventh day commemorating the birth of Sakra, lord of the devas in Buddhist cosmology who is analogous to the Jade Emperor. Another family dinner is held to celebrate the eve of the birth of the Jade Emperor, the ruler of heaven. People normally return to work by the eighth day, therefore the Store owners will host a lunch/dinner with their employees, thanking their employees for the work they have done for the whole year. The ninth day of the New Year is a day for Chinese to offer prayers to the Jade Emperor of Heaven in the Daoist Pantheon. The ninth day is traditionally the birthday of the Jade Emperor. This day, called Ti Kong Dan (), Ti Kong Si () or Pai Ti Kong (), is especially important to Hokkiens, even more important than the first day of the Chinese New Year. Come midnight of the eighth day of the new year, Hokkiens will offer thanks to the Emperor of Heaven. A prominent requisite offering is sugarcane. Legend holds that the Hokkien were spared from a massacre by Japanese pirates by hiding in a sugarcane plantation during the eighth and ninth days of the Chinese New Year, coinciding with the Jade Emperor's birthday. Since "sugarcane" () is a near homonym to "thank you" () in the Hokkien dialect, Hokkiens offer sugarcane on the eve of his birthday, symbolic of their gratitude. In the morning of this birthday (traditionally anytime from midnight to 7 am), Taiwanese households set up an altar table with 3 layers: one top (containing offertories of six vegetables (), noodles, fruits, cakes, tangyuan, vegetable bowls, and unripe betel, all decorated with paper lanterns) and two lower levels (containing the five sacrifices and wines) to honor the deities below the Jade Emperor. The household then kneels three times and kowtows nine times to pay obeisance and wish him a long life. Incense, tea, fruit, vegetarian food or roast pig, and gold paper is served as a customary protocol for paying respect to an honored person. The Jade Emperor's birthday party is celebrated on this day. The fifteenth day of the new year is celebrated as "Yuanxiao Festival" (), also known as "Shangyuan Festival" () or the Lantern Festival (otherwise known as Chap Goh Mei () in Fujian dialect). Rice dumplings tangyuan (), a sweet glutinous rice ball brewed in a soup, are eaten this day. Candles are lit outside houses as a way to guide wayward spirits home. This day is celebrated as the Lantern Festival, and families walk the street carrying lighted lantern. In China, Malaysia, and Singapore, this day is celebrated by individuals seeking a romantic partner, akin to Valentine's Day. Nowadays, single women write their contact number on mandarin oranges and throw them in a river or a lake after which single men collect the oranges and eat them. The taste is an indication of their possible love: sweet represents a good fate while sour represents a bad fate. This day often marks the end of the Chinese New Year festivities. A reunion dinner (nián yè fàn) is held on New Year's Eve during which family members gather for a celebration. The venue will usually be in or near the home of the most senior member of the family. The New Year's Eve dinner is very large and sumptuous and traditionally includes dishes of meat (namely, pork and chicken) and fish. Most reunion dinners also feature a communal hot pot as it is believed to signify the coming together of the family members for the meal. Most reunion dinners (particularly in the Southern regions) also prominently feature specialty meats (e.g. wax-cured meats like duck and Chinese sausage) and seafood (e.g. lobster and abalone) that are usually reserved for this and other special occasions during the remainder of the year. In most areas, fish () is included, but not eaten completely (and the remainder is stored overnight), as the Chinese phrase "may there be surpluses every year" () sounds the same as "let there be fish every year." Eight individual dishes are served to reflect the belief of good fortune associated with the number. If in the previous year a death was experienced in the family, seven dishes are served. Other traditional foods consists of noodles, fruits, dumplings, spring rolls, and Tangyuan which are also known as sweet rice balls. Each dish served during Chinese New Year represents something special. The noodles used to make longevity noodles are usually very thin, long wheat noodles. These noodles are longer than normal noodles that are usually fried and served on a plate, or boiled and served in a bowl with its broth. Expectedly, the noodles symbolize the wish for a long life. The fruits that are typically selected would be oranges, tangerines, and pomelos as they are round and "golden" color symbolizing fullness and wealth. Their lucky sound when spoken also brings good luck and fortune. The Chinese pronunciation for orange is 橙 (chéng /chnng/), which sounds the same as the Chinese for 'success' (成). One of the ways to spell tangerine(桔 jú /jyoo/) contains the Chinese character for luck (吉 jí /jee/). Pomelos is believed to bring constant prosperity. Pomelo in Chinese (柚 yòu /yo/) sounds similar to 'to have' (有 yǒu), disregarding its tone, however it sounds exactly like 'again' (又 yòu). Dumplings and spring rolls symbolize wealth, whereas sweet rice balls symbolize family togetherness. Red packets for the immediate family are sometimes distributed during the reunion dinner. These packets contain money in an amount that reflects good luck and honorability. Several foods are consumed to usher in wealth, happiness, and good fortune. Several of the Chinese food names are homophones for words that also mean good things. Many places in China still follow the tradition of eating only vegetarian food on the first day of the New year, as it is a sign of peace. So, they believe that eating only vegetarian food the first day will bring joy and peace into their lives for the whole year. Like many other New Year dishes, certain ingredients also take special precedence over others as these ingredients also have similar-sounding names with prosperity, good luck, or even counting money. In 1928, the ruling Kuomintang party in China decreed that Chinese New Year will fall on 1 Jan of the Gregorian Calendar, but this was abandoned due to overwhelming opposition from the populace. In 1967 during the Cultural Revolution, official Chinese New Year celebrations were banned in China. The State Council of the People's Republic of China announced that the public should "Change Customs", have a "revolutionized and fighting Spring Festival", and since people needed to work on Chinese New Year Eve, they did not have holidays during Spring Festival day. The public celebrations were reinstated by the time of the Chinese economic reform. Traditionally, red envelopes or red packets (Mandarin: ; Hakka: fung bao / Cantonese: ) are passed out during the Chinese New Year's celebrations, from married couples or the elderly to unmarried juniors or children. During this period, red packets are also known as "yasuiqian" (, which was evolved from , literally, "the money used to suppress or put down the evil spirit"). Red packets almost always contain money, usually varying from a couple of dollars to several hundred. Per custom, the amount of money in the red packets should be of even numbers, as odd numbers are associated with cash given during funerals (帛金: báijīn). The number 8 is considered lucky (for its homophone for "wealth"), and $8 is commonly found in the red envelopes in the US. The number six (六, liù) is also very lucky as it sounds like "smooth" (流, liú), in the sense of having a smooth year. The number four (四) is the worst because its homophone is "death" (死). Sometimes chocolate coins are found in the red packet. Odd and even numbers are determined by the first digit, rather than the last. Thirty and fifty, for example, are odd numbers and are thus appropriate as funeral cash gifts. However, it is common and quite acceptable to have cash gifts in a red packet using a single bank note – with ten or fifty yuan bills used frequently. It is customary for the bills to be brand new printed money. Everything regarding the New Year has to be new in order to have good luck and fortune. The act of asking for red packets is normally called (Mandarin): 讨紅包 tǎo-hóngbāo, 要利是 or (Cantonese): 逗利是. A married person would not turn down such a request as it would mean that he or she would be "out of luck" in the new year. Red packets are generally given by established married couples to the younger non-married children of the family. It is custom and polite for children to wish elders a happy new year and a year of happiness, health and good fortune before accepting the red envelope. Red envelopes are then kept under the pillow and slept on for seven nights after Chinese New Year before opening because that symbolizes good luck and fortune. In Taiwan in the 2000s, some employers also gave red packets as a bonus to maids, nurses or domestic workers from Southeast Asian countries, although whether this is appropriate is controversial. The Japanese have a similar tradition of giving money during the New Year, called Otoshidama. In addition to red envelopes, which are usually given from older people to younger people, small gifts (usually food or sweets) are also exchanged between friends or relatives (of different households) during Chinese New Year. Gifts are usually brought when visiting friends or relatives at their homes. Common gifts include fruits (typically oranges, but never trade pears), cakes, biscuits, chocolates, and candies. Certain items should not be given, as they are considered taboo. Taboo gifts include: items associated with funerals (i.e. handkerchiefs, towels, chrysanthemums, items colored white and black), items that show that time is running out (i.e. clocks and watches), sharp objects that symbolize cutting a tie (i.e. scissors and knives), items that symbolize that you want to walk away from a relationship (examples: shoes and sandals), mirrors, homonyms for unpleasant topics (examples: "clock" sounds like "the funeral ritual", green hats because "wear a green hat" sounds like "cuckold", "handkerchief" sounds like "goodbye", "pear" sounds like "separate", and "umbrella" sounds like "disperse"). Markets or village fairs are set up as the New Year is approaching. These usually open-air markets feature new year related products such as flowers, toys, clothing, and even fireworks and firecrackers. It is convenient for people to buy gifts for their new year visits as well as their home decorations. In some places, the practice of shopping for the perfect plum tree is not dissimilar to the Western tradition of buying a Christmas tree. Hong Kong filmmakers also release "New Year celebration films" (), mostly comedies, at this time of year. Bamboo stems filled with gunpowder that was burnt to create small explosions were once used in ancient China to drive away evil spirits. In modern times, this method has eventually evolved into the use of firecrackers during the festive season. Firecrackers are usually strung on a long fused string so it can be hung down. Each firecracker is rolled up in red papers, as red is auspicious, with gunpowder in its core. Once ignited, the firecracker lets out a loud popping noise and, as they are usually strung together by the hundreds, the firecrackers are known for their deafening explosions that are thought to scare away evil spirits. The burning of firecrackers also signifies a joyful time of year and has become an integral aspect of Chinese New Year celebrations. Although the use of firecrackers are considered a traditional part of Chinese New Year festivities safety issue are present. In response to these issues, many governments and authorities eventually enacted laws completely banning the use of firecrackers. Mainland China – Firecrackers were banned in a large number of cities and urban areas in the 1990s. However, many cities have relaxed their restrictions since that time; for example, Beijing's urban districts revoked their ban in 2005, although they are still typically not allowed inside the 5th Ring Road. Even so, this is overlooked by authorities for the festival, provided there are no government buildings nearby. Bans are rare in rural areas., Hong Kong – Fireworks are banned in Hong Kong for security reasons. The Hong Kong government runs an annual fireworks display in Victoria Harbour on the second day of the Chinese New Year for the public., Taiwan – A ban was enforced in 2008, prohibiting the use firecrackers in urban areas. Firecrackers were still allowed for use in rural areas., Vietnam – A nationwide ban on firecrackers was implemented in 1996., Singapore – a partial ban on firecrackers was imposed in March 1970 after a fire resulted in 6 fatalities and 68 injuries. This was extended to a total ban in August 1972; this total ban was triggered by an explosion that killed two people and an attack on two police officers attempting to stop a group from letting off firecrackers in February 1972. As a result of this ban, the Chingay Parade was set up to preserve the spirit and culture. However, in 2003, the government allowed firecrackers to be set off during the festive season. At the Chinese New Year light-up in Chinatown, at the stroke of midnight on the first day of the Chinese New Year, firecrackers are set off under controlled conditions by the Singapore Tourism Board with assistance from demolition experts from the Singapore Armed Forces. Other occasions where firecrackers are allowed to be set off are determined by the tourism board or other government organizations. However, they are not allowed to be commercially sold., Malaysia – Firecrackers are banned for similar reasons as in Singapore., Indonesia – Firecrackers and fireworks are forbidden in public during the Chinese New Year, especially in areas with a significant non-Chinese population in order to avoid any conflict between the two. However, there were some exceptions. The usage of firecrackers is legal in some metropolitan areas such as Jakarta and Medan, where the degree of racial and cultural tolerance is higher., United States – In 2007, New York City lifted its decades-old ban on firecrackers, allowing a display of 300,000 firecrackers to be set off in Chinatown's Chatham Square. Under the supervision of the fire and police departments, Chinatown, Los Angeles regularly lights firecrackers every New Year's Eve, mostly at temples and the shrines of benevolent associations. The San Francisco Chinese New Year Parade, the largest outside China, is accompanied by numerous firecrackers, both officially sanctioned and illicit., Australia – Australia, except the Northern Territory, does not allow use of fireworks at all, except when used by a licensed pyrotechnician. These rules also need a permit from local government, and from any relevant local bodies such as maritime or aviation authorities (as relevant to the types of fireworks being used) and hospitals, schools, etc., within a certain range., Philippines – Despite the rise in firecracker-related injuries in 2009, the Department of Health has acknowledged that a total ban on firecrackers in the country will be hard to implement. Davao City, the first city in the country to impose a firecracker ban, has enjoyed injury-free celebrations for at least the last 15 years. Their ban has been in effect since 2002. "Happy New Year!" () is a popular children's song for the New Year holiday. The melody is similar to the American folk song, Oh My Darling, Clementine. Chorus: Another popular Chinese New Year song is Gong Xi Gong Xi. Watching Lunar New Year Films is also a Chinese cultural identity. During the New Year holidays, the stage boss gathers the most popular actors whom from various troupes let them perform repertories from Qing dynasty. Nowadays people prefer celebrating the new year with their family by watching these movies together. The color red is commonly worn throughout Chinese New Year; traditional beliefs held that red could scare away evil spirits and bad fortune. The wearing of new clothes is another clothing custom during the festival, the new clothes symbolize a new beginning in the year, and enough things to use and wear in this time. In some places, the taking of a family portrait is an important ceremony after the relatives are gathered. The photo is taken at the hall of the house or taken in front of the house. The most senior male head of the family sits in the center. As with all cultures, Chinese New Year traditions incorporate elements that are symbolic of deeper meaning. One common example of Chinese New Year symbolism is the red diamond-shaped fu characters (), which are displayed on the entrances of Chinese homes. This sign is usually seen hanging upside down, since the Chinese word dao (), is homophonous or nearly homophonous with () in all varieties of Chinese. Therefore, it symbolizes the arrival of luck, happiness, and prosperity. For the Cantonese-speaking people, if the fu sign is hung upside down, the implied dao (upside down) sounds like the Cantonese word for "pour", producing "pour the luck [away]", which would usually symbolize bad luck; this is why the fu character is not usually hung upside- down in Cantonese communities. Red is the predominant color used in New Year celebrations. Red is the emblem of joy, and this color also symbolizes virtue, truth and sincerity. On the Chinese opera stage, a painted red face usually denotes a sacred or loyal personage and sometimes a great emperor. Candies, cakes, decorations and many things associated with the New Year and its ceremonies are colored red. The sound of the Chinese word for "red" () is in Mandarin homophonous with the word for "prosperous." Therefore, red is an auspicious color and has an auspicious sound. According to Chinese tradition, the year of the pig is a generally unlucky year for the public, which is why you need to reevaluate most of your decisions before you reach a conclusion. However, this only helps you get even more control over your life as you learn to stay ahead of everything by being cautious. Nianhua can be a form of Chinese colored woodblock printing, for decoration during Chinese New Year. The following are popular floral decorations for the New Year and are available at new year markets. Traditionally, families gather together during the Chinese New Year. In modern China, migrant workers in China travel home to have reunion dinners with their families on Chinese New Year's Eve. Owing to a large number of interprovincial travelers, special arrangements were made by railways, buses and airlines starting from 15 days before the New Year's Day. This 40-day period is called chunyun, and is known as the world's largest annual migration. More interurban trips are taken in mainland China in this period than the total population of China. In Taiwan, spring travel is also a major event. The majority of transportation in western Taiwan is in a north-south direction: long distance travel between urbanized north and hometowns in the rural south. Transportation in eastern Taiwan and that between Taiwan and its islands is less convenient. Cross-strait flights between Taiwan and mainland China began in 2003 as part of Three Links, mostly for "Taiwanese businessmen" to return to Taiwan for the new year. Chinese New Year is also celebrated annually in many countries with significant Chinese populations. These include countries throughout Asia, Oceania, and North America. Sydney, London, and San Francisco claim to host the largest New Year celebration outside of Asia and South America. In some countries of Southeast Asia, Chinese New Year is a national public holiday and considered to be one of the most important holidays of the year. Chinese New Year's Eve is typically a half-day holiday for Malaysia and Singapore. The biggest celebrations take place in Malaysia (notably in Kuala Lumpur, George Town and Klang) and Singapore. In Singapore, Chinese New Year is accompanied by various festive activities. One of the main highlights is the Chinatown celebrations. In 2010, this included a Festive Street Bazaar, nightly staged shows at Kreta Ayer Square and a lion dance competition. The Chingay Parade also features prominently in the celebrations. It is an annual street parade in Singapore, well known for its colorful floats and wide variety of cultural performances. The highlights of the Parade for 2011 include a Fire Party, multi-ethnic performances and an unprecedented travelling dance competition. In the Philippines, Chinese New Year is considered to be the most important festival for Filipino-Chinese, and its celebration has also extended to the non-Chinese majority Filipinos. In 2012, Chinese New Year was included in public holidays in the Philippines, which is only the New Year's Day itself.(Sin-nî: Chinese new years in Philippine Hokkien) In Thailand, one of the most populous Chinese descent populated countries. Also celebrated the great Chinese New Year festivities throughout the country, especially in provinces where many Chinese descent live such as Nakhon Sawan, Suphan Buri, Phuket etc. Which is considered to promote tourism in the same agenda as well. In the capital, Bangkok in Chinatown, Yaowarat Road, there is a great celebration. Which usually closes the road making it a pedestrian street and often have a member of royal family came to be the president of the ceremony, always open every year, such as Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn. In Indonesia, the Chinese New Year is officially named as Hari Tahun Baru Imlek, or Sin Cia in Hokkien. It was celebrated as one of the official national religious holiday by Chinese-Indonesians since 18 June 1946 to 1 January 1953 through government regulation signed by President Sukarno on 18 June 1946. It was unofficially celebrated by ethnic Chinese from 1953 to 1967 based on government regulation signed by Vice President Muhammad Hatta in 5 February 1953 which annul the previous regulation, among others, the Chinese New Year as a national religious holiday, Effectively from 6 December 1967, until 1998, the spiritual practice to celebrate the Chinese New Year by Chinese families was restricted specifically only inside of the Chinese house. This restriction is made by Indonesian government through a Presidential Instruction, Instruksi Presiden No.14 Tahun 1967, signed by President Suharto. This restriction is ended when the regime has changed and the President Suharto was overthrown. The celebration is conducted unofficially by Chinese community from 1999 to 2000. On 17 January 2000, the President Abdurrahman Wahid issued a Presidential Decree through Keputusan Presiden RI No 6 Tahun 2000 to annul Instruksi Presiden No.14 Tahun 1967. On 19 January 2001, the Ministry of Religious Affairs (Kementerian Agama Republik Indonesia) issued a Decree through Keputusan Menteri Agama RI No 13 Tahun 2001 tentang Imlek sebagai Hari Libur Nasional to set of Hari Tahun Baru Imlek as a Facultative Holiday for Chinese Community. Through the Presidential Decree it was officially declared as a 1 (one) day public religious holiday as of 9 April 2002 by President Megawati. The Indonesian government authorize only the first day of the Chinese New Year as a public religious holiday and it is specifically designated only for Chinese people. In Indonesia, the first day of the Chinese New Year is recognized as a part of the celebration of the Chinese religion and tradition of Chinese community. There are no other official or unofficial of the Chinese New Year as a public holiday. The remaining 14 days are celebrated only by ethnic Chinese families. In Indonesia, the Chinese Year is named as a year of Kǒngzǐ (孔子) or Kongzili in Bahasa Indonesia. Every year, the Ministry of Religious Affairs (Kementerian Agama Republik Indonesia) set the specific date of religious holiday based on input from religious leaders. The Chinese New Year is the only national religious holiday in Indonesia that was enacted specifically with the Presidential Decree, in this case with the Keputusan Presiden Republik Indonesia (Keppres RI) No 19 Tahun 2002 dated on 9 April 2002. The celebration of the Chinese New Year as a religious holiday is specifically intended only for Chinese People in Indonesia (tradisi masyarakat Cina yang dirayakan secara turun temurun di berbagai wilayah di Indonesia, dan umat Agama Tionghoa) and it is not intended to be celebrated by Indonesian Indigenous Peoples or Masyarakat Pribumi Indonesia. Big Chinese population cities and towns like Jakarta, Medan, Singkawang, Pangkal Pinang, Binjai, Bagansiapiapi, Tanjungbalai, Pematangsiantar, Selat Panjang, Pekanbaru, Tanjung Pinang, Batam, Ketapang and Pontianak always have its own New Year's celebration every years with parade and fireworks. A lot shopping malls decorated its building with lantern, Chinese words and lion or dragon with red and gold as main color. Lion dance is a common sight around Chinese houses, temples and its shophouses. Usually, the Buddhist, Confucian and Taoist Chinese will burn a big incense made by aloeswood with dragon-decorated at front of their house.The temple is open 24 hours at the first day, their also distributes a red envelopes and sometimes rice, fruits or sugar to the poor around. Divided into 3 days, the first day is the Wan chai (; pay day), meaning the day that people go out to shop for offerings, second day is the Wan wai (; worship day), is a day of worshiping the gods and ancestral spirits, which is divided into three periods: dawn, late morning and afternoon, the third day is a Wan tieow (; holiday), is a holiday that everyone will leave the house to travel or to bless relatives or respectable people. And often wear red clothes because it is believed to bring auspiciousness to life. Observed by Thai Chinese and parts of the private sector. Usually celebrated for three days, starting on the day before the Chinese New Year's Eve. Chinese New Year is observed as a public holiday in Narathiwat, Pattani, Yala, Satun and Songkhla Provinces. With one of the largest Chinese populations outside of Asia, Sydney also claims to have the largest Chinese New Year Celebrations outside of Asia with over 600,000 people attending the celebrations in Chinatown annually. The events there span over three weeks including the launch celebration, outdoor markets, evening street food stalls, Chinese top opera performances, dragon boat races, a film festival and multiple parades that incorporate Chinese, Japanese, Korean people and Vietnamese performers. More than 100,000 people attend notably the main parade with over 3,500 performers. The festival also attracts international media coverage, reaching millions of viewers in Asia. The festival in Sydney is organized in partnership with a different Chinese province each year. Apart from Sydney, other state capital cities in Australia also celebrate Chinese New Year due to large number of Chinese residents. The cities include: Brisbane, Adelaide, Melbourne Box Hill and Perth. The common activities are lion dance, dragon dance, New Year market, and food festival. In the Melbourne suburb of Footscray, Victoria a Lunar New Year celebration initially focusing on the Vietnamese New Year has expanded into a celebration of the Chinese New Year as well as the April New Year celebrations of the Thais, Cambodians, Laotians and other Asian Australian communities who celebrate the New Year in either January/February or April. The city of Wellington hosts a two-day weekend festival for Chinese New Year, and a one- day festival is held in Dunedin, centred on the city's Chinese gardens. Many cities in North America sponsor official parades for Chinese New Year. Among the cities with such parades are San Francisco, Los Angeles, New York City, Boston, Chicago, Mexico City, Toronto, and Vancouver. However, even smaller cities that are historically connected to Chinese immigration, such as Butte, Montana, have recently hosted parades. Multiple groups in New York City cooperate to sponsor a week-long Lunar New Year celebration. The festivities include cultural festival, music concert, fireworks on the Hudson River near the Chinese Consulate, and special exhibits. One of the key celebrations is the Chinese New Year parade with floats and fireworks taking place along the streets in Lower Manhattan. In June 2015, New York City Mayor Bill de Blasio declared that the Lunar New Year would be made a public school holiday. The San Francisco Chinese New Year Festival and Parade is the oldest and largest event of its kind outside of Asia, and the largest Asian cultural event in North America. The festival incorporates Grant and Kearny Streets into its street festival and parade route, respectively. The use of these streets traces its lineage back to early parades beginning the custom in San Francisco. In 1849, with the discovery of gold and the ensuing California Gold Rush, over 50,000 people had come to San Francisco to seek their fortune or just a better way of life. Among those were many Chinese, who had come to work in the gold mines and on the railroad. By the 1860s, the residents of San Francisco's Chinatown were eager to share their culture with their fellow San Francisco residents who may have been unfamiliar with (or hostile towards) it. The organizers chose to showcase their culture by using a favorite American tradition – the parade. They invited a variety of other groups from the city to participate, and they marched down what today are Grant Avenue and Kearny Street carrying colorful flags, banners, lanterns, drums, and firecrackers to drive away evil spirits. In San Francisco, over 100 units participate in the annual Chinese New Year Parade held since 1958. The parade is attended by some 500,000 people along with another 3 million TV viewers. United Kingdom In London, the celebrations take place throughout Chinatown, Leicester Square and Trafalgar Square. Festivities include a parade, cultural feast, fireworks, concerts and performances. The celebration attracts between 300,000 and 500,000 people yearly according to the organisers. France In Paris, the celebrations have been held since the 1980s in several districts during one month with many performances and the main of the three parades with 40 groups and 4,000 performers is attended alone by more than 200,000 people in the 13th arrondissement. Netherlands Celebrations have been held officially in The Hague since 2002. Other celebration are held in Amsterdam and in Rotterdam. Many celebrate the festival in Chinatown, Kolkata, India where a significant community of people of Chinese origin exists. In Kolkata, Chinese New Year is celebrated with lion and dragon dance. In Pakistan, the Chinese New Year is also celebrated among the sizable Chinese expatriate community that lives in the country. During the festival, the Chinese embassy in Islamabad arranges various cultural events in which Pakistani arts and cultural organizations and members of the civil society also participate. The Chinese New Year is often accompanied by loud, enthusiastic greetings, often referred to as 吉祥話 (jíxiánghuà) in Mandarin or 吉利說話 (Kat Lei Seut Wa) in Cantonese, loosely translated as auspicious words or phrases. New Year couplets printed in gold letters on bright red paper, referred to as chunlian (春聯) or fai chun (揮春), is another way of expressing auspicious new year wishes. They probably predate the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), but did not become widespread until then. Today, they are ubiquitous with Chinese New Year. Some of the most common greetings include: Xin nian kuai le: ; Hakka: Sin Ngen Kai Lok; Taishanese: Slin Nen Fai Lok. A more contemporary greeting reflective of Western influences, it literally translates from the greeting "Happy new year" more common in the west. It is written in English as "xin nian kuai le". In northern parts of China, traditionally people say instead of (Xīnniánkuàile), to differentiate it from the international new year. And 過年好 (Guònián Hǎo) can be used from the first day to the fifth day of Chinese New Year. However, 過年好 (Guònián Hǎo) is considered very short and therefore somewhat discourteous., Gong hey fat choi: ; Hokkien: Kiong hee huat chai (POJ: Kiong-hí hoat-châi); Cantonese: Gung1 hei2 faat3 coi4; Hakka: Gung hee fatt choi, which loosely translates to "Congratulations and be prosperous". It is spelled varyingly in English, such as "Gung hay fat choy", "gong hey fat choi", or "Kung Hei Fat Choy". Often mistakenly assumed to be synonymous with "Happy New Year", its usage dates back several centuries. While the first two words of this phrase had a much longer historical significance (legend has it that the congratulatory messages were traded for surviving the ravaging beast of Nian, in practical terms it may also have meant surviving the harsh winter conditions), the last two words were added later as ideas of capitalism and consumerism became more significant in Chinese societies around the world. The saying is now commonly heard in English speaking communities for greetings during Chinese New Year in parts of the world where there is a sizable Chinese-speaking community, including overseas Chinese communities that have been resident for several generations, relatively recent immigrants from Greater China, and those who are transit migrants (particularly students). Numerous other greetings exist, some of which may be exclaimed out loud to no one in particular in specific situations. For example, as breaking objects during the new year is considered inauspicious, one may then say 歲歲平安 (Suìsuì- píng'ān) immediately, which means "everlasting peace year after year". Suì (歲), meaning "age" is homophonous with 碎 (suì) (meaning "shatter"), in the demonstration of the Chinese love for wordplay in auspicious phrases. Similarly, 年年有餘 (niánnián yǒu yú), a wish for surpluses and bountiful harvests every year, plays on the word yú that can also refer to 魚 (yú meaning fish), making it a catch phrase for fish-based Chinese new year dishes and for paintings or graphics of fish that are hung on walls or presented as gifts. The most common auspicious greetings and sayings consist of four characters, such as the following: 金玉滿堂 Jīnyùmǎntáng – "May your wealth [gold and jade] come to fill a hall", 大展鴻圖 Dàzhǎnhóngtú – "May you realize your ambitions", 迎春接福 Yíngchúnjiēfú – "Greet the New Year and encounter happiness", 萬事如意 Wànshìrúyì – "May all your wishes be fulfilled", 吉慶有餘 Jíqìngyǒuyú – "May your happiness be without limit", 竹報平安 Zhúbàopíng'ān – "May you hear [in a letter] that all is well", 一本萬利 Yīběnwànlì – "May a small investment bring ten-thousandfold profits", 福壽雙全 Fúshòushuāngquán – "May your happiness and longevity be complete", 招財進寶 Zhāocáijìnbǎo – "When wealth is acquired, precious objects follow" These greetings or phrases may also be used just before children receive their red packets, when gifts are exchanged, when visiting temples, or even when tossing the shredded ingredients of yusheng particularly popular in Malaysia and Singapore. Children and their parents can also pray in the temple, in hopes of getting good blessings for the new year to come. Children and teenagers sometimes jokingly use the phrase 恭喜發財,紅包拿來 (in Traditional Chinese; Simplified Chinese: 恭喜发财，红包拿来; Pinyin: gōngxǐfācái, hóngbāo nálái; Cantonese: 恭喜發財,利是逗來; Jyutping: gung1 hei2 faat3 coi4, lei6 si6 dau6 loi4), roughly translated as "Congratulations and be prosperous, now give me a red envelope!". In Hakka the saying is more commonly said as 'Gung hee fatt choi, hung bao diu loi' which would be written as 恭喜發財,紅包逗來 – a mixture of the Cantonese and Mandarin variants of the saying. Back in the 1960s, children in Hong Kong used to say 恭喜發財,利是逗來,斗零唔愛 (Cantonese, Gung Hei Fat Choy, Lai Si Tau Loi, Tau Ling M Ngoi), which was recorded in the pop song Kowloon Hong Kong by Reynettes in 1966. Later in the 1970s, children in Hong Kong used the saying: 恭喜發財,利是逗來,伍毫嫌少,壹蚊唔愛 (Cantonese), roughly translated as, "Congratulations and be prosperous, now give me a red envelope, fifty cents is too little, don't want a dollar either." It basically meant that they disliked small change – coins which were called "hard substance" (Cantonese: 硬嘢). Instead, they wanted "soft substance" (Cantonese: 軟嘢), which was either a ten dollar or a twenty dollar note. Overseas Chinese, Lunar New Year fireworks display in Hong Kong, The Birthday of Che Kung, Other celebrations of Lunar New Year in China:, Tibetan New Year (Losar), Mongolian New Year (Tsagaan Sar), Celebrations of Lunar New Year in other parts of Asia:, Korean New Year (Seollal), Japanese New Year (Shōgatsu), Mongolian New Year (Tsagaan Sar), Vietnamese New Year (Tết), Similar Asian Lunisolar New Year celebrations that occur in April:, Burmese New Year (Thingyan), Cambodian New Year (Chaul Chnam Thmey), Lao New Year (Pii Mai), Sri Lankan New Year (Aluth Avuruddu), Thai New Year (Songkran), Chinese New Year Gregorian Holiday in Malaysia, Malaysia Chinese New Year (Tahun Baru Cina), Indonesian Chinese New Year (Imlek) Tết ( or ), Vietnamese New Year, Vietnamese Lunar New Year or Tet Holiday, is the most important celebration in Vietnamese culture. The word is a shortened form of Tết Nguyên Đán (節元旦), which is Sino-Vietnamese for "Feast of the First Morning of the First Day". Tết celebrates the arrival of spring based on the Vietnamese calendar, which usually has the date falling in January or February in the Gregorian calendar. Vietnamese people celebrate the Lunar New Year annually, which is based on a chinese lunisolar calendar (calculating both the motions of Earth around the Sun and of the Moon around Earth). Tết is generally celebrated on the same day as Chinese New Year, except when the one- hour time difference between Vietnam and China results in new moon occurring on different days. It takes place from the first day of the first month of the Vietnamese calendar (around late January or early February) until at least the third day. Many Vietnamese prepare for Tết by cooking special holiday food and cleaning the house. These foods include bánh chưng, bánh dày, dried young bamboo soup (canh măng), giò, and sticky rice. Many customs are practiced during Tết, such as visiting a person's house on the first day of the new year (xông nhà), ancestor worship, wishing New Year's greetings, giving lucky money to children and elderly people, and opening a shop. Tết is also an occasion for pilgrims and family reunions. They start forgetting about the troubles of the past year and hope for a better upcoming year. They consider Tết to be the first day of spring, and the festival is often called Hội xuân (spring festival). Vietnamese people usually return to their families during Tết. Some return to worship at the family altar or visit the graves of their ancestors in their homeland. They also clean the graves of their family as a sign of respect. Although Tết is a national holiday among all Vietnamese, each region and religion has its own customs. Tết in the three Vietnamese regions can be divided into three periods, known as Tất Niên (penultimate New Year's Eve), Giao Thừa (New Year's Eve), and Tân Niên (the New Year), representing the preparation before Tết, the eve of Tết, and the days of and following Tết, respectively. The first day of Tết is reserved for the nuclear family. Children receive a red envelope containing money from their elders. This tradition is called mừng tuổi (happy new age) in the north and lì xì in the south. Usually, children wear their new clothes and give their elders the traditional Tết greetings before receiving the money. Since the Vietnamese believe that the first visitor a family receives in the year determines their fortune for the entire year, people never enter any house on the first day without being invited first. The act of being the first person to enter a house on Tết is called xông đất, xông nhà or đạp đất, which is one of the most important rituals during Tết. According to Vietnamese tradition, if good things come to the family on the first day of the lunar New Year, the entire following year will also be full of blessings. Usually, a person of good temper, morality, and success will be the lucky sign for the host family and be invited first into the house. However, just to be safe, the owner of the house will leave the house a few minutes before midnight and come back just as the clock strikes midnight to prevent anyone else entering the house first who might potentially bring any unfortunate events in the new year to the household. Sweeping during Tết is taboo or xui (unlucky), since it symbolizes sweeping the luck away; that is why they clean before the new year. It is also taboo for anyone who experienced a recent loss of a family member to visit anyone else during Tết. During subsequent days, people visit relatives and friends. Traditionally but not strictly, the second day of Tết is usually reserved for friends, while the third day is for teachers, who command respect in Vietnam. Local Buddhist temples are popular spots as people like to give donations and to get their fortunes told during Tết. Children are free to spend their new money on toys or on gambling games such as bầu cua cá cọp, which can be found in the streets. Prosperous families can pay for dragon dancers to perform at their house. Also, public performances are given for everyone to watch. These celebrations can last from a day up to the entire week, and the New Year is filled with people in the streets trying to make as much noise as possible using firecrackers, drums, bells, gongs, and anything they can think of to ward off evil spirits. This parade will also include different masks, and dancers hidden under the guise of what is known as the Mua Lan or Lion Dancing. The Lan is an animal between a lion and a dragon, and is the symbol of strength in the Vietnamese culture that is used to scare away evil spirits. After the parade, families and friends come together to have a feast of traditional Vietnamese dishes, and share the happiness and joy of the New Year with one another. This is also the time when the elders will hand out red envelopes with money to the children for good luck in exchange for Tết greetings. It is also tradition to pay off your debts before the Lunar New Year for some Vietnamese families. Traditionally, each family displays cây nêu, an artificial New Year tree consisting of a bamboo pole 5 to 6 m long. The top end is usually decorated with many objects, depending on the locality, including good luck charms, origami fish, cactus branches, etc. At Tết, every house is usually decorated by Yellow Apricot blossoms (hoa mai) in the central and southern parts of Vietnam; or peach blossoms (hoa đào) in the northern part of Vietnam; or St. John's wort (hoa ban) in the mountain areas. In the north, some people (especially the elite in the past) also decorate their house with a plum blossoms (also called hoa mơ in Vietnamese, but referring to a totally different species from mickey-mouse blossoms). In the north or central, the kumquat tree is a popular decoration for the living room during Tết. Its many fruits symbolize the fertility and fruitfulness for which the family hopes in the coming year. Vietnamese people also decorate their homes with bonsai and flowers such as chrysanthemums (hoa cúc), marigolds (vạn thọ) symbolizing longevity, cockscombs (mào gà) in southern Vietnam and paperwhites (thủy tiên) and pansies (hoa lan) in northern Vietnam. In the past was a tradition where people tried to make their paperwhites bloom on the day of the observance. They also hung up Dong Ho paintings and thư pháp calligraphy pictures. The traditional greetings are "Chúc Mừng Năm Mới" (Happy New Year) and "Cung Chúc Tân Xuân", (gracious wishes of the new spring). People also wish each other prosperity and luck. Common wishes for Tết include: Sống lâu trăm tuổi (long life of 100 years): used by children for elders. Traditionally, everyone is one year older on Tết, so children would wish their grandparents health and longevity in exchange for mừng tuổi or lì xì., An khang thịnh vượng (, security, good health, and prosperity), Vạn sự như ý (, may myriad things go according to your will), Sức khỏe dồi dào (Plenty of health), Tiền vô như nước (may money flow in like water): used informally, Cung hỉ phát tài (恭喜發財, Congratulations and be prosperous), Năm mới thắng lợi mới: New year, new triumphs (often heard in political speech), Chúc hay ăn chóng lớn: Eat more, grow rapidly (for children), Năm mới thăng quan tiến chức: I wish that you will get promoted in the new year, Năm mới toàn gia bình an: I wish that the new year will bring health to all your family In Vietnamese language, to celebrate Tết is to ăn Tết, literally meaning "eat Tết", showing the importance of food in its celebration. Some of the food is also eaten year-round, while other dishes are only eaten during Tết. Also, some of the food is vegetarian since it is believed to be good luck to eat vegetarian on Tết. Some traditional foods on Tết are: Bánh chưng and bánh tét: essentially tightly packed sticky rice with meat or bean fillings wrapped in dong (Phrynium placentarium) leaves. When these leaves are unavailable, banana leaves can be used as a substitute. One difference between them is their shape. Bánh chưng is the square-shaped one to represent the Earth, while bánh tét is cylindrical to represent the moon. Also, bánh chưng is more popular in the northern parts of Vietnam, so as bánh tét is more popular in the south. Preparation can take days. After moulding them into their respective shapes (the square shape is achieved using a wooden frame), they are boiled for several hours to cook. The story of their origins and their connection with Tết is often recounted to children while cooking them overnight., Hạt dưa: roasted watermelon seeds, also eaten during Tết, Dưa hành: pickled onion and pickled cabbage, Củ kiệu: pickled small leeks, Mứt: These dried candied fruits are rarely eaten at any time besides Tết., Kẹo dừa: coconut candy, Kẹo mè xửng: peanut brittle with sesame seeds or peanuts, Cầu sung dừa Đủ xoài: In southern Vietnam, popular fruits used for offerings at the family altar in fruit arranging art are the custard-apple/sugar-apple/soursop (mãng cầu), coconut (dừa), goolar fig (sung), papaya (đu đủ), and mango (xoài), since they sound like "cầu sung vừa đủ xài" ([We] pray for enough [money/resources/funds/goods/etc.] to use) in the southern dialect of Vietnamese., Thịt Kho Nước Dừa Meaning "meat stewed in coconut juice", it is a traditional dish of pork belly and medium boiled eggs stewed in a broth-like sauce made overnight of young coconut juice and nuoc mam. It is often eaten with pickled bean sprouts and chives, and white rice., Xôi Gấc: traditionally a red sticky rice that is typically prepared by steaming and sweetened lightly, typically paired with Chả lụa (most common type of sausage in Vietnamese cuisine, made of pork and traditionally wrapped in banana leaves.) People enjoy traditional games during Tết, including: bầu cua cá cọp, cờ tướng, ném còn, chọi trâu, and đá gà. They also participate in some competitions presenting their knowledge, strength, and aestheticism, such as the bird competition and ngâm thơ competition. Fireworks displays have also become an traditional part of a Tết celebration in Vietnam. During the New Year's Eve, fireworks displays at major cities, such as Hà Nội, Ho Chi Minh City, and Da Nang, are broadcast through multiple national and local TV channels, accompanied by New Year wishes of the incumbent president. In 2017 only, fireworks displays were prohibited due to political and financial reasons. In Australia, Canada & the U.S., there are fireworks displays at many of its festivals. Gặp nhau cuối năm (Year-end Gathering) is a national favourite comedy show broadcast during the night before the New Year's Eve. From 1996 to 2067. List of Buddhist festivals, Celebrations of Lunar New Year in other parts of Asia:, Chinese New Year (Spring Festival), Korean New Year (Seollal), Japanese New Year (Shōgatsu), Mongolian New Year (Tsagaan Sar), Tibetan New Year (Losar), Similar Asian Lunisolar New Year celebrations that occur in April:, Burmese New Year (Thingyan), Cambodian New Year (Chaul Chnam Thmey), Lao New Year (Pii Mai), Sri Lankan New Year (Aluth Avuruddu), Thai New Year (Songkran) Tet Nguyen Dan: The Vietnamese New Year - Queens Botanical Garden, Vietnamese New Year customs, Vietnamese calendar rules - Hồ Ngọc Đức, Leipzig University., Tết - Vietnamese Lunar New Year Traditions, Tet Festival Orange County Fairgrounds, Costa Mesa, CA, Tet on Phu Quoc Island on Vietnam's largest island, Tết Festival - San Francisco Lunar New Year is the beginning of a calendar year whose months are cycles of the moon. The relevant calendar may be a purely lunar calendar or a lunisolar calendar. The following East Asian and Southeast Asian Lunar New Year celebrations are, or were, based on the traditional Chinese lunisolar calendar (occurring in late January or early February): Chinese New Year, Japanese New Year (prior to 1873) - Ryukyu (present), Korean New Year (Seollal), Mongolian New Year (Tsagaan Sar) – may be a month later due to leap month adjustments, Tibetan New Year (Losar) – may be a month later due to leap month adjustments, Vietnamese New Year (Tết nguyên Đán) These South Asian traditional lunisolar celebrations are observed according to the local lunisolar calendars. They are influenced by Indian tradition, which marks the solar new year on the sun's entry into Aries in April. Ugadi and Gudi Padwa, lunisolar new year's day celebrated by the Deccan people of India, Meitei Cheiraoba, Lunisolar new year's day celebrated by Meitei people, Kashmiri New Year (Navreh), lunisolar new year's day celebrated by Kashmiri Pandits, Nyepi, in Bali, Indonesia These South and Southeast Asian New Year celebrations are quite similar to each other in that they have dates based on the solar cycle ("solar new year"), but are part of the local lunisolar calendar system or were historically observed according to the local lunisolar calendars, and thus do not generally align with the first day of the lunisolar year. They are influenced by Indian (Indic) tradition (occurring on 13/14 April): Burmese New Year (Thingyan): New year falls in April, but is not the first day of the Burmese lunisolar calendar year, Cambodian New Year (Chaul Chnam Thmey), Lao New Year, Nepali New Year, Odia New Year (Pana Sankranti), Sinhala and Tamil New Year, Thai New Year (Songkran), Pohela Boishakh (Bengali New Year), Puthandu (Tamil New Year), Water-Sprinkling Festival (Dai New Year), Sangken (in Arunachal Pradesh and parts of Assam, India), Vishu, (Malayalee New Year), Maithili New Year, in Mithila, Nepal Lunar New Year celebrations that originated in Western Asia fall on other days: Islamic New Year or Muslim New Year is not lunisolar but follows a purely lunar calendar of 12 months that retrogresses through the Gregorian and Julian calendar years. The day of Muslim New Year may thus fall in any season on the calendar., In Judaism (Rabbinic and Karaite) and Samaritan religious and secular traditions, there are as many as four lunar new year observances. Each tradition uses a slightly different version of the Hebrew Calendar but they are all lunisolar, so the days always fall in the same season., 1 Nissan/Abib (Aviv) is the first day of the religious new year in Rabbinic Judaism and the first day of the religious and secular new years in Karaite Judaism and Samaritanism. Rabbinic Judaism calls this the New Year for Kings and similarly numbers Nissan (aka Aviv) as the first month. Nissan/Abib begins in the spring. The climax of this lunar new year is the festival of Passover, which begins on 15 Nissan/Abib (Aviv)., 1 Elul is the date on which the Samaritan calendar advances a year, on the theory that 1 Elul commemorates the creation of the earth. It corresponds to the New Year for Animal Tithes in the Rabbinic tradition. This is a very late summer/early autumn holiday., Rosh Hashanah in Rabbinic Judaism begins with the new moon of the month of Tishrei. It is the date on which the Rabbinic calendar advances a year, on the theory that 1 Tishrei is the day on which the world was born. Rosh Hashanah also inaugurates the ten days known as the High Holy Days/High Holidays or Days of Awe, culminating with Yom Kippur; which is the holiest day of the year in Rabbinic Judaism. For Samaritans and Karaites, Passover remains the holiest day of the year, so they observe 1 Tishrei as Yom Teruah, meaning "Day of Noise" (whereas Rosh Hashanah means "Head of the Year"). It is an autumn holy day., Tu BiShvat is the New Year for Trees in Rabbinic Judaism. It is a festive holiday rather than a holy day New Year, Nowruz, New Year's Day, East Asian cultural sphere, Greater India

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The Samsung Galaxy Note 3 is an Android phablet smartphone produced by Samsung Electronics as part of the Samsung Galaxy Note series. The Galaxy Note 3 was unveiled on September 4, 2013, with its worldwide release beginning later in the month. Serving as a successor to the Galaxy Note II, the Note 3 was designed to have a lighter, more upscale design than previous iterations of the Galaxy Note series (with a plastic leather backing and faux metallic bezel), and to expand upon the stylus and multitasking-oriented functionality in its software—which includes a new navigation wheel for pen-enabled apps, along with pop-up apps and expanded multi-window functionality. Samsung has sold 5 million units of the Galaxy Note 3 within its first month of sale and broke 10 million units sales in just 2 months. The Galaxy Note 3's design was intended to carry a more upscale, "premium" look in comparison to previous Samsung devices. Although it carries a similarly polycarbonate-oriented design to other recent Samsung devices, the Galaxy Note 3 has a faux metallic bezel and a rear cover made of plastic leather with faux stitching. With a thickness of , it is slightly thinner than the Galaxy Note II, and is slightly lighter. The LTE version sold in the European Union and North America of the Galaxy Note 3 (N9005) uses a 2.3 GHz quad-core Snapdragon 800 chip, while the GSM-only model (N9000/N9006) sold outside aforementioned regions uses an octa-core Exynos 5420, consisting of four 1.9 GHz Cortex-A15 cores and four 1.3 GHz Cortex-A7 cores. Testing has shown similar performance for both models. The device also includes 3 GB of RAM, a 5.7-inch 1080p Super AMOLED display, a 13-megapixel rear-facing camera capable of filming videos in 1080p at 60 fps and 4K resolution at 30 fps (capped at 5 minutes), 16, 32 or 64 GB of internal storage, and a 3200 mAh battery. Galaxy Note 3 Duos (N9002) is based on the LTE variant but adds an additional second SIM card slot. As with other Galaxy Note series devices, the Galaxy Note 3 ships with an S Pen stylus, which has been updated to use a more symmetrical shape. The Galaxy Note 3 is also the first smartphone to include support for USB 3.0, which enables faster data transfers and charging when connected to a compatible port. The Galaxy Note 3 was first made available in black, white, and pink. In December 2013, Samsung introduced three new color schemes for select markets; black with gold-colored trim, white with rose gold-colored trim, and red with silver-colored trim. The Galaxy Note 3 comes with Android 4.3 "Jelly Bean" and Samsung's proprietary TouchWiz NatureUX 2.5 user interface and software. Additional pen- oriented features have been added to the Note 3's software; removing the stylus from its compartment (or pressing its button whilst hovering over the display) activates an "Air Command" pie menu which provides shortcuts to pen- oriented features such as Action Memos (on-screen sticky notes that use handwriting recognition to detect their contents and provide relevant actions, such as looking up addresses on Google Maps and dialing phone numbers), Screen Write (an annotation tool), Pen Window (which allows users to draw pop-up windows to run certain apps inside), the search tool S Finder, and Scrapbook. The multi-window functionality has also been updated with expanded app support, the ability to run multiple instances of a single app, and the ability to drag and drop content between apps. The device also ships with a news aggregator app known as My Magazine, accessible by swiping up from the bottom of the screen, and an updated version of S Note. On January 13, 2014, an update to Android 4.4 "KitKat" was first made available through Samsung Kies in Poland for LTE models. The update adds user interface tweaks such as a camera shortcut on the corner of the lock screen, options for setting default launcher and text messaging applications, support for printing, and a new location settings menu for tracking and controlling the use of location tracking by apps. 4.4 also makes significant changes to the handling of secondary storage on the device for security reasons; applications' access to the SD card is now restricted to designated, app-specific directories only, while full access to internal primary storage is still allowed. Although this behavior has existed by default since Android 3.0 "Honeycomb", OEMs such as Samsung previously modified their distributions of Android to retain the previous behavior, allowing applications to have unlimited access to SD card contents. Samsung began rolling out an update to Android 5.0 "Lollipop" in January 2015. Samsung first teased the unveiling of the Galaxy Note 3 with its announcement of a Samsung Heavy Packed event on September 4, 2013 at IFA Berlin, which contained the tagline "Note the date." The international Galaxy Note 3 was released on September 25, 2013 in over 140 countries, while its U.S. and Japanese releases were released in October 2013. All Galaxy Note 3s will also include a free one-year subscription to Evernote Premium. The American and European models of the Galaxy Note 3 implement a regional lockout system in certain regions; requiring that the SIM card used on a European and North American model be from a carrier in that region. While a Samsung spokesperson claimed that the lock would be removed once a valid SIM card is used, it was reported by users that this was not the case. Although an XDA Developers user developed a tool to clear the carrier blacklist that the system uses, it requires that the phone be rooted. A spokesperson claimed that the system was primarily intended to prevent grey market reselling, although some critics suspected that carriers may have asked Samsung to implement the feature in order to force users to roam while travelling by preventing them from using a local SIM card. Samsung also stated that it implemented a similar policy on Galaxy S III, Note II, S4, and S4 Mini models manufactured after July 2013. The models of the Note 3 are: SM-N900 (GSM), N9000 (3G), SM-N9005 (4G/LTE), N9002 (LTE dual-SIM), SM-N9006 (China/WCDMA), SM-N900A(USA AT&T;), SM-N900T(USA T-mobile), SM-N900P(USA Sprint), SM-N900V(USA Verizon), SM-N900R4(USA US cellular), SM-N900W8 (Canada and some of the operators of Latin America) The Verge complimented the incremental improvements to the Galaxy Note 3's hardware and software, considering it to be the company's "best attempt yet at making touch input optional on a mobile device." Its overall design was considered to be "cohesive and well thought-out" despite Samsung's continuing use of plastic, and subtle changes such as a symmetrically-shaped stylus were also noted. However, the My Magazine app was panned for being a "tacked on" gimmick. TechRadar considered the Galaxy Note 3 to be an evolution in comparison to its predecessor (including its faster hardware and bigger screen), but criticized the device's design for not looking as "slick and premium" in real life as it did during the promotional video. Some Note 3s had quality control issues. After using it for a short period of time, some users found that the home button on the phone was “loose and began to shift”. Some images uploaded by affected users shows that the Home button would shift up, down, left, or right when pressing the Home button on their Note 3 after only 3 hours of use. In a poll conducted by Android Police, there were 2017 Note 3 users complaining that their home button was affected, but only 1150 users did not encounter this problem. Comparison of smartphones The Samsung Galaxy Note 3 Neo is an Android phablet smartphone produced by Samsung Electronics. The Galaxy Note 3 Neo was unveiled by Samsung Poland on February 1, 2014, with its worldwide release later in that month. Serving as a lower priced version of the Samsung Galaxy Note 3, the Note 3 Neo was designed to have the same lighter, more upscale design than previous iterations of the Galaxy series (with a plastic leather backing and faux metallic bezel) first supported by its bigger sibling, and to expand upon the stylus and multi- tasking oriented functionality in its software, which includes the new navigation wheel for pen-enabled apps, along with pop-up apps and expanded multi-window functionality. The Galaxy Note 3 Neo's design was intended to carry the same upscale, "premium" look with the new generation of Samsung devices. Although it carries a similarly polycarbonate-oriented design to other recent Samsung devices, the Galaxy Note 3 Neo has a faux metallic bezel and a rear cover made of plastic leather with faux stitching. With a thickness of , it is slightly thinner than the Galaxy Note II, and is also slightly lighter. Two LTE versions of the Galaxy Note 3 Neo (including one Duos 3G model) uses a 1.6 GHz quad-core Snapdragon 400 chip, i.e., the SM-N7509V, SM-N7506V and SM-N7502 (Duos 3G). Several Korean versions use 2.26 GHz quad-core Snapdragon 800 chip called SM-N750K, SM-N750L and SM-N750S. The other versions, including the international 3G models and some 4G LTE models, use a hexa-core Exynos 5260, consisting of two 1.7 GHz Cortex-A15 cores and four 1.3 GHz Cortex-A7 cores, i.e., SM-N7507, SM-N7500Q, SM-N7505L, SM-N7505, SM-N750. The device also includes 2 GB of RAM, a 5.5-inch 720p Super AMOLED display, an 8-megapixel rear-facing camera capable of filming videos in 720p at 60 fps, 1080p at 30 fps and 4K resolution at 30 fps (for only 5 mins, Snapdragon 800 model only), 16 or 32 GB of internal storage, and a 3100 mAh battery. As with other Galaxy Note series devices, the Galaxy Note 3 Neo ships with an S Pen stylus, which has been updated to use a more symmetrical shape. The Galaxy Note 3 Neo reverted to the conventional connection of USB 2.0, in order to save costs. The Galaxy Note 3 Neo was first made available in black, white, and green colors. Samsung is poised to introduce more color schemes for selected markets. The Galaxy Note 3 Neo comes with Android 4.3 "Jelly Bean" and Samsung's proprietary TouchWiz user interface and software. Additional pen-oriented features have been added to the Note 3 Neo's software; removing the stylus from its compartment (or pressing its button whilst hovering over the display) activates an "Air Command" pie menu which provides shortcuts to pen-oriented features such as Action Memos (on-screen sticky notes that use handwriting recognition to detect their contents and provide relevant actions, such as looking up addresses on Google Maps and dialing phone numbers), Screen Write (an annotation tool), Pen Window (which allows users to draw pop-up windows to run certain apps inside), the search tool S Finder, and Scrapbook. The multi- window functionality has also been carried over with expanded app support, the ability to run multiple instances of a single app, and the ability to drag and drop content between apps. The device also ships with a news aggregator app known as My Magazine, accessible by swiping up from the bottom of the screen, and an updated version of S Note. All models of Galaxy Note 3 Neo received the Android 5.1.1 update except Belgian ones in March 2017. The Galaxy Note 3 Neo Duos (SM-N7502) never received any OS updates, until today running the 4.3 Android. It was officially announced on February 1, 2014, with a release date starting from March 2014. Samsung Galaxy Note series, Comparison of smartphones The Samsung Galaxy Note 8 (stylized as Samsung Galaxy Note8) is an Android- based smartphone phablet designed, developed, produced and marketed by Samsung Electronics. Unveiled on 23 August 2017, it is the successor to the discontinued Samsung Galaxy Note 7. It became available on 15 September 2017. The Note 8 improves on the core device specifications and hallmark S Pen features of earlier devices. While retaining the same overall look and approximate size of the Galaxy S8+, it features an upgraded processor and, for the first time in Samsung's smartphone history, a dual-camera system on the rear of the device; one functions as a wide-angle lens and the other as a telephoto lens, with both featuring 12 MP resolution and optical image stabilization. The S Pen has increased pressure sensitivity levels and its software has been upgraded to offer improved note taking capabilities on the always-on display, as well as animated GIF and improved translation features. On 20 July 2017, Samsung tweeted a teaser video showing a darkened device with a stylus, stating the date of its next "Unpacked" event as 23 August 2017. The Samsung Galaxy Note 8 was unveiled at that event, with a release date on 15 September 2017. The Note 8 is powered by an Exynos 8895 or Snapdragon 835 processor, depending on geographic region, along with 6 GB of RAM. It has a 6.3-inch 1440p Super AMOLED display with curved edges similar to the Galaxy S8, but with a slightly more flat surface area. It is Samsung's first phone to feature a dual-lens camera system, which comes with a 12 MP wide-angle lens with f/1.7 aperture and a 12 MP telephoto lens with f/2.4 aperture, both equipped with optical image stabilization. In the United States, it is sold with 64 GB of internal storage, along with microSD card support, but increases storage to 128 GB and 256 GB internationally. The handset features a fingerprint scanner next to the rear camera, and retains facial recognition and iris recognition similar to the S8. The Note 8 comes bundled with high-end AKG-tuned earbuds as well as the Note series' proprietary S Pen. Compared to the Note 5, the S Pen in the Note 8 has enhanced levels of pressure sensitivity (4,096 distinct levels of pressure), though The Verge noted that those enhancements were featured in the defunct Note 7. Ports include a 3.5 mm headphone jack and a USB-C port for charging and data transfer. It has support for Samsung DeX as well, letting Note 8 users connect their device to a dock and monitor to enable a PC-like computing environment with mouse and keyboard input. Both the Note 8 and its S Pen are certified with IP68 rating for water and dust resistance, and it is available in five color variants: "Midnight Black," "Orchid Gray," "Maple Gold," "Deepsea Blue," and "Blossom Pink" – which is often dubbed "Star Pink." However, the Maple Gold, Deep-Sea Blue, and Blossom Pink variants are not available worldwide, and are limited to certain regions and/or countries. Similar to the Galaxy S8, the Note 8 has a dedicated physical key for launching the Bixby virtual assistant. A limited edition version for the 2018 Winter Olympics was made, with a white back, gold accents, and themed wallpapers. The Note 8 comes with Android 7.1.1 "Nougat" with Samsung's own custom user interface pre-installed. The S Pen offers expanded software features, including "Live Message" for the creation of handwritten notes combined with emojis resulting in short animated GIFs. Users can remove the S Pen from the device and immediately write notes on the display through "Screen Off Memo," which works due to the screen's always-on capabilities. The screen can collect up to 100 notes and allows the user to easily go back to notes pinned directly on the always-on screen. A "Translate" feature now recognizes punctuation marks, letting users highlight entire sentences rather than single words, and supports 71 different languages. The edges of the screen on the Note 8 allow the user to open two apps at once in a multi-window view, dubbed "App Pair." In the Camera application, a new "Live Focus" effect lets users adjust the intensity of background blur both before and after capturing photos, while "Dual Capture" makes both rear cameras take individual photos of the same subject, with one acting as a close-up shot and the other from a distance capturing the whole scene. The Samsung Galaxy Note 8 received an Android 8.0 "Oreo" update on March 30, 2018 with Samsung's custom skin overlaid. The software update brought enhancements and changes in the user interface with the menu options in the home screen and settings streamlined. The Edge lighting has also been improved with introductions to new lighting options. The Oreo update also brought enhanced stability to the Samsung DEX (UI/UE) docking system as well as introduced improvements to the DEX interface, where the Apps screen displays in full screen instead of in a pop-up window. An update to Android 9.0 "Pie" was planned for the Spring of 2019. DxOMark, a camera testing company, gave the Note 8 a rating of 94, being the joint-highest score of any phone, shared with the iPhone 8 Plus. Just a few days after the report of the Note 8 published was, the Pixel 2 tested was and given a 98 score, besting them both. It was noted that the Note 8 had better Optical Image Stabilization than the iPhone X. Just like the Galaxy S8 and Galaxy S8+, the Note 8 was heavily criticized for its placement of the fingerprint scanner, which unlike most other Android phones that have the fingerprint scanner placed underneath the rear camera, the S8, S8+ and Note 8 instead had it placed next to the camera, making it uncomfortable and forces many users to shift their hands upwards in order to reach it. Due to the battery incident with the Note 7, Samsung was more cautious with the Note 8, by implementing a slightly smaller battery than the Note 7 – which had a 3500 mAh battery – a non-removable 3300mAh lithium-ion battery was used in the Note 8. As a result, the Note 8 did not have the best battery life, and many Note 8 users did not hold back from complaining about it. The Note 8 was praised by both consumers and critics for the “Infinity Display” – meaning the display has much smaller bezels than the traditional smartphone (such as the iPhone 8 and 8 Plus) making it much more immersive – for its "punchy colors," and how bright it gets, which is approximately 1200 nits. Multiple tech reviewers pointed out that the Note 8 had a weak mono speaker. However, the Note 8 was also praised for being one of the few 2017 flagships left that still included a headphone jack, unlike most flagships that followed Apple's controversial decision in 2016 to remove the headphone jack entirely from the iPhone 7 and 7 Plus, which required users to use the included 3.5 mm headphone jack adapter, or use wireless ear buds instead. Samsung Galaxy Note series, Samsung Galaxy S9 Android Authority Review, BGR — Tests show the Note 8 will survive almost anything – even flames Official website

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This is a list of National Football League quarterbacks who have led the regular season in passing touchdowns each year. The record for touchdown passes in a season is held by Peyton Manning of the Denver Broncos who threw 55 in 2013. Six quarterbacks have led the NFL in passing touchdowns in four different seasons (Johnny Unitas, Steve Young, Brett Favre, Drew Brees, Peyton Manning, Tom Brady), and one player (Len Dawson) achieved the same feat in the American Football League, the AFL. Johnny Unitas is the only player to win four titles in a row. Three players (Steve Young, Dan Marino and Brett Favre) have won three in a row. List of National Football League season passing yards leaders, List of National Football League season pass completion percentage leaders, List of National Football League season passer rating leaders Pro-Football-Reference.com Peyton Williams Manning (born March 24, 1976) is an American former professional football player who was a quarterback for 18 seasons in the National Football League (NFL). Considered to be one of the greatest quarterbacks of all time due to his numerous career achievements, he spent 14 seasons with the Indianapolis Colts and was a member of the Denver Broncos in his last four seasons. Manning played college football for the University of Tennessee, leading the Tennessee Volunteers to the 1997 SEC Championship in his senior season. He is the second son of former NFL quarterback Archie Manning and older brother of New York Giants quarterback Eli Manning. Manning was selected by the Colts as the first overall pick in the 1998 NFL Draft. From 1998 to 2010, he improved the fortunes of the struggling Colts franchise and helped transform them into consistent playoff contenders. During his tenure as starting quarterback, Manning led the team to eight division championships, two AFC championships, and one Super Bowl title, the franchise's first in over three decades, as well as their first since relocating to Indianapolis. After undergoing neck surgery that forced him to miss the entire 2011 season, Manning was released by the Colts and signed with the Broncos. Serving as the team's starting quarterback from 2012 to 2015, he contributed to the Broncos reaching the top of their division each year and his playing career concluded with a victory in Super Bowl 50. Manning holds many NFL records, including AP MVP awards (5), Pro Bowl appearances (14), 4,000-yard passing seasons (14), single-season passing yards (5,477 in 2013), single-season passing touchdowns (55 in 2013). He tied for most First-Team All Pros for a quarterback with 7, and is second in career passing yards (71,940) and passing TD (539). A two-time Super Bowl winner and the most valuable player of Super Bowl XLI, Manning is also the only quarterback to start the Super Bowl for two franchises more than once each, with different coaches at each Super Bowl start (Dungy, Caldwell, Fox, Kubiak), and the only starting quarterback to win a Super Bowl with two franchises. At 39 years of age, Manning was the oldest quarterback to start in and win a Super Bowl until Tom Brady surpassed him by winning a Super Bowl at 41. During a 2009 Monday Night Football game, Manning received the nickname "The Sheriff" from color commentator Jon Gruden due to his tendency to audible prior to the snap, and he was one of the most recognizable and parodied players in the NFL. Teams led by Manning typically used the hurry-up offense in place of the standard huddle. Manning attended Isidore Newman School in New Orleans, Louisiana, and led the Greenies football team to a 34–5 record during his three seasons as the starter. He was named Gatorade Circle of Champions National Player-of-the-Year and Columbus (Ohio) Touchdown Club National Offensive Player-of-the-Year in 1993. While at Newman, he began wearing the #18 jersey in honor of his older brother Cooper, who was forced to give up football due to spinal stenosis. Younger brother Eli also wore the number when he became starting quarterback. Newman has since retired the #18 jersey and it can be seen hanging in the school gym. Manning was among the most sought after high school players in the country and was recruited by about 60 colleges, led by Florida, Florida State, LSU, Michigan, Tennessee, Texas, Texas A&M;, and his father's alma mater, Ole Miss. Manning chose to play college football for the University of Tennessee Volunteers under head coach Phillip Fulmer. Many fans were surprised that he did not pick the Ole Miss Rebels, for whom his father Archie played, and Peyton's parents received several angry phone calls and letters. He became Tennessee's all-time leading passer with 11,201 yards and 89 touchdowns and won 39 of 45 games as a starter, breaking the Southeastern Conference (SEC) record for career wins. As a freshman, Manning began the season as the third-string quarterback. In the season opener against UCLA, Manning was one of three quarterbacks to come off the bench after starter Jerry Colquitt suffered a season-ending injury on the seventh play of the game. However, Manning was not able to generate any offense, only handing the ball off three times, and was pulled from the game. Two weeks later, in a 31–0 loss to the #1 Florida Gators, Manning completed his first collegiate pass. During the season's fourth game, against Mississippi State, starter Todd Helton got injured and Manning took over. The Vols lost 24–21, but Manning threw his first touchdown in the game. He was named the team's starter and remained so for the rest of his college career. In his first start, the following week against Washington State, the Vols won 10–9. They won all but one of their remaining games, finishing the season 8–4 with a 45–23 victory over Virginia Tech in the 1994 Gator Bowl. He finished his first collegiate season 89 of 144 for 1,141 passing yards, 11 touchdowns, and six interceptions. Manning and the Vols started off the 1995 season with victories over East Carolina and SEC rival Georgia, before heading off to Gainesville to face off against the rival Gators. Against Florida, he threw for 326 yards and two touchdowns, leading the Vols to a 30–21 halftime lead. However, the Gators outscored the Vols 41–7 in the second half, winning 62–37. This was the Vols' only loss of the season, as they won their remaining eight regular season games, including a 41–14 win over rival Alabama. The Vols defeated Ohio State by a score of 20–14 in the Citrus Bowl. The Vols ended the season ranked third and Manning came in sixth in Heisman Trophy voting. He finished his sophomore season 244 of 380 for 2,954 passing yards, 22 touchdowns, and four interceptions. The Vols opened the 1996 season ranked #2 behind Nebraska and one of the favorites to win the National Championship. However, after winning their first two games against UNLV and UCLA, the Vols again lost to Florida by a score of 35–29, with Manning throwing four interceptions. After winning their next four games, the Vols were upset by Memphis, despite Manning passing for 296 yards. The Vols won the remainder of their games, including a 48–28 win in the Citrus Bowl over Northwestern, a game in which Manning passed for 408 yards and four touchdowns; he was named the game's MVP. His 243 pass completions and 63.9% completion percentage led the SEC that year. In the 1996 season, he finished with 3,287 passing yards, 20 touchdowns, and 12 interceptions. He finished in eighth place in the Heisman Trophy voting. Manning completed his degree in three years, a Bachelor of Arts in speech communication, and was projected to be the top overall pick in the NFL Draft, but returned to Tennessee for his senior year. In his senior season, the Vols opened the season with victories against Texas Tech and UCLA, but for the third time in his career, Manning fell to Florida 33–20. The Vols won the rest of their regular season games, finishing 10–1, and advanced to the SEC Championship game against Auburn. Down 20–7 in the second quarter, Manning led the Vols to a 30–29 comeback victory. Throwing for 373 yards and four touchdowns, he was named the game's MVP, but injured himself in the process. The #3 Vols were matched-up with #2 Nebraska in the Orange Bowl; if Tennessee won and top-ranked Michigan lost to Washington State in the Rose Bowl, the Vols would have won the national championship. However, the Vols' defense could not stop Nebraska's rushing attack, giving up over 400 rushing yards in a 42–17 loss. As a senior, Manning won numerous awards; he was a consensus first-team All-American, the Maxwell Award winner, the Davey O'Brien Award winner, the Johnny Unitas Award winner, and the Best College Player ESPY award winner, among others. He finished as the runner-up to Charles Woodson in the 1997 Heisman Trophy voting. In 2005, Tennessee retired Manning's number (No. 16). One of the streets leading to Neyland Stadium has been renamed Peyton Manning Pass. Manning finished his final season at Tennessee with 3,819 passing yards, 36 touchdowns, and 11 interceptions. While at the University of Tennessee, Manning excelled academically and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa Society in 1997 and awarded the National Football Foundation National Scholar-Athlete Award. In 1996, while attending the University of Tennessee, Manning was accused of sexual assault by trainer Jamie Ann Naughright after he pressed his genitals against Naughright's face during a foot examination. Manning claims that he was just pulling a prank by "mooning" another athlete in the room as Naughright bent over to examine him. Both Naughright and the other athlete deny Manning's story. Naughright settled with the university for $300,000 for its alleged failure in four incidents, and resigned from the school. She had initially made a list of 33 complaints about the school. Naughright filed a defamation lawsuit against Peyton Manning and three other parties in 2002, claiming that Manning defamed her in a book he wrote with his father and author John Underwood. The lawsuit was settled after the court ruled there was sufficient evidence for it to be heard by a jury. Terms of the settlement were not disclosed due to confidentiality terms. Manning was inducted into the Tennessee Athletics Hall of Fame in 2016. He was also named the 2016 Tennessean of the Year by the Tennessee Sports Hall of Fame. Manning was elected to the College Football Hall of Fame in 2017, his first year of eligibility for the honor, and was inducted during a ceremony in December. He joined his father Archie in the Hall of Fame, making them the first father and son duo to both be inducted as players. Manning was selected by the Indianapolis Colts with the first overall pick of the 1998 NFL Draft. He would start as a rookie and go on to play for the Colts for 13 full seasons before being sidelined by a neck injury, which cost him the entire 2011 season. After recovering from the injury, he was released by the Colts and joined the Denver Broncos for whom he played from the 2012 season through the 2015 season. Excluding the year lost to the neck injury, Manning played in 17 NFL seasons. Manning is considered to be one of the greatest NFL quarterbacks of all time. He was named the NFL's most valuable player a record five times (four times as a Colt, once as a Bronco), was named to the Pro Bowl a record 14 times and named a first-team All-Pro seven times. As a starter up to the end of 2015 season, he had a career winning percentage of .702 in the regular season. He held the NFL record for career touchdown passes from 2014–2019, and the career passing yards record, achieved 2015. The most commonly cited criticism of Manning's professional career is that despite great success and gaudy statistics during the regular season, he did not enjoy similar levels of success in the post-season. His career post-season record as a starter was a more modest 14–13, compared to his regular season record through the 2015 season, which was 186–79. Manning won two Super Bowls (Super Bowl XLI and Super Bowl 50) and played in two others (Super Bowl XLIV and Super Bowl XLVIII), being named MVP of XLI, while losing XLIV in an upset, and managing just one successful touchdown drive in each of XLVIII and 50. During the early part of Manning's career, "his record-breaking stats were written off because of the Colts' postseason failures"; conversely he posted poor statistics in the 2015 regular season and Super Bowl 50, which would be his final season, but nonetheless won his second Super Bowl thanks to his team's defense. Manning is also the only quarterback in NFL history to make the Super Bowl four times with four head coaches (Dungy, Caldwell, Fox and Kubiak). Despite concerns about his arm strength and mobility, Manning was selected first overall in the 1998 NFL Draft by the Indianapolis Colts. Although many considered Washington State quarterback Ryan Leaf his rival for the first selection in the draft, and Leaf's quarterback rating was higher, all six experts Sports Illustrated consulted believed that Manning was superior. Five said that they would take him first in the draft; Sid Gillman said of Manning, "this is a pro quarterback". The Colts' scouts initially favored Leaf, but the team's management and coaches liked Manning's attitude, particularly as Manning showed up prepared to a scheduled interview meeting with the Colts' staff while Leaf arrived late. Colts general manager Bill Polian, who had the final say on the draft selection, recalled Manning saying "I'll leave you with this thought. If you take me, I promise you we will win a championship. If you don't, I promise I'll come back and kick your ass". Polian said that, contrary to what he had heard about their athletic ability, Manning "far and away had the stronger arm, threw a tighter ball" than Leaf. In Manning's rookie season under head coach Jim Mora, he passed for 3,739 yards with 26 touchdowns, set five different NFL rookie records including most touchdown passes in a season, most interceptions (28) in a rookie year, and was named to the NFL All-Rookie First Team. In his NFL debut, Manning was 21-of-37 for 302 passing yards for one touchdown and three interceptions. He threw his first career touchdown, a six-yard pass to Marvin Harrison, in the fourth quarter of the 24–15 loss. In Week 4, against the New Orleans Saints, he threw a 78-yard touchdown pass to Marshall Faulk in the 19–13 loss. Manning's first win came against fellow rookie Leaf, 17–12 over the San Diego Chargers in Week 5. Two weeks later, Manning faced off against Steve Young; he threw three touchdowns, tying a Colts rookie record, but the 49ers kicked a late field goal to win 34–31. In November against the New York Jets, Manning threw for three touchdowns in a 24–23 win; he was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week for this performance. It was the first game-winning drive of Manning's career, as he threw the game- winning touchdown pass to Marcus Pollard. Manning was certainly a bright spot in the 1998 season for the Colts with 3,739 passing yards and 26 passing touchdowns, but he also threw a league high 28 interceptions as the team struggled to a 3–13 record with a defense that gave up more than 27 points per game. The Colts lost many close games, including five games in which they had led by double digits at some point. Manning and the Colts opened the 1999 season with a 31–14 victory over the Buffalo Bills, but gave up a 28–7 lead the following week against the New England Patriots and lost 31–28. After defeating the San Diego Chargers 27–19 in a game in which Manning threw for over 404 yards, scored his first professional rushing touchdown, and was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week, they lost again, to Miami by a score of 34–31. The Colts responded by winning 11 of their remaining 12 games, finishing 13–3 and the AFC East division. In Week 11, against the Philadelphia Eagles, Manning threw a then career-high 80-yard touchdown pass to Terrence Wilkins in the 44–17 victory. The ten-game turnaround from the previous year set an NFL record. His seven game-winning drives were tied for the most in NFL history until Matthew Stafford had eight in the 2016 season. As the second seed in the AFC, the Colts earned a first round bye, and faced Tennessee in the of the playoffs. The Colts lost 19–16 to the Super Bowl-bound Titans and Manning was limited to 19-of-42 passing attempts for 227 passing yards and one touchdown run. Manning finished the year with 4,135 passing yards and 26 passing touchdowns, and was named both Second-team All-Pro and to the Pro Bowl, both firsts for him. In the Pro Bowl, he passed for 270 yards with two touchdowns in the 51–31 loss. The Colts started the 2000 season with a 27–14 victory against the Kansas City Chiefs in the season opener in which Manning had 267 passing yards and a touchdown. However, they blew a 21–0 lead against the Oakland Raiders in the following game, a 38–31 loss. Manning finished with 351 passing yards, three touchdowns, and two interceptions. The Colts responded with a Monday Night Football victory against the Jacksonville Jaguars, a 43–14 win in which Manning threw for 430 yards and four touchdowns; Manning was named the AFC Offensive Player of the Week for this performance. The Colts won four of their next five games, including one against the New England Patriots in which Manning posted the first perfect passer rating of his career, but then lost four of the five games following that. The Colts regained their momentum, winning their final three games, including a 31–10 win over the Minnesota Vikings on Week 17. Manning threw for four touchdowns in the win and was again named AFC Offensive Player of the Week. The win gave the Colts a 10–6 record as well as a Wild Card spot in the playoffs. In the , the Colts fell to the Dolphins 23–17 in overtime. Manning passed for 194 yards and a touchdown in the loss. He finished the season with a league-high 357 pass completions for and and was named Second-team All-Pro and to the Pro Bowl. At the Pro Bowl, Manning threw two touchdown passes. Manning and the Colts introduced the no-huddle offense, and used it to great effect in a Week 1 rout of the New York Jets, 45–24. Two weeks later (Week 2 games were not played as scheduled due to the 9/11 attacks) the Colts advanced to 2–0 with a win over Buffalo, behind Manning's 421 yards passing. He was named the AFC Offensive Player of the Week for this game. However, the Colts lost the following week in a 38–17 loss to the New England Patriots, which was the first meeting between Peyton Manning and Tom Brady. The Colts continued their slide, losing their following two games. The Colts briefly rebounded, winning two games, but then lost seven of their last nine games. In the stretch, Manning a threw a career-high 86-yard touchdown pass to Marcus Pollard in the 34–20 loss to the New Orleans Saints. After a 40–21 home loss to the 49ers, in which Manning threw a career-high four interceptions in that game, coach Jim Mora uttered his famous "Playoffs? Don't talk about playoffs," press conference. Despite the 6–10 record, Manning finished the season with , , and four rushing touchdowns as the offense produced the second most points in the league. However, the defense allowed the most points in the league and Mora was fired after the season. Before the 2002 season, Tony Dungy became Manning's second head coach in the NFL. The Colts started off the 2002 season with a 4–1 record, before a three- game losing streak sent them to 4–4. The Colts responded by winning all but two of their remaining games, including a 35–13 upset of the Philadelphia Eagles in which Manning had a perfect passer rating for the second time in his career, giving them a 10–6 record and a spot in the playoffs. However, the Colts were pummeled by the New York Jets in the , 41–0, with Manning passing for only 137 yards to fall to 0–3 in the playoffs to start his career. He finished the 2002 season with and and was named to the Pro Bowl team. In the Pro Bowl, Manning completed five of eleven passes for 100 yards and a touchdown in the 45–23 victory. The 2003 Colts began the season 5–0, including a 55–21 blowout of the New Orleans Saints in which Manning recorded his third perfect passer rating game and threw six touchdown passes, earning him AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors. On Monday Night Football, against the defending champion Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Manning and the Colts trailed 35–14 in the final five minutes. After one short touchdown drive, the Colts recovered the onside kick. Manning threw a 28-yard touchdown pass to Marvin Harrison on 4th & 6 to make it 35–28. With 1:41 remaining, Manning got the ball back and drove the offense 85 yards for the game-tying touchdown. He set up the winning 29-yard field goal in overtime for a 38–35 win. It was the only time in NFL history a team won a game after trailing by 21 points in the final 4 minutes of regulation. Manning passed for 386 yards in the game. After an overtime loss to the Carolina Panthers, the Colts won all but three of their remaining games, finishing 12–4. On November 30, the Colts hosted the 9–2 New England Patriots in what would be the beginning of the NFL's top rivalry of the 2000s. The Colts trailed 31–10 late in the third quarter before Manning threw three touchdown passes in a span of six minutes to tie the game. Trailing 38–34 in the final minutes, the Colts had three plays at the 1-yard line to try and score the winning touchdown. Running back Edgerrin James was stopped on fourth down by linebacker Willie McGinest and the Patriots won. In a Week 14 win against the Atlanta Falcons, Manning threw for five touchdowns and was named Offensive Player of the Week a second time. He also earned AFC Offensive Player of the Month honors for the month of October. In the , Manning and the Colts defeated the Denver Broncos 41–10 for his first playoff win. He passed for 377 yards and five touchdowns in the game, earning him a perfect passer rating, his second of the season and the fourth of his career. After the game, Manning was awarded Player of the Week honors for the third time that season. In the , Manning led the Colts to a 38–31 win over the Kansas City Chiefs. In the victory, he passed for 304 yards and three touchdowns. In the , Manning was shut down by the New England Patriots' top-ranked defense and posted the third lowest passer rating of his career at 35.5. The Patriots defense intercepted Manning four times and sacked him another four, as the Colts lost the game by a score of 24–14. During the season, Manning was named the AFC Offensive Player of the Month for September and was named the AP NFL co-MVP along with Titans quarterback Steve McNair. Manning also received the ESPY Award for Best NFL Player. Manning led the league with 379 pass completions for and threw 29 touchdowns; he was named first-team All-Pro and to the Pro Bowl. He passed for 342 yards and three touchdowns in the Pro Bowl, a 55–52 loss. The 2004 Colts opened the season with a 27–24 loss to the New England Patriots, after placekicker Mike Vanderjagt missed a game-tying field goal in the closing seconds of the game. The Colts won their next four games including a 45–31 win over the Green Bay Packers in which Manning threw five touchdowns, earning him AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors, but then lost their next two games, to the Jacksonville Jaguars and the Kansas City Chiefs, despite Manning throwing for 840 yards combined in the two games. The Colts responded well, winning their next eight games before losing their final regular season game to Denver, a game in which Manning played only the first series. During the month of November, Manning was named the AFC Offensive Player of the Week twice; once for his five-touchdown performance in a 49–14 blowout of the Houston Texans and once for his performance in a 41–9 road win against the Detroit Lions on Thanksgiving in which he threw six touchdowns in less than three quarters. Due to his performances in November, Manning earned AFC Offensive Player of the Month honors. He was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week for a fourth time in the Week 16 game against the San Diego Chargers where he led the Colts to a 34–31 victory after trailing by fifteen in the fourth quarter. With the Colts facing a 4th & 4 at their own 26, Manning waved the punt team off the field and completed a 19-yard pass to wide receiver Reggie Wayne for the first down. He finished the drive with a 21-yard touchdown pass to Brandon Stokley, his 49th touchdown pass of the season, breaking Dan Marino's record of 48. After the two-point conversion to tie, Manning got the ball first in overtime and set up the winning field goal. The Colts clinched the AFC's third seed with the win. During the season, Manning threw for 4,557 yards, had a then record 121.1 passer rating and a then-record 49 touchdown passes while throwing only 10 interceptions. Manning's 2004 season was voted the second greatest passing season of all time by ESPN in 2013. He achieved this despite the 2004 season being his only season of his career where he attempted less than 500 passes. He finished with a league-high 13.6 yards per pass completion and 9.2 yards per pass attempt in 2004. His 9.9% touchdown passing percentage is currently the highest in NFL history. His 49 touchdown passes is currently the third highest ever and his 121.1 passer rating is the second highest ever. He was selected as the 2004 NFL MVP drawing 49 of 50 votes, was named NFL Offensive Player of the Year and was named the Best NFL Player at the ESPY Awards for the second consecutive year; Manning also received the ESPY Award for Best Record-Breaking Performance for his 49 touchdown passes. The Colts finished the season with a 12–4 record and their second straight AFC South title. The Colts scored a franchise record 522 points. Three Colts receivers had 1,000 yard seasons with at least 10 touchdowns that season, also a record. Sports statistics cite Football Outsiders calculates that Manning had the best season ever by a quarterback, play-for-play, in 2004. In the against the Denver Broncos at home, Manning passed for 458 yards and four touchdowns in the 49–24 victory. However, the Colts' 2004 season ended in Foxborough for a second straight season with a 20–3 loss against New England in the , when Manning recorded a season-low passer rating of 69.3. It was Manning's seventh consecutive loss to the Patriots in Foxborough and the Colts' three points were their lowest single game point total since their opening game of the 2003 season. Manning was named a Pro Bowl starter; in the Pro Bowl, he threw three touchdowns in a 38–27 victory and was named the game's MVP. Manning was also a unanimous first-team All-Pro selection. In 2005, the Colts had a greatly improved defense over that of recent years. Combining this with their offense, they won their first 13 games, including a 40–21 rout of the two-time defending Super Bowl champion New England Patriots. This was Manning's first road win against the Patriots in eight attempts, and his three touchdown passes earned him AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors. By Week 15, the Colts had a perfect 13–0 record, and had secured the AFC South and home-field advantage throughout the playoffs. Nevertheless, head coach Tony Dungy made the decision to play all of his regular starters against the San Diego Chargers. However, the Colts played a sub-par game against the Chargers and fell short of the win; the score was 26–17. Manning finished the 2005 season with , the first time he had thrown for under 4,000 yards since his rookie season in 1998, largely because Manning sat out much of the final two games with the top AFC seed clinched. His quarterback rating of 104.1 was the highest in the league for the season. In the playoffs, the Pittsburgh Steelers visited the RCA Dome for the second AFC of the 2005 season. In the fourth quarter with only a few minutes left in the game, Manning threw what looked to be the game-ending interception to safety Troy Polamalu, but the interception was overturned (a call the NFL later admitted was incorrect). The Colts went on to score, and got the ball back down three points near the end of the game. On fourth down, Manning was sacked near his own goal line, and the game seemed to be over as the Steelers were one yard from a touchdown. On the next play, the ball was fumbled by running back Jerome Bettis and picked up by Colts defender Nick Harper who appeared to have a clear path down the sideline for what might have been the game-winning score. However, Steelers' quarterback Ben Roethlisberger dove in front of Harper and tackled him by the leg, saving a touchdown. On the ensuing drive, the Colts moved down the field to the Steelers 27-yard line, before Mike Vanderjagt missed a field goal as time ran out. Manning finished the loss 22 of 38 for 290 yards and a touchdown. Manning came in second in voting for the MVP award to Seattle Seahawks running back Shaun Alexander ending his streak at two years. He was named the 2005 winner of the Walter Payton Man of the Year Award and nominated for the FedEx Air Player of the Year Award, along with Tom Brady and Carson Palmer. Manning was also named first-team All-Pro for the third consecutive year and named to the Pro Bowl squad; in the Pro Bowl, he threw one touchdown pass and three interceptions in the 23–17 loss. Manning opened the 2006 season against his brother Eli's New York Giants on Sunday Night Football. It was the first NFL game with starting quarterbacks that were brothers, and Peyton's team won 26–21. Manning passed for 400 yards against the Houston Texans in a 43–24 victory, which earned him AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors (he also won the award for his 345 yards and four touchdown passes against the Washington Redskins in Week 7). A second trip to New Jersey, this time to play the New York Jets, produced another Colts win. After taking the lead twice in the fourth quarter, Manning had to lead a third scoring drive, this time finishing with a one-yard quarterback sneak rushing touchdown in the last minute for a 31–28 win. In a road game against the Denver Broncos, Manning again led three scoring drives in the fourth quarter in a 34–31 shootout win. He completed 32-of-39 passes for 345 yards and three touchdowns. Following a second straight season with a win at New England, then a home win against Buffalo, the Colts were the NFL's last unbeaten team at 9–0. Their first loss would come in a 21–14 road loss to the Dallas Cowboys. Plagued by a run defense that would allow over 100 yards in every game, the Colts were 11–4 heading into their final game. Against the Miami Dolphins, Manning threw for 282 yards, two touchdowns and rushed for another touchdown. The Colts won 27–22, were AFC South division champions, and clinched the third seed in the AFC playoffs. Manning was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week. He ended the regular season with 4,397 passing yards and a league-leading 31 touchdown passes. His passer rating (101.0) was the highest in the league for the third year in a row. Manning helped the offense set an NFL record for third down conversion rate in a season (56.1%). Despite three interceptions, Manning completed 30 out of 38 passes for 268 yards and a touchdown as the Colts beat the Kansas City Chiefs in the by a score of 23–8. The following week, the Colts were limited to five field goals and no touchdowns, but defeated the Baltimore Ravens, 15–6. Manning was 15 of 30 for 170 yards and two interceptions in the victory. In the against the rival Patriots, the Colts trailed 14–3 when Manning threw an interception that was returned for a touchdown by Asante Samuel to give New England a 21–3 lead. Manning led the Colts to 32 points in the second half for a 38–34 victory, the final score coming late in the fourth quarter as Manning led the Colts on an 80-yard touchdown drive to take the lead for the first time in the game. He finished the game with 349 yards passing, one passing touchdown, and one rushing touchdown. The comeback was the largest deficit ever overcome in a conference championship. Completing 25-of-38 passes for 247 yards with a touchdown and one interception, Manning led the Colts to a 29–17 victory over the Chicago Bears in Super Bowl XLI and was voted Super Bowl MVP. Manning, who had been criticized for failing to win big games, exorcised his big-game demons with the win. "In years' past when our team's come up short, it's been disappointing", he told reporters. "Somehow we found a way to have learned from some of those losses and we've been a better team because of it." For his role in the Colts' championship run, Manning was awarded the ESPY for Best Championship Performance. Manning was again named to the Pro Bowl and was also named Second-team All-Pro; in the Pro Bowl he played only two series, passing for 67 yards. Following the Super Bowl win, Manning agreed to restructure his contract to save the Colts $8.2 million in salary cap space. Manning's Colts opened the NFL season with seven wins, pitting them against an undefeated Patriots squad in a match-up that was being called "Super Bowl 41 1/2". Manning and Addai helped the Colts to a 13–7 halftime lead, and an early fourth-quarter touchdown upped the lead to 20–10. However, Brady led the Patriots to two late touchdowns, to hand Manning and the Colts their first loss of the season, 24–20. Manning finished the game with 225 yards passing, one passing touchdown, and rushing touchdown. Manning did not bounce back from the loss well. Against the San Diego Chargers, he threw for a career-worst and franchise-record six interceptions. Despite this, he was able to rally the Colts from a 23–0 deficit to 23–21, and gave Adam Vinatieri an opportunity to take the lead with a field goal. However, Vinatieri's 29-yard attempt missed, and the Colts fell to 7–2. Manning did not play particularly well against the Kansas City Chiefs either, throwing no touchdowns. However, he managed to lead the Colts on a late drive for a game-winning field goal, rushing for two yards on 4th and 1 in the process. Manning finished the game with , allowing him to overtake 40,000 in his career. The victory was Manning's 100th. The Colts won their next five games, securing yet another AFC South title, as well as the AFC's second-seed in the playoffs. In that stretch was a Week 13 28–25 victory over the Jacksonville Jaguars where he was 20 of 29 for 288 passing yards, four touchdowns, and an interception. For his performance against the Jaguars, he was named as the AFC Offensive Player of the Week. In the final game of the regular season, Manning played only two series before being replaced with back-up Jim Sorgi; the Colts lost the game to the Titans, 16–10. Manning finished the season with , , and a quarterback rating of 98.0. In the , Manning and the Colts lost to the Chargers, 28–24. Manning helped the Colts to four leads but could not lead a final touchdown drive for the win. Manning finished the game with and . Peyton was widely viewed during Super Bowl XLII as he cheered on brother Eli and the New York Giants in their upset of the previously undefeated New England Patriots. Manning was named a Pro Bowl starter and passed for 147 yards and a touchdown in three series of the 42–30 loss. On July 14, 2008, Manning had surgery to remove an infected bursa sac in his left knee. Manning, who had worn a knee brace due to problems since he was in college, sat out all four preseason games and missed most of training camp. In the first regular season game at the new Lucas Oil Stadium, the Colts lost, 29–13, to the Chicago Bears. The following week, they fell behind 15–0 to the Minnesota Vikings in the second half before rallying to win the game on Adam Vinatieri's 47-yard field goal. Manning passed for 311 yards as the Colts avoided their first 0–2 start since Manning's rookie season. Week 3 matched the Colts with the division rival Jacksonville Jaguars. Manning threw two interceptions in the game, including one that was returned for a touchdown by Rashean Mathis. Jacksonville rushed for 236 yards and held the ball for over 41 minutes. Still, trailing by six points late in the game, Manning led the Colts on a 77-yard touchdown drive to take a 21–20 lead. Jacksonville kicker Josh Scobee made a 51-yard field goal to win the game and drop the Colts to a 1–2 record. For the third week in a row, Manning used the fourth quarter to bring the Colts back from a 27–10 deficit in the last five minutes against the Houston Texans to a 31–27 victory. It was the first time an NFL team had won a game in regulation after trailing by 17 points in the last five minutes. Manning threw a seven-yard touchdown pass on 4th & 6 to rookie tight end Tom Santi to make the deficit 27–17. Houston quarterback Sage Rosenfels, starting for the injured Matt Schaub, then fumbled the ball on a scramble, and it was returned 68 yards for a touchdown by Gary Brackett. After another Rosenfels fumble, Manning threw the 5-yard game-winning touchdown pass to Reggie Wayne. The Colts scored three touchdowns in 2:10. On October 12, Manning led the Colts to a 31–3 blow out win at Lucas Oil Stadium against the Baltimore Ravens to avoid their first 0–3 start at home since the 1997 season. Manning was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week for the 17th time in his career for his effort of three touchdown passes and 271 yards passing. It was revealed during the game by CBS commentators Jim Nantz and Phil Simms that Manning had a second surgery on his knee before the season started. Colts coach Tony Dungy confirmed this report the day after the game. The Colts suffered their largest margin of defeat of the season, 34–14, against the Green Bay Packers the following week. Manning threw two interceptions that were returned for touchdowns (for the second time in his career; the first was on September 30, 2001, against the New England Patriots). The following week. the Colts went into Tennessee on Monday Night Football to face the 6–0 Tennessee Titans. They led 14–6 in the third quarter, but Tennessee scored 25 unanswered for a 31–21 victory and almost assured the Colts they would not win the AFC South division title for the first time in six seasons. At 3–4, the Colts opened up November with their annual showdown against the New England Patriots on Sunday Night Football. Tied at 15 in the 4th quarter, Manning set up Adam Vinatieri for a 52-yard field goal that proved to be the winning points in an 18–15 victory. Manning completed 21-of-29 passes for 254 yards and two touchdowns. The Colts were 4–4 halfway through the season and still alive in the AFC playoff race. In a Week 10 road game against the Pittsburgh Steelers, who had the league's highest ranked defense. They trailed 17–7 in the second quarter before Manning found tight end Dallas Clark for a two-yard touchdown to end the half 17–14. Down 20–17 in the fourth quarter, Manning found running back Dominic Rhodes uncovered for a 17-yard touchdown pass that would put the Colts up 24–20 for the rest of the game. It was Manning's fourth game-winning drive (35th of his career) of the season. He completed 21 of 40 for 240 yards and three touchdowns (the 50th game of his career with 3+ touchdown passes). It was the first time the Colts have won in Pittsburgh since 1968 (12 straight losses before this win). Against the Houston Texans, Manning passed for 320 yards and two touchdowns while leading five consecutive scoring drives in a 33–27 victory, the third in a row for the Colts. Manning won AFC Offensive Player of the Week for the second time this season (18th time, career). In a road game against the San Diego Chargers, Manning threw for 255 yards, two touchdowns and one interception, in a 23–20 victory. The interception snapped a career- best streak of 140 pass attempts without an interception. After the Chargers rallied from a 10-point deficit in the fourth quarter to tie the game, Manning led the game-winning drive by completing a 14-yard pass to Marvin Harrison on 4th and inches at midfield. Adam Vinateri kicked the winning 51-yard field goal three plays later. It was Manning's fifth game-winning drive of the season. Manning passed for a season-low 125 yards in a road game against the Cleveland Browns, but the Colts won their fifth straight game, by a final score of 10–6. In a 35–3 victory against the Cincinnati Bengals, Manning threw three touchdown passes, while completing 26-of-32 passes for 277 yards. It marked the 11th straight season Manning had thrown at least 20 touchdown passes, the second longest streak ever. Against the 0–13 Detroit Lions, the Colts found themselves in a 21–21 game in the 4th quarter. Manning led his sixth game-winning drive of the season and the Colts pulled away 31–21. It marked their seventh straight win, seventh straight season with 10+ wins, and they became the only team in NFL history to have a winning streak of at least seven games in five straight seasons. Manning completed 28-of-37 passes for 318 yards and one touchdown. Needing a win to clinch the 5th seed in the playoffs, Manning had one of his best career performances in Jacksonville on Thursday Night Football. He completed his first 17 passes of the game. In addition to completing his last six completions against Detroit, Manning's 23 straight completions fell one shy of the NFL record (Donovan McNabb – 24). The Colts trailed 14–0 in the first half and 24–14 to start the fourth quarter. Manning led his seventh fourth quarter win of the season and the Colts put the game away with a defensive touchdown for a 31–24 victory to clinch a seventh consecutive playoff berth. Manning completed 29-of-34 passes (85.7%) for 364 yards and three touchdowns. It increased his NFL record streak of seasons with 25 touchdown passes to 11. Manning and the Colts tied an NFL record by winning three games in a season in which they trailed by at least 14 points. For his efforts, Manning won AFC Offensive Player of the Week for the third time in the 2008 season. It was the 19th time he has won the award, passing Dan Marino for the most all-time since the award was originated in 1984. He also was selected as the FedEx Air Player of the Week. With the Colts' playoff seeding secured, Manning only played the opening drive in a shutout against the division-leading Titans in Week 17. He completed all seven of his passes for 95 yards and a touchdown, extending his NFL record to nine seasons with 4,000 yards passing, and also extended the record to a sixth straight season he led the Colts to at least 12 wins. At the end of the 2008 season, Manning was named NFL MVP for the third time, tying Brett Favre for the most MVP awards in NFL history. The day following the MVP award, the Colts played their 2007 nemesis, the Chargers, in their . Down 14–10 at the half, Manning put the Colts ahead 17–14 in the third quarter as he completed a 72-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Reggie Wayne. However, the Chargers tied the game in the fourth quarter as kicker Nate Kaeding nailed a 22-yard field goal. When San Diego won the overtime coin toss, they scored a touchdown on the first possession, ending the Colts' season for the second consecutive season. Manning was 25 of 42 for 310 yard and a touchdown in the loss. Following the end of the season, Manning's head coach, Tony Dungy, retired. Under new head coach Jim Caldwell, Manning started the 2009 season with a victory by throwing for 301 yards. In Week 2, Manning led his 29th fourth quarter comeback (38th career game-winning drive) by throwing for 303 yards and two touchdown passes, despite only having the ball for 14:53, the lowest time of possession for a winning team in the NFL since they began tracking the statistic in 1977. Manning was named AFC Offensive Player of the Month for the fourth time in his career in September. Against the Seattle Seahawks Manning passed for 353 yards and two touchdowns for his fourth consecutive 300-yard passing game set a new franchise record. Against the Houston Texans in Week 9, Manning became the first quarterback to pass for over 40,000 yards in a decade. He threw a career-high 25 passes in the first quarter (most in any opening quarter since 1991), and had a career-high 40 pass attempts in the first half. He set a franchise record for most 300-yard passing games in a season with his seventh 300-yard effort of the season (also an NFL record through the first eight games of a season). In Week 10, a 35–34 victory over the New England Patriots, he was 28 of 44 for 327 passing yards, four touchdowns, and two interceptions. His performance against the Patriots earned him AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors. Two weeks later, against Houston, Manning claimed his 34th comeback win in the fourth quarter, tying him with John Elway and Johnny Unitas for the second most in NFL history. On Week 15 against the Jacksonville Jaguars, Manning won his 23rd consecutive regular season game breaking Jim McMahon's NFL record of 22 straight wins with the Chicago Bears from 1984 to 1987. At the end of the regular season, Manning was awarded his fourth MVP, breaking the NFL record for most MVPs by a single player. He was also selected to the AP All-Pro team for the fifth time in his career. He finished the regular season tying his then NFL-record with seven game-winning drives in 2009. In the against the Baltimore Ravens, Manning threw two touchdown passes late in the first half to build a 17–3 halftime lead. He completed 30 passes for 246 yards in leading his eighth straight victory over the Ravens. In the against New York Jets, Manning overcame a 17–6 deficit late in the second quarter to lead the Colts to 24 unanswered points in a 30–17 win. The 11-point comeback was the third largest in a conference championship game. Manning set a playoff record with his seventh 300-yard passing game in the postseason. In Super Bowl XLIV against New Orleans Saints, Manning led the Colts to a 10–0 lead after their two first quarter drives, throwing a touchdown pass to wide receiver Pierre Garçon to cap off a 96-yard drive (tied for longest in Super Bowl history). After running just six plays in the second quarter, the Colts led 10–6 at halftime. The Saints recovered an onside kick to start the second half and took their first lead, 13–10. Manning led a go ahead touchdown drive to regain the lead. Leading 17–16 at the start of the fourth quarter, placekicker Matt Stover missed a 51-yard field goal for the Colts. The Saints scored the go-ahead touchdown and two-point conversion to take a 24–17 lead with 5:42 left. Manning took over and moved the Colts to the Saints' 31-yard line. Facing a 3rd & 5 with 3:24 left, his pass intended for Reggie Wayne was intercepted by Tracy Porter, who returned it 74 yards for a critical touchdown and a 31–17 Saints lead. Manning drove the Colts down to the 5-yard line in the last minute, but his 4th & goal pass was dropped by Reggie Wayne at the goal line. The Saints won their first Super Bowl in franchise history, dropping Manning to 9–9 in the postseason and a 1–1 record in the Super Bowl. Manning finished the Super Bowl with 333 passing yards on 31-of-45 attempts, with one touchdown and one interception. In a season-opening loss in Houston, Manning set career highs with 57 pass attempts and 40 completions, throwing for three touchdowns and 433 yards, the fourth highest opening-weekend total ever. In his third game, Manning passed for 325 yards, three touchdowns, and no interceptions, marking the first time since 1960 a quarterback began a season with three consecutive games of at least three touchdown passes and zero interceptions. Against the Kansas City Chiefs, Manning failed to throw a touchdown for the first time in 2010, but led the Colts on a game-winning drive in the fourth quarter (45th of his career) to hand the Chiefs their first loss of the season by a score of 19–9. In Week 6 against the Washington Redskins, he passed for 307 yards and two touchdowns. Including the playoffs, that was 68 career games with 300+ yards passing, moving him ahead of Dan Marino (67) for the most in NFL history. Week 9 against the Philadelphia Eagles marked his 200th consecutive regular season start. Against the New England Patriots, Manning passed for 396 yards, four touchdowns and three interceptions, the second time Manning threw four touchdowns in a game that resulted in a loss. This broke a tie with Dan Marino for second-most all-time. The next week resulted in the largest margin of defeat at home in his NFL career, 36–14 to the San Diego Chargers. Against the Tennessee Titans, he went over 4,000 yards passing for the 11th time in a season, and tied Dan Marino with his 63rd regular season game with 300+ yards passing. Manning was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week for this game. The Colts ended up winning the AFC South for the seventh time in eight years, and Manning became the first quarterback in NFL history to lead his team to nine consecutive postseason berths (2002–2010). It was the 208th consecutive regular season start of his career, breaking Gene Upshaw's record. For the season, Manning finished with an NFL-record 450 completions on 679 attempts (third most in history), and a career-high 4,700 yards passing. The Colts' season ended in a 17–16 defeat to the New York Jets in the of playoffs. Manning finished what would be his final game with the Colts 18 of 26 for 225 yards and one touchdown. In 2010, Manning was chosen as the 14th-smartest athlete in sports by Sporting News. On the NFL Top 100 Players of 2011, he was chosen as the second best player in the league by his peers. The Colts placed their franchise tag on Manning on February 15, 2011. On July 30, 2011, the Colts signed Manning to a 5-year, $90 million contract after negotiations in which he made it clear that he did not need to be the highest- paid player in the NFL. After a May 23 neck surgery, Manning could not use the Colts' facilities for practice and workouts due to the NFL lockout. Reluctant to have witnesses to his recovery, he used the Colorado Rockies baseball team's trainers at Coors Field in Denver. Manning was unable to complete his throwing motion, and his arm strength had significantly diminished. Based on an MRI, doctors told him in the late summer that he needed spinal fusion surgery and that at his age they could not guarantee his return to the NFL. On September 7, the Colts officially ruled Manning out for the season opener against Houston, ending his consecutive starts streak of 208 games (227 including playoffs); the team signed Kerry Collins out of retirement and named him interim starting quarterback. After seeking other opinions, Manning had the second surgery on September 8. Manning stated that while he did intend to play during the 2011 season, he would not "fight" the front office to stay off injured reserve if his roster spot was needed. Manning started practicing throwing footballs again in mid-December, with teammate Joseph Addai even claiming his passes looked "game ready." Ultimately, Manning did not play a single game in the 2011 season, and the Colts went 2–14 without him; only the third season since Manning was a rookie that the Colts did not win at least 10 games. With the Colts having the first overall pick in the upcoming 2012 Draft (which contained highly rated quarterback Andrew Luck out of Stanford), and with Manning due a $28 million roster bonus, he was released on March 7, 2012. Earlier, the Colts had dismissed vice-chairman Bill Polian (who in his previous capacity as general manager had drafted Manning), general manager Chris Polian, and head coach Jim Caldwell, as a precursor to the rebuilding of the team. In an emotional press conference, Manning told Colts fans, "Thank you for letting me be your quarterback." Upon his release, Colts owner Jim Irsay announced that no Colt will ever wear the No. 18 jersey again, and it was formally retired on March 18, 2016. On the NFL Top 100 Players of 2012, he was ranked 50th by his peers despite not playing in the 2011 season. Manning was one of the most highly sought-after free agents going into the 2012 season. Several teams sought out to meet with Manning including the Miami Dolphins, the Tennessee Titans. the Arizona Cardinals and the Denver Broncos. After visiting both the Arizona Cardinals and the Denver Broncos, Manning ultimately selected Denver after meeting with John Elway, a retired Broncos Hall-of-Famer quarterback who was now the team's Executive Vice President of Football Operations and General Manager, and Broncos head coach John Fox. Manning reached an agreement with the Broncos on a five-year contract worth $96 million on March 20, 2012. Although the #18 is retired in honor of quarterback Frank Tripucka, he gave Manning permission to wear it. On August 9, 2012, Manning made his first appearance as a Bronco in a preseason game against the Chicago Bears, where he completed four of his seven passes for 44 yards, and was intercepted once by Bears safety Major Wright. Manning made his regular season debut as a Denver Bronco in the prime time game on the first Sunday of the 2012 season, against the Pittsburgh Steelers. In the game, Manning completed 19-of-26 passes for 253 yards, two touchdowns, and no interceptions. He posted a 129.2 QB rating in the 31–19 win, and made history in the third quarter when he connected with wide receiver Demaryius Thomas on a 71-yard touchdown pass. The touchdown was Manning's first in the NFL with a team other than the Colts, and marked the 400th of his career, making him the third quarterback, after Dan Marino and Brett Favre, to accomplish the feat and the fastest of the three to reach that mark. In a Week 6 game against the San Diego Chargers, he was 24 of 30 for 309 yards, three passing touchdowns, and one interception in the 35–24 victory. In the game, the Broncos trailed 24–0 at halftime and Manning led the Broncos to 35 unanswered points. His performance against the Chargers gave him AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors, his first since coming to Denver. Despite the preseason concerns about his recovery, by late October, ESPN stated that Manning "has silenced the critics" about his arm strength. Manning was later named to the 2013 Pro Bowl, his twelfth. In Week 17, a 38–3 victory over the Kansas City Chiefs, he was 23 of 29 for 304 yards and three touchdowns to close out the regular season. He earned AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors for his performance against the Chiefs. Overall, he finished the 2012 season with 4,659 passing yards, 37 touchdowns, and 11 interceptions. The Broncos made the playoffs and earned a first-round bye, but lost 38–35 in double overtime in the to the Baltimore Ravens, who went on to win Super Bowl XLVII that season. Manning finished the game 28 of 43 for 290 passing yards, three touchdowns, and two interceptions. On February 2, 2013, Manning was awarded the AP National Football League Comeback Player of the Year Award and was named a first-team All-Pro selection, in addition to finishing second in MVP voting. On the NFL Top 100 Players of 2013, he was ranked as the second best player in the NFL by his peers. On the opening game of the 2013 NFL season, Manning became the sixth player in NFL history to throw seven touchdowns in a game, doing so against the defending Super Bowl XLVII champions, the Baltimore Ravens. He added to this feat by not throwing an interception, tying Y. A. Tittle as one of the only two players to have a 7:0 touchdown to interception ratio in a single game (although the Philadelphia Eagles' Nick Foles later matched that feat in Week 9 of the same season against the Oakland Raiders). His historic performance against the Ravens gave him AFC Offensive Player of the Week Honors. Against the Oakland Raiders in Week 3, Manning broke the record for most touchdown passes in the first three games of a season after throwing 12, surpassing Tom Brady's 2011 record. His performance against the Raiders gave him his second AFC Offensive Player of the Week nod in three weeks. In Week 5, Manning threw his first interception of the season, in a win against the Dallas Cowboys. He was intercepted by cornerback Morris Claiborne. Two weeks later, Manning returned to Indianapolis for the first time in the regular season since being released by the Colts. In an emotional pregame ceremony, the Colts showed a tribute video to Manning. In his first game back at Indianapolis, he was 29 of 49 for 386 yards, three touchdowns, and one interception but was sacked a season-high four times as the Broncos fell 39–33. The Broncos bounced back from the loss with a 45–21 victory over the Washington Redskins in which Manning had 354 passing yards, four passing touchdowns, and three interceptions. In the next game, a 28–20 victory over the San Diego Chargers, he had one of his most efficient games of the season with 330 passing yards and four passing touchdowns for a 135.2 quarterback rating. The next week, he had 323 passing yards and a season-low one passing touchdown as the Broncos defeated the Kansas City Chiefs by a score of 27–17. The next game for the Broncos was a huge showdown with the New England Patriots. The Broncos raced out to a 24–0 lead at halftime. However, the Patriots came back and won 34–31 in overtime. In the loss, Manning had a season-low 150 passing yards to go along with two touchdowns and one interception. After the tough loss, the Broncos defeated the Kansas City Chiefs in the following game by a score of 35–28. He had 403 passing yards, five touchdowns, and two interceptions in the victory. He followed that up with 397 passing yards and four passing touchdowns in the 51–28 victory over the Tennessee Titans. In Week 16, against the Houston Texans, Manning broke Brady's record for most touchdown passes in a season with 51 on a 25-yard touchdown pass to tight end Julius Thomas. For the third time in the 2013 season, he earned AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors. In the Week 17 season finale against the Oakland Raiders, he had 266 passing yards and four passing touchdowns to finish the season with 55 touchdown passes and a league-record 5,477 yards, breaking Drew Brees's mark by one yard. His 450 completions were at the time tied for second most all time. The Broncos scored an NFL record 606 points, becoming the first team ever to eclipse 600 points in a season. They had more 50-point games in a season than any other team in NFL history, with three. Four Broncos receivers recorded at least ten touchdowns—an NFL record—and Manning set a season record with nine games with four or more touchdown passes. His 115.1 passer rating ranks seventh all time and he joined Brady as the only two quarterbacks at the time to achieve a passer rating of 110.0 or higher in more than one season. The Broncos went on to win their playoff game against the San Diego Chargers by a score of 24–17. Manning finished 25 of 36 for 230 passing yards, one touchdown, and one interception. In another postseason meeting between Manning and Brady, the Broncos defeated the New England Patriots in the by a score of 26–16. Manning was 32-of-43 for 400 passing yards and two passing touchdowns in the victory. Manning became the third starting quarterback to reach the Super Bowl with two teams, after Craig Morton and Kurt Warner. In Super Bowl XLVIII, Manning's Broncos lost to the Seattle Seahawks by a score of 43–8. Manning was up against the Seahawks' young starting quarterback Russell Wilson, who idolized Manning and attended one of Manning's passing camps as a teenager, and later met Manning at a Broncos pre-draft interview. The Seahawks' number one ranked defense proved too much for the Broncos' number one ranked offense to overcome, while the Broncos' defense also struggled due to injuries. The Broncos' first play from scrimmage set the tone for the game. While Manning was stepping forward to call an audible, center Manny Ramirez snapped the ball too early and it flew past Manning's head into the end zone, where running back Knowshon Moreno downed it for a safety. Manning set a Super Bowl record with 34 completions (broken by Tom Brady the following year in Super Bowl XLIX), but the record-setting offense did not record a first down until the second quarter, and did not score any points until the final seconds of the third quarter. While Manning threw one touchdown pass and one successful two-point conversion, he also threw two costly interceptions, one of which was returned for a touchdown by Malcolm Smith in the second quarter. On the NFL Top 100 Players of 2014, he was ranked as the best player in the league by his peers. On August 28, 2014, Manning was fined $8,268 for taunting D. J. Swearinger during a preseason game against the Houston Texans. With the Broncos' win in their opening game of the 2014 NFL season against the Colts, Manning became, along with Brett Favre, one of only two starting quarterbacks in NFL history who have beaten all 32 teams. In the next game against the Kansas City Chiefs, he had his most efficient game of the season by going 21-of-26 for 242 passing yards and three passing touchdowns for a 143.9 passer rating in the 24–17 victory. The next game was a Super Bowl XLVIII rematch with the Seattle Seahawks. In the 26–20 overtime loss, he had 303 passing yards, two passing touchdowns, and one interception. On October 5, 2014, in a stellar performance against the Arizona Cardinals, Manning tied his career-high with an 86-yard touchdown pass to Demaryius Thomas, threw his 500th career touchdown pass to Julius Thomas, and also tied Dan Marino for the most 400-yard games by a quarterback. On October 19, 2014, against the San Francisco 49ers on NBC Sunday Night Football, Manning threw his 509th career touchdown pass to Demaryius Thomas, passing Brett Favre to become the NFL's all-time leader in passing touchdowns. His historic touchdown was part of a 318-yard, four- touchdown passing performance where he earned AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors for the 27th and final time in his career. Overall, he finished the 2014 season with 4,727 passing yards, 39 touchdowns, and 15 interceptions. By the end of the regular season, Manning would be selected to his 14th Pro Bowl appearance, tying him with Tom Brady, Tony Gonzalez, Bruce Matthews, and Merlin Olsen for most Pro Bowl selections in a career. The Broncos finished with a 12–4 record and earned a first-round bye. However, his season ended after the Broncos lost in the of the playoffs to his former team, the Colts, 24–13. Manning finished 26-for-46 for 211 yards and a touchdown. However, he went just 7-for-18 (38.9%) in the first half, his lowest completion percentage in a first half of any game since 2007. After the season ended, the Broncos and head coach John Fox parted ways. On the NFL Top 100 Players of 2015 list, he finished as the fifth best player ranked by his peers. After much speculation, Manning announced in the offseason that he would return for his 18th season in the NFL, this time under his fourth different head coach, Gary Kubiak. In the season opener against the Baltimore Ravens, Manning's play seemed to have deteriorated, going 24–40 for 175 yards and one interception, but a pick-six by cornerback Aqib Talib and late interception by Darian Stewart aided the Broncos in their 19–13 victory. In a Week 2 game against the Kansas City Chiefs on Thursday Night Football, he passed for 256 yards, three touchdowns, and an interception as the Broncos won 31–24. In the next game, a 24–12 victory over the Detroit Lions, he passed for 324 yards, two touchdowns, and an interception for a season-high 101.7 passer rating. On November 1, against the Green Bay Packers, he finished with a season-high 340 passing yards and an interception in the dominant 29–10 victory. The Broncos got off to a dominant 7–0 start to the season; however, the streak ended in a loss at Indianapolis, losing 24–27. During that winning streak, and the loss in Indianapolis, Manning played better, putting up over 250 yards in six of the seven games, and he threw nine touchdowns. However, he never had a game without an interception, bringing his 8-game TD–INT ratio to 9–13, and the Broncos needed a hardworking defense to contribute for victories. In Week 10, in the second divisional game against Kansas City, the game's biggest highlight was Manning breaking Brett Favre's record for career passing yards with a four-yard pass to running back Ronnie Hillman in the first quarter. Despite the accomplishment, however, Manning went 5-for-20 for 35 yards and four interceptions with a 0.0 passer rating before head coach Gary Kubiak benched him during the third quarter. Brock Osweiler filled in for Manning for the rest of the game as the Broncos lost 29–13. Manning's record lasted until the 2018 season, when Drew Brees broke it in Week 5 against the Washington Redskins. A day later, sources said that Manning had suffered a bout of plantar fasciitis. It was later announced that this injury would keep him out of Week 11, marking the first time Peyton had missed a game in a season he played. Osweiler replaced Manning and performed well in a 17–15 win over the Chicago Bears, leading to questions about whether Manning would retain his role when healthy in a Week 12 showdown against the New England Patriots. The next day, head coach Gary Kubiak, citing Manning's injuries, announced that Osweiler would start against New England. On December 15, it was announced that Osweiler would make his fifth consecutive start, against the Pittsburgh Steelers, even though Manning had returned to practice and the Broncos had gone seven straight quarters without scoring a touchdown on offense. Overall, the Broncos went 4–2 in six games without Manning, giving them an 11–4 record heading into the final week of the regular season. On December 27, 2015, Al Jazeera America released conducted by the Al Jazeera Investigative Unit investigating professional athletes' use of Performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) which named Manning, among other prominent athletes, as having received illegal drugs from Charles Sly, a pharmacist who had worked at the Guyer Anti- Aging Clinic in Indianapolis during the fall of 2011. In July 2016, the NFL cleared Manning of the allegations and announced that it had found no evidence to support the claims. Manning was listed as active for the Week 17 regular season finale against the San Diego Chargers, but for the first time since his freshman year at college, he was listed as a backup. In the third quarter, with the Broncos down 13–7, Manning entered the game in relief of Osweiler, who had been intercepted twice and fumbled once. The Broncos went on to beat the Chargers, 27–20, and secure the AFC West and the top seed in the AFC. Despite the Broncos' 12–4 record (and Manning's 8–2 record in games that he played in), Manning had the worst season statistically of his career, as he threw a career-low nine touchdown passes and 17 interceptions in just 10 games, and posting a quarterback rating of 67.9, the lowest rating of his career, and first time he had a rating below 84 since his rookie season. Manning's 59.8 completion percentage was the second lowest of his career, only behind his rookie season. Manning's 17 interceptions were second to Jaguars quarterback Blake Bortles, who threw 18 interceptions but started all 16 games. The Broncos, by virtue of having the AFC's #1 seed, earned home field advantage throughout the NFL playoffs. The Broncos defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers in the by a score of 23–16 to advance to the game to host the defending Super Bowl champions, the New England Patriots. Manning was 21-of-37 for 222 with no touchdowns or interceptions. It was the 17th, and ultimately final, meeting between Manning and his longtime rival Tom Brady. Despite a late comeback attempt from the Patriots, the Broncos won 20–18 to advance to Super Bowl 50. Manning threw for 176 passing yards, two touchdowns, and no interceptions in the win. On February 7, 2016, the Broncos defeated the Carolina Panthers 24–10 in Super Bowl 50 as the Broncos' defense shut down the heavily favored Panthers' top-ranked offense and regular season MVP Cam Newton. Manning finished the game 13-of-23 for 141 yards with one interception while being sacked five times, scoring his only passing points with 3:08 left in the fourth quarter when he connected with wide receiver Bennie Fowler for a two-point conversion, which ended up being the final pass of his career. Manning became the oldest starting quarterback to both play in and win a Super Bowl, until Tom Brady surpassed the record at age 41 in Super Bowl 53. Manning also became the first quarterback to start two Super Bowls with multiple franchises, with different head coaches each time (Dungy, Caldwell, Fox, and Kubiak) and the first quarterback to lead two franchises to a Super Bowl victory. The victory gave Manning his 200th overall win including regular season and playoffs, making him at the time the starting quarterback with the most combined regular season and postseason wins in NFL history. Peyton and Eli Manning played against each other three times in their professional careers, not counting Pro Bowls or the preseason. These encounters were colloquially dubbed "The Manning Bowl", and Peyton's teams (twice with the Colts, once with the Broncos) held a 3–0 record over Eli's team (three games with the New York Giants). The first Manning Bowl was held on September 10, 2006, and Peyton's Colts defeated Eli's Giants by a score of 26–21. The second Manning Bowl was held on September 19, 2010, with Peyton and the Colts besting Eli's team again by a score of 38–14. The third and final Manning Bowl took place on September 15, 2013, and Peyton and the Broncos beat Eli's Giants, 41–23. Manning announced his retirement, after 18 seasons, on March 7, 2016. Manning's final words of his retirement speech were, "I've fought a good fight. I've finished my football race and after 18 years, it's time. God bless all of you and God bless football." After 18 seasons with the NFL, Manning received the 2016 ESPY Icon Award. He won nine total ESPY Awards during his career. On October 7, 2017, in a ceremony attended by hundreds of fans, the Colts unveiled a bronze statue of Manning outside its Lucas Oil Stadium. Manning was also inducted into the Indianapolis Colts Ring of Honor and became the first player to have his jersey retired by the Colts since the team moved to Indianapolis. Regular season Postseason Source: 5x NFL MVP (2003 (shared with Steve McNair)-2004, 2008–2009, 2013), 2x NFL Offensive Player of the Year (2004, 2013), Best NFL Player ESPY Award (2004-2005, 2014), 14× Pro Bowl (1999–2000, 2002–2010, 2012–2014), 7× First-team All-Pro (2003–2005, 2008–2009, 2012–2013), 3× Second-team All-Pro (1999–2000, 2006), 2× Bert Bell Award (2003–2004), 8× AFC Offensive Player of the Year Awards (1999, 2003–2005, 2008–2009, 2012–2013), 1998 NFL All-Rookie First Team, 2004 Fedex Express Player of the Year, Best Record-Breaking Performance ESPY Award (2005, 2014, 2015), 2005 Walter Payton Man of the Year Award, 2005 Byron "Whizzer" White Humanitarian Award, 2005 Pro Bowl MVP, 2007 Super Bowl MVP, 2007 Best Championship Performance ESPY Award, 2012 NFL Comeback Player of the Year Additionally, Manning has been named the AFC Offensive Player of the Month a record eight times (9/2003, 11/2004, 10/2006, 9/2009, 9/2012, 10/2012, 9/2013, 12/2013) and Offensive Player of the Week a then-record 27 times (since broken by Tom Brady). Manning holds a number of individual career records: First quarterback to reach 200 career wins (playoffs and regular season), Most touchdown passes, season: 55 (2013), Most seasons with at least 4,000 passing yards: 14 (1999–2004, 2006–2010, 2012–2014), Most passing yards, season: 5,477 (2013), Most consecutive seasons with at least 20 touchdown passes: 13 (1998–2010), Most consecutive seasons with at least 25 touchdown passes: 13 (1998–2010), Most games with a perfect passer rating, career: 4 (includes 1 playoff game), Most consecutive games started to open a career: 208, Most consecutive games with at least 2 touchdown passes: 15 (2013-2014), Most consecutive games with at least 4 touchdown passes: 5 (games 7–11, 2004), Most games with at least 4 touchdown passes, season: 9 (2013), Only QB with at least 6 touchdown passes in three games, One of eight QBs with at least 7 touchdown passes in a game, Highest career passing TDs/game average (min. 150 TD passes): 2.046 TDs/game, Highest completion percentage by a QB in one month in NFL history (min. 75 attempts): 81.8% (December 2008), Most consecutive regular season wins as a starter: 23 (2008–2009), Only QB with seven straight seasons of 12+ wins as a starter(2003–2009), Only QB to lead five consecutive 4th quarter comeback wins (games 7–11, 2009), First QB to defeat the other 31 teams in the regular season (Tom Brady did this later the same day, and Brett Favre did it the following week), Most AP NFL MVP Awards: 5 (2003, 2004, 2008, 2009, 2013) Manning was born in New Orleans, Louisiana, the son of Olivia (née Williams) and former NFL quarterback Archie Manning. He is the brother of two-time Super Bowl Champion, Eli Manning. Some have described the Mannings as football's "royal family". Manning married his wife, Ashley, in Memphis on St. Patrick's Day, 2001. A graduate of the University of Virginia, Ashley was introduced to him by her parents' next-door neighbor the summer before Manning's freshman year in college. Peyton and wife Ashley have twins, a son, Marshal Williams, and a daughter, Mosley Thompson, born on March 31, 2011. Manning is a Christian. At age 13, he said, "I committed my life to Christ, and that faith has been most important to me ever since." Manning said his priorities ranked in order are "...faith, family, friends, and football." Manning said he prays every night and before games and added, "I hope (and pray) I don't do too many things that displease Him before I get to Heaven myself. I believe, too, that life is much better and freer when you're committed to God in that way." Manning reportedly memorized the Colts' playbook within a week after being drafted, and in 2012 was able to precisely recall the details and timing of a specific play he had used at Tennessee 16 years earlier. During the summer, Archie, Peyton, Eli, and eldest sibling Cooper run the Manning Passing Academy, a five-day camp which aims to improve the offensive skills of quarterbacks, wide receivers, tight ends, and running backs. In addition to the Mannings, the camp has included many prominent players from football as coaches, such as Colts wide receivers Marvin Harrison and Reggie Wayne. Manning, along with his father Archie, co-authored a book titled, Manning: A Father, His Sons, and a Football Legacy, which was released in 2000. The book covers Archie's and Cooper's lives and careers, and Manning's life and career up to the time that the book was released, and examines football from both Archie's and Manning's points-of-view. Manning wrote about Jamie Ann Naughright, who had accused him of sexual harassment, stating that she had a "vulgar mouth". He described his conduct towards her as "crude, maybe, but harmless". The trainer sued for defamation, resulting in an undisclosed settlement in 2003 and a court-ordered gag on Manning and Naughright from ever talking about the settlement or each other again. Mark Kiszla, a sports columnist for the Denver Post, in a column about Manning's future plans, said that Manning's net worth "is estimated to be in excess of $150 million" and "That's not enough money to buy an NFL franchise by himself, although an ownership group that included Manning as president with a financial stake in the team would be led by a brilliant football mind." He has donated over $8,000 to Republican politicians, among them Fred Thompson, Bob Corker and former President George W. Bush. During the 2016 presidential race, Manning contributed to the campaign of Jeb Bush. On October 26, 2012, Manning purchased 21 Papa John's Pizza stores, all in Colorado. He sold his stakes in the stores in February 2018. In honor of Manning, the University of Tennessee offers a Peyton Manning Scholarship to incoming freshmen. Manning has been credited with helping to improve the image of the city of Indianapolis. A curator at the Indiana State Museum observed that "There is no Super Bowl held here without Peyton. There is no Lucas Oil Stadium without Peyton. Without Peyton, the Colts would probably be in L.A. right now." He has become one of the NFL's most marketable players, appearing in several television and printed advertisements for some of the NFL's biggest sponsors. Manning hosted Saturday Night Live on March 24, 2007, his 31st birthday. The episode earned the show's highest household rating in more than 10 months in the metered markets. He also appeared on SNL in 2008 and on the 2015 Saturday Night Live 40th Anniversary Special. On May 27, 2007, Manning waved the green flag to begin the 91st Indianapolis 500. On February 18, 2018, he drove the pace car during the 2018 Daytona 500. Before the latter, he made a guest appearance on Fox NASCAR pre-race show alongside race pole-sitter and fellow Nationwide Insurance spokesman Alex Bowman. In 2009, Manning guest-voiced (with his brothers, Eli and Cooper) on an episode of The Simpsons called "O Brother, Where Bart Thou?" in which Bart dreams of having a baby brother and sees such famous brothers as The Marx Brothers, The Blues Brothers, The Wright Brothers, The Mario Brothers, and The Manning Brothers. Manning also voiced the character 'Guapo' in the 2017 motion picture, Ferdinand. Manning hosted the 2017 ESPY Awards on July 12, 2017. Shortly after beginning his NFL career, Manning started his own charity called 'the Peyback Foundation'. The Peyback Foundation's mission is to help disadvantaged kids, and focuses its efforts in Louisiana, Tennessee, and Indiana. For his work with this foundation, Manning received the Samuel S. Beard Award for Greatest Public Service by an Individual 35 Years or Under, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards. Manning, along with his brother Eli, volunteered their assistance in the wake of Hurricane Katrina. Among the tasks performed, the Mannings assisted in the delivery of 30,000 pounds of water, Gatorade, baby formula, diapers, and pillows to the people of New Orleans. In September 2007, St. Vincent Hospital in Indianapolis renamed its children's hospital to "Peyton Manning Children's Hospital at St. Vincent." Manning and his wife made a donation of an undisclosed amount to St. Vincent's and have had a relationship with the hospital since his arrival in Indianapolis. List of first overall National Football League draft picks, List of gridiron football quarterbacks passing statistics, List of most consecutive starts by a National Football League quarterback, List of NFL quarterbacks who have passed for 400 or more yards in a game, List of NFL quarterbacks who have posted a perfect passer rating, List of National Football League passing completions leaders, List of National Football League career quarterback wins leaders, List of quarterbacks with multiple Super Bowl starts, NFL players with most consecutive starts, NFL players with the most consecutive games with at least one touchdown pass, NFL starting quarterback playoff records Denver Broncos biography, Indianapolis Colts biography Aaron Charles Rodgers (born December 2, 1983) is an American football quarterback for the Green Bay Packers of the National Football League (NFL). Rodgers played college football at California, where he set several career passing records, including lowest single-season and career interception rates. He was selected in the first round of the 2005 NFL Draft by the Packers. After backing up Brett Favre for the first three years of his NFL career, Rodgers became the Packers' starting quarterback in 2008. In 2010, he led them to a victory in Super Bowl XLV over the Pittsburgh Steelers, earning the Super Bowl MVP. He was named Associated Press Athlete of the Year in 2011, and was voted league MVP by the Associated Press for the 2011 and 2014 NFL seasons. Rodgers has led the NFL four times in touchdown-to-interception ratio (2011, 2012, 2014, 2018); and four times in lowest passing interception percentage (2009, 2014, 2018, 2019), twice in passer rating (2011, 2012), touchdown passing percentage (2011, 2012); and once in touchdown passes (2016) and yards per attempt (2011). Rodgers is the NFL's all-time regular season career passer rating leader and is one of two quarterbacks to have a regular season career passer rating of over 100, the other being Russell Wilson. Rodgers is fifth all-time in postseason career passer rating, has the best touchdown-to- interception ratio in NFL history at 4.23, holds the league's lowest career interception percentage at 1.5 percent and the highest single-season passer rating record of 122.5. Due to the fact that Rodgers is the NFL's all-time regular season career passer rating leader, and his overall high level of play and leadership, Rodgers is considered by some sportscasters and players to be one of the greatest quarterbacks of all time. Aaron Charles Rodgers was born in Chico, California, the son of Darla Leigh (née Pittman) and Edward Wesley Rodgers. Aaron's father is a Texas-born chiropractor who played football as an offensive lineman for the Chico State Wildcats from 1973 to 1976. His ancestry includes English, Irish and German. The family moved to Ukiah, California, where Aaron attended Oak Manor Elementary School. Edward Rodgers tossed a football with his sons Luke, Aaron and Jordan, and told them not to drink and not to party in college or they would limit themselves in sports like he did. Aaron took this advice to heart. At the age of ten, he was featured on the front page of the Ukiah Daily Journal for his top performance at a local basketball free throw competition. Later, the family moved to Beaverton, Oregon, where Rodgers attended Vose Elementary School and Whitford Middle School, and played baseball in the Raleigh Hills Little League at shortstop, center field and pitcher. The Rodgers family returned to Chico in 1997, and Aaron attended Pleasant Valley High School, starting for two years at quarterback and garnering 4,421 passing yards. He set single-game records of six touchdowns and 440 all-purpose yards. Rodgers set a single-season school record with 2,466 total yards in 2001. He graduated from Pleasant Valley High School in spring 2002, after scoring 1310 in the SAT and with an A- average. Despite his record-setting high school statistics, Rodgers attracted little interest from programs. In a 2011 interview with , he attributed the relative lack of attention in the recruiting process to his unimposing physical stature as a high school player at 5'10" (1.78 m) and 165 lb (75 kg). Rodgers had wanted to attend Florida State and play under head coach Bobby Bowden, but was rejected. He was only offered an opportunity to compete for a scholarship as a walk-on from Illinois. He declined the invitation, and considered quitting football to study for law school. He was then recruited to play football at Butte Community College in Oroville, a junior college about 15 miles (25 km) southeast of Chico. Rodgers threw 26 touchdowns in his freshman season at Butte Community College, leading the school to a 10–1 record, the NorCal Conference championship, and a national ranking. While there, he was discovered by the California Golden Bears's head coach Jeff Tedford, who was recruiting Butte tight end Garrett Cross. Tedford was surprised to learn that Rodgers had not been recruited earlier. Because of Rodgers' good high school scholastic record, he was eligible to transfer after one year of junior college instead of the typical two. As a junior college transfer, Rodgers had three years of eligibility at Cal. He was named the starting quarterback in the fifth game of the 2003 season, against the only team that offered him a opportunity out of high school, Illinois. As a sophomore, he helped lead the Golden Bears to a 7–3 record as a starter. In his second career start, Rodgers led the team to a 21–7 halftime lead against #3 USC. Due to injury, Rodgers was replaced in the second half by Reggie Robertson. The Bears won in triple overtime, 34–31. Rodgers passed for 394 yards and was named game MVP in the Insight Bowl against Virginia Tech. In 2003, Rodgers tied the school season record for 300-yard games with five and set a school record for the lowest percentage of passes intercepted at 1.43%. As a junior, Rodgers led Cal to a 10–1 record and top-five ranking at the end of the regular season, with their only loss a 23–17 loss at USC. In that game, Rodgers set a school record for consecutive completed passes with 26 and tied an NCAA record with 23 consecutive passes completed in one game. He set a Cal single-game record for passing completion percentage of 85.3. Rodgers holds the Cal career record for lowest percentage of passes intercepted at 1.95 percent. Rodgers' performance set up the Golden Bears at first and goal with 1:47 remaining and a chance for the game-winning touchdown. On the first play of USC's goal line stand, Rodgers threw an incomplete pass. This was followed by a second-down sack by Manuel Wright. After a timeout and Rodgers' incomplete pass on third down, USC stopped Cal's run play to win the game. Rodgers commented that it was "frustrating that we couldn't get the job done." Overall, he finished the 2004 season with 2,566 passing yards, 24 touchdowns, and eight interceptions. His 66.1% pass completion percentage led the Pac-10. After Texas was picked over Cal for a Rose Bowl berth, the fourth-ranked Bears were awarded a spot in the Holiday Bowl, which they lost to Texas Tech, 45–31. After the season, Rodgers decided to forgo his senior season to enter the 2005 NFL Draft. Rodgers was expected to be selected early in the 2005 NFL Draft as he had posted impressive numbers as a junior with Cal, throwing for 2,320 yards with a 67.5 completion rating in the regular season. He threw for 24 touchdowns and only eight interceptions in his last college season, impressing many NFL scouts. They commented that he was a "talented strong-armed junior" who "combines arm strength, mechanics and delivery to make all the throws", but noted that his stats could be inflated due to playing in a quarterback- friendly system and that he would need to adjust to the more elaborate defensive schemes of the NFL. Before the draft, Rodgers was confident that he would be drafted to the team he supported and grew up near, the San Francisco 49ers, who possessed the No. 1 overall pick in the draft. The 49ers, however, drafted quarterback Alex Smith out of Utah instead, and Rodgers slid all the way down to the 24th overall pick by the Green Bay Packers. Rodgers has said that he experienced much angst and restlessness when waiting to be selected several hours into the draft, as he had expected himself to be selected much sooner. Rodgers' slip to the 24th selection and the Packers choosing to pick Brett Favre's future replacement became one of the biggest stories of the draft, though he was still the second quarterback selected. His drop in the draft was later ranked number one on the NFL Network's Top 10 Draft Day Moments. Many teams drafting between the second and 23rd positions had positional needs more pressing than quarterback. Rodgers is one of six quarterbacks coached by Jeff Tedford to be drafted in the first round of an NFL draft, joining Trent Dilfer, Akili Smith, David Carr, Joey Harrington, and Kyle Boller. In , Rodgers agreed to a reported five-year, deal that included in guaranteed money and had the potential to pay him as much as if all incentives and escalators were met. Rodgers spent his rookie season with the 4–12 Packers as the Packers' backup quarterback behind Brett Favre. He received his first extended look in the opening preseason game against the San Diego Chargers after replacing Favre. He had to endure a malfunctioning radio in his helmet and two offensive flags. In his first NFL game, Rodgers completed two out of seven passes and was sacked twice. He continued to struggle through the preseason, before ending the preseason by converting two third downs and throwing a touchdown pass to tight end Ben Steele against the Tennessee Titans. Once the regular season began, Rodgers saw very little action that year. He played against the New Orleans Saints in the fourth quarter of a 52–3 victory, and completed his first career pass to fullback Vonta Leach for 0 yards. On Rodgers entered the game against the Baltimore Ravens at the end of the third quarter in a 48–3 loss. He completed eight of 15 passes for 65 yards and an interception. Rodgers saw one more play at the end of the season against the Seattle Seahawks, taking a knee to end the game. Though Rodgers played very little in his rookie season, he ran the scout team during practice. His job was to mimic opponents' schemes for the defense for the game the following week. Rodgers said this was critical to his success, and that those were his game reps. The defense and scouts often complained that he was practicing too hard, and at one point asked him to tone it down. He stated that he had probably "rubbed people the wrong way" with how hard he practiced. Wide receiver Donald Driver commented that Rodgers took "every scout-team possession like it was the last possession of his life." After the Packers' losing season of Rodgers' rookie year, head coach Mike Sherman was fired and replaced by Mike McCarthy. Rodgers was then placed in McCarthy's "Quarterback school" for six hours a day several times a week. This focused on working on Rodgers' motor skills such as hand-eye coordination, finger dexterity, and mechanics. McCarthy also worked on Rodgers' release point, moving it from right beside the ear hole of his helmet to further below it, to give him a smoother release. Rodgers was also instructed to lower his body fat ratio from to . Rodgers was resistant to the changes at first but later commented that he thought they were for the better. During practice in 11-on-11 drills, Rodgers completed 62.7% of his passes with seven interceptions, and McCarthy commented that "He's getting better" and that "You're looking at a guy who's going to mature. He's got athletic ability that people still haven't seen." Favre did not attend the quarterback school under the new coaching staff and thus knew none of the terminology in the new system. It was here that the friendship between Rodgers and Favre began to form as Rodgers instructed Favre which plays in the Sherman system corresponded to those in the new McCarthy system. When the preseason began, Rodgers played as the backup in all four games; he completed 22 out 38 passes for 323 yards and three touchdowns. Rodgers saw very little action during the 2006 season, but did step in on against the Philadelphia Eagles when Favre left the game due to injury. Rodgers completed two out of three passes for 13 yards. On Rodgers broke his left foot while playing against the New England Patriots in a 35–0 defeat at home, filling in for an injured Brett Favre, and Rodgers missed the remainder of the 2006 season. Rodgers made a full recovery and was ready for the start of the 2007 season. With then quarterbacks' coach Tom Clements, Rodgers reviewed every play from the previous season, learning to read defensive coverages and to throw receivers open. Rodgers also took the spring practice reps with the Packers' first team. However, weeks after an emotional interview with NBC's Andrea Kremer, following the team's season-ending victory at Chicago, Favre announced that he would stay with the Packers for the 2007 season, again postponing Rodgers' hopes of becoming the Packers' starting quarterback. Prior to the 2007 season, rumors surfaced about a potential trade involving Rodgers in which he would be traded to the Oakland Raiders for wide receiver Randy Moss. However, Moss was traded to the New England Patriots during the second day of the 2007 NFL Draft, and Rodgers stayed in Green Bay. Rodgers stepped in when Favre was injured in the second quarter against the Dallas Cowboys on Thursday Night Football on . Rodgers completed 18 passes for 201 yards, with no interceptions. He also threw his first touchdown pass but was sacked three times. Rodgers brought the team back from a 17-point deficit to a 3-point deficit, but the Cowboys went on to win 37–27. Brett Favre's retirement announcement on opened up the Packers' starting quarterback position to Rodgers for the 2008 season. Although Favre decided to return from retirement, he was traded to the New York Jets, which meant that Rodgers would become the starter. Rodgers quickly proved that he was one of the best quarterbacks in the league by passing for 4,038 yards in his first season as a starter as well as throwing for 28 touchdowns and only 13 interception. As of the 2018 season, this still stands as the most interceptions he has thrown in a season. With Rodgers making his debut as a starter, the Packers beat the Minnesota Vikings 24–19 at Lambeau Field. This marked the first time since 1992 that a quarterback other than Favre started a regular-season game for the Packers. Rodgers ended the game with 178 yards passing and two touchdowns (one passing and one rushing). In just his second NFL start the following week, Rodgers was voted the FedEx Air award winner after passing for 328 yards and three touchdowns in a win against the Detroit Lions. During the fourth week of the season, Rodgers' streak of 157 consecutive pass attempts without an interception ended when he was intercepted by Derrick Brooks of the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. The streak was the third-longest in franchise history behind Bart Starr (294) and Brett Favre (163). Rodgers suffered a severe shoulder sprain in the game but continued to start and played well in a win against the Seattle Seahawks two weeks later, which to many proved his toughness. Despite early successes, Rodgers had been unable to win a close game during the season despite seven opportunities to do so. On , Rodgers signed a six-year, contract extension through the 2014 season. In Rodgers' first full season with the team, the Packers finished with a 6–10 record and missed the playoffs. For the opening game of the 2009 season, Rodgers recorded his first win in a comeback situation. The Packers were trailing at the beginning of the fourth quarter when Rodgers completed a fifty-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Greg Jennings with about a minute remaining in the game to contribute to the 21–15 victory over the Chicago Bears. Rodgers was named NFC Offensive Player of the Month for , when he passed for 988 yards, completed 74.5 percent of his passes, and recorded a passer rating over 110 for all three games played during the month. After a 4–4 start to the season and a 38–28 loss to the previously winless Tampa Bay Buccaneers, the team began to heat up. Rodgers led the Packers to five straight wins, in which he threw for a total of 1,324 yards, nine touchdowns, and two interceptions. Rodgers and the Packers won two of their last three games, finishing the second half of the season with a 7–1 record and an overall 11–5 record; good enough to secure a wild card playoff berth and clinch the fifth seed in the playoffs. The Packers set a new franchise record by scoring 461 total points (third in the league), breaking the previous record held by the 1996 Super Bowl team (456). Rodgers became the first quarterback in NFL history ever to throw for 4,000 yards in both of his first two years as a starter. He finished the season fourth in passing yards (4,434), touchdown passes (30), passer rating (103.2), and yards per attempt (8.2) as well as eighth in completion percentage (64.7%), while also coming second among quarterbacks in rushing yards (316). His passing yardage made him second all-time in Packers history, behind only Lynn Dickey's all-time single- season record. His passer rating of 103.2 was also third-highest in team history at the time, behind only Bart Starr's 105.0 rating in and 104.3 rating in (minimum 150 attempts). In the , the Packers played the Arizona Cardinals, the same team they had previously beaten the week before, 33–7. Rodgers and Cardinals quarterback Kurt Warner put on a show that later ranked second on NFL Network's Top 10 Quarterback Duels. Rodgers' first pass was intercepted by Dominique Rodgers-Cromartie. Rodgers settled down after that miscue, however, and finished the game completing 28 of 42 passes for 423 yards, with four touchdown passes all in a second-half comeback. His 423 passing yards are the most by any quarterback in his first playoff game as well as his four touchdown passes and five total touchdowns. Kurt Warner shredded the Packers' second-ranked defense, completing 29 of 33 passes for 379 yards, five touchdowns, no interceptions, and a passer rating of 154.1. Despite Rodgers' offensive efforts, the Packers lost the game when he fumbled on a controversial play in overtime. The ball was returned by Karlos Dansby for the winning touchdown in the 51–45 Cardinals victory. It was the highest scoring playoff game in NFL history. Due to his regular-season performance, Rodgers earned a trip to his first Pro Bowl as the NFC's third quarterback, behind Drew Brees and Brett Favre. However, after Favre dropped out due to injury and Brees was replaced due to his participation in Super Bowl XLIV, Rodgers became the NFC's starter. He finished the day with 15 of 19 passing, 197 yards and two touchdowns. In 2010, Rodgers led the Packers to a 2–0 start, but then lost three of their next four games, including back-to-back overtime losses. The two overtime defeats brought Rodgers' record in overtime games to 0–5. At midseason, Rodgers had already thrown nine interceptions compared to only throwing seven all of the previous season, and was 16th in the league with an 85.3 passer rating. Over the remainder of the regular season, however, his play improved as he threw 16 touchdowns to only two interceptions, completed 71.4% of his passes, and had a passer rating of 122.0. In , in a 34–16 victory over the San Francisco 49ers, Rodgers had 298 passing yards and three touchdowns to earn his first career NFC Offensive Player of the Week honor. In , he sustained his second concussion of the season. Backup Matt Flynn was put into the game as Rodgers' replacement. The Packers lost the game 7–3 to the Detroit Lions. Against the New England Patriots, Rodgers missed the next week's regular season start, ending his streak of consecutive starts at 45, which is tied for the second longest in team history. After their road loss to the Patriots, the Packers found themselves at 8–6 and had to win their final two regular season games to qualify for the playoffs. Rodgers turned around the team's performance; they won their final two regular season games, one of them against the New York Giants, where Rodgers completed 25 of 37 passes for 404 yards, with four touchdown passes, and with a passer rating of 139.9. It was his first regular season 400-yard passing game. For his effort against the Giants, he earned his second NFC Offensive Player of the Week honor for the 2010 season. In the next game, they defeated the Chicago Bears by a score of 10–3 in the regular season finale. Rodgers was named the FedEx Air NFL Player of the Year for his passing performance in the 2010 season. With a 10–6 record, the Packers entered the playoffs as a Wild Card and the seed. In the , they defeated the seeded Philadelphia Eagles 21–16. In the , Rodgers completed 31 of 36 pass attempts for 366 yards and four touchdowns in a 48–21 blowout victory over the seeded Atlanta Falcons. It was the most points scored in Packers postseason history. During the contest, Rodgers tied an NFL record for consecutive playoff games with at least three touchdown passes (3 games). Rodgers also set an NFL record by becoming the only quarterback to pass for ten touchdowns combined through three consecutive playoff games. On Rodgers had a 55.4 passer rating as the Packers beat the seed Chicago Bears 21–14 win to capture the . After winning the NFC Championship, the Packers earned a trip to Super Bowl XLV—a game in which they won, 31–25, against the Pittsburgh Steelers. In the game, Rodgers completed 24 of 39 pass attempts for 304 yards and three touchdowns in the win, and was named Super Bowl MVP for his performance. From his playoff performance, Rodgers became only the third player in NFL history to pass for over 1,000 yards in a single postseason and also became one of only four quarterbacks to record over 300 yards passing, with at least three touchdown passes, and no interceptions in a Super Bowl. He finished with 1,094 passing yards (fourth most all time), nine touchdown passes (tied for fourth most all time), two rushing touchdowns, and two interceptions, while completing 68.2% of his passes for a passer rating of 109.8. From this postseason, Rodgers also became the only player to pass for at least 900 yards and rush for at least two touchdowns in a single postseason. He was ranked 11th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2011. Because of the 2011 NFL lockout, the Packers and Rodgers didn't schedule unofficial offseason workouts, despite many teams doing so. Rodgers and the Packers quickly quelled any concerns over their readiness by defeating the New Orleans Saints, who had scheduled offseason workouts, 42–34. He had 312 passing yards and three touchdowns to earn NFC Offensive Player of the Week. After the game, Rodgers said in the press conference, "I was going to ask myself, what would have happened if we had offseason workouts? I mean, could we have started any faster and scored more points tonight?" In Week 4, a 49–23 victory over the Denver Broncos, Rodgers had 408 passing yards, four touchdowns, and one interception to earn another NFC Offensive Player of the Week honor. In Week 6, a 24–3 victory over the St. Louis Rams, Rodgers converted on a career-high 93-yard touchdown pass to Jordy Nelson. In Week 9, a 45–38 victory over the San Diego Chargers, he had 247 passing yards and four touchdowns to earn his third NFC Offensive Player of the Week honor for the 2011 season. Rodgers and the Packers got off to a 13–0 start in 2011, tying the NFC record for most consecutive wins to start a season, but were upset by the Kansas City Chiefs 19–14 in week 15, ending their winning streak at 19 games, the second-longest winning streak in NFL history. Rodgers finished the season with 4,643 passing yards, 45 touchdown passes, and six interceptions, good for a passer rating of 122.5, which is the highest single-season passer rating in NFL history. In addition to passer rating, Rodgers led the league in touchdown to interception ratio (7.5, fourth best all-time), touchdowns passing % (9.0%, second highest all-time), and yards per attempt (9.2, fourth highest all-time since becoming an official stat in 1970), while finishing second in both touchdown passes (45, sixth-highest all-time) and completion percentage (68.3%), as well as fifth in passing yards. He earned NFC Offensive Player of the Month awards for September, October, and November, and FedEx Air Player of the Week six times (Weeks 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, and 13). In week four against the Denver Broncos, Rodgers became the only quarterback in NFL history to record over 400 passing yards with four touchdown passes, while also rushing for two touchdowns in the same game. He was the winner of the 2011 Galloping gobbler as MVP of the Thanksgiving game between the Packers and the Detroit Lions, a 27–15 Green Bay victory, and tied an NFL record for consecutive games with at least two touchdown passes (13). The Packers became the fifth team in NFL history to finish the regular season with a 15–1 record. Rodgers played in 15 of the 16 games, with the only exception being Week 17 against the Detroit Lions, a game in which Rodgers was rested after the club clinched home-field advantage for the playoffs the previous week. In the game, Rodgers assisted backup quarterback Matt Flynn in his stellar 480-yard, six- touchdown performance by helping call some plays. The Packers' offense set franchise record for points scored in a season with 560, which is the third- most ever behind only the 2007 Patriots and 2013 Broncos. Rodgers set numerous NFL records in 2011. He recorded a passer rating of over 100.0 in thirteen games during the season, including twelve games in a row (both records), and a passer rating of 110.0 or higher in twelve games, including eleven in a row (also records). Rodgers also won the league's MVP award, receiving 48 of the 50 votes (the other two going to Drew Brees). He also finished second, behind Brees, for the AP Offensive Player of the Year award. Rodgers' 2011 season was later ranked as the third greatest passing season of all time by ESPN in 2013, and was regarded as the most efficient. The Packers were upset by the eventual Super Bowl champion New York Giants in the the score of 37–20. The Packers' receiving corps dropped six passes in the loss and Rodgers finished the game with 264 passing yards, two touchdown passes, and an interception on his last pass attempt The 2011 Packers became the only team in NFL history to go 15–1 and not win a playoff game, as well as being the fourth consecutive team to win at least 15 games and not win the Super Bowl. He was named to the Pro Bowl for his 2011 season to go along with a First Team All-Pro honor. He was voted by his fellow players as the best player in the league on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2012. Rodgers and the Packers started off the season with a 30–22 loss to the San Francisco 49ers. With the loss, Rodgers lost his bet with the music group Boyz II Men, and had to wear an Alex Smith jersey during the next week of practice. Had the Packers won the game, Boyz II Men would have sung the national anthem during their next home game at Lambeau. In Week 4, a 28–27 victory over the New Orleans Saints, Rodgers had 319 passing yards, four touchdowns, and one interception to earn NFC Offensive Player of the Week. In Week 6 against the undefeated Houston Texans, he tied the franchise record by throwing six touchdown passes, in a 42–24 victory, to earn NFC Offensive Player of the Week. The Texans had allowed only six total touchdowns passes during the season up to that point. This sparked a five-game winning streak which Rodgers completed 65.7% of his passes for 1,320 yards, 17 touchdowns, two interceptions, and a passer rating of 119.1. During that stretch, Rodgers was named NFC Offensive Player of the Month for October. In Week 15, Rodgers threw for 291 yards and three touchdowns to lead the Packers past the Chicago Bears, 21–13, making them NFC North champions for the second consecutive year. In the season finale, despite Rodgers going 28 of 40 for 365 yards, four touchdowns, no interceptions and a passer rating of 131.8, the Packers lost 37–34 against the Minnesota Vikings. This ended the Packers' twelve-game winning streak against NFC North opponents. The Packers finished with an 11–5 record, first in the NFC North, and clinched the #3-seed in the NFC playoffs. Rodgers led the league for the second straight year in passer rating (108.0) touchdowns passing % (7.1%), and touchdown-to-interception ratio (4.875), while finishing second in touchdown passes (39), third in completion percentage (67.2%), fifth in yards per attempt (7.78), and eighth in passing yards (4,295). In the playoffs, the Packers defeated the Minnesota Vikings 24–10 in the . Rodgers completed 23 of 33 passes to ten different players for 274 yards and a touchdown. They were beaten 45–31 by the San Francisco 49ers in the . Rodgers completed 26 of 39 passes for 257 yards, two touchdowns, and an interception, while also rushing for 28 yards, in the losing effort. He earned his third career Pro Bowl nomination for his performance in the 2012 season. He was ranked sixth by his peers on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2013. On April 26, 2013, the Packers and Rodgers agreed to a 5-year, $110 million contract extension making him the highest paid player in NFL history. The Packers began their 2013 season against the reigning NFC champions, the San Francisco 49ers, the team that also ended their playoff run the previous season. Rodgers went 21 for 37 in completions, 333 yards, three touchdowns and an interception in the 34–28 loss. The following week, Rodgers had a career- high 480 passing yards to tie the franchise record in the 38–20 home-opener win against the Washington Redskins. He earned NFC Offensive Player of the Week for his effort against the Redskins. His 335 passing yards in the first half set a club record. He also became the first quarterback since Y. A. Tittle in 1962 to throw for at least 480 yards, four touchdowns and no interceptions in a game. For his performance he was named NFC Offensive Player of the Week for Week 2. The following week, Rodgers saw his NFL record of 41 consecutive games without throwing multiple interceptions come to an end in a loss to the Cincinnati Bengals by the score of 34–30. After the loss to the Bengals, the Packers started rolling, winning their next four games. Against the Baltimore Ravens, the Packers lost two receivers: Randall Cobb and James Jones. Cobb was sidelined with a broken leg and Jones with a sprained PCL. Against the Cleveland Browns, tight end Jermichael Finley was carted off the field with a bruised spinal cord, leaving Rodgers without three of his top four offensive weapons. The next week against the Minnesota Vikings, Rodgers completed 24 of 29 passes in a 44–31 victory. At home against the Chicago Bears in Week 9, Rodgers was sacked by Shea McClellin. He fractured his left clavicle in the process, and the speculation for his return ranged from a few weeks to an indefinite timetable that became a weekly spectacle of whether or not or when he might be cleared to play again. Before Rodgers had broken his collarbone, the Packers had won four straight games to climb to the top of the NFC North division with a 5–2 record. With Rodgers injured and unable to play, the Packers went winless over the next five weeks to fall to 5–6–1 on the season. After rallying in December behind re-acquired backup quarterback Matt Flynn, the Packers had fought their way back to a 7–7–1 record going into the final week of the season. On Thursday, December 26, Packers head coach Mike McCarthy announced Rodgers would return and start in the season-finale showdown against the Chicago Bears at Soldier Field for the NFC North championship. Returning from the injury, Rodgers threw for 318 yards, two touchdowns, and two interceptions in the regular season finale against the Bears. Trailing 27–28 with under a minute to go in the game and facing the third 4th down of the drive, a 4th & 8 from the 48-yard line, Rodgers connected with Randall Cobb, who was also returning for his first game since breaking his leg in Week 6, for a 48-yard game-winning touchdown to clinch the NFC North and earn the right to host a home playoff game against the San Francisco 49ers as the fourth seed. Rodgers won the 2013 GMC Never Say Never Award for the come-from-behind, division winning touchdown pass. Rodgers finished fifth in the league in passer rating (104.9), completion percentage (66.6%), and yards per game (282) while also finishing second in yards per attempt (8.75). Rodgers led the Packers to the playoffs again, this time with an 8–7–1 record and were up against the team that eliminated them last year in the Divisional Round of the playoffs, the San Francisco 49ers. The Packers lost to the 49ers for the fourth consecutive time, 23–20 on a last second field goal at Lambeau Field, in the . Rodgers recorded only 177 yards passing, his lowest in a playoff game, and one touchdown pass. He was ranked #11 by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2014. The Packers' 2014 regular season debut came against the defending Super Bowl champion Seattle Seahawks—a game in which they would go on to lose 36–16. In Week 2, the team began the game with a 21–3 deficit against the New York Jets, but came back and won 31–24. The 18-point comeback marked the biggest comeback in Rodgers' career. In the third week of the season, the Packers offense was shut down by the Detroit Lions' defense, 19–7. The Packers' 7 points were the fewest points allowed in a game Rodgers finished; the 223 yards of total Packer offense were the lowest since Rodgers took over at quarterback and his 162 passing yards were also a career low. For the third consecutive season, the Packers were off to a 1–2 start. In those three games, Rodgers threw five touchdowns and one interception combined, with a passer rating of 95.1. Amid widespread concern, Rodgers told the fans and the media, "R-E-L-A-X. Relax. We're going to be OK." After their loss to the Lions, the Packers went on a four-game win streak, during which, Rodgers threw 13 touchdowns with no interceptions. In Week 4, a 38–17 victory over the Chicago Bears, he had 302 passing yards and four touchdowns to earn NFC Offensive Player of the Week. In Week 6 against the Miami Dolphins, Rodgers led the Packers to a game-winning drive with less than two minutes remaining. He completed a 4th & 10 pass to wide receiver Jordy Nelson and mimicked Dan Marino's famous fake spike play by completing a pass to wide receiver Davante Adams to get to within four yards of the endzone later in the drive. Rodgers then completed a touchdown pass to tight end Andrew Quarless to win the game 27–24. This play would later win Rodgers the GMC Never Say Never Moment of the Year Award. In Week 7, a 38–17 victory over the Carolina Panthers, he was 19-of-22 for 255 passing yards and three touchdowns to earn NFC Offensive Player of the Week. In a Week 8 loss against the New Orleans Saints, Rodgers finished 28 of 39 for 418, with one touchdown pass and two interceptions, ending his 212 consecutive attempts without an interception streak—the second longest in team history. In the game, Rodgers injured his hamstring which appeared to have an effect on his play for the remainder of the game. In Week 10 against the Chicago Bears, Rodgers became the second player in NFL history and the first since Daryle Lamonica in 1969 to throw six touchdown passes in the first half. Rodgers finished 18 of 27 for 315 yards and six touchdowns despite only playing one drive in the second half to earn NFC Offensive Player of the Week. Rodgers set multiple records during the game: most touchdown passes of 70 or more yards with 16—breaking the record held by Brett Favre and Peyton Manning, most consecutive touchdown passes without an interception at home—breaking the record also held by Favre and Manning, and became the first quarterback to ever have 10 touchdown passes against the same team in a season. In a Week 11 game against the 7–2 Philadelphia Eagles, Rodgers set a record for most consecutive attempts at home without an interception, breaking Tom Brady's record of 288 consecutive attempts. In the 53–20 victory, he finished going 22 of 36, with 341 passing yards, three touchdown passes and no interceptions. The 8–3 Packers met the 9–2 New England Patriots in Week 13 at Lambeau Field in what was Tom Brady and Rodgers' first time playing against each other as starters. Rodgers finished going 24 of 38, with 368 passing yards and two passing touchdowns in the 26–21 Packers victory. For his efforts in the month of November, he earned NFC Offensive Player of the Month. Rodgers suffered a calf injury in Week 16 against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, due to severe dehydration he endured from flu-like symptoms he suffered during the week. In the Week 17 game against the Detroit Lions, Rodgers re-injured his left calf while extending a play and throwing a touchdown pass to Randall Cobb then was helped off the field, and carted off to the locker room. After missing a series, Rodgers re-entered the game with the scored tied 14–14. Despite being less mobile with the injury, Rodgers completed 13 of 15 passes for 129 yards and two scores against the league's second-ranked defense. The Packers won 30–20, winning their fourth straight NFC North title. Rodgers finished 17 of 22 for 226 yards, two touchdown passes, no interceptions, a 139.6 passer rating, and a rushing touchdown to earn his fourth NFC Offensive Player of the Week honor for the 2014 season. The Packers secured the second seed in the NFC, rewarding them with a playoff bye and a week off which helped Rodgers rest and rehabilitate his injured left calf. In the , the Packers were scheduled to play the 13–4 Dallas Cowboys, which marked the first time in NFL playoff history when a team which went undefeated at home (Packers) played against a team which went undefeated away (Cowboys). Rodgers helped secure a 26–21 victory by finishing 24 of 35 for 316 yards, three touchdowns, no interceptions, and a 125.4 passer rating. The Packers then traveled to Seattle to face the top-seeded Seahawks in a rematch of the regular season opener. In the , the Packers were leading 19–7 with just over five minutes to go, but the home team's offense finally woke up and, with the assistance of a crucial Packers special teams gaffe on an onside kick, the Seahawks led 22–19, with 44 seconds remaining. Rodgers quickly drove downfield to set up a tying field goal, only to watch from the sidelines as the Seahawks won the coin toss in overtime and proceeded to score the game-winning touchdown on their first possession. Rodgers was 19-for-34 for 178 yards and a touchdown, with two interceptions in the losing effort. Rodgers finished the regular season first in touchdown-to-interception ratio (7.6), lowest interception percentage (1.0%), second in passer rating (112.2), yards per attempt (8.4), and touchdown passing percentage (7.1%), third in touchdown passes (38), seventh in passing yards (4,381), and ninth in completion percentage (65.6%). He set an NFL record for most consecutive pass attempts (512) at home without an interception, and touchdown passes (41). Rodgers was voted the AP NFL Most Valuable Player for the 2014 season, receiving 31 votes, and was named NFC Offensive Player of the Year by the Kansas City Committee of 101 and Fed-Ex Air NFL Player of the Year. He was also named to the AP All-Pro team as the first quarterback, receiving 44 votes while runner-up Tony Romo received three. He was named to the Pro Bowl for the 2014 season. He was ranked as the second best player in the league among his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2015. In 2015, Rodgers had a down-year by his standards. He threw for a career low 3,821 yards in which he played for at least 15 games, although he had 31 touchdowns to just 8 interceptions. Rodgers completed only 60.7 of his passes, averaged only 6.7 yards per attempt and finished with a passer rating of 92.7; all career lows. Pro Bowl wide receiver, Jordy Nelson's absence due to injury for the season was considered a contributing factor in Rodgers' statistical drop compared to previous seasons. In Week 3, a 38–28 victory over the Kansas City Chiefs, Rodgers had 333 passing yards and five touchdowns to earn NFC Offensive Player of the Week. During Week 9 against the Carolina Panthers, he finished with 369 passing yards, four touchdowns, and one interception. The interception came with only 1:47 left in the fourth quarter, and following the interception, Rodgers expressed frustration by throwing down a Microsoft Surface tablet. The Packers ended up losing the game 29–37. On December 3, 2015, in a Week 13 match-up against the Detroit Lions, Rodgers threw a Hail Mary pass caught by Richard Rodgers for 61 yards with 0:00 left to beat the Lions 27–23, after the game was extended due to a facemask penalty called on Detroit. The play was quickly dubbed as "The Miracle in Motown." The Packers made the playoffs as the fifth seed in the NFC with a 10–6 record. They defeated the Washington Redskins 35–18 on the road in the of the playoffs. Rodgers finished the game with 210 yards and two passing touchdowns. In the against the Arizona Cardinals, Rodgers threw a 41-yard Hail Mary touchdown pass to Jeff Janis as time expired to send the game into overtime. However, the Packers lost 26–20 in overtime. Rodgers finished the game 24 for 44 for 261 yards with two touchdowns and an interception. He was named to his fifth Pro Bowl and was ranked as the sixth best player by his peers on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2016. Throughout the first five games of the 2016 season, Rodgers' struggles from the 2015 season appeared to continue. Through those games, he completed 60.2% of his passes, averaged 6.5 yards per attempt, and posted a passer rating of 88.4—all of which are similar to his 2015 numbers. He also fumbled five times, and lost two. His lackluster performance through those games caused much speculation about the causes of his problems. In a Week 7 Thursday Night Football game against the Chicago Bears, Rodgers rebounded by recording a franchise record and career-high 39 completions, breaking Brett Favre's previous record of 36 in , also against the Bears. Rodgers recorded 326 passing yards for his first 300-yard passing game since Week 10 of the 2015 season in the 26–10 win. The following week against the Atlanta Falcons, Rodgers recorded a career regular-season high of 60 rushing yards, and finished with four touchdown passes and a 125.5 passer rating. After a Week 11 loss to the Washington Redskins—the Packers' fourth in a row, putting them at 4–6—Rodgers was optimistic about the remainder of the season, saying, "I feel like we can run the table, I really do." Despite widespread doubt over the likelihood of such a run, the Packers would go on to finish the season with six straight wins—as Rodgers said they could. In a Week 12 Monday Night Football game Rodgers appeared to injure his hamstring on a scrambling play against the Philadelphia Eagles. After the play, Rodgers went into an injury tent on the sideline to get his leg taped up. Rodgers, however, did not miss any snaps in the game and finished 30 out of 39 for 313 yards with no sacks or interceptions. His 300-yard performance was his fourth of the season and the first allowed by the Eagles' defense all season. The Packers won, 27–13, snapping their four-game losing streak. In a 38–10 victory over the Seattle Seahawks in a Week 14 game, Rodgers and the Packers continued their recent offensive and defensive success. Rodgers finished with 246 passing yards, three touchdown passes and a 150.8 passer rating. The 150.8 passer rating was the best recorded against Seattle's defense since head coach Pete Carroll took over in 2010. Rodgers did this despite suffering a calf injury early in the game. He was named NFC Offensive Player of the Week for his performance against the Seahawks. On December 20, 2016, Rodgers was selected to his third consecutive Pro Bowl and his sixth overall in his career. During Week 16, Rodgers and Drew Brees tied the NFL record for most seasons with at least 35 touchdown passes with four—a record shared with Peyton Manning and Tom Brady. In the game against the Minnesota Vikings, Rodgers finished 28 of 38 for 347 yards, four touchdown passes and a rushing touchdown to earn NFC Offensive Player of the Week. His 300-yard performance was the first allowed by the Vikings' defense all season. He also set Packer regular season records for most 4,000-yard passing seasons (6), most completions in a season (374), and—with Jordy Nelson—most touchdowns by a quarterback/wide receiver combination with (59). Rodgers was named NFC Offensive Player of the Month for December. Rodgers helped lead the Packers to a NFC North title and a playoff berth in 2016. The Packers defeated the New York Giants in the . Rodgers completed 25 of 40 passes for 364 yards and four touchdowns in the victory. They defeated the #1-seed Dallas Cowboys in the . With the game tied at 31 with only 18 seconds remaining with the ball on their own 32-yard line, Rodgers threw a 36-yard completion to tight end Jared Cook to put the Packers in Mason Crosby's field goal range. Crosby converted the 51-yard attempt as time expired to win the game. Overall, Rodgers completed 28 of 43 passes for 355 yards, two touchdowns and an interception in the victory. The Packers lost to the Atlanta Falcons in the in the final game at the Georgia Dome. Rodgers completed 27 of his 45 passing attempts for 287 yards with three touchdowns and an interception in the losing effort. In 2016, Rodgers finished with 401 completions and 610 attempts (both career highs), a 65.7% completion percentage, 4,428 passing yards, 40 touchdown passes, seven interceptions, a passer rating of 104.2, 369 rushing yards (career-high), and four rushing touchdowns. With his 40 touchdown passes, he led the league in the statistic for the first time in his career and became one of only four quarterbacks to pass for at least 40 touchdowns in multiple seasons. Rodgers also finished fourth in passing yards, completions, attempts, and passer rating. Amongst quarterbacks, he finished third in rushing yards and fifth in rushing touchdowns. He was ranked sixth by his peers on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2017. In a Week 1 win (17–9) against the Seattle Seahawks, Rodgers had his 50th career game with at least 300 passing yards. He finished the game with 311, but his streak of 251 consecutive passes without an interception came to an end when defensive tackle Nazair Jones picked him off in the first quarter. In the next game, a 34–23 loss to the Atlanta Falcons in Week 2, he had 343 passing yards, two touchdowns, and an interception in the first game in the new Mercedes-Benz Stadium in Atlanta. In Week 5, down by 28–31 against the Dallas Cowboys with less than two minutes on the clock, Rodgers led a nine- play, 75-yard touchdown drive in the 35–31 victory, earning him NFC Offensive Player of the Week. During Week 6 against the Minnesota Vikings, Rodgers was taken off the field by his coaches and medical personnel after suffering a shoulder injury on a hit from Anthony Barr. Shortly thereafter, it was revealed that Rodgers suffered a fractured right collarbone. The next day, on October 16, it was announced that Rodgers would have surgery on his broken collarbone. On October 19, he underwent surgery on his collarbone, and was officially placed on injured reserve the next day. A total of 13 screws were inserted to stabilize his collarbone. Rodgers returned to practice on December 2, 2017, making him eligible to play in the upcoming Week 15 game. On December 12, 2017, it was announced that Rodgers was medically cleared by doctors and was set to start the next game against the Carolina Panthers. He was officially activated on December 16, 2017. Rodgers returned during Week 15 against the Panthers, where he finished with 290 passing yards, 3 touchdowns, and 3 interceptions as the Packers lost 24–31. However, two days later, on December 19, Rodgers was placed back on injured reserve after the Packers were eliminated from playoff contention. He was ranked #10 by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2018. On August 29, 2018, Rodgers signed a four-year extension with the Packers worth $134 million featuring a $57.5 million signing bonus. During Sunday Night Football against the Chicago Bears in Week 1, Rodgers left the game with a knee injury but returned in the third quarter. Down by 20 points, Rodgers finished with 286 passing yards and three touchdowns, leading the Packers rally to a 24–23 win. Despite a nagging knee injury, Rodgers had at least 40 pass attempts in each of the next three games. In the last of these, he threw his first interception in 150 attempts. In Week 5, Rodgers passed for 442 yards (the second-best of his career) and three touchdowns, but also two fumbles, in a 31–23 loss to the Detroit Lions. In the following game, a 33–30 victory over the San Francisco 49ers, he had 425 passing yards and two passing touchdowns. Following the bye-week, despite a continuing knee injury, Rodgers had his third consecutive week with a 100+ quarterback rating, which included 286 yards passing, no interceptions, and a go-ahead 40-yard touchdown pass to Marquez Valdes-Scantling in a 29–27 loss to the Los Angeles Rams. In Week 13 against the Atlanta Falcons, Rodgers set an NFL record by converting his 359th consecutive pass without an interception, breaking Tom Brady's previous record. In Week 15 against the Chicago Bears, Rodgers threw for 274 yards and an interception in a 24–17 loss. Rodgers' record streak without an interception ended with 402 pass attempts after he was intercepted by free safety Eddie Jackson. During Week 16 against the New York Jets, Rodgers finished with 442 passing yards, two passing touchdowns, and two rushing touchdowns. Trailing at one point by 15 points, Rodgers and the Packers won 44–38 in overtime. He matched his own feat of achieving at least 400 passing yards, two passing touchdowns, and two rushing touchdowns in a single game. The only other time in NFL history that occurred was when Rodgers accomplished it in 2011 against the Denver Broncos. On December 18, 2018, Rodgers was named to his seventh Pro Bowl. He declined the appearance due to injury and was replaced by Russell Wilson. In the regular season finale against the Detroit Lions, Rodgers suffered a concussion early in the game and would not return. He was then sent to the hospital to test for concussion symptoms. Because the Packers had already been eliminated from playoff contention, Rodgers answered questions about whether he should be playing, for fear of injury, by saying: "That's just not the way I lead, and I'm super-competitive, and I want to be out there with the guys and I look forward to being out there." Rodgers was later spotted at the Packers' facility after the game. Rodgers finished the season with 372 completions, 597 attempts, 4,442 passing yards, 25 passing touchdowns, two interceptions and a passer rating of 97.6. His touchdown to interception ratio of 25:2 (12.5) ranks third best all-time (min 300 attempts). In addition to setting the record for consecutive passes without an interception during the season, Rodgers set NFL records for interception percentage for a season, with only 0.335% of his passes being intercepted, and for the amount of thrown away passes. He was ranked ninth by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2019. Rodgers started the 2019 season with a new head coach in Matt LaFleur following the departure of Mike McCarthy. The Packers offense relied less on Rodgers' trademark passes and more on heavy formations and play-action throws to take advantage of running back Aaron Jones. Rodgers helped lead the Packers to a 3–0 start with victories over the Chicago Bears, Minnesota Vikings, and Denver Broncos. In Week 4, against the Philadelphia Eagles, he had 422 passing yards, two passing touchdowns, and one interception in the 34–27 loss on Thursday Night Football. In Week 5, against the Dallas Cowboys, Rodgers completed 22 passes out of 34 attempts for 238 yards in the 34–24 win. In Week 7 against the Oakland Raiders, Rodgers posted his first-ever game with a perfect passer rating of 158.3, the first quarterback in team history to do so. He completed 25-of-31 passes for 429 yards and 5 touchdowns in the 42–24 victory. He was named the NFC Offensive Player of the Week for his performance. The next week, he had 305 passing yards and three passing touchdowns in a 31–24 victory over the Kansas City Chiefs on NBC Sunday Night Football. In Week 13 against the New York Giants, Rodgers threw for 243 yards and four touchdowns in the 31–13 win. In Week 17 against the Detroit Lions, Rodgers threw for 323 yards, two touchdowns, and one interception during the 23–20 comeback win. As a result of the victory, the Packers secured a first round bye in the playoffs. Rodgers finished the 2019 season with 4,002 passing yards, 26 passing touchdowns, and four interceptions. In the Divisional Round of the playoffs against the Seattle Seahawks, Rodgers threw for 243 yards and 2 touchdowns during the 28–23 win. Career Highest career passer rating in regular season with a minimum of 1,500 passing attempts (102.4), Most consecutive seasons with a passer rating of over 100.0, with 6 (2009–2014), 5th highest postseason passer rating (99.4), Lowest career pass interception % (1.4%), Best touchdown to interception ratio in NFL history (4.33), Best passing yards to interception ratio (558.88:1) (46,946:84), First player in NFL history to pass for over 4,000 yards in each of the first two seasons as a starting QB, Most consecutive pass attempts without an interception (402), Most consecutive touchdown passes at home without an interception, (including playoffs) (49), Most consecutive pass attempts without a pick six (4,502) November 8, 2009 – September 24, 2017, Fewest pick sixes per attempts (two pick-sixes: 5,905 ATT), Most consecutive passes without an interception at home, (including playoffs) (587), One of only six quarterbacks (Kurt Warner, Eli Manning, Peyton Manning, Joe Flacco and Dan Marino) to pass for over 1,000 yards in a single postseason, Most consecutive games without throwing multiple interceptions (41)., Fewest interceptions (42) before throwing 150th career touchdown (Dan Marino threw 69 interceptions), Fewest interceptions (53) before throwing 200th career touchdown (Tom Brady threw 88 interceptions), 21,332 passing yards from 2008 to 2012, the most by a QB in his first five seasons as a starter., Fewest attempts to get to 30,000 passing yards, with 3,652, Third-most touchdown passes of 70+ yards (16) (Trails Eli Manning and Drew Brees)., Most seasons with a passer rating over 100.0 (8)., Most seasons with an interception percentage below 1.5% (6)., One of only five quarterbacks to have a passer rating of at least 110 in multiple seasons., One of four quarterbacks to pass for 40 touchdowns in multiple seasons., One of four quarterbacks to pass for at least 35 touchdowns in four seasons., Highest touchdown passing percentage (6.0%) in the Super Bowl Era., Only QB with a touchdown passing percentage above 6.0% in the Super Bowl Era. Single season and games: Single season QB Passer Rating (122.5), Single season QB Interception Percentage (0.3), Most games with a passer rating over 95.0 (14) in a season (2011)., Most games with a passer rating over 100.0 (13) in a season (2011)., Most games with a passer rating over 110.0 (12) in a season (2011)., Most games with a passer rating over 115.0 (10) in a season (2011)., Most games with a passer rating over 130.0 (6) in a season (2011)., Most games with a passer rating over 140.0 (4) in a season (2011)., Most consecutive games with a passer rating over 95.0 (13) in a season (2011)., Most consecutive games with a passer rating over 100.0 (12) in a season (2011)., Most consecutive games with a passer rating over 110.0 (11) in a season (2011)., Most games with 200+ passing yards and no interceptions in a season (11) (2014)., Most games with 2+ touchdown passes and no interceptions in a season (11) (2014)., Most games with 3+ touchdown passes and no interceptions in a season (8) (2014)., 6th most touchdown passes in a season (45) (2011)., 4th most total touchdowns in a season (48: 45 passing, 3 rushing) (2011)., 6th most passing yards in a postseason (1,094) (2010)., 5th most touchdown passes in a postseason (9) (2010)., 2nd lowest interception percentage (1.1%) with at least pass 600 attempts (2016)., 2nd lowest interception percentage (0.96%) with at least 500 pass attempts (2014)., 2nd highest touchdown pass percentage (9.0%) in a season with at least 450 pass attempts (2011)., 2nd highest yards per attempt average in a season with at least 500 pass attempts (9.25) (2011)., Highest touchdown-to-interception ratio (7.6) with at least 500 pass attempts (2014)., Most touchdown passes in a half (6) (November 9, 2014 against the Chicago Bears)., Only player to pass for over 400 yards while throwing four touchdown passes and running for two in one game (October 2, 2011 against the Denver Broncos)., Most touchdown passes by a quarterback in his first three playoff games (10)., Second-most consecutive playoff games with at least three touchdown passes (3)., Most passing yards (423), touchdown passes (4) and total touchdowns (5) by a QB in his first playoff game., One of only five quarterbacks to pass for over 300 yards, with 3 touchdown passes and no interceptions in a Super Bowl., Highest passer rating at home in a season (133.2) (2014)., Best touchdown-to-interception ratio at home in a season (25:0) (2014)., Second-most consecutive games with at least 3 touchdown passes and no interceptions (4) (2014)., Highest completion percentage (86.1%) in a playoff game with a minimum of 35 pass attempts. 2003 Honorable mention All-Pac-10, 2003 Insight Bowl Offensive MVP, 2004 California Golden Bears Co-Offensive MVP, 2004 First-team All-Pac-10, 2004 Second-team Academic All-Pac-10, 2004 Honorable mention All-American by Sports Illustrated 2× GMC Never Say Never Award (2013,2014), 2× NFC Offensive Player of the Year (2011, 2014), 2× FedEx Air NFL Player of the Year (2010, 2014), The Wisconsin Legislature approved a proposal that declared December 12, 2012 (stylized as 12/12/12) "Aaron Rodgers Day" in honor of Rodgers whose jersey number in the NFL is 12. Rodgers lived in Suamico, Wisconsin, a northern suburb of Green Bay roughly 10 miles from Lambeau Field, until 2017. He also owns a home in the affluent beach community Del Mar, California, 20 miles north of downtown San Diego, and lives in Los Angeles during the offseason. He has two brothers; the younger, Jordan, played quarterback at Vanderbilt University, briefly spent time with the Jacksonville Jaguars and later with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. Growing up, Rodgers was raised Christian but in adulthood, he says he no longer affiliates himself with any organized religion. Rodgers was in a relationship with actress Olivia Munn from 2014 to 2017. In 2018, Rodgers began dating former race-car driver Danica Patrick. Rodgers and Milwaukee Brewers player Ryan Braun's names were jointly on a Milwaukee restaurant, but later closed after Braun's PED scandal. Rodgers, after strongly backing Braun, claimed he had been lied to by Braun about his PED usage. In April 2018, Rodgers was announced as a limited partner in the Milwaukee Bucks ownership group, making him the first active NFL player with an ownership stake in an NBA franchise. Since becoming a starter in 2008, Rodgers has become known for his unique touchdown celebration, which he and his teammates have dubbed the "Championship Belt." After a scoring play, Rodgers celebrates by making a motion as if he is putting an invisible championship belt on around his waist. Teammate Greg Jennings said of the celebration: "It's just something fun that he does. We get excited when we see it cause we know that he's made a play or we've made a play as offense." The gesture drew the praise of World Wrestling Entertainment wrestler Triple H and has become common for Green Bay fans to mimic during games. Rodgers' celebration is also featured in a series of State Farm Insurance commercials, renamed the "Discount Double Check". Various teammates, including Raji, Matthews, and Cobb, have joined him in the advertisements. Rodgers has also been featured in Pizza Hut advertisements, as well as numerous local Wisconsin-based advertisements. In 2015, Rodgers made a cameo appearance (along with Packers teammate Ha Ha Clinton-Dix and fellow NFL players Leger Douzable, D'Brickashaw Ferguson, Tank Carradine, Prince Amukamara, Fozzy Whittaker, Ishmaa'ily Kitchen, and Frostee Rucker) in a segment of the second season of the sketch comedy television series Key & Peele. The segment was the third installment of "East/West College Bowl," a sketch that spoofed player introductions during televised football games. In the sketch, all the players being introduced had unusual names; Rodgers pronounced his own name as "A-A-Ron Rod-Gers" in a callback to a sketch from the show's first season. Rodgers is the founder, and with co-creator David Gruber, of itsAaron with a mission of "creating awareness for organizations and people who are changing the world". He is also a supporter of the MACC Fund, RAISE Hope for Congo, and other humanitarian and charitable efforts. In a May 12, 2015, episode of Celebrity Jeopardy he raised $50,000 for the MACC Fund by triumphing over astronaut Mark Kelly and Shark Tank panel member and entrepreneur Kevin O'Leary to win the funds. List of National Football League career quarterback wins leaders, List of National Football League career passer rating leaders, List of National Football League career passing completions leaders, List of National Football League career passing touchdowns leaders, List of National Football League career passing yards leaders Twitter, Green Bay Packers bio, California Golden Bears bio

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"I've Just Seen a Face" is the first fully acoustic song by the English rock band the Beatles. It was written by Paul McCartney (credited to Lennon–McCartney) and features McCartney on vocals. The song appeared on their 1965 United Kingdom album Help! and in the United States on the Capitol Records version of the Rubber Soul album. The song was recorded by the Beatles on 14 June 1965 at EMI Studios in London in the same session as "Yesterday" and "I'm Down". Before its recording, the song was briefly titled "Auntie Gin's Theme" after McCartney's father's youngest sister, because it was one of her favourites. It is one of very few Beatles songs that lacks a bass track. The song was written around the time that McCartney and Lennon were both members of the skiffle band, the Quarrymen. McCartney has cited the song as being a form of skiffle. McCartney has also stated, "It was slightly country and western from my point of view... it was faster, though, it was a strange uptempo thing. I was quite pleased with it. The lyric works; it keeps dragging you forward, it keeps pulling you to the next line, there's an insistent quality to it that I liked." Its lyrics sound effortless and conversational, but they also contain a complex sequence of cascading rhymes ("I have never known/The like of this/I've been alone/And I have missed") that is responsible for the song's irresistible propulsion. According to music critic Richie Unterberger of AllMusic, "Several songs on 1964's Beatles for Sale, as well as "I'll Cry Instead" from A Hard Day's Night, had leaned in a country and western direction. But 'I've Just Seen a Face' was almost pure country, taken at such a fast tempo that it might have been bluegrass if not for the absence of banjo and fiddle." Music critic Ian MacDonald said the up tempo song "lifted the later stages of the Help! album with its quickfire freshness." Capitol Records chose it as the lead track for the US edition of Rubber Soul with the intent of giving the album a stronger acoustic feel, in step with the then-current folk-rock movement. Paul McCartney – lead vocal, harmony vocal, acoustic lead guitar, John Lennon – acoustic rhythm guitar, George Harrison – acoustic lead guitar, Ringo Starr – brushed snare, maracas The song has remained a favourite of McCartney's, as indicated by live performances during his solo career. It was one of only five Beatles numbers performed on his Wings Over America Tour in 1976. It was most recently played on his 2019 Freshen Up tour. Post-Beatles live versions appear on the 1976 album Wings over America, on the 1991 album Unplugged (The Official Bootleg) and on the 2005 DVD Paul McCartney in Red Square. McCartney played a snippet of the song, with Paul Simon, during the opening monologue sequence of the 2015 Saturday Night Live 40th Anniversary Special. American group Charles River Valley Boys recorded a bluegrass version on their 1966 Beatle Country album., The Dillards recorded a bluegrass version on their 1968 album, Wheatstraw Suite., Singer-songwriter Kenny Rankin, with different versions on his albums Here in My Heart (1997), The Bottom Line Encore Collection (1999), and A Song for You (2002)., The View recorded a version on their The Don / Skag Trendy CD single, Johnny Rivers performed a country version on his 1974 live album Last Boogie in Paris., Calamity Jane, a country music band, charted in 1982 with a cover that went to number 44 on Hot Country Songs., American jazz-funk saxophonist Hank Crawford covered the song as sax-led instrumental on his 1976 album Tico Rico released on Kudu Records later CTI label., David Lee Roth played the song live on his 1988 Skyscraper tour., The Forester Sisters led off their 1988 Sincerely album with the song., Gray Matter covered the song on their 1992 album Thog., Australian band Things of Stone and Wood covered the song on their 1995 album The Man with the Perfect Hair., Canadian jazz singer Holly Cole covers the song on her 1997 album Dark Dear Heart., Canadian folk music group The Paperboys covered the song on their 1997 album Molinos., John Pizzarelli covered the song on his 1999 album John Pizzarelli Meets The Beatles., Slovak singer Peter Lipa covered the song on his 2003 album Beatles in Blue(s)., Tyler Hilton performed the song on the TV Show American Dreams in 2004., The song was also covered by Jim Sturgess in the 2007 movie Across the Universe., Beatallica, a parody of both the Beatles and Metallica, recorded a parody titled "I'll Just Bleed Your Face", on their 2009 album Masterful Mystery Tour., Australian indie folk duo The April Maze covered the song on their 2012 album Two., Arlo Guthrie covered the song on his 1978 album One Night., Austin-based folk duo Dawn and Hawkes performed the song during their blind audition on the TV show The Voice in 2014., American alternative country and folk rock singer-songwriter Brandi Carlile has performed the song in concerts. Rubber Soul is the sixth studio album by the English rock band the Beatles. It was released on 3 December 1965 in the United Kingdom, on EMI's Parlophone label, accompanied by the non-album double A-side single "Day Tripper" / "We Can Work It Out". The original North American version of the album, issued by Capitol Records, contained ten of the fourteen songs and two tracks withheld from the band's Help! album. Rubber Soul met with a highly favourable critical response and topped sales charts in Britain and the United States for several weeks. The recording sessions took place in London over a four-week period beginning in October 1965. For the first time in their career, the band were able to record an album free of concert, radio or film commitments. Often referred to as a folk rock album, particularly in its Capitol configuration, Rubber Soul incorporates a mix of pop, soul and folk musical styles. The title derives from the colloquialism "plastic soul" and was the Beatles' way of acknowledging their lack of authenticity compared to the African-American soul artists they admired. After A Hard Day's Night in 1964, it was the second Beatles LP to contain only original material. The songs demonstrate the Beatles' increasing maturity as lyricists and, in their incorporation of brighter guitar tones and new instrumentation such as sitar, harmonium and fuzz bass, the group striving for more expressive sounds and arrangements for their music. The project marked a progression in the band's treatment of the album format as an artistic platform, an approach they continued to develop with Revolver and Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. The four songs omitted by Capitol, including the February 1966 single "Nowhere Man", later appeared on the North American release Yesterday and Today. Rubber Soul was highly influential on the Beatles' peers, leading to a widespread focus away from singles and onto creating albums of consistently high-quality songs. It has been recognised by music critics as an album that opened up the possibilities of pop music in terms of lyrical and musical scope, and as a key work in the creation of styles such as psychedelia and progressive rock. Among its many appearances on critics' best-album lists, Rolling Stone ranked it fifth on the magazine's 2012 list "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time". In 2000, it was voted at number 34 in the third edition of Colin Larkin's book All Time Top 1000 Albums. The album was certified 6× Platinum by the RIAA in 1997, indicating shipments of at least six million copies in the US. In 2013, Rubber Soul was certified Platinum by the BPI for UK sales since 1994. Most of the songs on Rubber Soul were composed soon after the Beatles' return to London following their August 1965 North American tour. The album reflects the influence of their month in America.Lewisohn, Mark. "High Times". In: . Aside from setting a new attendance record when they played to over 55,000 at Shea Stadium on 15 August, the tour allowed the band to meet with Bob Dylan in New York and their longtime hero Elvis Presley in Los Angeles. Although the Beatles had released their album Help! that same month, the requirement for a new album in time for Christmas was in keeping with the schedule established in 1963 by Brian Epstein, the group's manager, and George Martin, their record producer. In their new songs, the Beatles drew inspiration from soul music, particularly the singles they heard on US radio that summer, by acts signed to the Motown and Stax record labels, and from the contemporary folk rock of Dylan and the Byrds. Author Robert Rodriguez highlights the Byrds as having achieved "special notice as an American act that had taken something from the Brits, added to it, then sent it back". In doing so, Rodriguez continues, the Byrds had joined the Beatles and Dylan in "a common pool of influence exchange, where each act gave and took from the other in equal measure". According to music critic Tim Riley, Rubber Soul served as a "step toward a greater synthesis" of all the elements that throughout 1965 represented a "major rock 'n' roll explosion", rather than just the emergence of folk rock. Citing Dylan and the Rolling Stones as the Beatles' artistic peers during this period, he says that on Rubber Soul these two acts "inspire rather than influence their sound". Two years after the start of Beatlemania, the band were open to exploring new themes in their music through a combination of their tiring of playing to audiences full of screaming fans, their commercial power, a shared curiosity gained through literature and experimentation with hallucinogenic drugs, and their interest in the potential of the recording studio. John Lennon was encouraged to address wider-ranging issues than before in his songwriting through Dylan's example. A further impetus was a discussion he had with BBC journalist Kenneth Allsop about whether, as in Lennon's 1965 book A Spaniard in the Works, his lyrics were conceived as merely "another form of nonsense rhyming". Author Mark Prendergast describes Rubber Soul as "the first Beatles record which was noticeably drug-influenced". In Lennon's description, it was "the pot album". Recording for Rubber Soul began on 12 October 1965 at EMI Studios (now Abbey Road Studios), with final production and mix down taking place on 15 November. During the sessions, the Beatles typically focused on fine-tuning the musical arrangement for each song, an approach that reflected the growing division between the band as a live act and their ambitions as recording artists. The album was one of the first projects that Martin undertook after leaving EMI's staff and co-founding Associated Independent Recording (AIR). Martin later described Rubber Soul as "the first album to present a new, growing Beatles to the world", adding: "For the first time we began to think of albums as art on their own, as complete entities." This was the final Beatle album that recording engineer Norman Smith worked on before he was promoted by EMI to record producer. The sessions were held over thirteen days and totalled 113 hours, with a further seventeen hours (spread over six days) allowed for mixing. The band were forced to work to a tight deadline to ensure the album was completed in time for a pre-Christmas release. They were nevertheless in the unfamiliar position of being able to dedicate themselves solely to a recording project, without the interruption of any touring, filming or radio engagements. According to author Christopher Bray, this made Rubber Soul not just unusual in the Beatles' career but "emphatically unlike those LPs made by other bands". From 4 November, by which point only around half the required number of songs were near completion, the Beatles' sessions were routinely booked to finish at 3 am each day. As the band's main writers, Lennon and Paul McCartney struggled to complete enough songs for the project. After a session on 27 October was cancelled due to a lack of new material, Martin told a reporter that he and the group "hope to resume next week" but would not consider recording songs by any other composers. The Beatles completed "Wait" for the album, having taped the song's rhythm track during the sessions for Help! in June 1965. The instrumental "12-Bar Original", a twelve-bar blues in the style of Booker T. & the M.G.'s, was recorded but remained unreleased until 1996. "Day Tripper" and "We Can Work It Out" were also recorded during the Rubber Soul sessions, but issued separately on a non-album single. For the first time, in order to avoid having to promote the release with numerous television and radio appearances, the Beatles chose to produce film clips for the two songs. Directed by Joe McGrath, these clips were filmed at Twickenham Film Studios in south-west London on 23 November. Among the few interruptions to the intensive recording period for the album, the Beatles received their MBEs at Buckingham Palace on 26 October, from Queen Elizabeth II. In addition, on 1–2 November, the band filmed their segments for The Music of Lennon & McCartney, a Granada Television tribute to the Lennon–McCartney songwriting partnership. Lennon recalled that Rubber Soul was the first album on which the Beatles were in complete creative control, with enough studio time to develop and refine new sound ideas. According to Riley, the album reflects "a new affection for recording" over live performance. Author Philip Norman similarly writes that, with the Beatles increasingly drawn towards EMI's large cache of "exotic" musical instruments, and the band's readiness to incorporate "every possible resource of the studio itself" as well as Martin's skills as a classical arranger, "Implicitly, from the very start, this [music] was not stuff intended to be played live on stage." Before the recording sessions, McCartney was given a new bass guitar, a solid-body Rickenbacker 4001, which produced a fuller sound than his hollow-body Hofner. The Rickenbacker's design allowed for greater melodic precision, a characteristic that led McCartney to contribute more intricate bass lines. George Harrison used a Fender Stratocaster for the first time during the sessions, most notably in his lead guitar part on "Nowhere Man". The variety in guitar tones throughout the album was also aided by Harrison and Lennon's use of capos, particularly in the high-register parts on "If I Needed Someone" and "Girl". To mimic the sound of a harpsichord on "In My Life", after Lennon had suggested he play something "like Bach", Martin recorded the piano solo with the tape running at half- speed. When played back at normal speed during the mixdown, the sped-up sound gave the illusion of a harpsichord. In this way, the Beatles used the recording studio as a musical instrument, an approach that they and Martin would develop further in 1966 during the sessions for Revolver. Rubber Soul saw the band expanding rock and roll's instrumental resources, most notably in Harrison's use of the Indian sitar on "Norwegian Wood". Having been introduced to the instrument on the set of the band's 1965 film Help!, Harrison's interest was fuelled by fellow Indian music fans Roger McGuinn and David Crosby of the Byrds, partway through the Beatles' US tour. Using fuzz bass on "Think for Yourself", and employing a piano made to sound like a baroque harpsichord on "In My Life" added to the exotic brushstrokes on the album. During the sessions, the Beatles also made use of harmonium, marking that instrument's introduction into rock music. In Prendergast's description, "bright ethnic percussion" was among the other "great sounds" that filled the album. Lennon, McCartney and Harrison's three-part harmony singing was another musical detail that came to typify the Rubber Soul sound. According to musicologist Walter Everett, some of the vocal arrangements feature the same "pantonal planing of three-part root-position triads" adopted by the Byrds, who had initially based their harmonies on the style used by the Beatles and other British Invasion bands. Riley says that the Beatles softened their music on Rubber Soul, yet by reverting to slower tempos they "draw attention to how much rhythm can do". Wide separation in the stereo image ensured that subtleties in the musical arrangements were heard; in Riley's description, this quality emphasised the "richly textured" arrangements over "everything being stirred together into one high-velocity mass". According to Barry Miles, a leading figure in the UK underground whom Lennon and McCartney befriended at this time, Rubber Soul and its follow-up, Revolver, were "when [the Beatles] got away from George Martin, and became a creative entity unto themselves". In 1995, Harrison said that Rubber Soul was his favourite Beatles album, adding: "we certainly knew we were making a good album. We did spend more time on it and tried new things. But the most important thing about it was that we were suddenly hearing sounds that we weren't able to hear before." Ringo Starr described it as "the departure record" and said that the music was informed by the band members "expanding in all areas of our lives, opening up to a lot of different attitudes". While Martin recalled it as having been "a very joyful time", Smith said the sessions revealed the first signs of artistic conflict between Lennon and McCartney, and friction within the band as more effort was spent on perfecting each song. This also manifested in a struggle over which song should be the A-side of their next single, with Lennon insisting on "Day Tripper" (of which he was the primary writer) and publicly contradicting EMI's announcement about the upcoming release. In addition, a rift was growing between McCartney and his bandmates as he continued to abstain from trying the hallucinogenic drug LSD. The revelations provided by the drug had drawn Lennon and Harrison closer, and were then shared by Starr when, during the band's stay in Los Angeles that August, he had agreed to try LSD for the first time. Until late in their career, the "primary" version of the Beatles' albums was always the monophonic mix. According to Beatles historian Bruce Spizer, Martin and the EMI engineers devoted most of their time and attention to the mono mixdowns, and generally regarded stereo as a gimmick. The band were not usually present for the stereo mixing sessions. Author Andrew Grant Jackson describes Rubber Soul as a "synthesis of folk, rock, soul, baroque, proto-psychedelia, and the sitar". According to author Joe Harrington, the album contained the Beatles' first "psychedelic experiments", heralding the transformational effect of LSD on many of the original British Invasion acts. Author Bernard Gendron dismisses the commonly held view that Rubber Soul is a folk rock album; he cites its incorporation of baroque and Eastern sounds as examples of the Beatles' "nascent experimentalism and eclectic power of appropriation", aspects that he says suggest an artistic approach that transcends the genre. According to The Encyclopedia of Country Music, building on the Beatles' 1964 track "I Don't Want to Spoil the Party", the album can be seen in retrospect as an early example of country rock, anticipating the Byrds' Sweetheart of the Rodeo album. Further to Lennon's more introspective outlook in 1964, particularly on Beatles for Sale, the lyrics on Rubber Soul represent a pronounced development in sophistication, thoughtfulness and ambiguity. According to music critic Greil Marcus, "the Beatles were still writing about love, but this was a new kind of love: contingent, scary and vital", and so, while the music was "seduction, not assault", the "emotional touch" was tougher than before. Author James Decker considers it significant that Rubber Soul "took its narrative cues more from folk crossovers such as Bob Dylan and the Byrds than from the Beatles' pop cohorts". In particular, the relationships between the sexes moved from simpler boy-girl love songs to more nuanced and negative portrayals. In this way, Lennon and McCartney offered candid insights into their respective personal lives. The album opens with a pair of lead guitar parts that are soon rendered off- metre by the arrival of McCartney's bass. "Drive My Car" is a McCartney composition with substantial contribution from Lennon with the lyrics. Harrison, as the Beatles' most knowledgeable soul-music enthusiast, contributed heavily to the recording by suggesting they arrange the song with a dual guitar–bass riff in the style of Otis Redding's contemporary single "Respect". In their joint lead vocals, McCartney and Lennon sing dissonant harmonies, a quality that is furthered by Harrison's entrance and signifies what Everett terms a "new jazzy sophistication … in the vocal arrangement". The lyrics convey an actress' desire to become a film star and her promise to the narrator that he can be her chauffeur. According to Riley, the song satirises the "ethics of materialism" and serves as a "parody of the Beatles' celebrity status and the status-seekers they meet". Author and critic Kenneth Womack describes the lyrics as being "loaded with sexual innuendo", and he says that the female protagonist challenged the gendered expectations of a mid-1960s pop audience, as an "everywoman" with ego and a clear agenda. Lennon said he wrote "Norwegian Wood" about an extramarital affair and that he worded the narrative to hide the truth from his wife, Cynthia. The lyrics sketch a failed meeting between the singer and a mysterious girl, where she goes to bed and he sleeps in the bath; in retaliation at the girl's aloofness, the singer decides to burn down her pine-panelled home. Arranged in 3/4 time, and in the English folk style, the song has a Mixolydian melody that results in a drone effect in the acoustic guitars, complementing the sitar part. The narrative draws heavily on Dylan's style through its use of ambiguity. In author Jonathan Gould's description, the song is an "emotional black comedy", while Decker recognises it as a continuation of the "interrogation of sexual ambiguities" and "muddled sense of power" displayed in "Drive My Car". Written by McCartney, "You Won't See Me" reflects the difficulties he was experiencing in his relationship with actress Jane Asher due to her refusal to put her acting career second to his needs. Gould identifies the song as the third consecutive track in which the narrative conveys miscommunication. McCartney described its music as "very Motown-flavored", with a "feel" inspired by Motown bassist James Jamerson. The verses use the same chord sequence as the Four Tops' hit "It's the Same Old Song", which was titled by its writers, the Holland–Dozier–Holland team, in acknowledgement that they had already used the same pattern in their composition "I Can't Help Myself". Lennon recalled that "Nowhere Man" came to him fully formed one night at his home in Surrey, after he had struggled to write anything for several hours. The song reflects the existential concerns raised by his experiences with LSD, and, like "I'm a Loser" and "Help!", his self-loathing during a time he later called his "fat Elvis period". It was the first Beatles song to completely avoid boy–girl relationships, and through Lennon conveying his feelings of inadequacy in the third person, the first example of a literary character in the Beatles' work. Riley views the message as a precursor to the "I'd love to turn you on" theme of "A Day in the Life" and, aided by the band's performance, optimistic in tone as Lennon "sings for the unsung, the people who have shut themselves off from life". Heavy equalisation was applied to the electric guitar parts through a series of faders, giving them a treble-rich texture that, as with the harmony vocals, recalls the Byrds' sound. In Prendergast's description, the track "burst[s] forth with all the gusto of newly discovered psychedelia", as Lennon's lead vocal "luxuriates in an opiated haze of production and Harrison's Fender Stratocaster solo fuzzes with all the right hallucinatory sparkle". Harrison's lyrics to "Think for Yourself" suggest the influence of Dylan's September 1965 single "Positively 4th Street", as Harrison appears to rebuke a friend or lover. The song's accusatory message was unprecedented in the Beatles' work; Jackson identifies it as the band's contribution to a "subgenre" of protest songs that emerged in 1965, in which artists railed against "oppressive conformity itself" rather than political issues. Everett describes the composition as "a tour de force of altered scale degrees". He adds that, such is the ambiguity throughout, "its tonal quality forms the perfect conspirator with the text's and the rhythm's hesitations and unexpected turns." Gould writes that, in its dialogue with Harrison's vocal, McCartney's fuzz bass suggests "the snarls of an enraged schnauzer, snapping and striking at its lead". In his book 1965: The Year Modern Britain Was Born, Bray writes that "The Word" marks the start of the Beatles' "high psychedelic period". Lennon's exhortation that "The word is love" anticipates the ethos behind the counterculture's 1967 Summer of Love. The lyrics focus on the concept of universal love as a path to spiritual enlightenment, with what Decker terms "proselytizing zeal" on the narrator's part. MacDonald recognises the "distant influence" of Wilson Pickett's "In the Midnight Hour" and James Brown's "Papa's Got a Brand New Bag" on the song's rhythm, and highlights Starr's drumming (for its "feast of eccentric 'backwards fills'") and McCartney's dextrous bass playing. The arrangement also includes seven vocal parts and Martin playing suspended chords on harmonium. "Michelle" was conceived by McCartney in the late 1950s. During a writing session for Rubber Soul, Lennon added a new middle eight, part of which was taken from Nina Simone's recent cover of "I Put a Spell on You". MacDonald identifies the song as another example of the Beatles' "comedy song" approach, which, in a contemporary interview, McCartney had suggested was a possible new direction for the group. In Womack's view, the French phrases in the lyrics accentuate the premise whereby a language barrier separates two lovers, and the narrative conveys an acceptance that their relationship is doomed to fail, such that the singer is already looking back nostalgically at what could have been. Gould describes the performance as "sentimental … French cabaret" which, following McCartney's declaration of "I love you", leads into a guitar solo by Harrison that represents "one of Jean-Paul Sartre's existential café workers". The Beatles had attempted to record an early version of Lennon's "What Goes On" in 1963. With little time to complete Rubber Soul, the song was reworked by Lennon and McCartney as a vocal spot for Starr, who also received his first songwriting credit, as co-composer. The song is in the country style favoured by Starr, and in its lyrics the singer laments his lover's deceit. In Everett's description, the arrangement includes Harrison's rockabilly- inflected lead guitar, played on his Gretsch Tennessean, contrasting with Lennon's "Steve Cropper-styled Memphis 'chick' rhythm part". Lennon said he wrote "Girl" about an archetypal woman he had been searching for and would finally find in Yoko Ono, the Japanese artist he met in November 1966. In the lyrics, he also expresses his disdain for Christian and Catholic moral values. The song was the final track recorded for the album. The composition incorporates aspects of Greek folk music, while the arrangement includes an instrumental passage set as a German two-step and an acoustic guitar part played to sound like a Greek bouzouki. High equalisation was applied to Lennon's vocal over the choruses to capture the hissing sound as he drew breath – an effect that also suggested he was inhaling on a marijuana joint. McCartney recalled that he and Harrison sang "Tit-tit-tit" on the middle eights to capture the "innocence" of the Beach Boys singing "La-la-la" on one of their recent songs. Riley likens the musical arrangement to a "scene from the old world" and he concludes of the song: "The old-fashioned atmosphere conveys desire and deception, and Lennon sings it as much to console himself as to make sense of its bewildering proportions ('And she promises the earth to me and I believe her/After all this time I don't know why'). It's the sympathetic side of the anger in 'Norwegian Wood.'" Like "You Won't See Me" and "We Can Work It Out", "I'm Looking Through You" focuses on McCartney's troubled relationship with Asher. Gould describes it as the "disillusioned sequel" to McCartney's other 1965 songs centring on "a face-to-face (if not necessarily eye-to-eye) encounter between two lovers". Decker likens the lyrics to a less philosophical version of "Think for Yourself" in which "the narrator has grown, yet the woman has failed to keep up." The composition contrasts acoustic-based verses with harsher, R&B-style; instrumental sections, suggesting a combination of the folk rock and soul styles. The Beatles had taped two versions of the song before achieving the final version, which they recorded during the last, frantic day of the Rubber Soul sessions. In its final form, the song gained a middle eight where previously there had been a twelve-bar blues jam. Lennon credited Allsop's rebuke about A Spaniard in the Works as the catalyst for "In My Life", which he considered his "first real major piece of work". The lyrics evoke Lennon's youth in Liverpool and reflect his nostalgia for a time before the onset of international fame. McCartney, who claims to have written much of the melody, recalled that the song's musical inspiration came from Smokey Robinson and the Miracles. In Gould's description, the song "owed a conscious debt" to the Miracles' contemporary hit "The Tracks of My Tears" and thereby served as "the most recent installment in the lively cultural exchange between Motown's Hitsville Studios and EMI's Abbey Road". Martin's Bach-inspired piano solo was overdubbed in the Beatles' absence, over a section that they had left empty. Womack says that the baroque aspect of this contribution furthers the song's nostalgic qualities, a point also made by Gould, who adds that, by revisiting the past and presenting emotional themes that are resolved in the narrative, "In My Life" serves as the album's only song that "sounds the Beatles' original ground theme of happiness-in- relationship". "Wait" was a Lennon composition to which McCartney contributed a middle eight. Gould includes the song among a category of Beatles "'coming home' songs", while Riley pairs it with "It Won't Be Long" but adds that, relative to that 1963 song, in "Wait" "the lovers' reunion has more anxiety than euphoria goading the beat." The band completed the track on the final day of recording for the album, overdubbing tone-pedal lead guitar, percussion and a new vocal by McCartney onto the June 1965 rhythm track. MacDonald writes that, although Lennon and McCartney would most likely have viewed the subject matter as dated even in June, the group's performance gives the song the required "drive and character" for Rubber Soul, particularly Starr's approach to the rhythm changes between its contrasting sections. Harrison wrote "If I Needed Someone" as a love song to Pattie Boyd, the English model to whom he became engaged in December 1965 and was married the following month. In the song's Rickenbacker 12-string guitar riff, the Beatles returned the compliment paid to them earlier in 1965 by the Byrds, whose jangly guitar-based sound McGuinn had sourced from Harrison's playing the previous year. In MacDonald's view, the song is influenced "far more" by Indian classical music than by the Byrds, through Harrison's partly Mixolydian melody and the presence of drone. The latter aspect is furthered by McCartney's arpeggiated bass line in A major continuing over the chord change to a VII triad. The detached, dispassionate tone in the lyrics has invited alternative interpretations. Gould refers to it as "a rueful rain check of a love song" directed to the "right person at the wrong time", while, according to Jackson, "the lyrics address all the women of the world, saying that had he met them earlier [before committing to Boyd], it might have worked out, but now he was too much in love (but give me your number just in case)." Lennon wrote "Run for Your Life" based on "Baby Let's Play House", which was one of Presley's early singles on the Sun record label. Lennon retained a line from the Presley track – "I'd rather see you dead, little girl, than to be with another man". The lyrical theme is jealousy, and Lennon later disavowed the song as a misogynistic piece. Performed in the country style, it was the first track recorded for the album and features a descending guitar riff played by Harrison and slide guitar parts. In keeping with the company's policy for the Beatles' albums in the United States, Capitol Records altered the content of Rubber Soul for its release there. They removed four songs from the running order – "Drive My Car", "Nowhere Man", "What Goes On" and "If I Needed Someone" – all of which were instead issued on the Beatles' next North American album, Yesterday and Today, in June 1966. The four songs were replaced with "I've Just Seen a Face" and "It's Only Love", which had been cut from Help! as part of Capitol's reconfiguring of that LP to serve as a true soundtrack album, consisting of Beatles songs and orchestral music from the film. The total time of the reconfigured Rubber Soul was 28:55, nearly seven minutes shorter than the EMI version. Through the mix of predominantly acoustic-based songs, according to Womack, the North American release "takes on a decidedly folk-ish orientation". Capitol sequenced "I've Just Seen a Face" as the opening track, reflecting the company's attempt to present Rubber Soul as a folk-rock album. Gould writes that the omission of songs such as "Drive My Car" provided a "misleading idea" of the Beatles' musical direction and "turned the album title into an even more obscure joke", since the result was the band's least soul- or R&B-influenced; album up to this point. The stereo mixes used by Capitol contained two false starts at the beginning of "I'm Looking Through You", while "The Word" also differed from the UK version due to the double- tracking of Lennon's lead vocal, the addition of an extra falsetto harmony, and the panning treatment given to one of the percussion parts. The album title was intended as a pun combining the falseness intrinsic to pop music and rubber-soled shoes. Lennon said the title was McCartney's idea and referred to "English soul". In a 1966 press conference, Starr said they called the album Rubber Soul to acknowledge that, in comparison to American soul artists, "we are white and haven't got what they've got", and he added that this was true of all the British acts who attempted to play soul music. McCartney recalled that he conceived the title after overhearing an American musician describing Mick Jagger's singing style as "plastic soul". In Phillip Norman's view, the title served as "a sly dig at their archrivals (and private best mates) the Rolling Stones", with the added implication that the Beatles' "variety" of soul music "at least was stamped out by a good strong northern [English] Wellington boot". Rubber Soul was the group's first album not to feature their name on the cover, an omission that reflected the level of control they had over their releases and the extent of their international fame. The cover photo of the Beatles was taken by photographer Robert Freeman in the garden at Lennon's house. The idea for the "stretched" effect of the image came about by accident when Freeman was projecting the photo onto an LP- size piece of cardboard for the Beatles' benefit, and the board fell slightly backwards, elongating the projected image. McCartney recalled the band's reaction: "That's it, Rubber So-o-oul, hey hey! Can you do it like that?" Author Peter Doggett highlights the cover as an example of the Beatles, like Dylan and the Stones, "continu[ing] to test the limits of the portrait" in their LP designs. The distinctive lettering was created by illustrator Charles Front, who recalled that his inspiration was the album's title: "If you tap into a rubber tree then you get a sort of globule, so I started thinking of creating a shape that represented that, starting narrow and filling out." The rounded letters used on the sleeve established a style that became ubiquitous in psychedelic designs and, according to journalist Lisa Bachelor, "a staple of poster art for the flower power generation". Rubber Soul was issued on EMI's Parlophone label on 3 December 1965. The "Day Tripper" / "We Can Work It Out" single was also released that day and was the first example of a double A-side single in Britain. EMI announced that it had pressed 750,000 copies of the LP to cater to local demand. Its advance orders of 500,000 almost equalled the total sales for the new single and were announced by the Daily Mirrors show business reporter as marking a new record for pre-release orders for an LP. On the day of the album's release, the Beatles performed at the Odeon Cinema in Glasgow, marking the start of what would be their final UK tour. Weary of Beatlemania, the group had conceded to do a short tour but refused to also reprise their Christmas Show from the 1963–64 and 1964–65 holiday seasons. The band performed both sides of the single throughout the tour, but only "If I Needed Someone" and "Nowhere Man" from the new album. In the United States, Rubber Soul was their tenth album and their first to consist entirely of original songs. The release took place there on 6 December. According to author Michael Frontani, writing in his book The Beatles: Image and the Media: "By the time of the release of the album Rubber Soul in 1965, each new record was viewed as a progression in the band's artistic development and as an expansion of the parameters of popular music, and the [group's] image reflected and promoted notions of the Beatles' artistry and importance." The band's softer musical approach on the album and their use of nostalgic imagery increased their bond with their fans. In her study of the Beatles' contemporary audience, sociologist Candy Leonard says that, although some young listeners were challenged by the band's new direction, "With Rubber Soul, the Beatles came to occupy a role in fans' lives and a place in their psyches that was different from any previous fan–performer relationship." Singer-songwriter Elvis Costello, who was an eleven-year-old fan at the time, later recalled his initial reaction to the album: "'I don't like this, I think they've lost their minds' … I didn't understand a word, I didn't think it was any good, and then six weeks later you couldn't live without the record. And that's good – that's when you trust the people who make music to take you somewhere you haven't been before." According to music critic Robert Christgau, the album had a far-reaching emotional resonance with audiences: "Rubber Soul smashed a lot of alienation. Without reneging on the group's masscult appeal, it reached into private lives and made hundreds of thousands of secretly lonely people feel as if someone out there shared their brightest insights and most depressing discoveries." Writing in 2015, historian Marc Myers commented: "For most American teens, the arrival of the Beatles' 'Rubber Soul' ... was unsettling. Instead of cheerleading for love, the album's songs held cryptic messages about thinking for yourself, the hypnotic power of women, something called 'getting high' and bedding down with the opposite sex. Clearly, growing up wasn't going to be easy." Rubber Soul was commercially successful, beginning a 42-week run on the Record Retailer LPs chart (subsequently adopted as the UK Albums Chart) on 12 December 1965. The following week it replaced the Sound of Music soundtrack at the top of the chart, where it remained for eight weeks in total. On the national chart compiled by Melody Maker, Rubber Soul entered at number 1 and held the position for thirteen weeks; it remained in the top ten until mid July 1966. In the United States, Rubber Soul topped the Billboard Top LPs chart on 8 January 1966, having sold 1.2 million copies there within nine days of release. These initial sales were unprecedented for an LP and were cited by Billboard magazine as evidence of a new market trend in the US, whereby pop albums started to match the numbers of singles sold. The album was number 1 for six weeks in total; it remained in the top twenty until the start of July, before leaving the chart in mid December. As the more popular of the joint A-sides, "We Can Work It Out" became the Beatles' sixth consecutive number 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, all of which were achieved over a twelve-month period from January 1965. While British albums typically avoided including previously released songs, the lack of a hit single on the North American version of Rubber Soul added to the album's identity there as a self-contained artistic statement. Everett writes that in the US the album's "hit" was "Michelle", through its popularity on radio playlists. After their inclusion on the EMI-format LP, "Norwegian Wood", "Nowhere Man" and "Michelle" were each issued as singles in various markets outside Britain and America, with "Norwegian Wood" topping the Australian chart in May 1966. "Nowhere Man"'s first release in North America was as a single A-side, backed by "What Goes On", in February, before both tracks appeared on Yesterday and Today. "Nowhere Man" peaked at number 3 on the Billboard Hot 100, number 1 on Record Worlds 100 Top Pops chart, number 2 on the Cash Box Top 100, and number 1 on Canada's RPM 100 chart. In July, Parlophone released an EP titled Nowhere Man, which comprised "Nowhere Man", "Michelle" and two other songs from Rubber Soul. The album was also the source of hit songs for several other contemporary artists. "Michelle" became one of the most widely recorded of all the Beatles' songs, while cover versions of "Girl", "If I Needed Someone" and "Nowhere Man" similarly placed on UK or US singles charts in 1966. In the UK, Rubber Soul was the third highest-selling album of 1965, behind The Sound of Music and Beatles for Sale, and the third highest-selling album of 1966, behind The Sound of Music and Revolver. The extent of its commercial success there surprised the music industry, which had sought to re-establish the LP market as the domain of adult record-buyers. From early 1966, record companies in the UK ceased their policy of promoting adult-oriented entertainers over rock acts, and embraced budget albums for their lower-selling artists to cater to the increased demand for LPs. Rubber Soul sold 1,800,376 copies in America by the end of 1965 and 2,766,862 by the close of the decade. As of 1997, it had shipped over 6 million copies there. In 2013, after the British Phonographic Industry altered its sales award protocol, the album was certified Platinum based on UK sales since 1994. Critical response to Rubber Soul was highly favourable. Allen Evans of the NME wrote that the band were "still finding different ways to make us enjoy listening to them" and described the LP as "a fine piece of recording artistry and adventure in group sound". While outlining to American readers the differences in the UK-format release, KRLA Beat said Rubber Soul was an "unbelievably sensational" work on which the Beatles were "once again ... setting trends in this world of pop". Newsweek lauded the Beatles as "the Bards of Pop", saying that the album's combination of "gospel, country, baroque counterpoint and even French popular ballads" lent the band a unique style in which their songs were "as brilliantly original as any written today". Like Newsweek, The New York Times had belittled the group when they first performed in America in February 1964, but following the release of Rubber Soul, according to author Bob Spitz, entertainment critic Jack Gould offered a "glowing tribute" in the newspaper's Sunday magazine. The writers of Record Mirrors initial review found the album lacking some of the variety of the group's previous releases but also said: "one marvels and wonders at the constant stream of melodic ingenuity stemming from the boys, both as performers and composers. Keeping up their pace of creativeness is quite fantastic." By contrast, a week later, Richard Green wrote in the same magazine that most of the album "if recorded by anyone but the Beatles, would not be worthy of release", with many of the tracks devoid of "the old Beatles excitement and compulsiveness". Green acknowledged that his was an unpopular opinion, before concluding: "Judging LPs strictly on their merits, recent albums from Manfred Mann, the Beach Boys and Jerry Lee Lewis rank high above Rubber Soul." In another review that Richard Williams later cited as an example of the British pop press not being "quite ready" for the album, Melody Maker found the Beatles' new sound "a little subdued" and said that tracks such as "You Won't See Me" and "Nowhere Man" "almost get monotonous – an un- Beatle-like feature if ever there was one". Author Steve Turner also highlights the comments made by the Melody Maker and Record Mirror reviewers, who were typically aged over 30, as indicative of how UK pop journalists lacked "the critical vocabulary" and "the broad musical perspective" to recognise or engage with progressive music. Turner adds that Rubber Soul "may have perplexed the old guard of entertainment correspondents, but it was a beacon for fledgling rock critics (as they would soon be called)". In a September 1966 review of Revolver, KRLA Beat said that the title of Rubber Soul had "become a standard phrase used to describe a creation of exceptional excellence in the field of music", such that several highly regarded releases had since earned the description "a Rubber Soul in its field'". Writing in Esquire in 1967, Robert Christgau called it "an album that for innovation, tightness, and lyrical intelligence was about twice as good as anything they or anyone else (except maybe the Stones) had done previously". According to Decker, notwithstanding the band's advances in 1964, music critics generally view Rubber Soul as the Beatles' "'transitional' album … from successful pop act to unparalleled masters of the studio". It is frequently cited by commentators as the first of their "classic" albums. Greil Marcus described it as the best of all the band's LPs. In his 1979 essay on the Beatles in The Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock & Roll, Marcus wrote: "Rubber Soul was an album made as an album; with the exception of 'Michelle' (which, to be fair, paid the bills for years to come), every cut was an inspiration, something new and remarkable in and of itself." Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph wrote in 2009: "this is where things start to get very interesting ... Rubber Soul is the result of their first extended period in the studio. The production is open and spacious, adorned but not yet overcrowded with new instruments and ideas. The songs themselves are like little Pop Art vignettes, where the lyrics are starting to match the quality of the melodies and arrangements." Scott Plagenhoef of Pitchfork describes the album as "the most important artistic leap in the Beatles' career – the signpost that signaled a shift away from Beatlemania and the heavy demands of teen pop, toward more introspective, adult subject matter". Paul Du Noyer wrote in his review for Blender in 2004: "Their talent was already a source of wonder, but now the songs themselves were turning mysterious. Under the influence of Bob Dylan – and, it might be said, marijuana – the Fab Four laced their tunefulness with new introspection, wordplay and social comment. University professors and newspaper columnists started taking note." Writing in Paste, Mark Kemp says that the influence of Dylan and the Byrds seems overt at times but the album marks the start of the Beatles' peak in creativity and, in the context of 1965, offered "an unprecedented synthesis of elements from folk-rock and beyond". According to Richie Unterberger of AllMusic, the album's lyrics represented "a quantum leap in terms of thoughtfulness, maturity, and complex ambiguities", while the music was similarly progressive in its use of sounds beyond "the conventional instrumental parameters of the rock group". He adds that Rubber Soul is "full of great tunes" from Lennon and McCartney notwithstanding their divergence from a common style, and demonstrates that Harrison "was also developing into a fine songwriter". Writing in the Encyclopedia of Popular Music, Colin Larkin describes it as "not a collection of would-be hits or favourite cover versions … but a startlingly diverse collection, ranging from the pointed satire of 'Nowhere Man' to the intensely reflective 'In My Life'." In the 2004 edition of The Rolling Stone Album Guide, Rob Sheffield recognises Help! as "the first chapter in the [Beatles'] astounding creative takeoff", after which the band "grew up with an album of bittersweet romance, singing adult love ballads that feel worldly but not jaded". In an article coinciding with the 50th anniversary of its release, for The Guardian, Bob Stanley lamented that Rubber Soul was often overlooked in appraisals of the Beatles' recording career, whereas Revolver and The Beatles had each gained in stature to surpass Sgt. Pepper. Stanley highlighted Rubber Soul as having been "a good 18 months ahead of its time" and "the first album of the rock era that sounded like an album". Also writing in December 2015, in Rolling Stone, Sheffield especially admired the singing and the modern qualities of the female characters depicted in the lyrics. He said that the album was "way ahead of what anyone had done before" and, given the short period in which they had to record, he called it the Beatles' "accidental masterpiece". Conversely, Jon Friedman of Esquire finds the work vastly overrated, with only the Lennon-dominated songs "Norwegian Wood", "Nowhere Man", "In My Life" and "Girl" worthy of praise, and he dismisses it as "dull" and "the Beatles' most inconsequential album". Although he considers that McCartney "comes off third-string" to Lennon and Harrison, Plagenhoef defends the album's subtle mood; highlighting the influence of cannabis on the Beatles throughout 1965, he writes: "With its patient pace and languid tones, Rubber Soul is an altogether much more mellow record than anything the Beatles had done before, or would do again. It's a fitting product from a quartet just beginning to explore their inner selves on record." In his review for Rough Guides, Chris Ingham highlights the musical arrangements, three-part harmonies and judicious use of new sounds, in addition to the band's improved musicianship and songwriting. He says that Rubber Soul usually trails the Beatles' next four albums in critics' assessments of their work, yet "it's undoubtedly their pre-acid, pre- antagonism masterpiece: beat music as high art". Music historian Bill Martin says that the release of Rubber Soul was a "turning point" for pop music, in that for the first time "the album rather than the song became the basic unit of artistic production." In author David Howard's description, "pop's stakes had been raised into the stratosphere" by Rubber Soul, resulting in a shift in focus from singles to creating albums without the usual filler tracks. The release marked the start of a period when other artists, in an attempt to emulate the Beatles' achievement, sought to create albums as works of artistic merit and with increasingly novel sounds. According to Steve Turner, by galvanising the Beatles' most ambitious rivals in Britain and America, Rubber Soul launched "the pop equivalent of an arms race". Brian Wilson of the Beach Boys described Rubber Soul as "the first album I listened to where every song was a gas" and planned his band's next project, Pet Sounds, as an attempt to surpass it. Rubber Soul similarly inspired Pete Townshend of the Who and the Kinks' Ray Davies, as well as Jagger and Keith Richards of the Rolling Stones, who issued their first album of all-original material, Aftermath, in April 1966. John Cale recalled that Rubber Soul was an inspiration to himself and Lou Reed as they developed their band the Velvet Underground. He said the album was the first time "you were forced to deal with them as something other than a flash in the pan" and especially admired Harrison's introduction of Indian sounds. In his chapter on Rubber Soul in the Cambridge Companion to Music's volume on the Beatles, James Decker credits the album with effecting the "transformation" of 1960s pop. In addition to citing it as the precedent for early experimental works by bands including Love and Jefferson Airplane, Decker writes that Rubber Soul presented "a variety of techniques hitherto unexplored in popular music" while encouraging listeners "to be cognizant of more flexible dimensions of pop music and to desire and expect them as well". Music historian Simon Philo also sees it as heralding the experimentation that characterised late-1960s rock. He describes it as an album-length confirmation of the "transformation of pop's range and reach" that the Beatles had first achieved when "Yesterday", McCartney's introspective and classically orchestrated ballad, topped US singles charts in late 1965. In a 1968 article on the Beach Boys, Gene Sculatti of Jazz & Pop recognised Rubber Soul as the model for Pet Sounds and Aftermath, and described it as "the necessary prototype that no major rock group has been able to ignore". According to music historian David Simonelli, Rubber Soul was "the first serious effort by a rock and roll act to produce an LP as an artistic statement", and its "artsy" cover photo and lack of filler songs combined to create a "complete artistic package". The belated acceptance of the Beatles by the editors of Newsweek was indicative of the magazine's recognition of the band's popularity among American intellectuals and the cultural elite. This in turn was reflected in The Village Voices appointment of Richard Goldstein, a recent graduate and New Journalism writer, to the new position of rock critic, in June 1966, and the Beatles' central role in achieving cultural legitimisation for pop music over 1966–67. Referring to the praise afforded the band, particularly the songwriting partnership of Lennon and McCartney, by Newsweek in early 1966, Michael Frontani writes: "The Beatles had a foothold in the world of art; in the months that followed, their efforts would lead to the full acceptance and legitimization of rock and roll as an art form." More immediately, Paul Williams launched Crawdaddy! in February 1966 with the aim of reflecting the sophistication brought to the genre by Rubber Soul and Dylan's Bringing It All Back Home – the two albums that, in music journalist Barney Hoskyns' description, "arguably gave birth to 'rock' as a more solid concept than 'pop'". According to Sculatti, Rubber Soul was "the definitive 'rock as art' album, revolutionary in that it was a completely successful creative endeavor integrating with precision all aspects of the creative (rock) process – composition of individual tracks done with extreme care, each track arranged appropriately to fit beside each other track, the symmetrical rock 'n' roll album". Christopher Bray describes it as "the album that proved that rock and roll could be suitable for adult audiences", "the first long- playing pop record to really merit the term 'album'" and the LP that "turned pop music into high art". According to Joe Harrington, the album coincided with rock 'n' roll's development into a variety of new styles, for which the Beatles remained the "conduit through which all ... ideas were filtered". Andrew Loog Oldham, the Rolling Stones' manager and producer at the time, has described Rubber Soul as "the album that changed the musical world we lived in then to the one we still live in today". The use of sitar on "Norwegian Wood" launched what Indian classical musician Ravi Shankar described as "the great sitar explosion", as the Indian string instrument became a popular feature in raga rock and for many pop artists seeking to add an exotic quality to their music. The harpsichord-like solo on "In My Life" led to a wave of baroque rock recordings. Rubber Soul was also the release that encouraged many folk-music aficionados to embrace pop. Folk singer Roy Harper recalled: "They'd come onto my turf, got there before me, and they were kings of it, overnight. We'd all been outflanked ... After a few times on the turntable, you realised that the goal posts had been moved, forever, and you really wanted to hear the next record – now. You could sense Revolver just over the horizon. You were hooked." Author George Case, writing in his book Out of Our Heads, identifies Rubber Soul as "the authentic beginning of the psychedelic era". Music journalist Mark Ellen similarly credits Rubber Soul with having "sow[ed] the seeds of psychedelia" while Christgau says that "psychedelia starts here." In Marc Myers' view, the Capitol release "changed the direction of American rock". In his book 101 Albums That Changed Popular Music, Chris Smith writes that, just as the North American version demonstrates the marked influence of the Byrds and other American folk rock acts, the Beatles would soon reciprocate by inspiring the San Francisco music scene. Recalling its popularity in the Haight-Ashbury district of San Francisco, where Jefferson Airplane were based, journalist Charles Perry said: "You could party hop all night and hear nothing but Rubber Soul." Perry also wrote that "More than ever the Beatles were the soundtrack of the Haight-Ashbury, Berkeley and the whole circuit", where pre-hippie students suspected that the album was inspired by drugs. Stevie Winwood, who formed the psychedelic rock band Traffic in 1967, sees Rubber Soul as the LP that "broke everything open", in that "It crossed music into a whole new dimension and was responsible for kicking off the sixties rock era." Citing a quantitative study of tempos in music from the 1960s, Walter Everett identifies it as a work that was "made more to be thought about than danced to", and an album that "began a far-reaching trend" in its slowing-down of the tempos typically used in pop and rock music. He sees the album as a successful combination of "rich multipart vocals brimming with expressive dissonance treatment, a deep exploration of different guitars and the capos that produced different colors from familiar finger patterns, surprising new timbres and electronic effects, a more soulful pentatonic approach to vocal and instrumental melody tinged by frequent twelve-bar jams that accompanied the more serious recording, and a fairly consistent search for meaningful ideas in lyrics". Everett credits several of these qualities, as on Revolver, as the inspiration for many progressive rock bands of the early 1970s, as does Bill Martin. Rubber Soul was voted fifth in Paul Gambaccini's 1978 book , based on submissions from a panel of 47 critics and broadcasters including Richard Williams, Christgau and Marcus. In the first edition of Colin Larkin's book All Time Top 1000 Albums, in 1994, it was ranked at number 10, and in 1997 it was named the 39th greatest album of all time in the BBC's "Music of the Millennium" poll. It was listed at number 34 in the third edition of Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums, published in 2000. Since 2001, Rubber Soul has appeared in critics' best-album lists compiled by VH1 (at number 6), Mojo (number 27) and Rolling Stone (number 5), was among Time magazine's selection of the "All-Time 100 Albums", and was favoured over Revolver in Chris Smith's 101 Albums That Changed Popular Music. In 2012, Rolling Stone again placed it at number 5 on the magazine's revised list of the "500 Greatest Albums of All Time". Rubber Soul appeared in Rolling Stones 2014 list of the "40 Most Groundbreaking Albums of All Time", where the editors concluded: "You can say this represents 'maturity,' call it 'art' or credit it for moving rock away from singles to album-length statements – but regardless Rubber Soul accelerated popular music's creative arms race, driving competitors like the Stones, the Beach Boys and Dylan to dismantle expectations and create new ones." Three years later, Pitchfork ranked it at number 46 on the website's "200 Best Albums of the 1960s". In his commentary with the entry, Ian Cohen wrote: "Every Beatles album fundamentally shaped how pop music is understood, so Rubber Soul is one of the most important records ever made, by default ... Even in 2017, whenever a pop singer makes a serious turn, or an anointed serious band says they've learned to embrace pop, Rubber Soul can't help but enter the conversation." In 2000, Rubber Soul was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, an award bestowed by the American Recording Academy "to honor recordings of lasting qualitative or historical significance that are at least 25 years old". The album has been the subject of multi-artist tribute albums such as This Bird Has Flown and Rubber Folk. Writing in December 2015, Ilan Mochari of Inc. magazine commented on the unusual aspect of a pop album's 50th anniversary being celebrated, and added: "Over the next several years, you can bet you'll read about the 50th anniversary of many other albums – thematic volumes composed by bands or songwriters in the tradition Rubber Soul established. All of which is to say: Rubber Soul, the Beatles' sixth studio album, was the record that launched a thousand ships." Rubber Soul was released on compact disc on 30 April 1987, with the fourteen- song track line-up now the international standard. As with Help!, the album featured a contemporary stereo digital remix prepared by George Martin. Martin had expressed concern to EMI over the original 1965 stereo mix, claiming it sounded "very woolly, and not at all what I thought should be a good issue". He went back to the original four-track tapes and remixed them for stereo. A newly remastered version of Rubber Soul, again using the 1987 Martin remix, was released worldwide as part of the reissue of the entire Beatles catalogue on 9 September 2009. The album was available both as an individual CD release and as part of the Beatles (The Original Studio Recordings) box set. The accompanying Beatles in Mono box set contained two versions of the album: the original mono mix and the 1965 stereo mix. The Capitol version was relaunched in 2006, for the Capitol Albums, Volume 2 box set, using original mixes of the Capitol album, and then in 2014, individually and on the box set The U.S. Albums. This last release used mixes from 2009 remasters, except on "Michelle" (mono), "The Word" (stereo) and "I'm Looking Through You" (stereo), both using the original mix from the original Capitol album, because these mixes are different from the UK versions. According to Mark Lewisohn and Ian MacDonald, except where noted: The Beatles John Lennon – lead, harmony and backing vocals; rhythm, acoustic and lead guitars; organ on "Think for Yourself"; tambourine, Paul McCartney – lead, harmony and backing vocals; bass, acoustic and lead guitars; piano; maracas, George Harrison – lead, harmony and backing vocals; lead, rhythm and acoustic guitars; sitar on "Norwegian Wood"; maracas, tambourine, Ringo Starr – drums, tambourine, maracas, cowbell, bells, cymbals; Hammond organ on "I'm Looking Through You"; lead vocals on "What Goes On" Production and additional personnel George Martin – production, mixing; piano on "In My Life", harmonium on "The Word" and "If I Needed Someone", Mal Evans – Hammond organ on "You Won't See Me", Norman Smith – engineering, mixing, Robert Freeman – photography Sources Rubber Soul (Adobe Flash) at Radio3Net (streamed copy where licensed), Beatles comments on each song, Recording data and notes on mono/stereo mixes and remixes "I've Seen That Face Before (Libertango)" is a single by Jamaican singer Grace Jones, released in 1981. The song is a reworking of Astor Piazzolla's "Libertango". It has sold 146,800 copies in France. The song juxtaposes "Libertango", an Argentine tango classic written by composer and bandoneonist Astor Piazzolla (first recorded by Piazzolla himself in 1974), against a reggae arrangement and new lyrics penned by Jones herself and Barry Reynolds. Lyrically, it describes the darker side of Parisian nightlife. The song includes spoken parts in French: "Tu cherches quoi ? À rencontrer la mort ? Tu te prends pour qui ? Toi aussi tu détestes la vie..." which translates "What are you looking for? For death? Who do you think you are? You hate life, you too..." Jones also recorded a Spanish language version of the track entitled "Esta cara me es conocida", and an English version with the French passage recited in Portuguese. Recorded in Nassau, Bahamas, with Sly and Robbie, Wally Badarou, Barry Reynolds, Mikey Chung, and Uziah "Sticky" Thompson, aka the Compass Point Allstars under Chris Blackwell's and Alex Sadkin's direction, "I've Seen That Face Before" was released as the second single from Jones' album Nightclubbing, after "Demolition Man" made no chart impact. It met with a commercial success, reaching Top 20 in no fewer than five European countries, including number 1 in Belgium, and now counts as one of Jones' signature tunes. A longer version of the song was released on a 12" single, which is available on the Grand 12-Inches 7 CD compilation, compiled by Ben Liebrand, and also Movie Klub 80: Episode 3 compilation CD (4 Ever Music/Warner Music Poland). The song was featured in key moments of the 1988 thriller movie Frantic, set in Paris, directed by Roman Polanski and starring Harrison Ford. The track however did not make it onto the film's accompanying soundtrack album. It also features in Raw Deal and the second episode of the first season of the TV series Pose. "I've Seen That Face Before (Libertango)" has been described as "one of the highlights of Nightclubbing" and "one of the highlights of Jones' musical career". The song is famous for its music video, directed by Jean-Paul Goude. It begins with a picture of Grace wearing a tall black hat and her face concealed under a three-piece paper mask. These are then removed and her trademark flattop haircut is displayed. Jones then starts to perform the song, singing straight into the camera, and plays accordion, although the original was actually performed on bandoneón. The camera then zooms out, revealing that the video set is actually located on the roof of a tower block. The single cover recreates an image from the clip. The video is the closing track on Jones' classic A One Man Show music documentary. 7" single 7" single 7" ES single 12" single 12" single 7" Brazilian single Artists who have recorded the song with Jones' reggae arrangement and sometimes also translated lyrics include Kirsty MacColl, Julien Clerc, Guy Marchand, Caroline Nin, Herb Alpert, Gary Burton, Al Di Meola, Richard Galliano, Camilla Henemark, Yo-Yo Ma, Viola Valentino, Iva Zanicchi, Clare Fader, and The Tango Saloon. A cover version of this song by Eindhoven-based singer Kovacs from the Netherlands pitched her career., Polish singer Kayah covered the song for her 2010 CD Kayah & Royal Quartet, a collaboration album with Royal String Quartet.

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Worst Cooks in America is an American reality television series that premiered on January 3, 2010, on the Food Network. The show takes 12 to 16 contestants (referred to as "recruits") with very poor cooking skills through a culinary boot camp, to earn a cash prize of $25,000 and a Food Network cooking set. The recruits are trained on the various basic cooking techniques including: baking, knife skills, temperature, seasoning and preparation. The final challenge is to cook a restaurant quality three-course meal for three food critics. The show premiered on January 3, 2010. The show was initially hosted by chef Anne Burrell and chef Beau MacMillan in Season 1. MacMillan was replaced by chef Robert Irvine on Season 2, followed by chef Bobby Flay for Seasons 3–5. On November 20, 2014, a Food Network press release announced that chef Tyler Florence will be paired with chef Burrell to host Season 6, to debut on January 4, 2015. Burrell was the winning instructor in seasons 1, 2, 3, 6, 7 and 8 with Flay winning in Seasons 4–5. Rachael Ray and Burrell hosted the Season 7 special celebrity edition, which premiered September 23, 2015. During the finale of Season 7, a trailer previewing Season 8 was shown and was aired in January 2016 with the return of Tyler Florence. On March 7, 2019, Food Network announces a sixteenth season. The season that premiered on April 21, 2019 was another celebrity edition hosted by Chefs Anne Burrell and Tyler Florence. The seventeenth season premiered on August 4, 2019 and feature Bobby Flay. On November 25, 2019, it was announced that eighteenth season will premiere on January 5, 2020. Chefs Beau MacMillan and Anne Burrell lead an intense culinary boot camp. They have six recruits each, and every week they must eliminate one recruit from each of their teams until there is only one from each team left. The final two create a three-course meal to fool a panel of restaurant critics into believing that the meal was created by the acclaimed chefs. Twelve chefs competed in the first season of Worst Cooks in America. Hometowns and occupations are available from the Food Network website. Chef Anne's team was known as the Red Team and Chef Beau's team was known as the Blue Team. Key Episode 1: Baseline Challenge: 24 of the Worst Cooks in America were brought to Boot Camp. With 45 minutes on the clock, the chef had to cook a dish and whoever has the worst dishes were to be picked for teams. What the recruits didn't know was that Anne and Beau would only select the 12 worst of the worst for boot camp, and they also didn't know that Anne and Beau would pick for their opponent's team. Team Selection: Beau gives Anne Jenny, Eddie, Hamed, Rachel, Rebecca, and Kelly. Anne Gives Beau Sophia, Susie, David, Wilhelmina, Marque, and Jen. Main Dish: Anne made Tuscan Fish Stew, while Beau made Poached Tiger Prawns with Littleneck Clams, Bok Choy, and Shiitake Mushrooms. Each team had one hour to replicate their respective chef's dish. During the challenge, Hamed, Wilhelmina, Eddie, and David all struggled. Hamed forgot to put his clams on the plate, Eddie overcooked his shrimp and used too much saffron, Wilhelmina's Broth had too much soy sauce, and David messed up the garnish. Elimination: After tasting, Rebecca and Marque were named the winners on their respective teams, and Sophia, Rachel, Jenny, Jen, Kelly, and Susie didn't have the best dishes, but they also didn't have the worst dishes and they were deemed safe from elimination. Hamed and Eddie were the bottom two on the red team, and Wihelmina and David with the bottom two on the blue team, but in the end, Hamed and Wihelmina were sent home. Episode 2: Skill Drill: The chefs bring the recruits to Arirang Hibachi Steakhouse to teach them about classic knife skills such as Julienne and Slicing. Casting for season 2 of Worst Cooks in America was held at the LA Marriott Burbank Airport, Hotel & Convention Center on March 27, 2010. The Food Network also began accepting online video applications for season 2. Food Network's website announced that Robert Irvine would replace Beau MacMillan for season 2. Season 2 debuted on January 2, 2011. In this season the chefs had eight recruits each. Key In the first episode, a group of selected novice cooks were to prepare a dish from scratch so the chefs would get an idea of how poor their skills were. After tasting all the items, the chefs took turns picking team members for their rival chef. The first season started off with 24 novice cooks but only the worst 12 were chosen for a team. In the second season, the first episode began with 16 amateurs and all took part for the remainder of that episode. In the penultimate episode of the season, the remaining four recruits learned and replicated a dessert. After this, in the first season, the recruits had to instruct a group of high school students how to replicate the dessert recipe. In the second one, the recruits were assigned the dessert to serve after both chefs, and a special guest enjoyed a main dish. After learning and replicating a dessert, the recruits had to prepare a meal for both chefs and a surprise guest, usually a spouse or other family member. The first season's main dishes were an improved version of the recruits’ audition meal. The special guests in the second season got to choose what they wanted the students to make them. Two recruits remained in the final episode and had to prepare an appetizer, main dish, and dessert for a panel of three food critics. The critics in season 1 thought that the final meal was prepared by the chefs until after they sampled all the courses. In season 2, the critics learned their meal was prepared by the recruits immediately after entering the restaurant. Anne Burrell and Bobby Flay hosted season 3 replacing Robert Irvine. Key Key †: Contestant died after filming. Key Tyler Florence joins Anne Burrell to host seasons 6, replacing Bobby Flay after 3 seasons. The season premiered on January 4, 2015 to 2,123,000 viewers. The second episode was lower at 1,456,000 viewers, with the third episode rising to 1,732,000 viewers and the fourth episode reached 1,689,000 viewers. the 5th episode reached 1,634,000 viewers. The sixth episode received 1.55 million viewers. Contestant Stephanie Streisand was deemed too ill to continue on January 11 Key Rachael Ray joins Anne Burrell to host season 7. The winner earns a $50,000 donation for their chosen charity. Because this season had only 7 total recruits, each team's worst recruit from that week's Main Dish challenge competed head to head in a quickfire elimination challenge instead of eliminating both recruits each week. This challenge involved more basic cooking techniques (e.g. knife skills) and the winner would be decided by a blind judging from both Anne and Rachael. The winning recruit stayed in the competition while the losing recruit was eliminated. Key Tyler Florence joins Anne Burrell to host season 8. Key Rachael Ray returns with Anne Burrell to host season 2 of the Celebrity Edition. The winner earns a $50,000 donation for their chosen charity. The season premiered on September 14, 2016 to 1,185,000 viewers. Key Rachael Ray joins Anne Burrell to host season 10. The season premiered on January 1, 2017. Key In Episode 6, Both Chef Anne and Chef Rachael decided not to send anyone from their teams home. Rachael Ray returns with Anne Burrell to host season 3 of the Celebrity Edition. The season premiered on August 23, 2017. •Note: Vivica was originally eliminated on September 20. In Episode 7, airing on October 4, both Vivica and Sean returned to the competition for a redemption skill drill. Vivica won the drill, re-entered the competition and was then eliminated following the main challenge. Key Tyler Florence joins Anne Burrell to host season 12. Key In episode 5, contestants Lacey and Spencer switch teams instead of being eliminated, Lacey on Chef Anne's Team and Spencer on Chef Tyler's team. Tyler Florence returns with Anne Burrell to host season 4 of the Celebrity Edition. This is the first Celebrity Edition to not feature Rachael Ray as a judge. The season premiered on April 15, 2018. Key Robert Irvine joined Anne Burrell to host season 14. Key Tyler Florence joins Anne Burrell to host season 15. Since the number of contestants is odd, one of them is eliminated before getting into the teams. Key Tyler Florence returns with Anne Burrell to host the fifth run of the Celebrity Edition. The season premiered on April 21, 2019. Key Bobby Flay joins Anne Burrell to host season 17. The season, featuring 14 recruits, debuted on August 4, 2019. Key Alton Brown joins Anne Burrell to host season 18. The season, featuring 16 recruits, will debut on January 5, 2020. Key Food Network Star is a reality television series that premiered June 5, 2005. It was produced by CBS EYEtoo Productions for seasons 1–8 and by Triage Entertainment for subsequent seasons. It airs on the Food Network in the United States. Prior to season seven, the series was known as The Next Food Network Star. The first season of The Next Food Network Star series was taped in February 2005, and was composed of five episodes in June 2005. Chicago area caterers Dan Smith and Steve McDonagh emerged as the winners, and went on to host a show called Party Line with Dan & Steve, now titled Party Line with The Hearty Boys, which premiered on September 18, 2005. The runner-up, Deborah Fewell, was chosen to host a special on food at beaches, Surf N Turf, which aired in June 2006. Michael Thomas was the recurring chef on The Tyra Banks Show. Susannah Locketti made an appearance on The Tony Danza Show, and is also an on-air chef for Publix grocery stores in the southern United States. The second season of The Next Food Network Star series was taped in December 2005 and began airing in March 2006. Guy Fieri was announced as the winner on April 23, 2006, beating Reggie Southerland. Fieri has achieved considerable success at Food Network since his victory, and is still regularly on air as of July 2018. Guy's Big Bite premiered in June 2006 and was picked up for a second season in 2008 and remains in production. Currently, it is in its seventeenth season. Originally intended as a one-hour special, Fieri's second series, Diners, Drive-Ins and Dives, premiered April 23, 2007 and is still in production, currently in its thirtieth season. He went on to the series, Ultimate Recipe Showdown, premiering February 17, 2008, and Guy Off The Hook on September 14, 2008. He has also started a new successful show called Guy's Grocery Games. Fourth-place contestant Nathan Lyon began hosting his own series, A Lyon In the Kitchen, on the Discovery Health Channel in March 2007. The third season began on June 3, 2007, and the winner was announced on Sunday, July 22. In season 3, judges sent 1 or 2 contestants home weekly. Once the field was down to 2 final contestants, the viewers picked the winner. Marc Summers (host of the first 2 seasons) only returned for this season's finale. Bobby Flay would host subsequent season finales. During the season, the contestants lived in a shared house in New York City. The contestants' challenges included cooking concession food for an NBA game (with guest Darryl Dawkins) to a mini version of Food Network's Iron Chef America (with guest judges Bobby Flay and Cat Cora). The Selection Committee consisted of Food Network executives Bob Tuschman and Susie Fogelson along with one guest. Guest judges included Alton Brown, Giada De Laurentiis, Duff Goldman, season two winner Guy Fieri, and Robert Irvine. Paula Deen and Rachael Ray participated in contestant challenges, and Bobby Flay also played a role in the guidance and selection process. Amy Finley was chosen by America as The Next Food Network Star on July 22, 2007. Her new show The Gourmet Next Door premiered on October 14, 2007 and ran for six episodes. Finley later declined to continue with the series, citing relocation to France for family reasons. Season four of The Next Food Network Star premiered on Sunday, June 1, 2008. Food Network executives Bob Tuschman and Susie Fogelson are joined by Bobby Flay as the selection committee for this season. Each new episode aired on Sundays at 10:00 PM EDT. For this season, the viewers no longer received the chance to vote for the winner; producers instead made the final decision. This led to an error by FoodNetwork.com, which briefly posted the winning moment video on their website three days before the finale aired. The winner for the fourth season was Aaron McCargo Jr. His winning show idea, Big Daddy's House, first aired August 3, 2008. Finalist Adam Gertler was hired to host a Food Network show called Will Work for Food, which debuted on January 19, 2009 and was cancelled after one season. He hosted the Food Network show Kid in a Candy Store, which aired two seasons. Kelsey Nixon co-hosted a web show on food2.com (a Food Network sister site aka Cooking Channel) and also appeared in the premiere of Chefs vs. City in 2009. In 2010, Gertler and Nixon became co-hosts of The Next Food Network Star After Party, a half-hour recap/interview show following that night's episode of Star, on Cooking Channel. Nixon stars in Kelsey's Essentials, a program on kitchen and cooking basics for The Cooking Channel that ran November, 2010-2013. Season five of The Next Food Network Star premiered on June 7, 2009. Food Network executives Bob Tuschman and Susie Fogelson were joined by Bobby Flay as the Selection Committee for this season, which was filmed early 2009 in New York, New York and Miami, Florida. Melissa D'Arabian was declared the winner on August 2, 2009 with the title for her show being Ten Dollar Dinners. Her show premiered on August 9, 2009. On August 17, 2009, Food Network announced Jeffrey Saad would return in a series of online videos based on his pilot, now called "The Spice Smuggler." The program premiered with four 4-1/2 minute videos featuring one spice and a recipe incorporating it. Saad was named the national representative for the American Egg Board. In November, 2010, Saad debuted in a new show for The Cooking Channel titled United Tastes of America, which explores multiple aspects of traditional American food. Finalist Debbie Lee has carried her "Seoul to Soul" concept to the streets of L.A., opening a lunch truck, Ahn-Joo, featuring a range of Korean food. The sixth season of the series premiered on Sunday, June 6, 2010. Food Network executives Bob Tuschman and Susie Fogelson were again joined by Bobby Flay as judges; in addition, Giada De Laurentiis served as an on-set mentor. On July 17, 2010, a post-competition recap and discussion show premiered on The Cooking Channel. Shows were filmed in Los Angeles, California and New York, New York. On August 15, 2010, Aarti Sequeira was declared the winner, and her new show Aarti Party premiered on Sunday, August 22, 2010 and features American style cuisine with unique Indian flair. Season 2 of Aarti Party premiered that December. The Food Network also signed runner-up Tom Pizzica to host a new show called Outrageous Food, which premiered in November 2010. The last new episodes of Aarti Party aired in mid-2013. For the seventh season, the reality television series was renamed, after the first episode, Food Network Star, dropping the word "Next". It premiered Sunday, June 5, 2011. Food Network executives Bob Tuschman and Susie Fogelson were joined again by Bobby Flay and Giada De Laurentiis as the judges for this season. The series was filmed in Los Angeles, California and New York, New York. Season seven winner Jeff Mauro's show "Sandwich King" premiered on Sunday, August 21, 2011. In spring 2013, Jeff hosted $24 in 24, a show in which he went to several cities and ate an entire day's worth of meals on 24 dollars. Season 8 started May 13, 2012. For season 8, the format changed, with the contestants divided into three five-member teams, each coached by a Food Network host, either Bobby Flay, Alton Brown, or Giada De Laurentiis. Coaches worked with the teams as they prepared for and completed their tasks. The winner's coach would also be the producer of the winner's show. Each week, a winning team was selected, and one member of the teams that did not win was up for elimination in a new feature called Producers' Challenge. Each challenge was hosted by current Food Network personalities. The final winner was decided by an audience vote cast on foodnetwork.com between July 15–17, 2012 and the winner was announced on July 22, 2012. The winner was Justin Warner, who hosted a one-hour special on The Food Network, but did not have a series produced. He has become a blogger on foodnetwork.com, makes appearances at Food Network events, and is an active Twitter presence. Alton Brown – host of Good Eats, Iron Chef America, The Next Iron Chef, and Cutthroat Kitchen., Bobby Flay – host of Grill It! with Bobby Flay, Throwdown! with Bobby Flay. Co-host of season 3 of Worst Cooks in America and Iron Chef on Iron Chef America, Giada De Laurentiis – host of Everyday Italian , Giada at Home and Giada in Italy. Season 9 started on June 2, 2013. For season 9, Alton Brown, Bobby Flay, and Giada De Laurentiis mentored and judged twelve Food Network Star competitors, although the contestants were not divided into teams as in season 8. Many of this season's contestants had previously appeared on other Food Network shows. The winner was Damaris Phillips, decided by an audience vote cast on foodnetwork.com and announced live on August 11, 2013. The winner was Lenny McNab, decided by an audience vote cast on foodnetwork.com and announced live on August 10, 2014. It is the last season to date where the finale aired live—all subsequent season finales would be filmed months in advance prior to airing. Beginning with this season, Alton Brown no longer appeared as a judge. The winner was Eddie Jackson. Martita Jara originally competed in the eighth season of the series; she returned after winning the pre-season competition Comeback Kitchen. Matthew Grunwald originally competed in season 11. He returned for a second chance after winning the Comeback Kitchen competition. Amy Pottinger originally competed in season 13. She returned for a second chance after winning the Comeback Kitchen competition, along with Adam Gertler, who originally competed in season four. Palak Patel also competed on Beat Bobby Flay, where she defeated him in the Chicken Curry episode. This is the list of episodes for the Food Network competition reality series Chopped. New episodes are broadcast on Tuesdays at 9 p.m. ET. Chopped regular Marc Murphy did not appear as a judge in any episode this season. This is the first season where more than 13 episodes aired. The numbering on this season corresponded to season 39 on the Food Network watch website, so all five parts are listed as episodes 1-5 of season 39. Chopped episode guide at FoodNetwork.com, Chopped Junior episode guide at FoodNetwork.com

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"You Make Me Feel Like Dancing" is a song credited to British singer Leo Sayer, taken from his 1976 album Endless Flight. The song reached number one on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart, making it his first number-one single in the United States, and reached number 2 on the UK Singles Chart. Billboard ranked it as the No. 13 song of 1977. Credited songwriters Sayer and Vini Poncia won a Grammy Award for the song in 1978 in the category Best R&B; Song. In Australia, a live performance from the TV show Countdown is frequently used in place of a music video. Leo Sayer - vocals, John Barnes - clavinet, Larry Carlton, Ray Parker, Jr. - guitar, Steve Gadd - drums, Clydie King, Becky Louis, Sherlie Matthews - background vocals, Chuck Rainey - bass Sylvia wrote Swedish lyrics for "You Make Me Feel Like Dancing" and recorded this rendering: "Det Känns Som Jag Vill Dansa", for her 1977 album Leenden I Regn, A remixed version of "You Make Me Feel Like Dancing" credited to Groove Generation featuring Leo Sayer charted on the UK Singles Chart in 1998, peaking at #32., A cover by Carmen Carter & Donnie McClurkin featured in the 2000 Walt Disney Pictures direct-to-video animated film An Extremely Goofy Movie., A cover version sung by actress Anne Hathaway was included on the soundtrack for the 2004 film Ella Enchanted, adapted from the fantasy novel of the same name., A cover was performed by Hot Buttered Rum String Band on their live release Live in The Northeast., In 2008, The Wiggles sang the song as the title work of their DVD You Make Me Feel Like Dancing, with Leo Sayer guest starring. In 1977, the cast performed the song during a medley on an episode of The Brady Bunch Variety Hour., The 1977 comedy film Slap Shot features the song in an early scene., The song is featured in the 1978 film An Unmarried Woman., Sayer performed the song alongside human-sized dancing birds on The Muppet Show., In episode 3F21 of The Simpsons ("Homerpalooza"), a teenaged Homer and his friend Barney alternate singing the chorus of this song into hairbrushes in Homer's room., Fringe - Season Three, Episode 11: "Recipsrocity", Dr. Walter Bishop (John Noble) and Agent Astrid Farnsworth (Jasika Nicole) are in Dr. Bishop's lab examining the body of a 'shapeshifter', with the song playing in the background., The song is featured in several scenes in the 1996 film To Gillian on Her 37th Birthday., It was featured in the 2000 film Charlie's Angels., Song is featured in film Hardcore Henry., It was also used in film Bride and Prejudice in the trailer., In the movie "Anger Management" Transvestite Galaxia played by Woody Harrelson sings 2 lines of the song, In Season 3 Episode 5 of The Handmaid's Tale, "Unknown Caller", June (Elisabeth Moss) listens to the song on a mixtape, then records a message on the cassette to send to her husband, Luke (O. T. Fagbenle)., In Season 4, episode 15 of That 70s Show ("Tornado Prom"), Red and Kitty Forman, along with Bob Pinciotti and new girlfriend Joanne are in the Forman basement playing charades. Kitty is trying to act out the song title and Red fails to guess the right answer. An exasperated Kitty then says "I was DANCING... you make me feel like hips?" "When I Need You" is a popular song written by Albert Hammond and Carole Bayer Sager. Its first appearance was as the title track of Hammond's 1976 album When I Need You. Leo Sayer's version, produced by Richard Perry, was a massive hit worldwide, reaching number 1 on the UK Singles Chart for three weeks in February 1977 after three of his earlier singles had stalled at number 2. It also reached number 1 on both the Billboard Hot 100 for a single week in May 1977; and the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks. Billboard ranked it as the No. 24 song of 1977. Sayer performed it on the second show of the third season of The Muppet Show. The melody of the "hook" line, or chorus of "When I Need You" is identical to the part of the Leonard Cohen song "Famous Blue Raincoat", where the lyrics are as follows: "Jane came by with a lock of your hair, she said that you gave it to her that night, that you planned to go clear". The melody of these lyrics matches the lyrics of "When I Need You" as follows: "(When I) need you, I just close my eyes and I'm with you, and all that I so want to give you, is only a heart beat away". In a 2006 interview with The Globe and Mail Cohen said: I once had that nicking happen with Leo Sayer. Do you remember that song 'When I Need You'?" Cohen sings the chorus of Sayer's number one hit from 1977, then segues into 'And Jane came by with a lock of your hair', a lyric from 'Famous Blue Raincoat'. 'Somebody sued them on my behalf … and they did settle', even though, he laughs, 'they hired a musicologist, who said, that particular motif was in the public domain and, in fact, could be traced back as far as Schubert. The same melody can be heard in Elton John's "Little Jeannie" in the lyrics: "Stepped into my life from a bad dream / Making the life that I had seem / Suddenly shiny and new" Leo Sayer – vocals, James Newton Howard – synthesizer, Bobby Keys – saxophone, Michael Omartian – electric piano, Dean Parks – electric guitar, Jeff Porcaro – drums, Willie Weeks – bass Lani Hall recorded a Spanish version of the song, titled "Si Me Amaras," (If You Loved Me), for her Grammy-winning 1985 album Es Fácil Amar, which was produced by Hammond. Mia Martini recorded an Italian version of the song, titled "se ti voglio", for her 1977 album per amarti Perry Como covered this song for his 1977 album Where You're Concerned. Sylvie Vartan recorded a French version of the song, titled "Je Pardonne," from Album 1977 "Georges. Rod Stewart recorded the song for his 1996 ballad compilation album If We Fall in Love Tonight. This version was produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis and was released as the second single from the album, though it did not chart in the US or UK. "When I Need You" is a promotional single from Celine Dion's Let's Talk About Love album, released on 7 September 1998 in Brazil only. After Dion finished her Falling into You Tour in June 1997, she began to record her next English album. Dion and her manager and husband René Angélil wanted to include few cover versions on it. David Foster came up with the idea of recording Leo Sayer's hit "When I Need You". The song, recorded at Paramount Studios and Chartmaker Studios, was produced by Foster and included on Dion's Let's Talk About Love album, released on 15 November 1997. Dion performed this song during the Let's Talk About Love avec Julie Snyder Canadian TV show in late 1997. After a string of successful singles like "My Heart Will Go On" and "Immortality", Sony Music Entertainment decided to release "When I Need You" as a promotional single in Brazil (September 1998). Two previous singles were very successful in Brazil. However, with no music video and no promotion "When I Need You" failed to repeat the success of Dion's earlier songs. Authors of "When I Need You" worked with Dion also on several other songs. Albert Hammond wrote "Just Walk Away", included on The Colour of My Love album (1993) and Carole Bayer Sager wrote "The Prayer", which became a part of These Are Special Times (1998). EW editor David Browne called the cover: "an obligatory remake (a precisely enunciated version of Leo Sayer's When I Need You)". The New York Observer editor Jonathan Bernstein: "A sliver of redemption is found in the passable version of Leo Sayer’s “When I Need You”". Brazilian promotional CD single 1. "When I Need You" – 4:12 On 29 October 2007, Cliff Richard released "When I Need You" and reached number 38 on the UK Singles Chart. It is also one of the five new recordings featured on his album Love... The Album. 1. "When I Need You" 2. "My Pretty One" 3. "Never Let Go" The Spanish singer achieved one of his best performances of this song in 1994. In 1998, the American singer Luther Vandross covered the song as part of his I Know album. Longtime associate and smooth jazz musician Kirk Whalum performed the saxophone solo on the track. The Malaysian band Black Dog Bone released a version sung in the Malay language, entitled "Bila rindu" (when I miss you). The Indonesian band D'lloyd later covered the song with almost identical lyrics to Black Dog Bone's translation. Vincent "Vini" Poncia Jr. (born April 29, 1942) is an American musician, songwriter and record producer. In the 1960s, Poncia formed a songwriting team with Peter Anders (née Peter Andreoli). An album of songs co-written by these childhood friends The Anders & Poncia Album, was produced by Richard Perry and released in 1969. Their songs were recorded by artists including The Ronettes, Bobby Bloom, and Darlene Love. Anders and Poncia were also members of The Trade Winds and The Innocence. The Trade Winds's debut single "New York is a Lonely Town" reached #32 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in 1965. In 1991, the Japanese singer- songwriter Tatsuro Yamashita covered this song as "Tokyo is a Lonely Town". In 1968, with Frankie Meluso (aka Mell) and Peter Anders, Poncia founded MAP (Mell Anders Poncia) City Records in New York City. Their company included a small recording studio brought by their chief engineer, Peter H. Rosen, who recorded sixteen albums before the company dissolved in 1970. During the 1970s, Poncia became Ringo Starr's co-writer, and appeared on several of his solo albums: Ringo (1973), Goodnight Vienna (1974), Ringo's Rotogravure (1976), Ringo the 4th (1977), and Bad Boy (1978). He also produced albums for Melissa Manchester and Lynda Carter's 1978 album Portrait. As a songwriter, he wrote songs for Jackie DeShannon, Martha Reeves, and Tommy James. Poncia is also listed as co-writer on "You Make Me Feel Like Dancing" with Leo Sayer. He was also the producer for The Faragher Brothers albums, Open Your Eyes (1978) and The Faraghers (1979). In 1978, he produced Peter Criss' 1978 solo album. At Criss's prompting, Poncia was brought in to produce Kiss's 1979 album Dynasty and co-wrote their hit song "I Was Made for Lovin' You" from that album. Poncia also produced another Kiss album, 1980's Unmasked. He sang backup vocals and helped with songwriting on both albums, having eight co-writing credits on Unmasked. In 1981, he produced the album Turn Out The Lights for the band Tycoon. Poncia also produced the Detroit rock band Adrenalin and their song "Road of the Gypsy", from the film Iron Eagle in 1985. He also produced DC Drive and their self-titled album in 1991. Poncia produced Criss's second post-Kiss solo album, 1982's Let Me Rock You, and he was credited as co-writer for five songs on Kiss's 1989 release, Hot in the Shade.

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Michael Jeffrey Jordan (born February 17, 1963), also known by his initials MJ, is an American former professional basketball player and the principal owner of the Charlotte Hornets of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played 15 seasons in the NBA, winning six championships with the Chicago Bulls. His biography on the official NBA website states: "By acclamation, Michael Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time." He was one of the most effectively marketed athletes of his generation and was considered instrumental in popularizing the NBA around the world in the 1980s and 1990s. Jordan played three seasons for coach Dean Smith with the North Carolina Tar Heels. As a freshman, he was a member of the Tar Heels' national championship team in 1982. Jordan joined the Bulls in 1984 as the third overall draft pick. He quickly emerged as a league star and entertained crowds with his prolific scoring. His leaping ability, demonstrated by performing slam dunks from the free throw line in Slam Dunk Contests, earned him the nicknames Air Jordan and His Airness. He also gained a reputation for being one of the best defensive players in basketball. In 1991, he won his first NBA championship with the Bulls, and followed that achievement with titles in 1992 and 1993, securing a "three-peat". Although Jordan abruptly retired from basketball before the beginning of the 1993–94 NBA season, and started a new career in Minor League Baseball, he returned to the Bulls in March 1995 and led them to three additional championships in 1996, 1997, and 1998, as well as a then-record 72 regular-season wins in the 1995–96 NBA season. Jordan retired for a second time in January 1999, but returned for two more NBA seasons from 2001 to 2003 as a member of the Washington Wizards. Jordan's individual accolades and accomplishments include six NBA Finals Most Valuable Player (MVP) Awards, ten scoring titles (both all-time records), five MVP Awards, ten All-NBA First Team designations, nine All-Defensive First Team honors, fourteen NBA All-Star Game selections, three All-Star Game MVP Awards, three steals titles, and the 1988 NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award. He holds the NBA records for highest career regular season scoring average (30.12 points per game) and highest career playoff scoring average (33.45 points per game). In 1999, he was named the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century by ESPN, and was second to Babe Ruth on the Associated Press' list of athletes of the century. Jordan is a two-time inductee into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame, having been enshrined in 2009 for his individual career, and again in 2010 as part of the group induction of the 1992 United States men's Olympic basketball team ("The Dream Team"). He became a member of the FIBA Hall of Fame in 2015. Jordan is also known for his product endorsements. He fueled the success of Nike's Air Jordan sneakers, which were introduced in 1984 and remain popular today. Jordan also starred as himself in the 1996 film Space Jam. In 2006, he became part-owner and head of basketball operations for the Charlotte Bobcats (now Hornets), and bought a controlling interest in 2010. In 2014, Jordan became the first billionaire player in NBA history. He is the third-richest African-American, behind Robert F. Smith and Oprah Winfrey. Jordan was born in New York City, New York, to Deloris (née Peoples), who worked in banking, and James R. Jordan Sr., an equipment supervisor. His family moved to Wilmington, North Carolina, when he was a toddler. Jordan attended Emsley A. Laney High School in Wilmington, where he highlighted his athletic career by playing basketball, baseball, and football. He tried out for the varsity basketball team during his sophomore year, but at 5'11" (1.80 m), he was deemed too short to play at that level. His taller friend, Harvest Leroy Smith, was the only sophomore to make the team. Motivated to prove his worth, Jordan became the star of Laney's junior varsity team, and tallied several 40-point games. The following summer, he grew four inches (10 cm) and trained rigorously. Upon earning a spot on the varsity roster, Jordan averaged more than 25 points per game (ppg) over his final two seasons of high school play. As a senior, he was selected to play in the 1981 McDonald's All-American Game and scored 30 points, after averaging 27 points, 12 rebounds and 6 assists per game for the season. Jordan was recruited by numerous college basketball programs, including Duke, North Carolina, South Carolina, Syracuse, and Virginia. In 1981, Jordan accepted a basketball scholarship to the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, where he majored in cultural geography. As a freshman in coach Dean Smith's team-oriented system, he was named ACC Freshman of the Year after he averaged 13.4 ppg on 53.4% shooting (field goal percentage). He made the game-winning jump shot in the 1982 NCAA Championship game against Georgetown, which was led by future NBA rival Patrick Ewing. Jordan later described this shot as the major turning point in his basketball career. During his three seasons with the Tar Heels, he averaged 17.7 ppg on 54.0% shooting, and added 5.0 rpg. He was selected by consensus to the NCAA All-American First Team in both his sophomore (1983) and junior (1984) seasons. After winning the Naismith and the Wooden College Player of the Year awards in 1984, Jordan left North Carolina one year before his scheduled graduation to enter the 1984 NBA draft. The Chicago Bulls selected Jordan with the third overall pick, after Hakeem Olajuwon (Houston Rockets) and Sam Bowie (Portland Trail Blazers). One of the primary reasons why Jordan was not drafted sooner was because the first two teams were in need of a center. However, Trail Blazers general manager Stu Inman contended that it was not a matter of drafting a center, but more a matter of taking Sam Bowie over Jordan, in part because Portland already had Clyde Drexler, who was a guard with similar skills to Jordan. ESPN, citing Bowie's injury-laden college career, named the Blazers' choice of Bowie as the worst draft pick in North American professional sports history. Jordan returned to North Carolina to complete his degree in 1986. He graduated the same year with a Bachelor of Arts degree in geography. During his rookie season with the Bulls, Jordan averaged 28.2 ppg on 51.5% shooting, and helped make a team that had won 35% of games in the previous three seasons playoff contenders. He quickly became a fan favorite even in opposing arenas, Roy S. Johnson of The New York Times described him as "the phenomenal rookie of the Bulls" in November, and Jordan appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated with the heading "A Star Is Born" in December. The fans also voted in Jordan as an All-Star starter during his rookie season. Controversy arose before the All-Star game when word surfaced that several veteran players—led by Isiah Thomas—were upset by the amount of attention Jordan was receiving. This led to a so-called "freeze-out" on Jordan, where players refused to pass the ball to him throughout the game. The controversy left Jordan relatively unaffected when he returned to regular season play, and he would go on to be voted Rookie of the Year. The Bulls finished the season 38–44 and lost to the Milwaukee Bucks in four games in the first round of the playoffs. Jordan's second season was cut short when he broke his foot in the third game of the year, causing him to miss 64 games. The Bulls made the playoffs despite Jordan's injury and a 30–52 record, at the time the fifth worst record of any team to qualify for the playoffs in NBA history. Jordan recovered in time to participate in the postseason and performed well upon his return. Against a 1985–86 Boston Celtics team that is often considered one of the greatest in NBA history, Jordan set the still-unbroken record for points in a playoff game with 63 in Game 2. The Celtics, however, managed to sweep the series. Jordan had completely recovered in time for the 1986–87 season, and he had one of the most prolific scoring seasons in NBA history. He became the only player other than Wilt Chamberlain to score 3,000 points in a season, averaging a league high 37.1 points on 48.2% shooting. In addition, Jordan demonstrated his defensive prowess, as he became the first player in NBA history to record 200 steals and 100 blocked shots in a season. Despite Jordan's success, Magic Johnson won the league's Most Valuable Player Award. The Bulls reached 40 wins, and advanced to the playoffs for the third consecutive year. However, they were again swept by the Celtics. Jordan again led the league in scoring during the 1987–88 season, averaging 35.0 ppg on 53.5% shooting and won his first league MVP Award. He was also named the Defensive Player of the Year, as he had averaged 1.6 blocks and a league high 3.16 steals per game. The Bulls finished 50–32, and made it out of the first round of the playoffs for the first time in Jordan's career, as they defeated the Cleveland Cavaliers in five games. However, the Bulls then lost in five games to the more experienced Detroit Pistons, who were led by Isiah Thomas and a group of physical players known as the "". In the 1988–89 season, Jordan again led the league in scoring, averaging 32.5 ppg on 53.8% shooting from the field, along with 8 rpg and 8 apg. The Bulls finished with a 47–35 record, and advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals, defeating the Cavaliers and New York Knicks along the way. The Cavaliers series included a career highlight for Jordan when he hit The Shot over Craig Ehlo at the buzzer in the fifth and final game of the series. However, the Pistons again defeated the Bulls, this time in six games, by utilizing their "Jordan Rules" method of guarding Jordan, which consisted of double and triple teaming him every time he touched the ball. The Bulls entered the 1989–90 season as a team on the rise, with their core group of Jordan and young improving players like Scottie Pippen and Horace Grant, and under the guidance of new coach Phil Jackson. On March 28, 1990, Jordan scored a career-high 69 points in a 117–113 road win over the Cavaliers. He averaged a league leading 33.6 ppg on 52.6% shooting, to go with 6.9 rpg and 6.3 apg in leading the Bulls to a 55–27 record. They again advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals after beating the Bucks and Philadelphia 76ers. However, despite pushing the series to seven games, the Bulls lost to the Pistons for the third consecutive season. In the 1990–91 season, Jordan won his second MVP award after averaging 31.5 ppg on 53.9% shooting, 6.0 rpg, and 5.5 apg for the regular season. The Bulls finished in first place in their division for the first time in 16 years and set a franchise record with 61 wins in the regular season. With Scottie Pippen developing into an All-Star, the Bulls had elevated their play. The Bulls defeated the New York Knicks and the Philadelphia 76ers in the opening two rounds of the playoffs. They advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals where their rival, the Detroit Pistons, awaited them. However, this time the Bulls beat the Pistons in a four-game sweep. The Bulls advanced to the NBA Finals for the first time in franchise history to face the Los Angeles Lakers, who had Magic Johnson and James Worthy, two formidable opponents. The Bulls won the series four games to one, and compiled a 15–2 playoff record along the way. Perhaps the best known moment of the series came in Game 2 when, attempting a dunk, Jordan avoided a potential Sam Perkins block by switching the ball from his right hand to his left in mid-air to lay the shot into the basket. In his first Finals appearance, Jordan posted per game averages of 31.2 points on 56% shooting from the field, 11.4 assists, 6.6 rebounds, 2.8 steals, and 1.4 blocks. Jordan won his first NBA Finals MVP award, and he cried while holding the NBA Finals trophy. Jordan and the Bulls continued their dominance in the 1991–92 season, establishing a 67–15 record, topping their franchise record from 1990–91. Jordan won his second consecutive MVP award with averages of 30.1 points, 6.4 rebounds and 6.1 assists per game on 52% shooting. After winning a physical 7-game series over the New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs and finishing off the Cleveland Cavaliers in the Conference Finals in 6 games, the Bulls met Clyde Drexler and the Portland Trail Blazers in the Finals. The media, hoping to recreate a Magic–Bird rivalry, highlighted the similarities between "Air" Jordan and Clyde "The Glide" during the pre-Finals hype. In the first game, Jordan scored a Finals-record 35 points in the first half, including a record-setting six three-point field goals. After the sixth three-pointer, he jogged down the court shrugging as he looked courtside. Marv Albert, who broadcast the game, later stated that it was as if Jordan was saying, "I can't believe I'm doing this." The Bulls went on to win Game 1, and defeat the Blazers in six games. Jordan was named Finals MVP for the second year in a row and finished the series averaging 35.8 ppg, 4.8 rpg, and 6.5 apg, while shooting 53% from the floor. In the 1992–93 season, despite a 32.6 ppg, 6.7 rpg, and 5.5 apg campaign and a second-place finish in Defensive Player of the Year voting, Jordan's streak of consecutive MVP seasons ended as he lost the award to his friend Charles Barkley. Coincidentally, Jordan and the Bulls met Barkley and his Phoenix Suns in the 1993 NBA Finals. The Bulls won their third NBA championship on a game-winning shot by John Paxson and a last-second block by Horace Grant, but Jordan was once again Chicago's leader. He averaged a Finals-record 41.0 ppg during the six-game series, and became the first player in NBA history to win three straight Finals MVP awards. He scored more than 30 points in every game of the series, including 40 or more points in 4 consecutive games. With his third Finals triumph, Jordan capped off a seven- year run where he attained seven scoring titles and three championships, but there were signs that Jordan was tiring of his massive celebrity and all of the non-basketball hassles in his life. During the Bulls' playoff run in 1993, Jordan was seen gambling in Atlantic City, New Jersey, the night before a game against the New York Knicks. The previous year, he admitted that he had to cover $57,000 in gambling losses, and author Richard Esquinas wrote a book in 1993 claiming he had won $1.25 million from Jordan on the golf course. NBA Commissioner David Stern denied in 1995 and 2006 that Jordan's 1993 retirement was a secret suspension by the league for gambling, but the rumor spread widely. In 2005, Jordan discussed his gambling with Ed Bradley of 60 Minutes and admitted that he made reckless decisions. Jordan stated, "Yeah, I've gotten myself into situations where I would not walk away and I've pushed the envelope. Is that compulsive? Yeah, it depends on how you look at it. If you're willing to jeopardize your livelihood and your family, then yeah". When Bradley asked him if his gambling ever got to the level where it jeopardized his livelihood or family, Jordan replied, "No". In 2010 Ron Shelton, director of Jordan Rides the Bus, said that he began working on the documentary believing that the NBA had suspended him, but that research "convinced [him it] was nonsense". On October 6, 1993, Jordan announced his retirement, citing a loss of desire to play the game. Jordan later stated that the death of his father three months earlier also shaped his decision. Jordan's father was murdered on July 23, 1993, at a highway rest area in Lumberton, North Carolina, by two teenagers, Daniel Green and Larry Martin Demery, who carjacked his luxury Lexus bearing the license plate "UNC 0023". His body was dumped in a South Carolina swamp and was not discovered until August 3. The assailants were traced from calls that they made on James Jordan's cell phone. The two criminals were caught, convicted at trial, and sentenced to life in prison. Jordan was close to his father; as a child he had imitated his father's proclivity to stick out his tongue while absorbed in work. He later adopted it as his own signature, displaying it each time he drove to the basket. In 1996, he founded a Chicago area Boys & Girls Club and dedicated it to his father. In his 1998 autobiography For the Love of the Game, Jordan wrote that he had been preparing for retirement as early as the summer of 1992. The added exhaustion due to the Dream Team run in the 1992 Olympics solidified Jordan's feelings about the game and his ever-growing celebrity status. Jordan's announcement sent shock waves throughout the NBA and appeared on the front pages of newspapers around the world. Jordan then further surprised the sports world by signing a Minor League Baseball contract with the Chicago White Sox on February 7, 1994. He reported to spring training in Sarasota, Florida, and was assigned to the team's minor league system on March 31, 1994. Jordan has stated this decision was made to pursue the dream of his late father, who had always envisioned his son as a Major League Baseball player. The White Sox were another team owned by Bulls owner Jerry Reinsdorf, who continued to honor Jordan's basketball contract during the years he played baseball. In 1994, Jordan played for the Birmingham Barons, a Double-A minor league affiliate of the Chicago White Sox, batting .202 with three home runs, 51 runs batted in, 30 stolen bases, 114 strikeouts, 51 base on balls, and 11 errors. He also appeared for the Scottsdale Scorpions in the 1994 Arizona Fall League, batting .252 against the top prospects in baseball. On November 1, 1994, his number 23 was retired by the Bulls in a ceremony that included the erection of a permanent sculpture known as The Spirit outside the new United Center. In the 1993–94 season, the Bulls achieved a 55–27 record without Jordan in the lineup, and lost to the New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs. The 1994–95 Bulls were a shell of the championship team of just two years earlier. Struggling at mid-season to ensure a spot in the playoffs, Chicago was 31–31 at one point in mid-March. The team received help, however, when Jordan decided to return to the Bulls. In March 1995, Jordan decided to quit baseball due to the ongoing Major League Baseball strike, as he wanted to avoid becoming a potential replacement player. On March 18, 1995, Jordan announced his return to the NBA through a two-word press release: "I'm back." The next day, Jordan took to the court with the Bulls to face the Indiana Pacers in Indianapolis, scoring 19 points. The game had the highest Nielsen rating of a regular season NBA game since 1975. Although he could have opted to wear his normal number in spite of the Bulls having retired it, Jordan instead wore number 45, as he had while playing baseball. Although he had not played an NBA game in a year and a half, Jordan played well upon his return, making a game-winning jump shot against Atlanta in his fourth game back. He then scored 55 points in the next game against the Knicks at Madison Square Garden on March 28, 1995. Boosted by Jordan's comeback, the Bulls went 13–4 to make the playoffs and advanced to the Eastern Conference Semifinals against the Orlando Magic. At the end of Game 1, Orlando's Nick Anderson stripped Jordan from behind, leading to the game-winning basket for the Magic; he would later comment that Jordan "didn't look like the old Michael Jordan" and that "No. 45 doesn't explode like No. 23 used to." Jordan responded by scoring 38 points in the next game, which Chicago won. Before the game, Jordan decided that he would immediately resume wearing his former number, 23. The Bulls were fined $25,000 for failing to report the impromptu number change to the NBA. Jordan was fined an additional $5,000 for opting to wear white sneakers when the rest of the Bulls wore black. He averaged 31 points per game in the series, but Orlando won the series in six games. Jordan was freshly motivated by the playoff defeat, and he trained aggressively for the 1995–96 season. The Bulls were strengthened by the addition of rebound specialist Dennis Rodman, and the team dominated the league, starting the season at 41–3. The Bulls eventually finished with the then-best regular season record in NBA history, 72–10; this record was later surpassed by the 2015–16 Golden State Warriors. Jordan led the league in scoring with 30.4 ppg and won the league's regular season and All-Star Game MVP awards. In the playoffs, the Bulls lost only three games in four series (Miami Heat 3–0, New York Knicks 4–1, Orlando Magic 4–0). They defeated the Seattle SuperSonics 4–2 in the NBA Finals to win their fourth championship. Jordan was named Finals MVP for a record fourth time, surpassing Magic Johnson's three Finals MVP awards. He also achieved only the second sweep of the MVP Awards in the All-Star Game, regular season and NBA Finals, Willis Reed having achieved the first, during the 1969–70 season. Because this was Jordan's first championship since his father's murder, and it was won on Father's Day, Jordan reacted very emotionally upon winning the title, including a memorable scene of him crying on the locker room floor with the game ball. In the 1996–97 season, the Bulls started out 69–11, but missed out on a second consecutive 70-win season by losing their final two games to finish 69–13. However, this year Jordan was beaten for the NBA MVP Award by Karl Malone. The Bulls again advanced to the Finals, where they faced Malone and the Utah Jazz. The series against the Jazz featured two of the more memorable clutch moments of Jordan's career. He won Game 1 for the Bulls with a buzzer-beating jump shot. In Game 5, with the series tied at 2, Jordan played despite being feverish and dehydrated from a stomach virus. In what is known as the "Flu Game", Jordan scored 38 points, including the game-deciding 3-pointer with 25 seconds remaining. The Bulls won 90–88 and went on to win the series in six games. For the fifth time in as many Finals appearances, Jordan received the Finals MVP award. During the 1997 NBA All-Star Game, Jordan posted the first triple double in All-Star Game history in a victorious effort; however, he did not receive the MVP award. Jordan and the Bulls compiled a 62–20 record in the 1997–98 season. Jordan led the league with 28.7 points per game, securing his fifth regular-season MVP award, plus honors for All-NBA First Team, First Defensive Team and the All-Star Game MVP. The Bulls won the Eastern Conference Championship for a third straight season, including surviving a seven-game series with the Indiana Pacers in the Eastern Conference Finals; it was the first time Jordan had played in a Game 7 since the 1992 Eastern Conference Semifinals with the Knicks. After winning, they moved on for a rematch with the Jazz in the Finals. The Bulls returned to the Delta Center for Game 6 on June 14, 1998, leading the series 3–2. Jordan executed a series of plays, considered to be one of the greatest clutch performances in NBA Finals history. With the Bulls trailing 86–83 with 41.9 seconds remaining in the fourth quarter, Phil Jackson called a timeout. When play resumed, Jordan received the inbound pass, drove to the basket, and hit a shot over several Jazz defenders, cutting the Utah lead to 86–85. The Jazz brought the ball upcourt and passed the ball to forward Karl Malone, who was set up in the low post and was being guarded by Rodman. Malone jostled with Rodman and caught the pass, but Jordan cut behind him and took the ball out of his hands for a steal. Jordan then dribbled down the court and paused, eyeing his defender, Jazz guard Bryon Russell. With 10 seconds remaining, Jordan started to dribble right, then crossed over to his left, possibly pushing off Russell, although the officials did not call a foul. With 5.2 seconds left, Jordan launched the climactic shot of his career. Chicago took an 87–86 lead with his key-top jumper over a fallen Russell. Afterwards, the Jazz' John Stockton narrowly missed a game-winning three-pointer. The buzzer sounded, Jordan and the Bulls won their sixth NBA championship, and they achieved their second three-peat in the decade. Once again, Jordan was voted the Finals MVP, having led all scorers averaging 33.5 points per game, including 45 in the deciding Game 6. Jordan's six Finals MVPs is a record; Shaquille O'Neal, Magic Johnson, LeBron James and Tim Duncan are tied for second place with three apiece. The 1998 Finals holds the highest television rating of any Finals series in history. Game 6 also holds the highest television rating of any game in NBA history. With Phil Jackson's contract expiring, the pending departures of Scottie Pippen and Dennis Rodman looming, and being in the latter stages of an owner- induced lockout of NBA players, Jordan retired for the second time on January 13, 1999. On January 19, 2000, Jordan returned to the NBA not as a player, but as part owner and president of basketball operations for the Washington Wizards. Jordan's responsibilities with the Wizards were comprehensive. He controlled all aspects of the Wizards' basketball operations, and had the final say in all personnel matters. Opinions of Jordan as a basketball executive were mixed. He managed to purge the team of several highly paid, unpopular players (such as forward Juwan Howard and point guard Rod Strickland), but used the first pick in the 2001 NBA draft to select high schooler Kwame Brown, who did not live up to expectations and was traded away after four seasons. Despite his January 1999 claim that he was "99.9% certain" that he would never play another NBA game, in the summer of 2001 Jordan expressed interest in making another comeback, this time with his new team. Inspired by the NHL comeback of his friend Mario Lemieux the previous winter, Jordan spent much of the spring and summer of 2001 in training, holding several invitation-only camps for NBA players in Chicago. In addition, Jordan hired his old Chicago Bulls head coach, Doug Collins, as Washington's coach for the upcoming season, a decision that many saw as foreshadowing another Jordan return. On September 25, 2001, Jordan announced his return to the NBA to play for the Washington Wizards, indicating his intention to donate his salary as a player to a relief effort for the victims of the September 11 attacks. In an injury- plagued 2001–02 season, he led the team in scoring (22.9 ppg), assists (5.2 apg), and steals (1.42 spg). However, torn cartilage in his right knee ended Jordan's season after only 60 games, the fewest he had played in a regular season since playing 17 games after returning from his first retirement during the 1994–95 season. Jordan started 53 of his 60 games for the season, averaging 24.3 points, 5.4 assists, and 6.0 rebounds, and shooting 41.9% from the field in his 53 starts. His last seven appearances were in a reserve role, in which he averaged just over 20 minutes per game. Playing in his 14th and final NBA All-Star Game in 2003, Jordan passed Kareem Abdul-Jabbar as the all- time leading scorer in All-Star Game history (a record since broken by Kobe Bryant). That year, Jordan was the only Washington player to play in all 82 games, starting in 67 of them. He averaged 20.0 points, 6.1 rebounds, 3.8 assists, and 1.5 steals per game. He also shot 45% from the field, and 82% from the free throw line. Even though he turned 40 during the season, he scored 20 or more points 42 times, 30 or more points nine times, and 40 or more points three times. On February 21, 2003, Jordan became the first 40-year-old to tally 43 points in an NBA game. During his stint with the Wizards, all of Jordan's home games at the MCI Center were sold out, and the Wizards were the second most-watched team in the NBA, averaging 20,172 fans a game at home and 19,311 on the road. However, neither of Jordan's final two seasons resulted in a playoff appearance for the Wizards, and Jordan was often unsatisfied with the play of those around him. At several points he openly criticized his teammates to the media, citing their lack of focus and intensity, notably that of the number one draft pick in the 2001 NBA draft, Kwame Brown. With the recognition that 2002–03 would be Jordan's final season, tributes were paid to him throughout the NBA. In his final game at the United Center in Chicago, which was his old home court, Jordan received a four-minute standing ovation. The Miami Heat retired the number 23 jersey on April 11, 2003, even though Jordan never played for the team. At the 2003 All-Star Game, Jordan was offered a starting spot from Tracy McGrady and Allen Iverson, but refused both. In the end, he accepted the spot of Vince Carter, who decided to give it up under great public pressure. Jordan played in his final NBA game on April 16, 2003, in Philadelphia. After scoring only 13 points in the game, Jordan went to the bench with 4 minutes and 13 seconds remaining in the third quarter and his team trailing the Philadelphia 76ers, 75–56. Just after the start of the fourth quarter, the First Union Center crowd began chanting "We want Mike!" After much encouragement from coach Doug Collins, Jordan finally rose from the bench and re-entered the game, replacing Larry Hughes with 2:35 remaining. At 1:45, Jordan was intentionally fouled by the 76ers' Eric Snow, and stepped to the line to make both free throws. After the second foul shot, the 76ers in-bounded the ball to rookie John Salmons, who in turn was intentionally fouled by Bobby Simmons one second later, stopping time so that Jordan could return to the bench. Jordan received a three-minute standing ovation from his teammates, his opponents, the officials, and the crowd of 21,257 fans. Jordan played on two Olympic gold medal-winning American basketball teams. He won a gold medal as a college player in the 1984 Summer Olympics. The team was coached by Bob Knight and featured players such as Patrick Ewing, Sam Perkins, Chris Mullin, Steve Alford, and Wayman Tisdale. Jordan led the team in scoring, averaging 17.1 ppg for the tournament. In the 1992 Summer Olympics, he was a member of the star-studded squad that included Magic Johnson and Larry Bird that was dubbed the "Dream Team". Jordan was the only player to start all eight games in the Olympics. Playing limited minutes due to the frequent blowouts, Jordan averaged 14.9 ppg, finishing second on the team in scoring. Jordan and fellow Dream Team members Ewing and Mullin are the only American men's basketball players to win Olympic gold medals as amateurs and professionals. After his third retirement, Jordan assumed that he would be able to return to his front office position as Director of Basketball Operations with the Wizards. However, his previous tenure in the Wizards' front office had produced the aforementioned mixed results and may have also influenced the trade of Richard "Rip" Hamilton for Jerry Stackhouse (although Jordan was not technically Director of Basketball Operations in 2002). On May 7, 2003, Wizards owner Abe Pollin fired Jordan as the team's president of basketball operations. Jordan later stated that he felt betrayed, and that if he had known he would be fired upon retiring he never would have come back to play for the Wizards. Jordan kept busy over the next few years. He stayed in shape, played golf in celebrity charity tournaments, and spent time with his family in Chicago. He also promoted his Jordan Brand clothing line and rode motorcycles. Since 2004, Jordan has owned Michael Jordan Motorsports, a professional closed-course motorcycle road racing team that competed with two Suzukis in the premier Superbike championship sanctioned by the American Motorcyclist Association (AMA) until the end of the 2013 season. On June 15, 2006, Jordan bought a minority stake in the Charlotte Bobcats, becoming the team's second-largest shareholder behind majority owner Robert L. Johnson. As part of the deal, Jordan took full control over the basketball side of the operation, with the title "Managing Member of Basketball Operations." Despite Jordan's previous success as an endorser, he has made an effort not to be included in Charlotte's marketing campaigns. A decade earlier, Jordan had made a bid to become part-owner of Charlotte's original NBA team, the Charlotte Hornets, but talks collapsed when owner George Shinn refused to give Jordan complete control of basketball operations. In February 2010, it was reported that Jordan was seeking majority ownership of the Bobcats, who changed their nickname to the Hornets in 2014. As February wore on, it became apparent that Jordan and former Houston Rockets president George Postolos were the leading contenders for ownership of the team. On February 27, the Bobcats announced that Johnson had reached an agreement with Jordan and his group, MJ Basketball Holdings, to buy the team pending NBA approval. On March 17, the NBA Board of Governors unanimously approved Jordan's purchase, making him the first former player to become the majority owner of an NBA team. It also made him the league's only African-American majority owner of an NBA team. During the 2011 NBA lockout, The New York Times wrote that Jordan led a group of 10 to 14 hardline owners who wanted to cap the players' share of basketball-related income at 50 percent and as low as 47. Journalists observed that, during the labor dispute in 1998, Jordan had told Washington Wizards then-owner Abe Pollin, "If you can't make a profit, you should sell your team." Jason Whitlock of FoxSports.com called Jordan a "sellout" wanting "current players to pay for his incompetence." He cited Jordan's executive decisions to draft disappointing players Kwame Brown and Adam Morrison. During the 2011–12 NBA season that was shortened to 66 games by the lockout, the Bobcats posted a 7–59 record. Their .106 winning percentage was the worst in NBA history. "I'm not real happy about the record book scenario last year. It's very, very frustrating", Jordan said later that year. During the 2019 NBA offseason, Jordan sold a minority piece of the Hornets to Gabe Plotkin and Daniel Sundheim, retaining the majority of the team for himself. Jordan was a shooting guard who was also capable of playing as a small forward (the position he would primarily play during his second return to professional basketball with the Washington Wizards), and as a point guard. Jordan was known throughout his career for being a strong clutch performer. With the Bulls, he decided 25 games with field goals or free throws in the last 30 seconds, including two NBA Finals games and five other playoff contests. His competitiveness was visible in his prolific trash-talk and well-known work ethic. As the Bulls organization built the franchise around Jordan, management had to trade away players who were not "tough enough" to compete with him in practice. To help improve his defense, he spent extra hours studying film of opponents. On offense, he relied more upon instinct and improvization at game time. Noted as a durable player, Jordan did not miss four or more games while active for a full season from 1986–87 to 2001–02, when he injured his right knee. Of the 15 seasons Jordan was in the NBA, he played all 82 regular season games nine times. Jordan has frequently cited David Thompson, Walter Davis, and Jerry West as influences. Confirmed at the start of his career, and possibly later on, Jordan had a special "Love of the Game Clause" written into his contract (unusual at the time) which allowed him to play basketball against anyone at any time, anywhere. Jordan had a versatile offensive game. He was capable of aggressively driving to the basket, as well as drawing fouls from his opponents at a high rate; his 8,772 free throw attempts are the 11th- highest total in NBA history. As his career progressed, Jordan also developed the ability to post up his opponents and score with his trademark fadeaway jump shot, using his leaping ability to "fade away" from block attempts. According to Hubie Brown, this move alone made him nearly unstoppable. Despite media criticism as a "selfish" player early in his career, Jordan's 5.3 assists per game also indicate his willingness to defer to his teammates. After shooting under 30% from three-point range in his first five seasons in the NBA, including a career-low 13% in the season, Jordan improved to a career-high 50% in the season. The three-point shot became more of a focus of his game from 1994–95 to 1996–97, when the NBA shortened its three-point line to (from ). His three-point field-goal percentages ranged from 35% to 43% in seasons in which he attempted at least 230 three-pointers between 1989–90 and 1996–97. For a guard, Jordan was also a good rebounder (6.2 per game). In 1988, Jordan was honored with the NBA's Defensive Player of the Year Award and became the first NBA player to win both the Defensive Player of the Year and Most Valuable Player awards in a career (since equaled by Hakeem Olajuwon, David Robinson, and Kevin Garnett; Olajuwon is the only player other than Jordan to win both during the same season). In addition, he set both seasonal and career records for blocked shots by a guard, and combined this with his ball-thieving ability to become a standout defensive player. He ranks third in NBA history in total steals with 2,514, trailing John Stockton and Jason Kidd. Jerry West often stated that he was more impressed with Jordan's defensive contributions than his offensive ones. He was also known to have strong eyesight; broadcaster Al Michaels said that he was able to read baseball box scores on a 27-inch (69 cm) television clearly from about 50 feet (15 m) away. Jordan's talent was clear from his first NBA season; by November he was being compared to Julius Erving. Larry Bird said that he had "Never seen anyone like him", that Jordan was "One of a kind" and the best player he had ever seen, and comparable to Wayne Gretzky as an athlete. In his first game in Madison Square Garden against the New York Knicks, Jordan received a standing ovation of almost one minute. After he scored a playoff record 63 points against the Boston Celtics on April 20, 1986, Bird described him as "God disguised as Michael Jordan". Jordan led the NBA in scoring in 10 seasons (NBA record) and tied Wilt Chamberlain's record of seven consecutive scoring titles. He was also a fixture on the NBA All-Defensive First Team, making the roster nine times (NBA record shared with Gary Payton, Kevin Garnett and Kobe Bryant). Jordan also holds the top career regular season and playoff scoring averages of 30.1 and 33.4 points per game, respectively. By 1998, the season of his Finals-winning shot against the Jazz, he was well known throughout the league as a clutch performer. In the regular season, Jordan was the Bulls' primary threat in the final seconds of a close game and in the playoffs; he would always ask for the ball at crunch time. Jordan's total of 5,987 points in the playoffs is the second-highest in NBA history. He retired with 32,292 points in regular season play, placing him fifth on the NBA's all-time scoring list behind Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Karl Malone, Kobe Bryant, and LeBron James. With five regular-season MVPs (tied for second place with Bill Russell—only Kareem Abdul-Jabbar has won more, with six), six Finals MVPs (NBA record), and three All-Star Game MVPs, Jordan is the most decorated player in NBA history. Jordan finished among the top three in regular-season MVP voting 10 times, and was named one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History in 1996. He is one of only seven players in history to win an NCAA championship, an NBA championship, and an Olympic gold medal (doing so twice with the 1984 and 1992 U.S. men's basketball teams). Since 1976, the year of the NBA's merger with the American Basketball Association, Jordan and Pippen are the only two players to win six NBA Finals playing for one team. In the All-Star Game fan ballot, Jordan received the most votes nine times, more than any other player. Many of Jordan's contemporaries have said that Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time. In 1999, an ESPN survey of journalists, athletes and other sports figures ranked Jordan the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century, above such luminaries as Babe Ruth and Muhammad Ali. Jordan placed second to Babe Ruth in the Associated Press' December 1999 list of 20th century athletes. In addition, the Associated Press voted him the greatest basketball player of the 20th century. Jordan has also appeared on the front cover of Sports Illustrated a record 50 times. In the September 1996 issue of Sport, which was the publication's 50th-anniversary issue, Jordan was named the greatest athlete of the past 50 years. Jordan's athletic leaping ability, highlighted in his back-to-back Slam Dunk Contest championships in 1987 and 1988, is credited by many people with having influenced a generation of young players. Several current NBA players—including LeBron James and Dwyane Wade—have stated that they considered Jordan their role model while they were growing up. In addition, commentators have dubbed a number of next-generation players "the next Michael Jordan" upon their entry to the NBA, including Penny Hardaway, Grant Hill, Allen Iverson, Bryant, James, Vince Carter, and Dwyane Wade. Although Jordan was a well-rounded player, his "Air Jordan" image is also often credited with inadvertently decreasing the jump shooting skills, defense, and fundamentals of young players, a fact Jordan himself has lamented. During his heyday, Jordan did much to increase the status of the game. Television ratings increased only during his time in the league. The popularity of the NBA in the U.S. declined after his last title. As late as 2015, Finals ratings had not returned to the level reached during his last championship-winning season. In August 2009, the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in Springfield, Massachusetts, opened a Michael Jordan exhibit that contained items from his college and NBA careers, as well as from the 1992 "Dream Team". The exhibit also has a batting glove to signify Jordan's short career in Minor League Baseball. After Jordan received word of his acceptance into the Hall of Fame, he selected Class of 1996 member David Thompson to present him. As Jordan would later explain during his induction speech in September 2009, when he was growing up in North Carolina, he was not a fan of the Tar Heels and greatly admired Thompson, who played at rival North Carolina State. In September, he was inducted into the Hall with several former Bulls teammates in attendance, including Scottie Pippen, Dennis Rodman, Charles Oakley, Ron Harper, Steve Kerr, and Toni Kukoč. Two of Jordan's former coaches, Dean Smith and Doug Collins, were also among those present. His emotional reaction during his speech—when he began to cry—was captured by Associated Press photographer Stephan Savoia and would later go viral on social media as the Crying Jordan Internet meme. In 2016, President Barack Obama honored Jordan with the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Jordan married Juanita Vanoy in September 1989, and they had two sons, Jeffrey and Marcus, and a daughter, Jasmine. Jordan and Vanoy filed for divorce on January 4, 2002, citing irreconcilable differences, but reconciled shortly thereafter. They again filed for divorce and were granted a final decree of dissolution of marriage on December 29, 2006, commenting that the decision was made "mutually and amicably". It is reported that Juanita received a $168 million settlement (equivalent to $ million in ), making it the largest celebrity divorce settlement on public record at the time. In 1991, Jordan purchased a lot in Highland Park, Illinois, to build a 56,000 square-foot (5,200 m) mansion, which was completed four years later. Jordan listed his Highland Park mansion for sale in 2012. His two sons attended Loyola Academy, a private Roman Catholic high school located in Wilmette, Illinois. Jeffrey graduated as a member of the 2007 graduating class and played his first collegiate basketball game on November 11, 2007, for the University of Illinois. After two seasons, Jeffrey left the Illinois basketball team in 2009. He later rejoined the team for a third season, then received a release to transfer to the University of Central Florida, where Marcus was attending. Marcus transferred to Whitney Young High School after his sophomore year at Loyola Academy and graduated in 2009. He began attending UCF in the fall of 2009, and played three seasons of basketball for the school. Jordan is the fourth of five children. He has two older brothers, Larry Jordan and James R. Jordan Jr., one older sister, Deloris, and one younger sister, Roslyn. James retired in 2006 as the Command Sergeant Major of the 35th Signal Brigade of the XVIII Airborne Corps in the U.S. Army. Jordan's nephew through Larry, Justin Jordan, played Division I basketball at UNC Greensboro. On July 21, 2006, a judge in Cook County, Illinois, determined that Jordan did not owe his alleged former lover Karla Knafel $5 million in a breach of contract claim. Jordan had allegedly paid Knafel $250,000 to keep their relationship a secret. Knafel claimed Jordan promised her $5 million for remaining silent and agreeing not to file a paternity suit after Knafel learned she was pregnant in 1991. A DNA test showed Jordan was not the father of the child. He proposed to his longtime girlfriend, Cuban-American model Yvette Prieto, on Christmas 2011, and they were married on April 27, 2013, at Bethesda-by-the-Sea Episcopal Church. It was announced on November 30, 2013, that the two were expecting their first child together. On February 11, 2014, Prieto gave birth to identical twin daughters named Victoria and Ysabel. Jordan became a grandfather in 2019 when his daughter Jasmine gave birth to a son, whose father is former Indiana Pacer Rakeem Christmas. From 2001 to 2014, Jordan hosted an annual golf tournament, the Michael Jordan Celebrity Invitational, that raised money for various charities. In 2006, Jordan and his wife Juanita pledged $5 million to Chicago's Hales Franciscan High School. The Jordan Brand has made donations to Habitat for Humanity and a Louisiana branch of the Boys & Girls Clubs of America. The Make-A-Wish Foundation named Jordan its Chief Wish Ambassador in 2008. Five years later, he granted his 200th wish for the organization. As of 2019, he has raised more than $5 million for the Make-A-Wish Foundation. In 2015, Jordan donated a settlement of undisclosed size from a lawsuit against supermarkets that had used his name without permission to 23 different Chicago charities. Jordan funded two Novant Health Michael Jordan Family Clinics in Charlotte, North Carolina, in 2017 by giving $7 million, the biggest donation he had made at the time. One year later, after Hurricane Florence damaged parts of North Carolina, including his former hometown of Wilmington, Jordan donated $2 million to relief efforts. He gave $1 million to aid the Bahamas' recovery following Hurricane Dorian in 2019. Jordan is one of the most marketed sports figures in history. He has been a major spokesman for such brands as Nike, Coca-Cola, Chevrolet, Gatorade, McDonald's, Ball Park Franks, Rayovac, Wheaties, Hanes, and MCI. Jordan has had a long relationship with Gatorade, appearing in over 20 commercials for the company since 1991, including the "Be Like Mike" commercials in which a song was sung by children wishing to be like Jordan. Nike created a signature shoe for him, called the Air Jordan, in 1984. One of Jordan's more popular commercials for the shoe involved Spike Lee playing the part of Mars Blackmon. In the commercials Lee, as Blackmon, attempted to find the source of Jordan's abilities and became convinced that "it's gotta be the shoes". The hype and demand for the shoes even brought on a spate of "shoe-jackings" where people were robbed of their sneakers at gunpoint. Subsequently, Nike spun off the Jordan line into its own division named the "Jordan Brand". The company features an impressive list of athletes and celebrities as endorsers. The brand has also sponsored college sports programs such as those of North Carolina, California, Georgetown, and Marquette. Jordan also has been associated with the Looney Tunes cartoon characters. A Nike commercial shown during 1992's Super Bowl XXVI featured Jordan and Bugs Bunny playing basketball. The Super Bowl commercial inspired the 1996 live action/animated film Space Jam, which starred Jordan and Bugs in a fictional story set during the former's first retirement from basketball. They have subsequently appeared together in several commercials for MCI. Jordan also made an appearance in the music video of Michael Jackson's "Jam" (1992). Jordan's yearly income from the endorsements is estimated to be over forty million dollars. In addition, when Jordan's power at the ticket gates was at its highest point, the Bulls regularly sold out both their home and road games. Due to this, Jordan set records in player salary by signing annual contracts worth in excess of US$30 million per season. An academic study found that Jordan's first NBA comeback resulted in an increase in the market capitalization of his client firms of more than $1 billion. Most of Jordan's endorsement deals, including his first deal with Nike, were engineered by his agent, David Falk. Jordan has described Falk as "the best at what he does" and that "marketing-wise, he's great. He's the one who came up with the concept of 'Air Jordan.'" In June 2010, Jordan was ranked by Forbes magazine as the 20th-most powerful celebrity in the world with $55 million earned between June 2009 and June 2010. According to the Forbes article, Jordan Brand generates $1 billion in sales for Nike. In June 2014, Jordan was named the first NBA player to become a billionaire, after he increased his stake in the Charlotte Hornets from 80% to 89.5%. On January 20, 2015, Jordan was honored with the Charlotte Business Journal's Business Person of the Year for 2014. In 2017, he became a part owner of the Miami Marlins of Major League Baseball. Forbes designated Jordan as the athlete with the highest career earnings in 2017. From his Jordan Brand income and endorsements, Jordan's 2015 income was an estimated $110 million, the most of any retired athlete. , his current net worth is estimated at $1.9 billion by Forbes. Jordan is the third-richest African-American as of 2018, behind Robert F. Smith and Oprah Winfrey. Jordan co-owns an automotive group which bears his name. The company has a Nissan dealership in Durham, North Carolina, acquired in 1990, and formerly had a Lincoln–Mercury dealership from 1995 until its closure in June 2009. The company also owned a Nissan franchise in Glen Burnie, Maryland. The restaurant industry is another business interest of Jordan's. His restaurants include a steakhouse in New York City's Grand Central Terminal, among others. Jordan is the majority investor in a golf course, Grove XXIII, under construction in Hobe Sound, Florida. Jordan has authored several books focusing on his life, basketball career, and world view. Rare Air: Michael on Michael (1993) with Mark Vancil and Walter Iooss., I Can't Accept Not Trying: Michael Jordan on the Pursuit of Excellence (1994) with Mark Vancil and Sandro Miller., For the Love of the Game: My Story (1998) with Mark Vancil., Driven from Within (2005) with Mark Vancil. NCAA national championship – 1981–82, ACC Freshman of the Year – 1981–82, Two-time Consensus NCAA All-American First Team – 1982–83, 1983–84, ACC Men's Basketball Player of the Year – 1983–84, USBWA College Player of the Year – 1983–84, Naismith College Player of the Year – 1983–84, Adolph Rupp Trophy – 1983–84, John R. Wooden Award – 1983–84, Number 23 retired by the North Carolina Tar Heels Six-time NBA champion – 1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997, 1998, Six-time NBA Finals MVP – 1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997, 1998, Five-time NBA MVP – 1988, 1991, 1992, 1996, 1998, 10-time NBA scoring leader – 1987–1993, 1996–1998, 14-time NBA All-Star – 1985–1993, 1996–1998, 2002, 2003, Three-time NBA All-Star Game MVP – 1988, 1996, 1998, 11-time All-NBA Team:, Nine-time NBA All-Defensive First Team – 1988–1993, 1996–1998, Two-time NBA Slam Dunk Contest champion – 1987, 1988, NBA Rookie of the Year –, Two-time IBM Award winner – 1985, 1989, NBA Defensive Player of the Year –, Named one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History in 1996, Number 23 retired by the Chicago Bulls, Number 23 retired by the Miami Heat Two-time Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame, class of 2009 – individual, class of 2010 – as a member of the "Dream Team", United States Olympic Hall of Fame – class of 2009 (as a member of the "Dream Team"), FIBA Hall of Fame – class of 2015, Two-time Olympic Gold Medal winner – 1984, 1992, "Triple Crown of Basketball" winner, Three-time Associated Press Athlete of the Year – 1991, 1992, 1993, Sports Illustrated Sportsperson of the Year – 1991, Section of Madison Street in Chicago renamed Michael Jordan Drive – 1994, Ranked No.1 by Slam magazine's Top 50 Players of All-Time, Ranked No.1 by ESPN SportsCentury's Top North American Athletes of the 20th century, North Carolina Sports Hall of Fame, 1997 Marca Leyenda winner, 10-time ESPY Award winner (in various categories), Statue in front of the United Center, 2016 Presidential Medal of Freedom List of athletes who came out of retirement, Michael Jordan's Restaurant, Michael Jordan in Flight, NBA 2K11, NBA 2K12 Condor, Bob. Michael Jordan's 50 Greatest Games. Carol Publishing Group, 1998. ., Halberstam, David. Playing for Keeps: Michael Jordan and the World He Made. Broadway Books, 2000. ., Jordan, Michael. For the Love of the Game: My Story. New York City: Crown Publishers, 1998. ., Kruger, Mitchell. One Last Shot: The Story of Michael Jordan's Comeback. New York City: St. Martin's Paperbacks, 2003. ., Lazenby, Roland. Michael Jordan: The Life. New York City: Little, Brown and Company, 2014. ., LaFeber, Walter. Michael Jordan and the New Global Capitalism. W. W. Norton, 2002. ., Markovits, Andrei S. and Lars Rensman. Gaming the World: How Sports are Reshaping Global Politics and Culture. Princeton University Press, June 3, 2010. ., Porter, David L. Michael Jordan: A Biography, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007. ., Rein, Irving J., Philip Kotler and Ben Shields. The Elusive Fan: Reinventing Sports in a Crowded Marketplace. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc, 2006. ., Sachare, Alex. The Chicago Bulls Encyclopedia. Chicago: Contemporary Books, 1999. ., The Sporting News Official NBA Register 1994–95. The Sporting News, 1994. . The Bulls–Pistons rivalry is an NBA rivalry between the Chicago Bulls and Detroit Pistons. The rivalry began in the late 1980s and was one of the most intense in NBA history for a couple of years, when Michael Jordan evolved into one of the league's best players and the Pistons became a playoff contender. They represent the two largest metro areas in the Midwest and are only separated by a 280-mile stretch of road, mostly covered by I-94. The rivalry started in the 1988 Eastern Conference Semifinals after the Pistons and Bulls beat the Bullets and Cavs in the first round 3–2. The aggressive Bad Boys, as Detroit became known, were the rising power in the Eastern Conference. Michael Jordan, on the other hand, was league MVP, Defensive Player of the Year, and the ultimate challenge for the Pistons' top- notch defense. In a nationally televised game in Detroit on Easter Sunday, Jordan scored 59 points in a 112–110 Bulls victory. Previously, in 1987, he had scored 61 points in a 125–120 OT victory in 1987. This angered Chuck Daly, who vowed never to allow Jordan to light them up again. Despite Jordan's individual skills, the Bulls lacked the talent and mental toughness to beat Detroit, who defeated Chicago in 5 games. The Pistons went on to beat Boston in 6 and won their first Conference title since they moved from Fort Wayne. In 1989, the Pistons were stronger and posted a season-best record of 63–19. They reached the Conference Finals by sweeping the Celtics and Bucks. The 6th- seeded Bulls (47–35) had surprising success in the playoffs by upsetting the Cavs 3–2 with The Shot and Knicks 4–2. The Bulls met Detroit in the Eastern Conference Finals. Bulls success continued as they took a 2–1 series lead. But the Pistons clamped down and employed the "Jordan Rules" (which consisted of solely targeting Jordan) which worked so well for them the year prior. While they remained silent about them when asked by the media, many Pistons today say that it was just another psychological ploy they made up to throw the Bulls off their game. According to Pistons forward Rick Mahorn, The Pistons won 3 straight games and went on to win their first NBA title. While both teams intensely disliked each other, there was particular animosity between Michael Jordan and Pistons star Isiah Thomas. Thomas, who was a Chicago native and basketball legend in the city, is accused of feeling that Jordan was taking the city away from him and getting unearned attention. Thomas was accused of leading a so-called "freeze-out" in the 1985 NBA All-Star Game that involved Thomas and other NBA veterans keeping the ball away from Jordan. In retaliation, when the 1992 United States men's Olympic basketball team was being formed Isiah was not part of the team, which people attribute to Jordan and Scottie Pippen stating that they did not want to play if Thomas was on the team, with Pippen going as far to label him as a "cheap shot artist". For the 1989–90 season under new coach Phil Jackson, the Bulls sought to subvert the "Jordan Rules" by focusing on the triangle offense refined by assistant coach Tex Winter. By sharing responsibility rather than shouldering it, Jordan led Chicago to the second-best record in the East at 55–27 behind the defending champion Pistons, who finished 59–23. The rematch was set up when Detroit swept Indiana in the opening round, then ousted New York in 5. The Bulls beat the Bucks in 4 and 76ers in 5. In an Eastern Conference Finals rematch, Chicago pushed Detroit to the limit. But the Pistons showed their dominance and won Game 7 at home. The Pistons went on to win their 2nd straight NBA title against the Blazers. For the 1990–91 season Bulls posted the best record in the East at 61–21, while the Pistons would drop to third with a record of 50–32. The Bulls reached the Conference Finals by sweeping the Knicks and beating the 76ers in 5, while the Pistons disposed of Atlanta in 5 and beat Boston in 6. Both teams met in the Conference Finals for the third straight year, with Chicago holding home-court advantage for the first time. Chicago swept Detroit. Isiah Thomas, Bill Laimbeer and Mark Aguirre, in their last show of defiance, walked off the court with 7.9 seconds left so as not to congratulate them. Only Joe Dumars and John Salley shook hands with any of the Bulls. In the NBA Finals, the Bulls defeated Magic Johnson's Lakers to win their 1st NBA title. The Pistons and Bulls would never again meet in the playoffs during the Bulls dynasty, although they came close in both 1992 and 1997. Following the 1991 sweep, James Edwards and Vinnie Johnson would leave the Pistons as free agents, and the team would see a steady decline. Chuck Daly would resign as head coach after the 1991–92 season. Following Daly's departure, the Pistons went through a lengthy transitional period, as key players either retired (Laimbeer in 1993 and Thomas in 1994) or got traded (John Salley, Dennis Rodman among others). They would bottom out in the 1993–94 season, finishing only 20–62. With the arrival of Grant Hill (drafted 3rd overall in 1994), the Pistons once again became a playoff team in the latter half of the 1990s. Despite seeing some success during that period, they never became true title contenders Meanwhile, the Bulls proceeded to win 6 titles in 8 years, including two three-peats, with an early retirement and return of Michael Jordan in between. Former Piston Dennis Rodman, would be traded to the Bulls in 1995 and play an integral part in the second three-peat (John Salley and James Edwards were also on the team during the record-breaking 72-win 1995–96 season). After the 6th title, the Bulls were dramatically dismantled: Jordan, Scottie Pippen, Rodman, and coach Phil Jackson all left. Afterwards, the Bulls had five losing seasons and did not yield a competitive squad until former Bull John Paxson (who was a member of the first 3 title teams) became the GM and acquired players to form a team with efficient perimeter offense and strong interior defense. Meanwhile, after being swept by the Miami Heat in the 2000 playoffs, Joe Dumars was hired as President of Basketball Operations of Pistons. Dumars eventually formed a team similar to his own: a group of players who played a hard-nosed, defensively strong, fundamentally sound, team-oriented style of play. He revamped the Pistons' roster with players like Ben Wallace, Chucky Atkins, Chauncey Billups, Richard "Rip" Hamilton, Tayshaun Prince. and Rasheed Wallace.. They were constant playoff contenders with Six consecutive Eastern Conference Finals appearances between 2003 and 2008. They defeated Los Angeles in five games for the team's third NBA championship in 2004 NBA Finals. The rivalry was restored in the 2006 offseason when the Bulls signed free agent Ben Wallace, the cornerstone of the Pistons' defense. The addition of Wallace was immediately felt when the Bulls won the first regular season game in a blowout against the defending champion Miami Heat, the team that defeated the Pistons in the 2006 Eastern Conference Finals. The move of Ben Wallace stymied the Pistons early in the season, as the team sought to look for consistency without him. Dumars took the initiative and signed Chris Webber, who was just released from the 76ers. The teams met in the Eastern Conference Semifinals after the Pistons swept the Magic and the Bulls swept the Heat. The Pistons dominated the early parts of the series, stifling the Bulls' guards to sub-40% shooting to win not only the first two games at home, but also the first game in Chicago, in which the Pistons came back from a 17-point deficit in the second half. The Bulls shut down the Pistons' offense in the next two games to win Games 4 and 5. However, the Pistons won Game 6 in Chicago, winning the series 4–2. The Pistons made it back to the Conference Finals in 2008. Chauncey Billups was traded early in the 2009 season, and they steadily declined. The Cleveland Cavaliers swept them in 2009. The Pistons signed free-agents Ben Gordon and Charlie Villanueva, and welcomed back Ben Wallace that offseason. However, injuries demoted them from an Eastern Conference power, winning only 27 games in the 2010 season, thus a rebuilding period for the team began. The team did manage to make it to the playoffs once again in 2016, once again losing to the Cleveland Cavaliers in a four-game sweep. After missing the playoffs in a dismal 2008, the Bulls earned the first pick in the 2008 NBA Draft. They selected Chicago native Derrick Rose. The Bulls steadily rose to one of the NBA's elite teams; after a pair of 41-win seasons in Rose's first two seasons, the Bulls signed free-agent forward Carlos Boozer, and with the development of Joakim Noah to one of the best centers in the league, the Bulls rose the ranks in the Eastern Conference. However, subsequent injuries to Rose demoted them from being an elite team, and the team would struggle with inconsistency for several years. After trading Rose in 2016 and star forward Jimmy Butler in 2017, another rebuilding period began for the Bulls. During the 2007 NBA All-Star Weekend, the two teams competed against each other in the Shooting Stars Competition. Chicago (Ben Gordon, Candice Dupree, Scottie Pippen) and Detroit (Chauncey Billups, Swin Cash, Bill Laimbeer) both qualified to reach the Finals. The Bulls were disqualified when Gordon shot out of order before Dupree, allowing Detroit to win by default. Billups, Cash, and Laimbeer celebrated by shouting out Mason's famous chant of, "Deeeeee-troit Basket-ball!" Mason was at the Thomas and Mack Center to announce during the games and events at the 2007 NBA All-Star Weekend. The following players have played for both the Bulls and the Pistons in their careers: Orlando Woolridge – Bulls (–), Pistons (–), Brad Sellers – Bulls (–), Pistons (), John Salley – Pistons (–), Bulls (), Dennis Rodman – Pistons (–), Bulls (–), James Edwards - Pistons (–), Bulls (), Bison Dele – Bulls (), Pistons (–), Ben Wallace - Pistons (–, –), Bulls (–), Lindsey Hunter - Pistons (–, –), Bulls (–), Ben Gordon - Bulls (–), Pistons (–), Derrick Rose - Bulls (–), Pistons (–present) Bears–Lions rivalry, Blackhawks–Red Wings rivalry, Lakers–Pistons rivalry The 1995–96 NBA season was the Bulls' 30th season in the National Basketball Association. During the offseason, the Bulls acquired rebound-specialist Dennis Rodman from the San Antonio Spurs, and signed free agent Randy Brown. Midway through the season, the team signed John Salley, who was released by the expansion Toronto Raptors. Salley won championships with the Detroit Pistons along with Rodman in 1989 and 1990. The 1996 Bulls is regarded to be the greatest team in NBA history. This saw the Bulls set the record for most wins in an NBA regular season in which they won the championship, finishing with 72 wins and 10 losses. The regular season record was broken by the 2015–16 Golden State Warriors, who finished 73–9. The Warriors(2015-2016) have a connection to the (1995-1996) Bulls team, as Steve Kerr, the current Golden State coach, was a reserve point guard with the Bulls. The Bulls' started 37–0 at home, part of a then-NBA-record 44-game winning streak that included games from the 1994–95 regular-season. Their 33 road wins were the most in NBA history until the 2015–16 Warriors won 34 road games. The season was the best 3-loss start in NBA history at 41–3 (.932), which included an 18-game winning streak for the team. The Bulls became the first NBA team to ever win 70 regular season games, finishing first overall in their division, conference, and the entire NBA. They are also the only team in NBA history to win more than 70 games and an NBA title in the same season. Michael Jordan and Scottie Pippen were both selected for the 1996 NBA All-Star Game, as Jordan led the league in scoring with 30.4 points per game, while Phil Jackson was named Coach of The Year, and was selected to coach the Eastern Conference in the All-Star Game. The Bulls swept the Miami Heat 3–0 in the first round of the playoffs, defeated the New York Knicks 4–1 in five games of the semifinals, then swept the Orlando Magic 4–0 in the Conference Finals. They then defeated the Seattle SuperSonics 4–2 in the 1996 NBA Finals, winning their fourth NBA title in six seasons. The Bulls have the best combined regular and postseason record in NBA history at 87–13 (.870). For the season, the Bulls added black pinstripe alternate road uniforms. Eventually, they would remove the pinstripes from the jerseys the following season. Before the 1995–96 NBA season, the Bulls acquired Dennis Rodman and Jack Haley from the Spurs in exchange for Will Perdue and cash considerations to fill a void at power forward left by Horace Grant, who left the Bulls before the 1994–95 NBA season. In his book Bad as I Wanna Be, Rodman wrote that Michael Jordan and Scottie Pippen had to approve the trade. Rodman chose the number 91 (9+1=10 according to Rodman for why he chose that number) for his jersey since #10 was retired by the Bulls in 1995 in honor of Bob Love. Haley played in one game, the final game of the regular season, and didn't participate in the playoffs. He was best known for his friendship with the enigmatic Rodman. Source: Team Splits on Basketball Reference The Bulls began the 1995–96 season on November 3 against the Charlotte Hornets and defeated them, 105–91, with Michael Jordan scoring 42 points. The next day, Chicago defeated the Boston Celtics in a 22-point blowout, 107-85, behind Scottie Pippen's 21 points, 4 rebounds and 5 assists. On November 7, the Bulls defeated the Toronto Raptors behind Jordan's 38 points. In Gund Arena, Chicago defeated the Cleveland Cavaliers on November 9, where Scottie Pippen accumulated a triple-double with 18 points, 13 rebounds, and 12 assists. After defeating the Portland Trail Blazers on November 11, the Bulls reached a 5–0 start for the season. On November 14, Chicago's undefeated streak ended with a loss to the Orlando Magic, despite a double-double performance by Pippen who recorded 17 points and 10 rebounds. Jordan also scored 23 points and grabbed 7 rebounds for the Bulls Following their first loss of the season, Chicago bounced back to defeat Cleveland on November 15. The Bulls would continue their winning ways by defeating the New Jersey Nets on November 17. Toni Kukoc recorded a game-high 19 points and 7 assists for the Bulls. The Bulls went on a road trip to play against seven Western Conference teams. On November 21, Chicago played in its first overtime game of the season in a win against the Dallas Mavericks, 108-102, backed by a double-double performance by Pippen who recorded 26 points, 12 rebounds and 7 assists and 36 points from Jordan. On the next day, the Bulls defeated the San Antonio Spurs behind another triple- double by Pippen who recorded 15 points, 10 rebounds and 13 assists. and Jordan's 38 points and 9 rebounds. Chicago then went to Delta Center to play against the Utah Jazz on November 24. In the game, the Bulls defeated the Jazz, 90–85. On November 26, the Bulls headed to Seattle and led the Sonics 64-51 after the first half, but the Sonics mounted a comeback outscoring the Bulls on the next two quarters, thus handing the visiting Bulls their second loss of the season, 92-97. Jordan led the Bulls with 22 points and 5 rebounds. The next game, the Bulls would visit the Trailblazers. Jordan led all scorers with 33 points to go along with 8 assists, as the Bulls won, 107-104. In their last game of the month, the Bulls went to Canada to play against the Vancouver Grizzlies and defeated them, 94-88. Chicago's road trip ended in Los Angeles on December 2 after defeating the Clippers behind Jordan's double-double of 37 points and 11 rebounds. On December 6, the Bulls headed back to the United Center to play the New York Knicks and had defeated them despite Jordan's struggle that night who just 8-for-27 from the field. In that game also, Rodman grabbed a game-high 20 rebounds. The Bulls won their fifth straight game on December 8 against the Spurs, behind Jordan's statline of 28 points, 5 rebounds and 6 assists. On the next day, Chicago defeated the Milwaukee Bucks behind Jordan's 45-point performance and Pippen's near double-double of 28 points and 6 assists. On December 13, the Bulls were visited by the Orlando Magic. Jordan recorded 36 points and 6 rebounds, Pippen recorded 26 points, 8 rebounds and 6 assists and Rodman recorded 8 points and 19 rebounds as they got their 17th win of the season, beating the visiting Magic, 112-103. The next day, the Bulls traveled to Atlanta to take on the Hawks on the road. The Bulls outscored the Hawks 65 to 55 in the first half, thus fueling them towards their 8th straight win and 18th win of the season. Pippen led the Bulls having recorded a near triple- double of 30 points, 8 rebounds and 8 assists. On December 16, Pippen recorded a double-double of 33 points and 13 rebounds as the Bulls got the win over the visiting L.A. Lakers, 108-88. Two days after, Jordan and Pippen both scored 37 points as they fueled the Bulls towards their 20th win of the season, after beating the Celtics, 123-114. The Bulls went undefeated in January. The Bulls continued their success in February, winning 11 of 14 of the games played this month. And also, this is their first and only time they have lost back-to-back games for the whole season. On February 4, they had been defeated by the Denver Nuggets despite a stellar performance by Michael Jordan who recorded 39 points and 4 assists on the road. The following game, the Bulls also lost another road game, this time to the Phoenix Suns. In this game, Charles Barkley proved too much to be handle by the Bulls as he dropped a double-double of 35 points and 16 rebounds to guide his team in winning. After losing two straight road games, the Bulls followed it with 7 straight wins. In that 7-game streak, the Bulls defeated the Warriors, Bullets, Pistons (in OT), Timberwolves, Pacers, Cavaliers and Hawks. Their 7-game winning streak were stopped by the home team, the Miami Heat. The Heat, guided by Rex Chapman who shot 9-for-10 from 3-point range, proved too much to be handled by the visiting Bulls. With this loss, the Bulls now have lost 6 games for the whole season, and all 6 of those games are on the road. The Bulls added 2 of their final 10 losses in March: On Sunday, March 10, they were blown out 104-72 in Madison Square Garden by Ewing's Knicks – their largest margin of defeat on the season. Two weeks later, they dropped a game at the hands of the expansion Raptors, 109-108. Damon Stoudamire posted an efficient 30-point, 11-assist effort to lead Toronto. The Bulls lost two home games in the final month losing to the Charlotte Hornets, then their final home game of the season to the Indiana Pacers. Those were their only home losses of the entire season, including the playoffs, as Chicago finished with an overall 39-2 record at the United Center. The Bulls' playoff run began on April 26. Their First Round opponent was the Miami Heat, whom they defeated 3–1 in the regular season. In Game 1, the Bulls defeated Miami in a blowout victory behind Jordan's 35 points. Winning in a 31-point blowout, Chicago once again defeated the Heat. To reach the Conference Semifinals, the Bulls defeated the Heat in Miami in a game where Pippen accumulated a triple-double with 22 points, 18 rebounds, and 10 assists. The Bulls met rival New York Knicks in the Conference Semifinals. In the regular season, Chicago won the season series, 4–1. In Game 1 on May 5, the Bulls defeated the Knicks behind Jordan's 44 points. Chicago would defeat New York again on May 7 to take a 2–0 series lead. Playing at Madison Square Garden, the Bulls lost Game 3 in overtime, despite a 46-point offensive performance by Jordan. In Game 4, Chicago defeated the Knicks by three points to take a 3–1 series lead. To close out the series, the Bulls defeated New York at home behind double-double performances by Pippen and Rodman. In the Conference Finals, the Bulls met the Atlantic Division champions, Orlando Magic, a team led by Shaquille O'Neal and Anfernee Hardaway, who had reached the finals the previous year and were swept by Hakeem Olajuwon and the Houston Rockets. The Bulls won the regular-season series against the Magic, 3–1. To start the series, the Bulls took Game 1 in a 38-point blowout on May 19. Behind Jordan's 35 points, Chicago defeated Orlando on May 21. In Game 3, the Bulls continued their winning ways by taking a 3–0 series lead against the Magic. Completing the series sweep, the Bulls won Game 4 by five points behind a 45-point performance by Jordan. Chicago took on the Seattle SuperSonics, whose 64–18 franchise-best regular season record was overshadowed by the Bulls' 72–10 record. In the regular season, the two teams split the season series, 1–1. In Game 1 of the NBA Finals, Chicago defeated Seattle by 17 points. The Bulls took a 2–0 series lead against the Sonics in the second game where Rodman accumulated 20 rebounds. In KeyArena, Chicago won Game 3 behind Jordan's 36 points. The Bulls lost Game 4 in a 21-point blowout on June 12. On June 14, the Bulls lost against Seattle in Game 5. Back in the United Center, Chicago defeated Seattle in Game 6 to win the NBA championship four games to two. Rate statistic requirements Phil Jackson, NBA Coach of the Year, Michael Jordan, All-NBA First Team, Michael Jordan, All-Star Game MVP, Michael Jordan, NBA MVP, Michael Jordan, NBA Finals MVP, Michael Jordan, NBA All-Defensive First Team, Michael Jordan, Regular season leader, Field Goals (916), Michael Jordan, Regular season leader, Field Goal Attempts (1850), Michael Jordan, Regular season leader, Total Points (2491), Michael Jordan, Regular season leader, Scoring Average (30.4 points per game), Scottie Pippen, All-NBA First Team, Scottie Pippen, NBA All-Defensive First Team, Dennis Rodman, NBA All-Defensive First Team, Dennis Rodman, Regular season leader, Rebounds Per Game (14.9), Dennis Rodman, Regular season leader, Offensive Rebounds (356), Dennis Rodman, Regular season leader, Rebound Rate (26.6), Toni Kukoč, NBA Sixth Man of the Year Michael Jordan, Guard, Scottie Pippen, Forward Bulls on Database Basketball, Bulls on Basketball Reference

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The Boy Is Mine is the second studio album by American R&B; recording artist Monica. It was released by Arista Records on July 14, 1998, in the United States. The album deviated from the formula of her debut Miss Thang (1995) as she had more creative control over the material she recorded; a step that she considered a "natural progression". On the record, Monica worked with a variety of producers and writers from different genres such as gospel, R&B;, and hip hop, including frequent collaborators Dallas Austin, Colin Wolfe, and Daryl Simmons. Additional producers included David Foster, Diane Warren, Jermaine Dupri, and Rodney Jerkins and his Darkchild crew, some of which would become household names on subsequent albums. Upon release, The Boy Is Mine received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics. The album debuted at number eight on the Billboard 200 and at number two on the Top R&B; Albums in August 1998. It was eventually certified triple-platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting shipments of over three million copies throughout the country, with estimated sales of 2 million copies in the United States as of November 2014. Her biggest international seller to date, it became a moderate success outside the United States, peaking within the top twenty in France, Japan, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and Switzerland. Five commercial singles were released from the album. Lead single "The Boy Is Mine", a duet with singer Brandy, became the best-selling song of the year in the United States, spending 13 weeks on top of the US Billboard Hot 100, while peaking at number one in Canada, the Netherlands and New Zealand. "The First Night" and "Angel of Mine", released as the album's second and third single respectively, also became chart toppers on Billboard Hot 100. The Boy Is Mine also spawned "Street Symphony" and the international singles "Inside" and "Right Here Waiting", while also containing the hit single, "For You I Will", from the Space Jam soundtrack. After Monica signed a deal to Rowdy Records, her debut album Miss Thang was released in July 1995, selling about one and a half million copies in the United States alone. It produced three top ten singles, including debut single "Don't Take It Personal (Just One of Dem Days)" and "Before You Walk Out of My Life", both of which made Monica the youngest artist ever to have two consecutive chart-topping hits on Billboards Hot R&B; Singles chart. Miss Thang earned Monica four Soul Train Music Award nods as well as Lady of Soul, NAACP Image Award, Billboard Music Award and American Music Award nominations. After a transition from Rowdy Records to Clive Davis's Arista label which was Rowdy's parent company, Monica's mainstream success was boosted, when the Diane Warren-written "For You I Will", from the Space Jam soundtrack, became her next top ten pop hit. After the success of her debut, Monica entered recording studios in 1997 to start work on her second album. Again, she worked closely with Dallas Austin on the bulk of the album who shared executive producer credit with Davis on The Boy Is Mine. "Very personally involved" with the project, Davis consulted additional producers to work with the singer, including David Foster and Jermaine Dupri, the latter of which would become a frequent collaborator on subsequent projects. He also lined Monica up with several Diane Warren songs. A breakaway from the material on her debut, Monica considered the album a natural progression: "I was 13 then; the themes weren't as mature," she said. "I'm trying to portray a more assertive young female [...] I'm 17 now; my lyrics aren't sexually explicit but are about love and being in love." While she reportedly co-wrote several tracks for the album, none of them made the final cut. On July 9, 1998, a listening party for the album was held in Los Angeles; another listening party was scheduled in New York City at a later date. Both of the listening parties were broadcast live via cyber cast on Arista Records website. Arista records also planned for internet chats as well as online contest for fans. The label also planned for an international promotional tour for Monica. She also was set to appear on late night talk shows such as The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and Vibe and morning shows such as Good Day Atlanta. In mid-June Monica shot the video for her second single "The First Night" and it was serviced to music video networks such as BET, MTV and The Box. After the release of the album Monica did in store appearances and she also went on a promotional radio tour. Radio ads were played with announcements about the "win it before you buy it" contests. Items that were given in the contest included posters, flats, pins, flyers, and streamers. A back to school promotional campaign was also planned and the campaign was going to feature Monica on book covers. On August 29, 1998, Monica made an appearance at KMEL's inaugural All-Star Jam in Mountain View, California at the Shoreline Amphitheatre. The following month, she performed at the Soul Train Lady of Soul Awards, followed by a first time live performance of "The Boy Is Mine" with Brandy at the 15th annual MTV Video Music Awards. On October 5, 1998 Monica performed "The First Night" on Motown Live, and she also sung a duet with Mary J. Blige during the show as well. On October 11, Monica performed at the 4th annual International Achievement in Arts Awards. Also in October, MTV News reported that Monica was going to participate in several fashion shows for the House of Chanel and Karl Lagerfeld in Paris. In January 1999, it was reported that Monica was planning a possible joint tour with R. Kelly but no further news was ever mentioned regarding that tour. The same month, she performed on the Nickelodeon sketch comedy show All That. In March 1999, Monica co-hosted and performed at the Soul Train Awards which was held at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles. On April 23, 1999, it was announced that Monica was going to be a part of Nickelodeon's first annual All That Music & More Fest with 98 Degrees, Tatyana Ali, and others. The tour began on June 17 in Indianapolis and ended on August 21 in Washington DC. In the midst of the festival Monica partnered with the Make-A-Wish Foundation to create skating parties. Also in April 1999 it was announced that Monica was going to perform on select dates at the third and final run of the Lilith Fair tour. In May 1999, a special ceremony was held for Monica in her hometown of Atlanta in which she was honored with the Phoenix Award. In September 1999 Monica co- hosted and Performed at the Soul Train Lady of Soul Awards. In November 1999, it was announced that Monica along with NSYNC, Wyclef Jean and Destiny's Child were going to perform at the Beacon Theater for a HIV/AIDS awareness concert put together by Life Beat. The Boy Is Mine produced several singles. Its release was preceded by the lead single of the same name, a duet with fellow R&B; singer Brandy. The collaboration received favorable reviews from contemporary music critics and became the first number-one pop record for both artists, both stateside and internationally. Exploiting the media's presumption of a rivalry between the two young singers, "The Boy Is Mine" became the best-selling song of the year in the United States, spending 13 weeks on top of the Billboard Hot 100. Internationally, the single also achieved a strong charting, peaking at number-one in Canada, the Netherlands and New Zealand, while reaching the top five on most of the other charts on which it appeared. It was awarded the Grammy Award for Best R&B; Performance by a Duo or Group and received nominations for both Record of the Year and Best R&B; Song in 1999. At the Billboard Music Awards, the song won in three categories, including Hot 100 Sales Single of Year. Durpi-produced "The First Night" was released as the album's second single a week ahead of the album release. Another commercial success, it became her second number one on the Billboard Hot 100 for six consecutive weeks. It remained within the top forty for 20 weeks and was ranked at number 18 on the Billboard Hot 100 year-end charts in 1998. Outside the United States, "The First Night" reached the top ten in Canada and the United Kingdom. "Angel of Mine", a cover version of British R&B; trio Eternal's 1997 hit single, was released as the album's third offering single in November 1998. The ballad became Monica's third chart topper for four consecutive weeks in United States, and finished third on Billboards 1999 year-end chart, making Monica the only artist to place within the year-end top ten in both from 1998 to 1999. While the song was less successful in territories where Eternal's version had charted the year before through Monica's rendition peaked at number two in Canada and reached the top 20 of the Australian Singles Chart. "Inside," serving as the album's fourth single, was released internationally only on March 1, 1999. It failed to chart however. A fifth single, "Street Symphony," received a US release as the on June 18, 1999, featuring orchestral background in the song performing by the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra. It peaked at number 50 on the Hot R&B;/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks chart. Monica's rendition of Richard Marx's 1989 single "Right Here Waiting", a duet with boy band 112, also received a promotional release in 1999. The single was only released as a limited vinyl format with no promotional video, but peaked at number one on Billboards Bubbling Under R&B;/Hip-Hop Singles chart. Similarly, "Gone Be Fine," a collaboration with OutKast, reached number five on Bubbling Under R&B;/Hip-Hop Singles. Upon its release, The Boy Is Mine garnered generally mixed to positive reviews from contemporary music critics, many of whom liked the album's ballads and classic sound, praising Monica for her vocal performance. Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic gave the album four out of five stars, complimenting the album as a whole, claiming it to be "as good as mainstream urban R&B; gets in 1998." He felt that The Boy Is Mine compromised "a better, more consistent batch of songs" when in comparison to her debut album Miss Thang, led by productions from Dallas Austin who "not only does he give her songs immaculately crafted musical backdrops – both ballads and up-tempo dance numbers sound irresistible – but he helps her cultivate her voice so she sounds more mature than her 17 years." Connie Johnson, writing for the Los Angeles Times rated the album three-and-a-half out of a possible four stars. After comparing her to Brandy, she found that Monica "really has more in common with label-mates Whitney Houston and Toni Braxton. Like them, she's a major league talent who knows it takes more than a great and memorable voice to bat the ball out of the park – and it's a pleasure to recommend someone with that type of professional savvy." Natasha Stovall from the Rolling Stone gave The Boy Is Mine a mixed review, describing it as "a more classic path, with help from the cool hand of producer Dallas Austin." She found that the songs "hearken back past hip-hop songbirds like Mary J. Blige and adult- contemporary sirens like Toni Braxton to someplace closer to soul's source." Praising her vocals, Stovall commented that "Monica uses her honey-dipped, church-worthy voice to lift her radiofriendly tunes – and, hopefully, the rest of contemporary R&B; – to a higher plane." Entertainment Weekly was critical on the amount of "mid-tempo ballads about love lost", but was positive towards the other songs on the album, writing that "much of this groove-driven disc, like the Jermaine Dupri-produced "The First Night", should keep her airwave run alive. Transcendent nuggets like "Street Symphony" showcase her voluptuous vocals." Generally positive toward The Boy Is Mine, Vibe magazine felt that "no longer encumbered by the extreme youth that made some of the more sensuous moments on Miss Thang vaguely embarrassing, Monica embraces womanhood with the full force of her raspy, resonant alto and flourishing postadolescent libido." In 2007, The Boy Is Mine was featured on British publication The Guardians "1000 Albums To Hear Before You Die" list, the publication praised the album and thought that it was the template for "21st-century soul." The Boy Is Mine debuted at the number eight position on the Billboard 200, with first-week sales of 91,000 copies, opening to nearly three times as many units as her debut album in 1995. It marked her first top ten entry on the chart, as well as her first album to reach the top three of Billboards Top R&B; Albums chart, debuting at number two behind Noreaga's N.O.R.E. (1998). The album sold nearly 526,000 during the first two months of its release, and more than 860,000 copies until the end of 1998. The Boy Is Mine was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting shipments of over three million copies within the United States. According to Nielsen SoundScan, the album's stateside sales are estimated at over 2,016,000, including sales from BMG music clubs. On the Canadian RPM Albums Chart, the album debuted at number eleven, on the issue dated August 3, 1998. Eight weeks later, on the issue date September 28, 1998, the album reached its peak position of number ten, staying there for one week. To date, the album has been certified triple-platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association (CRIA), denoting shipments of over 300,000 units. In Japan, The Boy Is Mine debuted at number 69 on the official Oricon chart, Elsewhere, the album became a top twenty success in the majority of the charts it appeared on, reaching number 13 on the Dutch Albums Chart, number 17 on the New Zealand Albums Chart, number 19 on the Swiss Albums Chart and number 20 on the French Albums Chart. It also charted in Australia, Germany, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. Notes denotes co-producer, denotes additional producer Sample credits "The First Night" samples Diana Ross' 1976 "Love Hangover"., "Take Him Back" samples Sting's 1993 "Shape of My Heart"., "Cross the Room" samples The Fatback Band's 1980 "I Like Girls"., "Angel of Mine" is a cover version of Eternal's 1997 original recording., "Misty Blue" is a cover version of Dorothy Moore's 1976 original recording., "Right Here Waiting" is a cover version of Richard Marx' 1989 original recording. Credits are taken from the album's liner notes. Musicians and performers Background vocals – Darcy Aldridge, Sue Ann Carwell, Chelle Davis, Debra Killings, Pamela Major, Jeff Pescetto, Bass guitar – Ronnie Garrett, Colin Wolfe, Drums – Tom Knight, Guitar – Sonny Lallerstedt, Tomi Martin, Isaac Phillips, Michael Thompson, Piano – Dean Gant, Percussion – Scott Meeder, Strings – Darkchild Orchestra Technical and production Executive producers – Clive Davis, Engineering – A. Baars, G. Crawford, Ben Garrison, Humberto Gatica, Thom "TK" Kidd, Carlton Lynn, Ricco Lumpkins, Chris Tergesen, Engineering assistants – John Horesco IV, Ty Hudson, Tim Lauber, Kevin Lively, Vernon Mungo, Claudine Pontier, Mike Wilson, Mixing – Mick Guzauski, Mixing assistants – Tom Berner, Marnie Riley, Programming – Felipe Elgueta, John "J.R." Robinson, Glen Woodward [ Monica] at Billboard.com "The Boy Is Mine" is a 1998 duet by American singers Brandy and Monica written and composed by LaShawn Daniels, Japhe Tejeda, Fred Jerkins III, Rodney "Darkchild" Jerkins, and Brandy with coproduction by Darkchild and Dallas Austin. It was released as the lead single from both singers' second albums from 1998, Never Say Never by Brandy and The Boy Is Mine by Monica. Inspired by Michael Jackson and Paul McCartney's 1982 duet "The Girl Is Mine", the lyrics of the mid-tempo R&B; track revolve around two women fighting over a man. The song received generally positive reviews from music critics and was the first number-one pop hit for both artists, in the US and internationally. Exploiting the media's presumption of a rivalry between the two young singers, "The Boy Is Mine" became the best-selling song of the year in the US, selling 2.6 million copies, and spent 13 weeks at the top of the US Billboard Hot 100 during the summer of 1998. It became the second song in the history of the chart to ascend directly to number-one from a previous position beneath the Top 20, at number 23, following The Beatles and the 27–1 leap of their single "Can't Buy Me Love" in April 1964. Internationally, the single also achieved a strong charting, peaking at number one in Canada, the Netherlands and New Zealand, while reaching the top five on most of the other charts on which it appeared. "The Boy Is Mine" was awarded the Grammy Award for Best R&B; Performance by a Duo or Group and received nominations for both Record of the Year and Best R&B; Song in 1999. At the Billboard Music Awards, the song won in three categories, including Hot 100 Sales Single of Year. In 2008, Billboard listed it 54th on its 50th Anniversary All-Time Hot 100 Top Songs chart, and 18th on the All-Time Top R&B;/Hip-Hop Songs countdown. The music video for the single, directed by Joseph Kahn, starred the singers and Mekhi Phifer. It was nominated for two MTV Video Music Awards, including Video of the Year and Best R&B; Video. In 2012, after 14 years, the singers reunited on the single "It All Belongs to Me". "The Boy Is Mine" was a song Brandy wrote with Rodney "Darkchild" Jerkins, his brother Fred Jerkins III, Japhe Tejeda, and LaShawn Daniels. The singer came up with its concept while watching an episode of The Jerry Springer Show tabloid talk show, where love triangles among the guests was the theme. Created as a solo track, Brandy originally recorded the song alone. After listening to the result, however, she and Jerkins thought it would work better as a duet, an idea which was further inspired by Paul McCartney and Michael Jackson's 1982 hit duet "The Girl Is Mine". At Brandy's request, her label Atlantic Records approached fellow R&B; teen singer Monica to collaborate: The pair had seen each other in passing at award shows and other live events, and Brandy thought a duet would help combat ongoing rumors that the singers were rivals. With the permission of Clive Davis, who headed Monica's record company Arista Records, Monica eventually signed on to the project. The song has a tempo of 93 beats per minute. Written in the key of C minor, it follows a chord progression of Fm–Cm, and the vocals span from G to F. Originally, the two artists recorded their vocals for the song together with Jerkins and his production team at the Record One Studios in North Hollywood. However, the joint recording was felt to be a failure so Monica re-recorded her vocals separately at the DARP Studios in Atlanta, Georgia with longtime contributor Dallas Austin and turned the song into a more mature pop sound. (Thus, Austin would later share the main production credit alongside Jerkins.) Though both Brandy and Monica repeatedly denied the song reflected any actual rivalry between them, tabloids began writing the opposite. There were claims that Monica was upset when Brandy performed the song solo on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, and Brandy was reportedly miffed when Monica opted to take the name of the duet for the title of her second album. Following reports that the pair came to blows during a rehearsal for a performance at the MTV Video Music Awards in September 1998, talk of the rivalry became so loud that the singers' managers released a joint statement in which they called the press out for its "disturbing behavior" and called the "ongoing negativity [as] totally unfair." As with "The Boy Is Mine," Jerkins later claimed that both singers "didn’t get along" during production and that he and Dexter Simmons remixed the track seven times to keep everything even. In a 2012 interview with WZMX, Monica spoke about her past relationship with Brandy: "We were young. We could barely stay in the room with each other. By no means was it jealousy or envy. She and I are polar opposites and instead of embracing that, we used our differences as reasons not to be amongst each other." On June 6, 1998, "The Boy Is Mine" became both singers' first number-one hit and fifth top ten entry for each on the US Billboard Hot 100. Bouncing from number 23 to the top spot, it became the second song in the history of the chart to ascend directly to number-one from a previous position beneath the Top 20, following The Beatles and the 27–1 leap of their single "Can't Buy Me Love" in April 1964. In addition, it was the first number-one collaboration between solo women since 1979's two-weeks number-one run of "No More Tears (Enough Is Enough)," performed by Barbra Streisand and Donna Summer. The same week, "The Boy Is Mine" also moved to number-one on the Hot R&B; Singles, Hot 100 Singles Sales and Hot Dance Music/Maxi-Singles Sales charts. Within the first month of its purchasable release the song went on to sell 605,000 units. It spent thirteen consecutive weeks atop the Billboard Hot 100 and has since been ranked among the longest running number-one songs in US chart history, sharing this record with Boyz II Men's "End of the Road" (1992). "The Boy Is Mine" was the best-selling single of 1998 in the US, with sales of 2,591,000, with the second best-selling single being Next's "Too Close". It was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and was ranked eighth on Billboards Decade-End Charts. The song spent 18 weeks in the top 10 and a total of 27 weeks in the Top 50. Outside the US, "The Boy Is Mine" reached the top-ten in over 14 countries and topped the chart in Canada, the Netherlands and New Zealand. In Canada, the song debuted on the RPM Singles Chart at number 74 on the RPM issue dated June 1, 1998, and reached the top spot of the chart on August 21, 1998. It was present on the chart for a total of 45 weeks. It reached the top two in Belgium, France (platinum), Ireland, Norway (gold), and the United Kingdom (platinum); the top-five in Australia, Germany (gold), Sweden, and Switzerland (gold) and the top-ten in Austria (gold) and Italy. The single won many awards throughout 1998 and 1999. It was nominated for three Grammy Awards at the 41st annual ceremony, winning both singers their first prize by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences in the Best R&B; Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals category. It, however, lost in its nominations for Record of the Year and Best R&B; Song to Celine Dion's "My Heart Will Go On" and Lauryn Hill's "Doo Wop (That Thing)" respectively. The song garnered three Billboard Music Awards. It is listed as the 62nd on the most successful singles in France ever. It is also listed among one of the most successful 200 singles in Australia, Netherlands and Belgium in music history. It was listed as number 55 of the Hot 100 singles of all time by Billboard in 1998. This position was raised to number 54 in 2008. In addition, it was listed 18th on the All-Time Top R&B;/Hip-Hop Songs countdown. In 2008, Billboard ranked the song third on a special The 40 Biggest Duets of All Time listing. The song is the best-selling song of 1998 in the United States with 2.6 million copies sold. Making its debut on April 22, 1998, the official music video uses the radio edit version without the intro. The video begins with Brandy watching an episode of The Jerry Springer Show. Next we see Monica who, using her remote, accidentally turns Brandy's TV along with her own to watch an old romantic movie. Confused, Brandy changes her channel back. Much to their dismay, whenever one of them turns the channel, the other's TV is also turned. They begin singing. The next scene shows the two discussing their problem among their separate groups of friends. The titular boy himself (played by Mekhi Phifer) then appears outside adjacent apartments, 6 & 7, where we later discover the two girls live; all their friends walk by him as they exit their respective friend's place. The girls are seen next arguing through their adjoining bedroom wall, until the boy phones them one after the other. They each overhear the other's conversation through the wall, realizing that they've both been played. They proceed to gather up all gifts and memorabilia related to the boy and toss them out the door. After Brandy and Monica sing more through the song's lyrics, the boy knocks on Brandy's door. The door opens showing Brandy for a brief moment before she opens the door wider to reveal Monica beside her. The boy is taken aback, and the door is slammed in his face. The video, filmed in April 1998 and used 90-degree tilts to depict the drama and the playfulness between the two. It was nominated for two 1998 MTV Video Music Awards, for Best R&B; Video and Video of the Year, but lost to both Wyclef Jean's "Gone Till November" and Madonna's "Ray of Light" respectively. Brandy first performed the song by herself on The Tonight Show. Following that, she and Monica first performed it together at the 1998 MTV Video Music Awards in Los Angeles at the Gibson Amphitheatre on September 10, 1998, an event which remains, to date, Brandy and Monica's only television broadcast performance of the song. The pair came together a second time on December 16, 2008 for a surprise performance at Atlanta’s V103 Soul Session, singing it a cappella. In 2012, they performed the song with their new duet "It All Belongs To Me" at V-103's "Conversation/Soul Session". US maxi CD single 1. "The Boy Is Mine" (album version) 2. "The Boy Is Mine" (club mix) 3. "The Boy Is Mine" (radio version; with intro) 4. "The Boy Is Mine" (album instrumentals) 5. "The Boy Is Mine" (a cappella) 2-track CD single 1. "The Boy Is Mine" (album version) 2. "The Boy Is Mine" (instrumental) European maxi CD / Australian CD 1. "The Boy Is Mine" (radio edit without intro) – 4:00 2. "The Boy Is Mine" (radio edit with intro) – 4:00 3. "The Boy Is Mine" (LP version) – 4:51 4. "The Boy Is Mine" (club version) – 7:39 Brandy Norwood – music production, songwriting, lead vocals, background vocals, Monica Arnold – lead vocals, background vocals, Dallas Austin – Monica's vocal production, Leslie Brathwaite – recording engineer, LaShawn Daniels – Brandy's vocal production, vocal arrangements, songwriting, The Darkchild Orchestra – strings, Ben Garrison – music recording, Larry Gold – string arrangements, Rodney Jerkins – music production, Brandy's vocal production, vocal arrangements, string arrangements, songwriting, mixing, Carlton Lynn – engineering assistant, Victor McCoy – engineering assistant, Isaac Phillips – guitar, Dexter Simmons – music recording, audio mixing, Chris Tergesen – string section recording engineer, Greg Thompson – engineering assistant In 1998, UK garage group Architechs remixed "The Boy Is Mine", and released it as a white label bootleg which eventually sold 20,000 copies. This remix became highly popular due to incessant airplay on pirate radio., In 2001, Brandy and Monica's vocals were merged with Modjo's 2000 dance hit single "Lady (Hear Me Tonight)" by British DJs Stuntmasterz. Starting as an underground hit, "The Ladyboy Is Mine" was later commercially released to become a moderate hit across Europe, reaching the top ten in the United Kingdom, Belgium and the top forty in France and Switzerland. The commercial release didn't include the vocal sample from Modjo's "Lady" as Warner Brothers label East West were unable to clear it. Instead the release used the same sample from Chic's "Soup for One" and created an alternate version that only featured Brandy and Monica., A remixed version of the song by pop singers Tynisha Keli, an American working in Japan, and Beni, a Japanese singer, was released in 2009., The song was covered by Naya Rivera and Amber Riley for the TV show Glee as their respective characters., In 2015, French girl band When We Were Young released a version in their language featuring French rapper Dry., The same year, "The Boy Is Mine" was sampled on "The Girl Is Mine" by British music duo 99 Souls., In 2016, the song was covered by producer J2 and featured StarGzrLily and Anjolee the Free. It was used in the trailers for the 2016 US film When the Bough Breaks, starring Morris Chestnut and Regina Hall., On the October 14, 2019, episode of reality television singing competition show The Voice, Team (John) Legend members Khalea Lynee of St. Petersburg, Florida, and Zoe Upkins of Nashville, Tennessee, performed the song in a Battle round. Coaches Kelly Clarkson, Gwen Stefani, and Blake Shelton were all divided, with Stefani preferring Upkins's performance, Shelton preferring Lynee's performance, and Clarkson abstaining from naming her preference. Legend chose to agree with Shelton and named Lynee the winner of the Battle, advancing her to the Knockout rounds. Soon after, Legend also attempted to save Upkins and keep her on his team, as well, although Clarkson and Stefani both attempted to steal her instead, with the three coaches' attempts saving her from elimination regardless of her choice. Ultimately, Upkins opted to remain on Team Legend, advancing to the Knockouts on his team. List of Billboard Hot 100 chart achievements and milestones, List of Hot 100 number-one singles of 1998 (U.S.) "The Boy Is Mine" music video on MTV.com "The Girl Is Mine" is a song by British electronic music duo 99 Souls. A mash- up of Destiny's Child's "Girl" (2004) and Brandy and Monica's "The Boy Is Mine" (1998), the funky house track was released on 6 November 2015 with a re- recorded vocal from Brandy. The song peaked at number five on the UK Singles Chart. The song was first released in December 2014, appearing on SoundCloud. While creators 99 Souls thought not much would come of it, the mash-up garnered 2.9 million streams within its first year of release. However, it was later taken down due to copyright violations. After the approval of both Brandy and Beyoncé, the song was released commercially in November 2015. The song was enhanced with a re-recorded vocal from Brandy, along with additional changes. Though Brandy agreed to record new vocals for the mash-up track, Monica turned the offer down, commenting. "I feel like sometimes things that are a part of history and that are in history should be left as such so that it can be upheld with the respect that it was given even back then," she told The Huffington Post. "That's the one song and the one time that [Brandy and I] both won a Grammy and experienced certain things. So I have a lot of memories and emotions connected to that record." A music video for "The Girl Is Mine" was released on 99 Souls' Vevo account on 20 November 2015, and was directed by Sandl. List of number-one dance singles of 2016 (U.S.) 99SoulsOfficial – official website

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"Back in the Day" is a 1994 single by Ahmad. Released when Ahmad was only 18, the song is a nostalgic remembrance of childhood and young teenage years, from a somewhat jaded adult perspective. "Back in the Day" was Ahmad's only major hit single, making it to #26 on The Billboard Hot 100, #19 on the US R&B; chart on the strength of its hook - a sample of the Teddy Pendergrass song "Love TKO"—and Ahmad's quirky vocal style, reminiscent of Fatlip of the Pharcyde fame, and #3 on the US rap chart. It was the first single of his 1994 self-titled album and was RIAA-certified gold. The TKO Remix of "Back in the Day" (Produced By Maurice Thompson of Barr 9 Productions) is featured as the single and on the soundtrack of The Wood, a 1999 motion picture. Mariah Carey's 12th studio album, Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel, featured an interpolation of "Back in the Day" on the track "Candy Bling". Travie McCoy's debut studio album Lazarus features a song titled "Akidagain" which interpolates "Back in the Day". On J. Cole's mixtape The Come Up, his song "School Daze" also interpolates "Back in the Day". Cassidy did an interpolation of this song entitled "Back in the day". In 2013, Complex added the song in its list of nineteen great songs made by teenage rappers in the last 19 years. Complex editor Kyle Kramer said "The blueprint for many songs by nostalgic teenagers since, "Back in the Day" perfectly captures the wistful vibe of the rearview look with its warm chorus and deeply descriptive verses. As a result, ever since back in the day, the song's been a classic." "Back in the Day (Puff)" is a song released in 2003 by R&B; singer Erykah Badu. It is the second single in support of Worldwide Underground album. The song peaked at no. 62 on the R&B; Singles chart in 2004. X-Men: Days of Future Past is a 2014 superhero film directed and produced by Bryan Singer and written by Simon Kinberg from a story by Kinberg, Jane Goldman, and Matthew Vaughn. A British-American venture, the film is based on the fictional X-Men characters that appear in Marvel Comics, the seventh installment of the X-Men film series and a sequel to (2006), (2011) and The Wolverine (2013). It stars an ensemble cast, including Hugh Jackman, James McAvoy, Michael Fassbender, Jennifer Lawrence, Halle Berry, Nicholas Hoult, Anna Paquin, Ellen Page, Peter Dinklage, Ian McKellen, and Patrick Stewart. The story, inspired by the 1981 Uncanny X-Men storyline "Days of Future Past" by Chris Claremont and John Byrne, focuses on two time periods, with Wolverine traveling back in time to 1973 to change history and prevent an event that results in doom for both humans and mutants. Vaughn had directed and was set to return in Days of Future Past before leaving for and the 2015 version of Fantastic Four. Thus Singer, who had directed the first two X-Men films, made his return as a director, and brought along most of the crew from those productions. With a budget of $205 million principal photography began in Montreal, Quebec in April 2013 and concluded in August the same year, with additional filming and pick-ups taking place in November 2013 and February 2014. Twelve companies handled the visual effects. X-Men: Days of Future Past premiered in New York City on May 10, 2014, and was theatrically released on May 23 by 20th Century Fox. It is the second-best reviewed film in the X-Men film series following Logan, drawing favorable notices for its story, visual effects, action scenes, acting, thematic elements, and Singer's direction. During its theatrical run, the film earned over $747 million worldwide, making it the sixth highest-grossing film of 2014, as well as the second highest- grossing film in the series behind Deadpool. The film received an Academy Award nomination for Best Visual Effects, making it the first X-Men film to be nominated for an Oscar. A sequel, titled , was released on May 27, 2016. In the year 2023 in a dystopian future, Sentinels have been programmed to identify and hunt down mutants and any humans who dared to help them. A small band of X-Men survivors consisting of Kitty Pryde, Iceman, Colossus, Bishop, Blink, Warpath, and Sunspot are hiding out in Moscow, but are soon attacked by Sentinels and slaughtered. During the battle, Kitty Pryde sends Bishop's consciousness back in time a few days before the attack to warn the others in order to ensure their survival. The group later meets with Professor Charles Xavier, Magneto, Wolverine, and Storm at a remote Chinese temple. Xavier explains the history of the Sentinels, which were designed by Bolivar Trask, a military scientist who was assassinated by Mystique as her first kill in 1973. Alarmed by Trask's death, government forces had captured Mystique and used her shape-shifting DNA to advance Trask's unfinished Sentinel program by giving them the ability to adapt to nearly every mutant power; it was this upgrade that made the Sentinels invincible and resulted in the apocalyptic future. Xavier and Magneto plan to use Pryde's ability to send Xavier's consciousness back to 1973 in order to prevent Trask's assassination and the apocalyptic future, but because Xavier's mind would not physically survive going back so many decades, Wolverine volunteers to go in his place because his regenerative abilities would allow him to survive the process. After awakening in his younger body in 1973, Wolverine arrives at the X-Mansion, which he discovers has been closed for years due to many of its staff and students being drafted into the Vietnam War. He also learns that Erik Lensherr was arrested for killing John F. Kennedy and that the young and despairing Xavier had turned to alcoholism, shunning his mutant powers with a specialized serum that suppresses his telepathic abilities in exchange for the ability to walk. Hoping to reunite with Mystique, Xavier agrees to help Wolverine and breaks Lensherr out of his prison cell under the Pentagon, aided by Hank McCoy and the newly-recruited Peter Maximoff. Lensherr is angry at Xavier for suppressing his powers and not being there to protect fellow mutants who were sent to Vietnam. Mystique discovers Trask has been experimenting on mutants and in revenge, plots to assassinate him at the Paris Peace Accords. Her attempt fails after Xavier, McCoy, and Wolverine intervene. However, Lensherr attempts to kill her, believing this could prevent the Sentinel takeover from happening. A fight ensues between McCoy and Lensherr, which allows Mystique to escape, but the three expose themselves as mutants to the world. Trask takes advantage of this event and successfully convinces President Richard Nixon to initialize the Sentinel program. Erik obtains his signature helmet back from the Pentagon to block Xavier's psychic powers and secretly takes control of Trask's Sentinel prototypes. Returning to the X-Mansion, Xavier ultimately abandons the serum, regaining his mutant power, and communicates with his future self, who inspires him to protect the relationship between mutants and baseline humans. After using Cerebro to track Mystique, the young Xavier, McCoy, and Wolverine take flight to Washington, D.C. to put an end to her plot to assassinate Trask. At a ceremony where Nixon unveils the Sentinels, Xavier, McCoy, and Wolverine search for the disguised Mystique. Magneto arrives and uses the Sentinels to barricade the White House with the Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium. During the battle, Magneto impales Wolverine with multiple construction rods and throws him into the Potomac River. Nixon, Trask, and a disguised Mystique retreat to the White House Bunker, but Magneto rips it out of the building, intending to kill the President. In the future, the Sentinels manage to find the X-Men and launch an attack on them. Many perish while attempting to buy more time, including Colossus, Blink, Storm, Bishop, Iceman, Warpath and Sunspot, while Magneto and Kitty are heavily injured. In 1973, Xavier persuades Mystique to spare Trask after she saves Nixon from Magneto, altering history and erasing the Sentinels from existence. Magneto and Mystique both leave, one a criminal, the other a hero; while Trask is jailed for attempting to sell U.S. military secrets to Vietnamese officials. Wolverine wakes up at the X-Mansion in 2023 to find Iceman, Rogue, Colossus, Kitty Pryde, Beast, Storm, Jean Grey, Scott Summers, and Xavier all alive and happy. Wolverine speaks to Xavier, who states that they have a lot to talk about after Wolverine asks Xavier to catch him up on what he has missed in the last few decades. Back in 1973, the younger Wolverine is pulled out of the Potomac River by Mystique, who is disguised as William Stryker. In a post- credits scene, set in Prehistoric Egypt, an Egyptian crowd is seen chanting to En Sabah Nur, who telekinetically elevates building blocks to build pyramids as four horsemen observe him from afar. Hugh Jackman as Logan / Wolverine, James McAvoy (younger adult) and Patrick Stewart (adult) as Charles Xavier / Professor X, Michael Fassbender (younger adult) and Ian McKellen (adult) as Erik Lehnsherr / Magneto, Jennifer Lawrence as Raven Darkhölme / Mystique, Halle Berry as Ororo Munroe / Storm, Nicholas Hoult (younger adult) and Kelsey Grammer (adult; uncredited) as Dr. Hank McCoy / Beast, Anna Paquin as Marie / Rogue, Ellen Page as Kitty Pryde, Peter Dinklage as Bolivar Trask, Shawn Ashmore as Bobby Drake / Iceman, Omar Sy as Bishop, Evan Peters as Peter Maximoff / Quicksilver, Josh Helman as Major William Stryker, Daniel Cudmore as Peter Rasputin / Colossus, Fan Bingbing as Blink, Adan Canto as Sunspot, Booboo Stewart as James Proudstar / Warpath Additionally, Famke Janssen and James Marsden reprise their roles as Jean Grey and Scott Summers / Cyclops respectively in cameo appearances. Lucas Till reprises his role as Alex Summers / Havok. Evan Jonigkeit portrays Toad. Gregg Lowe portrays Ink. Jaa Smith-Johnson portrays a mutant soldier named Daniels. X-Men comic-book writers Len Wein and Chris Claremont appear as United States congressmen. Michael Lerner plays Senator Brickman. Mark Camacho portrays U.S. President Richard Nixon. Zehra Leverman portrays Quicksilver's mother Ms. Maximoff. Singer cameos as a man with a small film camera as Magneto walks away after Mystique's escape in Paris. In a post-credits scene, Brendan Pedder portrays the ancient mutant, En Sabah Nur. Producer Lauren Shuler Donner stated in August 2006 that a continuation of the X-Men main film series would require a renegotiation. New cast members of were signed, while the older cast members were not. Donner said, "There is forty years worth of stories. I've always wanted to do 'Days of Future Past' and there are just really a lot of stories yet to be told". She later pitched the idea of a fourth installment of the X-Men franchise to director Bryan Singer, following the completion of the 2011 prequel . In March 2011, Donner said the film was in "active development at Fox"; she said, "We took the treatment to Fox and they love it ... And X4 leads into X5". 20th Century Fox saw X-Men: First Class as the first film of a new X-Men trilogy. Donner compared the franchise plans to the darker, more mature content of the Harry Potter film series. Early reports said Matthew Vaughn and Singer were returning to direct and produce the sequel, respectively. While still attached to the project as a director, Vaughn said, "First Class is similar to Batman Begins, where you have the fun of introducing the characters and getting to know them, but that takes time. But with the second one, you can just get on with it and have a rollicking good time. That's the main difference between Batman Begins and The Dark Knight". Describing the possible beginning of the film, Vaughn said, "I thought it would be fun to open with the Kennedy assassination, and we reveal that the magic bullet was controlled by Magneto". Singer said the film could be set around the civil rights movement or the Vietnam War, and that Wolverine could once again be featured. Singer also talked about "changing history" in an interview with Empire magazine. He said he does not want people to panic about events in the past "erasing" the storylines of the previous X-Men films, as he believes in multiverses, explaining the possibility of certain events can exist equally in the histories of alternate universes. Kinberg said the main focus of this film was the future of the X-Men film series. With the use of cast members from the original trilogy and from First Class, they needed to decide the sequels' destination. In preparation for the film, Kinberg studied films about time travel, including Back to the Future, The Terminator, and . Singer originated a philosophy and a set of rules for the time travel in the film so the story would be as plausible as possible. According to Kinberg, as they were writing the script, they thought it is sensible that Wolverine was traveling between time periods, because of his ageless look and ability to heal rapidly. He further stated of making Wolverine the time traveler, "We made the decision for a lot of reasons ... he's the protagonist of the franchise, and probably the most beloved character to a mass audience". Kinberg and Vaughn considered Bishop and Cable candidates for the role of time traveler. Kinberg said Rachel Summers was in the first draft of the script; she sent Wolverine back to 1972. The character was later replaced with Kitty Pryde, to whom Kinberg gave a secondary power of sending people's consciousnesses into the past. Juggernaut, Jubilee, Nightcrawler and Psylocke were also considered for the film. Singer was asked how the film integrates the themes of the earlier X-Men films; he said, "It establishes that some villain characters may have been right with their fears. It confronts the notions of hope and second chances. Its characters that are lost trying to find themselves. In X-Men 1 and 2, the characters had come into their own and knew who they were. In this one, they're all lost and they're trying to keep it together". In November 2011, Simon Kinbergco-writer of X-Men: The Last Stand and co- producer of X-Men: First Classwas hired to write the film's screenplay. In May 2012, 20th Century Fox announced the film would be released on July 18, 2014. The release was later moved forward to May 23, 2014. In August 2012, the title for the film was confirmed to be X-Men: Days of Future Past. The film is inspired by Chris Claremont and John Byrne's X-Men comic book storyline, "Days of Future Past", which introduced the idea of an alternate future for mutants that grew from the Brotherhood of Evil Mutants' killing of a senator, leading to a future in which mutants are hunted by Sentinels. In October 2012, Vaughn left the role of director to focus on Mark Millar's (2014). Singer was later announced as the film's director; it was his third directorial role in the X-Men film series. In preparation for the film, Singer approached James Cameron to discuss time travel, string theory and multiverses. In the same month, Richard Stammers was approached to be the visual effects supervisor, as Singer liked his work in the 2012 film Prometheus. Singer brought back most of the crew he had in X-Men and X2. In December 2012, two long-absent designers were hired: production designer John Myhre, who had only done X-Men, and costume designer Louise Mingenbach who also did X2 and . In February 2013, John Ottmanwho aside from X-Men, collaborated on all of Singer's works since the 1995 film The Usual Suspectswas confirmed to work on the music and the editing of the film. Singer used the online social networking service Twitter to announce casting of the film. In November 2012, he announced that James McAvoy, Michael Fassbender, Jennifer Lawrence and Nicholas Hoult would reprise their roles from X-Men: First Class. Later the same month, he announced that Patrick Stewart and Ian McKellen would reprise their respective roles as the older versions of the characters played by McAvoy and Fassbender. In December, Singer announced that Hugh Jackman would reprise his role as Wolverine. In January 2013, Singer announced that Anna Paquin, Shawn Ashmore, and Ellen Page would reprise their roles of Rogue, Iceman, and Kitty Pryde. In February, Singer announced that Peter Dinklage would star in the film as the main antagonist. In March, Singer announced that French actor Omar Sy had joined the cast. Halle Berry said in an interview that she would reprise her role as Storm, which was followed by an announcement from Singer that Berry would be in the film. Singer tweeted a picture of the cast, which confirmed that Daniel Cudmore would return as Colossus and that Fan Bingbing and Booboo Stewart had joined the cast. In April, Singer announced that American singer and songwriter Lady Gaga had joined the cast as Dazzler, but it was later revealed as an April Fools' Day prank. Singer retweeted a photograph of himself, Adan Canto, and confirmed cast members Patrick Stewart, McKellen, and Ashmore, which was followed by a confirmation from Canto that he had joined the cast. In May, Singer announced that Evan Peters had been cast as Quicksilver. In June, Australian actor Josh Helman was cast in a role. In July, Singer tweeted a picture of actor Lucas Till on the set of the film, which confirmed that he was returning as Havok. In January 2014, Evan Jonigkeit had been cast as the younger version of Toad. X-Men: Days of Future Past had a production budget of $205 million. Principal photography began on April 15, 2013, at Mel's Cité du Cinema in Montreal, Canada, and ended on August 17, 2013. Filming had to begin in April 2013 to accommodate the cast's individual schedules. Olympic Stadium, Montreal City Hall, and McGill University were also used as filming locations. An aerial plate unit was sent to film in Washington, D.C. Additional filming took place in Montreal in November 2013 and February 2014. According to the Calgary Herald, the film is the second most expensive produced by 20th Century Fox after Avatar (2009). Comic book writer Chris Claremont said in an interview that he was consulted for the film. X-Men: Days of Future Past is the first X-Men film to be filmed in native 3D; it was shot using Arri Alexa-M cameras with Leica Prime lenses and Fujinon Zoom lenses, along with 3ality Technica TS-35 camera rigs and Stereo Image Processor (SIP) technology systems. Director of photography Newton Thomas Sigel was asked about using Arri Alexa-M cameras; he said, "For Bryan and myself, the Alexa has been almost the gateway to getting the look we like in film". Sigel added that the Arri Alexa-M camera's small size was a big advantage to the film's main unit, which carried three 3D rigs. The film also used the Alexa XTs for the production's 2D work. Production designer John Myhre said his work load was "six months squeeze[d] down in to 3-4 months", given the sets were massive but he did not have the usual time to design and build before principal photography began. The lue underground hallways and Cerebro sets were faithful recreations of the sets seen in the first X-Men, albeit ransacked and damaged to imply the government had raided the mansion. The sets had many hidden "Xs", including the staircase of the X-Mansion. Myrhe said he wanted to embrace the 1970s setting in the same way First Class embraced its 1960s setting, and costume designer Louise Mingenbach also drew heavily from 1970s styles for the clothing seen in the 1973 scenes. Hoult wore corduroys, Jackman a wooden-paneled buckle and a peacock-print shirt, and McAvoy wore a brown leather jacket. Peters wore 1981-inspired clothing; this was Mingenbach's way of showing Quicksilver's irreverence for the exact time and place. In one scene, Mingenbach gave Fassbender as the younger Erik Lehnsherr a fedora as a nod to the one the character wore in the first X-Men film. For the future period of the film, Mingenbach wanted a darker, slightly futuristic and tactical look for the characters. This included changing the suit Patrick Stewart had previously worn as Xavier to battle fatigues. The Sentinels had two separate versions, to depict how the earlier prototypes built by Trask in the 1970s evolved into the adaptable killing machines of the dystopian future. Singer described the 1973 version as "a little fun and stylish but also a little retro", with a key element being that they are made of plastic to be unaffected by Magneto's powers. Myhre used styles from molded plastics from the 1970s to design Sentinels from that period, and cited inspiration from both the cars of the decade and "those wonderful TV sets that were round with smoked glass panels". The overall style was bulky to fit "the traditional idea of a robot looks like", and drew the most from the comics version, such as the purple color and a humanoid shape, while trying to stand out on its own with its retro design. The robots' ability to fly was compared to a Harrier Jump Jet, as the Sentinels had vertical takeoff and could glide. Life-sized Sentinels were built by Legacy Effects to be featured on the set, and had articulated joints to be fully poseable. The sound effects averted metallic noises, while adding woof effects on the Sentinels' footsteps to display its weight on the ground. On the other hand, the future Sentinels would resemble "giant versions of Mystique" to show how their technological development was based on studying the shapeshifting mutant's DNA. Thus their design is sleek and feminine, with a body covered in mechanical scales that move during the process of adapting to a mutant's attack, while also featuring angular and dark faces to enhance the intimidation. The future robots would feature what Singer described as "biomechanical technology to transform to adapt to other mutants, to take on their physicality and some of their powers to use against mutantkind", which the director imagined to be fueled by nanotechnology and "the ability to really change things almost at a molecular level". The Sentinels' heads would also open up as an extra weapon, and for straighter combat the robots could create blades and spikes out of their limbs. The crackling sound of the robots' scales was made by rubbing riveted belts on shale rocks. For the future setting of the film, a set featuring a hillside monastery was built. Myhre was inspired by Chinese temples built on the sides of cliffs. The future set also featured a mixture of architectural styles from China, India, and Indonesia. Part of the set was a big wall, which was inspired by the Great Wall of China. X-Men: Days of Future Past had 1,311 visual effects shots produced by twelve studios. Richard Stammer served as the overall effects supervisor based on his work for Prometheus. The leading company was Moving Picture Company, who created the future Sentinels and worked on the sequences involving the X-Jet and Cerebro's red virtual world. The Sentinels' scaled bodies were created by adapting a tool originally developed to create hair and fur, which would later evolve into creating a proxy representation of each individual scale as a "follicle". Another major contributor was Digital Domain, with effects from the 1973 portion that encompassed nearly a third of the work. These included the Sentinels, Mystique's transformations and eyes, and various digital environments. Digital augmentation turned a remote airstrip into a Vietnam prisoner camp and added Paris' famed mansard rooftops to the Montreal locations. The environment work based on Washington, D.C. required the team to study period references of the National Mall and White House, and photograph almost all of RFK Stadium to create a detailed digital replica. Rising Sun Pictures created a sequence considered by many reviewers the centerpiece of the film's effects, where Quicksilver uses his super speed in the Pentagon kitchen. Depicting how, to a speedster, actions in real time come down to a virtual standstill, objects float around in slow motion. After doing LIDAR scan of the kitchen set, the digital recreation added many computer generated props - cooking gear, cutlery, vegetables and water released by a fire sprinkler system - rendered in near microscopic detail regarding placement and lighting, particularly because the footage had to work in 3D. To simulate Quicksilver running on the walls, Evan Peters and a stunt double were filmed in both the set being suspended by a harness and on a treadmill that stood in front of a chroma key green screen. Only Peters' legs were digitally replaced. Despite the sequence only having 29 effects shots, it required nearly seven months of work from RSP's team of 70 artists. Rhythm and Hues Studios worked on Beast's transformations, the creation of Xavier's plane, and speed effects for Quicksilver. They also worked with Digital Domain on the sequence featuring the inside of the 1973 Sentinel. Mokko Studio worked on Mystique's eyes and costume fixes. Cinesite worked on the future New York City in the opening prologue along with clean-ups, wire removals, and production fixes. Fuel VFX worked on holographic effects and Havok's mutant powers. Vision Globale worked on visual effects relating to a dream and flashback sequence. Hydraulx, Lola and Method Studios handled a number of compositions and production fixes. The Third Floor worked on extensive story-boarding and visualisation. Director Bryan Singer's regular collaborator John Ottman worked on the score of the film, in addition to being its editor. Ottman is the first composer to score more than one film in the X-Men film series, having previously scored X2 (2003). This also marked the first time a theme from a previous X-Men film has been retained; Ottman re-used some of his themes from X2, most notably the main title theme. While Ottman retained the same style of "lyrical and build upon character themes that would weave in and out of the film and done in a straight orchestral sense" that he had used in X2, following Singer's request he tried to compose "something more 'modern'" that could be compared to other contemporary superhero scores, and not follow Henry Jackman' score for First Class. The 1970s setting inspired the inclusion of "synthesized elements with some analog synths and electric piano and bass and some guitar". The film score was released on digital download on May 16, 2014, on CD on May 26, 2014, and on vinyl on August 4, 2014. An expanded version of the soundtrack, including music exclusive to The Rogue Cut, was released on June 24, 2015 by Sony Classical Records. The world premiere of X-Men: Days of Future Past occurred at the Jacob K. Javits Convention Center in New York City on May 10, 2014. It was released in international markets in 2D and 3D theaters on May 21, 2014, and in the United States on May 23, 2014. Premiere events were also held in London, Beijing, Moscow, Singapore, São Paulo, Melbourne, and Tokyo. In June 2013, 20th Century Fox presented a set tour video of X-Men: Days of Future Past at the CineEurope conference in Barcelona; director Bryan Singer acted as the tour guide. The set tour video was included with the home video release of the 2013 film The Wolverine. In July 2013, Singer, writer Simon Kinberg, producers Lauren Shuler Donner and Hutch Parker, together with cast members Jennifer Lawrence, Evan Peters, Omar Sy, Ellen Page, Shawn Ashmore, Anna Paquin, Halle Berry, Ian McKellen, Patrick Stewart, Hugh Jackman, James McAvoy, Michael Fassbender, Nicholas Hoult, and Peter Dinklage presented at the 2013 San Diego Comic-Con International. Footage from the film was screened. In August 2013, Singer presented footage from the film at the Fantasia International Film Festival. In March 2014, 20th Century Fox presented footage from the film at CinemaCon. In April 2014, Page presented footage from the film at the 2014 MTV Movie Awards. Kinberg and Dinklage attended WonderCon to discuss the film. Singer withdrew from the publicity rounds for the film because of a lawsuit alleging sexual abuse filed against him. In July 2014, 20th Century Fox and Oculus Rift presented a "virtual reality experience" in 2014 San Diego Comic-Con International. Attendees were given a chance to sit in a replica of Professor X's wheelchair and virtually hunt Mystique in the San Diego Convention Center. In July 2013, a mid-credits scene teasing X-Men: Days of Future Past was attached to the theatrical release of The Wolverine. The scene, set two years after the events of The Wolverine, depicts Wolverine going through an airport security checkpoint while a commercial for Trask Industries plays in the background. Suddenly, Wolverine notices that all the metal objects around him start to shake and levitate. He turns around to see Magneto, who says he needs Wolverine's help to combat a threat to all mutants. When Wolverine asks Magneto why he should trust him, the people around them freeze as Xavier approaches Wolverine and assures him that Magneto is telling the truth. Adam Pockross of Yahoo! Movies described the mid-credits scene as the coolest part of The Wolverine and wrote, "Boom! And that's how you tease the next film: by giving us so much to chew on, yet so few answers". The first official trailer for X-Men: Days of Future Past was released in October 2013. Jason Callina of Herald News gave the trailer a positive response, saying, "it is fantastic to see characters that I grew up with in the flesh ... we still have to wait till the end of May to see if Fox succeeded, but for now they have my interest". Ben Child of The Guardian criticized the trailer for the number of characters that would appear in the film. Child wrote, "overloading the movie with superheroes might please fans of the comic books, but the rest of us will be chewing on our own spleens when the umpteenth brightly coloured dude turns up to spout one line of dialogue, then drop off the map". A mid-credits scene teasing X-Men: Days of Future Past was attached to the theatrical release of The Amazing Spider- Man 2 in April 2014. In the scene, which is set during the Vietnam War, Mystique tries to infiltrate a military camp led by William Stryker to recruit fellow mutants Havok, Ink, and Toad. The Amazing Spider-Man 2 director Marc Webb had an existing contract with Fox Searchlight Pictures to direct another film following 500 Days of Summer (2009). After The Amazing Spider-Man, Webb's negotiations with Sony Pictures Entertainment stalled because of his commitment to Fox. Fox eventually agreed to allow Webb to direct the sequel of The Amazing Spider-Man, and in exchange, Sony promoted the X-Men film without charge. In addition, three viral websites were launched before the release of the filmTrask-Industries.com in July 2013, TheBentBullet.com in November 2013 and 25Moments.com in April 2014. To further promote the film, Jackman made a guest appearance on the April 28, 2014, episode of WWE Raw. The segment received mixed reactions. In July 2013, CKE Restaurants and 20th Century Fox announced a promotional partnership for the theatrical release of X-Men: Days of Future Past. The promotion included advertising, in-restaurant merchandising, collectors' cups, and a film-themed burgerThe Western "X-Tra" Bacon Thickburger sold it CKE Restaurants outlets Hardee's and Carl's Jr.. Zachary Eller, senior vice president of marketing partnerships & promotions at 20th Century Fox, said, "their fun and irreverent advertising campaigns are a great fit with our film and we couldn't be more thrilled to join together to feed mutants everywhere!" Mountain Dew partnered with the film to promote it globally; the promotion included prizes, a television commercial, online exclusives, in-store and in- theater advertisements, and commemorative packaging featuring X-Men characters from future and past. Anna Roca, senior vice president of international promotions at 20th Century Fox, stated, "The adventurous, energetic attitude of [Mountain Dew's] fan base mirrors the franchise's ownand their international reach helps bring our beloved mutants to more corners of the world than ever before". In March 2014, British train operator Virgin Trains West Coast revinyled a Class 390 Pendolino train, featuring the film characters on the carriages. It was launched at London Euston station with Hugh Jackman and James McAvoy attending the launch. Kia Motors collaborated with 20th Century Fox to promote the home media release of the film with a Wolverine-themed Sorento. The SUV made its debut at the 2015 Australian Open, with a series of videos featuring Rafael Nadal teaming up with the X-Men to save the tennis event from the Sentinels. In June 2014, cable network FX acquired the television rights to X-Men: Days of Future Past. The film was released by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment on digital download on September 23, 2014, and on DVD, Blu-ray and Blu-ray 3D on October 14, 2014. In the United Kingdom, it was released on November 10, 2014. Three versions were released; a Deluxe Edition containing the Blu-ray 3D, Blu-ray and digital download; a Blu-ray and digital download combo pack; and a single-disc DVD. 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment released an alternate version of the film, titled The Rogue Cut, on July 14, 2015. It added 17 minutes of previously unused footage, including a subplot involving Anna Paquin's character Rogue, whose role was reduced to a brief cameo in the theatrical release. The Rogue Cut was also screened at the 2015 San Diego Comic-Con International. In the Rogue Cut, Rogue's role is more consequential, and the narrative is more complex: when Kitty Pryde is accidentally wounded after Wolverine's consciousness experiences a phase between past and future from seeing Stryker in 1973, Bobby Drake (Iceman) proposes breaking into the heavily guarded remains of Cerebro at the former X-Mansion, the one place where Xavier's mind cannot reach others from the outside, in order to rescue Rogue, who is being held captive there. Xavier, Magneto, and Iceman succeed in rescuing Rogue, but at the cost of Iceman's life. Rogue uses her power to take over for Kitty in regards to keeping Wolverine's mind in 1973, for the remaining time until the moment history is changed, with a suggestion that Wolverine is aware of the switch as he appears to feel Rogue's presence. The Sentinels are able to find the X-Men through a tracking device inside a Sentinel's hand that was severed from the X-Jet during their escape. In another major scene, Mystique stops at the X-Mansion the night before the Sentinel-unveiling ceremony, revisits her previous romance with Beast, and destroys Cerebro the following morning in order to prevent Xavier from finding her. A new mid-credits scene shows Bolivar Trask imprisoned at Magneto's former prison cell beneath the Pentagon for selling military secrets to foreign countries. Worldwide, X-Men: Days of Future Past earned $262.8 million during its opening weekend, the highest worldwide opening weekend for an X-Men film. The film grossed $233.9 million in the US and Canada, and $513.9 million in other markets, for a worldwide gross of $747.9 million, making it the highest- grossing entry in the X-Men film series before being surpassed by Deadpool two years later. Deadline Hollywood calculated the net profit of the film to be $77.3 million, when factoring together "production budgets, P&A;, talent participations and other costs, with box office grosses, and ancillary revenues from VOD to DVD and TV," placing it 16th on their list of 2014's "Most Valuable Blockbusters". In the United States and Canada, the film earned $8.1 million from Thursday night showings, which is the highest late night opening for an X-Men film. It was also the highest-grossing film during its opening weekend, earning $90.8 million, which made it the second-highest opening weekend of the series, at the time, behind X-Men: The Last Stand ($102.8 million). During the four-day Memorial Day weekend, it earned $110.6 million. The audience was 56% male and 59% were older than 25. Elsewhere, the film was the highest-grossing film during its opening weekend, taking $172 million, making it Fox International's highest opening weekend. The film's highest-grossing debuts were in China, South Korea, the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Malta. It was also the highest-grossing debut for a 20th Century Fox film in 11 markets, including South Korea, Brazil, the Philippines, and India. It became the highest-grossing X-Men film in Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, China, Colombia, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Ecuador, Egypt, Finland, France, Hong Kong, Hungary, India, Israel, Italy, Malaysia, Lebanon, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, the Philippines, Poland, Singapore, Slovakia, South Korea, Sweden, Thailand, the United Kingdom & Ireland, and Venezuela. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes X-Men: Days of Future Past holds an approval rating of 90% based on 320 reviews, with an average rating of 7.53/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "X-Men: Days of Future Past combines the best elements of the series to produce a satisfyingly fast-paced outing that ranks among the franchise's finest installments." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 75 out of 100, based on 44 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale. Sean O'Connell of CinemaBlend gave the film four and a half stars out of five, and said it was "the greatest, most complete and staggeringly entertaining [X-Men film] to date". Empire gave it four out of five stars and called it, "The best X-Men film since the second one". Steve Rose of The Guardian rated the film three stars out of five; he said, "Non-devotees might struggle, but director Bryan Singer whips up the action towards a symphonic climax". David Rooney of The Hollywood Reporter said, "While it's more dramatically diffuse than the reboot and lacks a definitive villain, the new film is shot through with a stirring reverence for the Marvel Comics characters and their universe". Justin Chang of Variety said, "If the characters' quandaries at times feel overly circumscribed, they're also advanced with a bracing emotional directness, devoid of either cynicism or sentimentalism, that touches genuine chords of feeling over the course of the film's fleet 130-minute [sic] running time". In 2016, James Charisma of Playboy ranked the film #8 on a list of "15 Sequels That Are Way Better Than The Originals". In contrast, Robbie Collin of The Daily Telegraph rated the film two stars out of five and called the plot "a curate's egg, thoroughly scrambled". He concluded, "The film squanders both of its casts, reeling from one fumbled set-piece to the next. It seems to have been constructed in a stupor, and you watch in a daze of future past". Simon Abrams, writing for RogerEbert.com, gave the film two-and-a-half stars out of four, calling it a "visually driven and paint-by-numbers-plot". Abrams was critical of the undeveloped subplots that built up because the film's pacing left little time to develop each element of the story set in the 1970s. Following criticism of X-Men: The Last Stand for killing off major characters such as Professor Charles Xavier, Cyclops, and Jean Grey, X-Men: Days of Future Past has subsequently been viewed by some critics as a revision of those controversial plot elements in X-Men: The Last Stand. 2014 in film, List of American films of 2014, List of British films of 2014, List of films featuring drones, List of films featuring time loops, List of highest grossing films

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The Toyota Matrix, officially referred to as the Toyota Corolla Matrix, is a compact hatchback manufactured by Toyota Motor Manufacturing Canada in Cambridge, Ontario, Canada and derived from the Toyota Corolla. Introduced in 2002 as a 2003 model, the Matrix is the result of a joint venture between Toyota and General Motors, with the GM version being the Pontiac Vibe, which was assembled by New United Motor Manufacturing, Inc. (NUMMI) in Fremont, California, United States. Officially sold in North America until being discontinued, the Matrix was positioned as a sporty hatchback counterpart of the North American Corolla and was counted as a variant of it in Toyota's sales figures. Although identical mechanically, and nearly as much internally, the Matrix and Vibe had different sheetmetal and exterior trim designed by their respective brands. Both vehicles are narrow, tall station wagons styled in a quasi-SUV fashion (called a crossover utility vehicle or "CUV" by Toyota) and marketed to a fairly youthful market segment. This type of car is also commonly referred to as a sport wagon. First sold in February 2002, the Matrix saw a minor facelift for the 2005 model year, and was redesigned completely in 2008 for the 2009 model year, following the tenth generation Corolla. Sales of the Matrix were discontinued in the United States in 2013 and in Canada in 2014. The Matrix was first introduced in the 2003 model year and based on the Toyota Corolla platform. Relatively unchanged in 2004, a facelift for 2005 brought minor revisions to the exterior – mainly revised styling to the front fascia due to complaints of rubbing the ground on the previous incarnation and replacing the red lenses on the taillamps with clear ones. Also, the center instrument panel was slightly redesigned and featured a Toyota head unit in place of the previous GM-sourced radio. Two 1.8 L four-cylinder engines were offered in the Matrix: the 1ZZ-FE used in the Corolla, which originally made in 2003 through 2005 models, but was reduced to in 2006, and the performance- oriented 2ZZ-GE taken from the Toyota Celica GT-S, which produced (previously in 2003, in 2004, and in 2005). The 2006 drop in power was due to new testing standards, and not a change in the engine's actual performance. In late 2006, Toyota discontinued use of the 2ZZ-GE engine and dropped the XRS from the Matrix lineup to be temporarily replaced by the M-Theory edition. Like each year of the XRS model, the M-Theory was a limited production run of 2500 cars. All wheel drive was also available from 2003–2006 when coupled to the 1ZZ engine and automatic transmission, but was dropped at the same time as the XRS. Starting out at in 2003, the no-frills base model came with few options. While it did have standard air conditioning, it left out features like color-keyed mirrors and door handles, blacked out window frames and power mirrors. One option the base model could be had with was AWD for an additional $1,465 (although the actual increase was $2,445, since AWD only came with an automatic transmission). Adding AWD brought the car's curb weight of up to and decreased power by and . In 2004, the price of a base model remained unchanged, but by the last year of production, 2008, it had risen to $15,510. The Matrix's XR mid-grade trim level added features like color-matched mirrors and door handles, a leather-wrapped steering wheel, and a panic button on the key fob. Options available with the XR trim included a sunroof, body kit, and alloy wheels. A 2003 XR started at and , but when equipped with AWD cost at least $18,445 (only $305 less than an XRS) and weighed in at . Like the base model, the XR's AWD engine was detuned. Again, the car's price for its sophomore year stayed the same, but in the four years after that, it rose to $16,990. For , the top-of-the-line model came standard with four-wheel disc brakes and six speakers. Also included on all XRS models were anti-lock brakes with Electronic Brakeforce Distribution, 16-inch alloy wheels, and cruise control. In 2003, 17-inch wheels could be had, but only on cars without a sunroof. An option combining wheels and a sunroof became available the second year of production. In 2005, an XRS started out at $18,850, and for its last year, it sold for at least $19,250. The XRS trim included an engine upgrade to Toyota's higher-performance 2ZZ-GE engine. Displacing , or 109.6 cubic inches, it produced and – a then-rare 100 horsepower-per-liter. While its 11.5:1 compression ratio was a large factor in its performance, the engine could change to a second cam profile at higher RPM through Toyota's VVTL-i and was designed for operation up to 8500 RPM. The engine's high compression necessitates "premium" gasoline (91 octane or above in the (R+M)/2 scale). With the exception of an available automatic in 2003, a six-speed manual transmission was the only gearbox offered in the XRS. A Transitional Low Emission Vehicle (TLEV) its first year of production, the 2ZZ was retrofitted in 2004 with a smog pump and reclassified as an Ultra Low Emission Vehicle (ULEV). The Matrix was able to come to a full stop from in only . On a skidpad, the car achieved .83 g, only .03 g less than the Celica GTS, during testing by Motor Trend and Sport Compact Car. Due to being front wheel drive, the XRS has a weight distribution of 59/41 (front/rear), which may result in understeer when driven hard. It weighs in at a relatively light . Not a trim level, the M-Theory edition was a 2007-only appearance package with an exclusive "Speedway Blue" color. For , a customer got 17-inch Caldina wheels, a chrome exhaust tip, a numbered plaque (1 of 2500), four wheel disc brakes, and a spoiler. To improve handling, a "sport tuned suspension" and strut tower brace were included. One of the Matrix's unique design features is its interior, particularly the rear 60/40 seats and cargo area. Made with rigid plastic backs, the rear seats fold flat, creating a cargo area. In a practicality test, Motor Trend was able to haul more cargo in the Matrix than in a Subaru WRX wagon with of space. In addition to the eight tie-downs in the back for attaching the included cargo nets and tonneau cover, the seats and rear floor have integrated rails for installing extra tie-downs. Up front, the passenger seat also folds flat, accommodating long items like surf boards or allowing drivers to use the tray in its back to hold items like a laptop computer. An electronic device can be charged with the 115 volt/100 watt power inverter (US models only). The first year of production (2003), the instrument cluster was completely red. However, the next year, Toyota made the numbers white while keeping the rest of the gauges red. When the car was updated in 2005, a digital clock was added to the radio bezel. NHTSA crash test ratings (2003): Frontal Crash Test – Driver:, Frontal Crash Test – Passenger:, Side Impact Rating –, Side Impact Rating – Rear:, Rollover Rating: In May 2008, Toyota issued a recall for 2003 and 2004 model year Corollas and Matrixes. The recall notice cites two bolts in each of the front doors as potentially causing the window to come off the track and break. This recall only applies to models equipped with power windows. General Motors issued a recall for the same problem on 2003 and 2004 Pontiac Vibes with power windows at the same time. On August 26, 2010, Toyota issued a recall for 2005 to 2008 model year Corollas and Matrixes, equipped with the 1ZZ-FE engine and two- wheel drive. The recall notices states that an improperly manufactured Engine Control Module (ECM) can develop a crack in its circuitry, potentially causing the "Check Engine" light to illuminate, harsh shifting, and stalling and/or failure of the engine to start. On November 20, 2019, along with 2003-2008 Corollas and 2004 and 2005 Yarises, the Matrix of the model years from 2003 to 2008 was recalled in Mexico due to these cars containing Takata frontal passenger airbags which might degrade due to weather exposure and variation of high temperatures, which usually occurs on cities with extreme weather, which might cause serious injuries on passengers. Toyota has advised all owners of the following cars to replace these faulty frontal passenger airbags or all airbags, depending of which version is. Toyota of Mexico has notified PROFECO that in the Mexican market exists 618 vehicles in addition to these three recalled vehicles. The replacing campaign will go due November 22. Initially rumored by Toyota and auto news media as a Matrix replacement named the Blade, the second generation Matrix was unveiled on October 31, 2007, at the Specialty Equipment Market Association (SEMA) show in Las Vegas, and was first available at dealerships in February 2008, as a 2009 model. The Matrix' Pontiac Vibe sibling was also upgraded, but production of that model ended after 2009 when the entire Pontiac brand was retired. In the United States, three trim levels (Standard [base], S and XRS) are offered, as well as two inline-four engines: a 2ZR-FE for the base model (chassis code ZRE142) and a 2AZ-FE for the S and XRS trims. The former is offered with either a five-speed manual or four-speed automatic transmission, while the larger engine is equipped with either a manual or automatic five-speed transmission. In addition, the S trim can be equipped with a four-speed automatic and all-wheel drive. Canadian buyers are offered in four trim levels: a 1.8 L-powered base model and the XR, AWD and XRS models with a 2.4-liter engine. This generation marks it the first time it is sold in Mexico. The Matrix comes only in two trim levels to Mexico: Base and XR. For the 2011 model year, the Matrix received redesigned exterior and interior elements, including front and rear fascias, wheels and seat fabrics. In 2008, Toyota began offering different trim levels in the United States and Canada. The XR trim became exclusive for Canada, and the S trim was released only in the U.S., while AWD remained available in both markets after 2009. All vehicles have an independent front suspension with MacPherson struts, but only XRS trim and cars equipped with all-wheel drive and 158 horsepower, feature an independent rear suspension using double wishbones instead of a semi- independent torsion beam. The 2009 models have less interior space than the preceding years, with a total of compared to the original . The XRS trim was dropped from the U.S. lineup for the 2011 model year. All models come standard with side torso airbags, side curtain airbags, anti- lock braking and electronic brakeforce distribution. For the 2010 model the previously optional Vehicle Stability Control and traction control systems became standard. Toyota's Smart Stop Technology was added to the Matrix for the 2011 model year. The Matrix is rated "Good" in both frontal and side Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) crash tests. NHTSA crash test ratings (2009): Frontal Crash Test – Driver:, Frontal Crash Test – Passenger:, Side Impact Rating – Driver:, Side Impact Rating – Passenger:, Rollover Rating: The 2009 to 2010 model year Toyota Matrix (and its Pontiac Vibe relative) are subject to the 2009–2011 Toyota vehicle recalls regarding floor mat and accelerator pedal replacement. On October 10, 2012, Toyota issued a recall for 2009 model year Corolla and Matrix, along with 10 other models. The recall notices states that improperly lubricated driver's side power window master switch may develop a “notchy” or sticky feel, and that improper aftermarket lubrication may present a fire hazard. The repair involves lubricating the switch assembly with a special fluorine grease. On August 5, 2013, Toyota announced that it would end production of the Matrix for the US market after the 2013 model year due to declining sales, and that there were no plans to replace it with another vehicle. The Canadian market continued for the 2014 model year, with those assembled in Cambridge, Ontario by Toyota Motor Manufacturing Canada. The Matrix was then discontinued in Canada and was not offered for the 2015 model year. Toyota continued to sell a range of compact hatchbacks in North America through its Scion brand. On September 1, 2016, "the Scion brand transitioned to Toyota." For the 2017 model year, the Corolla iM would be the successor of the Matrix. For the 2019 model year, the newest iteration has been released as the Toyota Corolla Hatchback. The Pontiac Vibe is a compact automobile that was sold by Pontiac from 2002 to 2010. It was jointly developed by General Motors along with Toyota, who manufactures the mechanically similar Toyota Matrix. Manufactured by the Toyota-GM joint venture NUMMI in Fremont, California, the Vibe succeeded the Chevrolet Prizm in production at NUMMI and like the Prizm, it was derived from the Toyota Corolla, making it the last of the GM and Toyota developed S-body cars. From 2002 to 2004, a rebadged right-hand drive variant of the Vibe was exported as the Toyota Voltz to the Japanese domestic market. The Voltz was not popular in Japan and discontinued after two model years. Production of the Vibe ended in 2009 with the discontinuation of the Pontiac brand and the closing of NUMMI under the General Motors Chapter 11 reorganization. Its twin, the Toyota Matrix, was in production for another three years for the American market and four years for the Canadian market, as the Matrix was manufactured by Toyota Motor Manufacturing Canada in Cambridge, Ontario, and was unaffected by NUMMI closing down operation. The 2003–2006 Vibe was available in an economical base trim, an AWD mid-trim, and the more powerful GT sport trim. Powertrains available for this car are a Toyota-built 1.8 L straight-4 16-valve engine producing on the base model (manual or automatic transmission), 118 hp on the all-wheel drive model (automatic only), or a version with VVTL-i producing for the GT (manual 6-speed only). The Vibe was at one time the most fuel efficient vehicle sold by GM in North America, but ceased to be the case with the revised United States Environmental Protection Agency testing procedures in 2008. Although the Vibe and Matrix are similar designs, the two brands actually use several different components, which are brand-specific, for their heating and air conditioning systems. These components include the air conditioning compressor and related hoses, the heater hoses, the heater core, and the serpentine belt. There were some minor changes between model years. The Vibe was first produced in 2002 and went on sale as a 2003 model. Power ratings for the first three model years were slightly higher, with the GT up to , the base model rated at , and the all-wheel drive model rated at . Engine power claims were decreased for 2006 as a result of Toyota's re-testing of its engines for the new Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) ratings standard. The GT and all-wheel-drive trims were discontinued for the 2007 model year due to poor sales and new federal emissions standards. The front fascia was freshened in the 2005 model year. In an attempt to 'converge' the Pontiac look, the front grille was restyled to resemble the look of the Pontiac Solstice, also adopted by other vehicles in the Pontiac line. The 2003-2004 Vibes had a front grille more closely resembling the discontinued Pontiac Aztek. First generation Vibe/Matrix/Corolla odometers do not have the ability to "roll over" 299,999 km or 299,999 mi. No recall or "fix" is currently available for this. Mileage must be kept track of manually until a solution is found. The Vibe was also produced in right-hand drive configuration and exported to the Japanese market as the Toyota Voltz from 2002 to 2004. The Vibe was redesigned, along with the Matrix, for the 2009 model year, and debuted at the December 2007 LA Auto Show. First deliveries to dealerships were posted on GM's Website in April 2008, with comments that initial sales were brisk. The first units were delivered to buyers in early March. "The new Vibe's design is sporty yet completely functional," according to Ron Aselton, chief designer. "Clean lines, minimal overhangs and wheels pushed to the corners give the vehicle a muscular stance." The GT trim and AWD options return, and two new inline-four engines (Toyota's 2.4 litre 2AZ-FE was also used on the Camry for the AWD and GT trims as well as optional on the base trim, and a new 1.8 litre 2ZR-FE standard on the base trim) are offered. This was also Pontiac's last new model and remained as the brand's only remaining car for the 2010 model year. GM ceased Vibe's production in August 2009. The second generation FWD Vibes also offer computerized traction-control and anti- lock brakes. Rear disc brakes are standard on all models. Luggage racks are no longer standard order. Power outputs of the two engines are and respectively. The Vibe offers of passenger volume (all seats up) and of cargo volume, for a total of with rear seats that fold completely flat. The cargo area is high and wide, which is large enough to accommodate a standard-sized, North American washing machine or clothes dryer with enough extra room for an appliance dolly. On April 27, 2009, GM announced the discontinuation of Vibe production, as well as all other Pontiac models, by the end of 2010. It was later announced that Vibe production would end in August 2009, and the last Vibe left the assembly line on August 17, 2009, according to a source at genvibe.com. This left Toyota with a major problem as they had to scramble to relocate some of the tooling that was jointly used to produce the Matrix in another factory. GM did not initially produce a compact hatchback to succeed the Pontiac Vibe, choosing to bracket it with the Chevrolet Sonic hatchback and Buick Encore small crossover. In Canada, GM followed the Vibe with the larger Chevrolet Orlando compact MPV, which replaced the Chevrolet HHR. Chevrolet introduced a hatchback version of the Chevrolet Cruze to North America in 2016. In January 2010, Autoblog.com reported that the 2009 and 2010 model year Pontiac Vibes are also included in the 2009–2010 Toyota vehicle recalls related to unintended acceleration due to shared components with the Toyota Matrix. Another recall for the Vibe was issued in the Fall of 2009 due to floormat interference with the accelerator pedals. This is also part of the Toyota recall. On August 26, 2010, another recall was issued for 2005 to 2008 model year Vibes, equipped with the 1ZZ-FE engine and two-wheel drive. The recall notices states that an improperly manufactured Engine Control Module (ECM) can develop a crack in its circuitry, potentially causing the "Check Engine" light to illuminate, harsh shifting, and stalling and/or failure of the engine to start. In mid October 2014 the Vibe along with the Saab 9-2x was recalled due to the faulty Takata airbags supplied from the large airbag supplier company. It is undetermined how many Vibes have been recalled. Official website, Pontiac Vibe at The Crittenden Automotive Library The Toyota MC platform is a front-wheel drive automobile platform (also adaptable to four-wheel drive) that has underpinned various Toyota and Lexus models from the compact and mid-size categories. MC sits above the older NBC and newer B platforms, but below the Toyota K platform designed for larger models such as the Camry. Automobiles based on the MC chassis started production in 1997 with the Toyota Prius (XW10). Both the old Toyota Corolla (E platform) and Corona/Carina/Avensis (T platform) have been replaced by the MC. It was a part of Toyota's plan to cut costs, which included reduction of different car platforms. Compared to other automakers, Toyota’s definition of "platform" differs. That is, it is less about shared common hardware and more about a shared development processes. The company revised and updated the MC as the Toyota New MC platform, debuting with the Toyota RAV4 (XA30) in 2005. It was in turn replaced by the C platform with the fourth generation Toyota Prius in 2015, created under Toyota’s new development framework, the Toyota New Global Architecture (TNGA). It is a front-wheel drive platform, with optional four-wheel drive., Four-wheel drive variants use the V-Flex II system, which is a viscous-coupling torque-on-demand., Engines are mounted transversely., MacPherson struts are used in front suspension, while rear suspension can be either, Twist-beam rear suspension for most front-wheel drive vehicles, or, multi-link suspension on most four-wheel drive variants (except minivans), sporty vehicles (like Celica, Scion tC, Caldina and Blade), Mark X Zio and Avensis. Toyota Allion/Premio — T240 (2001–2007), T260 (2007–present), Toyota Avensis — T250 (2003–2008), Toyota Caldina — T240 (2002–2007), Toyota Celica — T230 (1999–2006), Toyota Corolla — E120/E130 (2000–2006), E140 (2006–2013), Toyota Corolla Verso — E120 (2001–2007), AR10 (2004–2009), Toyota Ipsum — XM20 (2001–2009), Toyota Isis — AM10 (2004–2017), Toyota Matrix/Toyota Voltz/Pontiac Vibe — E130 (2002–2008), E140 (2008–2014), Toyota Opa — XT10 (2000–2005), Toyota Prius — XW10 (1997–2003), XW20 (2003–2009), Toyota RAV4 — XA20 (2000–2005), Toyota Vista — V50 (1998–2003), Toyota WiLL VS — E120 (2001–2004), Toyota WISH — AE10 (2003–2009), AE20 (2009–2017), Scion tC — AT10 (2004–2010) Toyota Alphard — AH20 (2008–2015), AH30 (2015–present), Toyota Avensis — T270 (2008–2018), Toyota Auris — E150 (2006–2012), E180 (2012–2018), Toyota Corolla — E150 (2006–2013), E170 (2013–2019), Toyota Harrier — XU60 (2013–present), Toyota Mark X ZiO — AA10 (2007–2013), Toyota Previa — XR50 (2006–2019), Toyota Prius — XW30 (2009–2015), Toyota Prius v — XW40 (2011–present), Toyota RAV4 — XA30 (2005–2013), XA40 (2013–2018), Toyota Verso — AR20 (2009–2018), Toyota Sai — K10 (2009–2017), Scion tC — AT20 (2010–2016), Scion xB — E150 (2007–2015), Lexus CT — A10 (2011–present), Lexus HS — (2009–2017), Lexus NX — AZ10 (2014–present), Lexus LM — AH30 (2019–present)

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A Walk in the Woods is a 1988 play by Lee Blessing. The play depicts the developing relationship between two arms limitation negotiators, one Russian and one American, over a year of negotiations. A Walk in the Woods was first presented at the Yale Repertory Theater, New Haven, Connecticut, in March 1987. Directed by Des McAnuff the cast starred Josef Sommer as the Russian Andrey Botvinnik, and Kenneth Welsh as the American John Honeyman. It was next produced at the La Jolla Playhouse, California in July 1987, directed by McAnuff and starring Lawrence Pressman (as John Honeyman) and Michael Constantine (as Andrey Botvinnik). A Walk in the Woods premiered on Broadway at the Booth Theatre on February 10, 1988 in previews, officially on February 28, 1988, and closed on June 26, 1988 after 21 previews and 137 performances. Directed by Des McAnuff, the cast starred Robert Prosky as Andrey Botvinnik and Sam Waterston as John Honeyman. The play was presented at the Westport Country Playhouse, Connecticut, in September 1988. Directed by Maureen F. Gibson, the cast starred Lawrence Pressman (as John Honeyman) and Michael Constantin (as Andrey Botvinnik). The play was produced in the West End at the Comedy Theater in November 1988. The cast starred Alec Guinness (Andrey Botvinnik) and Edward Herrmann (John Honeyman), directed by Ronald Eyre. The play was produced Off-Broadway by the Keen Company at The Clurman Theatre at Theatre Row in September 2014. The cast starred Paul Niebanck (John Honeyman) and Kathleen Chalfant (as Irina Botvinnik), directed by Jonathan Silverstein. Blessing commented on changing the character of the Soviet diplomat from a man to a woman: " 'I've formally been asked for my approval to change the gender of one or the other negotiator in this play four times, that I recall. In each case I gave it...I think the gender change can wake us up a bit more to a play that discusses issues that haven’t been on the front burner (in quite this way at least) for decades. It reminds us that more and more women are finding their way into our society’s biggest socio-political discussions.' " The character of the Soviet diplomat had previously been played by a woman, in the production at the Northern Stage in Vermont, which transferred to London at the Tricycle Theatre in October 2011. Press materials for this production stated "the director's decision to cast a woman in the role keeps the production topical, reflecting the more recent appointments of women such as Madeleine Albright, Condoleezza Rice and Hillary Clinton to positions of diplomatic global power." Two arms negotiators stroll in the woods above Geneva, Switzerland, in the late summer, away from the glare of the negotiating table. They are a Soviet diplomat, Andrey Botvinnik age 57, and John Honeyman age 45, an American negotiator. The two men eventually develop a relationship, although their personalities differ. Botvinnik is friendly and enjoys American culture, Honeyman is formal and idealistic. Note: the play is suggested by a real-life incident, which occurred in 1982. "Negotiators Paul H. Nitze and Yuli A. Kvitsinsky left the official Geneva sessions for an unofficial "walk in the woods" and achieved a breakthrough, soon rejected by their Governments." Frank Rich, in his review of the Broadway production for The New York Times, wrote: "...as a piece of theater, 'A Walk in the Woods' is the esthetic equivalent of Switzerland, and not only because its setting is 'a pleasant woods on the outskirts of Geneva.' The play at the Booth fudges the distinctions of actual international politics and arms negotiations, choosing instead to telescope the messy, life-or-death conflict into a sentimental relationship between two likable envoys." Alvin Klein, in reviewing the Westport Country Playhouse production for The New York Times, wrote: "Mr. Blessing's play is a [c]one of ideas, intelligence and some semblance of wit. The dramatic action and character exposition he has provided is negligible. It remains for the actors to establish complete characters and this Mr. Constantine and Mr. Pressman do with immense skill." The play was nominated for the 1988 Tony Award , Play and Actor in a Play (Prosky). Prosky won the 1988 Outer Critics Circle Award, Outstanding Actor in a Play. The play was a finalist for the 1987 Pulitzer Prize for Drama. Alec Guinness was nominated for the 1988 Olivier Award, Actor of the Year in a New Play, and the play was nominated as the BBC Award for the Play of the Year The play was adapted into a 1988 television film, written by Blessing and directed by Kirk Browning. A Walk in the Woods: Rediscovering America on the Appalachian Trail is a 1998 autobiographical book by travel writer Bill Bryson, describing his attempt to walk the Appalachian Trail with his friend "Stephen Katz". The book is written in a humorous style, interspersed with more serious discussions of matters relating to the trail's history, and the surrounding sociology, ecology, trees, plants, animals and people. The book starts with Bryson explaining his curiosity about the Appalachian Trail near his house. He and his old friend Stephen Katz start hiking the trail from Georgia in the south, and stumble in the beginning with the difficulties of getting used to their equipment; Bryson also soon realizes how difficult it is to travel with his friend, who is a crude, overweight recovering alcoholic, and even less prepared for the ordeal than he is. Overburdened, they soon discard much extra food and equipment to lighten their loads. After hiking for what seemed to him a large distance, they realize they have still barely begun while in Gatlinburg, Tennessee, and that the whole endeavor is simply too much for them. They skip a huge section of the trail, beginning again in Roanoke, Virginia. The book recounts Bryson's desire to seek easier terrain as well as "a powerful urge not to be this far south any longer". This section of the hike finally ends (after nearly 800 miles (1,300 km) of hiking) with Bryson going on a book tour and Katz returning to Des Moines, Iowa, to work. In the following months Bryson continues to hike several smaller parts of the trail, including a visit to Centralia, Pennsylvania, the site of a coal seam fire, and eventually reunites with Katz to hike the Hundred-Mile Wilderness in Maine, which again proves too daunting. The fact that Bryson did not complete the trail is not surprising, since fewer than 25% of through-hike attempts are successful; he quotes the older figure of 10%. At the time of his attempt to hike the Appalachian Trail, Bryson was in his forties. In 2005, Robert Redford announced, and later confirmed, that he would star in and produce an adaptation of Bryson's book into a film, and that he would play Bryson. He also hoped that his erstwhile co-star and friend, Paul Newman, would team up with him to play the role of Katz, although he jokingly expressed doubt as to whether the health-conscious Newman would consider putting on enough weight to accurately portray the rotund Katz (Newman retired from acting in May 2007 and died in 2008). In February 2007, Chris Columbus, director of Home Alone and the first two Harry Potter films, was reported to have agreed to direct the adaptation. However, in January 2008, the Hollywood Reporter, while noting that the script was delayed due to the Hollywood writers' strike, reported that Barry Levinson, the Academy Award–winning director of Rain Man, was in talks to direct. Redford has said of the project In February 2012, it was reported that novelist Richard Russo, during a speech at Union College, confirmed that he was working on the screenplay. By November 2013, Nick Nolte had been cast to costar as Katz. Larry Charles (of Borat and Brüno) was briefly attached as director, but eventually the job went to Ken Kwapis, whose most recent film was Big Miracle and who was a key figure on the U.S. television series The Office. The screenplay was by Michael Arndt, credited as Rick Kerb, and Bill Holderman, who is a producer at Redford's Wildwood Enterprises. Shooting began in spring 2014. The movie was largely filmed at Amicalola Falls State Park, in Dawsonville, Georgia, including scenes at The Lodge at Amicalola Falls. The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on January 23, 2015, and was released in theaters on September 2, 2015, by Broad Green Pictures. A Walk In the Woods was named by CNN as the funniest travel book ever written. A review in the New York Times stated that readers, "may find themselves turning the pages with increasing amusement and anticipation as they discover that they're in the hands of a satirist of the first rank." The New Yorker described the book as a "wry, well-researched account." . Hardback. Published by Broadway Books, on May 4, 1998., . Paperback. Published by Broadway Books, on May 4, 1999. The Gruffalo is a children's book by writer and playwright Julia Donaldson, illustrated by Axel Scheffler, that tells the story of a mouse, the protagonist of the book, taking a walk in the woods. The book has sold over 13 million copies, has won several prizes for children's literature, and has been developed into plays on both the West End and Broadway and even an Oscar nominated animated film. The Gruffalo was initially published in 1999 in the United Kingdom by Macmillan Children's Books () as a 32-page hardback edition, was followed six months later by a paperback edition, and subsequently by a small-format board book edition. It was penned for readers aged three to seven, and is about 700 words long. It is written in rhyming couplets, featuring repetitive verse with minor variance. The story of a mouse's walk through the woods unfolds in two phases; in both, the mouse uses clever tricks to evade danger. On his way the mouse encounters several dangerous animals (a fox, an owl, and a snake). Each of these animals, clearly intending to eat the mouse, invites him back to their home for a meal. The cunning mouse declines each offer. To dissuade further advances, he tells each animal that he has plans to dine with his friend, a "gruffalo", a monstrous creature whose favourite food happens to be the relevant animal, and describes the features of the gruffalo's monstrous anatomy. Frightened that the gruffalo might eat it, each animal flees. Knowing the gruffalo to be fictional, the mouse gloats thus: After getting rid of the last animal, the mouse is shocked to encounter a real gruffalo – with all the frightening features the mouse thought that he was inventing. The gruffalo threatens to eat the mouse, but again the mouse is cunning: he tells the gruffalo that he, the mouse, is the scariest animal in the forest. Laughing, the gruffalo agrees to follow the mouse as he demonstrates how feared he is. The two walk through the forest, encountering in turn the animals that had earlier menaced the mouse. Each is terrified by the sight of the pair and runs off – and each time the gruffalo becomes more impressed with the mouse's apparent toughness. Exploiting this, the mouse threatens to eat the gruffalo, which flees. The story is based on a Chinese folk tale of a fox that borrows the terror of a tiger. Donaldson was unable to think of rhymes for "tiger" so instead she invented a word that rhymes with "know". The Gruffalo won the gold award (in the 0–5 years category) of the 1999 Nestlé Smarties Book Prize. It was the UK's best-selling picture book of 2000, won the 2000 Nottingham/Experian Children's Book award, and the Blue Peter Best Book To Read Aloud award. The audio version won the Best Children's Audio award in the Spoken Book Awards. In November 2009 the book was voted "best bedtime story" by listeners of BBC Radio 2. In a 2010 survey by UK charity Booktime, the book came first in a list of children's favourite books. The Dean Heritage Centre in the Forest of Dean, England was given permission by author Julia Donaldson, illustrator Axel Scheffler and the publisher's Macmillan Children's Books, London, UK, to create a "Gruffalo trail" within the national park. During the time that Julia Donaldson lived in Bearsden, Gruffalo sculptures were installed around Kilmardinny Loch using natural materials, such as a beech tree trunk for the largest one. The Gruffalo has sold over 13 million copies in 59 editions worldwide. Translations include Afrikaans (Die Goorgomgaai), Basque (Grufaloa), Breton (Ar Groufalo), Bulgarian (Gruzulak), Catalan (El Grúfal), Chinese (咕噜牛, Guluniu), Croatian (Grubzon), Czech (Gruffalo), Doric Scots (The Doric Gruffalo), Dutch (De Gruffalo), Esperanto (La Krubalo), Estonian (Grühvel), Finnish (Mörkyli), French (Gruffalo), German (Der Grüffelo), Greek (Το Γκρούφαλο), Hebrew (טרופותי), Hungarian (A graffaló), Icelandic (Greppikló), Irish (An Garbhán), Italian (Il Gruffalò; first edition was titled A spasso col mostro, Walking with the monster), Latin (Gruffalo), Latvian (Bubulis), Lithuanian (Grufas), Low German (De Grüffelo), Maltese (Il-Grufflè), Manx (Yn Gruffalo), Māori (Te Tanguruhau), Norwegian (Gruffaloen), Orcadian Scots (The Orkney Gruffalo), Polish (Gruffalo), Portuguese (O Grufalão), Romanian (Gruffalo), Russian (Груффало), Serbian (Грозон), Slovene (Zverjasec), Scots (The Gruffalo), Scottish Gaelic (An Gruffalo), Shetland Scots (The Shetland Gruffalo), Spanish (El Grúfalo), Swedish (Gruffalon), Turkish (Tostoraman), Welsh (Y Gryffalo), Macedonian (Графало) The book was initially sold as an A4 paperback book in 1999, and later as a smaller A5 board book version in 2002. An audiobook version, narrated by Imelda Staunton, was released in 2002, and a jigsaw book version () was published in 2004. The book is also sold packaged with a gruffalo soft toy. At some point in the print run of the hardcover paper page book, the dialogue was subtly changed. There are two different ISBN numbers for the book. However, the older ISBN number that relates to the original text is no longer available. The "Gruffalo song" was released with the audiobook, as a standalone CD single, and on a musical CD with other songs from Donaldson's books. Donaldson and Scheffler's sequel, 2004's The Gruffalo's Child (which tells the story of the gruffalo's daughter, warned by her father of the terrifying mouse) won the "Best Children's Book" award in the 2005 British Book Awards. A Gruffalo Woodland Trail has been created at the Dean Heritage Centre, Soudley in the Forest of Dean, UK. The trail depicts the scenes from the book and has been carved by local chainsaw artists out of local redwood. The trail runs daily throughout 2012. A ridable wheeled Gruffalo children's suitcase is manufactured for Trunki; the case had been featured as a pitch idea on the entrepreneur game show Dragons' Den and rejected by the show's judges. Donaldson and Scheffler have collaborated on many other titles; some feature cameos from the Gruffalo in other guises, including as Christmas tree decoration in Stick Man, a drawing by a child in The Snail and the Whale and a fish in Tiddler. A commemorative UK 50p coin featuring "The Gruffalo" was issued in 2019. The book has been adapted into a 27-minute animated film, which was broadcast on BBC One in the UK on 25 December 2009. This version features Robbie Coltrane in the title role, James Corden as the mouse, Helena Bonham Carter as the mother squirrel narrator, and Rob Brydon as the Snake. The production was animated at Studio Soi in Germany and produced through Magic Light Pictures. The film also has the voices of John Hurt as the Owl and Tom Wilkinson as the Fox. It was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Short Film (Animated) on 25 January 2011. The film was also nominated for a BAFTA in 2010. The Gruffalo has been adapted for the stage by Tall Stories theatre company, premiering in 2001. The production has visited the West End for the last five years, including a staging at the Lyric Theatre, London during Christmas, most recently 2014. The Tall Stories production has also toured the UK and internationally, including performances at Sydney Opera House in September 2011 and in the UK most years. It returned to the Lyric Theatre, London in Summer 2015. The Gruffalo has also been adapted for the stage by Meneer Monster. The production has toured around The Netherlands and Belgium in 2014, and will continue in 2015. The Meneer Monster production performed around 250 times. In June 2014 Meneer Monster made a South African version of the Gruffalo with twenty Market Theatre Laboratory students in Johannesburg. Chessington World of Adventures opened a ride called 'The Gruffalo River Ride Adventure', using the original water transit system used on The Bubbleworks Ride. The book appears in the Doctor Who series 5 episode "The Hungry Earth": Mo reads it to his son, then later by himself before the "strange event" happens. Julia Donaldson video podcast, the author discusses The Gruffalo on scottishbooktrust.com, news story about the Tall Stories production at Sydney Opera House, The Gruffalo creator Julia Donaldson reveals the story behind Britain's best-loved bedtime story By JENNY JOHNSTON, Daily Mail, 1 January 2010 gruffalo.com, the book's website, the author's website, thegruffalolive.com, the website for the stage adaptation, meneermonster.com, The website of the Dutch theatre company who have adapted the book for theatre, Tall Stories, the website of the theatre company who have adapted the book for the stage, ESL resources for primary school teachers, Who would love a Gruffalo?, Giles Wilson, BBC News Magazine, 22 October 2010, deanheritagecentre.com - gruffalotrail The Gruffalo trail at the Dean Heritage Centre for 2012

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The top tier of English football was renamed the Premier League for the start of the 1992–93 season. The following page details the football records and statistics of the Premier League. Most titles: 13, Manchester United, Most consecutive title wins: 3, Manchester United (1998–99, 1999–2000, 2000–01), Manchester United (2006–07, 2007–08, 2008–09), Biggest title-winning margin: 19 points, 2017–18; Manchester City (100 points) over Manchester United (81 points), Smallest title-winning margin: 0 points and +8 goal difference – 2011–12; Manchester City (+64) over Manchester United (+56). Both finished on 89 points, but Manchester City won the title with a superior goal difference – the only time that goal difference has decided the Premier League title. Most points in a season: 100, Manchester City (2017–18), Most points over 38 consecutive Premier League games: 104, Liverpool (2018–19, 2019–20), Most home points in a season: 55, Chelsea (2005–06), Manchester United (2010–11), Manchester City (2011–12), Most away points in a season: 50, Manchester City (2017–18), Fewest points in a season: 11, Derby County (2007–08), Fewest home points in a season: 7, Sunderland (2005–06), Fewest away points in a season: 3, Derby County (2007–08), Most points in a season without winning the league: 97, Liverpool (2018–19), Fewest points in a season while winning the league: 75, Manchester United (1996–97), Most points in a season while being relegated:, 42 games: 49, Crystal Palace (1992–93), 38 games: 42, West Ham United (2002–03), Fewest points in a season while avoiding relegation: 34, West Bromwich Albion (2004–05), Most points in a season by a team promoted in the previous season:, 42 games: 77, Nottingham Forest (1994–95), 38 games: 66, Ipswich Town (2000–01) Most wins in total: 656, Manchester United, Most wins in a season: 32, Manchester City (2017–18, 2018–19), Most home wins in a season: 18, Chelsea (2005–06), Manchester United (2010–11), Manchester City (2011–12, 2018–19), Most away wins in a season: 16, Manchester City (2017–18), Fewest wins in a season: 1, Derby County (2007–08), Fewest home wins in a season: 1, Sunderland (2005–06), Derby County (2007–08), Fewest away wins in a season: 0, Leeds United (1992–93), Coventry City (1999–2000), Wolverhampton Wanderers (2003–04), Norwich City (2004–05), Derby County (2007–08), Hull City (2009–10), Most consecutive wins: 18, Manchester City (26 August – 27 December 2017), Most consecutive wins from the start of a season: 9, Chelsea (14 August – 15 October 2005), Most consecutive wins to the end of a season: 14, Manchester City (3 February – 12 May 2019), Most consecutive home wins: 20, Manchester City (5 March 2011 – 21 March 2012), Most consecutive away wins: 11, Chelsea (6 April – 7 December 2008), Manchester City (21 May – 27 December 2017), Most consecutive games without a win: 32, Derby County (2007–08), Most consecutive games without a win from the start of a season: 16, Queens Park Rangers (18 August – 8 December 2012) Most defeats in total: 375, Everton and West Ham United, Most defeats in a season: 29, Ipswich Town (1994–95), Sunderland (2005–06), Derby County (2007–08), Most home defeats in a season: 14, Sunderland (2002–03, 2005–06), Huddersfield Town (2018–19), Most away defeats in a season: 17, Burnley (2009–10), Fewest defeats in a season: 0, Arsenal (2003–04), Fewest home defeats in a season: 0, Manchester United (1995–96, 1999–2000, 2010–11), Arsenal (1998–99, 2003–04, 2007–08), Chelsea (2004–05, 2005–06, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2014–15), Liverpool (2008–09, 2017–18, 2018–19), Manchester City (2011–12), Tottenham Hotspur (2016–17), Fewest away defeats in a season: 0, Arsenal (2001–02, 2003–04), Most consecutive games undefeated: 49, Arsenal (7 May 2003 – 24 October 2004), Most consecutive home games undefeated: 86, Chelsea (20 March 2004 – 5 October 2008), Most consecutive away games undefeated: 27, Arsenal (5 April 2003 – 25 September 2004), Most consecutive defeats over more than one season: 20, Sunderland (2002–03, 2005–06) Most draws in total: 300, Everton, Most draws in a season (42 games): 18, Manchester City (1993–94), Sheffield United (1993–94), Southampton (1994–95), Most draws in a season (38 games): 17, Newcastle United (2003–04), Aston Villa (2006–07, 2011–12), Sunderland (2014–15), Most home draws in a season: 10, Sheffield Wednesday (1996–97), Leicester City (1997–98, 2003–04), Manchester United (2016–17), Most away draws in a season: 10, Newcastle United (2003–04), Manchester United (2010–11), Fewest draws in a season: 2, Manchester City (2018–19), Tottenham Hotspur (2018–19), Fewest home draws in a season: 0, Manchester City (2008–09, 2018–19), Manchester United (2012–13), Chelsea (2016–17), Fewest away draws in a season: 0, Tottenham Hotspur (2018–19), Most consecutive draws: 7, Norwich City (1993–94), Southampton (1994–95), Manchester City (2009–10), Most consecutive games without a draw: 32, Tottenham Hotspur (9 May 2018 – 27 February 2019) Most goals scored in a season: 106, Manchester City (2017–18), Fewest goals scored in a season: 20, Derby County (2007–08), Most goals conceded in a season (42 games): 100, Swindon Town (1993–94), Most goals conceded in a season (38 games): 89, Derby County (2007–08), Fewest goals conceded in a season: 15, Chelsea (2004–05), Best goal difference in a season: 79, Manchester City (2017–18), Worst goal difference in a season: –69, Derby County (2007–08), Highest finish with a negative goal difference: 3rd, Norwich City (1992–93, –4), Lowest finish with a positive goal difference: 16th, Manchester City (2003–04, +1), Most goals scored in a season by a relegated team: 55, Blackpool (2010–11), Most goals scored at home in a season: 68, Chelsea (2009–10), Fewest goals scored at home in a season: 10, Manchester City (2006–07), Huddersfield Town (2018–19), Most goals conceded at home in a season (21 games): 45, Swindon Town (1993–94), Most goals conceded at home in a season (19 games): 43, Derby County (2007–08), Wolverhampton Wanderers (2011–12), Fewest goals conceded at home in a season: 4, Manchester United (1994–95), Most goals scored away in a season: 48, Liverpool (2013–14), Fewest goals scored away in a season: 8, Middlesbrough (1995–96), Southampton (1998–99), Sheffield United (2006–07), Derby County (2007–08), Most goals conceded away in a season (21 games): 59, Ipswich Town (1994–95), Most goals conceded away in a season (19 games): 55, Wigan Athletic (2009–10), Fewest goals conceded away in a season: 9, Chelsea (2004–05), Fewest failures to score in a match in a season: 0 (scored in every game), Arsenal (2001–02), Most consecutive matches scored in: 55, Arsenal (19 May 2001 – 30 November 2002), Most goals scored in total: 2,021, Manchester United, Most goals conceded in total: 1,343, Everton Highest attendance, single game: 83,222, Tottenham Hotspur 1–0 Arsenal (at Wembley Stadium, 10 February 2018), Lowest attendance, single game: 3,039, Wimbledon 1–3 Everton (at Selhurst Park, 26 January 1993), Highest season average attendance: 75,821 – Old Trafford, Manchester United (2006–07), Lowest season average attendance: 8,353 – Selhurst Park, Wimbledon (1992–93) Most Premier League appearances: 653, Gareth Barry (2 May 1998 to 24 February 2018), Oldest player: John Burridge, 43 years and 162 days (for Manchester City v. Queens Park Rangers, 14 May 1995), Youngest player: Harvey Elliott, 16 years and 30 days (for Fulham v. Wolverhampton Wanderers, 4 May 2019), Most consecutive Premier League appearances: 310, Brad Friedel (14 August 2004 until 7 October 2012), Most seasons appeared in: 22, Ryan Giggs (every season from 1992–93 to 2013–14) First Premier League goal: Brian Deane (for Sheffield United v. Manchester United, 15 August 1992), Most Premier League goals: 260, Alan Shearer, Most Premier League goals at one club: 183, Wayne Rooney (Manchester United), Oldest goalscorer: 40 years and 268 days, Teddy Sheringham (for West Ham United v. Portsmouth, 26 December 2006), Youngest goalscorer: 16 years and 271 days, James Vaughan (for Everton v. Crystal Palace, 10 April 2005), Most consecutive Premier League matches scored in: 11, Jamie Vardy (for Leicester City, 29 August – 28 November 2015), Most seasons scored in: 21, Ryan Giggs (every season from 1992–93 to 2012–13) Players currently playing in the Premier League are highlighted in bold. Most goals in a season (42 games): 34, Andy Cole (Newcastle United, 1993–94), Alan Shearer (Blackburn Rovers, 1994–95), Most goals in a season (38 games): 32, Mohamed Salah (Liverpool, 2017–18), Most games scored in during a Premier League season: 24, Mohamed Salah (Liverpool, 2017–18), Most Premier League goals in a calendar year: 39, Harry Kane (Tottenham Hotspur, 2017), Number of teams scored against in a season: 17, 20-team league:, Ian Wright (Arsenal, 1996–97), Robin van Persie (Arsenal, 2011–12), Mohamed Salah (Liverpool, 2017–18), 22-team league:, Andy Cole (Newcastle United, 1993–94), Alan Shearer (Blackburn Rovers, 1994–95), Most goals in a debut season: 30, Kevin Phillips (Sunderland, 1999–2000), Most Premier League hat-tricks in a season: 5, Alan Shearer (Blackburn Rovers, 1995–96), Most Premier League hat-tricks: 12, Sergio Agüero, Most goals in a game: 5, Andy Cole (for Manchester United v. Ipswich Town, 4 March 1995) W 9–0, Alan Shearer (for Newcastle United v. Sheffield Wednesday, 19 September 1999) W 8–0, Jermain Defoe (for Tottenham Hotspur v. Wigan Athletic, 22 November 2009) W 9–1, Dimitar Berbatov (for Manchester United v. Blackburn Rovers, 27 November 2010) W 7–1, Sergio Agüero (for Manchester City v. Newcastle United, 3 October 2015) W 6–1, Most goals in one half: 5, Jermain Defoe (for Tottenham Hotspur v. Wigan Athletic, 22 November 2009) W 9–1, Fastest goal: 7.69 seconds, Shane Long (for Southampton v. Watford, 23 April 2019), Most goals scored by a substitute in a game: 4, Ole Gunnar Solskjær (for Manchester United v. Nottingham Forest, 6 February 1999), Most consecutive away league matches scored in: 9, Robin van Persie (for Arsenal, 1 January – 22 May 2011), Most consecutive seasons to score at least 30 goals: 3 (1993–1996), Alan Shearer (all for Blackburn Rovers), Most consecutive seasons to score at least 25 goals: 4 (1993–1997), Alan Shearer (1993–1996 for Blackburn Rovers, 1996–1997 for Newcastle United), Most consecutive seasons to score at least 20 goals: 5, Thierry Henry (2001–06, all for Arsenal), Sergio Agüero (2014–19, all for Manchester City), Most consecutive seasons to score at least 10 goals: 11 (2004–2015), Wayne Rooney (all for Manchester United), Most consecutive seasons to score at least 1 goal: 21 (1992–2013), Ryan Giggs (all for Manchester United), Fastest Premier League hat-trick: 2 minutes 56 seconds, Sadio Mané (for Southampton v. Aston Villa, 16 May 2015), Most different clubs to score for: 7, Craig Bellamy (for Coventry City, Newcastle United, Blackburn Rovers, Liverpool, West Ham United, Manchester City, Cardiff City), Most own goals: 10, Richard Dunne, Most own goals in a season: 4, Martin Škrtel (2013–14), Lewis Dunk (2017–18), Most hat-tricks against a single club: 3, Luis Suárez (for Liverpool v. Norwich City), Most goals in a calendar month: 10 (December 2013), Luis Suárez (Liverpool), Most penalties scored: 56, Alan Shearer Players currently playing in the Premier League are highlighted in bold. Most Premier League assists in a season: 20, Thierry Henry (Arsenal, 2002–03), Most Premier League assists in a season by a defender: 12, Trent Alexander-Arnold (Liverpool, 2018–19), Most consecutive Premier League matches with an assist: 7, Mesut Özil (for Arsenal, 26 September – 21 November 2015), Most assists from one player to another: 24, Frank Lampard to Didier Drogba, Youngest player to complete a hat-trick of assists: 20 years and 143 days, Trent Alexander-Arnold (for Liverpool v. Watford, 27 February 2019), Most assists in a single Premier League match: 4, Dennis Bergkamp (for Arsenal v. Leicester City, 20 February 1999), José Antonio Reyes (for Arsenal v. Middlesbrough, 14 January 2006), Cesc Fàbregas (for Arsenal v. Blackburn Rovers, 4 October 2009), Emmanuel Adebayor (for Tottenham Hotspur v. Newcastle United, 11 February 2012), Santi Cazorla (for Arsenal v. Wigan Athletic, 14 May 2013), Dušan Tadić (for Southampton v. Sunderland, 18 October 2014) Players currently playing in the Premier League are highlighted in bold. Most clean sheets in one season: 24, Petr Čech (for Chelsea, 2004–05), Longest consecutive run without conceding a goal: 14 games (1,311 minutes), Edwin van der Sar (for Manchester United, 2008–09), Goalscoring goalkeepers (excluding own goals):, Peter Schmeichel (Everton 3–2 Aston Villa, 20 October 2001), Brad Friedel (Charlton Athletic 3–2 Blackburn Rovers, 21 February 2004), Paul Robinson (Tottenham Hotspur 3–1 Watford, 17 March 2007), Tim Howard (Everton 1–2 Bolton Wanderers, 4 January 2012), Asmir Begović (Stoke City 1–1 Southampton, 2 November 2013) Most red cards: 8, Duncan Ferguson, Patrick Vieira, Richard Dunne, Most yellow cards for a player: 123, Gareth Barry, Most yellow cards for a single team in one game: 9 (Tottenham Hotspur v. Chelsea, 2 May 2016), Fouling record: 782, Kevin Davies (since 2000–01, the first season for which reliable records are available), Longest ban: 12 matches, Joey Barton. After being dismissed for violent conduct, Barton was found guilty of two further separate counts of violent conduct after his dismissal against Manchester City on 13 May 2012 Most Premier League winners' medals: 13, Ryan Giggs (1992–93, 1993–94, 1995–96, 1996–97, 1998–99, 2000–01, 2002–03, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2007–08, 2008–09, 2010–11, 2012–13), Most Player of the Season awards: 2, Thierry Henry (2003–04 and 2005–06), Cristiano Ronaldo (2006–07 and 2007–08), Nemanja Vidić (2008–09 and 2010–11), Most Player of the Month awards: 6, Steven Gerrard (March 2001, March 2000, December 2004, April 2006, March 2009, March 2014), Harry Kane (January 2015, February 2015, March 2016, February 2017, September 2017, December 2017), Sergio Agüero (October 2013, November 2014, January 2016, April 2016, January 2018, February 2019) This is a list of the top 10 youngest players to score a goal in the Premier League. Biggest home win: 9–0, Manchester United v. Ipswich Town (4 March 1995), Biggest away win: 0–9, Southampton v. Leicester City (25 October 2019), Biggest aggregate win: 12–1, Blackburn Rovers 7–0 Nottingham Forest (18 November 1995) and Nottingham Forest 1–5 Blackburn Rovers (13 April 1996), Tottenham Hotspur 9–1 Wigan Athletic (22 November 2009) and Wigan Athletic 0–3 Tottenham Hotspur (21 February 2010), Biggest loss by reigning champions: 1–6, Manchester United 1–6 Manchester City (23 October 2011), after Manchester United won the 2010–11 season, Leicester City 1–6 Tottenham Hotspur (18 May 2017), after Leicester City won the 2015–16 season, Largest goal deficit overcome to win: 3, Leeds United 4–3 Derby County (8 November 1997), West Ham United 3–4 Wimbledon (9 September 1998), Tottenham Hotspur 3–5 Manchester United (29 September 2001), Wolverhampton Wanderers 4–3 Leicester City (25 October 2003), Largest goal deficit overcome to draw: 4, Newcastle United 4–4 Arsenal (5 February 2011), with Newcastle United scoring last, Highest scoring: 7–4, Portsmouth v. Reading (29 September 2007), Highest scoring draw: 5–5, West Bromwich Albion v. Manchester United (19 May 2013), Highest scoring in the first half: 7 goals, Blackburn Rovers 3–4 Leeds United (14 September 1997 – final score: 3–4), Bradford City 4–3 Derby County (21 April 2000 – final score: 4–4), Reading 3–4 Manchester United (1 December 2012 – final score: 3–4), Highest scoring in the second half: 9 goals, Tottenham Hotspur 9–1 Wigan Athletic (22 November 2009 – first half score: 1–0), Most individual goal scorers in one game: 9, Tottenham Hotspur 4–5 Arsenal (13 November 2004), Portsmouth 7–4 Reading (29 September 2007), Most individual goal scorers in one game for the same team: 7, Chelsea 8–0 Aston Villa (23 December 2012), Manchester City 7–0 Norwich City (2 November 2013), Southampton 8–0 Sunderland (18 October 2014) The all-time Premier League table is a cumulative record of all match results, points and goals of every team that has played in the Premier League since its inception in 1992. The table that follows is accurate as of the end of the 2018–19 season. Teams in bold are part of the 2019–20 Premier League. Numbers in bold are the record (highest either positive or negative) numbers in each column. League or status at 2019–20: Notes By a 2007 agreement, neither Milton Keynes Dons nor AFC Wimbledon regards itself as custodian of Wimbledon F.C.'s statistics. Most Premier League titles: 13, Sir Alex Ferguson (Manchester United) – 1993, 1994, 1996, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2013, Most Premier League Manager of the Month awards: 27, Sir Alex Ferguson, Most consecutive Premier League Manager of the Month awards: 4, Pep Guardiola, Most promotions to the Premier League: 4, Steve Bruce (Birmingham City in 2001–02 and 2006–07 and Hull City in 2012–13 and 2015–16), Most relegations from the Premier League: 3, Dave Bassett (Sheffield United in 1993–94, Nottingham Forest in 1996–97, and Leicester City in 2001–02), Most clubs managed: 7, Sam Allardyce (Bolton Wanderers, Newcastle United, Blackburn Rovers, West Ham United, Sunderland, Crystal Palace, Everton), Quickest to reach 100 Premier League wins: Pep Guardiola, 134 games, Longest spell as manager: , Arsène Wenger (Arsenal, 1 October 1996 – 13 May 2018), Shortest spell as manager (excluding caretakers):, in terms of days in function: 41 days, Les Reed (Charlton Athletic, 14 November – 24 December 2006), in terms of games in charge: 4 games, Frank de Boer (Crystal Palace, 26 June – 10 September 2017) General Specific Since the Premier League's formation, at the start of the 1992–93 season, 28 players have scored 100 or more goals in the competition. During the 1995–96 season, Alan Shearer became the first player to score 100 Premier League goals, and holds the record for the fewest games taken to reach 100, doing so in 124 appearances. He also holds the record for most goals scored in the Premier League. After Shearer, Harry Kane is the second-fastest to 100 goals, doing so in 141 games. Key Bold shows players still playing in the Premier League., Italics show players still playing professional football in other leagues, The list of teams for individual players include all teams that they have played for in the Premier League (including those they have not scored any goals for). List of English football first tier top scorers, List of top Premier League goal scorers by season, List of Premier League players with 500 or more appearances This article concerns football records in England. Unless otherwise stated, records are taken from the Football League or Premier League. Where a different record exists for the top flight (Football League First Division 1888–1992, and Premier League 1992–), this is also given. Records in this section refer to the English Football Pyramid Most League titles: 20, Manchester United, Most consecutive League titles: 3:, Huddersfield Town: 1923–24, 1924–25, 1925–26, Arsenal: 1932–33, 1933–34, 1934–35, Liverpool: 1981–82, 1982–83, 1983–84, Manchester United (twice): 1998–99, 1999–2000, 2000–01; 2006–07, 2007–08, 2008–09 Most seasons in top flight overall: 116 seasons, Everton, Most consecutive seasons in top flight: 94 seasons, Arsenal (1919–present, though no League football was played between 1939-40 and 1945–46, due to World War II), Fewest seasons in top flight overall: 1 season, joint record, Glossop, Leyton Orient, Northampton Town, Carlisle United, Swindon Town, and Barnsley have completed only one season in top flight in their history. Most participants in top flight from one county: During the three consecutive seasons 1919–21, the historic boundaries (pre-1974) of the County of Lancashire had nine participants in the top-flight: Blackburn Rovers, Bolton Wanderers, Burnley, Everton, Liverpool, Manchester City, Manchester United, Oldham Athletic, and Preston North End., During the Premiership era, there were eight participants in the historic county of Lancashire during the 2010–11 season: Blackburn Rovers, Blackpool, Bolton Wanderers, Everton, Liverpool, Manchester City, Manchester United, and Wigan Athletic., Most participants in top flight from one city: During the season 1989–1990, London had eight entrants in the top-flight: Arsenal, Charlton Athletic, Chelsea, Crystal Palace, Millwall, Queen's Park Rangers, Tottenham Hotspur, and Wimbledon., City represented with most seasons in top flight: Liverpool. The city has always had a top flight member of either Everton or Liverpool. Most wins overall: 2197, Manchester United, Most wins in the top-flight overall: 1936, Liverpool, Most wins at home overall: 1399, Manchester United, Most wins at home in top-flight overall: 1227, Liverpool, Most wins away overall: 798, Manchester United, Most wins away in top-flight overall: 692, Liverpool, Most consecutive wins from start of a top flight season: 11, Tottenham Hotspur (First Division, 1960–61), Most consecutive wins from start of a season: 13, Reading (Third Division, 1985–86), Most consecutive league wins: 18, Manchester City (Premier League, 26 August 2017 – 27 December 2017), Most consecutive wins (all competitions): 20, Manchester City (26 August 2017 – 3 December 2017), Most wins in a top flight season: 32, Manchester City (Premier League, 2017–18 and 2018–19) Most draws overall in the top flight: 1126, Everton, Most draws in a season: 23, joint record:, Norwich City (from 42 games, First Division, 1978–79), Exeter City (from 46 games, Fourth Division, 1986–87), Hartlepool United (from 46 games, Third Division, 1997–98), Cardiff City (from 46 games, Third Division, 1997–98), Most consecutive draws: 8:, Torquay United (Third Division, 1969–70), Middlesbrough (Second Division, 1970–71), Peterborough United (Fourth Division, 1971–72), Birmingham City (Third Division, 1990–91), Chesterfield (League One, 2005–06), Southampton (Championship, 2005–06), Swansea City (Championship, 2008–09) Most losses overall in the top flight: 1,546, Everton, Most losses in a season: 34, Doncaster Rovers, (Third Division, 1997–98; final record P46 W4 D8 L34), Fewest losses: 0, joint record:, Preston North End (First Division, 1888–89; final record P22 W18 D4 L0), Arsenal (Premier League, 2003–04; final record P38 W26 D12 L0), Liverpool (Second Division, 1893–94; final record P28 W22 D6 L0), Most consecutive losses:, 18, Darwen, 1898–1899 (Second Division), 17, Rochdale, 1931–32 (Division 3 North), 17, Sunderland, 2002–2003 (15 in top tier) Most points overall in the top flight (mixed 3pts for a win and 2pts for win): 5,437, Liverpool, Most points in a season (2 points for a win – 46 matches): 74, Lincoln City (Fourth Division, 1975–76), Most points in a season (3 points for a win – 46 matches): 106, Reading (Championship, 2005–06), Most points in a season for a top-flight team (2 points for a win – 42 matches): 68 (30 wins 8 draws), Liverpool (First Division, 1978–79), Most points in a season for a top-flight team (3 points for a win – 38 matches): 100 points (32 wins 4 draws), Manchester City (Premier League, 2017–18), Fewest points in a season (2 points for a win – 34 matches): 8, joint record:, Loughborough (Second Division, 1899–1900), Doncaster Rovers (Second Division, 1904–05), Fewest points in a season (3 points for a win – 38 matches): 11, Derby County (Premier League, 2007–08), Most points in a season while being relegated (2 points for a win – 46 matches): 41, Rotherham United (Third Division, 1972–73), Most points in a season while being relegated (3 points for a win – 46 matches): 54, joint record:, Southend United (Third Division, 21st of 24; 1988–89), Peterborough United (Championship, 22nd of 24; 2012–13) Most consecutive league games without a win: 36, joint record:, Derby County (Premier League/Championship 22 September 2007 to 13 September 2008), Macclesfield Town (League Two 2 January to 5 May 2012 and 4 August to 12 October 2018)., Longest run without a home win: 364 days, Sunderland (Premier League/Championship 17 December 2016 to 16 December 2017). Most league goals scored in a season: 134, Peterborough United (Fourth Division, 1960–61), Most top-flight goals scored in a season (42 games): 128, Aston Villa (First Division, 1930–31), Most top-flight goals scored in a season (38 games): 106, Manchester City (Premier League, 2017–18), Most goals scored in all competitions in a season by a top-flight side: 169, Manchester City (2018–19), Most top-flight goals scored in total: 7004, Everton. – to end 2016–17 season, Most home league goals scored in a season: 87, Millwall (Third Division South, 1927–28), Most away league goals scored in a season: 60, Arsenal (First Division, 1930–31), Most consecutive games scoring: 55, Arsenal (Premier League, 19 May 2001 – 30 November 2002), Most consecutive games without scoring: 11, Coventry City (Second Division, 1919–20) and Hartlepool United (League Two, 1992–93), First league goal awarded by goal-line technology: scored by Edin Džeko in the 14th minute of the Premier League game between Manchester City and Cardiff City on 18 January 2014. The game was officiated by Neil Swarbrick, who consulted his watch when Cardiff defender Kevin McNaughton quickly cleared the ball away just after it entered the goal. Record win: 13–0, joint record:, Stockport County 13–0 Halifax Town (Third Division North, 6 January 1934), Newcastle United 13–0 Newport County (Second Division, 5 October 1946), Record win in top division: 12–0, joint record:, West Bromwich Albion 12–0 Darwen (First Division, 4 April 1892), Nottingham Forest 12–0 Leicester Fosse (First Division, 21 April 1909), Record away win: Port Vale 0–10 Sheffield United (Second Division, 10 December 1892), Record away win in top division: Southampton 0–9 Leicester City (Premier League, 25 October 2019), Highest scoring draw: 6–6, joint record:, Leicester City 6–6 Arsenal (First Division, 21 April 1930), Charlton Athletic 6–6 Middlesbrough (Second Division, 22 October 1960), Most double figure league wins by a team: 5, Birmingham City (12–0 v Walsall, 17 December 1892; 10–2 v Manchester City, 17 March 1894; 10–1 v Blackpool, 2 March 1901; 12–0 v Doncaster Rovers, 11 April 1903; 11–1 v Glossop, 6 January 1915) (all Second Division), Most goals scored by a losing side: 6 by Huddersfield Town losing 7–6 to Charlton Athletic (21 December 1957) Most red cards in a single match: 5, joint record:, Bradford City (3) v. Crawley Town (2) (27 March 2012) (all after the final whistle), Chesterfield (2) v. Plymouth Argyle (3) (22 February 1997), Wigan Athletic (1) v. Bristol Rovers (4) (2 December 1997), Exeter City (3) v. Cambridge United (2) (23 November 2002), Most red cards in a career (individual): 13, joint record:, Roy McDonough (Colchester United, Exeter City, Southend United),, Steve Walsh (Wigan Athletic and Leicester City), Fastest red card: 13 seconds, Kevin Pressman (Sheffield Wednesday v Wolverhampton Wanderers, 13 August 2000), Fastest yellow card: 3 seconds, Vinnie Jones (Chelsea v Sheffield United, 21 March 1992), Fastest red card for a substitute on the field of play: 0 seconds, joint record:, Walter Boyd (Swansea City, 12 March 2000),, Keith Gillespie (Sheffield United, 20 January 2007) Both players came on as a substitute and elbowed/pushed an opponent before the game had been restarted. Highest transfer fee received: £142 million:, Philippe Coutinho, from Liverpool to Barcelona (7 January 2018), Highest transfer fee paid: £90 million:, Paul Pogba, from Juventus to Manchester United (8 August 2016) Most titles won by an individual player: 13, Ryan Giggs, Most career league appearances: 1,005 (849 in First Division), Peter Shilton (1966 to 1997), Most career league appearances by an outfield player: 931, Tony Ford (1975 to 2002), Most career league appearances at one club: 770, John Trollope (Swindon Town, 1960 to 1980), Most career top-flight league appearances at one club: 672, Ryan Giggs (Manchester United, 2 March 1991 to 6 May 2014), Most career consecutive league appearances: 375, Harold Bell (Tranmere Rovers), 1946 to 1955 (401 consecutive club games including 26 FA Cup appearances), Oldest player: Neil McBain, 51 years and 20 days (for New Brighton v. Hartlepool United, 1947), Youngest player: Reuben Noble-Lazarus, 15 years and 45 days (for Barnsley v. Ipswich Town, 30 September 2008) Most career league goals: 434, Arthur Rowley (619 matches, for West Bromwich Albion, Fulham, Leicester City and Shrewsbury Town, 1946 to 1965), Most career top-flight goals: 357, Jimmy Greaves (516 matches, for Chelsea, Tottenham Hotspur and West Ham United, 1957 to 1971), Most consecutive top flight league matches scored in: 12, Jimmy Dunne, for Sheffield United between 24 October 1931 and 1 January 1932, for a total of 18 goals., Most league goals in a season: 60, Dixie Dean (39 matches, for Everton, 1927 to 1928), Most goals in a game: 10, Joe Payne (for Luton Town v. Bristol Rovers, 13 April 1936), Most goals in a top-flight game: 7, Ted Drake for Arsenal v. Aston Villa (away), 14 December 1935, Fastest goal: 3.5 seconds, Colin Cowperthwaite (for Barrow v. Kettering Town, 1979), Fastest goal on a League debut: 7 seconds, Freddy Eastwood (for Southend United v. Swansea City, 16 October 2004), Fastest hat-trick (time between first and third goals): 2 minutes 21 seconds, James Hayter (for AFC Bournemouth v. Wrexham, 23 February 2004), Fastest goal by a substitute: 6 seconds, Nicklas Bendtner (for Arsenal v. Tottenham Hotspur, 22 December 2007), Fastest player to 100 English top flight goals Dave Halliday – 101 games, Players to score over 30 league goals in four consecutive seasons Dave Halliday – 1925–29. Halliday in fact scored at least 35 goals in each of those four seasons., Most own goals in one season: 5, Bobby Stuart (Middlesbrough, 1934–35), Most hat-tricks in one season: 9, George Camsell (Middlesbrough, 1926–27), Most career hat-tricks: 37, Dixie Dean (Tranmere Rovers, Everton, 1923–1937), Longest goalkeeping run without conceding a goal: 1,311 minutes, Edwin van der Sar (for Manchester United, 2008–09), Youngest goalscorer: Ronnie Dix, 15 years and 180 days (for Bristol Rovers v. Norwich City, 3 March 1928), Youngest top-flight goalscorer: Jason Dozzell, 16 years and 57 days (for Ipswich Town v. Coventry City, February 1984), Youngest hat-trick goalscorer: Trevor Francis, 16 years and 317 days (for Birmingham City v. Bolton Wanderers, 20 February 1971) Most wins: 13:, Arsenal (1930, 1936, 1950, 1971, 1979, 1993, 1998, 2002, 2003, 2005, 2014, 2015, 2017), Most consecutive wins: 3, joint record:, Wanderers (1876, 1877, 1878), Blackburn Rovers, (1884, 1885, 1886), Most appearances in finals: 20, joint record:, Arsenal (1927, 1930, 1932, 1936, 1950, 1952, 1971, 1972, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1993, 1998, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2005, 2014, 2015, 2017), Manchester United (1909, 1948, 1957, 1958, 1963, 1976, 1977, 1979, 1983, 1985, 1990, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1999, 2004, 2005, 2007, 2016, 2018), Most Final appearances without win: 4, Leicester City (1949, 1961, 1963, 1969), Most Final appearances without defeat: 5, Wanderers (1872, 1873, 1876, 1877, 1878), Longest winning streak in Finals: 7, Tottenham Hotspur (1901, 1921, 1961, 1962, 1967, 1981, 1982), Biggest win: 6 goals, joint record:, Bury 6–0 Derby County, (1903), Manchester City 6–0 Watford, (2019), Most goals in a final: 7:, Blackburn Rovers 6–1 Sheffield Wednesday (1890), Blackpool 4–3 Bolton Wanderers (1953), Most goals by a runner-up: 3:, Bolton Wanderers: Lost 3–4 against Blackpool (1953), West Ham United: Drew 3–3 but lost in a penalty shootout against Liverpool (2006), Most defeats in finals: 8, joint record:, Everton (1893, 1897, 1907, 1968, 1985, 1986, 1989, 2009), Manchester United (1957, 1958, 1976, 1979, 1995, 2005, 2007, 2018) Most wins: 7, Ashley Cole (Arsenal) (2002, 2003, 2005) & (Chelsea) (2007, 2009, 2010, 2012), Most appearances in finals: 9, Arthur Kinnaird (Wanderers) (1872–73, 1874–75, 1875–76, 1876–77, 1877–78) & (Old Etonians) (1878–79, 1880–81, 1881–82, 1882–83), Most goals in a final: 3, Billy Townley (Blackburn Rovers) (1890), James Logan (Notts County) (1894) & Stan Mortensen (Blackpool) (1953), Most goals in finals: 5, Ian Rush (Liverpool), Most finals scored in: 4, Didier Drogba (Chelsea) (2007, 2009, 2010, 2012), Youngest FA Cup finalist: Curtis Weston (Millwall), 17 years and 119 days, Youngest player to score in an FA Cup Final: Norman Whiteside (Manchester United), 18 years and 19 days, Oldest FA Cup finalist: Billy Hampson, 41 years and 257 days (for Newcastle United v. Aston Villa, 1923–24) Most FA Cup goals scored: 880: Kettering Town, Most FA Cup goals conceded: 539: Aston Villa, Highest FA Cup goal difference: +305: Aston Villa, Most FA Cup games played: 440: Arsenal, Most FA Cup games won: 236: Manchester United & Arsenal, Most FA Cup games lost: 128: Notts County, Most FA Cup games drawn: 103: Arsenal, Largest margin of a win: Preston North End 26–0 Hyde (First round, 15 October 1887), Largest margin of an away win: Clapton 0–14 Nottingham Forest (First round, 17 January 1891) and Boston United 0–14 Spalding United (First Qualifying Round, 1964), Largest margin of an away win by a non-league club against a league club: Derby County 1–6 Boston United (Second round, 1955/56), Most clubs competing for trophy in a season: 763 (2011–12), Longest tie: 660 minutes (6 matches in total), Oxford City v. Alvechurch (Fourth Qualifying Round, 1971–72; Alvechurch won the sixth match 1–0), Longest penalty shootout: 20 penalties each, Tunbridge Wells v. Littlehampton Town (Preliminary Round Replay, 31 August 2005; Tunbridge Wells won 16–15), Most rounds played in a season: 9, joint record:, Brighton & Hove Albion (1932–33: 1st–4th Qualifying Rounds, 1st–5th Rounds), New Brighton (1956–57: Preliminary, 1st–4th Qualifying Rounds, 1st–4th Rounds), Blyth Spartans (1977–78: 1st–4th Qualifying Rounds, 1st–5th Rounds), Harlow Town (1979–80: Preliminary, 1st–4th Qualifying Rounds, 1st–4th Rounds), Most games played in a season: 13, Bideford (1973–74: one First Qualifying, two Second Qualifying, five Third Qualifying, four Fourth Qualifying and one First Round), Fastest goal: 4 seconds, Gareth Morris (for Ashton United v. Skelmersdale United, 17 September 2001), Most consecutive games without defeat: 22, Blackburn Rovers (1884–1886), Most consecutive games without defeat: (Excluding defeat by penalty shoot-out) 29, Chelsea (2009–13), Fastest hat-trick: 2 min 20 sec, Andy Locke (for Nantwich Town v. Droylsden, 1995), Most Career Goals: 49, Henry "Harry" Cursham (Notts County between 1877 and 1888)., Most goals by a player in a single FA Cup season: 19, Jimmy Ross (for Preston North End, 1887–88)., Most goals by a player in a single FA Cup game: 9, Ted MacDougall (for AFC Bournemouth in 1971), Scoreline: Two examples of teams scoring 7 goals and not winning – Dulwich Hamlet 8–7 St Albans City (Fourth Qualifying Round Replay, 22 November 1922), and Dulwich Hamlet 7–7 Wealdstone (Fourth Qualifying Round, 16 November 1929)., Youngest player: Andy Awford, 15 years and 88 days (for Worcester City v. Boreham Wood, Third qualifying round, 1987–88),, Youngest goalscorer: Sean Cato, 16 years and 25 days (for Barrow Town v. Rothwell Town, 2011–12), Youngest goalscorer (proper rounds): George Williams, 16 years, 2 months and 5 days (for Milton Keynes Dons v. Nantwich Town, 2011–12) Most time winning team: 8, Liverpool (1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1995, 2001, 2003, 2012), Largest margin of win in a final: 5 goals: Swansea City 5–0 Bradford City (2013), Most goals in a final (Since one-off match): 5 goals (joint record), Queens Park Rangers 3–2 West Bromwich Albion (1967), Aston Villa 3–2 Everton (1977) (Second replay), Nottingham Forest 3–2 Southampton (1979), Luton Town 3–2 Arsenal (1988), Chelsea 3–2 Liverpool (2005), Swansea City 5–0 Bradford City (2013), Manchester United 3–2 Southampton (2017), Most appearances (team): 12, Liverpool, Most time winning player: 5, Ian Rush (Liverpool, 1980–81, 1981–82, 1982–83, 1983–84, 1994–95), Most defeats in finals: 6, Arsenal (1968, 1969, 1988, 2007, 2011, 2018), Most appearances without winning: 2:, West Ham United, Everton, Bolton Wanderers, Sunderland, Southampton, Lowest ranked winners: Queens Park Rangers, Swindon Town – Third Division (now EFL League One), Lowest ranked finalists: Rochdale – Fourth Division (now EFL League Two) and Bradford City (EFL League Two), Fastest goal in League Cup Final: 45 seconds, John Arne Riise (Liverpool v. Chelsea in 3–2 defeat, 2005) Biggest win in a match: 10–0, joint record:, West Ham United 10–0 Bury (Second round, second leg, 25 October 1983), Liverpool 10–0 Fulham (Second round, first leg, 23 September 1986), Biggest win in aggregate: by 11 goals, joint record:, Liverpool 13–2 Fulham (10–0 First leg & 3–2 Second leg, 1986), Bury 1–12 West Ham United (1–2 First leg & 0–10 Second leg, 1983), Liverpool 11–0 Exeter City (5–0 First leg & 6–0 Second leg, 1981), Watford 11–0 Darlington (8–0 First leg & 3–0 Second leg, 1987), Everton 11–0 Wrexham (5–0 First leg: Away & 6–0 Second leg: Home, 1990), Most career goals: 49, joint record:, Geoff Hurst (West Ham United and Stoke City, 1958 to 1976), Ian Rush (Liverpool and Newcastle United, 1980 to 1998), Most goals in a single match: 6, Frankie Bunn (for Oldham Athletic v. Scarborough, 25 October 1989, in their 7–0 win), Most goals by a losing side: Reading (5), Reading v. Arsenal, 30 October 2012 in their 5–7 defeat (after extra time), Most goals by a side without winning: Dagenham & Redbridge (6), Brentford v. Dagenham & Redbridge, 11 August 2014 in a 6–6 draw (Brentford won 4–2 on penalties). Most wins (team): 21 (17 outright, 4 shared), Manchester United (1908, 1911, 1952, 1956, 1957, 1965, 1967, 1977, 1983, 1990, 1993, 1994, 1996, 1997, 2003, 2007, 2008, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2016), Most appearances (team): 30, Manchester United (1908, 1911, 1948, 1952, 1956, 1957, 1963, 1965, 1967, 1977, 1983, 1985, 1990, 1993, 1994, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2016), Record scoreline: Manchester United 8–4 Swindon Town in 1911, Most wins (individual): 9, Ryan Giggs all outright wins (1993, 1994, 1996, 1997, 2003, 2007, 2008, 2010, 2013), Most appearances (individual): 15, Ryan Giggs of Manchester United (1993, 1994, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2013), Most defeats (individual): 6, Ryan Giggs (1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2004, 2009), Most consecutive wins: 4, Everton (1984, 1985, 1986 (shared), 1987), Most consecutive defeats: 4, Manchester United (1998, 1999, 2000, 2001), Most consecutive appearances: 6, Manchester United (1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001), Most consecutive appearances (individual): 6, Ryan Giggs (1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001) Fastest century of goals scored during a Premier League season (in fewest no. of games played): 103 goals scored in 34 games by Manchester City in season 2013–14. Previous record: 100 goals scored in 42 games by Chelsea in season 2012–13 (excludes games played / goals scored in FA Community Shield (1/2), UEFA Super Cup (1/1) and FIFA Club World Cup (2/3))., Fastest century of goals scored during a Premier League season (in elapsed calendar days): 103 goals scored on 18 January 2014 by Manchester City in 2013–14. Previous record: 100 goals scored on 21 February 2013 by Chelsea in season 2012–13 (excludes games played / goals scored in FA Community Shield (1/2), UEFA Super Cup (1/1) and FIFA Club World Cup (2/3))., Most consecutive penalty shoot out wins: 9 by Bradford City between 6 October 2009 and 11 December 2012, Football League Cup (5th Round), 11 December 2012, Bradford City beat Arsenal 3–2 on penalties (score 1–1 after extra time), FA Cup (2nd round Proper replay), 13 November 2012, Bradford City beat Northampton Town 4–2 on penalties (score 3–3 after extra time), Football League Cup (4th round), 30 October 2012, Bradford City beat Wigan Athletic 4–2 on penalties (score 0–0 after extra time), Football League Trophy (2nd round), 9 October 2012, Bradford City beat Hartlepool United 3–2 on penalties (score 0–0 after normal time), Football League Trophy (Quarter-finals), 8 November 2011, Bradford City beat Sheffield United 6–5 on penalties (score 1–1 after normal time), Football League Trophy (2nd round), 4 October 2011, Bradford City beat Huddersfield Town 4–3 on penalties (score 2–2 after normal time), Football League Trophy (1st round), 30 August 2011, Bradford City beat Sheffield Wednesday 3–1 on penalties (score 0–0 after normal time), Football League Trophy (Quarter-finals), 10 November 2009, Bradford City beat Port Vale 5–4 on penalties (score 2–2 after normal time), Football League Trophy (2nd round), 6 October 2009, Bradford City beat Notts County 3–2 on penalties (score 2–2 after normal time), Fastest penalty awarded: 6 seconds. Chester v Witton Albion – 13 December 2016. Referee Joseph Johnson awarded a penalty when Blaine Hudson upended Tolani Omotola after 6 seconds. Record attendance: 126,047 – Bolton Wanderers v West Ham United played at Wembley FA Cup Final (28 April 1923)., Record attendance at club ground: 121,919 – Aston Villa v Sunderland played at Crystal Palace FA Cup Final (19 April 1913)., Record home attendance: 85,512 – Tottenham Hotspur v Bayer Leverkusen played at Wembley UEFA Champions League (2 November 2016)., Record home attendance at own stadium: 84,569 – Manchester City v Stoke City played at Maine Road FA Cup R6 (3 March 1934)., Record league attendance: 83,260 – Manchester United v Arsenal played at Maine Road First Division (17 January 1948)., Record Premier League attendance: 83,222 – Tottenham Hotspur v Arsenal played at Wembley Stadium (10 February 2018)., Record league attendance at own stadium: 82,905 – Chelsea v Arsenal played at Stamford Bridge First Division (12 October 1935)., Record attendance at new Wembley: 89,874 – Portsmouth v Cardiff FA Cup Final (17 May 2008). These tables list the clubs that have won honours an English record number of times. It lists all international competitions organised by UEFA and FIFA as well as competitions organised by the English governing bodies the English Football League, the Premier League, and The Football Association. This table follows the elite criteria above. It also includes any competitions that were not directly run by the governing bodies but were precursors to such competitions. Note Inter-City Fair Cup was replaced with UEFA cup and Intercontinental Cup was replaced with FIFA Club World Cup. Longest-serving manager at one club: Fred Everiss, 46 years (West Bromwich Albion 1902–1948), Shortest-serving manager at one club (excluding caretakers): Leroy Rosenior, 10 minutes (Torquay United, 17 May 2007), Most trophy wins: Sir Alex Ferguson, 38 (Manchester United), Most League title wins: Sir Alex Ferguson, 13 (Manchester United), Most FA Cup wins: Arsène Wenger, 7 (Arsenal), Most League Cup wins: 4, joint record:, Brian Clough with Nottingham Forest, Sir Alex Ferguson with Manchester United, José Mourinho with Chelsea (3) and Manchester United (1), Most FA Charity/Community Shield wins: Sir Alex Ferguson, 10 (9 outright, 1 shared) (Manchester United), Most Intercontinental Cup / FIFA Club World Cup wins: Sir Alex Ferguson, 2 (Manchester United), Most European Cup / UEFA Champions League wins: Bob Paisley, 3 (Liverpool), , Most Inter-Cities Fairs Cup / UEFA Cup / Europa League wins: Don Revie, 2 (Leeds United), Most top-flight League game wins: Sir Alex Ferguson, 625 games (Manchester United), Most European Cup / UEFA Champions League game wins: Sir Alex Ferguson, 110 games (Manchester United), This is also a joint overall European record. List of football clubs in England by competitive honours won

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The Treaty of Rastatt was a peace treaty between France and Austria, concluded on 7 March 1714 in the Baden city of Rastatt, to put an end to state of war between them from the War of the Spanish Succession. The treaty followed the earlier Treaty of Utrecht of 11 April 1713, which ended hostilities between France and Spain, on the one hand, and Britain and the Dutch Republic, on the other hand. A third treaty at Baden, Switzerland was required to end the hostilities between France and the Holy Roman Empire. By 1713, all parties to the War of the Spanish Succession were militarily depleted and it was unlikely that the continuation of the conflict would bring about any results in the foreseeable future. The First Congress of Rastatt opened in November 1713, between France and Austria, with the negotiations culminating in the Treaty of Rastatt on 7 March 1714, formally ending hostilities and complementing the Treaty of Utrecht, which had been signed the previous year. The Treaty of Rastatt was negotiated by Marshal of France, Claude Louis Hector de Villars and the Austrian prince, Prince Eugene of Savoy. The Rastatt Treaty is associated with changes in European politics, associated with the shift to the balance of power politics. Austria began to negotiate the treaty with France after it had been abandoned by its allies, particularly Great Britain, during negotiations for the Treaty of Utrecht. Great Britain feared a possible connection of Austria and Spain in the person of the Emperor Charles VI, who became emperor in 1711 and claimed the Spanish throne, as it would shift the balance of power politics in Europe to Habsburg Austria. In June 1713, France launched the Rhine campaign against the Holy Roman Empire, conquering Kaiserslautern, Landau and Breisgau. After these defeats, Emperor Charles VI accepted the offer of King Louis XIV of France to reopen negotiations. Under the treaty, Austria received the following from Spain: the Spanish territories in Italy of Naples, Milan, Sardinia and the Southern Netherlands. Austria received from France Freiburg and several other small areas at its eastern borders, but France retained Landau. As a result of the treaty, the Austrian Habsburg Empire reached the largest territorial extent in its history. It became a major power in Western and southern Europe, in addition to its already dominant influence in Central Europe. Moreover, bargaining in Rastatt gained for Austria much more than it was offered at Utrecht, at which it had originally also participated. However, Emperor Charles VI was outraged at the loss of Spain and considered it an unacceptable failure. For France, the Utrecht and Rastatt Treaties confirmed the throne of Spain for the House of Bourbon, but also denied France the additional territorial gains it had sought, and affirmed that the thrones of France and Spain could not be united. List of treaties Gibraltar, a British Overseas Territory, located at the southern tip of the Iberian Peninsula, is the subject of an irredentist territorial claim by Spain. It was captured in 1704 during the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714). The Spanish Crown formally ceded the territory in perpetuity to the British Crown in 1713, under of the Treaty of Utrecht. Spain later attempted to recapture the territory during the thirteenth siege (1727) and the Great Siege (1779–1783). British sovereignty over Gibraltar was confirmed in later treaties signed in Seville (1729) and the Treaty of Paris (1783). Reclamation of the territory became government policy under the regime of the dictator Francisco Franco and has remained in place under successive governments following the Spanish transition to democracy. The Gibraltarians themselves reject any such claim and no political party or pressure group in Gibraltar supports union with Spain. In a referendum in 2002 the people of Gibraltar rejected a joint sovereignty proposal on which Spain and the United Kingdom were said to have reached "broad agreement". The British Government now refuses to discuss sovereignty without the consent of the Gibraltarians. In 2000, a political declaration of unity was signed by the members of the Gibraltar Parliament; according to the Gibraltar government, "In essence the declaration stated that the people of Gibraltar will never compromise, give up or trade their sovereignty or their right to self-determination; that Gibraltar wants good, neighbourly, European relations with Spain; and that Gibraltar belongs to the people of Gibraltar and is neither Spain's to claim or Britain's to give away." Spain insists on a bilateral agreement with the UK over sovereignty, whereas the UK will only discuss sovereignty if Gibraltar is included in the discussions. The United Nations understanding of the positions of each party is set out in their 2016 report. The UN currently lists Gibraltar a Non-Self-Governing Territory. Gibraltar was captured in 1704 by a force led by Admiral Sir George Rooke representing the Grand Alliance on behalf of the Archduke Charles, pretender to the Spanish Throne. After the battle, almost all of the inhabitants decided to leave. Spanish attempts to regain the territory in the Twelfth Siege of Gibraltar failed, and it was eventually ceded to the Kingdom of Great Britain by Spain in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht as part of the settlement of the War of the Spanish Succession. In that treaty, Spain ceded to Great Britain "the full and entire propriety of the town and castle of Gibraltar, together with the port, fortifications, and forts thereunto belonging ... for ever, without any exception or impediment whatsoever." Should the British Crown ever wish to relinquish Gibraltar, a reversion clause holds that the territory would first be offered to Spain, "And in case it shall hereafter seem meet to the Crown of Great Britain to grant, sell or by any means to alienate therefrom the propriety of the said town of Gibraltar, it is hereby agreed and concluded that the preference of having the sale shall always be given to the Crown of Spain before any others." Furthermore, the Treaty stipulates "that the above- named propriety be yielded to Great Britain without any territorial jurisdiction, and without any open communication by land with the country round about" (although there is dispute over whether this disclaims territorial jurisdiction over Gibraltar, or over the "country round about") and that no overland trade between Gibraltar and Spain is to take place, except for emergency provisions in the case that Gibraltar is unable to be resupplied by sea. The British Government and the Government of Gibraltar today argue that the membership of both Gibraltar and Spain in the European Union (EU) — Gibraltar was included as a Special member state territory when the United Kingdom joined the EU in 1973; Spain joined the EU in 1986 — supersedes such restrictions as the EU is committed to free movement of goods and services. The United Nations February 2016 report sets out the differing points of view of the various parties with regard to Gibraltar which the United Nations considers to be a Non-Self-Governing Territory administered by the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Gibraltar was given the Gibraltar Constitution Order 2006 by Britain which established a form of government whereby the Governor of Gibraltar is responsible for the conduct of external affairs, defence, internal security and for certain appointments to public office, and the Government of Gibraltar is made responsible for all other matters. The UK believes that as an independent territory, recognised by the United Nations, Gibraltar enjoys the individual and collective rights that are set out in the 2006 constitution and the right of self-determination. Spain disputes the legality of the constitution and claims that it does not change the position of Gibraltar as a colony of the UK with only the UK empowered to discuss Gibraltar matters on the international scene. The territorial government of Gibraltar, based on law in the 2006 constitution, collects its own taxes and budgets its costs and capital expenditure, with maximum personal tax rates of 28% and company tax of 10%. Spain notes that the European Commission is investigating the tax regime of Gibraltar and that Spain considers Gibraltar a tax haven. The UK believes Gibraltar meets all EU laws regarding the issues of anti-money-laundering, direct taxation and financial supervision. Gibraltar has a robust financial regulation system with anti-tax-evasion agreements including exchange of tax information with 79 countries including all the EU nations, except Spain which has not responded. The UK asked for Gibraltar to be subject to an EU evaluation of its anti- money-laundering controls. Spain recalls that crimes of tobacco smuggling and money-laundering from Gibraltar had been noted in an EU anti fraud report in 2014. Crossing the land border between Gibraltar and Spain is subject to checks. Spain stresses that checks are not politically motivated, it being necessary to ensure strict compliance with EU border regulations to counter the common illicit trafficking issues and that Spain complies with the recommendations from the EU to improve the border crossing. The location of the checkpoint does not conform to the border recognised by Spain. The airport is a military area where civilian aircraft are permitted to operate. Spain claims the airfield is occupied illegally by the UK. The UK claims its sovereignty extends over the isthmus area on which the airfield is built. The UK also claims a three-mile limit in the territorial waters around Gibraltar whereas Spain claims maritime rights to all areas except inside the ports on Gibraltar. UK claims of incursions of Spanish vessels into Gibraltar territorial waters are considered by Spain to reflect routine activity of Spanish ships in their own waters. In 2004 a system of trilateral discussion began with Spain, the UK and Gibraltar participating. The discussions ended in 2010 with the UK and Gibraltar asking for their continuance from 2012 to 2014. Spain stating they believed the forum no longer existed and that only ad hoc discussions on local issues should take place with Campo de Gibraltar also included. In 2015 the UK reaffirmed its claim to sovereignty, that Gibraltar had its right to self-determination set out in the 2006 constitution and that the UK would not enter into any sovereignty discussions unless Gibraltar agreed and further that the UK was committed to safeguarding Gibraltar, its people and its economy. The UK claimed sovereignty over land extended over the sea to a limit of three miles or to the median line under the UN convention on the Law of the Sea. Any discussion must include Gibraltar as their constitution gave them sole powers over many issues. Gibraltar claimed it remained the last colony in Europe only because the Government of Spain insisted the inalienable principle of self-determination should not apply to Gibraltarians, with Spain blocking the annual request for Gibraltar to be removed from the UN list of Non-Self-Governing Territories. The Gibraltarian government asserts that Gibraltar has been effectively decolonised. In his evidence to the UK Parliament Foreign Affairs Committee in 2008, Jim Murphy MP, Minister of State for Europe stated: The UK Government will never enter into an agreement on sovereignty without the agreement of the Government of Gibraltar and their people. In fact, we will never even enter into a process without that agreement. The word 'never' sends a substantial and clear commitment and has been used for a purpose. We have delivered that message with confidence to the peoples and the Governments of Gibraltar and Spain. It is a sign of the maturity of our relationship now that that is accepted as the UK's position. The British Government has ruled out the independence of Gibraltar because, according to the British view, under the Treaty of Utrecht it would require Spanish consent, and has ruled out Gibraltar's integration into the United Kingdom. The option of integration was rejected on 26 June 1976, when the British Government issued the Hattersley Memorandum ruling out integration in order to "avoid innovations which might result in prolongation of the frontier restrictions imposed by Spain." Gibraltar argues that the Spanish claims are baseless, pointing to the right to self-determination of all peoples, guaranteed and enshrined by the UN, according to the UN Charter. Its article 1 states that "The Purposes of the United Nations are ... to develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples." To the same section 2 of states: "All peoples have the right to self- determination; by virtue of that right they freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development." Furthermore, resolution 2231 (XXI) itself recalls and demands implementation of Resolution 1514(XV) (guaranteeing Gibraltar's right to self-determination) and therefore it believes that the Spanish claim for its territorial integrity (which would not be affected by Gibraltar's decolonisation) cannot displace or extinguish the rights of the people of Gibraltar under resolution 1514(XV) or under the Charter. From this point of view, any additional right that Spain could claim by virtue of the "reversionary" clause contained in the Treaty of Utrecht is overruled and annulled under article 103 of the UN Charter: " In the event of a conflict between the obligations of the Members of the United Nations under the present Charter and their obligations under any other international agreement, their obligations under the present Charter shall prevail." Finally, it is argued that there is in fact no principle in International Law or UN doctrine that can displace the inalienable right to self-determination. In this regard, in 2008, the UN 4th Committee rejected the claim that a dispute over sovereignty affected self-determination, affirming it to be a basic human right. The Gibraltar Government has also argued that Gibraltar is a British territory and therefore by definition not an integral part of any other state, implying that Spain's territorial integrity cannot be affected by anything that occurs in Gibraltar: "Even if integration of a territory was demanded by an interested State it could not be had without ascertaining the freely expressed will of the people, the very sine qua non of all decolonisation." In a referendum held in Gibraltar in September 2002, Gibraltarian voters rejected even partial Spanish sovereignty. Speaking to the UK Parliament Foreign Affairs committee in March 2008 Peter Caruana the Chief Minister of Gibraltar noted: Spain does not dispute that Gibraltar is properly, in law, British territory. Therefore, this is not disputed land. She has a political claim to the return of Gibraltar sovereignty, but she does not dispute the fact that in proper international law, she ceded sovereignty to Britain in perpetuity and therefore it is undisputed British sovereign territory. Gibraltarians seem to remain mistrustful of Spain despite improved relations. The traditional Spanish position is based on territorial integrity, as per (1960), which according to Spain, complements and constrains the right to self-determination: "Any attempt aimed at the partial or total disruption of the national unity and the territorial integrity of a country is incompatible with the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations." During the 1960s, the UN General Assembly passed five resolutions on the issue (2231 (XXI), "Question of Gibraltar" and 2353 (XXII), "Question of Gibraltar"). The resolutions on the decolonisation of Gibraltar focused on the "interests" and not the "wishes" of the Gibraltarians. The latter resolution states that: any colonial situation which partially or completely destroys the national unity and territorial integrity of a country is incompatible with the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations and especially with paragraph 6 of Resolution 1514 (XV) of the General Assembly [...] Invites the Governments of Spain and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland to resume without delay the negotiations provided for in General Assembly Resolutions 2070 (XX) and 2231 (XXI), with a view to putting an end to the colonial situation in Gibraltar and to safeguarding the interests of the population. From such a point of view, Gibraltarians are seen as mere "settlers" from the United Kingdom and other countries and only their interests, not their wishes (as the right to self-determination would involve), need be safeguarded. The point of view that they were settlers is supported by the fact that following the 1704 capture of Gibraltar by Anglo- Dutch troops, only around 70 out of the original 5,000 Spanish inhabitants chose to remain in Gibraltar. Therefore, Spain has insisted that the Gibraltar dispute is a purely bilateral matter with the United Kingdom and has ignored the role and will of the Gibraltarians. The first formal proposal on how to achieve the return of Gibraltar to Spain was made on 18 May 1966 by the Spanish Minister of Foreign Affairs, Fernando Castiella. The proposal comprised three clauses: 1. "The cancellation of the Treaty of Utrecht and the subsequent return of Gibraltar to Spain." 2. "The stay of the British base in Gibraltar, its use being subject to a specific Anglo-Spanish agreement." 3. "A 'Personal Statute' for Gibraltarians, under United Nations guarantee, protecting their cultural, social and economic interest in Gibraltar or anywhere else in Spain, including their British nationality. An 'appropriate ... administrative formula' should be also agreed." The proposal was rejected by the British Government and by the Gibraltarians, which overwhelmingly voted to remain under British sovereignty in a referendum held in 1967 (12,138 to 44). As a result, the UN General Assembly, during its twenty-third session, adopted resolution 2429 of 1968 (XXIII), denounced the 1967 referendum and requested the United Kingdom not to delay negotiations. No further advance for the Spanish claims was achieved for the following forty years. In view of that, the Spanish position seems to have softened, being redirected towards some form of temporary or permanent arrangement to achieve joint sovereignty, which has been proposed by Spain and discussed with the British Government. Such a proposal was tabled by the Spanish Minister for Foreign Affairs, Fernando Morán, in 1985. The details of the proposal were not made public, but information released showed an offer on a treaty with the United Kingdom in order to "re-integrate" Gibraltar with Spain, while preserving Gibraltarians' way of life. They would keep their British nationality, as well as their existing political and labour rights, self- government and institutions. Morán proposed that a condominium or leaseback arrangement should be agreed, over a 15 or 20-year period. This proposal was not formally rejected by Douglas Hurd, the British Foreign Secretary, until 1993. In 1997 a second proposal was made by the Spanish Minister for Foreign Affairs, Abel Matutes, foreseeing a hundred-year period of joint sovereignty before a definite transfer to Spain. A similar scheme was provisionally agreed between the Spanish and British governments in the spring of 2002, but this was eventually abandoned, after sustained opposition by the Gibraltarians that included the Gibraltar sovereignty referendum of 2002. Spain reported to the UN in 2016 that: the UK was refusing to negotiate on sovereignty, the land occupied by the UK was greater than that ceded by the Treaty of Utrecht, it was the restoration of Spanish territorial integrity that was the key, not self-determination, the 2006 constitution had not changed the international status of Gibraltar, with the local authorities having no right to interfere in the negotiations about the (according to Spain) illegal occupation of Spanish territory, Spain would not agree to any situation that was detrimental to people in the area or to the finances of Spain or the EU, the border checks were EU regulated and designed to stop illegal trafficking of tobacco that was costing the region tax revenue, and that Gibraltar was operating as a tax haven, Spain was happy to discuss sovereignty issues with the UK and to have four-way ad hoc discussion on local issues Spain insisted that the Gibraltar dispute is a bilateral matter purely between the United Kingdom and Spain. This principle appears to have been reflected in the United Nations resolutions on the decolonisation of Gibraltar in the 1960s, which focused on the "interests" of the Gibraltarians. Speaking to the UN C24 in 2006, the Chief Minister of Gibraltar, Peter Caruana, stated that "It is well known and documented and accepted by all that, since 1988, Gibraltar has rejected the bilateral Brussels Process, and will never be content with it." With the 2004 return of a centre-left wing government in Spain, a new Spanish position was adopted and, in December 2005, the governments of the UK, Spain and Gibraltar agreed to set up "a new, trilateral process of dialogue outside the Brussels Process" with equal participation by the three parties, any decisions or agreements to be agreed by all three. This was ratified by the 2006 Cordoba Agreement. After meetings in Malaga (Spain), Faro (Portugal), and Mallorca (Spain), the Spanish foreign minister Miguel Ángel Moratinos went to Gibraltar in July 2009 to discuss a range of mutual issues. This was the first official Spanish visit since Gibraltar was ceded. The issue of sovereignty was not discussed. From 2010 Spain has claimed that the trilateral dialogue is finished and reverted to the original call for a bilateral agreement with the UK with four way ad hoc meetings which would include Campo de Gibraltar. The Gibraltarians have sought a more modern status and relationship with the United Kingdom reflecting and expanding the present level of self-government. A new constitution order was approved in a referendum in 2006, which moved Gibraltar to a more Crown dependency-like relationship with the UK, rather than the previous colonial status. The new constitution came into effect in January 2007. Gibraltar is classified as a British overseas territory. In a letter to the UN the British representative, Emyr Jones Parry, writes: "The new constitution provides for a modern relationship between Gibraltar and the United Kingdom. I do not think that this description would apply to any relationship based on colonialism." Chief Minister Peter Caruana addressed the UN Special Committee on Decolonization regarding the new constitution in 2008. He put forth Gibraltar Government's view that "As far as we are concerned, the decolonisation of Gibraltar is no longer a pending issue." Parallel with this, the Government of Gibraltar has engaged in talks with Spain to resolve other disputes, setting aside the issue of sovereignty. The territory of Gibraltar contains an section of the isthmus that links the Rock with Spain. Although it is argued by Spain that this section of the isthmus was never ceded by Spain; rather, it was gradually occupied de facto by the British, this section of the isthmus together with the other half of it north of the Gibraltar-Spain border was once labelled as neutral territory separating Spain from Gibraltar. The growth of Gibraltar onto the southern half of the isthmus began with the construction of two forts in the northernmost part of the ceded territory. In 1815, Gibraltar suffered a yellow fever epidemic. This led to a Spanish concession so a temporary quarantine health camp could be built on the isthmus. After the plague was over, the British did not remove the camp. In 1854, a new epidemic prompted more health camps, which eventually gained Gibraltar these extra 800 metres of land. The occupation of the isthmus culminated in 1938 with the construction of the aerodrome during the Spanish civil war. The Treaty of Utrecht did not mention British sovereignty over Gibraltar beyond the fortified perimeter of the town as it was in 1713. However the Treaty ceded the town "together with the port, fortifications, and forts thereunto belonging", which included several forts along the line of the current frontier. The United Kingdom further claims title to the southern half of the isthmus based on continuous possession over a long period. The northern half of the neutral territory was also taken over by Spain in the 1960s, during dictator Francisco Franco's regime, and now forms an integral part of the Spanish municipality of La Línea de la Concepción. Both the United Kingdom and Spain have ratified the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 1982, which governs countries' oceanic territorial claims. Both countries made statements regarding Gibraltar in their declarations upon ratification of the Convention. The Spanish statement was: 2\. In ratifying the Convention, Spain wishes to make it known that this act cannot be construed as recognition of any rights or status regarding the maritime space of Gibraltar that are not included in article 10 of the Treaty of Utrecht of 13 July 1713 concluded between the Crowns of Spain and Great Britain. Furthermore, Spain does not consider that Resolution III of the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea is applicable to the colony of Gibraltar, which is subject to a process of decolonization in which only relevant resolutions adopted by the United Nations General Assembly are applicable. The British government responded to the Spanish statement in their own statement: With regard to point 2 of the declaration made upon ratification of the Convention by the Government of Spain, the Government of the United Kingdom has no doubt about the sovereignty of the United Kingdom over Gibraltar, including its territorial waters. The Government of the United Kingdom, as the administering authority of Gibraltar, has extended the United Kingdom's accession to the Convention and ratification of the Agreement to Gibraltar. The Government of the United Kingdom, therefore, rejects as unfounded point 2 of the Spanish declaration. However, Articles 309 and 310 of the Convention state that "No reservations or exceptions may be made to this Convention unless expressly permitted by other articles of this Convention", and that if a signatory state makes a declaration upon ratification, that declaration must "not purport to exclude or to modify the legal effect of the provisions of this Convention in their application" to that state. The dispute over territorial waters, which was rekindled in 2013 following a fishing dispute seems likely to become more important with the discovery of a British treasure ship, HMS Sussex, and the Black Swan Project controversy. Questions about the waters have previously been asked in the House of Commons, and answered as follows: Under international law, States are entitled, but not required, to extend their territorial sea up to a maximum breadth of 12 nautical miles. Where the coasts of two States are opposite or adjacent, the general rule is that neither is entitled, unless they agree otherwise, to extend its territorial sea beyond the median line. The UK Government considers that a limit of three nautical miles is sufficient in the case of Gibraltar. The Government of Gibraltar for its part holds that there is no economic or social need for more than three nautical miles of territorial water. At the end of 2008, the European Commission included most of the territorial waters that surround Gibraltar under a marine conservation area known as the "Estrecho Oriental" that will be maintained by Spain. The UK initiated legal proceedings with the support of Gibraltar, which were initially rejected by the General Court on procedural grounds. A 2011 appeal was dismissed, again on procedural grounds. The European Court of Justice had again ruled against that appeal in 2012. There have been disputes concerning Spanish patrol boats inside these claimed territorial waters. In May 2009 there was a number of Spanish incursions into British-claimed waters around Gibraltar, including by a Spanish Navy fisheries protection vessel, leading to intervention by police and a diplomatic protest by the UK. Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, vessels passing through the Strait of Gibraltar do so under the regime of transit passage, rather than the more limited innocent passage allowed in most territorial waters. The Spanish government argues that Gibraltar's tax schemes harm the Spanish economy. In January 2005, the European Commissioner for Competition requested the UK (responsible for Gibraltar's external relations) to abolish Gibraltar's tax-exempt company regime by the end of 2010 (at the latest) on the basis that it constitutes illegal state aid that could distort competition. Unlike other tax havens like Andorra, Gibraltar has not signed a mutual agreement with Spain to exchange fiscal information, although such an agreement has been offered by the Gibraltar Government, but Spain has declined to accept it because it does not consider Gibraltar as its diplomatic counterpart. Another concern that has been raised is that each day thousands of Spaniards buy goods at cheaper prices in Gibraltar due to exchange rates and lack of VAT, contributing to the Gibraltar economy instead of that of Spain. The Spanish government wants to increase the exchange of fiscal information in order to prevent Gibraltar banks being used for tax evasion and money laundering. The United Kingdom House of Commons Foreign Affairs Select Committee has directed an inquiry that determined that Gibraltar has always complied with all international and EU requirements to prevent such activity. We conclude that the series of allegations which Spain makes against Gibraltar appear almost wholly to be without substance. In many cases, it is not just the Government of Gibraltar but the British Government as well which is traduced. It is deeply regrettable that allegations are made that cannot be sustained by a basis in fact. If concrete evidence of wrong-doing were produced, the British Government should act promptly to deal with the problem. But so long as allegations are unsubstantiated, the British Government should continue to rebut them promptly and decisively. Referred to as an "international financial centre", Gibraltar was among 35 jurisdictions identified by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) as a tax haven in June 2000. As a result of having made a commitment in accordance with the OECD's 2001 Progress Report on the OECD's Project on Harmful Tax Practices, Gibraltar was not included in the OECD's list of uncooperative tax havens. However, in its April 2009 progress report, the OECD listed Gibraltar in the list of jurisdictions that, although committed, had not "substantially implemented" yet the internationally agreed tax standard. Following Gibraltar's signing of 12 additional Tax Information Exchange Agreements (TIEAs), as of October 2009, with jurisdictions including the UK, USA and Germany, Gibraltar was listed in the OECD "white list". It is currently listed as "largely compliant" by the OECD's Global Forum on Transparency and Exchange of Information for Tax Purposes. Along with the Isle of Man and Cyprus, Gibraltar has been used as an international finance centre by the Russian conglomerate Yukos/Menatep. There have been claims that some Gibraltarian motorboats are engaging in drugs and tobacco smuggling. However, since 1996 there has been a law in Gibraltar controlling fast launches licensing their ownership and importation and prohibiting the entry of unlicensed craft into Gibraltar waters. In 2014, inspectors from the EU's fraud office OLAF wrote to the Spanish governments urging an investigation of tobacco smuggling, amid revelations that Gibraltar, with a population of less than 30,000, imported 117 million packets of cigarettes in 2013. In 2015, Spanish authorities broke up a major tobacco smuggling operation, seizing 65,000 packs of cigarettes, five boats, two firearms, communications equipment and €100,000 cash. Authorities estimated the group was smuggling 150,000 packs of contraband tobacco into Spain every week. Military control of the Strait of Gibraltar has historically been the most important use of Gibraltar, allowing Britain to defend its trade lanes to the East. The British admiral Lord Fisher stated that Gibraltar was one of the five keys that locked the world, together with Dover, Alexandria, Cape of Good Hope and Singapore, all of which were once controlled by Britain. Its military relevance has reduced with the construction in 1953 of the US Naval Station Rota (the biggest Allied base in the area) and with the end of the Cold War, but it is still an important position as more than one quarter of the global maritime traffic transits through the strait every year. Controlling the strait is of vital importance to NATO. The task of controlling the strait has been traditionally assigned by NATO to the UK, but the recent advances that Spain has made in its armed forces and the bases Spain has in the zone have made NATO reconsider this. However, the tense relations that Spain had with the American administration under George W. Bush and the special friendship of the US with the UK have caused NATO to take a more favourable position towards the UK and Morocco for control of the strait. In May 1954, despite objections by Spain, Queen Elizabeth II visited Gibraltar. Spanish dictator Francisco Franco had renewed claims to The Rock. British National Archives files from 1953 show that Franco claimed that Spain had been promised The Rock in return for not attacking the territory during the Second World War. The Foreign and Commonwealth Office conducted a full review of their files to see whether Franco's claim had any foundation. A confidential memo called the Spanish communiqué "a flimsy and unconvincing document", and the Government put an end to the dispute by refusing to comment on the claims. In a 1967 referendum on sovereignty organised by the British Government, 99.6% of voters voted to remain under British sovereignty. In a second referendum on sovereignty held in November 2002 by the Government of Gibraltar, 187 voted yes (1%) and 17,900 voted no (99%) on the proposal of sharing sovereignty with Spain. The question put was: On the 12 July 2002 the Foreign Secretary, Jack Straw, in a formal statement in the House of Commons, said that after twelve months of negotiation the British Government and Spain are in broad agreement on many of the principles that should underpin a lasting settlement of Spain's sovereignty claim, which included the principle that Britain and Spain should share sovereignty over Gibraltar. Do you approve of the principle that Britain and Spain should share sovereignty over Gibraltar? Spanish reaction varied from questioning the validity of the process, to observing that no Spanish government has done enough to make joint sovereignty or integration with Spain an attractive prospect. It is reported that Spanish "secret funds" were used to create a favourable opinion in Gibraltar to the Spanish sovereignty claim. How the money was spent remains uncertain. After the Spanish constitution, Spain was still reluctant to re-open the border because of the consequences it might have. However the border was re- opened in 1984, allowing free access between both sides, although Spain did not open ferry services until later. Further problems have been encountered regarding the airport, as it is placed on disputed neutral land. Under the Lisbon Agreement of 1980: Both Governments have reached agreement on the re- establishment of direct communications in the region. The Spanish Government has decided to suspend the application of the measures at present in force. This was to include reinstatement of a ferry service between Gibraltar and Algeciras. This was finally reinstated after 40 years, on 16 December 2009, operated by the Spanish company Transcoma. At the end of 2006, the restrictions on the airport were removed as a result of the Córdoba Agreement (2006) and direct flights from Madrid by Iberia started operation. On 22 September 2008, however, Iberia announced that it would cease its flights to Madrid by 28 September due to "economic reasons", namely, lack of demand. This left Gibraltar without any air links with Spain, until May 2009 when Air Andalus opened a service. Air communications with Spain ceased again in August 2010, when Air Andalus lost its licence. Spain demonstrated opposition to Gibraltar's membership of Union of European Football Associations. 2000 – An issue of contention was the repair of the nuclear powered submarine, . The Government of Spain expressed its concern about the effective safety for the inhabitants of Gibraltar and the some 250,000 people living in the Campo de Gibraltar, the adjacent area in Spain. The inhabitants of the area saw this repair as a precedent of future repair operations in Gibraltar rather than the one-off emergency the British Government has claimed (no other nuclear submarine has been repaired in Gibraltar since). On the other hand, the Government of Gibraltar accused Spain of using this incident as an excuse to justify its 300-year-old sovereignty claim to Gibraltar. Despite many protests, the Government of Gibraltar allowed the work to be done after employing its own experts to confirm it could be undertaken safely. The submarine was in Gibraltar for a year before leaving, during which the repair was completed without incident. Subsequently, Spanish politicians have complained about every nuclear submarine visit to Gibraltar, and have tried unsuccessfully to get a reassurance that this would totally stop. There have been no further protests against nuclear submarines in Gibraltar. Commenting, the Government of Gibraltar said: "Nuclear submarine visits to Gibraltar are a matter for the UK and Gibraltar. Visits for operational or recreational purposes are welcomed by the Gibraltar Government ... To our knowledge, it is not the position of the present Spanish Government or any previous Spanish Government, that it is opposed to visits by nuclear submarines." 2002 – In the months that predated the referendum called by the Gibraltar government on the joint sovereignty agreement disagreements could be categorised as: Control of the military installations. Spain wished to control the military installations of the territory, even in the event of joint sovereignty. This pretension was considered unacceptable by the British Ministry of Defence., The referendum itself. Both the Spanish and British governments stated that the referendum had no legal effect, but it clearly indicated the democratically expressed will of the people of Gibraltar to "not be Spanish". As the British Government is committed to respect those wishes, the idea of a joint sovereignty deal has been abandoned. 2004 – A visit by The Princess Royal in June 2004, the brief return of HMS Tireless in July 2004, together with the Tercentenary Celebrations of the capture of The Rock were subjects of complaint by the Spanish Government. A new round of talks on a tri-lateral basis were proposed in October 2004 to discuss regional co-operation. In February 2005 the first talks took place at a meeting held in Málaga and subsequently in Portugal and London. This is the first sign of formal recognition of the Government of Gibraltar, and has been generally welcomed. The main issues of the talks have been a new agreement on the airport, the pensions of the Spanish workers that worked in Gibraltar during the 1960s, and the removal of Spanish restrictions on telecommunications. 2006 – Those issues were successfully resolved in September 2006 in the Córdoba Agreement. The process continues. 2007 – A bulk carrier, the , ran aground south of Europa Point in Gibraltar and broke up on the reef in August 2007, generating accusations of pollution in Spain and claims not only against the Government of Gibraltar but also against that of Spain. Its cargo was scrap metal and the vessel's fuel was promptly drained. The Government of Gibraltar claimed in December 2007 that the operation did not represent a material risk to the environment since the vessel had been defuelled and only small, remnant amounts of fuel remained in the engines themselves. The Spanish branch of Greenpeace claimed that, as late as February 2008, fuel spills from the New Flame had polluted Spanish beaches around the Bay of Gibraltar. Official Spanish sources played this down stating that the fuel reaching the beaches of Algeciras was in "insignificant amounts". 2009 – The dispute over British-claimed territorial waters gained prominence with deliberate incursions by Spain, triggering angry headlines in the UK tabloid press. In December 2009, four armed Civil Guard officers were detained after three landed in Gibraltar in pursuit of two suspected smugglers, who were themselves arrested. The Spanish Interior Minister Alfredo Pérez Rubalcaba personally telephoned Chief Minister Peter Caruana to apologise, stating that there were "no political intentions" behind the incident. The Chief Minister was prepared to accept it had not been a political act. The Spanish officers were released by the police the following day, who said that "Enquiries established that the Guardia Civil mistakenly entered Gibraltar Territorial Waters in hot pursuit and have since apologised for their actions." 2012 – Queen Sofía of Spain cancelled plans to travel to the United Kingdom to participate in the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II. The cancellation was a protest in response to a planned visit to Gibraltar by Prince Edward. The Spanish government also lodged a protest to the planned visit by Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex. Relations between Britain and Spain reportedly "returned to a state of growing confrontation" following the election of Spanish Prime Minister Mariano Rajoy of the People's Party in December 2011. Plans for a 100-boat flotilla to sail around the peninsula to mark the Queen's Diamond Jubilee were adopted in Gibraltar as "a show of defiance against Spain." Additional protests followed in August 2012 after Gibraltar abrogated an accord that allowed Spanish fishing boats to operate in its waters. 2013 – Disagreements between Spain and the United Kingdom Government re-surfaced in July 2013, initially after the Gibraltar Government placed a number of concrete blocks in the sea off the coast of Gibraltar, intending to form an artificial reef. The Spanish Government protested however stating that it had a negative impact on fishing in the area, restricting access for Spanish fishing vessels. At the end of July the Spanish Government introduced extra border checks for people going in and out of the territory into Spain. The British Government protested as the checks were causing major delays of up to seven hours while people waited to cross the border, and on 2 August the Spanish Ambassador was summoned to the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office in London to discuss these developments. On 2 August 2013, Spanish Foreign Minister José Manuel Garcia-Margallo gave an interview to Spain's ABC newspaper. He announced possible plans to introduce a 50 euro border crossing fee for people going to and from Gibraltar, in response to the creation of the artificial reef. Plans to close Spanish airspace to Gibraltar bound flights were also reported, as were plans for an investigation by Spanish tax authorities into property owned by around 6,000 Gibraltarians in neighbouring parts of Spain. The Spanish Foreign Minister also mooted plans to changes in the law meaning British online gaming companies based in Gibraltar would have to base servers in Spain, meaning that they would come under Madrid's tax regime. The British Foreign office responded to these comments: "The prime minister has made clear that the UK government will meet its constitutional commitments to the people of Gibraltar and will not compromise on sovereignty." After the United Kingdom voted to leave the European Union, despite a strong vote to remain in Gibraltar, on 23 June 2016, Spain reiterated its position that it wanted to jointly govern Gibraltar with the United Kingdom and said it would seek to block Gibraltar from participating in talks over future deals between the UK and EU. The European council released a series of guidelines on negotiations for withdrawal, with core principal number 22 stating that any agreement affecting Gibraltar needed the agreement of Spain suggesting that Spain had been given a veto while the United Kingdom re-iterated its commitment to Gibraltar. On 18 October 2018, Spanish Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez announced that he had reached an agreement with Britain, declaring that a special protocol about Gibraltar was being prepared along with the UK Government and was hopeful to reach a good agreement for both parties. However, on 19 November 2018, the Spanish Government threatened not to support the Brexit Agreement Draft because they say that an article was added without their consent that could be misunderstood and leave Spain without a say over Gibraltar. On 22 November 2018, PM Sánchez and PM May discussed the problem but the Spanish PM declared that "our positions remain far away. My Government will always defend the interests of Spain. If there are no changes, we will veto Brexit." On 24 November 2018, Spain agreed not to veto the Brexit deal in exchange for a tripartite statement of the European Commission President and the European Council President, the UK Government and the EU Member States saying that no deal would be reached about Gibraltar without Spain's consent. The European statement also declared that the EU does not consider Gibraltar to be part of the United Kingdom. Disputed status of Olivença between Portugal and Spain., Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute between the United Kingdom and Argentina, The Spanish enclaves of Ceuta, Melilla, Islas Chafarinas, Peñón de Alhucemas and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera disputed by Morocco., Spanish exclave of Llívia in France., History of Gibraltar British sources George Hills was a BBC World Service broadcaster, Spanish Historian and Fellow of the Royal Historical Society. Although listed as a 'British' source, Hills supports the Spanish view of Gibraltar. He died in 2002. His research documents are now available at King's College, UCL as a separate collection., General Sir William Jackson was Governor of Gibraltar between 1978 and 1982, a military Historian and former Chairman of the Friends of Gibraltar Heritage. Spanish sources Chapter 2, "La lucha por Gibraltar" (The Struggle for Gibraltar) is available online (PDF). Isidro Sepúlveda Muñoz is a Contemporary History Professor in the UNED ("Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia")., Máximo Cajal is a Spanish diplomatist, ambassador in different countries and special representative of the former Spanish Prime Minister, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, in the Alliance of Civilizations. He was the only survivor of the assault of the Embassy of Spain in Guatemala by the forces of the Guatemalan dictatorship in 1980. Fawcett, J. E. S. Gibraltar: The Legal Issues in International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs), Vol. 43, No. 2 (Apr., 1967) The Treaty of Utrecht was signed in 1474 after the Anglo-Hanseatic War between England and the Hanseatic League. This naval war had begun in 1470 using the naval strategy of commerce raiding in the North Sea and the English Channel; one of the most successful men-of-war was the Peter von Danzig. Driven in the main by the cities Danzig and Lübeck, it was a war against increasing English pressure on the trade of the Hanseatic cities of the southern coast of the Baltic sea. England was bankrupt after years of war and mismanagement; pressure against Hanseatic cities trade on the southern coast of the Baltic sea had to be foregone, while Cologne and other German cities had opposed, and were therefore temporarily excluded from, the Hansa. The treaty declared peace between Lubeck and the German Confederation with England, restoring the Hanseatic privileges in the Port of London. These included immunity for Hanseatic franchises from the Tunnage and Poundage levy, which had been guaranteed by the Utrecht Treaty of 1437. It did not however halt the league's long-term decline across Germany, a fact the Prussians recognised during Anglo-Hanse Conference at Utrecht in 1451. The German Hansa could not prevent the Dutch penetrating into Baltic port markets. In Riga the Latvians opposed the Treaty of Utrecht, attempting to use the leaguers to prevent English trade competition with the continent. The Hansa ignored Riga's pleas and the treaty was ratified. While the Merchant Adventurers were excluded from the Baltic, because they had lost the 1468-74 war, they remained prepared for negotiation to restore access to the Low countries. Edward IV drew up peace treaties to clear the path for war with France. In a good year as much as 50% of the Exchequer's revenues came from Customs: 10% rate on Cloth, but in 1470, wool taxes were as much as 48% on alien immigrants. The trade war had to come to an end. The treaty, negotiated by Lübeck's mayor Hinrich Castorp, granted the league threatened privileges they deemed a success. The Hanseatic League gained ownership of the London Steelyard premises, which were secured this way until the middle of the 19th century as Hanseatic property in London. Londoners rioted in the streets in protest at the unfair treatment the city's merchants. The Hansa was guaranteed access to the ports of Hull, Lynn, and Boston and a claim on customs dues to the sum of £10,000 per annum. In the late 1470s and 80s broadcloth sales exceeded 13,000 in a period that marked a boom. The treaty was a partial defeat for the English. They yielded franchises and tax revenues in order to gain peace in Germany and trade with the Netherlands. But English trade did not penetrate Germany with confidence again until the Elizabethans. Nor did it recover in the Baltic. The Hanseatic Warehouse in King's Lynn was constructed in 1475 as part of the Treaty of Utrecht allowing the Hansa to establish a trading depot in Lynn for the first time. It was used as such until 1751 and is the only remaining building of the Hanseatic League in England. Bibliography

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Cree Summer Francks (born July 7, 1969) is an American-Canadian actress, comedian, and singer. She is known for playing Winifred "Freddie" Brooks on the NBC sitcom A Different World. In animation, Summer was the original voice of Penny in the 1983 cartoon Inspector Gadget. Her other voice roles include Princess Kneesaa in Ewoks, Elmyra Duff in Tiny Toon Adventures and Pinky, Elmyra & the Brain, Susie Carmichael in Rugrats and All Grown Up!, Numbuh 5 and Cree Lincoln in , and Cleo the Poodle in Clifford the Big Red Dog. She is also the voice of Princess Kida in the franchise of , Valerie Gray in Danny Phantom, Blackarachnia in Transformers Animated, Rayna Cartflight in The Buzz on Maggie, Beast Girl in Teen Titans Go!, Priscilla Skunk in Sheriff Callie's Wild West, Maxine "Max" Gibson in Batman Beyond, Foxxy Love in Drawn Together, Magma in X-Men Legends, Yvonne and Gordon in Mrs. Munger's Class, Nebula in Guardians of the Galaxy, and Witch Haggar in . She also voiced the character Mo in the Horrible Histories, as well as Kermit's Mom, Star and Pilgrim in Kermit's Swamp Years.. Summer was born in Los Angeles, California, on July 7, 1969, and grew up on the Red Pheasant Reserve in Saskatchewan. She is the daughter of Don Francks, a Canadian actor and musician, and Lili Clark from North Richmond, California, an adopted member of the Plains Cree First Nations. She and her family also traveled and lived around British Columbia during her childhood, and she started public school at the age of nine in Toronto. Her brother, Rainbow Sun Francks, is a former MuchMusic VJ. Summer's acting career began in 1983 when she was cast as Penny in the first season of the original version of Inspector Gadget. Her unique, throaty voice was instantly recognizable to viewers, as well as casting agents, who began frequently casting her in animated programs. Many of these were part of cult franchises, like The Care Bears Movie (1985) and Ewoks (1985, part of the Star Wars franchise). In 1988, Summer was cast as the freespirited Winifred "Freddie" Brooks in The Cosby Show spin-off A Different World. She remained a regular cast member of the show from 1988 through its end in 1993. During the run of A Different World, Summer continued working in voice acting. She was cast in the short-lived television series Sweet Justice in 1994 until its cancellation in 1995. In the fall of that same year, Summer and her A Different World co-star Jenifer Lewis starred in the primetime drama Courthouse, which was cancelled two months after it premiered. Apart from guest appearances on other live-action television shows such as Living Single and The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, Summer's professional work since has been limited to voice acting. At the start of the third season of A Different World in 1988, the cartoon series The Real Ghostbusters episodes were expanded from their original half-hour format to an hour. The show was changed to be more youthful. Episodes had a lighter tone designed to be less serious and frightening. In these lighter episodes, Cree voiced the sweet and helpful Chilly Cooper, the neighborhood ice-cream woman and innocent love interest of Slimer. Summer voiced over 101 animated characters between 1983 and 2006. These have spanned video games, cartoon television series, animated films and commercials. Among her most famous roles was in Inspector Gadget (Season 1) as Penny (a role she reprised in the Robot Chicken episode "Adoption's an Option"), WB's Tiny Toon Adventures (1990) as Elmyra Duff (which she reprised for Pinky, Elmyra & the Brain) and Mary Melody, Aka Pella in WB's Histeria!, Susie Carmichael in Nickelodeon's Rugrats and its spin-off All Grown Up!, Cleo the Poodle in PBS Kids' Clifford the Big Red Dog, Miranda from Nickelodeon's As Told by Ginger, Foxxy Love in Drawn Together, Dulcy the Dragon in Sonic the Hedgehog, Princess 'Kida' Kidagakash for the franchise of Disney's , Valerie Gray in Nickelodeon's Danny Phantom, Numbuh 5 in Cartoon Network's , Penelope in Barbie As Rapunzel, octogenarian villain Granny May on WordGirl, Tiff from Nickelodeon's My Life as a Teenage Robot, and Blackarachnia in . In December 2016, Summer reprised her role as Penny from Inspector Gadget in an episode of the web-series, Nostalgia Critic. Summer is a frequent co-star of Canadian- American actor Tara Strong; the two are childhood friends, both having grown up in Toronto, Ontario. She performed voice over for the games and BLACK. She voiced Auriel in Diablo 3, and reprised the role for Heroes of the Storm. She was also the voice of Tandi in Fallout and First Citizen Lynette in Fallout 2, Tatjana in , Lady Belgemine, Young Tidus and additional voice-overs in Final Fantasy X, Lenne/Calli in Final Fantasy X-2, Storm in Marvel Super Hero Squad, Cynder in , Magma in X-Men Legends, and the Inca Princess Micay in . She voices Medusa in the game for the Nintendo 3DS. She voiced Catalina Thorn, the leader of the Cell in Crackdown 2. She had a small role in Mass Effect. She also did miscellaneous voices in . She reprised her voice of She-Hulk in . She also voiced Kit Brinny in the introduction video for the MMORPG Wildstar. She provides the voice of vampire skater Roller Brawl in the Skylanders series. She has also voiced Professor Penelope Young, a minor character original in . Summer has sung since an early age and joined her first band at 13. In 1985, she recorded the theme song for OWL/TV. In 1990, she sang background vocals on two tracks for fellow A Different World cast member Jasmine Guy's self-titled LP. In 1993 she released an album (as lead singer) with her band Subject to Change. Capitol Records did not officially release the album because of creative differences; the records that were produced were distributed as promotions and are considered a rarity. The band, with an aggressive political message and rock-soul fusion sound, remained popular as a co-headlining act with other performers. In 1999, Summer released her solo album Street Faërie produced by and featuring guest artist (and friend) Lenny Kravitz, with the album a moderate success. Although Summer toured as Kravitz's opening act, her label dropped her and a planned spot with Lilith Fair was canceled. The label continued to promote the album, however, sending out a four-track sampler to radio and issuing remix singles of the track "Revelation Sunshine" in Europe, with a special single specifically for Austria. Summer recorded a song titled "Savior Self" for which she directed a music video co-starring Zoë Kravitz, daughter of actor Lisa Bonet and rocker Lenny Kravitz. The video was screened online, but the track was never made available commercially, nor was it distributed to the radio. A number of Summer's portrayed characters (animated or otherwise) are singers or sing songs within the soundtrack of a show. The character of Susie in All Grown Up! was portrayed as a singer with real talent, allowing Summer to sing in the role. Summer also sings the opening theme song for All Grown Up!. The character of Foxxy Love in Drawn Together was a singer, with songs like "La-La-La-La-Labia" and "Crashy Smashy", Numbuh 5 from sang a lullaby to lull babies to sleep. Elmyra Duff sang many times on Tiny Toon Adventures. She co-performed lead vocals in the song "Cool Kitty" with Tara Strong, which accompanied a cartoon called Class of 3000, directed and written for Cartoon Network by André 3000. She provided the voice of a recurring pomegranate singer in The High Fructose Adventures of Annoying Orange, who usually sung during montage sequences. Her character Priscilla on Sheriff Callie's Wild West sings many times, as well. In 2008, Summer appeared on The Frank Zappa AAAFNRAAA Birthday Bundle, performing a cover of Zappa's song "Dirty Love" with Dweezil Zappa on guitar and backup vocals by Ahmet Zappa, produced by Linda Perry. Summer's musical influences include Frank Zappa, Al Green and Dinah Washington. Appeared on the Juno Award-nominated album I Lost My Pet Lizard (1979), Appeared as Debbie in the Canadian Sesame Street album Big Bird & Oscar the Grouch: Camping in Canada (1981), Womb Amnesia – (1993) (with her band Subject to Change), Street Faërie – (1999) "Revelation Sunshine" Cree Summer at Behind the Voice Actors This is a listing of characters from the Nickelodeon animated television series Hey Arnold!. Arnold Phillip Shortman (voiced by Toran Caudell in season 1, Phillip Van Dyke in seasons 2–3, Spencer Klein in season 4, 17 out of 20 episodes in season 5, and Hey Arnold! The Movie, Alex D. Linz 3 out of 20 episodes from season 5, "April Fools Day" and "The Journal", and Mason Vale Cotton in Hey Arnold! The Jungle Movie) is the title character of the series. He is a 9-year old dreamer and an idealist who always tries to see the best in people and do the right thing. His parents, Miles, and Stella left to go to San Lorenzo when he was almost 2 years old but never came back to Hillwood. Whenever he sees someone in trouble, especially Helga, Arnold goes out of his way to help them out, even if it's not sensible to do so. Arnold often acts as the stable center to those around him, whether he's around his "family" in his paternal grandparents' boarding house, or around his friends at school. He lives in Sunset Arms boarding house with his grandparents, Phil and Getrude. Arnold has had two major crushes in the series; one on sixth-grader Ruth McDougal (through most of season 1) and one on a classmate named Lila Sawyer (from season 3-5). However, his most catalytic relationship is with his classmate and frenemy Helga Pataki. Helga is secretly in love with him, though to keep these feelings secret she bullies Arnold. Arnold is completely unaware of this fact for most of the series, other than the occasional hint from Helga and other classmates. Helga revealed her secret to Arnold during Hey Arnold! The Movie, but Arnold gave Helga the opportunity to take back her confession, attributing it to "the heat of the moment". In the made-for-TV sequel Hey Arnold! The Jungle Movie, Arnold returns Helga's feelings with a kiss of his own, after thanking Helga for her help in finding his parents and using her locket to help activate the device that releases the cure to the sleeping sickness which his parents had contracted before they could release the cure. It's also implied at the end of the movie that he and Helga become a couple, as Arnold holds hands with Helga (although Helga pretends to be hostile to Arnold at once in public). Arnold is friends with most of his fellow fourth- graders, with his best friend being Gerald Johanssen, whose friendship dates as far back as preschool. Arnold's surname is never revealed on the show, and the mystery surrounding his full name became a running gag on the show. In several episodes, characters would come close to revealing his last name, only to be cut off for various reasons (e.g. being interrupted, being drowned out, being unable to read it due to poor handwriting, etc.). Craig Bartlett eventually revealed that his full name is "Arnold Phillip Shortman", which is confirmed in The Jungle Movie. The long-standing running gag of Grandpa Phil calling him "Short Man" was apparently meant to foreshadow this fact. Gerald Martin Johanssen (voiced by Jamil Walker Smith throughout the original series and Hey Arnold! The Movie, and Benjamin Flores, Jr. in Hey Arnold! The Jungle Movie) is a 9-10 year old African-American boy and Arnold's best friend. He is an athletic and street-smart boy who is portrayed as loyal, though much less responsible than Arnold. Gerald has known Arnold for many years, most likely since preschool. Besides being Arnold's friend, Gerald also has a good deal of knowledge of many legendary stories in the city, or "urban legends" as he calls them. He apparently gets these myths from a source he has nicknamed "Fuzzy Slippers", mentioned in many episodes as his reliable assistant. At school, Gerald is the class president, and considers himself very cool, and apparently, so do his friends. When it was revealed that Arnold was on Rhonda's so-called "Cool List", and that Gerald was on her other list known as "The Geek List" (due to a grudge Rhonda had against him over running for class president), many classmates were surprised to find this out ("Cool Party"). His most distinct features are his tall, Kid 'n Play-style hair, and his shirt with the number 33 on it (he also wears 33 on sports uniforms). He has a crush on Phoebe, who shares the same feelings for him. It's implied that at the end of Hey Arnold!: The Jungle Movie that the two have become a couple as they are seen holding hands. Helga Geraldine Pataki (voiced by Francesca Marie Smith) is a 9-10 year old rough and cynical girl who puts on a mean, rude, deceitful, tomboyish front, making her a bully, and often the main antagonist of the series, which was Arnold's arch-rival yet love interest.She constantly bullies Arnold and other people, but yet loves him, which is obsessive to the point where she has made many shrines dedicated to him. She is an academically-gifted student and a talented writer of poetry for her age. She despises Arnold, believing he was bad influence and his football-head was being different to most others. She becomes the villain sometimes and occasionally expresses interest in pursuing the latter as a career. Despite this, she is neglected by her parents and often disrespectively calls them by their first names because she does not think they are worthy of being called "Mom" and "Dad". Her alcoholic mother, Miriam, is usually depressed, forgetful, struggling to stay conscious, and frequently drinking "smoothies" and "coffee". Helga relates very poorly to her. Her father, Bob, a successful pager salesman, who suffers from workaholism, rarely notices her existence, favoring her over-achieving, neurotic college-aged sister Olga, who Helga rarely gets along with. He never listens to Helga. Helga is also known for her catchword, "criminy!", which she normally exclaims when stressed. Helga resents her older sister Olga, a perfectionist in her young adulthood. Although Helga will do her best to avoid unnecessary contact with Olga, she has shown feelings of love for her sister from time to time, as in the episode "Olga Gets Engaged", when she intervenes on Olga's behalf, saving her from what would have been a bad marriage, and "Big Sis" when she reveals her jealousy of Olga's relationship with Lila. In the episode "Quality Time" it's revealed that she hates corn and is allergic to strawberries because they give her hives. In The Jungle Movie, she is shown to have an extensive video library of Arnold which she and Phoebe convince Gerald to use for the contest for the class field trip that Arnold hoped to win to search for his parents, which proves successful. During the trip, Helga attempts to express her true feelings to Arnold who was not in the right frame of mind to hear it at the time and left abruptly leaving Helga heartbroken to the point she ripped up the picture of Arnold in her locket which she discards along with the fragments in the river. She briefly becomes angry at Arnold though after the class is captured by Lasombra and she sees Arnold crying while looking at a picture of his parents she forgives him and reaches for her locket only for her to remember she discarded it but finds that it and Arnold's torn picture was recovered and repaired by Brainy. She convinces Gerald in helping her free Arnold so they could reach the Green Eyes before Lasombra got there first. Together with Arnold and Gerald, they manage to find the Green Eyes. Helga also comes up with the idea to use her locket to replace the Corazon which was lost while they were struggling with Lasombra, which activates the mechanism to release the cure to the sleeping sickness curing the afflicted Green Eyes and Arnold's parents. While she was attempting to retrieve her locket Arnold thanked her for all she did and returns her feelings, resulting in them kissing, only to be interrupted by Gerald. At the end of the movie while it is implied that she and Arnold are now a couple, she reverted to her old ways when Arnold tried to hold her hand on the way to school with Gerald and Phoebe but secretly liked that Arnold made that attempt, and Arnold, now knowing how she thinks, is content to go along with it, she is only feigning hostility towards him in public to maintain her tough girl reputation. Series creator Craig Bartlett revealed in a 2018 interview that Helga's appearance was inspired in part by a young Frida Kahlo. Phoebe Heyerdahl (voiced by Anndi McAfee) – The smartest girl in Arnold's class. She's Helga's 9-10 year old best friend and confidante, though Helga tends to boss her around. Nevertheless, Phoebe acts sometimes as Helga's moral compass, advising her on what she should do. Her ethnicity is half-Japanese on her father's side and her mother is white. She is from Kentucky. Being the smartest girl in her class is very important for her, and she tries her hardest to be that way. Throughout the series, both she and Gerald have a love interest in one another, with Gerald implying a crush on her during Rhonda's party in the episode "Hey Harold". In Hey Arnold!: The Jungle Movie, Phoebe kisses Gerald and are both seen holding hands at the movie's end, having finally admitted their feelings for one another. Harold Berman (voiced by Justin Shenkarow) – A Jewish American friend of Arnold. Although portrayed as the school bully during the first season, he became more of a companion to Arnold and the other kids later on as his antagonistic role increasingly shifted over to Wolfgang. Despite his frequent bullying and intimidation of other students, Harold's bullying never involves stealing lunch money and he's often revealed to be rather cowardly and usually cries for his mother whenever he gets scared or upset. He's sometimes referred to by the derisive nickname "fat boy", usually by Helga. He is overweight and in later episodes it's revealed that Harold has a soft spot. His best friends are Sid and Stinky. Stinky Peterson (sometimes spelled Petersen) (voiced by Christopher Walberg in the series, Jet Jurgensmeyer in The Jungle Movie) – Stinky is a tall and lanky friend of Arnold's whose family is from Arkansas, and he is also one of Harold's best friends. Stinky has a Southern accent and a love for lemon pudding. His friendship with Harold had him originally portrayed in the first season as a bully who wore spiked wristbands and sidekick of Harold's, though the former was later de-emphasized and he was reinvented as a more affectionate, mild mannered and romantic character viewed as the class "ladies man", as he's romantically attracted to several female characters. He's shown to make up excellent poems while Phoebe was feeling depressed. Sid (voiced by Sam Gifaldi in most episodes, Taylor Gifaldi in "April Fool's Day", and Aiden Lewandowski in The Jungle Movie) – A 9-10 year old friend of Arnold and one of Harold's best friends with paranoid tendencies. He is always shown wearing a green baseball cap backwards, a black leather jacket, jeans and a pair of white Beatle boots. He often tells urban legends, with or without the assistance of Gerald. Perhaps his most well-known characteristic is that he typically ends up in ridiculous situations, such as becoming severely mysophobic, deciding to devote his life to Arnold after Arnold saves his life, and believing Stinky is a vampire, among other things. Rhonda Wellington Lloyd (voiced by Olivia Hack) – A 9-10 year old rich, pompous, self-proclaimed fashion queen and friend of Arnold. She is one of the most popular students attending P.S. 118. Both of her parents are stereotypically preppy. Even though she is always seen concerned about her style, Rhonda is a phenomenal athlete, practicing numerous contact sports, like baseball and football, not caring if she ruins her clothes or accessories. Eugene Horowitz (voiced by Christopher Castile, then Jarrett Lennon in season 1, then Benjamin Diskin for seasons 2–4, Blake McIver Ewing in season 5 and the movie and Gavin Lewis in The Jungle Movie) – A somewhat socially inept but optimistic friend of Arnold, the class jinx. Eugene is prone to several forms of misfortune and is often bullied. He believes Arnold is a jinx due to several of his past tragedies having occurred in Arnold's presence. It's implied that he has a crush on Sheena. Lila Sawyer (voiced by Ashley Buccille) – A 9-10 year old nice girl who came from a fictional farming community she calls "Pleasantville" and who lives with her father. Her mother is never seen or mentioned probably because she and Lila's father are divorced or she died. She is Arnold's crush. However, she only prefers Arnold as a friend. She had a crush on Arnold's cousin Arnie. She knows that Helga loves Arnold and offered to help Helga become more like her in one episode. She is described by the show's creator as being a foil for Helga, someone who tries to suppress her darker side by acting overtly nice and sweet similarly to how Helga tries to cover her kind, sensitive side with bullying. Oskar Kokoshka (voiced by Steve Viksten in the series and theatrical film, Wally Wingert in The Jungle Movie) – A lazy, selfish, inconsiderate, insecure immigrant from an Eastern European country (in one episode he is referred to as being Czechoslovakian), that remains unemployed through most of the series, until becoming a paperboy. He has a gambling problem, does not do what he promised, is unable to read until getting assistance from Arnold, and is a pathological liar, even lying to kids like Arnold who often tries to help him out. His childish demeanor and whininess often irritate others. Despite all his negative, despicable personality traits, he does love his wife and feels really bad when he thinks he has let somebody down. His voice resembles that of comedian Yakov Smirnoff and he occasionally utters Smirnoff's catchphrases. He shares his name with an Austrian artist., Suzie Kokoshka (voiced by Mary Scheer) – Oscar's hard-working, dedicated, mature, loving and caring wife, who puts up with all of her husband's antics, selfishness, and laziness, though the two occasionally fight. In the episode "Baby Oskar" she has a cousin named Nancy and a nephew who is also named Oskar and was babysitting him for two days., Ernie Potts (voiced by Dom Irrera) – A short-statured and hot-headed demolitionist who has a Napoleon complex. In the episode "Ernie in Love" he develops a crush and starts dating a plus-size model named Lola., Mr. Hyunh (voiced by Baoan Coleman in the original series and also by Wally Wingert in Hey Arnold!: The Jungle Movie) – His last name (a misspelling of Huỳnh) is pronounced "win." He is an immigrant from Vietnam, working in a Mexican restaurant. Despite having a heavy Vietnamese accent when speaking, it is revealed that he's very talented at singing country music with the singing voice provided by country singer Randy Travis. He can also play cello, guitar and trumpet quite well. One episode reveals that he has a long lost daughter, Mai, whom he was separated from after he had asked a US soldier to take her out of Vietnam during the Fall of Saigon. They are finally reunited in the Christmas special "Arnold's Christmas", courtesy of Arnold, Gerald, and Helga. Mai's biological mother is never seen or mentioned, and no explanation is given for her absence., Mr. Smith – A mysterious character who lived in the boarding house. His face is never seen, nor has his voice ever been heard. He is resented by the other boarders due to this secretive lifestyle, as he does not share many of the main boarding house facilities, which are limited, based on the number who live there. He only appears in the first season., Lana Vail (voiced by Christine Ebersole) – A lawyer who resides in the boarding house. She wears a purple suit and has brown hair. She was a minor character to begin with, and has brief appearances throughout the series. She has her only speaking appearance in "Heat"., Mr. Purdy (voiced by Joseph Purdy) – he is only mentioned once in the episode "Gerald Comes Over" when Arnold collects the rent money. There are suspicions of him sharing his room with a chicken, this from chicken noises as Gerald listens from outside his door, never revealed, but covered up by him. Phillip "Phil" Shortman (voiced by Dan Castellaneta) – Arnold's cheery, fun-loving grandfather. He is 81 years old, as of the episode "Grandpa's Birthday". Arnold often comes to him for advice. He often tells Arnold stories about his past experiences, although he has a tendency to stretch the truth. Despite responding frivolously to Arnold's problems, he will often provide good wisdom. While his advice isn't usually the most helpful, his heart is always in the right place. He's a World War II veteran and claims to have single-handedly won the Battle of the Bulge by tricking a large troupe of Nazi soldiers into eating numerous cans of spoiled CHAM (a spoof of Spam), thereby poisoning them and creating a hole in the enemy line for the American troops to break through. Arnold does not believe his story at first, but it's later proven when Phil shows him a small monument of him hidden in some bushes in a park in Washington D.C. Phil was also a master at Chinese checkers in his youth, which earned him the nickname "Steely Phil". He's very healthy and spry for his age, as well as athletic. He has an older twin sister named Mitzi. When he and Mitzi were kids they used to be really close and they owned a Scottish Terrier named Pooter but one day he got out of their backyard and was killed by a milk truck and after that day he and Mitzi stopped speaking to each other for 71 years., Gertrude "Pookie" Shortman (voiced by Tress MacNeille) – Arnold's wacky but wise grandmother who is often seen doing outlandish things, including dressing up and acting like fictional and historic figures, such as Calamity Jane. She is called "Pookie" by Grandpa Phil and Gertie by Aunt Mitzi She has a black belt. She and Phil had a similar relationship that Helga and Arnold have when they were Arnold's age (though her pranks were a bit more vicious and extreme)., Miles and Stella Shortman (voiced by Craig Bartlett and Antoinette Stella) – Arnold's parents, Miles being Phil and Gertrude's son. They're adventurous and brave, though Miles appears to be clumsy and tends to end up hurt. They met while exploring in San Lorenzo, where they occasionally crossed paths with the Green-Eyed people, a mysterious indigenous tribe. They returned to the city after Arnold's birth, but were called back for "a final mission" when a friend informed them that the Green Eyes were in trouble; they failed to return, leaving their son under his grandparents' care. Arnold comes across a journal detailing some of their adventures years afterwards. His pet pig, Abner, was a wedding gift to his parents from the Green Eyes. In The Jungle Movie, it is revealed that while trying to cure the adults of the Green Eyes who had caught the sleeping sickness they ran out of medicine and began to work on making more, but unfortunately, they ended up contracting sleeping sickness leaving only the Green Eyes' children to watch over them and the other adults. However, they managed to make enough of the cure and planned to aerosolize it so it could cure everyone using the Green Eyes' technology which was activated by the Corazon, a literal heart made of solid gold which was sought by the villainous river pirate Lasombra who pretends to be Miles and Stella's friend Eduardo to trick him in leading him to the Corazon. However, the Corazon falls down a ravine while Arnold, Helga, Gerald, and the real Eduardo are struggling with Lasombra. Fortunately, Helga gets the idea to use her locket in place of the Corazon which she reveals to Arnold for the first time. It worked and the cure is released curing the Green Eyes and Arnold's parents who return home with their son., Arnie (voiced by Grant Hoover) – Arnold's cousin, who lives in the countryside and strongly resembles Arnold. He likes to collect lint and gum, count things, read the ingredients on the back of food containers, and makes a peculiar snorting sound on occasion. When he visits PS. 118, Lila develops a crush on him and attempts to attract his attention, but he develops a crush on Helga. He's often seen as strange, gross, dull or stupid by those around him., Mitzi Shortman (voiced by Phyllis Diller) – Arnold's great aunt, Phil's twin sister and childhood rival. She is 81 years old. When she and Phil were kids they had a Scottish Terrier named Pooter but then was killed by a milk truck and after that day she and her brother stopped speaking to each other for 71 years., Grandpa Phil's father (voiced by Dan Castellaneta) – He is often seen in Grandpa's flashbacks to the 1920s., Grandpa Phil's grandfather (voiced by Dan Castellaneta) – Having lived from 1830-1921, he is seen in one of Grandpa's flashbacks. Grandpa remembers doing chores one winter while his friends were ice skating, only to be hit with a snowball by his grandfather who gave him permission to stop his chores and play. Robert "Big Bob" Pataki (voiced by Maurice LaMarche) – Olga and Helga's oafish, ambitious entrepreneur father, a successful beeper salesman who owns a beeper store. He has extremely high expectations for Helga and frequently compares her to her older sister Olga. Bob also frequently calls Helga by Olga's name by mistake and is often neglectful to her. However, Bob does care for Helga as is evidenced in subtle ways. Bob has difficulty showing his emotions for Helga since she and he always come into conflict with each other. He often mistakenly calls Arnold "Alfred". In The Jungle Movie, he still sells beepers despite Helga pointing out that nobody uses beepers anymore due to cellphones and it's implied that his business isn't as successful as it used to be., Miriam Pataki (voiced by Kath Soucie) – Olga and Helga's inattentive mother. It's hinted throughout the show that Miriam suffers from alcoholism, as she often drinks "smoothies" which sometimes contain ingredients found in alcoholic cocktails such as celery and tabasco sauce, forgets things, speaks in a slow, tired voice, has had her driver's license revoked, has to do community service and sleeps a lot (often in inappropriate places). Like Bob, it is shown in very subtle ways that she cares about Helga, such as checking in her room when she heard a crash. The unaired Hey Arnold! spin-off, The Patakis, would have included her struggle with alcoholism and joining of Alcoholics Anonymous as a plot point. However, in one episode when Bob injures his back and cannot work, Miriam fills in for him. During the episode Miriam sobers up and holds the fort. Miriam also becomes more attentive towards Helga until she becomes a workaholic and realizes that she is ignoring Helga. Then, she quits and makes Bob return to work. However, her sobriety doesn't last long because in episodes following this one, she is back to drinking smoothies. Miriam was a champion bull rider before marrying Bob, and she used to be an Olympic class swimmer. She reveals in the episode "Olga Gets Engaged" that she regrets marrying Bob, which resulted in throwing her life away and presumably resulting in her insecurities., Olga Pataki (voiced by Nika Futterman) – Helga's intelligent, outgoing, beautiful older sister, who attends the fictional Wellington College, although in one episode, Helga says that Olga attends Bennington College, which is an existing college located in the U.S. state of Vermont. Olga clearly suffers from perfectionism. She possesses skills that demonstrate a high level of intelligence, as in the episode "Helga on the Couch", where she is shown to be a virtuoso pianist in one of Helga's flashbacks, and when Helga mentions that she was a straight-A student. She attended P.S. 118 as a child, and is praised by Helga's teachers for her achievements. Bob and Miriam consider Olga perfect, which bothers Helga. They sometimes confuse Helga with Olga. Olga gives Helga more attention than their parents and has good intentions, but Helga doesn't receive Olga's attention or intentions very well and often tries to push Olga away and keep her distance. Olga has a tendency to view life through rose-colored glasses and appears not to even notice Helga's avoidance tactics. It's revealed in "Helga on the Couch" that through the years Olga has reacted to her family's problems by being a perfectionist and keeping quiet about the situations at hand. Therefore, either Olga likes to avoid conflict since she rarely acknowledges her family's problems, is oblivious, or is in denial. She later reveals to Helga that she's envious of her, as unlike Olga, their parents never heaped unrealistic expectations onto Helga, comparing herself to a "wind-up doll" that performs for their parents. In The Jungle Movie she is Mr. Simmons's helper with chaperoning his students on a trip to San Lorenzo. When they arrive, she develops a crush on Che, a shipmate who turns out to be working for Lasombra, and is heartbroken when he locks her and the others up in jail. Later in the movie when her parents and Arnold's grandparents come to help them, Olga tells Big Bob that Che was mean to her and started chasing him and beating him up for breaking her heart. Martin Johanssen (voiced by Rick Fitts) – Gerald's sometimes strict father, complains about wasting electricity. He is a Vietnam War veteran., Mrs. Johanssen (voiced by Shari Belafonte) – Gerald's very kind mother, keeps family together. She is a cashier at the neighborhood market., James "Jamie O" Johanssen (voiced by Ben Aaron Hoag and Phil LaMarr) – Gerald's teenage brother, who bullies him. In the episode "Jamie O in Love" Arnold and Gerald spy on him to find out why he was being so nice to them and found out that he had a girlfriend named Sharice. One day, after Jamie O dropped them off at a restaurant to eat lunch, they see Sharice and overhear a conversation between her and her friend that she does not really like Jamie O and was gonna milk him for all he is worth. Gerald tells Arnold not to say anything about it to him because they're worried if he told them that he'd stop being nice and would not drive them to an upcoming hockey game. Days later Jamie O is seen doing Sharice's laundry and making her a soufflé. While juggling to do all those things, Jamie O accidentally burns one of Sharice's cashmere socks and breaks down crying. Feeling conflicted, Gerald decided to tell Jamie O the truth about Sharice and he doesn't believe him until he overheard her talking to her friend that he's a sap, causing Jamie O to realize that Gerald was right, and as a result, Jamie O broke up with her offscreen. The next day, to show that he's sorry for not believing his brother, Jamie O drives Gerald and Arnold to the hockey stadium., Timberly Johanssen (voiced by Avriel Epps and Francesca Smith) – Gerald's little sister. She usually causes trouble due to her desire for attention or naturally childish behaviour. Unlike all the other children on the show, Timberly seems to age throughout the series. In her first appearance, she's four years old, but she already attends the first grade in "Timberly Loves Arnold", although this may be a continuity error, rather than intentional. Kyo Heyerdahl (voiced by George Takei) – Phoebe's Japanese American father. He speaks Japanese fluently. However, his surname is not Japanese, it is Norwegian., Reba Heyerdahl (voiced by Jean Smart) – Phoebe's Southern American mother from Kentucky. Jerry Berman (voiced by David Wohl) – Harold's father. He has a tendency of talking in a very low pitch, and is more concerned about Harold's obesity than his wife., Marilyn Berman (voiced by Kath Soucie) – Harold's mother. She is more vocal with her scolding of Harold than her husband. Nate Horowitz (voiced by Michael Jeter) – Eugene's father. He is equally unlucky as his son as seen in the episode "Fishing Trip"., Mrs. Horowitz – Eugene's mother (only appears in the episodes "Eugene's Birthday" and "Parents' Day" )who, unlike Eugene and her husband who are redheads, is the only member of their family with blonde hair. Buckley Lloyd (voiced by Sam McMurray) – Rhonda's father. Whenever Rhonda gets very upset, he buys her things to cheer her up., Brooke Lloyd (voiced by Lori Alan) – Rhonda's mother who believes her daughter is a perfect angel who can do no wrong. Most episodes she's seen talking on her cellphone. Mr. Sawyer (voiced by Dan Butler) – Lila's father is seen in the episode "Ms. Perfect". He appears to be a kind and caring father. When Lila is new to P.S. 118 and being bullied by some of her female classmates, her father tries to be there for her. In the episode it is revealed that he had been unemployed and it ends happily with him getting a job. Thaddeus "Curly" Gammelthorpe (voiced by Adam Wylie in most episodes, Haley Joel Osment in "Deconstructing Arnold", Steven Hartman in “Downtown as Fruits”, Michael Welch in "Ghost Bride" and "Curly's Girl", and Nicolas Cantu in The Jungle Movie) – The class sociopath. He has had meltdowns and outbursts throughout the show such as in the episodes "False Alarm" and "Curly Snaps". He also appears to have a major crush on Rhonda. In the episode "Curly's Girl", Rhonda pretends to be Curly's girlfriend for a week after he cleaned her mother's new mink coat she wore for a school art show, but she is disgusted by his appeal., Torvald (voiced by Michael Bacall) – A fourth grader who was held back for several years due to his poor math performance (to the point of not knowing the answer to 3x3) and is considerably older than the rest of the students. He is tutored by Arnold in one episode. In the episode "Tutoring Torvald", he is revealed to be 13 years old. He disappears from the series after Season 2., Sheena Annapotato (voiced by Francesca Marie Smith) – A geeky girl who does not like violence. Her aunt Shelly is the school nurse, her uncle Earl rows a boat. It is implied that Sheena has a crush on Eugene Horowitz., Lorenzo (voiced by Victor Samuel Lopez) – A wealthy Hispanic American boy who did not have enough time to be a kid, by his mother's schedule. Arnold and the other kids teach him what it means to be a kid. In the episode "Arnold's Room" he and Sid are partners for a science project at school after seeing Lorenzo's bedroom, Sid is worried that his bedroom isn't good enough to show Lorenzo so he borrows Arnold's bedroom so they could work together. At the end of the episode when Arnold and the rest of his guy friends came over to play card games Sid knocks on the door and Lorenzo asks him why he is knocking if it is his own room then breaks down crying after explaining why he lied to him. Lorenzo forgave him if he promises never to lie to him again and to show that everything is hunky-dory Arnold invites them both to join him and the others in playing cards., Iggy (voiced by Justin Shenkarow in "Downtown as Fruits", Sam Gifaldi in "Heat", Marcus Toji in "Stoop Kid" and Joseph Ashton in "Arnold Betrays Iggy" and "Gerald's Game") – A friend of Arnold's who is considered popular amongst his classmates. During the first season, he was shown as something of a troublemaker who would sometimes co-operate with Harold in mischievous deeds. His shirt tails stick out like Arnold's, creating illusion of a kilt, and he almost always wears dark sunglasses that he rarely takes off. Iggy is infamous for the episode "Arnold Betrays Iggy", where his classmates find out he wears pink and white bunny pajamas after Sid and Stinky discover it and he blames Arnold for it, angrily rejecting his apologetic actions until Arnold reluctantly subjects himself to a widely publicized humiliation from many of his kid and adult friends by wearing the same bunny pajamas in front of him in public; during this time, Iggy finds out that Sid and Stinky were the true culprits and tries to apologize to Arnold afterwards, but Arnold only gives him an angry look, implying that he is too angry to forgive him. In later episodes however, there is no continuing animosity between the two as Iggy continued to associate with Arnold, implying that Arnold has either eventually forgiven him or the time has passed long enough to be as if it never happened., Brainy (voiced by Craig Bartlett) – A geek and Helga's stalker who is usually knocked unconscious by Helga without Helga looking at him. He seems to be romantically attracted to her. He has a very deep voice, wheezes noisily, and never talks in a completed sentence. He rarely appears except when Helga looks at her locket containing a picture of Arnold. Apparently Brainy hasn't told anybody else about Helga's crush on Arnold. He has the same hairstyle as Bart Simpson from The Simpsons. In The Jungle Movie", he continues to stalk Helga though he ends up helping her by retrieving her locket and Arnold's torn up picture which Helga discarded in anger after Arnold had seemingly rejected her, giving the locket and the repaired picture back to Helga after the class had been captured by Lasombra. Having forgiven Arnold, Helga thanked Brainy by kissing him before rushing off much to his surprise and delight. Helga's locket would later play a key role in releasing the cure that cured Arnold's parents and the Green Eyes, which would not have been possible had Brainy not retrieved it for Helga., Nadine (voiced by Lauren Robinson in the series, Laya Hayes in The Jungle Movie) – A young entomologist and Rhonda's best friend. She tends to find a lot of Rhonda's more stuck-up opinions ridiculous. In the episode "Dinner for Four", she sets cockroaches free in a restaurant as a favour for Helga. This is the only episode where she has a bigger role than Rhonda, for her usual role is Rhonda's satellite character. In "Parents Day", Nadine is shown to be half black and half white on her mother and father's side respectively., Park (voiced by Marcus Toji) – A close friend of Arnold and others. In the episode "Longest Monday", it is revealed that he has a secret hideout at the local junkyard. He only speaks in seasons 1–3., Joey Stevenson (voiced by Justin Shenkarow in earlier appearances, Michael Fishman in later appearances) – An African-American boy who is easy to remember by knowing he is missing a tooth. He appears with Arnold's group of friends from time to time, though his most prominent roles are in the first season, when he was part of Harold's circle of friends, along with Iggy, Stinky, and Sid., Peapod Kid (voiced by Jamil Walker Smith) – A wealthy and well-spoken fourth grade student. In "Downtown as Fruits" he was unnamed but was credited as "Peapod Kid" because his costume for the school play was a pea pod. The name stuck and in later episodes he is called Peapod or Peapod Kid by the other children., "Chocolate Boy" (voiced by Jordan Warkol) – A boy obsessed with chocolate. In "Chocolate Boy", it is revealed he eats chocolate because his nanny fed him large amounts of chocolate before she left to a "far away land called Delaware." Arnold helps break Chocolate Boy of his obsession, but he only becomes as equally over-excessive eating radishes as a replacement., Wolfgang (voiced by Toran Caudell) – The main bully of the block who is a fifth grader and Arnold's arch-enemies. He is more bully than Helga, also runs the fifth grade, and leads the other fifth-grade bullies in their troublemaking against younger students. Similar to Arnold, Wolfgang is somewhat popular with many friends in his grade, aside from his mildly dimwitted right-hand man, Edmund. The character, introduced, during the second season, was created as a way for Caudell to stay on the show, as he was going through puberty and he could no longer voice Arnold as a result., Edmund (voiced by Tim Wiley) – Wolfgang's best friend and sidekick. He often asks stupid questions, causing Wolfgang to remark "Shut up, Edmund.", Mickey (voiced by Marty York) – A fifth grader who is nicknamed "The Weasel" as seen in "Longest Monday.", Gloria (voiced by Francesca Smith) – A girl who looks like Helga, but is more girly and has a nicer personality. Her first appearance is in "Magic Show" as a dream vision, but she is revealed to be a reality in "Helga's Boyfriend" when Stinky begins dating her, and appears as an extra in "Cool Party"., Ludwig (voiced by Phillip Van Dyke) – A bully who only appears in the episode "New Bully on the Block", where after leaving juvenile hall, he, Arnold, and Wolfgang fight each other for control over Gerald Field. But at the end of the episode, Ludwig and Wolfgang become friends and attack Arnold and his friends, leaving them hanging on a football goal post well into the night. He never appeared again afterwards. His name is likely a reference to Ludwig Van Beethoven, a famous classical composer, as a counterpoint to Wolfgang who shares his first name with classical composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and similar to Wolfgang, was created so that there would be an episode featuring Arnold's then-current voice actor (Klein) amongst his previous voice actors (Caudell and Van Dyke)., Ruth P. McDougal (voiced by Lacey Chabert) – A sixth-grade girl who was Arnold's first crush. Arnold went on a date with her on Valentine's Day but realized that she was not very nice after he caught her red-handed with the waiter at the restaurant and left with him. In the episode "What's Opera Arnold?" She played the role of Carmen and Arnold played the role of Don José from the opera Carmen. But was interrupted by Helga who slingshot Ruth into a trap door on stage in the middle of the kissing scene., Connie and Maria (voiced by Pamela Hayden and Mayim Bialik) – Two sixth-grade girls, Maria is a Latina, who speaks with a Mexican accent, often using Spanish words in discussion. They ask Arnold and Gerald to be their dates in the episode " Sixth Grade Girls" although just to use them to make their boyfriends jealous, but both agree that they are sweet and have potential to attract their interest in the future, when they are older than fourth graders. The two often appear in later episodes when the sixth grade classroom is shown, either with or without dialogue. In the episode "Pheobe Skips" They and along with their two other friends Cookie and Symone tricked Pheobe into doing their homework for them while they watched a soap opera. Near at the end of the episode there was a new girl named Shavone who got transferred from the third grade to their sixth grade class. They told Pheobe that they no longer needed her services and planned on making Shavone their new homework girl., Patricia "Big Patty" Smith (voiced by Danielle Judovits) – An ill-tempered sixth-grade girl who becomes Harold's friend (it is implied that the two may have romantic feelings for each other as well). She dislikes Helga because of her pranks and was a bully like her. In an earlier episode, she plans to fight Helga, but stages it instead. She even asks Helga if she and Arnold had feelings for each other, which Helga denies. In season 4, she becomes friends with Rhonda after they both attend the same finishing school together. She was also held back a couple of years and is 14-years-old., Mrs. Smith (voiced by Zelda Rubinstein) – Mother of Patty who possess the medical condition of dwarfism., Mr. Smith (voiced by Henry Gibson) – Father of Patty who also possesses the medical condition of dwarfism. Superintendent Chaplin (voiced by Jack Angel) – An official who supervises schools in the city as seen in "Principal Simmons"., Principal Wartz (voiced by David Wohl) – The strict, yet open-hearted principal of the school. In the episode "Full Moon" Harold, Stinky and Sid mooned him and Principal Wartz didn't see their faces he saw Arnold first and accused him for mooning. Principal Wartz gaved Arnold four weeks detention for not telling him who really did mooned him. Principal Wartz tells Arnold about how his friends put a frog in their teacher's desk. His friends got in big trouble with the teacher and she gaved Principal Wartz a gold star for telling the truth which caused him to be beaten up by his friends and they called him a "Weasle" he didn't even go on a date until he was 23-years-old. Frustrated and impatient, Principal Wartz told Arnold that he was gonna check off the failure to cooperate box on his permanent record. Harold, Stinky and Sid come clean and broke down crying and Principal Wartz lets Arnold off the hook. In the episode "Suspended" he suspends Wolfgang for misusing the fire extinguisher. Harold decided to get himself suspended so he can get a break from school he calls Principal Wartz a "Stupid Dork" which has him suspended for a week. With his friends in school and nobody to hang out with, Harold comes up with crazy schemes to get back in school but was thwarted by Principal Wartz. Arnold tries to talk some sense into him but Principal Wartz suspenses him for two days. Arnold and Harold decided to copy the schools regulations but tells him that they have the old policy. Harold broke down crying and begging for forgiveness Principal Wartz accepts his apology and allows him back in school on the condition that he catches up on the work he missed and he also lifts Arnold's suspension., Dr. Bliss (voiced by Kathy Baker) – A child psychologist who evaluates the students of P.S. 118 for a day and later becomes Helga's psychoanalyst. She is also the second known character that is told by Helga that she loves Arnold. This character only appeared in one episode titled "Helga on the Couch." She became a background character in ., Miss Felter (voiced by Julia Louis-Dreyfus) – A substitute teacher who was one of Arnold's "crushes." This character only appeared in the episode "Crush on Teacher." In the episode Gerald overheard her talking in the teacher's lounge that she was gonna have dinner with Arnold but it was her fiance who has the same name as him., Mr. Frank – A sixth-grade teacher, who is quite bored with his job., Lieutenant Major Goose (voiced by John Garry) – Arnold's teacher for a short time (after Miss Slovak and before Mr. Simmons), a martinet. He also was Martin Johanssen's drill sergeant during the Vietnam War as seen in flashbacks in the "Veterans Day" episode., Lunch Lady (voiced by Kath E. Soucie and Danica Ivancevic) – A woman in charge of the school cafeteria. She is stereotypically brash in appearance, but sensitive to criticism of the cafeteria food., Mr. Packenham (voiced by Daniel Stern) – A fifth grade teacher. He appears in "What's Opera, Arnold?" when he chaperones Arnold's class trip to the Opera and in "Back to School" when Arnold's grandpa returns to school for a grade school diploma while in fifth grade, during his rapid progress from fourth through to sixth grade., Miss Slovak (voiced by Tress MacNeille) – Arnold's enthusiastic teacher (in the first season and part of the second season). She leaves teaching to pursue a career in golf., Mr. Robert Simmons (voiced by Dan Butler) – Arnold's sensitive and caring teacher (since the second season). He replaced Miss Slovak. He emphasizes the unique value of every individual in his class, with his constant reminding that "you are all special in your own special way". In the episode "Principal Simmons" he becomes principal at P.S.118 but then when the entire student body started rebelling against him, he and Arnold went to Principal Wartz's house and begged him to come back to the school but also made him promised to not be so tough on the students. Mr. Simmons then went back to being a teacher. In The Jungle Movie he became Arnold's fifth grade teacher and he chaperoned his students on the class trip to San Lorenzo. In 2018, Bartlett confirmed that Mr. Simmons was gay, which had been alluded to in the episode "Arnold's Thanksgiving" with the appearance of his partner, Peter., Nurse Shelly (voiced by Mary Gross) – The school nurse, and Sheena's Aunt. She had some speaking parts in some episodes. In the episode "Rhonda's Glasses" she gave Rhonda an eye test and helped her with her motion sickness. In the episode "April Fools Day" she helped Helga with her temporary blindness., Coach Jack Wittenberg (voiced by James Belushi), the competitive school coach of many sports teams, which he often gets Arnold and his friends to join. He is portrayed as an aggressive and incompetent coach, and as such, is unable to motivate and guide his team properly. With Arnold's help, he is able to lead his team to victory, as in the episode "Synchronized Swimming", and is revealed to have a sensitive and considerate side. He has a poor sense of vocabulary, as he often mispronounces words while confidently verbose. In the episode "Best Man" he asks Arnold to be the best man in his wedding and also had Gerald, Sid and Stinky as his groomsmen., Tish Wittenberg (voiced by Cathy Moriarty) – Jack's wife who is the coach of the girls' teams. She and Jack often compete with one another. In the episode "Best Man" she asks Helga to be her maid of honor in her wedding., Tucker Wittenberg (voiced by Grant Gelt) – Jack's son who is a student of PS 118. In the episode Benchwarmer, his dad kept putting him in the game even though he did not think it was fair to his teammates until he stood up to his dad after he benched Arnold and his dad apologized to Tucker and Arnold for his actions. He and his parents made a cameo in The Jungle Movie. Rex Smythe-Higgins (voiced by Tony Jay) – Grandpa's nemesis from when he was a child, of an esteemed British family, and often shown to have cheated against him in the past, Rex Smythe-Higgins III (voiced by Joey Stinson) – His grandson, and similarly a rival to Arnold. However, unlike their grandfathers, the two have a respect for each other as they shook hands following Arnold winning a boat race which Rex refused to cheat in, and Rex even siding and helping Arnold rescue his pig Abner when his grandfather wanted to eat him., Dino Spumoni (voiced by Rick Corso) – A famous jazz singer based on Dean Martin and Frank Sinatra. In the episode "School Dance" he performs at Arnold's school dance but sings a very depressing song which causes Arnold's friends to get angry with him and after having a heart to heart conversation with Arnold in the dressing room he changes his tune by singing an upbeat song and having everyone dancing in the cafeteria where the dance was being held in. In the episode "Dino Checks Out" he fakes his death to have his record sales improve. Later in the episode it is revealed that he lived in Arnold's grandparents boarding house where he use to work as a construction worker and use to perform at night. Later in the episode it is revealed that Dino wears a toupee on his head and had multiple marriages. He's Italian American., Don Reynolds (voiced by Harvey Korman) – Dino Spumoni's estranged, bitter partner and songwriter., Mr. Bailey (voiced by Vincent Schiavelli) – A worker of the Hall of Records. His first appearance is in the Christmas special, where Arnold comes to him to help find Mr. Hyunh's daughter, Mai. His second appearance is in the series' feature film, where he helps in trying to find the document of the "Tomato Incident". When he cannot find it, he tells Arnold about a man who keeps all kinds of historic records., Mayor Dixie (voiced by Tress MacNeille) – The female mayor of Hillwood. In , she allows Scheck to redevelop Arnold's neighborhood, even though the city council rejected the idea. When she is shown Scheck destroying the document of the "Tomato Incident", she decides to make it a historic landmark once again., Mrs. Vitello (voiced by Elizabeth Ashley and Kath E. Soucie) – The owner of the neighborhood flower shop. In the episode "Part-Time Friends" She slipped on the floor of her flower shop and hurt her back but then Arnold and Gerald offered to run the flower shop for her while she rested her back., Councilman Marty Green (voiced by James Keane) – a dedicated butcher and a politician who works at Green Meats. He has two brothers, Dave and Benji, and a son who is a vegetarian. In the episode "Harold the Butcher" Harold steals a ham from his butcher shop and reluctantly has Harold work for him everyday after school for a week until he paid back the ham he tried to steal., Earl (voiced by Dan Castellaneta and Craig Bartlett) – He runs a passenger ferrying service across the lake to Elk Island, in a row boat. Despite his profession, he reveals that he cannot swim in the episode "Busses Bikes and Subways" He speaks with a suitable pirate accent, given his job, as well as other pirate stereotypes. He is also Sheena's uncle., Davy Jones (voiced by himself) – Former member of The Monkees. He and his band were shown at the end of the episode "Fishing Trip". When he told the audience that the band will take requests Harold asked him if he knew "Miss Susie Had A Tugboat" and they performed it on stage., Mickey Kaline (voiced by Ron Perlman) – A retired baseball star and Arnold's favorite player. Arnold caught his final home run ball. After retirement he ran his own baseball-themed restaurant, Mickey's Dog Pound. He is based on two famous baseball players, Mickey Mantle and Al Kaline., Jimmy Kafka (voiced by Richard Mulligan) – Phil's best friend when they were young kids. Phil often mentions him when he tells Arnold stories of his past exploits. They both have had a bittersweet relationship, based on many disagreements involving competitions and other activities, however deep down they are very close, despite possible continuity errors following season 1's "Part Time Friends" episode in which it is said that he has not spoken to him since falling out working together., Rabbi Goldberg (voiced by Elliott Gould) – A rabbi who gives Harold advice and guidance. In "Harold the Butcher", Rabbi Goldberg teaches Harold that stealing is wrong and he told Harold a story about when he was Harold's age that his friend stole a vest from a tailor's shop and was punished and had to work in the tailor's shop to see how much work it took to make a vest, and in "Harold's Bar Mitzvah", Goldberg helps Harold prepare for his Bar Mitzvah., Alphonse Perrier du von Scheck (voiced by Paul Sorvino) – A greedy developer who plans to tear down the neighborhood so he can build a mall, but is thwarted by Arnold, Helga, and Gerald., Lasombra (voiced by Alfred Molina) – A Central American treasure hunter and pirate who endeavors to steal a relic called the Corazon from the Green Eyed People. He disguised himself as Eduardo to trick Arnold and the others into luring him to find his parents and help the Green Eyed People. Near the end of The Jungle Movie he falls off a cliff to his death, after a scuffle with Arnold, Helga, Gerald and Eduardo., Che (voiced by Lane Toran) – A henchman of Lasombra. Helga's older sister Olga develops a crush on him before it's revealed that he works for Lasombra. Later in the movie when Arnold's grandparents and The Patakis come to San Lorenzo and rescue the others and after hearing that Che was mean to her, Big Bob starts chasing Che and beating him up for breaking Olga's heart., Paulo (voiced by Jamil Walker Smith) – A henchman of Lasombra., Nick Vermicelli (voiced by Dan Castellaneta) – One of Big Bob's business associates, and later an accomplice of Scheck., Big Gino (voiced by Cameron Van Hoy) – The school's mafia boss and loan shark, who is often shown victimizing students, particularly Sid in "Big Gino" with harassment and threats, when they fail to pay back on time what is loaned. Though often seen in or around P.S 118, he attends P.S 119. Despite his name, due to the irony of his small stature, it is his nickname., Stoop Kid (voiced by Danny Cooksey) – A teenage boy who lives on a stoop and never leaves it until episode "Stoop Kid", when Arnold coaxes Stoop Kid to finally have the courage to leave his stoop. The only other times Stoop Kid is seen off of his stoop are in the episodes "Arnold Betrays Iggy", where Stoop Kid is seen in the crowd of people near the end of the episode, "Eugene, Eugene!", when he is seen in the audience during the school's musical, and "Cool Party" when he was a guest at Arnold's 'geek' party., Campfire Lass (voiced by Francesca Marie Smith) – A young girl who is the head of a junior survivor skills based troop, called the Campfire Lads. She speaks with a Scottish accent, though Arnold thinks it is fake, and is often seen selling various goods to raise money for outings, or visits., Willie the Jolly Olly Man (voiced by Dan Castellaneta) – The local ice cream man who is most often referred to as the "Jolly Olly Man," Willie is the driver of an ice cream truck that is frequently seen driving around Arnold's town. Throughout the series, he has been depicted as unfriendly, deranged, depressed, and hated by his employer (who happens to be his father) until "Career Day" when Arnold helped him learn to adapt to the ways of his job and be nice to the children. On at least two occasions in later episodes however, he continues to reveal crazy tendencies. In one episode, he was the umpire at a baseball game Arnold and his friends played against the fifth graders., Eduardo (voiced by Carlos Alazraqui) – Eduardo is an anthropologist from a fictional Central American Republic of San Lorenzo. He was friends with Arnold's parents, Miles and Stella, and helped them during their expeditions in San Lorenzo. He is the last person to ever talk to Arnold's parents before they disappeared into the dense jungle., Harvey (voiced by Lou Rawls) –A mail man who delivers mail and seems to occasionally give advice. He dislikes snow. In the episode "Gerald's Tonsills" he cheered Gerald up by telling him the story about his changing voice when he was about to sing in a school concert., Morrie and Vic (both voiced by John Mariano) – a duo often involved in criminal schemes. They set up a counterfeit penny operation in "Wheezin' Ed", work at an auto shop in "Grandpa's Packard", and are also seen as Oskar's friends in various episodes such as "Arnold as Cupid" and "Baby Oskar", frequently seen playing poker with him. Abner (vocal effects provided by Craig Bartlett) – Arnold's pet pig. He was a wedding gift from the Green-eyed People to Miles and Stella from a water basket. Phil wanted to cook Abner but Stella decided to keep the pig as a pet. Abner was mistaken for a girl by Stella, who wanted to name "her" Isabelle. In The Jungle Movie he stowaways in Arnold's backpack on the trip to San Lorenzo. When Arnold, Abner and Gerald get to Eduardo's house they noticed that it was trashed and Abner sensed that something was wrong. When Arnold and the others got kidnapped by Lasombra and his crew, Abner swims to shore and catches an airplane back to Hillwood and tells Phil and Gertrude that Arnold and his friends got kidnapped by Lasombra and were in trouble. Hey Arnold! character guide M&M;'s are "colorful button-shaped chocolates", each of which has the letter "m" printed in lower case in white on one side, consisting of a candy shell surrounding a filling which varies depending upon the variety of M&M;'s. The original candy has a semi-sweet chocolate filling which, upon introducing other variations, was branded as the "plain" variety. Peanut M&M;'s, which feature a peanut coated in milk chocolate, and finally a candy shell, were the first variation to be introduced, and they remain a regular variety. Numerous other variations have been introduced, some of which are regular widespread varieties (such as peanut butter, almond, pretzel, crispy, dark chocolate, and caramel) while others are limited in duration or geographic availability. M&M;'s are the flagship product of the Mars Wrigley Confectionery division of Mars, Incorporated. The candy originated in the United States in 1941, and M&M;'s have been sold in over 100 countries since 2003. More than 2 billion M&Ms; are produced in the New Jersey factory every eight hours. They are produced in different colors, some of which have changed over the years. The candy-coated chocolate concept was inspired by a method used to allow soldiers to carry chocolate in warm climates without it melting. The company's longest- lasting slogan reflects this: "Melts in your mouth, not in your hand." A traditional milk chocolate M&M; weighs about 0.91 grams / 0.032 ounces and has about 4.7 kilocalories (kcal) of food energy (1.7 kcal from fat). Forrest Mars, Sr., son of the Mars Company founder, Frank C. Mars, copied the idea for the candy in the 1930s during the Spanish Civil War when he saw soldiers eating British-made Smarties, chocolate pellets with a colored shell of what confectioners call hard panning (essentially hardened sugar syrup) surrounding the outside, preventing the sweets (candies) from melting. Mars received a patent for his own process on March 3, 1941. Production began in 1941 in a factory located at 285 Badger Avenue in Clinton Hill, Newark, New Jersey. When the company was founded it was M&M; Limited. The two 'M's represent the names of Forrest E. Mars Sr., the founder of Newark Company, and Bruce Murrie, son of Hershey Chocolate's president William F. R. Murrie, who had a 20 percent share in the product. The arrangement allowed the candies to be made with Hershey chocolate, as Hershey had control of the rationed chocolate at the time. The company's first big customer was the U.S. Army, which saw the invention as a way to allow soldiers to carry chocolate in tropical climates without it melting. During World War II, the candies were exclusively sold to the military. The resulting demand for the candies caused an increase in production and the company moved its factory to bigger quarters at 200 North 12th Street in Newark, New Jersey, where it remained until 1958 when it moved to a bigger factory at Hackettstown. A second factory was opened in Cleveland, Tennessee, in 1978. Today, about half of the production of M&M;’s occurs at the New Jersey factory, and half at the Tennessee factory. In 1949, the brand introduced the tagline "Melts in your mouth, not in your hand." In 1950, a black "M" was imprinted on the candies giving them a unique trademark. It was changed to white in 1954. In the early 1950s, the Midwest Research Institute (now MRIGlobal) in Kansas City, Missouri, worked on behalf of M&M;'s to perfect a process whereby of chocolate centers could be coated every hour. Peanut M&M;'s were introduced in 1954 but first appeared only in the color tan. In 1960, M&M;'s added the yellow, red, and green colors. In 1976, the color orange was added to the mix to replace red, which was discontinued in response to the "red dye scare" over Red Dyes #2 and #4 having been evaluated to be carcinogenic in nature. Although M&M;'s were made with the less controversial Red Dye #40, the public was wary of any food being dyed red. Red M&M;'s were re-introduced in 1987. In the 1980s, M&M;'s were introduced internationally to Australia, Canada, Europe, Hong Kong, Japan, Malaysia, and the United Kingdom. M&Ms; Royals were marketed in the early 1980s with an advertising campaign that said: "Now chocolate's got a whisper of mint." They were colored pale green or brown and showed a crown rather than an M&Ms; logo. Although they were marketed and then withdrawn in the 1960s, almond-centred M&M;'s were available again in 1988 in limited release, with appearances only during Christmas and Easter times; they became a standard part of the product line in 1992. Also in 1986, M&M;'s launched Holidays Chocolate Candies for Easter and Christmas, with the Easter candies having a bunny, chick, and egg symbols on pastel-colored shells, and the Christmas candies having pine tree, bell, and candle symbols on red and green shells; with the latter also having a special mint flavor. By 1993, the holiday symbols were replaced with the standard trademark "M". In 1991, Peanut Butter M&M;'s were released. These candies have peanut butter inside the chocolate shell and the same color scheme as the other varieties. As of at least 2013, the size of the peanut butter M&M; has become slightly smaller. In 1995, tan M&Ms; were discontinued to be replaced by blue. To introduce the new color, the Home Shopping Network televised a promotional video for the blue M&M.; Producer Jon Watson became the first man to wear the famous blue M&M; suit. In 1996, Mars introduced "M&M;'s Minis", smaller candies usually sold in plastic tubes instead of bags. In 1999, Crispy M&M;'s were released. They were slightly larger than the milk chocolate variety and also featured a crispy wafer center. They were discontinued in the United States in 2005 and remained available in Europe, and Southeast Asia. In January 2015, they returned to production in the United States. In July 2001, dulce de leche M&M;'s were introduced in five markets with large Hispanic populations: Los Angeles, California; San Diego, California; Miami, Florida; McAllen-Brownsville, Texas; and San Antonio, Texas. The flavor never became popular with the Hispanic community, who preferred existing M&M;'s flavors, and it was discontinued in most areas by early 2003. In 2010, Pretzel M&M;'s were released. They contain a crunchy, salty pretzel center inside of the chocolate coating and are about the same size as the Peanut M&M;'s, but their shape tends to be more spherical. In 2013, the M&M;'s chocolate bar was re-released. It was originally released in 2004 and named M-Azing. In 2014, Mega M&M;'s were re-introduced. Before then, the 'Mega M&M;'s' had been released in 2007 promoting the Shrek movies, being dubbed "Ogre-Sized M&M;'s". In 2015, Crispy M&M;'s were re-introduced in the United States. They had remained available continuously in Europe and Australia. In 2016, the M&M; cookie was re-introduced in the United States. Also in 2016, the M&M;'s flavor vote was created in which the fans could vote for either Honey Nut, Coffee Nut, or Chili Nut M&M;'s. Coffee Nut was announced as the winner by Tony Hale. In April 2017, M&M;'s chocolate blocks went on sale in Australia. Six varieties (milk chocolate, strawberry, crispy, hazelnut, crispy mint and almond) are available. Also in 2017, Caramel M&M;'s were released in the United States. In 2019, the M&M;'s flavor vote cast three new flavors: English Toffee, Mexican Jalapeño, and Thai Coconut, with English Toffee winning. Also in 2019, Hazelnut Spread M&M;'s were released in the United States. M&M;'s varieties have included the following sizes and fillings. Some have only been made available for a limited time, such as white cheesecake for Easter, pumpkin spice or white candy corn for Halloween, and White Strawberry Shortcake for Valentine's Day. sizes: regular (in the following flavors), minis, mega (×3 the chocolate) and the "chocolate bar"., chocolate: milk chocolate, dark chocolate, white chocolate, nut: peanuts, almonds, hazelnuts, peanut butter, dark chocolate peanut, white chocolate peanut, strawberried peanut butter, strawberry nut, spice and herb: mint chocolate, cinnamon, pumpkin spice, white chocolate peppermint, holiday mint, gingerbread, hot cross buns, mint crisp, crunchy mint, pumpkin spice latte, mocha, coffee nut, honey nut, and chili nut., fruit: orange chocolate, cherry, raspberry, cherry cordial, pineapple, coconut, candy apple, tropical, dessert: pretzel, birthday cake, white chocolate candy corn, red velvet, dulce de leche, white chocolate carrot cake, vanilla shake, crispy, three milks (tres leches), white chocolate pecan pie, caramel, crunchy caramel,salted caramel and lamington., colors: Easter regularly sees pastel-colored candies and Christmas bags have green and red only. In the United States for Memorial Day, Independence Day and Labor Day the candies are available in red, white and blue. Over the years, marketing has helped build and expand the M&M;'s brand. Computer-animated graphics, personification of the candies as characters with cartoon-like storytelling, and various merchandising techniques including the introduction of new flavors, colors and customizable merchandise have helped to increase the brand's recognition as a candy icon. In 1982, the Mars candy bar company rejected the inclusion of M&M;'s in the new Steven Spielberg movie . Competitor Hershey, on the other hand, took a chance with their Reese's Pieces, which is similar to M&M;'s but contains a peanut butter filling, and with the movie's blockbuster success, its candy sales dramatically increased, perhaps by as much as 300%. Between 1982 and 1987, its slogan was "All the World Loves M&M;'s", accompanied by a TV jingle of the same name. Actor Joel Higgins, then co- starring in the NBC-TV sitcom Silver Spoons, co-wrote the song. In 1990, M&M;'s exhibited at New York's Erie County Fair a life-size fiberglass cow covered with 66,000 M&M; candies—each adhered by hand with the "m" logo on each candy facing outward. According to a website run by the cow's designer, Michael Adams, the stunt earned M&M; Mars $1 million in free publicity because it was reported on by Newsweek magazine, as well as the New York Post, UPI and WABC-TV, and Live with Regis. In 1995, the company ran the M&M;'s Color Campaign, a contest in which participants were given the choice of selecting purple, blue, or pink as the color of a new variety of M&M;'s. The announcement of the winning color (blue) was carried on most of the television networks' news programs, as well as the talk shows of David Letterman and Jay Leno. As part of the contest results, the company had the Empire State Building lighted in blue. Although the financial details of these deals were not disclosed and neither was the campaign's effect on sales, one marketing book estimated that the company "collected millions" in free publicity and that the campaign "certainly" resulted in an increasing of the brand's awareness. In 1998, M&M;'s were styled as "The Official Candy of the New Millennium", as MM is the Roman numeral for 2000. This date was also the release of the rainbow M&M;'s, which are multi-colored and filled with a variety of different fillings. In 2000, "Plain" M&M;'s (a name created in 1954 when "Peanut" M&M;'s were introduced) were renamed "Milk Chocolate" M&M;'s, and pictures of the candy pieces were added to the traditional brown and white packaging. In 2004, M&M;'s adopted the 1967 Petula Clark song "Colour My World" for its TV ads, albeit using newly recorded versions with other singers. In 1990, Mars Snackfood US signed up to be a sponsor for NASCAR in the NASCAR Cup Series. Drivers for the M&M;'s-sponsored car through the years have included Ernie Irvan (1999), Ken Schrader (2000–02), Eliott Sadler (2003–06), Ricky Rudd (2007), David Gilliland (2006–07), Kyle Busch (2008–current, won 2015 Sprint Cup Series Championship & 2019 Monster Energy Cup Series Championship), and Michael McDowell. The introduction of the blue M&M; to Australia was promoted by the Australian Football League's Carlton Football Club, which wore sky-blue colored guernseys in one of its matches in 1997 instead of its traditional navy blue – a color which the successful and fiercely traditional club had worn since the 1870s. In 2010, Mars Snackfood Australia described it as the most successful promotional campaign it had ever engaged in. In April 2005, M&M;'s ran the "mPire" promotion to tie in with the movie release. M&M;'s were offered in dark chocolate varieties (regular and Peanut) for the first time after a string of Addams Family M&M;'s commercials. In May 2004, M&M;'s ran a Shrek 2 promotion to tie in with the movie's release. M&M;'s were offered "ogre-sized" (65% larger) in swamp/ogre colors. They were sold at many stores displayed in huge cardboard-cutout ogre displays. In the summer of 2005, Mars added "Mega M&M;'s" to the lineup. These candies, at 55% larger than the traditional M&M;'s, were a little smaller than the ogre-sized version. They were available in Milk Chocolate and Peanut varieties. The colors for Mega M&M;'s were changed to less-bright colors, ostensibly to appeal to older consumers: teal (replacing green), beige (replacing orange), maroon (replacing red), gold (replacing yellow), blue-gray (replacing blue), and brown. In July 2006, Dark Chocolate M&M;'s reappeared in a purple package, followed in 2007 by Dark Chocolate Peanut M&M;'s. Also in 2006, the company piloted White Chocolate M&M;'s as a tie-in with their Pirates of the Caribbean promotion. The company also offered eight new flavors of M&M;'s via online sales, as well as at M&M;'s World locations: "All That Razz"; "Eat, Drink, & Be Cherry"; "A Day at the Peach"; "Orange-U-Glad"; "Mint Condition"; "AlmonDeeLicious"; "Nut What You Think"; and "Cookie Monster". Mars also released a "Crispy Mint" variety in Australia that year. Also in 2006, M&M;'s became the official chocolate of NASCAR. In 2007, M&M;'s introduced a limited-edition raspberry flavor called "M&M;'s Razzberry Chocolate Candies". Also in 2007, M&M;'s produced a 50-foot, smiling Lady Liberty M&M; statue to kick off a campaign encouraging Americans to create their own M&M; characters at mms.com. The website allows for people to log in and create their own character from scratch. They can choose features such as the color, shape, hair, and accessories. In 2008, two limited-edition varieties of the candy were introduced – "Wildly Cherry" M&M;'s, and, as a marketing tie-in with the film Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, "Mint Crisp" M&M;'s. M&M;'s also introduced another new product called "M&M;'s Premiums" in 2008. They come in five flavors – chocolate almond, mint chocolate, mocha, raspberry almond, and triple chocolate (milk, dark, and white chocolate), which are sold in small upright cartons with a plastic bag inside. M&M;'s Premiums do not have a candy shell, but are coated with carnauba wax and color. Dark chocolate was added in 2009, replacing mocha. During the summer of 2008, My M&M;'s launched 'Faces,' which allows consumers to print the faces of loved ones on M&M;'s chocolate candies at mymms.com. In February 2009, M&M;'s launched the "M&M;'s Colour Break-Up" promotion in Australia, where M&M;'s were sold in separate packs (one for each color): the packs included a code to win prizes. In Summer 2009, M&M;'s launched a limited-edition "Strawberried Peanut Butter" variant to tie in with the release of . In addition, M&M;'s launched a limited edition "Coconut M&M;'s", which became a permanent item in 2010. In early 2010, M&M;'s Bare All were released as part of a competition in Australia and New Zealand. M&M;'s Bare All winning packs were ordinary M&M;'s, but without colored shells. An official website was launched, along with television advertisements. In April 2010, M&M;'s launched a new Pretzel variety. In November 2011, Mars released a limited edition M&M;'s Cinnamon Milk Chocolate for Christmas. About the time Pretzel M&M;'s came out, the M&M;'s wrapper designs in the U.S. were redone from the old design, used from 2004-early 2010. In 2012, M&M;'s released two new Dark Chocolate flavors: Raspberry and Mint. Also that year, M&M;'s released a White Chocolate flavor for the Easter season. From May 30, 2012, onwards, M&M;'s will be launched in Macau. Its Macanese launch language is Portuguese. In 2012, Peanut M&M;'s were produced in the UK in a limited edition "Red, White and Blues only" pack, in connection with the country's Diamond Jubilee and 2012 Summer Olympics. The 'M' remains white on the white candies. The commercial advertising this promotional package had Yellow donning various outfits of British stereotypes to try to get into the limited edition pack. Similarly, to promote the 2014 FIFA World Cup, Peanut M&M;'s were produced in a pack that contained only green, yellow, and blue candies, dubbed "Brazilian M&M;'s" in reference to the colors of the flag of Brazil. "Brazilian M&M;'s" were re-released in 2016 to promote the 2016 Summer Olympics, but are now available in both Chocolate and Peanut. In 2013, M&M;'s launched the "Better with M" campaign, which included cause-related marketing. The campaign worked with Habitat for Humanity and encouraged fans to use a Facebook app to volunteer at the various sites where the homes were being built. The advertising campaign was one of the largest that Mars had ever executed. The 2013 "America Better With M" initiative sought to provide money directly to Habitat for Humanity through offering limited versions of M&Ms; in red, white and blue. Since 1988, specially designed packages of Presidential M&M;'s have been given as souvenirs to guests of the President of the United States. M&M;'s World specialty shops have been established in some locations, including Las Vegas, Orlando, New York, London, and Shanghai. Several M&Ms- themed; video games have been created. The first was M&M;'s The Lost Formulas, released on September 28, 2000. Related candy brands from Mars include Minstrels, Revels, Skittles, and Treets. Early black-and-white adverts for the candy in 1954 featured two talking, anthropomorphic M&M; characters—one plain and one peanut—diving into a swimming pool full of chocolate. The first incarnation of the characters in CGI was a 1994 celebrity campaign which had the characters interacting with celebrities on which M&Ms; candy color is their favorite. This campaign was created by Blue Sky Studios. Concurrent with 1995's blue M&M; campaign, M&M;'s introduced second computer-animated "spokescandies" in their television commercials. The depiction and campaign of the M&M;'s were made by Will Vinton in 1995. Vinton previously created the clay-animated California Raisins in 1986. Around the time he worked on CGI projects, he made the depiction of the M&M;'s as more mature than most food mascots. These include the team of the cynical and sardonic Red (originally voiced by Jon Lovitz, thereafter Billy West) who is the mascot for milk chocolate, peanut butter, and crispy M&M;'s, and the happy and gullible Yellow (originally voiced by John Goodman, thereafter J.K. Simmons), who is the mascot for Peanut M&M;'s (he was originally known as "Peanut" when first introduced). Other mascots include the "cool one", Blue (voiced by Robb Pruitt) who is the mascot for Almond M&M;'s; the seductive Green (her personality is a reference to the 1970s urban legend that green M&Ms; were aphrodisiacs) (voiced by Cree Summer and Larissa Murray), who is the mascot for both Dark Chocolate Mint and Peanut Butter M&M;'s, and the slightly neurotic Orange (voiced by Eric Kirchberger), who was introduced when Crispy M&M;'s were first released and returned when Pretzel M&M;'s debuted in 2010. Orange, upon his return, was joined by the second non-M&M; mascot, Pretzel Guy, who "supports" him and offers helpful advice as he hates the idea of having a pretzel put inside his body. Other mascots that were introduced, but no longer used, are Almond, the original green guy; Orange, a female peanut character, Chocolate Bar (voiced by Phil Hartman); the first non-M&M; character that always gets foiled or outdone by Red and Yellow by being melted when M&M;'s can't, and the Swarmees for M&M;'s Minis candies, which are portrayed as destructive yet crafty troublemakers who Red and Yellow are always trying unsuccessfully to contain. Female M&M;'s mascots were introduced in 1995. Green was the Milk Chocolate mascot and Tan was the Peanut. Marketing discontinued Tan when they introduced the then-new Blue mascot. Green was the only female M&M;'s mascot from her introduction in 1995 until 2012 when M&M;'s unveiled a new additional spokescandy, Ms. Brown (voiced by Miss America 1984, Vanessa Williams), the "Chief Chocolate Officer". She made her debut in a Super Bowl XLVI advertisement, where several people at a party assume she is naked because her shell is the same color as her insides, which causes Red to remove his outer shell saying "Oh, it's that kind of party", and start dancing to the LMFAO song "Sexy And I Know It." During a Super Bowl LII advertisement, Red was transformed into a human after finding a lucky penny and wishing that he was inedible. As a human, he is portrayed by Danny DeVito. The original colors of M&M;'s candies were red, yellow, violet, green and brown. In 1976, Mars eliminated red-colored M&M;'s because of health concerns over the dye amaranth (FD&C; Red #2), which was a suspected carcinogen, and replaced them with orange M&M;'s. This was done despite the fact that M&M;'s did not contain the dye; the action was purely to satisfy worried consumers. Ten years later, Paul Hethmon, then a student at University of Tennessee, started a joke campaign to reinstate red M&M;'s that would eventually become a worldwide phenomenon. Red M&M;'s were reintroduced as a result, and the orange M&M;'s that had originally replaced them were kept in production. In Europe, red M&M;'s contain the red dye carmine (E120, cochineal). In early 1995, Mars ran a promotion in which consumers were invited to vote on which of blue, pink, or purple would replace the tan M&M;'s. Blue was the winner with 54% of the votes. It replaced tan in late 1995. Consumers could vote by calling 1-800-FUN-COLOR. Ads for the new blue colors featured a plain and an almond blue M&M; character as Red and Yellow take notice of trying to do takes in the commercial by painting themselves blue where they appear on stage with B.B. King singing the blues, but the filmmakers had to cut the scene as they were not the real blue M&M;'s; another featured Red and Yellow holding their breath to look like the new blue M&M;'s, where Steven Weber sees the three M&M;'s, Red, Yellow, and Blue; and one more featuring Weber talking to the blue M&M; if he had dived into the chocolate pool, but did not. In 2002, Mars solicited votes in their first ever "M&M;'s Global Color Vote" to add a new color from three choices: aqua (turquoise), pink, and purple. Purple won and was featured for a limited time. To help the colors get votes, Ken Schrader and his MB2 Motorsports team, who was sponsored by M&M;'s at the time, ran four paint schemes during the 2002 NASCAR Winston Cup Series season representing the promotion (one for aqua, one for pink, one for purple, and another one with all three colors on the car). Specially marked packages of M&M;'s were released in Japan. Finding a bag of all purple M&M;'s entitled the customer to a prize of 100 million yen (equivalent to approximately USD $852,000). On January 1, 2004, at the stroke of midnight, Mars removed all of the colors of M&M;'s and made them black-and-white on both their candies and the packaging. It coincided with a commercial parodying The Wizard of Oz where Dorothy is home in bed and looks out of the window and sees what the colors of the four M&M;'s were. The goal was to help the M&M;'s find their colors in black-and- white packages of M&M;'s, in this order: brown, orange, red, green, yellow, and blue. After all of the colors have been found, the colored packaging returned, and began carrying the theme "Chocolate is better in color". Since 2004, M&M;'s have been available online in 17 colors, with personalized phrases on each candy on the opposite side from the "m". Released around Christmas, these custom-printed M&M;'s were originally intended for holiday greetings, but are now available all year round. For the 2008 Valentine's Day season, Mars introduced all-green bags of M&M;'s. This was due to common urban folklore that says green M&M;'s are an aphrodisiac. They were brought back for 2009 alongside the "Ms. Green Heats Up Valentine's Day" contest. In October 2011, Mars released M&M;'s White Chocolate Candy Corn exclusively in the United States for Halloween. These candies come in three candy corn inspired colors: white, bright yellow, and bright orange. The following is a summary of the changes to the colors of the flagship (milk chocolate) flavor of M&M;'s, the only filling manufactured continuously since the beginning of the brand. From 1941 until 1969, each package contained M&M;'s in five different colors; when red M&M;'s were reintroduced in 1987, they were added as a sixth color instead of replacing any of the existing colors. Similar candies from other companies:, Smarties, Cadbury Gems, Reese's Pieces, Sixlets, Hershey-ets Official website, The History of M&M;'s Chocolates from us.mms.com

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American Airlines Group Inc. is an American publicly traded airline holding company headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas. It was formed December 9, 2013, in the merger of AMR Corporation, the parent company of American Airlines, and US Airways Group, the parent company of US Airways. The airline groups together form the largest airline in the world, with more than 6,700 daily flights to 350 locations in 56 countries worldwide, about $40 billion in operating revenue, over 100,000 employees, and plans to take delivery of 607 new aircraft, including 517 narrowbody aircraft and 90 widebody international aircraft. The integration of American Airlines and US Airways was completed when the Federal Aviation Administration granted a single operating certificate for both carriers on April 8, 2015. The company ranked No. 71 in the 2018 Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by total revenue. In January 2012, US Airways Group, the parent company of US Airways, expressed interest in taking over AMR Corporation, the parent company of American Airlines. In March, AMR's CEO Tom Horton said that the company was open to a merger. US Airways (US) told some American Airlines (AA) creditors that merging the two carriers could yield more than $1.5 billion a year in added revenue and cost savings. On April 20, American Airlines' three unions said they supported a proposed merger between the two airlines. With AMR under Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection, American Airlines had been looking to merge with another airline. Earlier in July, a bankruptcy court filing stated that US Airways was an American Airlines creditor and "prospective merger partner"; on August 31, US Airways CEO Doug Parker announced that American Airlines and US Airways had signed a nondisclosure agreement, in which they would discuss the possibility of a merger. In February 2013, American Airlines and US Airways announced plans to merge, creating the largest airline in the world by some measurements. In the deal, which was expected to close in the third quarter of 2013, stakeholders of AMR would own 72% of the company and US Airways shareholders would own the remaining 28%. Rothschild & Co served as the investment bank for the transaction. The combined airline carries the American Airlines name and branding. The holding company was renamed American Airlines Group Inc. The US Airways' management team, including CEO Doug Parker, retained most operational management positions. The combination was considered a "merger of equals" between US Airways and American Airlines, retaining the more well-established "American" name going forward. The headquarters for the new airline was also consolidated at American's current headquarters in Fort Worth, Texas. US Airways exited Star Alliance upon completion of the merger, and American retained its Oneworld alliance. Judge Sean Lane approved the merger on March 27, 2013, but declined to approve a proposed $20 million severance package to AA executive Thomas W. Horton. On July 12, US Airways shareholders approved the proposed merger. On August 13, 2013, the United States Department of Justice along with attorneys general from the District of Columbia, Arizona (headquarters of US Airways), Florida, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Texas (headquarters of American Airlines), and Virginia filed a lawsuit seeking to block the merger, arguing that it would mean less competition and higher prices. American Airlines and US Airways both said that they would fight against the lawsuit and defend their merger. In early October 2013, the Attorney General of Texas quit the anti-trust lawsuit. The Department of Justice reached a settlement of its lawsuit on November 12, 2013. The settlement will require the merged airline to give up landing slots or gates in 7 major airports. Under the deal, the new American is required to sell 104 slots at Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport and 34 slots at LaGuardia Airport. An additional requirement is that American sell two gates at O'Hare International Airport, Los Angeles International Airport, Logan International Airport, Dallas Love Field and Miami International Airport. Some of the slots will be sold to low-cost carriers such as JetBlue and Southwest Airlines. A private antitrust suit, filed by a group of 40 passengers and travel agents, also sought to block the merger. American's bankruptcy court judge refused to enjoin the two airlines from merging, saying that the group did not demonstrate that the merger would irreparably harm them. The plaintiffs' lawyer appealed and was turned down at the U.S. District Court level and was further rebuffed at the Supreme Court after Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg denied a stay request filed by him. Following the Department of Justice approval, the merged company traded on the NASDAQ stock exchange under the symbol AAL. On July 13, 2015, American announced that it planned to discontinue the US Airways brand name on October 17, 2015. On October 16, US Airways flew its final flight, US Airways Flight 1939, which was a flight from Philadelphia-Charlotte-Phoenix-San Francisco-Philadelphia. For the fiscal year 2017, American Airlines Group reported earnings of US$1.919 billion, with an annual revenue of US$42.207 billion, an increase of 5.0% over the previous fiscal cycle. American Airlines Group's shares traded at over $46 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at US$15 billion in October 2018. Data before 2014 are for American Airlines only. American Airlines, Inc. (AA) is a major American airline headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas, within the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex. It is the world's largest airline when measured by fleet size, revenue, scheduled passengers carried, scheduled passenger-kilometers flown, and number of destinations served. American, together with its regional partners, operates an extensive international and domestic network with almost 6,800 flights per day to nearly 350 destinations in more than 50 countries. American Airlines is a founding member of the Oneworld alliance, the third largest airline alliance in the world. Regional service is operated by independent and subsidiary carriers under the brand name American Eagle. American Airlines and American Eagle operate out of 10 hubs, with Dallas/Fort Worth being its largest; handling more than 200 million passengers annually with an average of more than 500,000 passengers daily. American operates its primary maintenance base in Tulsa in addition to the maintenance locations at its hubs. As of 2019, the company employs nearly 130,000 people. American Airlines was started in 1930 via a union of more than eighty small airlines. The two organizations from which American Airlines was originated were Robertson Aircraft Corporation and Colonial Air Transport. The former was first created in Missouri in 1921, with both being merged in 1929 into holding company The Aviation Corporation. This, in turn, was made in 1930 into an operating company and rebranded as American Airways. In 1934, when new laws and attrition of mail contracts forced many airlines to reorganize, the corporation redid its routes into a connected system and was renamed American Airlines. Between 1970 and 2000, the company grew into being an international carrier, purchasing Trans World Airlines in 2001. American had a direct role in the development of the DC-3, which resulted from a marathon telephone call from American Airlines CEO C. R. Smith to Donald Douglas, when Smith persuaded a reluctant Douglas to design a sleeper aircraft based on the DC-2 to replace American's Curtiss Condor II biplanes. (The existing DC-2's cabin was wide, too narrow for side-by-side berths.) Douglas agreed to go ahead with development only after Smith informed him of American's intention to purchase 20 aircraft. The prototype DST (Douglas Sleeper Transport) first flew on December 17, 1935, (the 32nd anniversary of the Wright Brothers' flight at Kitty Hawk). Its cabin was wide, and a version with 21 seats instead of the 14–16 sleeping berths of the DST was given the designation DC-3. There was no prototype DC-3; the first DC-3 built followed seven DSTs off the production line and was delivered to American Airlines. American Airlines inaugurated passenger service on June 26, 1936, with simultaneous flights from Newark, New Jersey, and Chicago, Illinois. In 2011, due to a downturn in the airline industry, American Airlines' parent company AMR Corporation filed for bankruptcy protection. In 2013, American Airlines merged with US Airways but kept the American Airlines name, as it was the better-recognized brand internationally; the combination of the two airlines resulted in the creation of the largest airline in the United States, and ultimately the world. As of December 2019, American Airlines flies to 95 domestic destinations and 95 international destinations in 55 countries in five continents, soon to be six when American launches their flight to Casablanca from Philadelphia in June 2020. American currently operates ten hubs. Charlotte – American's hub for the Southeast and secondary hub to the Caribbean. It also serves as one of American's larger gateways to Europe. About 42 million passengers fly through CLT on American every year, or about 115,000 people per day. American has about 91% of the market share at CLT., Chicago–O'Hare – American's hub for the Midwest. About 28 million passengers fly on American through O'Hare every year, or about 77,000 people per day. American has about 35% of the market share at O'Hare, making it the airport's second-largest airline after United., Dallas/Fort Worth – American's largest hub for the South. American currently has about 84% of the market share and flies approximately 57 million passengers through DFW every year, which is about 156,000 people per day, making it the busiest airline at the airport. American's corporate headquarters are also in Fort Worth near the airport. DFW serves as American's primary gateway to Mexico, and secondary gateway to Latin America., Los Angeles – American's hub for the West Coast and its transpacific gateway. About 16.5 million passengers fly through LAX on American every year, or about 45,000 people per day. American has about 19% of the market share at LAX, making it the largest carrier at the airport., Miami – American's primary Latin American hub. About 30 million passengers fly through MIA every year on American, which is about 79,000 people per day. American has about 68% of the market share at Miami International, making it the largest airline at the airport., New York–JFK – American's secondary transatlantic hub. About 7 million passengers fly through JFK on American every year, or about 19,000 people per day. American has about 12% of the market share at JFK, making it the third-largest carrier at the airport behind Delta and JetBlue. JFK also serves as a major connecting point for other Oneworld carriers., New York–LaGuardia – American's second New York hub. About 8.5 million passengers fly through LGA on American every year, or about 23,000 people per day. The airport also serves as a base for American Airlines Shuttle. American has about 27% of the market share at LGA, and is the second-largest carrier behind Delta., Philadelphia – American's primary transatlantic hub. American flies approximately 20.5 million passengers a year through PHL, which is about 56,000 people per day. American has about 70% of the market share at PHL, making it the airport's largest airline., Phoenix–Sky Harbor – American's western hub. American flies approximately 20 million passengers a year through PHX, which is about 55,000 people per day. Currently American has about 46% of the market share at PHX, making it the airport's largest airline., Washington–National – American's hub for the capital of the United States. The airport also serves as a base for American Airlines Shuttle. About 12 million passengers fly through DCA on American every year, or about 33,000 people per day. American has about 49% of the market share at DCA, making it the largest carrier at the airport. American Airlines is a member of the Oneworld alliance and has codeshares with the following airlines: Air Tahiti Nui, Alaska Airlines, British Airways, Cape Air, Caribbean Airlines, Cathay Dragon, Cathay Pacific, China Southern Airlines, El Al, Fiji Airways, Finnair, Hainan Airlines, Hawaiian Airlines, Iberia, Interjet, Japan Airlines, Jetstar Airways, Jetstar Japan, Korean Air, LATAM Argentina, LATAM Brasil, LATAM Chile, LATAM Ecuador, Malaysia Airlines, Qantas, Royal Jordanian, Seaborne Airlines, SriLankan Airlines In addition to the above codeshares, American Airlines has entered into joint ventures with the following airlines: British Airways, Finnair, Iberia, Japan Airlines, Qantas As of November 2019, American Airlines operates 940 Airbus, Boeing, and Embraer aircraft. It is the largest commercial fleet in the world. Over eighty percent of American's aircraft are narrow-bodies, mainly Airbus A320 series and the Boeing 737-800. It is the largest A320 series aircraft operator in the world, as well as the largest operator of the A319 and A321 variants. It is the fourth-largest operator of 737 family aircraft and second-largest operator of the 737-800 variant. It also currently operates the Boeing 757-200 and Embraer 190, though these are slated for retirement and replacement by the Boeing 737 MAX 8 and the Airbus A320 family in coming years. American's wide- body aircraft are a mix of Boeing and Airbus airliners. It is the third- largest operator of the Boeing 787 series and the sixth-largest operator of the Boeing 777 series. It also operates Boeing 767 and Airbus A330 aircraft, with most slated for retirement in favor of additional Boeing 787 aircraft. American Airlines exclusively ordered Boeing aircraft throughout the 2000s. This strategy shifted on July 20, 2011, when American announced the largest combined aircraft order in history for 460 narrow-body jets including 260 Airbus 320 Series.. Additional Airbus aircraft joined the fleet in 2013 upon merger with US Airways, which operated Airbus aircraft almost exclusively. Flagship First Flagship First is American's international First Class product. It is offered only on the airline's Boeing 777-300ERs. The seats are fully lie-flat and offer direct aisle access in a 1-2-1 reverse herringbone configuration. As with the airline's other premium cabins, Flagship First offers wider food and beverage options, larger seats, and more amenities at certain airports, e.g., lounge access. Flagship Business Flagship Business is a premium cabin offered on some Boeing 757-200s and all Airbus A330-200s, Airbus A330-300s, Boeing 767-300ERs, Boeing 777-200ERs, Boeing 777-300ERs, Boeing 787-8s, and Boeing 787-9s. All Flagship Business seats are fully lie-flat. Only the Boeing 757-200 does not offer direct aisle access from each seat. Transcontinental American has dedicated 17 Airbus A321s (A321T) in its fleet for the specific use of flying transcontinental routes between New York JFK and Los Angeles, New York JFK and San Francisco, and Boston and Los Angeles. These aircraft offer two premium cabins, Flagship First and Flagship Business, which are unique among domestic mainline aircraft in American's fleet. Both cabins feature lie-flat seats; Flagship First also includes direct aisle access from each seat. Domestic First Class First Class is offered on all domestic mainline aircraft, as well as regional aircraft with more than 50 seats. When such aircraft are used on flights to international destinations including Canada, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean, the First Class cabin is branded as Business Class. Seats range from in width and have of pitch. Dining options include free snacks, beverages, and alcohol on all flights, with three-course meals offered on flights or longer (some routes under 900 miles also offer meal service). Premium Economy On December 9, 2015, American announced a new Premium Economy cabin for most long-haul widebody aircraft. The cabin debuted on the airline's Boeing 787-9s in late 2016 and is also available on Boeing 777-200s and -300s, some Boeing 787-8s, and Airbus A330-200s. Premium Economy seats are wider than seats in Main Cabin (American's economy cabin) and provide more amenities: Premium Economy customers get two free checked bags, priority boarding, and enhanced food and drink service including free alcohol. This product made American Airlines the first U.S. carrier to offer a four-cabin aircraft. Main Cabin Extra American's economy plus product (not to be confused with premium economy), Main Cabin Extra, is available on most of the mainline fleet and American Eagle regional aircraft with more than 50 seats. Main Cabin Extra seats include greater pitch than is available in Main Cabin, along with free alcoholic beverages. American retained Main Cabin Extra when the new Premium Economy product entered service in late 2016. Main Cabin Main Cabin is American's economy product, and is found on all mainline and regional aircraft in its fleet. Seats range from in width and have of pitch. American Airlines marketed increased legroom in economy class as "More Room Throughout Coach", also referred to as "MRTC", starting in February 2000. Two rows of economy class seats were removed on Boeing 737 and McDonnell Douglas MD-80 aircraft. Amid financial losses, this scheme was discontinued in 2004. On some routes, American also offers Basic Economy, the airline's lowest main cabin fare. Basic Economy is located in the main cabin but comes with restrictions. These restrictions include waiting until check-in for a seat assignment, no upgrades or refunds, and boarding in the last group. In May 2017, American announced it would be adding more seats to some of its Boeing 737 MAX jetliners and reducing overall legroom in the basic economy class. The last three rows will lose , going from the current to . The remainder of the economy cabin will have of legroom. AAdvantage is the frequent flyer program for American Airlines. It was launched on May 1, 1981, and it remains the largest frequent flyer program with over 67 million members as of 2011. Miles accumulated in the program allow members to redeem tickets, upgrade service class, or obtain free or discounted car rentals, hotel stays, merchandise, or other products and services through partners. The most active members, based on the amount and price of travel booked, are designated AAdvantage Gold, AAdvantage Platinum, AAdvantage Platinum Pro, and AAdvantage Executive Platinum elite members, with privileges such as separate check-in, priority upgrade and standby processing, or free upgrades. They also receive similar privileges from AA's partner airlines, particularly those in oneworld. AAdvantage co-branded credit cards are also available and offer other benefits. The cards are issued by CitiCards, a subsidiary of Citigroup, and Barclaycard in the United States, by MBNA in the United Kingdom, by Butterfield Bank and Scotiabank in the Caribbean, and by Banco Santander in Brazil. AAdvantage allows one-way redemption, starting at 5,000 miles. The Admirals Club was conceived by AA president C.R. Smith as a marketing promotion shortly after he was made an honorary Texas Ranger. Inspired by the Kentucky colonels and other honorary title designations, Smith decided to make particularly valued passengers "admirals" of the "Flagship fleet" (AA called its aircraft "Flagships" at the time). The list of Admirals included many celebrities, politicians, and other VIPs, as well as more "ordinary" customers who had been particularly loyal to the airline. There was no physical Admirals Club until shortly after the opening of LaGuardia Airport. During the airport's construction, New York Mayor Fiorello LaGuardia had an upper-level lounge set aside for press conferences and business meetings. At one such press conference, he noted that the entire terminal was being offered for lease to airline tenants; after a reporter asked whether the lounge would be leased as well, LaGuardia replied that it would, and a vice president of AA immediately offered to lease the premises. The airline then procured a liquor license and began operating the lounge as the "Admirals Club" in 1939. The second Admirals Club opened at Washington National Airport. Because it was illegal to sell alcohol in Virginia at the time, the club contained refrigerators for the use of its members, so they could store their liquor at the airport. For many years, membership in the Admirals Club (and most other airline lounges) was by the airline's invitation. After a passenger sued for discrimination, the Club (and most other airline lounges) switched to a paid membership program. Though affiliated with the Admirals Club and staffed by many of the same employees, the Flagship Lounge is a separate lounge specifically designed for customers flying in First Class and Business Class on international flights and transcontinental domestic flights, as well as AAdvantage Concierge Key, Executive Platinum, Platinum Pro, and Platinum, as well as Oneworld Emerald and Sapphire frequent flyers. As of May 2019, Flagship Lounges are located at five airports: New York–JFK, Chicago-O'Hare, Miami International, Los Angeles, and Dallas/Fort Worth. Flagship Lounges are planned for London-Heathrow and Philadelphia. American Airlines, Inc. is publicly traded through its parent company, American Airlines Group Inc., under NASDAQ: AAL , with a market capitalization of about $12 billion as of 2019, and is included in the S&P; 500 index. American Eagle is a network of seven regional carriers that operate under a codeshare and service agreement with American, operating flights to destinations in the United States, Canada, the Caribbean and Mexico. Four of these carriers are independent, but three are subsidiaries of American Airlines Group: Envoy Air Inc., Piedmont Airlines, Inc., and PSA Airlines Inc. American Airlines is headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas, adjacent to the Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport. The headquarters is located in two office buildings in the CentrePort office complex and these buildings together have about of space. over 4,300 employees work at this complex. Before it was headquartered in Texas, American Airlines was headquartered at 633 Third Avenue in the Murray Hill area of Midtown Manhattan, New York City. In 1979, American moved its headquarters to a site at Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, which affected up to 1,300 jobs. Mayor of New York City Ed Koch described the move as a "betrayal" of New York City. American moved to two leased office buildings in Grand Prairie, Texas. On January 17, 1983, the airline finished moving into a $150 million ($ when adjusted for inflation), facility in Fort Worth; $147 million (about $ when adjusted for inflation) in Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport bonds financed the headquarters. The airline began leasing the facility from the airport, which owns the facility. Following the merger of US Airways and American Airlines, US Airways consolidated the corporate headquarters of the new company in Fort Worth, leaving their current headquarters in Phoenix, AZ, which had also been the headquarters of the airline that brought US Airways out of bankruptcy, America West Airlines. As of 2015, American Airlines is the corporation with the largest presence in Fort Worth. In 2015, American announced that it would build a new headquarters in Fort Worth. Groundbreaking began in the spring of 2016 and occupancy completed in September, 2019. The airline plans to house 5,000 new workers in the building. It will be located on a property adjacent to the airline's flight academy and conference and training center, west of Texas State Highway 360, west from the current headquarters. The airline will lease a total of from Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport and this area will include the headquarters. Construction of the new headquarters began after the demolition of the Sabre facility, previously on the site. The airline considered developing a new headquarters in Irving, Texas, on the old Texas Stadium site, before deciding to keep the headquarters in Fort Worth. In 1931, Goodrich Murphy, an American employee, designed the AA logo. The logo was redesigned by Massimo Vignelli in 1967. Thirty years later, in 1997, American Airlines was able to make its logo Internet-compatible by buying the domain AA.com. AA is also American's two-letter IATA airline designator. On January 17, 2013, American launched a new rebranding and marketing campaign with FutureBrand dubbed, "A New American". This included a new logo replacing the logo used since 1967. American Airlines calls the new logo the "Flight Symbol, incorporating the eagle, star, and the letter “A” of the classic logo. American Airlines faced difficulty obtaining copyright registration for their 2013 logo. On June 3, 2016, American Airlines sought to register it with the United States Copyright Office, but in October of that year, the Copyright Office ruled that the logo was ineligible for copyright protection, as it did not pass the threshold of originality, and was thus in the public domain. American requested that the Copyright Office reconsider, but on January 8, 2018, the Copyright Office affirmed its initial determination. After American Airlines submitted additional materials, the Copyright Office reversed its decision on December 7, 2018, and ruled that the logo contained enough creativity to merit copyright protection. American's early liveries varied widely, but a common livery was adopted in the 1930s, featuring an eagle painted on the fuselage. The eagle became a symbol of the company and inspired the name of American Eagle Airlines. Propeller aircraft featured an international orange lightning bolt running down the length of the fuselage, which was replaced by a simpler orange stripe with the introduction of jets. In the late 1960s, American commissioned designer Massimo Vignelli to develop a new livery. The original design called for a red, white, and blue stripe on the fuselage, and a simple "AA" logo, without an eagle, on the tail; instead, Vignelli created a highly stylized eagle, which remained the company's logo until January 16, 2013. In 1999, American painted a new Boeing 757 (N679AN) in its 1959 international orange livery. One Boeing 777 and one Boeing 757 were painted in standard livery with a pink ribbon on the sides and the tail, in support of Susan G. Komen for the Cure. One Boeing 757 is painted with a yellow ribbon on the tailfin on the aircraft and the side of the body says "Flagship Freedom". American Eagle, the airline's regional airline has the same special livery on ERJ-145 aircraft. On January 17, 2013, American unveiled a new livery. Before then, American had been the only major U.S. airline to leave most of its aircraft surfaces unpainted. This was because C. R. Smith would not say he liked painted aircraft and refused to use any liveries that involved painting the entire plane. Robert "Bob" Crandall later justified the distinctive natural metal finish by noting that less paint reduced the aircraft's weight, thus saving on fuel costs. In January 2013, American launched a new rebranding and marketing campaign dubbed, "The New American". In addition to a new logo, American Airlines introduced a new livery for its fleet. The airline calls the new livery and branding "a clean and modern update". The current design features an abstract American flag on the tail, along with a silver-painted fuselage, as a throw-back to the old livery. The new design was painted by Leading Edge Aviation Services in California. Doug Parker, the incoming CEO indicated that the new livery could be short-lived, stating that "maybe we need to do something slightly different than that ... The only reason this is an issue now is because they just did it right in the middle, which kind of makes it confusing, so that gives us an opportunity, actually, to decide if we are going to do something different because we have so many airplanes to paint". The current logo and livery have had mixed criticism, with Design Shack editor Joshua Johnson writing that they 'boldly and proudly communicate the concepts of American pride and freedom wrapped into a shape that instantly makes you think about an airplane', and AskThePilot.com author Patrick Smith describing the logo as 'a linoleum knife poking through a shower curtain'. Later in January 2013, Bloomberg asked the designer of the 1968 American Airlines logo (Massimo Vignelli) on his opinion over the rebranding. In the end, American let its employees decide the new livery's fate. On an internal website for employees, American posted two options, one the new livery and one a modified version of the old livery. All of the American Airlines Group employees (including US Airways and other affiliates) were able to vote. American ultimately decided to keep the new look. Parker announced that American would keep a US Airways and America West heritage aircraft in the fleet, with plans to add a heritage TWA aircraft and a heritage American plane with the old livery. As of September 2019, American has heritage aircraft for Piedmont, PSA, America West, US Airways, Reno Air, TWA, and AirCal in their fleet. They also have two AA branded heritage 737-800 aircraft, an AstroJet N905NN, and the polished aluminum livery used from 1967 to 2013, N921NN. The main representatives of key groups of employees are: The Allied Pilots Association is an in-house union which represents the nearly 15,000 American Airlines pilots; it was created in 1963 after the pilots left the Air Line Pilots Association (ALPA). However the majority of American Eagle pilots are ALPA members., The Association of Professional Flight Attendants represents American Airlines flight attendants, including former USAirways flight attendants., Flight attendants at wholly owned Regional Carriers (Envoy, Piedmont and PSA) are all represented by Association of Flight Attendants – Communications Workers of America (AFA-CWA). US Airways flight attendants were active members of AFA-CWA before the merger, and they are honorary lifetime members. AFA-CWA is the largest flight attendant union in the industry., The Transport Workers Union-International Association of Machinists alliance (TWU-IAM) represents the majority of American Airlines employed fleet service agents, mechanics and other ground workers., American's customer service and gate employees belong to the Communications Workers of America/International Brotherhood of Teamsters Passenger Service Association. Between October 1993 to July 1998, American Airlines was repeatedly cited for using high-sulfur fuel in motor vehicles at 10 major airports around the country, a violation of the Clean Air Act. Since 1981, as a means of creating revenue in a period of loss-making, American Airlines had offered a lifetime pass of unlimited travel, for the initial cost of $250,000. This entitled the pass holder to fly anywhere in the world. 28 were sold. However, after some time, the airline realised they were making losses on the tickets, with the ticketholders costing them up to $1 million each. Ticketholders were booking large amounts of flights, and some ticketholders flying interstate for lunch or flying to London multiple times a month. AA raised the cost of the lifetime pass to $3 million, and then finally stopped offering it in 2003. AA then used litigation to cancel two of the lifetime offers, saying the passes "had been terminated due to fraudulent activity". In 1988, on American Airlines Flight 132's approach into Nashville, flight attendants notified the cockpit that there was smoke in the cabin. The flight crew in the cockpit ignored the warning, as on a prior flight, a fume event had occurred due to a problem with the auxiliary power unit. However, the smoke on Flight 132 was caused by improperly packaged hazardous materials. According to the NTSB inquiry, the cockpit crew persistently refused to acknowledge that there was a serious threat to the aircraft or the passengers, even after they were told that floor was becoming soft and passengers had to be reseated. As a result, the aircraft was not evacuated immediately on landing, exposing the crew and passengers to the threat of smoke and fire longer than necessary., On April 11, 2007, toxic smoke and oil fumes leaked into the aircraft cabin as American Airlines Flight 843 taxied to the gate. A flight attendant who was present in the cabin subsequently filed a lawsuit against Boeing, stating that she was diagnosed with neurotoxic disorder due to her exposure to the fumes, which caused her to experience memory loss, tremors, and severe headaches. She settled with the company in 2011., In 2009, Mike Holland, deputy chairman for radiation and environmental issues at the Allied Pilots Association and an American Airlines pilot, said that the pilot union had started alerting pilots of the danger of contaminated bleed air, including contacting crew members that the union thinks were exposed to contamination based on maintenance records and pilot logs., In a January 2017 incident on American Airlines Flight 1896, seven flight attendants were hospitalized after a strange odor was detected in the cabin. The Airbus A330 involved subsequently underwent a "thorough maintenance inspection," having been involved in three fume events in three months., In August 2018, American Airlines flight attendants picketed in front of the Fort Worth company headquarters over a change in sick day policy, complaining that exposure to ill passengers, toxic uniforms, toxic cabin air, radiation exposure, and other issues were causing them to be sick., In January 2019, two pilots and three flight attendants on Flight 1897 from Philadelphia to Fort Lauderdale were hospitalized following complaints of a strange odor. On October 24, 2017, the NAACP issued a travel advisory for American Airlines urging African Americans to "exercise caution" when traveling with the airline. The NAACP issued the advisory after four incidents. In one incident, a black woman was moved from First Class to coach while her white traveling companion was allowed to remain in First Class. In another incident, a black man was forced to give up his seats after being confronted by two unruly white passengers. According to the NAACP, while they did receive complaints on other airlines, most of their complaints in the year prior to their advisory were on American Airlines. In July 2018, the NAACP lifted their travel advisory saying that American has made improvements to mitigate discrimination and unsafe treatment of African Americans. As of March 2019, the airline has had almost sixty aircraft hull losses, beginning with the crash of an American Airways Ford 5-AT-C Trimotor in August 1931. Of these most were propeller driven aircraft, including three Lockheed L-188 Electra turboprop aircraft (of which one, the crash in 1959 of Flight 320, resulted in fatalities). The two accidents with the highest fatalities in both the airline's and U.S. aviation history were Flight 191 in 1979 and Flight 587 in 2001. On December 20, 1995, Flight 965 crashed into a mountain in Buga, Colombia, killing 151 out of the 155 passengers and all eight crew members. The aircraft was a Boeing 757-223 (registration N651AA). It was on approach to Cali, Colombia when it veered off course and crashed into the terrain. Two aircraft were hijacked and destroyed in the September 11 attacks: Flight 11 crashed into the north facade of the North Tower of the World Trade Center, and Flight 77 crashed into the Pentagon; both were bound for LAX from Boston Logan International Airport and Washington Dulles International Airport respectively. Other accidents include the Flight 383 engine failure and fire in 2016. There were two training flight accidents in which the crew were killed and six that resulted in no fatalities. Another four jet aircraft have been written off due to incidents while they were parked between flights or while undergoing maintenance. AAirpass, Air transportation in the United States, List of airlines of the United States, List of airports in the United States Hieger, Linda H. (2010) With Wings of Silver and Gold "American Airlines is Social" – Links to official Facebook, Google+ and Twitter, Official American Airlines Vacations website, American Way inflight magazine, Timetableimages.com has many timetables from the 1930s until 1967, showing where American flew, how often, how long it took and how much it cost. Allegheny Airlines was a U.S. airline that operated out of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States, from 1952 to 1979. It was a forerunner of US Airways, now merged into American Airlines. Its headquarters were at Washington National Airport in Arlington County, Virginia. Allegheny Airlines began as All American Aviation Company providing mail delivery starting on 7 March 1939. It was founded by du Pont family brothers Richard C. du Pont and Alexis Felix du Pont, Jr.. In 1949 the company was renamed All American Airways as it switched from air mail to passenger service. On 1 January 1953 it was again renamed, to Allegheny Airlines. Like other local service airlines of the time, Allegheny was subsidized; in 1962 its operating revenues of $23.5 million included $6.5 million in "public service revenue". In 1960, Allegheny headquarters were in Washington, D.C. In 1953 Allegheny's network blanketed Pennsylvania, reaching Newark NJ to Cleveland and Huntington WV. It added Detroit (YIP) in 1956, Boston in April 1960, La Guardia in 1964, Norfolk in 1966, Toronto in 1967, and Louisville-Nashville-Memphis in 1968. The Lake Central Airlines merger in July 1968 added Chicago and St Louis, and the Mohawk Airlines merger in April 1972 added Montreal, Minneapolis and many New York cities. Houston in 1978, then Florida at the end of 1978 (TPA-MCO-PBI) and Phoenix in 1979. In 1959 Allegheny debuted its first turbine airliner—a Convair 540, a Convair 340 with the piston engines replaced by Napier Elands. When Rolls-Royce bought Napier it dropped the Eland, so 540s in the United States reverted to piston; Allegheny's last 540 flights were in 1962. The airline bought new Fairchild F-27Js that the company named "Vistaliner". The F-27J was a U.S.-built version of the Fokker F27. The airline switched to General Motors/Allison turboprops in the Convair 580 which the carrier named the "Vistacruiser". The last DC-3 flights were in 1962 and the last piston flights were in 1967. In 1965 Allegheny announced it would add the first jet aircraft type to its fleet being the Douglas DC-9-10 which the airline stated would be placed into service in 1966. Allegheny then added other jets, notably the McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30 which the company named the "Vistajet". Later jets included Boeing 727-100s and 727-200s. The Mohawk merger added British Aircraft Corporation BAC One-Eleven jets to the fleet as well. Allegheny Airlines was also the first airline with a network of affiliated regional airlines, the Allegheny Commuter system. As deregulation dawned, Allegheny, looking to shed its regional image, changed its name to USAir on October 28, 1979. After Allegheny Airlines rebranded itself as USAir, the company retained its earlier name for its Allegheny Commuter service until 1989 when it became US Airways Express. Under USAir, which eventually renamed itself US Airways, the Allegheny name continued to be used by the parent company, keeping the trademark under US Airways' control. Suburban Airlines was originally headquartered at the Reading Airport in Reading, Pennsylvania, and flew a large fleet of Short 330s and Short 360s, being the launch customer for the Shorts 360. It had three Fokker F27s, and was the last US operator of passenger F27s. After replacing much of its Shorts fleet with DeHavilland DHC-8s, and retiring the F27s, it merged with another fully owned USAir subsidiary, Pennsylvania Airlines, headquartered at Harrisburg International Airport near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, and the combined airline retained the historic name until its own merger with another wholly owned subsidiary, Piedmont Airlines. After retiring earlier aircraft, Allegheny, before and after its mergers, mainly flew De Havilland Canada Dash 8s to 35 airports in the northeastern United States, and eventually Canada, from hubs at Boston and Philadelphia. Its activities and Dash 8 fleet were incorporated into a regional airline, Piedmont Airlines, in 2004. This is a list of cities Allegheny Airlines served until October 1979. It does not include most cities served before then. Allegheny flew to dozens more cities at some point, including Erie, Providence and the Wyoming Valley. Akron, Ohio - Akron–Canton Airport, Albany, New York – Albany County Airport, Allentown, Pennsylvania – Allentown-Bethlehem-Easton International Airport, Baltimore, Maryland – Baltimore–Washington International Airport, Binghamton, New York – Broome County Airport, Boston, Massachusetts – Logan International Airport, Bradford, Pennsylvania – Bradford Regional Airport, Bridgeport, Connecticut – Igor I. Sikorsky Memorial Airport, Buffalo, New York – Greater Buffalo-Niagara Falls International Airport, Burlington, Vermont – Burlington International Airport, Chicago, Illinois – O'Hare International Airport, Cincinnati, Ohio – Greater Cincinnati International Airport, Cleveland, Ohio – Hopkins International Airport, Columbus, Ohio – Port Columbus International Airport, Dayton, Ohio – James M. Cox International Airport, Denver, Colorado – Stapleton International Airport, Detroit, Michigan – Metro Airport, DuBois, Pennsylvania – DuBois-Jefferson County Airport, Elmira, New York – Chemung County Airport, Erie, Pennsylvania – Erie International Airport, Evansville, Indiana – Evansville Regional Airport, Glens Falls, New York – Warren County Airport, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania – Harrisburg International Airport, Hartford, Connecticut – Bradley International Airport, Hagerstown, Maryland – Hagerstown Regional Airport, Huntington, West Virginia -Tri-State Airport, Indianapolis, Indiana – Weir Cook Airport, Islip, New York – Islip Airport, Ithaca, New York – Tompkins County Airport, Jamestown, New York – Chautauqua County-Jamestown Airport, Keene, New Hampshire – Dillant–Hopkins Airport, Kingsport, Tennessee – Tri-Cities Regional Airport, Lima, Ohio – Lima Allen County Airport, Louisville, Kentucky – Standiford Field, Lock Haven, Pennsylvania – William T. Piper Memorial Airport, Memphis, Tennessee – Memphis International Airport, Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota – Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport, Nashville, Tennessee – Berry Field, Newark, New Jersey – Newark International Airport, New Haven, Connecticut – Tweed New Haven Airport, New Orleans, Louisiana – Moisant Field, New York, New York – John F. Kennedy International Airport, New York, New York – LaGuardia Airport, Norfolk, Virginia - Norfolk International Airport, Omaha, Nebraska – Eppley Airfield, Parkersburg, West Virginia – Wood County Airport, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania – Philadelphia International Airport, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania – Greater Pittsburgh International Airport, Phoenix, Arizona – Sky Harbor International Airport, Providence, Rhode Island – Theodore Francis Green State Airport, Rochester, New York – Greater Rochester International Airport, St. Louis, Missouri – Lambert Field, Syracuse, New York – Hancock International Airport, Toledo, Ohio – Toledo Express Airport, Trenton, New Jersey – Mercer County Airport, Utica, New York – Oneida County Airport, Youngstown, Ohio – Youngstown–Warren Regional Airport, Washington, District of Columbia – Washington National Airport, Williamsport, Pennsylvania – Williamsport Regional Airport, Worcester, Massachusetts – Worcester Regional Airport, Wilkes Barre, Pennsylvania – Wilkes-Barre/Scranton International Airport, Wilmington, Delaware – New Castle Airport, York, Pennsylvania – Olmstead State Airport Montreal, Quebec – Montreal International Airport, Toronto, Ontario – Toronto International Airport Albany, New York – Albany County Airport, Allentown, Pennsylvania – Lehigh Valley International Airport, Altoona, Pennsylvania – Altoona–Blair County Airport, Atlantic City, New Jersey – Bader Field, Bloomington, Indiana – Monroe County Airport, Boston, Massachusetts – Logan International Airport, Burlington, Vermont – Burlington International Airport, Charleston, West Virginia – Kanawha Airport, Clarksburg, West Virginia – North Central West Virginia Airport, Cleveland, Ohio – Cleveland Hopkins International Airport, Danville, Illinois – Vermilion Regional Airport, Dubois, Pennsylvania – DuBois Regional Airport, Elkins, West Virginia – Elkins Randolph County Airport, Franklin, Pennsylvania – Chess Lamberton Field, Glens Falls, New York – Warren County Airport, Hagerstown, Maryland – Hagerstown Regional Airport, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania – Harrisburg International Airport, Hartford, Connecticut – Bradley International Airport, Hazleton, Pennsylvania – Hazleton Municipal Airport, Islip, New York – Long Island MacArthur Airport, Johnstown, Pennsylvania – Cambria County Airport, Lafayette, Indiana – Purdue University Airport, Lancaster, Pennsylvania – Lancaster Municipal Airport, Lynchburg, Virginia – Preston Glenn Field, Manchester, New Hampshire – Manchester-Boston Regional Airport, Mansfield, Ohio – Mansfield Municipal Airport, Massena, New York – Richards Field, Millville, New Jersey – Millville Airport, Morgantown, West Virginia – Walter L. Hart Field, Muncie, Indiana – Johnson Field, Newark, New Jersey – Newark Liberty International Airport, New London, Connecticut – Trumbull Airport, New York, New York – JFK Airport and La Guardia Airport, North Philadelphia, Pennsylvania – Northeast Philadelphia Airport, Ocala, Florida- Ocala International Airport, Ogdensburg, New York – Ogdensburg International Airport, Plattsburgh, New York – Plattsburgh Airport, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania – Greater Pittsburgh International Airport, Portland, Maine – Portland International Jetport, Providence, Rhode Island – T.F. Green Airport, Reading, Pennsylvania – General Spaatz Airport, Rutland, Vermont – Rutland State Airport, Salisbury, Maryland – Wicomico Regional Airport, Saranac Lake, New York – Saranac Lake Airport, State College, Pennsylvania -Mid State Airport, Syracuse, New York – Syracuse Hancock International Airport, Terre Haute, Indiana – Hulman Field, Trenton, New Jersey – Mercer County Airport, Watertown, New York – Watertown Airport, Wildwood/Cape May, New Jersey – Cape May County Airport, Wilkes-Barre/Scranton, Pennsylvania – Wilkes-Barre/Scranton International Airport Allegheny also briefly operated Douglas DC-9-10 aircraft. On December 1, 1959, Allegheny Airlines Flight 371, a Martin 2-0-2, crashed into a mountain on approach to Williamsport, Pennsylvania, United States, 25 fatalities., On October 19, 1962, an Allegheny Airlines flight attendant, Françoise de Moriere, fell to her death after being blown out a Convair 440 emergency exit door on a flight from Washington, D.C., to Providence, Rhode Island, during a scheduled descent into Hartford, Connecticut. This incident inspired James Dickey's poem Falling., On December 24, 1968, Allegheny Airlines Flight 736, a Convair 580, crashed on approach to Bradford, Pennsylvania, killing 20 of the 47 people on board., On January 6, 1969, Allegheny Airlines Flight 737, a Convair 580, also crashed on approach to Bradford, Pennsylvania, killing 11 of the 28 people on board., On September 9, 1969, Allegheny Airlines Flight 853, a DC-9 en route from Cincinnati to Indianapolis, collided with a small private plane and crashed into a soybean field southeast of Indianapolis, near Shelbyville, Indiana, killing all 83 people aboard both aircraft., On June 7, 1971, Allegheny Airlines Flight 485, a Convair 580, en route from Washington, D.C., to New Haven, Connecticut (via New London, Connecticut) crashed short of the runway at New Haven. 26 passengers and 2 crew members were killed; Two passengers and one crew member survived. Pilot Error was the cause of the crash., On June 23, 1976, Allegheny Airlines Flight 121, a DC-9, crashed on the runway in windshear at Philadelphia International Airport. There were 86 injuries and 0 fatalities., On July 9, 1978, Allegheny Airlines Flight 453 crash-landed at Greater Rochester International Airport while arriving from Boston Logan International Airport. The BAC-111 aircraft was carrying 77 people, and there was one serious injury. Timetableimages.com has timetables from the 1950s and 1960s showing where Allegheny flew and what it cost, Allegheny Airlines Flight 853 Memorial website by Dan McGlaun on the September 9, 1969, crash near Indianapolis

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The first modern humans are believed to have inhabited South Africa more than 100,000 years ago. South Africa's prehistory has been divided into two phases based on broad patterns of technology namely the stone age and iron age. After the discovery of hominins at Taung and australopithecine fossils in limestone caves at Sterkfontein, Swartkrans, and Kromdraai these areas were collectively designated a World Heritage site. The first inhabitants of South Africa are collectively referred to as the Khoisan, the Khoi Khoi and the San separately. These groups were displaced or sometimes absorbed by migrating Africans (Bantus) during the Bantu expansion from Western and Central Africa. While some maintained separateness, others were grouped into a category known as Coloureds, a multiracial ethnic group which includes people with shared ancestry from two or more of these groups: Khoisan, Bantu, English, Afrikaners, Austronesians, East Asians and South Asians. European exploration of the African coast began in the 13th century when Portugal committed itself to discover an alternative route to the silk road that would lead to China. In the 14th and 15th century, Portuguese explorers traveled down the west African Coast, detailing and mapping the coastline and in 1488 they rounded the Cape of Good Hope. The Dutch East India Company established a trading post in Cape Town under the command of Jan van Riebeeck in 1652, European workers who settled at the Cape became known as the Free Burghers and gradually established farms in the Dutch Cape Colony. Following the Invasion of the Cape Colony in 1795 and 1806, mass migrations collectively known as the Great Trek occurred during which the Voortrekkers established several Boer settlements on the interior of South Africa. The discoveries of diamonds and gold in the nineteenth century had a profound effect on the fortunes of the region, propelling it onto the world stage and introducing a shift away from an exclusively agrarian-based economy towards industrialisation and the development of urban infrastructure. The discoveries also led to new conflicts culminating in open warfare between the Boer settlers and the British Empire, fought essentially for control over the nascent South African mining industry. Following the defeat of the Boers in the Anglo-Boer or South African War (1899–1902), the Union of South Africa was created as a self-governing dominion of the British Empire on 31 May 1910 in terms of the South Africa Act 1909, which amalgamated the four previously separate British colonies: Cape Colony, Colony of Natal, Transvaal Colony, and Orange River Colony. The country became a fully sovereign nation state within the British Empire, in 1934 following enactment of the Status of the Union Act. The monarchy came to an end on 31 May 1961, replaced by a republic as the consequence of a 1960 referendum, which legitimised the country becoming the Republic of South Africa. From 1948–1994, South African politics was dominated by Afrikaner nationalism. Racial segregation and white minority rule known officially as apartheid, an Afrikaans word meaning "separateness”, was implemented in 1948. On 27 April 1994, after decades of armed struggle, terrorism and international opposition to apartheid, the African National Congress (ANC) achieved victory in the country's first democratic election. Since then, the African National Congress has governed South Africa, in an alliance with the South African Communist Party and the Congress of South African Trade Unions. Scientists researching the periods before written historical records were made have established that the territory of what is now referred to generically as South Africa was one of the important centers of human evolution. It was inhabited by Australopithecines since at least 2.5 million years ago. Modern human settlement occurred around 125,000 years ago in the Middle Stone Age, as shown by archaeological discoveries at Klasies River Caves. The first human habitation is associated with a DNA group originating in a northwestern area of southern Africa and still prevalent in the indigenous Khoisan (Khoi and San). Southern Africa was later populated by Bantu-speaking people who migrated from the western region of central Africa during the early centuries AD. At the Blombos cave Professor Raymond Dart discovered the skull of a 2.51 million year old Taung Child in 1924, the first example of Australopithecus africanus ever found. Following in Dart's footsteps Robert Broom discovered a new much more robust hominid in 1938 Paranthropus robustus at Kromdraai, and in 1947 uncovered several more examples of Australopithecus africanus at Sterkfontein. In further research at the Blombos cave in 2002, stones were discovered engraved with grid or cross-hatch patterns, dated to some 70,000 years ago. This has been interpreted as the earliest example ever discovered of abstract art or symbolic art created by Homo sapiens. Many more species of early hominid have come to light in recent decades. The oldest is Little Foot, a collection of footbones of an unknown hominid between 2.2 and 3.3 million years old, discovered at Sterkfontein by Ronald J. Clarke. An important recent find was that of 1.9 million year old Australopithecus sediba, discovered in 2008. In 2015, the discovery near Johannesburg of a previously unknown species of Homo was announced, named Homo naledi. It has been described as one of the most important paleontological discoveries in modern times. The descendants of the Middle Paleolithic populations are thought to be the aboriginal San and Khoikhoi tribes. The settlement of southern Africa by the ancestors of the Khoisan corresponds to the earliest separation of the extant Homo sapiens populations altogether, associated in genetic science with what is described in scientific terms as matrilinear haplogroup L0 (mtDNA) and patrilinear haplogroup A (Y-DNA), originating in a northwestern area of southern Africa. The San and Khoikhoi are grouped under the term Khoisan, and are essentially distinguished only by their respective occupations. Whereas the San were hunter-gathers, the Khoikhoi were pastoral herders. The initial origin of the Khoikhoi remains uncertain. Archaeological discoveries of livestock bones on the Cape Peninsula indicate that the Khoikhoi began to settle there by about 2000 years ago. In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, Portuguese mariners, who were the first Europeans at the Cape, encountered pastoral Khoikhoi with livestock. Later, English and Dutch seafarers in the late 16th and 17th centuries exchanged metals for cattle and sheep with the Khoikhoi. The conventional view is that availability of livestock was one reason why, in the mid-17th century, the Dutch East India Company established a staging post where the port city of Cape Town is today situated. The establishment of the staging post by the Dutch East India Company at the Cape in 1652 soon brought the Khoikhoi into conflict with Dutch settlers over land ownership. Cattle rustling and livestock theft ensued, with the Khoikhoi being ultimately expelled from the peninsula by force, after a succession of wars. The first Khoikhoi–Dutch War broke out in 1659, the second in 1673, and the third 1674–1677. By the time of their defeat and expulsion from the Cape Peninsula and surrounding districts, the Khoikhoi population was decimated by a smallpox epidemic, against which the Khoikhoi had no natural resistance or indigenous medicines. The disease had been brought to the Cape by Dutch sailors. The Bantu expansion was one of the major demographic movements in human prehistory, sweeping much of the African continent during the 2nd and 1st millennia BC. Bantu-speaking communities reached southern Africa from the Congo basin by the early centuries AD. The advancing Bantu encroached on the Khoikhoi territory, forcing the original inhabitants of the region to move to more arid areas. Some of the migrant groups, ancestral to today's Nguni peoples (the Zulu, Xhosa, Swazi, and Ndebele), preferred to live near the eastern coast of what is present-day South Africa. Others, now known as the Sotho–Tswana peoples (Tswana, Pedi, and Sotho), settled in the interior on the plateau known as the Highveld, while today's Venda, Lemba, and Tsonga peoples made their homes in the north-eastern areas of present-day South Africa. The Kingdom of Mapungubwe, which was located near the northern border of present- day South Africa, at the confluence of the Limpopo and Shashe rivers adjacent to present-day Zimbabwe and Botswana, was the first indigenous kingdom in southern Africa between AD 900 and 1300. It developed into the largest kingdom in the sub-continent before it was abandoned because of climatic changes in the 14th century. Smiths created objects of iron, copper and gold both for local decorative use and for foreign trade. The kingdom controlled trade through the east African ports to Arabia, India and China, and throughout southern Africa, making it wealthy through the exchange of gold and ivory for imports such as Chinese porcelain and Persian glass beads. Specifics of the contact between Bantu-speakers and the indigenous Khoisan ethnic group remain largely unresearched, although linguistic proof of some assimilation exists, as several southern Bantu languages (notably Xhosa and Zulu) incorporate many click consonants of the Khoisan languages. The assimilation is not dissimilar to that of the European settlers, who adapted and assimilated the Dutch, Flemish, German and Malay languages into the Dutch patois of Afrikaans. The Portuguese mariner Bartolomeu Dias was the first European to explore the coastline of South Africa in 1488, while attempting to discover a trade route to the Far East via the southernmost cape of South Africa, which he named Cabo das Tormentas, meaning Cape of Storms. In November 1497, a fleet of Portuguese ships under the command of the Portuguese mariner Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope. By 16 December, the fleet had passed the Great Fish River on the east coast of South Africa, where Dias had earlier turned back. Da Gama gave the name Natal to the coast he was passing, which in Portuguese means Christmas. Da Gama's fleet proceeded northwards to Zanzibar and later sailed eastwards, eventually reaching India and thereby opening the Cape Route between Europe and Asia. The Dutch East India Company (in the Dutch of the day: Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, or VOC) decided to establish a permanent settlement at the Cape in 1652. The VOC, one of the major European trading houses sailing the spice route to the East, had no intention of colonising the area, instead wanting only to establish a secure base camp where passing ships could shelter and be serviced, and where hungry sailors could stock up on fresh supplies of meat, fruit, and vegetables. To this end, a small VOC expedition under the command of Jan van Riebeeck reached Table Bay on 6 April 1652. The VOC had settled at the Cape in order to supply their trading ships. The Khoikhoi stopped trading with the Dutch, and the Cape and the VOC had to import Dutch farmers to establish farms to supply the passing ships as well as to supply the growing VOC settlement. The small initial group of free burghers, as these farmers were known, steadily increased in number and began to expand their farms further north and east into the territory of the Khoikhoi. The free burghers were ex-VOC soldiers and gardeners, who were unable to return to Holland when their contracts were completed with the VOC. The VOC also brought some 71,000 slaves to Cape Town from India, Indonesia, East Africa, Mauritius, and Madagascar. The majority of burghers had Dutch ancestry and belonged to the Dutch Reformed Church, but there were also some Germans, who often happened to be Lutherans. In 1688, the Dutch and the Germans were joined by French Huguenots, who were Calvinist Protestants fleeing religious persecution in France under its Catholic ruler, King Louis XIV. Van Riebeeck considered it impolitic to enslave the local Khoi and San aboriginals, so the VOC began to import large numbers of slaves, primarily from the Dutch colonies in Indonesia. Eventually, van Riebeeck and the VOC began to make indentured servants out of the Khoikhoi and the San. The descendants of unions between the Dutch settlers and the Khoi-San and Malay slaves became known officially as the Cape Coloureds and the Cape Malays, respectively. A significant number of the offspring from the white and slave unions were absorbed into the local proto-Afrikaans speaking white population. The racially mixed genealogical origins of many so-called "white" South Africans have been traced to interracial unions at the Cape between the European occupying population and imported Asian and African slaves, the indigenous Khoi and San, and their vari-hued offspring. Simon van der Stel, the first Governor of the Dutch settlement, famous for his development of the lucrative South African wine industry, was himself of mixed race-origin. In 1787, shortly before the French Revolution, a faction within the politics of the Dutch Republic known as the Patriot Party attempted to overthrow the regime of stadtholder William V. Though the revolt was crushed, it was resurrected after the French invasion of the Netherlands in 1794/1795 which resulted in the stadtholder fleeing the country. The Patriot revolutionaries then proclaimed the Batavian Republic, which was closely allied to revolutionary France. In response, the stadtholder, who had taken up residence in England, issued the Kew Letters, ordering colonial governors to surrender to the British. The British then seized the Cape in 1795 to prevent it from falling into French hands. The Cape was relinquished back to the Dutch in 1803. In 1805, the British inherited the Cape as a prize during the Napoleonic Wars, again seizing the Cape from the French controlled Kingdom of Holland which had replaced the Batavian Republic. Like the Dutch before them, the British initially had little interest in the Cape Colony, other than as a strategically located port. The Cape Articles of Capitulation of 1806 allowed the colony to retain "all their rights and privileges which they have enjoyed hitherto", and this launched South Africa on a divergent course from the rest of the British Empire, allowing the continuance of Roman-Dutch law. British sovereignty of the area was recognised at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the Dutch accepting a payment of 6 million pounds for the colony. As one of their first tasks they outlawed the use of the Dutch language in 1806 with the view of converting the European settlers to the British language and culture. This had the effect of forcing more of the Dutch colonists to move (or trek) away from British administrative reach. Much later, in 1820 the British authorities persuaded about 5,000 middle-class British immigrants (most of them "in trade") to leave Great Britain. Many of the 1820 Settlers eventually settled in Grahamstown and Port Elizabeth. British policy with regard to South Africa would vacillate with successive governments, but the overarching imperative throughout the 19th century was to protect the strategic trade route to India while incurring as little expense as possible within the colony. This aim was complicated by border conflicts with the Boers, who soon developed a distaste for British authority. Colonel Robert Jacob Gordon of the Dutch East India Company was the first European to explore parts of the interior while commanding the Dutch garrison at the renamed Cape of Good Hope, from 1780 to 1795. The four expeditions Gordon undertook between 1777 and 1786 are recorded in a series of several hundred drawings known collectively as the Gordon Atlas, as well as in his journals, which were only discovered in 1964. Early relations between the European settlers and the Xhosa, the first Bantu peoples they met when they ventured inward, were peaceful. However, there was competition for land, and this tension led to skirmishes in the form of cattle raids from 1779. The British explorers David Livingstone and William Oswell, setting out from a mission station in the northern Cape Colony, are believed to have been the first white men to cross the Kalahari desert in 1849. The Royal Geographical Society later awarded Livingstone a gold medal for his discovery of Lake Ngami in the desert. The Zulu people are part of the Nguni tribe and were originally a minor clan in what is today northern KwaZulu-Natal, founded ca. 1709 by Zulu kaNtombela. The 1820s saw a time of immense upheaval relating to the military expansion of the Zulu Kingdom, which replaced the original African clan system with kingdoms. Sotho-speakers know this period as the difaqane ("forced migration"); Zulu-speakers call it the mfecane ("crushing"). Various theories have been advanced for the causes of the difaqane, ranging from ecological factors to competition in the ivory trade. Another theory attributes the epicentre of Zulu violence to the slave trade out of Delgoa Bay in Mozambique situated to the north of Zululand. According to this theory, Portuguese slavers had been driven southwards because of increased naval activity during the Napoleonic wars; it was the rush of refugees away from the encroaching slavers that precipitated violent instability in the region. In 1818, Nguni tribes in Zululand became a militaristic kingdom under the driving force of Shaka kaSenzangakhona, son of the chief of the Zulu clan. Shaka built large armies, breaking from clan tradition by placing the armies under the control of his own officers rather than of hereditary chiefs. He then set out on a massive programme of expansion, killing or enslaving those who resisted in the territories he conquered. His impis (warrior regiments) were rigorously disciplined: failure in battle meant death. Peoples in the path of Shaka's armies moved out of his way, becoming in their turn aggressors against their neighbours. This wave of displacement spread throughout southern Africa and beyond. It also accelerated the formation of several new nation-states, notably those of the Sotho (present-day Lesotho) and of the Swazi (now Eswatini (formerly Swaziland)). In 1828 Shaka was killed by his half-brothers Dingaan and Umhlangana. The weaker and less-skilled Dingaan became king, relaxing military discipline while continuing the despotism. Dingaan also attempted to establish relations with the British traders on the Natal coast, but events had started to unfold that would see the demise of Zulu independence. Estimates for the death toll resulting from the Mfecane range from 1 million to 2 million. After 1806, a number of Dutch-speaking inhabitants of the Cape Colony trekked inland, first in small groups. Eventually, in the 1830s, large numbers of Boers migrated in what came to be known as the Great Trek. Among the initial reasons for their leaving the Cape colony were the English language rule. Religion was a very important aspect of the settlers culture and the bible and church services were in Dutch. Similarly, schools, justice and trade up to the arrival of the British, were all managed in the Dutch language. The language law caused friction, distrust and dissatisfaction. Another reason for Dutch- speaking white farmers trekking away from the Cape was the abolition of slavery by the British government on Emancipation Day, 1 December 1838. The farmers complained they could not replace the labour of their slaves without losing an excessive amount of money. The farmers had invested large amounts of capital in slaves. Owners who had purchased slaves on credit or put them up as surety against loans faced financial ruin. This is to be queried as the Boers were in favor of abolishment of slavery Bloemfontein (1854) and Sand River conventions (1852, Art. 4), Britain had allocated the sum of 1 200 000 British Pounds as compensation to the Dutch settlers, on condition the Dutch farmers had to lodge their claims in Britain as well as the fact that the value of the slaves was many times the allocated amount. This caused further dissatisfaction among the Dutch settlers. The settlers, incorrectly, believed that the Cape Colony administration had taken the money due to them as payment for freeing their slaves. Those settlers who were allocated money could only claim it in Britain in person or through an agent. The commission charged by agents was the same as the payment for one slave, thus those settlers only claiming for one slave would receive nothing. The South African Republic (Dutch: Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek or ZAR, not to be confused with the much later Republic of South Africa), is often referred to as The Transvaal and sometimes as the Republic of Transvaal. It was an independent and internationally recognised nation-state in southern Africa from 1852 to 1902. Independent sovereignty of the republic was formally recognised by Great Britain with the signing of the Sand River Convention on 17 January 1852. The republic, under the premiership of Paul Kruger, defeated British forces in the First Boer War and remained independent until the end of the Second Boer War on 31 May 1902, when it was forced to surrender to the British. The territory of the South African Republic became known after this war as the Transvaal Colony. The independent Boer republic of Orange Free State evolved from colonial Britain's Orange River Sovereignty, enforced by the presence of British troops, which lasted from 1848 to 1854 in the territory between the Orange and Vaal rivers, named Transorange. Britain, due to the military burden imposed on it by the Crimean War in Europe, then withdrew its troops from the territory in 1854, when the territory along with other areas in the region was claimed by the Boers as an independent Boer republic, which they named the Orange Free State. In March 1858, after land disputes, cattle rustling and a series of raids and counter-raids, the Orange Free State declared war on the Basotho kingdom, which it failed to defeat. A succession of wars were conducted between the Boers and the Basotho for the next 10 years. The name Orange Free State was again changed to the Orange River Colony, created by Britain after the latter occupied it in 1900 and then annexed it in 1902 during the Second Boer War. The colony, with an estimated population of less than 400,000 in 1904 ceased to exist in 1910, when it was absorbed into the Union of South Africa as the Orange Free State Province. Natalia was a short-lived Boer republic established in 1839 by Boer Voortrekkers emigrating from the Cape Colony. In 1824 a party of 25 men under British Lieutenant F G Farewell arrived from the Cape Colony and established a settlement on the northern shore of the Bay of Natal, which would later become the port of Durban, so named after Sir Benjamin d'Urban, a governor of the Cape Colony. Boer Voortrekkers in 1838 established the Republic of Natalia in the surrounding region, with its capital at Pietermaritzburg. On the night of 23/24 May 1842 British colonial forces attacked the Voortrekker camp at Congella. The attack failed, with British forces then retreating back to Durban, which the Boers besieged. A local trader Dick King and his servant Ndongeni, who later became folk heroes, were able to escape the blockade and ride to Grahamstown, a distance of 600 km (372.82 miles) in 14 days to raise British reinforcements. The reinforcements arrived in Durban 20 days later; the siege was broken and the Voortrekkers retreated. The Boers accepted British annexation in 1844. Many of the Natalia Boers who refused to acknowledge British rule trekked over the Drakensberg mountains to settle in the Orange Free State and Transvaal republics. Between 1847 and 1854, Sir Harry Smith, governor and high commissioner of the Cape Colony, annexed territories far to the north of original British and Dutch settlement. Smith's expansion of the Cape Colony resulted in conflict with disaffected Boers in the Orange River Sovereignty who in 1848 mounted an abortive rebellion at Boomplaats, where the Boers were defeated by a detachment of the Cape Mounted Rifles. Annexation also precipitated a war between British colonial forces and the indigenous Xhosa nation in 1850, in the eastern coastal region. Starting from the mid-1800s, the Cape of Good Hope, which was then the largest state in southern Africa, began moving towards greater independence from Britain. In 1854, it was granted its first locally elected legislature, the Cape Parliament. In 1872, after a long political struggle, it attained responsible government with a locally accountable executive and Prime Minister. The Cape nonetheless remained nominally part of the British Empire, even though it was self-governing in practice. The Cape Colony was unusual in southern Africa in that its laws prohibited any discrimination on the basis of race and, unlike the Boer republics, elections were held according to the non-racial Cape Qualified Franchise system, whereby suffrage qualifications applied universally, regardless of race. Initially, a period of strong economic growth and social development ensued. However, an ill-informed British attempt to force the states of southern Africa into a British federation led to inter-ethnic tensions and the First Boer War. Meanwhile, the discovery of diamonds around Kimberley and gold in the Transvaal led to a later return to instability, particularly because they fueled the rise to power of the ambitious colonialist Cecil Rhodes. As Cape Prime Minister, Rhodes curtailed the multi- racial franchise, and his expansionist policies set the stage for the Second Boer War. Indian slaves from the Dutch colonies had been introduced into the Cape area of South Africa by the Dutch settlers in 1654. By the end of 1847, following annexation by Britain of the former Boer republic of Natalia, nearly all the Boers had left their former republic, which the British renamed Natal. The role of the Boer settlers was replaced by subsidised British immigrants of whom 5,000 arrived between 1849 and 1851. By 1860, with slavery having been abolished in 1834, and after the annexation of Natal as a British colony in 1843, the British colonialists in Natal (now kwaZulu-Natal) turned to India to resolve a labour shortage. Men of the local Zulu warrior nation were refusing to adopt the servile position of labourers. In that year, the SS Truro arrived in Durban harbour with over 300 Indians on board. Over the next 50 years, 150,000 more indentured Indian servants and labourers arrived, as well as numerous free "passenger Indians," building the base for what would become the largest Indian community outside India. By 1893, when the lawyer and social activist Mahatma Gandhi arrived in Durban, Indians outnumbered whites in Natal. The civil rights struggle of Gandhi's Natal Indian Congress failed; until the 1994 advent of democracy, Indians in South Africa were subject to most of the discriminatory laws that applied to all non-white inhabitants of the country. By the late 1700s, the Cape Colony population had grown to include a large number of mixed-race so-called "coloureds" who were the offspring of extensive interracial relations between white, male Dutch settlers, Khoikhoi females, and female slaves imported from Dutch colonies in the East. Members of this mixed-race community formed the core of what was to become the Griqua people. Under the leadership of a former slave named Adam Kok, these "coloureds" or Basters (meaning mixed race or multiracial) as they were named by the Dutch, started trekking northward into the interior, through what is today named Northern Cape Province. The trek of the Griquas to escape the influence of the Cape Colony has been described as "one of the great epics of the 19th century." They were joined on their long journey by a number of San and Khoikhoi aboriginals, local African tribesmen, and also some white renegades. Around 1800, they started crossing the northern frontier formed by the Orange River, arriving ultimately in an uninhabited area, which they named Griqualand. In 1825, a faction of the Griqua people was induced by Dr John Philip, superintendent of the London Missionary Society in Southern Africa, to relocate to a place called Philippolis, a mission station for the San, several hundred miles southeast of Griqualand. Philip's intention was for the Griquas to protect the missionary station there against banditti in the region, and as a bulwark against the northward movement of white settlers from the Cape Colony. Friction between the Griquas and the settlers over land rights resulted in British troops being sent to the region in 1845. It marked the beginning of nine years of British intervention in the affairs of the region, which the British named Transorange. In 1861, to avoid the imminent prospect of either being colonised by the Cape Colony or coming into conflict with the expanding Boer Republic of Orange Free State, most of the Philippolis Griquas embarked on a further trek. They moved about 500 miles eastward, over the Quathlamba (today known as the Drakensberg mountain range), settling ultimately in an area officially designated as "Nomansland", which the Griquas renamed Griqualand East. East Griqualand was subsequently annexed by Britain in 1874 and incorporated into the Cape Colony in 1879. The original Griqualand, north of the Orange River, was annexed by Britain's Cape Colony and renamed Griqualand West after the discovery in 1871 of the world's richest deposit of diamonds at Kimberley, so named after the British Colonial Secretary, Earl Kimberley. Although no formally surveyed boundaries existed, Griqua leader Nicolaas Waterboer claimed the diamond fields were situated on land belonging to the Griquas. The Boer republics of Transvaal and the Orange Free State also vied for ownership of the land, but Britain, being the preeminent force in the region, won control over the disputed territory. In 1878, Waterboer led an unsuccessful rebellion against the colonial authorities, for which he was arrested and briefly exiled. In early South Africa, European notions of national boundaries and land ownership had no counterparts in African political culture. To Moshoeshoe the BaSotho chieftain from Lesotho, it was customary tribute in the form of horses and cattle represented acceptance of land use under his authority. To both the Boer and the British settlers, the same form of tribute was believed to constitute purchase and permanent ownership of the land under independent authority. As British and Boer settlers started establishing permanent farms after trekking across the country in search of prime agricultural land, they encountered resistance from the local Bantu people who had originally migrated southwards from central Africa hundreds of years earlier. The consequent frontier wars, known as the Xhosa Wars, were unofficially referred to by the British colonial authorities as the "Kaffir" wars. In the southeastern part of South Africa, The Boers and the Xhosa clashed along the Great Fish River, and in 1779 the first of nine frontier wars erupted. For nearly 100 years subsequently, the Xhosa fought the settlers sporadically, first the Boers or Afrikaners and later the British. In the Fourth Frontier War, which lasted from 1811 to 1812, the British forced the Xhosa back across the Great Fish River and established forts along this boundary. The increasing economic involvement of the British in southern Africa from the 1820s, and especially following the discovery of first diamonds at Kimberley and gold in the Transvaal, resulted in pressure for land and African labour, and led to increasingly tense relations with African states. In 1818 differences between two Xhosa leaders, Ndlambe and Ngqika, ended in Ngqika's defeat, but the British continued to recognise Ngqika as the paramount chief. He appealed to the British for help against Ndlambe, who retaliated in 1819 during the Fifth Frontier War by attacking the British colonial town of Grahamstown. In the eastern part of what is today South Africa, in the region named Natalia by the Boer trekkers, the latter negotiated an agreement with Zulu King Dingane kaSenzangakhona allowing the Boers to settle in part of the then Zulu kingdom. Cattle rustling ensued and a party of Boers under the leadership of Piet Retief were killed. Subsequent to the killing of the Retief party, the Boers defended themselves against a Zulu attack, at the Ncome River on 16 December 1838. An estimated five thousand Zulu warriors were involved. The Boers took a defensive position with the high banks of the Ncome River forming a natural barrier to their rear with their ox waggons as barricades between themselves and the attacking Zulu army. About three thousand Zulu warriors died in the clash known historically as the Battle of Blood River. In the later annexation of the Zulu kingdom by imperial Britain, an Anglo-Zulu War was fought in 1879. Following Lord Carnarvon's successful introduction of federation in Canada, it was thought that similar political effort, coupled with military campaigns, might succeed with the African kingdoms, tribal areas and Boer republics in South Africa. In 1874, Sir Henry Bartle Frere was sent to South Africa as High Commissioner for the British Empire to bring such plans into being. Among the obstacles were the presence of the independent states of the South African Republic and the Kingdom of Zululand and its army. Frere, on his own initiative, without the approval of the British government and with the intent of instigating a war with the Zulu, had presented an ultimatum on 11 December 1878, to the Zulu king Cetshwayo with which the Zulu king could not comply. Bartle Frere then sent Lord Chelmsford to invade Zululand. The war is notable for several particularly bloody battles, including an overwhelming victory by the Zulu at the Battle of Isandlwana, as well as for being a landmark in the timeline of imperialism in the region. Britain's eventual defeat of the Zulus, marking the end of the Zulu nation's independence, was accomplished with the assistance of Zulu collaborators who harboured cultural and political resentments against centralised Zulu authority. The British then set about establishing large sugar plantations in the area today named KwaZulu-Natal Province. From the 1830s onwards, numbers of white settlers from the Cape Colony crossed the Orange River and started arriving in the fertile southern part of territory known as the Lower Caledon Valley, which was occupied by Basotho cattle herders under the authority of the Basotho founding monarch Moshoeshoe I. In 1845, a treaty was signed between the British colonists and Moshoeshoe, which recognised white settlement in the area. No firm boundaries were drawn between the area of white settlement and Moshoeshoe's kingdom, which led to border clashes. Moshoeshoe was under the impression he was loaning grazing land to the settlers in accordance with African precepts of occupation rather than ownership, while the settlers believed they had been granted permanent land rights. Afrikaner settlers in particular were loathe to live under Moshoesoe's authority and among Africans. The British, who at that time controlled the area between the Orange and Vaal Rivers called the Orange River Sovereignty, decided a discernible boundary was necessary and proclaimed a line named the Warden Line, dividing the area between British and Basotho territories. This led to conflict between the Basotho and the British, who were defeated by Moshoeshoe's warriors at the battle of Viervoet in 1851. As punishment to the Basotho, the governor and commander-in-chief of the Cape Colony, Sir George Cathcart, deployed troops to the Mohokare River; Moshoeshoe was ordered to pay a fine. When he did not pay the fine in full, a battle broke out on the Berea Plateau in 1852, where the British suffered heavy losses. In 1854, the British handed over the territory to the Boers through the signing of the Sand River Convention. This territory and others in the region then became the Republic of the Orange Free State. A succession of wars followed from 1858 to 1868 between the Basotho kingdom and the Boer republic of Orange Free State. In the battles that followed, the Orange Free State tried unsuccessfully to capture Moshoeshoe's mountain stronghold at Thaba Bosiu, while the Sotho conducted raids in Free State territories. Both sides adopted scorched-earth tactics, with large swathes of pasturage and cropland being destroyed. Faced with starvation, Moshoeshoe signed a peace treaty on 15 October 1858, though crucial boundary issues remained unresolved. War broke out again in 1865. After an unsuccessful appeal for aid from the British Empire, Moshoeshoe signed the 1866 treaty of Thaba Bosiu, with the Basotho ceding substantial territory to the Orange Free State. On 12 March 1868, the British parliament declared the Basotho Kingdom a British protectorate and part of the British Empire. Open hostilities ceased between the Orange Free State and the Basotho. The country was subsequently named Basutoland and is presently named Lesotho. In 1836, when Boer Voortrekkers (pioneers) arrived in the northwestern part of present-day South Africa, they came into conflict with a Ndebele sub-group that the settlers named "Matabele", under chief Mzilikazi. A series of battles ensued, in which Mzilikazi was eventually defeated. He withdrew from the area and led his people northwards to what would later become the Matabele region of Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe). Other members of the Ndebele ethnic language group in different areas of the region similarly came into conflict with the Voortrekkers, notably in the area that would later become the Northern Transvaal. In September 1854, 28 Boers accused of cattle rustling were killed in three separate incidents by an alliance of the Ndebele chiefdoms of Mokopane and Mankopane. Mokopane and his followers, anticipating retaliation by the settlers, retreated into the mountain caves known as Gwasa, (or Makapansgat in Afrikaans). In late October, Boer commandos supported by local Kgatla tribal collaborators laid siege to the caves. By the end of the siege, about three weeks later, Mokopane and between 1,000 and 3,000 people had died in the caves. The survivors were captured and allegedly enslaved. The Bapedi wars, also known as the Sekhukhune wars, consisted of three separate campaigns fought between 1876 and 1879 against the Bapedi under their reigning monarch King Sekhukhune, in the northeastern region known as Sekhukhuneland, bordering on Swaziland. Further friction was caused by the refusal of Sekhukhune to allow prospectors to search for gold in territory he considered to be sovereign and independent under his authority. The First Sekhukhune War of 1876 was conducted by the Boers, and the two separate campaigns of the Second Sekhukhune War of 1878/1879 were conducted by the British. During the final campaign, Sekukuni (also spelled Sekhukhune) and members of his entourage took refuge in a mountain cave where he was cut off from food and water. He eventually surrendered to a combined deputation of Boer and British forces on 2 December 1879. Sekhukhune, members of his family and some Bapedi generals were subsequently imprisoned in Pretoria for two years, with Sekhukhuneland becoming part of the Transvaal Republic. No gold was ever discovered in the annexed territory. The first diamond discoveries between 1866 and 1867 were alluvial, on the southern banks of the Orange River. By 1869, diamonds were found at some distance from any stream or river, in hard rock called blue ground, later called kimberlite, after the mining town of Kimberley where the diamond diggings were concentrated. The diggings were located in an area of vague boundaries and disputed land ownership. Claimants to the site included the South African (Transvaal) Republic, the Orange Free State Republic, and the mixed-race Griqua nation under Nicolaas Waterboer. Cape Colony Governor Sir Henry Barkly persuaded all claimants to submit themselves to a decision of an arbitrator and so Robert W Keate, Lieutenant-Governor of Natal was asked to arbitrate. Keate awarded ownership to the Griquas. Waterboer, fearing conflict with the Boer republic of Orange Free State, subsequently asked for and received British protection. Griqualand then became a separate Crown Colony renamed Griqualand West in 1871, with a Lieutenant-General and legislative council. The Crown Colony of Griqualand West was annexed into the Cape Colony in 1877, enacted into law in 1880. No material benefits accrued to the Griquas as a result of either colonisation or annexation; they did not receive any share of the diamond wealth generated at Kimberley. The Griqua community became subsequently dissimulated. By the 1870s and 1880s the mines at Kimberley were producing 95% of the world's diamonds. The widening search for gold and other resources were financed by the wealth produced and the practical experience gained at Kimberley. Revenue accruing to the Cape Colony from the Kimberley diamond diggings enabled the Cape Colony to be granted responsible government status in 1872, since it was no longer dependent on the British Treasury and hence allowing it to be fully self-governing in similar fashion to the federation of Canada, New Zealand and some of the Australian states. The wealth derived from Kimberley diamond mining, having effectively tripled the customs revenue of the Cape Colony from 1871 to 1875, also doubled its population, and allowed it to expand its boundaries and railways to the north. In 1888, British imperialist Cecil John Rhodes co-founded De Beers Consolidated Mines at Kimberley, after buying up and amalgamating the individual claims with finance provided by the Rothschild dynasty. Abundant, cheap African labour was central to the success of Kimberley diamond mining, as it would later also be to the success of gold mining on the Witwatersrand. It has been suggested in some academic circles that the wealth produced at Kimberley was a significant factor influencing the Scramble for Africa, in which European powers had by 1902 competed with each other in drawing arbitrary boundaries across almost the entire continent and dividing it among themselves. Although many tales abound, there is no conclusive evidence as to who first discovered gold or the manner in which it was originally discovered in the late 19th century on the Witwatersrand (meaning White Waters Ridge) of the Transvaal. The discovery of gold in February 1886 at a farm called Langlaagte on the Witwatersrand in particular precipitated a gold rush by prospectors and fortune seekers from all over the world. Except in rare outcrops, however, the main gold deposits had over many years become covered gradually by thousands of feet of hard rock. Finding and extracting the deposits far below the ground called for the capital and engineering skills that would soon result in the deep-level mines of the Witwatersrand producing a quarter of the world's gold, with the "instant city" of Johannesburg arising astride the main Witwatersrand gold reef. Within two years of gold being discovered on the Witwatersrand, four mining finance houses had been established. The first was formed by Hermann Eckstein in 1887, eventually becoming Rand Mines. Cecil Rhodes and Charles Rudd followed, with their Gold Fields of South Africa company. Rhodes and Rudd had earlier made fortunes from diamond mining at Kimberley. In 1895 there was an investment boom in Witwatersrand gold-mining shares. The precious metal that underpinned international trade would dominate South African exports for decades to come. Of the leading 25 foreign industrialists who were instrumental in opening up deep level mining operations at the Witwatersrand gold fields, 15 were Jewish, 11 of the total were from Germany or Austria, and nine of that latter category were also Jewish. The commercial opportunities opened by the discovery of gold attracted many other people of European Jewish origin. The Jewish population of South Africa in 1880 numbered approximately 4,000; by 1914 it had grown to more than 40,000, mostly migrants from Lithuania. The working environment of the mines, meanwhile, as one historian has described it, was "dangerous, brutal and onerous", and therefor unpopular among local black Africans. Recruitment of black labour began to prove difficult, even with an offer of improved wages. In mid-1903 there remained barely half of the 90,000 black labourers who had been employed in the industry in mid-1899. The decision was made to start importing Chinese indentured labourers who were prepared to work for far less wages than local African labourers. The first 1,000 indentured Chinese labourers arrived in June 1904. By January 1907, 53,000 Chinese labourers were working in the gold mines. The Transvaal Boer republic was forcefully annexed by Britain in 1877, during Britain's attempt to consolidate the states of southern Africa under British rule. Long-standing Boer resentment turned into full-blown rebellion in the Transvaal and the first Anglo-Boer War, also known as the Boer Insurrection, broke out in 1880. The conflict ended almost as soon as it began with a decisive Boer victory at Battle of Majuba Hill (27 February 1881). The republic regained its independence as the Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek ("South African Republic"), or ZAR. Paul Kruger, one of the leaders of the uprising, became President of the ZAR in 1883. Meanwhile, the British, who viewed their defeat at Majuba as an aberration, forged ahead with their desire to federate the Southern African colonies and republics. They saw this as the best way to come to terms with the fact of a white Afrikaner majority, as well as to promote their larger strategic interests in the area. The cause of the Anglo- Boer wars has been attributed to a contest over which nation would control and benefit most from the Witwatersrand gold mines. The enormous wealth of the mines was in the hands of European "Randlords" overseeing the mainly British foreign managers, mining foremen, engineers and technical specialists, characterised by the Boers as uitlander, meaning aliens. The "aliens" objected to being denied parliamentary representation and the right to vote, and they complained also of bureaucratic government delays in the issuing of licenses and permits, and general administrative incompetence on the part of the government. In 1895, a column of mercenaries in the employ of Cecil John Rhodes' Rhodesian-based Charter Company and led by Captain Leander Starr Jameson had entered the ZAR with the intention of sparking an uprising on the Witwatersrand and installing a British administration there. The armed incursion became known as the Jameson Raid. It ended when the invading column was ambushed and captured by Boer commandos. President Kruger suspected the insurgency had received at least the tacit approval of the Cape Colony government under the premiership of Cecil John Rhodes, and that Kruger's South African Republic faced imminent danger. Kruger reacted by forming an alliance with the neighbouring Boer republic of Orange Free State. This did not prevent the outbreak of a Second Anglo-Boer war. Renewed tensions between Britain and the Boers peaked in 1899 when the British demanded voting rights for the 60,000 foreign whites on the Witwatersrand. Until that point, President Paul Kruger's government had excluded all foreigners from the franchise. Kruger rejected the British demand and called for the withdrawal of British troops from the borders of the South African Republic. When the British refused, Kruger declared war. This Second Anglo- Boer War, also known as the South African War lasted longer than the first, with British troops being supplemented by colonial troops from Southern Rhodesia, Canada, India, Australia and New Zealand. It has been estimated that the total number of British and colonial troops deployed in South Africa during the war outnumbered the population of the two Boer Republics by more than 150,000. By June 1900, Pretoria, the last of the major Boer towns, had surrendered. Yet resistance by Boer bittereinders (meaning those who would fight to the bitter end) continued for two more years with guerrilla warfare, which the British met in turn with scorched earth tactics. The Boers kept on fighting. The British suffragette Emily Hobhouse visited British concentration camps in South Africa and produced a report condemning the appalling conditions there. By 1902, 26,000 Boer women and children had died of disease and neglect in the camps. The Anglo-Boer War affected all race groups in South Africa. Black people were conscripted or otherwise coerced by both sides into working for them either as combatants or non-combatants to sustain the respective war efforts of both the Boers and the British. The official statistics of blacks killed in action are inaccurate. Most of the bodies were dumped in unmarked graves. It has, however, been verified that 17,182 black people died mainly of diseases in the Cape concentration camps alone, but this figure is not accepted historically as a true reflection of the overall numbers. Concentration camp superintendents did not always record the deaths of black inmates in the camps. From the outset of hostilities in October 1899 to the signing of peace on 31 May 1902 the war claimed the lives of 22,000 imperial soldiers and 7,000 republican fighters. In terms of the peace agreement known as the Treaty of Vereeniging, the Boer republics acknowledged British sovereignty, while the British in turn committed themselves to reconstruction of the areas under their control. During the years immediately following the Anglo-Boer wars, Britain set about unifying the four colonies including the former Boer republics into a single self-governed country called the Union of South Africa. This was accomplished after several years of negotiations, when the South Africa Act 1909 consolidated the Cape Colony, Natal, Transvaal, and Orange Free State into one nation. Under the provisions of the act, the Union became an independent Dominion of the British Empire, governed under a form of constitutional monarchy, with the British monarch represented by a Governor-General. Prosecutions before the courts of the Union of South Africa were instituted in the name of the Crown and government officials served in the name of the Crown. The British High Commission territories of Basutoland (now Lesotho), Bechuanaland (now Botswana), and Swaziland continued under direct rule from Britain. Among other harsh segregationist laws, including denial of voting rights to black people, the Union parliament enacted the 1913 Natives' Land Act, which earmarked only eight percent of South Africa's available land for black occupancy. White people, who constituted 20 percent of the population, held 90 percent of the land. The Land Act would form a cornerstone of legalised racial discrimination for the next nine decades. General Louis Botha headed the first government of the new Union, with General Jan Smuts as his deputy. Their South African National Party, later known as the South African Party or SAP, followed a generally pro-British, white-unity line. The more radical Boers split away under the leadership of General Barry Hertzog, forming the National Party (NP) in 1914. The National Party championed Afrikaner interests, advocating separate development for the two white groups, and independence from Britain. Dissatisfaction with British influence in the Union's affairs reached a climax in September 1914, when impoverished Boers, anti-British Boers and bitter-enders launched a rebellion. The rebellion was suppressed, and at least one officer was sentenced to death and executed by firing squad. In 1924 the Afrikaner-dominated National Party came to power in a coalition government with the Labour Party. Afrikaans, previously regarded as a low-level Dutch patois, replaced Dutch as an official language of the Union. English and Dutch became the two official languages in 1925. The Union of South Africa came to an end after a referendum on 5 October 1960, in which a majority of white South Africans voted in favour of unilateral withdrawal from the British Commonwealth and the establishment of a Republic of South Africa. At the outbreak of World War I, South Africa joined Great Britain and the Allies against the German Empire. Both Prime Minister Louis Botha and Defence Minister Jan Smuts were former Second Boer War generals who had previously fought against the British, but they now became active and respected members of the Imperial War Cabinet. Elements of the South African Army refused to fight against the Germans and along with other opponents of the government; they rose in an open revolt known as the Maritz Rebellion. The government declared martial law on 14 October 1914, and forces loyal to the government under the command of generals Louis Botha and Jan Smuts defeated the rebellion. The rebel leaders were prosecuted, fined heavily and sentenced to imprisonment ranging from six to seven years. Nearly 250,000 South Africans served in the South African military units supporting the Allies during World War I. This included 43,000 in German South West Africa and 30,000 on the Western Front. An estimated 3,000 South Africans also joined the Royal Flying Corps. The total South African casualties during the war was about 18,600. South Africa assisted the Allied war effort by capturing the two German colonies of German West Africa and German East Africa, as well as participating in battles in Western Europe and the Middle East. In July 1916, four battalions of the South African Brigade attached to the 9th Scottish Division suffered 766 fatalities among the approximately 3,150 South African soldiers who fought in the Battle of Delville Wood, France. It was the most costly action fought by the South African Brigade on the Western Front. The dead outnumbered the wounded by four to one. Public opinion in South Africa split along racial and ethnic lines. The British elements strongly supported the war, and formed by far the largest military component. Likewise the Indian element (led by Mahatma Gandhi) generally supported the war effort. Afrikaners were split, with some like Botha and Smuts taking a prominent leadership role in the British war effort. This position was rejected by many rural Afrikaners who supported the Maritz Rebellion. The trade union movement was divided. Many urban blacks supported the war expecting it would raise their status in society. Others said it was not relevant to the struggle for their rights. The Coloured element was generally supportive and many served in a Coloured Corps in East Africa and France, also hoping to better themselves after the war. 25,000 Black South Africans were recruited at the request of the British War Cabinet to serve as non-combatant labourers in the South African Native Labour Contingent (SANLC). 21,000 of them were deployed to France as stevedores at French ports, where they were housed in segregated compounds. A total of 616 men from the Fifth Battalion of the SANLC drowned on 21 February 1917 when the troopship SS Mendi, on which they were being transported to France, collided with another vessel near the Isle of Wight. The Mendi disaster was one of South Africa's worst tragedies of the Great War, second perhaps only to the Battle of Delville Wood. The South African government issued no war service medal to the black servicemen and the special medal issued by King George V to "native troops" that served the Empire, the British War Medal in bronze, was disallowed and not issued to the SANLC. Black and mixed-race South Africans who had supported the war were embittered when post-war South Africa saw no easing of white domination and racial segregation. South Africa's main economic role was as the country that supplied two-thirds of gold production in the British Empire, most of the remainder coming from Australia. When the war began, Bank of England officials worked with the government of South Africa to block any gold shipments to Germany, and force the mine owners to sell only to the British Treasury, at prices set by the Treasury. This facilitated purchases of munitions and food in the United States and neutral countries. During World War II, South Africa's ports and harbours, such as at Cape Town, Durban, and Simon's Town, were important strategic assets to the British Royal Navy. South Africa's top-secret Special Signals Service played a significant role in the early development and deployment of radio detection and ranging (radar) technology used in protecting the vital coastal shipping route around southern Africa. By August 1945, South African Air Force aircraft in conjunction with British and Dutch aircraft stationed in South Africa had intercepted 17 enemy ships, assisted in the rescue of 437 survivors of sunken ships, attacked 26 of the 36 enemy submarines operating the vicinity of the South African coast, and flown 15,000 coastal patrol sorties. About 334,000 South Africans volunteered for full-time military service in support of the Allies abroad. Nearly 9,000 were killed in action. On 21 June 1942 nearly 10,000 South African soldiers, representing one-third of the entire South African force in the field, were taken prisoner by German Field Marshal Rommel's forces in the fall of Tobruk, Libya. A number of South African fighter pilots served with distinction in the Royal Air Force during the Battle of Britain, including Group Captain Adolph "Sailor" Malan who led 74 Squadron and established a record of personally destroying 27 enemy aircraft. General Jan Smuts was the only important non-British general whose advice was constantly sought by Britain's war-time Prime Minister Winston Churchill.Smuts was invited to the Imperial War Cabinet in 1939 as the most senior South African in favour of war. On 28 May 1941, Smuts was appointed a Field Marshal of the British Army, becoming the first South African to hold that rank. When the war ended, Smuts represented South Africa in San Francisco at the drafting of the United Nations Charter in May 1945. Just as he had done in 1919, Smuts urged the delegates to create a powerful international body to preserve peace; he was determined that, unlike the League of Nations, the UN would have teeth. Smuts also signed the Paris Peace Treaty, resolving the peace in Europe, thus becoming the only signatory of both the treaty ending the First World War, and that which ended the Second. After the suppression of the abortive, pro-German Maritz Rebellion during the South African World War I campaign against German South West Africa in 1914, the South African rebel General Manie Maritz escaped to Spain. He returned in 1923, and continued working in the Union of South Africa as a German Spy for the Third Reich. In 1896, the German Kaiser Kaiser Wilhelm had enraged Britain by sending congratulations to Boer republican leader Paul Kruger after Kruger's commandos captured a column of British South Africa Company soldiers engaged in an armed incursion and abortive insurrection, known historically as the Jameson Raid, into Boer territory. Germany was the primary supplier of weapons to the Boers during the subsequent Anglo-Boer war. Kaiser Wilhelm's government arranged for the two Boer Republics to purchase modern breech- loading Mauser rifles and millions of smokeless gunpowder cartridges. Germany's Ludwig Loewe company, later known as Deutsche Waffen-und Munitionfabriken, delivered 55,000 of these rifles to the Boers in 1896. The early-1940s saw the pro-Nazi Ossewa Brandwag (OB) movement become half-a- million strong, including future prime minister John Vorster and Hendrik van den Bergh, the future head of police intelligence. The anti-semitic Boerenasie (Boer Nation) and other similar groups soon joined them. When the war ended, the OB was one of the anti-parliamentary groups absorbed into the National Party. The South African Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging or AWB (meaning Afrikaner Resistance Movement), a militant neo-Nazi, mainly Afrikaner white supremacist movement that arose in the 1970s, and was active until the mid-1990s, openly used a flag that closely resembled the swastika. In the early to mid-1990s, the AWB attempted unsuccessfully through various acts of public violence and intimidation to derail the country's transition to democracy. After the country's first multiracial democratic elections in 1994, a number of terrorist bomb blasts were linked to the AWB. On 11 March 1994, several hundred AWB members formed part of an armed right-wing force that invaded the nominally independent "homeland" territory of Bophuthatswana, in a failed attempt to prop up its unpopular, conservative leader Chief Lucas Mangope. The AWB leader Eugène Terre'Blanche was murdered by farm workers on 3 April 2010. A majority of politically moderate Afrikaners were pragmatic and did not support the AWB's extremism. Racist legislation during the apartheid era was a continuation and extension of discriminatory and segregationist laws forming a continuum that had commenced in 1856, under Dutch rule in the Cape, and continued throughout the country under British colonialism. From 1948, successive National Party administrations formalised and extended the existing system of racial discrimination and denial of human rights into the legal system of apartheid, which lasted until 1991. A key act of legislation during this time was the Homeland Citizens Act of 1970. This act augmented the Native Land Act of 1913 through the establishment of so-called "homelands" or "reserves". It authorised the forced evictions of thousands of African people from urban centres in South Africa and South West Africa (now Namibia) to what became described colloquially as "Bantustans" or the "original homes", as they were officially referred to, of the black tribes of South Africa. The same legislation applied also to South West Africa over which South Africa had continued after World War I to exercise a disputed League of Nations mandate. Apartheid apologists attempted to justify the "homelands" policy by citing the 1947 partition of India, when the British had done much the same thing without arousing international condemnation. Although many important events occurred during this period, apartheid remained the central pivot around which most of the historical issues of this period revolved, including violent conflict and the militarisation of South African society. By 1987, total military expenditure amounted to about 28% of the national budget. In the aftermath of the 1976 Soweto uprising and the security clampdown that accompanied it, Joint Management Centres (JMCs) operating in at least 34 State-designated "high- risk" areas became the key element in a National Security Management System. The police and military who controlled the JMCs by the mid-1980s were endowed with influence in decision-making at every level, from the Cabinet down to local government. On 16 December 1966, United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2202 A (XXI) identified apartheid as a "crime against humanity". The Apartheid Convention, as it came to be known, was adopted by the General Assembly on 30 November 1973 with 91 member states voting in favour, four against (Portugal, South Africa, the United Kingdom and the United States) and 26 abstentions. The convention came into force on 18 July 1976. On 23 October 1984 the UN Security Council endorsed this formal determination. The convention declared that apartheid was both unlawful and criminal because it violated the Charter of the United Nations. The General Assembly had already suspended South Africa from the UN organisation on 12 November 1974. On 4 November 1977, the Security Council imposed a mandatory arms embargo in terms of Resolution 181 calling upon all States to cease the sale and shipment of arms, ammunition and military vehicles to South Africa. The country would only be readmitted to the UN in 1994 following its transition to democracy. Apartheid South Africa reacted to the UN arms embargo by strengthening its military ties with Israel, and establishing its own arms manufacturing industry with the help of Israel. Four hundred M-113A1 armoured personnel carriers, and 106mm recoilless rifles manufactured in the United States were delivered to South Africa via Israel. In the mid-1980s, police and army death squads conducted state-sponsored assassinations of dissidents and activists. By mid-1987 the Human Rights Commission knew of at least 140 political assassinations in the country, while about 200 people died at the hands of South African agents in neighbouring states. The exact numbers of all the victims may never be known. Strict censorship disallowed journalists from reporting, filming or photographing such incidents, while the government ran its own covert disinformation programme that provided distorted accounts of the extrajudicial killings. At the same time, State-sponsored vigilante groups carried out violent attacks on communities and community leaders associated with resistance to apartheid. The attacks were then falsely attributed by the government to "black-on-black" or factional violence within the communities. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) would later establish that a covert, informal network of former or still serving army and police operatives, frequently acting in conjunction with extreme right-wing elements, was involved in actions that could be construed as fomenting violence and which resulted in gross human rights violations, including random and targeted killings. Between 1960–1994, according to statistics from the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, the Inkatha Freedom Party was responsible for 4,500 deaths, South African Police 2,700, and the ANC about 1,300. In early 2002, a planned military coup by a white supremacist movement known as the Boeremag (Boer Force) was foiled by the South African police. Two dozen conspirators including senior South African Army officers were arrested on charges of treason and murder, after a bomb explosion in Soweto. The effectiveness of the police in foiling the planned coup strengthened public perceptions that the post-1994 democratic order was irreversible. The TRC, at the conclusion of its mandate in 2004, handed over a list of 300 names of alleged perpetrators to the National Prosecuting Authority (NPA) for investigation and prosecution by the NPA's Priority Crimes Litigation Unit. Less than a handful of prosecutions were ever pursued. South African security forces during the latter part of the apartheid era had a policy of destabilising neighbouring states supporting opposition movements, conducting sabotage operations and attacking ANC bases and places of refuge for exiles in those states. These states, forming a regional alliance of southern African states, were named collectively as the Frontline States: Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Mozambique, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and, from 1980, Zimbabwe. In early-November 1975, immediately after Portugal granted independence to its former African colony of Angola, civil war broke out between the rival UNITA and MPLA movements. In order to prevent UNITA's collapse and cement the rule of a friendly government, South Africa intervened on 23 October, sending between 1,500 and 2,000 troops from Namibia into southern Angola in order to fight the MPLA. In response to the South African intervention, Cuba sent 18,000 soldiers as part of a large-scale military intervention nicknamed Operation Carlota in support of the MPLA. Cuba had initially provided the MPLA with 230 military advisers prior to the South African intervention. The Cuban intervention was decisive in helping reverse SADF and UNITA advances and cement MPLA rule in Angola. More than a decade later 36,000 Cuban troops were deployed throughout the country helping providing support for MPLA's fight with UNITA. The civil war in Angola resulted in 550,000–1,250,000 deaths in total mostly from famine. Most of the deaths occurred between 1992 and 1993, after South African and Cuban involvement had ended. Direct war damage in Angola alone amounted to over $17,000,000,000 in the period 1980–88. Loss of farm production amounted to a further $1,000,000,000. Between 1975 and 1988, the SADF continued to stage massive conventional raids into Angola and Zambia to eliminate PLAN's forward operating bases across the border from Namibia as well as provide support for UNITA. A controversial bombing and airborne assault conducted by 200 South African paratroopers on 4 May 1978 at Cassinga in southern Angola, resulted in around 700 South West Africans being killed, including PLAN militants and a large number of women and children. Colonel Jan Breytenbach, the South African parachute battalion commander, claimed it was "recognised in Western military circles as the most successful airborne assault since World War II." The Angolan government described the target of the attack as a refugee camp. The United Nations Security Council on 6 May 1978 condemned South Africa for the attack. On 23 August 1981 South African troops again launched an incursion into Angola with collaboration and encouragement provided by the American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The Angolan army, in resisting what it perceived as a South African invasion, was supported by a combination of Cuban forces and PLAN and ANC guerrillas, all armed with weapons supplied by the Soviet Union. The apartheid-era South African military and political intelligence services, for their part, worked closely with American, British and West German secret services throughout the Cold War. Both South Africa and Cuba claimed victory at the decisive battle of Cuito Cuanavale, which have been described as "the fiercest in Africa since World War II". However, the South African military had lost air superiority and its technological advantage, largely due to an international arms embargo against the country. South African involvement in Angola ended formally after the signing of a United Nations-brokered agreement known as the New York Accords between the governments of Angola, Cuba and South Africa, resulting in the withdrawal of all foreign troops from Angola and also South Africa's withdrawal from South West Africa (now Namibia), which the UN regarded as illegally occupied since 1966. South Africa in the 1980s also provided logistical and other covert support to Resistência Nacional Moçambicana (RENAMO) rebels, in neighbouring Mozambique fighting the FRELIMO-run government during the Mozambique Civil War, and it launched cross-border raids into Lesotho, Swaziland and Botswana, killing or capturing a number of South African exiles. The civil war in Mozambique resulted in an estimated 1,000,000 deaths from violence and famine. Organised resistance to Afrikaner nationalism was not confined exclusively to activists of the oppressed, dark-skinned population. A movement known as the Torch Commando was formed in the 1950s, led by white war veterans who had fought fascism in Europe and North Africa during World War II, only to find fascism on the rise in South Africa when they returned home. With 250,000 paid-up members at the height of its existence, it was the largest white protest movement in the country's history. By 1952, the brief flame of mass- based white radicalism was extinguished, when the Torch Commando disbanded due to government legislation under the Suppression of Communism Act, 1950. Some members of the Torch Commando subsequently became leading figures in the armed wing of the banned African National Congress. From the 1940s to the 1960s, anti-apartheid resistance within the country took the form mainly of passive resistance, influenced in part by the pacifist ideology of Mahatma Gandhi. After the March 1960 massacre of 69 peaceful demonstrators at Sharpeville, and the subsequent declaration of a state of emergency, and the banning of anti- apartheid parties including the African National Congress (ANC), the Pan- Africanist Congress (PAC), and the Communist Party of South Africa, the focus of national resistance turned to armed struggle and underground activity. The armed wing of the ANC, Umkhonto weSizwe (abbreviation MK, meaning Spear of the Nation) claimed moral legitimacy for the resort to violence on the grounds of necessary defence and just war. From the 1960s onwards until 1989, MK carried out numerous acts of sabotage and attacks on military and police personnel. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission noted in 2003 that, despite the ANC's stated policy of attacking only military and police targets, "the majority of casualties of MK operations were civilians." The national liberation movement was divided in the early 1960s when an "Africanist" faction within the ANC objected to an alliance between the ANC and the Communist Party of South Africa. Leaders of the Communist Party of South Africa were mostly white. The Africanists broke away from the ANC to form the Pan-Africanist Congress and its military wing named Poqo, which became active mainly in the Cape provinces. During the early-1990s, Poqo was renamed Azanian People's Liberation Army (APLA). Its underground cells conducted armed robberies to raise funds and obtain weapons and vehicles. Civilians were killed or injured in many of these robberies. In 1993, attacks on white civilian targets in public places increased. APLA denied the attacks were racist in character, claiming that the attacks were directed against the apartheid government as all whites, according to the PAC, were complicit in the policy of apartheid. An attack on a Christian church in Cape Town in 1993, left eleven people dead and 58 injured. Hundreds of students and others who fled to neighbouring countries, especially Botswana, to avoid arrest after the Soweto uprising of 16 June 1976, provided a fertile recruiting ground for the military wings of both the ANC and PAC. The uprising had been precipitated by Government legislation forcing African students to accept Afrikaans as the official medium for tuition, with support from the wider Black Consciousness Movement. The uprising spread throughout the country. By the time it was finally quelled, hundreds of protesters had been shot dead with many more wounded or arrested by police. A non-racial United Democratic Front (UDF) coalition of about 400 civic, church, student, trade union and other organisations emerged in 1983. At its peak in 1987, the UDF had some 700 affiliates and about 3,000,000 members. It pursued a non-violent strategy known as "ungovernability" including rent boycotts, student protests, and strike campaigns. A strong relationship existed between the African National Congress (ANC) and the UDF, based on the shared mission statement of the Freedom Charter. Following restrictions placed on its activities, the UDF was replaced in 1988 by the Mass Democratic Movement, a loose and amorphous alliance of anti-apartheid groups that had no permanent structure, making it difficult for the government to place a ban on its activities. A total of 130 political prisoners were hanged on the gallows of Pretoria Central Prison between 1960 and 1990. The prisoners were mainly members of the Pan Africanist Congress and United Democratic Front. The dissolution of the Soviet Union in the late-1980s meant the African National Congress (ANC) in alliance with the South African Communist Party, could no longer depend on the Soviet Union for weaponry and political support. It also meant the apartheid government could no longer link apartheid and its purported legitimacy to the protection of Christian values and civilisation in the face of the rooi gevaar, meaning "red danger" or the threat of communism. Both sides were forced to the negotiating table, with the result that in June 1991, all apartheid laws were finally rescinded- opening the way for the country's first multiracial democratic elections three years later. As the culmination of mounting local and international opposition to apartheid in the 1980s, including the armed struggle, widespread civil unrest, economic and cultural sanctions by the international community, and pressure from the anti- apartheid movement around the world, State President F. W. de Klerk announced the lifting of the ban on the African National Congress, the Pan Africanist Congress and the South African Communist Party, as well as the release of political prisoner Nelson Mandela on 2 February 1990, after twenty-seven years in prison. In a referendum held on 17 March 1992, the white electorate voted 68% in favour of democracy. After lengthy negotiations under the auspices of the Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA), a draft constitution was published on 26 July 1993, containing concessions towards all sides: a federal system of regional legislatures, equal voting-rights regardless of race, and a bicameral legislature. From 26–29 April 1994, the South African population voted in the first universal suffrage general elections. The African National Congress won, well ahead of the governing National Party and the Inkatha Freedom Party. The Democratic Party and Pan Africanist Congress, among others, formed a parliamentary opposition in the country's first non- racial parliament. Nelson Mandela was elected as President on 9 May 1994 and formed a Government of National Unity, consisting of the ANC, the National Party and Inkatha. On 10 May 1994 Mandela was inaugurated as South Africa's new President in Pretoria with Thabo Mbeki and F. W. De Klerk as his vice- presidents. The Government of National Unity lapsed at the end of the first parliament sitting in 1999, with the ANC becoming the sole party in power while maintaining a strategic alliance with the Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU) and the South African Communist Party. After considerable debate, and following submissions from advocacy groups, individuals and ordinary citizens, the Parliament enacted a new Constitution and Bill of Rights in 1996. The death penalty was abolished, land reform and redistribution policies were introduced, and equitable labour laws legislated. The immediate post-apartheid period was marked by an exodus of skilled, white South Africans amid safety concerns. The South African Institute of Race Relations estimated in 2008 that 800,000 or more white people had emigrated since 1995, out of the approximately 4,000,000 who were in South Africa when apartheid formally ended the year before. Large white South African diasporas, both English- and Afrikaans-speaking, sprouted in Australia, New Zealand, North America, and especially in the UK, to which around 550,000 South Africans emigrated. The apartheid government had declared a moratorium on foreign debt repayments in the mid-1980s, when it declared a state of emergency in the face of escalating civil unrest. With the formal end of apartheid in 1994, the new democratic government was saddled with an onerous foreign debt amounting to 86,700,000,000 rands ($14,000,000,000 at then current exchange rates) accrued by the former apartheid regime. The cash- strapped post-apartheid government was obliged to repay this debt or else face a credit downgrading by foreign financial institutions. The debt was finally settled in September 2001. A further financial burden was imposed on the new post-apartheid government through its obligation to provide antiretroviral (ARV) treatment to impoverished victims of the HIV/AIDS epidemic sweeping the country. South Africa had the highest prevalence of HIV/AIDS compared to any other country in the world, with 5,600,000 people afflicted by the disease and 270,000 HIV-related deaths were recorded in 2011. By that time, more than 2,000,000 children were orphaned due to the epidemic. The provision of ARV treatment resulted in 100,000 fewer AIDS-related deaths in 2011 than in 2005. By 2014, around 47% of (mostly black) South Africans continued to live in poverty, making it one of the most unequal countries in the world. Widespread dissatisfaction with the slow pace of socio-economic transformation, government incompetence and maladministration, and other public grievances in the post-apartheid era, precipitated many violent protest demonstrations. In 2007, less than half the protests were associated with some form of violence, compared with 2014, when almost 80% of protests involved violence on the part of the participants or the authorities. The slow pace of transformation also fomented tensions within the tripartite alliance between the ANC, the Communist Party and the Congress of South African Trade Unions. The ANC had risen to power on the strength of a socialist agenda embodied in a Freedom Charter, which was intended to form the basis of ANC social, economic and political policies. The Charter decreed that "the national wealth of our country, the heritage of South Africans, shall be restored to the people; the mineral wealth beneath the soil, the banks and monopoly industry shall be transferred to the ownership of the people". ANC icon Nelson Mandela, asserted in a statement released on 25 January 1990: "The nationalisation of the mines, banks and monopoly industries is the policy of the ANC, and a change or modification of our views in this regard is inconceivable." But, after the ANC's electoral victory in 1994, the eradication of mass poverty through nationalisation was never implemented. The ANC-led government, in a historic reversal of policy, adopted neoliberalism instead. A wealth tax on the super- rich to fund developmental projects was set aside, while domestic and international corporations, enriched by apartheid, were excused from any financial reparations. Large corporations were allowed to shift their main listings abroad. According to a leading South African economics expert, the government's concessions to big business represented "treacherous decisions that [will] haunt South Africa for generations to come". The post-apartheid period has been marked by numerous outbreaks of xenophobic attacks against foreign migrants and asylum seekers from various conflict zones in Africa. An academic study conducted in 2006, found that South Africans showed levels of xenophobia greater than anywhere else in the world. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) found that competition over jobs, business opportunities, public services and housing gave rise to tension among refugees, asylum seekers, migrants and host communities, identified as a main cause of the xenophobic violence. South Africa received more than 207,000 individual asylum applications in 2008 and a further 222,300 in 2009, representing nearly a four-fold rise in both years over the levels seen in 2007. These refugees and asylum seekers originated mainly from Zimbabwe, Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia. Under the post-apartheid Constitution the president is head of both state and government. The president is elected by the National Assembly and serves a term that expires at the next general election. A president may serve a maximum of two terms. In the event of a vacancy the Deputy President serves as Acting President. 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(Cape Town: Van Riebeeck Society for the Publication of South African Historical Documents, 2005), Worden, Nigel: Contingent Lives: Social Identity and Material Culture in the VOC World. (Rondeboch: Historical Studies Department, University of Cape Town and ABC Press, 2007, pp. vi + 612), Worden, Nigel (ed.): Cape Town between East and West: Social Identities in a Dutch Colonial Town. (Hilversum: Verloren, 2012, pp. xxii + 264), Worden, Nigel (2007). VOC Cape Town as an Indian Ocean Port, in Himanshu Prabha Ray and Edward A. Alpers (eds.), Cross Currents and Community Networks: The History of the Indian Ocean World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), pp. 142–62, Worden, Nigel (2007). New Approaches to VOC History in South Africa. South African Historical Journal 59 (2007)(1):3-18, Worden, Nigel (2010). After Race and Class: Recent Trends in the Historiography of Early Colonial Cape Society, South African Historical Journal, 62 (2010), Worden, Nigel (2014). Cape Slaves in the Paper Empire of the VOC. (Kronos 40(1):23-44), Worden, Nigel (2016). Indian Ocean Slaves in Cape Town, 1695–1807, journal of Southern African Studies, 42 (2016): 389-408 South African History Archive, Democratic Development in South Africa from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives, South African History Online, The History of South Africa Brand South Africa. Accessed 24 November 2017., South Africa Government Online. Accessed 20 February 2005., Dr Cyril Hromník on research into ancient history of Africa – an article written by Maré Mouton., Bearer of an Ideal – a public-release document of the Afrikanerbond (formerly Afrikaner Broederbond): think-tank which influenced policies of separate development in South Africa, Full text of the UN convention, South Africa, 10 years later from US National Public Radio, (Directory of South African archival and memory institutions and organisations) The history of West Africa has been commonly divided into its prehistory, the Iron Age in Africa, the major polities flourishing, the colonial period, and finally the post-independence era, in which the current nations were formed. West Africa is west of an imagined north-south axis lying close to 10° east longitude, bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and Sahara Desert. Colonial boundaries are reflected in the modern boundaries between contemporary West African states, cutting across ethnic and cultural lines, often dividing single ethnic groups between two or more states. During the Holocene, sedentary farming began to develop in West Africa. The Iron industry, in both smelting and forging for tools and weapons, appeared in Sub-Saharan Africa by 1200 BCE, and by 400 BCE, contact had been made with the Mediterranean civilizations, and a regular trade included exporting gold, cotton, metal, and leather in exchange for copper, horses, salt, textiles, and beads. The Nok culture (1500 BCE - 200/300 BCE) would develop. and vanished under unknown circumstances around 500 AD, thus having lasted approximately 2,000 years. The Serer people would construct the Senegambian stone circles (3rd century BCE - 16th century CE). The Sahelian kingdoms were a series of kingdoms or empires that were built on the sahel, the area of grasslands south of the Sahara. They controlled the trade routes across the desert, and were also quite decentralised, with member cities having a great deal of autonomy. The Ghana Empire may have been established as early as the 7th century CE. It was succeeded by the Sosso in 1230, the Mali Empire in the 13th century CE, and later by the Songhai and Sokoto Caliphate. There were also a number of forest empires and states in this time period. Following the collapse of the Songhai Empire, a number of smaller states arose across West Africa, including the Bambara Empire of Ségou, the lesser Bambara kingdom of Kaarta, the Fula/Malinké kingdom of Khasso (in present-day Mali's Kayes Region), and the Kénédougou Empire of Sikasso. European traders first became a force in the region in the 15th century. The transatlantic African slave trade resumed, with the Portuguese taking hundreds of captives back to their country for use as slaves; however, it would not begin on a grand scale until Christopher Columbus's voyage to the Americas and the subsequent demand for cheap colonial labour. As the demand for slaves increased, some African rulers sought to supply the demand by constant war against their neighbours, resulting in fresh captives. European, American and Haitian governments passed legislation prohibiting the Atlantic slave trade in the 19th century, though the last country to abolish the institution was Brazil in 1888. In 1725, the cattle- herding Fulanis of Fouta Djallon launched the first major reformist jihad of the region, overthrowing the local animist, Mande-speaking elites and attempting to somewhat democratise their society. At the same time, the Europeans started to travel into the interior of Africa to trade and explore. Mungo Park (1771–1806) made the first serious expedition into the region's interior, tracing the Niger River as far as Timbuktu. French armies followed not long after. In the Scramble for Africa in the 1880s the Europeans started to colonise the inland of West Africa, they had previously mostly controlled trading ports along the coasts and rivers. Following World War II, campaigns for independence sprung up across West Africa, most notably in Ghana under the Pan-Africanist Kwame Nkrumah (1909–1972). After a decade of protests, riots and clashes, French West Africa voted for autonomy in a 1958 referendum, dividing into the states of today; most of the British colonies gained autonomy the following decade. Since independence, West Africa has suffered from the same problems as much of the African continent, particularly dictatorships, political corruption and military coups; it has also seen bloody civil wars. The development of oil and mineral wealth has seen the steady modernization of some countries since the early 2000s, though inequality persists. West Africa is west of an imagined north-south axis lying close to 10° east longitude. The Atlantic Ocean forms the western and southern borders of the West African region. The northern border is the Sahara Desert, with the Ranishanu Bend generally considered the northernmost part of the region. The eastern border is less precise, with some placing it at the Benue Trough, and others on a line running from Mount Cameroon to Lake Chad. The area north of West Africa is primarily desert containing the Western Sahara. Ancient West Africa included the Sahara, which became a desert approximately 3000 BCE. During the last glacial period, the Sahara, extending south far beyond the boundaries that now exist. The part just located at the south of the desert is a steppe, a semi-arid region, called the Sahel. It is the ecoclimatic and biogeographic zone of transition in Africa between the Sahara desert to the north and the Sudanian Savanna to the south. The Sudanian Savanna is a broad belt of tropical savanna that runs east and west across the African continent, from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Ethiopian Highlands in the east. The Guinean region is a traditional name for the region that lies along the Gulf of Guinea. It stretches north through the forested tropical regions and ends at the Sahel. The Guinean Forests of West Africa is a belt of tropical moist broadleaf forests along the coast, running in the west from Sierra Leone and Guinea through Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana and Togo, ending at the Sanaga River of Cameroon in the east. The Upper Guinean forests and Lower Guinean forests are divided by the Dahomey Gap, a region of savanna and dry forest in Togo and Benin. The forests are a few hundred kilometres inland from the Atlantic Ocean coast on the southern part of West Africa. Studies of human mitochondrial DNA suggest that all humans share common ancestors from Africa, originated in the southwestern regions near the coastal border of Namibia and Angola at the approximate coordinates 12.5° E, 17.5°S with a divergence in the migration path around 37.5°E, 22.5°N near the Red Sea. A particular haplogroup of DNA, haplogroup L2, evolved between 87,000 and 107,000 years ago or approx. 90,000 YBP. Its age and widespread distribution and diversity across the continent makes its exact origin point within Africa difficult to trace with any confidence, however an origin for several L2 groups in West or Central Africa seems likely, with the highest diversity in West Africa. Most of its subclades are largely confined to West and western- Central Africa. Africans bearing the E-V38 (E1b1a) likely traversed across the Sahara, from east to west, approximately 19,000 years ago. E-M2 (E1b1a1) likely originated in West Africa or Central Africa. Due to the large numbers of West Africans enslaved in the Atlantic slave trade, most African Americans are likely to have mixed ancestry from different regions of western Africa. 60% of African-Americans (in the study) were of the E1b1a haplogroup, within which 22.9% were particularly of the E-M2 haplogroup; they also possessed numerous SNPs (e.g., U175, U209, U181, U290, U174, U186, and U247). Colonial boundaries are reflected in the modern boundaries between contemporary West African states, cutting across ethnic and cultural lines, often dividing single ethnic groups between two or more states. In contrast to most of Central, Southern and Southeast Africa, West Africa is not populated by Bantu-speaking peoples. Bingerville (13,000 BP) and Iwo-Eleru (11,000 BP) are the most early microlithic industries in West Africa. In the 10th millennium BCE, there was development in pyrotechnology and employment of subsistence strategy at Ounjougou, central Mali. Prior to 9400 BCE, Niger-Congo speakers used matured ceramic technology (e.g., pots) in their economy to cook their grain (e.g., Digitaria exilis). And archaeological evidence from central Mali shows that West African peoples had independently invented pottery in the region by that period (by at least 9400 BCE). It is believed that local peoples at that time had begun to become more settled, and to use pottery to store and cook indigenous grains (including pearl millet). During the Holocene, the Green Sahara underwent the process of becoming a desert and became the Sahara; this occurrence may have contributed to the start of domesticating field crops. Akin to the Fertile Crescent of the Near East, the Niger River region of West Africa served as a cradle for field crop domestication and agriculture in Africa. Yams, rice, sorghum. pearl millet, and cowpea are field crops that originate in Africa. Taming of yams (e.g., D. praehensilis) likely began in the basin of the Niger River between eastern Ghana and western Nigeria (e.g., northern Benin). Taming of rice (e.g., Oryza glaberrima) likely began in the Inner Niger Delta region of Mali. Taming of pearl millet (e.g., Cenchrus americanus) likely began in the region of northern Mali and Mauritania. Taming of cowpeas likely began in the region of northern Ghana. In West Africa, the wet phase ushered in expanding rainforest and wooded savannah from Senegal to Cameroon. Between 9000 and 5000 BCE, Niger–Congo speakers domesticated the oil palm and raffia palm. Two seed plants, black-eyed peas and voandzeia (African groundnuts) were domesticated, followed by okra and kola nuts. Since most of the plants grew in the forest, the Niger–Congo speakers invented polished stone axes for clearing forest. During the Green Sahara, at Gobero, there were two groups: the Kiffian and the Tenerian. The Kiffian were hunters who lived approximately 8,000-10.000 years ago. The Tenerian hunted, fished, and herded cattle approximately 4,500-7,000 years ago. In the steppes and savannah of the Sahara and Sahel, the Nilo-Saharan speakers started to collect and domesticate wild millet and sorghum between 8000 and 6000 BCE. Later, gourds, watermelons, castor beans, and cotton were also collected and domesticated. The people started capturing wild cattle and holding them in circular thorn hedges, resulting in domestication. Between 8000 BCE and 5000 BCE, Niger-Congo speakers independently developed agriculture (e.g., yams - Dioscorea). Prior to 5000 BCE, their agricultural practices were spread throughout the woodland savanna, and afterward, were introduced southward into the West African rainforest belt. By 8000 BP, canoes (e.g., Dufuna canoe) were being utilized in West Africa. While some Niger-Congo speakers may have utilized bows and arrows to hunt, other Niger-Congo speakers (e.g., Atlantic, Bak, Kru, Kwa, Ịjọ), who diverged from the hunters, may have utilized canoes to search for resources in river systems. Due to the complexity of pottery patterns and vastness of the area, where interactions between peoples occurred during the mid-Holocene, specifying which linguistic group (e.g., Niger-Congo, Nilo- Saharan, Afroasiatic) is the first settling population is challenging. In any case, pottery in Gajiganna shares cultural similarity, across nearby areas of the southern Sahara, most of all, with northwestern Niger and northwestern Sudan. Pottery from sites, dated to the second millennium BCE, close to the Mandara Mountains in Cameroon and Nigeria, also share affinity with the ceramics in Gajiganna. By 6300 BP, pottery began to appear in Konduga. Occurring in the era of Mega Lake Chad, the pottery was decorated in the custom of Saharan ceramics. Before 5,500 BP, Kordofanian hunters may have traversed from West Africa, along what is now the Wadi Howar, into the Nuba Hills. The Korounkorokalé rockshelter was continually dwelled in by isolated Sub-Saharan Africans who kept a quartz microlithic tradition for a minimum of 5000 years and hunter-gatherer practices up until the mid to late first millennium CE (as asserted by MacDonald); the “little peoples” identified in the oral history of modern savanna residents when they first arrived in the area were used in reference to these Sub-Saharan Africans. In the Aïr Mountains, present-day Niger, copper was smelted independently of developments in the Nile Valley between 3000 and 2500 BC. The process used was not well developed, indicating that it was not brought from outside the region; it became more mature by about 1500 BC. In 4000 BP, there may have been a population that traversed from Africa (e.g., West Africa or West-Central Africa), through the Strait of Gibraltar, into the Iberian peninsula, where admixing between Africans and Iberians (e.g., of northern Portugal, of southern Spain) occurred. In the western Sahel, the rise of settled communities was largely the result of domestication of millet and sorghum. Archaeology points to sizeable urban populations in West Africa beginning in the 2nd millennium BCE. Symbiotic trade relations developed before the trans- Saharan trade, in response to the opportunities afforded by north-south diversity in ecosystems across deserts, grasslands, and forests. The agriculturists received salt from the desert nomads. The desert nomads acquired meat and other foods from pastoralists and farmers of the grasslands and from fishermen on the Niger River. The forest dwellers provided furs and meat. Dhar Tichitt and Oualata were prominent among the early urban centres, dated to 2000 BCE, in present-day Mauritania. About 500 stone settlements littered the region in the former savannah of the Sahara. Its inhabitants fished and grew millet. It has been found that the Soninke of the Mandé peoples were responsible for constructing such settlements. Around 300 BCE, the region became more desiccated and the settlements began to decline, most likely relocating to Koumbi Saleh. From the type of architecture and pottery, it is believed that Tichit was related to the subsequent Ghana Empire. Old Jenne (Djenne) began to be settled around 300 BCE, producing iron and with sizeable population, evidenced in crowded cemeteries. Living structures were made of sun-dried mud. By 250 BCE, Jenne was a large, thriving market town. Two migrations occurred, from first millennium BCE to first millennium CE, likely due to aridification, resulting in significant contributions being made to the overall protohistoric peopling of the Niger Bend. One migration originated from the complex societies (e.g., Dhar Tichitt) of Mauritania and the other migration occurred with the iron metallurgists from Niger. Peoples of the Niger Bend practiced “fishing, hunting, herding, agriculture, iron metallurgy, interregional (or even long-distance) commerce, and sometimes- hierarchical social organization.” The iron industry, in both smelting and forging for tools and weapons, appeared in Sub-Saharan Africa by about 2000-1200 BC. Iron smelting facilities in Niger and Nigeria have been radiocarbon dated to 500 to 1000 BC, and more recently in Nigeria from 2000 BC. Though there is some uncertainty, some archaeologists believe that iron metallurgy was developed independently in sub-Saharan West Africa. Archaeological sites containing iron smelting furnaces and slag have been excavated at sites in the Nsukka region of southeast Nigeria in what is now Igboland: dating to 2000 BC at the site of Lejja (Eze-Uzomaka 2009) and to 750 BC and at the site of Opi (Holl 2009). Smelting furnaces appear in the Nok culture of central Nigeria by about 550 BC and possibly a few centuries earlier. The increased use of iron and the spread of ironworking technology led to improved weaponry and enabled farmers to expand agricultural productivity and produce surplus crops, which together supported the growth of urban city-states into empires. By 400 BC, contact had been made with the Mediterranean civilisations, including that of Carthage, and a regular trade in gold being conducted with the Sahara Berbers, as noted by Herodotus. The trade was fairly small until the camel was introduced, with Mediterranean goods being found in pits as far south as Northern Nigeria. A profitable trade had developed by which West Africans exported gold, cotton cloth, metal ornaments, and leather goods north across the trans-Saharan trade routes, in exchange for copper, horses, salt, textiles, and beads. Later, ivory, slaves, and kola nuts were also traded. The civilization of Djenné-Djenno was located in the Niger River Valley in the country of Mali and is considered to be among the oldest urbanized centers and the best known archaeology site in sub-Saharan Africa. This archaeological site is located about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) away from the modern town, and is believed to have been involved in long distance trade and possibly the domestication of African rice. The site is believed to exceed 33 hectares (82 acres); however this is yet to be confirmed with extensive survey work. With the help of archaeological excavations mainly by Susan and Roderick McIntosh, the site is known to have been occupied from 250 BCE to 900 CE The city is believed to have been abandoned and moved where the current city is located due to the spread of Islam and the building of the Great Mosque of Djenné. Previously, it was assumed that advanced trade networks and complex societies did not exist in the region until the arrival of traders from Southwest Asia. However, sites such as Djenné-Djenno disprove this, as these traditions in West Africa flourished long before. In central Nigeria, around 1500 BCE, the Nok culture developed on the Jos Plateau, until it vanished under unknown circumstances by 200 or 300 CE. It was a highly centralised community. The Nok people produced miniature, lifelike representations in terracotta, including human figures, human heads, elephants, and other animals. Iron use, in smelting and forging for tools, appears in Nok culture in Africa at least by 550 BC and possibly earlier, prior to 1000 BC. Based on stylistic similarities with the Nok terracottas, the bronze figurines of the Yoruba kingdom of Ife and the Bini kingdom of Benin are now believed to be continuations of the traditions of the earlier Nok culture. The prehistoric and ancient history of the Serer people of modern-day Senegambia has been extensively studied and documented over the years. Much of it comes from archaeological discoveries and Serer tradition rooted in the Serer religion. Material relics were found in different Serer countries, most of which refer to the past origins of Serer families, villages and Serer Kingdoms, some of these Serer relics included gold, silver and metals. The known objects found in Serer countries are divided into two types, the remnants of earlier populations, and the laterite megaliths carved planted in circular structures with stones directed towards the east are found only in small parts of the ancient Serer kingdom of Saloum. The Senegambian stone circles are megaliths found in Gambia north of Janjanbureh and in central Senegal. The megaliths found in Senegal and Gambia are sometimes divided into four large sites: Sine Ngayene and Wanar in Senegal, and Wassu and Kerbatch in the Central River Region in Gambia. Researchers are not certain when these monuments were built, but the generally accepted range is between the third century BCE and the sixteenth century CE. Archaeologists have also found pottery sherds, human burials, and some grave goods and metals. The monuments consist of what were originally upright blocks or pillars (some have collapsed), made of mostly laterite with smooth surfaces. The construction of the stone monuments shows evidence of a prosperous and organised society based on the amount of labour required to build such structures. The builders of these megaliths are unknown, but some believe that the Serer people are the builders. This hypothesis comes from the fact that the Serer still use funerary houses like those found at Wanar. The Sahelian kingdoms were a series of kingdoms or empires that were centred on the sahel, the area of grasslands south of the Sahara. The wealth of the states came from controlling the trade routes across the desert. Their power came from having large pack animals like camels and horses that were fast enough to keep a large empire under central control and were also useful in battle. All of these empires were also quite decentralised with member cities having a great deal of autonomy. The Ghana Empire may have been an established kingdom as early as the 7th century CE, founded among the Soninke, a Mandé people who lived at the crossroads of this new trade, around the city of Kumbi Saleh. Ghana was first mentioned by Arab geographer Al-Farazi in the late 8th century. After 800, the empire expanded rapidly, coming to dominate the entire western Sudan; at its height, the empire could field an army of 200,000 soldiers. Ghana was inhabited by urban dwellers and rural farmers. The urban dwellers were the administrators of the empire, who were Muslims, and the Ghana (king), who practised traditional religion. Two towns existed, one where the Muslim administrators and Berber-Arabs lived, which was connected by a stone-paved road to the king's residence. The rural dwellers lived in villages, which joined together into broader polities that pledged loyalty to the Ghana. The Ghana was viewed as divine, and his physical well-being reflected on the whole society. Ghana converted to Islam around 1050, after conquering Aoudaghost. The Ghana Empire grew wealthy by taxing the trans-Saharan trade that linked Tiaret and Sijilmasa to Aoudaghost. Ghana controlled access to the goldfields of Bambouk, southeast of Koumbi Saleh. A percentage of salt and gold going through its territory was taken. The empire was not involved in production. In the 10th century, however, Islam was steadily growing in the region, and due to various influences, including internal dynastic struggles coupled with competing foreign interests (namely Almoravid intervention). By the 11th century, Ghana was in decline. It was once thought that the sacking of Koumbi Saleh by Berbers under the Almoravid dynasty in 1076 was the cause. This is no longer accepted. Several alternative explanations are cited. One important reason is the transfer of the gold trade east to the Niger River and the Taghaza Trail, and Ghana's consequent economic decline. Another reason cited is political instability through rivalry among the different hereditary polities. The empire came to an end in 1230, when Takrur in northern Senegal took over the capital. The first successor to the Ghana Empire was that of the Sosso, a Takrur people who built their empire on the ruins of the old. Despite initial successes, however, the Sosso king Soumaoro Kanté was defeated by the Mandinka prince Sundiata Keita at the Battle of Kirina in 1240, toppling the Sosso and guaranteeing the supremacy of Sundiata's new Mali Empire. The Mali Empire began in the 13th century CE, eventually creating a centralised state including most of West Africa. It originated when a Mande (Mandingo) leader, Sundiata (Lord Lion) of the Keita clan, defeated Soumaoro Kanté, king of the Sosso or southern Soninke, at the Battle of Kirina in c. 1235. Sundiata continued his conquest from the fertile forests and Niger Valley, east to the Niger Bend, north into the Sahara, and west to the Atlantic Ocean, absorbing the remains of the Ghana Empire. Sundiata took on the title of mansa. He established the capital of his empire at Niani. Although the salt and gold trade continued to be important to the Mali Empire, agriculture and pastoralism was also critical. The growing of sorghum, millet, and rice was a vital function. On the northern borders of the Sahel, grazing cattle, sheep, goats, and camels were major activities. Mande society was organised around the village and land. A cluster of villages was called a kafu, ruled by a farma. The farma paid tribute to the mansa. A dedicated army of elite cavalry and infantry maintained order, commanded by the royal court. A formidable force could be raised from tributary regions, if necessary. Conversion to Islam was a gradual process. The power of the mansa depended on upholding traditional beliefs and a spiritual foundation of power. Sundiata initially kept Islam at bay. Later mansas were devout Muslims but still acknowledged traditional deities and took part in traditional rituals and festivals, which were important to the Mande. Islam became a court religion under Sundiata's son Uli I (1225–1270). Mansa Uli made a pilgrimage to Mecca, becoming recognised within the Muslim world. The court was staffed with literate Muslims as secretaries and accountants. Muslim traveller Ibn Battuta left vivid descriptions of the empire. Mali reached the peak of its power and extent in the 14th century, when Mansa Musa (1312–1337) made his famous hajj to Mecca with 500 slaves, each holding a bar of gold worth 500 mithqal. Mansa Musa's hajj devalued gold in Mamluk Egypt for a decade. He made a great impression on the minds of the Muslim and European world. He invited scholars and architects like Ishal al-Tuedjin (al-Sahili) to further integrate Mali into the Islamic world. The Mali Empire saw an expansion of learning and literacy. In 1285, Sakura, a freed slave, usurped the throne. This mansa drove the Tuareg out of Timbuktu and established it as a center of learning and commerce. The book trade increased, and book copying became a very respectable and profitable profession. Kankou Musa I founded a university at Timbuktu and instituted a programme of free health care and education for Malian citizens with the help of doctors and scholars brought back from his legendary hajj. Timbuktu and Djenné became important centres of learning within the Muslim world. After the reign of Mansa Suleyman (1341–1360), Mali began its spiral downward. Mossi cavalry raided the exposed southern border. Tuareg harassed the northern border to retake Timbuktu. Fulani (Fulbe) eroded Mali's authority in the west by establishing the independent Imamate of Futa Toro, a successor to the kingdom of Takrur. Serer and Wolof alliances were broken. In 1545 to 1546, the Songhai Empire took Niani. After 1599, the empire lost the Bambouk goldfields and disintegrated into petty polities. Kankou Musa's successors, however, weakened the empire significantly, leading the city-state of Gao to make a bid for independence and regional power in the 15th century. Under the leadership of Sonni Ali (r. 1464–1492), the Songhai of Gao formed the Songhai Empire, which would fill the vacuum left by the Mali Empire's collapse. The Songhai people are descended from fishermen on the Middle Niger River. They established their capital at Kukiya in the 9th century CE and at Gao in the 12th century. The Songhai speak a Nilo-Saharan language. Sonni Ali, a Songhai, began his conquest by capturing Timbuktu in 1468 from the Tuareg. He extended the empire to the north, deep into the desert, pushed the Mossi further south of the Niger, and expanded southwest to Djenne. His army consisted of cavalry and a fleet of canoes. Sonni Ali was not a Muslim, and he was portrayed negatively by Berber-Arab scholars, especially for attacking Muslim Timbuktu. After his death in 1492, his heirs were deposed by General Muhammad Ture, a Muslim of Soninke origins. Muhammad Ture (1493–1528) founded the Askiya Dynasty, askiya being the title of the king. He consolidated the conquests of Sonni Ali. Islam was used to extend his authority by declaring jihad on the Mossi, reviving the trans-Saharan trade, and having the Abbasid "shadow" caliph in Cairo declare him as caliph of Sudan. He established Timbuktu as a great center of Islamic learning. Muhammad Ture expanded the empire by pushing the Tuareg north, capturing Aïr in the east, and capturing salt-producing Taghaza. He brought the Hausa states into the Songhay trading network. He further centralised the administration of the empire by selecting administrators from loyal servants and families and assigning them to conquered territories. They were responsible for raising local militias. Centralisation made Songhay very stable, even during dynastic disputes. Leo Africanus left vivid descriptions of the empire under Askiya Muhammad. Askiya Muhammad was deposed by his son in 1528. After much rivalry, Muhammad Ture's last son Askiya Daoud (1529–1582) assumed the throne. In 1591, Morocco invaded the Songhai Empire under Ahmad al-Mansur of the Saadi Dynasty to secure the goldfields of the Sahel. At the Battle of Tondibi, the Songhai army was defeated. The Moroccans captured Djenne, Gao, and Timbuktu, but they were unable to secure the whole region. Askiya Nuhu and the Songhay army regrouped at Dendi in the heart of Songhai territory where a spirited guerrilla resistance sapped the resources of the Moroccans, who were dependent upon constant resupply from Morocco. Songhai split into several states during the 17th century. Morocco found its venture unprofitable. The gold trade had been diverted to Europeans on the coast. Most of the trans-Saharan trade was now diverted east to Bornu. Expensive equipment purchased with gold had to be sent across the Sahara, an unsustainable scenario. The Moroccans who remained married into the population and were referred to as Arma or Ruma. They established themselves at Timbuktu as a military caste with various fiefs, independent from Morocco. Amid the chaos, other groups began to assert themselves, including the Fulani of Futa Tooro who encroached from the west. The Bambara Empire, one of the states that broke from Songhai, sacked Gao. In 1737, the Tuareg massacred the Arma. The Fulani were migratory people. They moved from Mauritania and settled in Futa Tooro, Futa Djallon, and subsequently throughout the rest of West Africa. By the 14th century CE, they had converted to Islam. During the 16th century, they established themselves at Macina in southern Mali. During the 1670s, they declared jihads on non-Muslims. Several states were formed from these jihadist wars, including Bundu, the Imamate of Futa Toro, the Imamate of Futa Jallon, and the Massina Empire. The most important of these states was the Sokoto Caliphate or Fulani Empire. In the city of Gobir, Usman dan Fodio (1754–1817) accused the Hausa leadership of practising an impure version of Islam and of being morally corrupt. In 1804, he launched the Fulani War as a jihad among a population that was restless about high taxes and discontented with its leaders. Jihad fever swept northern Nigeria, with strong support among both the Fulani and the Hausa. Usman created an empire that included parts of northern Nigeria, Benin, and Cameroon, with Sokoto as its capital. He retired to teach and write and handed the empire to his son Muhammed Bello. The Sokoto Caliphate lasted until 1903 when the British conquered northern Nigeria. The Akan speak a Kwa Language. The speakers of Kwa languages are believed to have come from East/Central Africa, before settling in the Sahel. By the 12th century, the Akan Kingdom of Bonoman (Bono State) was established. Bonoman was a trading state created by the Abron people. Bonoman was a medieval Akan kingdom in what is now the Brong-Ahafo Region of Ghana and eastern Ivory Coast. It is generally accepted as the origin of the subgroups of the Akan people who migrated out of the state at various times to create new Akan states in search of gold. The gold trade, which started to boom in Bonoman as early in the 12th century, was the genesis of Akan power and wealth in the region, beginning in the Middle Ages. During the 13th century, when the gold mines in modern-day Mali started to become depleted, Bonoman and later other Akan states began to rise to prominence as the major players in the gold trade. It was Bonoman and other Akan kingdoms like Denkyira, Akyem, Akwamu which were the predecessors to what became the all-powerful Empire of Ashanti. When and how the Ashante got to their present location is debatable. What is known is that by the 17th century an Akan people were identified as living in a state called Kwaaman. The location of the state was north of Lake Bosomtwe. The state's revenue was mainly derived from trading in gold and kola nuts and clearing forest to plant yams. They built towns between the Pra and Ofin rivers. They formed alliances for defence and paid tribute to Denkyira one of the more powerful Akan states at that time along with Adansi and Akwamu. During the 16th century, Ashante society experienced sudden changes, including population growth because of cultivation of New World plants such as cassava and maize and an increase in the gold trade between the coast and the north. By the 17th century, Osei Kofi Tutu I (c. 1695–1717), with help of Okomfo Anokye, unified what became the Ashante into a confederation with the Golden Stool as a symbol of their unity and spirit. Osei Tutu engaged in a massive territorial expansion. He built up the Ashante army based on the Akan state of Akwamu, introducing new organisation and turning a disciplined militia into an effective fighting machine. In 1701, the Ashante conquered Denkyira, giving them access to the coastal trade with Europeans, especially the Dutch. Opoku Ware I (1720–1745) engaged in further expansion, adding other southern Akan states to the growing empire. He turned north adding Techiman, Banda, Gyaaman, and Gonja, states on the Black Volta. Between 1744 and 1745, Asantehene Opoku attacked the powerful northern state of Dagomba, gaining control of the important middle Niger trade routes. Kusi Obodom (1750–1764) succeeded Opoku. He solidified all the newly won territories. Osei Kwadwo (1777–1803) imposed administrative reforms that allowed the empire to be governed effectively and to continue its military expansion. Osei Kwame Panyin (1777–1803), Osei Tutu Kwame (1804–1807), and Osei Bonsu (1807–1824) continued territorial consolidation and expansion. The Ashante Empire included all of present-day Ghana and large parts of Côte d'Ivoire. The ashantehene inherited his position from his mother. He was assisted at the capital, Kumasi, by a civil service of men talented in trade, diplomacy, and the military, with a head called the Gyaasehene. Men from Arabia, Sudan, and Europe were employed in the civil service, all of them appointed by the ashantehene. At the capital and in other towns, the ankobia or special police were used as bodyguards to the ashantehene, as sources of intelligence, and to suppress rebellion. Communication throughout the empire was maintained via a network of well-kept roads from the coast to the middle Niger and linking together other trade cities. For most of the 19th century, the Ashante Empire remained powerful. It was later destroyed in 1900 by British superior weaponry and organisation following the four Anglo-Ashanti wars. The Dahomey Kingdom was founded in the early 17th century CE when the Aja people of the Allada kingdom moved northward and settled among the Fon. They began to assert their power a few years later. In so doing they established the Kingdom of Dahomey, with its capital at Agbome. King Houegbadja (c. 1645–1685) organised Dahomey into a powerful centralised state. He declared all lands to be owned of the king and subject to taxation. Primogeniture in the kingship was established, neutralising all input from village chiefs. A "cult of kingship" was established. A captive slave would be sacrificed annually to honour the royal ancestors. During the 1720s, the slave-trading states of Whydah and Allada were taken, giving Dahomey direct access to the slave coast and trade with Europeans. King Agadja (1708–1740) attempted to end the slave trade by keeping the slaves on plantations producing palm oil, but the European profits on slaves and Dahomey's dependency on firearms were too great. In 1730, under king Agaja, Dahomey was conquered by the Oyo Empire, and Dahomey had to pay tribute. Taxes on slaves were mostly paid in cowrie shells. During the 19th century, palm oil was the main trading commodity. France conquered Dahomey during the Second Franco-Dahomean War (1892–1894) and established a colonial government there. Most of the troops who fought against Dahomey were native Africans. Traditionally, the Yoruba people viewed themselves as the inhabitants of a united empire, in contrast to the situation today, in which "Yoruba" is the cultural-linguistic designation for speakers of a language in the Niger–Congo family. The name comes from a Hausa word to refer to the Oyo Empire. The first Yoruba state was Ile-Ife, said to have been founded around 1000 CE by a supernatural figure, the first oni Oduduwa. Oduduwa's sons would be the founders of the different city-states of the Yoruba, and his daughters would become the mothers of the various Yoruba obas, or kings. Yoruba city-states were usually governed by an oba and an iwarefa, a council of chiefs who advised the oba. By the 18th century, the Yoruba city-states formed a loose confederation, with the Oni of Ife as the head and Ife as the capital. As time went on, the individual city-states became more powerful with their obas assuming more powerful spiritual positions and diluting the authority of the Oni of Ife. Rivalry became intense among the city-states. The Oyo Empire rose in the 16th century. The Oyo state had been conquered in 1550 by the kingdom of Nupe, which was in possession of cavalry, an important tactical advantage. The alafin (king) of Oyo was sent into exile. After returning, Alafin Orompoto (c. 1560–1580) built up an army based on heavily armed cavalry and long- service troops. This made them invincible in combat on the northern grasslands and in the thinly wooded forests. By the end of the 16th century, Oyo had added the western region of the Niger to the hills of Togo, the Yoruba of Ketu, Dahomey, and the Fon nation. A governing council served the empire, with clear executive divisions. Each acquired region was assigned a local administrator. Families served in king-making capacities. Oyo, as a northern Yoruba kingdom, served as middle-man in the north-south trade and connecting the eastern forest of Guinea with the western and central Sudan, the Sahara, and North Africa. The Yoruba manufactured cloth, ironware, and pottery, which were exchanged for salt, leather, and most importantly horses from the Sudan to maintain the cavalry. Oyo remained strong for two hundred years. It became a protectorate of Great Britain in 1888, before further fragmenting into warring factions. The Oyo state ceased to exist as any sort of power in 1896. The Kwa Niger–Congo speaking Edo people. By the mid-15th century, the Benin Empire was engaged in political expansion and consolidation. Under Oba (king) Ewuare (c. 1450–1480 CE), the state was organised for conquest. He solidified central authority and initiated 30 years of war with his neighbours. At his death, the Benin Empire extended to Dahomey in the west, to the Niger Delta in the east, along the west African coast, and to the Yoruba towns in the north. Ewuare's grandson Oba Esigie (1504–1550) eroded the power of the uzama (state council) and increased contact and trade with Europeans, especially with the Portuguese who provided a new source of copper for court art. The oba ruled with the advice from the uzama, a council consisting of chiefs of powerful families and town chiefs of different guilds. Later its authority was diminished by the establishment of administrative dignitaries. Women wielded power. The queen mother who produced the future oba wielded immense influence. Benin was never a significant exporter of slaves, as Alan Ryder's book Benin and the Europeans showed. By the early 1700s, it was wrecked with dynastic disputes and civil wars. However, it regained much of its former power in the reigns of Oba Eresoyen and Oba Akengbuda. After the 16th century, Benin mainly exported pepper, ivory, gum, and cotton cloth to the Portuguese and Dutch who resold it to other African societies on the coast. In 1897, the British sacked the city. The Niger Delta comprised numerous city-states with numerous forms of government. These city-states were protected by the waterways and thick vegetation of the delta. The region was transformed by trade in the 17th century CE. The delta's city-states were comparable to those of the Swahili people in East Africa. Some, like Bonny, Kalabari, and Warri, had kings. Others, like Brass, were republics with small senates, and those at Cross River and Old Calabar were ruled by merchants of the ekpe society. The ekpe society regulated trade and made rules for members known as house systems. Some of these houses, like the Pepples of Bonny, were well known in the Americas and Europe. The Igbo primarily lived east of the delta (but with the Anioma on the west of the Niger River). The Kingdom of Nri rose in the 10th century CE, with the Eze Nri being its leader. It was a political entity composed of villages, and each village was autonomous and independent with its own territory and name, each recognised by its neighbours. Villages were democratic with all males and sometimes females a part of the decision-making process. Graves at Igbo-Ukwu (800 CE) contained brass artefacts of local manufacture and glass beads from Egypt or India, indicative of extraregional trade. The Aro Confederacy was a political union orchestrated by the Igbo subgroup, the Aro people, centered in the Arochukwu Kingdom in present-day south-eastern Nigeria. It was founded at the end of the 16th century, and their influence and presence was across Eastern Nigeria into parts of the Niger Delta and Southern Igala during the 18th and 19th centuries. Following the collapse of the Songhai Empire, a number of smaller states arose across West Africa, including the Bambara Empire of Ségou, the lesser Bambara kingdom of Kaarta, the Fula/Malinké kingdom of Khasso (in present-day Mali's Kayes Region), and the Kénédougou Empire of Sikasso. European traders first became a force in the region in the 15th century, with the 1445 establishment of a Portuguese trading post at Arguin Island, off the coast of present-day Senegal; by 1475, Portuguese traders had reached as far as the Bight of Benin. The transatlantic African slave trade began almost immediately after based on the already well established slave trading capacity serving the Islamic world, with the Portuguese taking hundreds of captives back to their country for use as slaves; however, it would not begin on a grand scale until Christopher Columbus's voyage to the Americas and the subsequent demand for cheap colonial labour. In 1510, the Spanish crown legalised the African slave trade, followed by the English in 1562 . By 1650 the slave trade was in full force at a number of sites along the coast of West Africa, and over the coming centuries would result in severely reduced growth for the region's population and economy. The expanding Atlantic slave trade produced significant populations of West Africans living in the New World, recently colonised by Europeans. The oldest known remains of African slaves in the Americas were found in Mexico in early 2006; they are thought to date from the late 16th century and the mid-17th century. As the demand for slaves increased, some African rulers sought to supply the demand by constant war against their neighbours, resulting in fresh captives. States such as Dahomey (in modern-day Benin) and the Bambara Empire- based much of their economy on the exchange of slaves for European goods, particularly firearms that they then employed to capture more slaves. Moreover, during colonial rule both British and Dutch authorities were active in recruiting African slaves into the national military service. As it was believed that African black population was more immune than Europeans to the tropical diseases present in India and Indonesia. Recruitment changed format after the Atlantic slave trade was abolished by European and American governments in 19th century. For instance, 1831 was the first year when only volunteers were accepted for the military service. Though slavery in the Americas persisted in some capacity even after it was prohibited; the last country to abolish the institution was Brazil in 1888. Descendants of West Africans make up large and important segments of the population in Brazil, the Caribbean, the United States, and throughout the New World. African Americans in several major US cities who took part in a genetic research study, concluded that their common ancestry originated most prominently in western Africa which is consistent with prior genetic studies and the history of slave trade. In 1725, the cattle-herding Fulanis of Fouta Djallon launched the first major reformist jihad of the region, overthrowing the local animist, Mande-speaking elites and attempting to somewhat democratise their society. A similar movement occurred on a much broader scale in the Hausa city-states of Nigeria under Uthman dan Fodio; an imam influenced by the teachings of Sidi Ahmed al- Tidjani, Uthman preached against the elitist Islam of the then-dominant Qadiriyyah brotherhood, winning a broad base of support amongst the common people. Uthman's Fulani Empire was soon one of the region's largest states, and inspired the later jihads of Massina Empire founder Seku Amadu in present- day Mali, and the cross-Sudan Toucouleur conqueror El Hadj Umar Tall. At the same time, the Europeans started to travel into the interior of Africa to trade and explore. Mungo Park (1771–1806) made the first serious expedition into the region's interior, tracing the Niger River as far as Timbuktu. French armies followed not long after. In 1774 it was noted that the extensive coastline and deep rivers of Africa had not been utilised for 'correspondence or commerce', yet maps in this ancient volume clearly show the "Gum Coast", "Grain Coast", "Ivory Coast", and "Gold Coast". Malachy Postlethwayt writes "It is melancholy to observe that a country, which has near ten thousand miles sea-coast, and noble, large, deep rivers, should yet have no navigation; streams penetrating into the very center of the country, but of no benefit to it, innumerable people, without knowledge of each other, correspondence, or commerce." In the Scramble for Africa in the 1880s the Europeans started to colonise the inland of West Africa, they had previously mostly controlled trading ports along the coasts and rivers. Samory Ture's newly founded Wassoulou Empire was the last to fall, and with his capture in 1898, military resistance to French colonial rule effectively ended. France dominated West Africa, followed by Britain; small colonial operations were held by Germany (until 1914), and also Spain and Portugal. Only Liberia was independent before 1958. After the slave trade trade died out, Denmark and the Netherlands sold off their small holdings. Britain operated from four small coastal areas left over from slavery days, Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast, Lagos and the Niger. The trade in useful tropical products reached £4 million-a-year, and was entirely handled by a small number of resident merchants. There were no permanent British settlers or military bases. The posts were held entirely for trade purposes, and also as calling stations. London had no long-term plans to join them together or go inland. British diplomats negotiated military agreements with local tribes, who needed British protection from the expansionist Ashanti tribes. Britain fought repeated Anglo-Ashante wars in Gold Coast in 1823, 1824-1831, 1863–64, 1873–74, 1895–96 and 1900. Only the last two were clear British victories. French pretensions in West Africa were much more ambitious, and involved not just trade, but rebuilding the lost Empire, And bringing new populations in the umbrella of French civilization and Catholicism. There were dreams of consolidating a vast African empire by moving down from the Mediterranean into the Sahara desert, moving east toward the Nile River, and moving south Toward King Leopold’s Congo. Following World War II, campaigns for independence sprung up across West Africa, most notably in Ghana under the Pan-Africanist Kwame Nkrumah (1909–1972). After a decade of protests, riots and clashes, French West Africa voted for autonomy in a 1958 referendum, dividing into the states of today; most of the British colonies gained autonomy the following decade. Ghana became the first country of sub-Saharan Africa to achieve independence in 1957, followed by Guinea under the guidance Sekou Touré the next year. Out of the 17 nations that achieved their independence in 1960, the Year of Africa, nine were West African countries. Many founding fathers of West African nations, like Nkrumah, Touré, Senghor, Modibo Keïta, Sylvanus Olympio, Félix Houphouët-Boigny, Siaka Stevens and Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, consolidated their power during the post-independence 1960s by gradually eroding democratic institutions and civil society. In 1973, Guinea-Bissau proclaimed its independence from Portugal, and was internationally recognised following the 1974 Carnation Revolution in Portugal. West African political history has been characterised by African socialism. Senghor, Nkrumah and Touré all embraced the idea of African socialism, whereas Houphouët-Boigny and Liberia's William Tubman remained suspicious of it. 1983 saw the rise of socialist Thomas Sankara, often titled the "Che Guevara of Africa", to power in Burkina Faso. Since independence, West Africa has suffered from the same problems as much of the African continent, particularly dictatorships, political corruption and military coups. At the time of his death in 2005, for example, Togo's Étienne Eyadéma was among the world's longest-ruling dictators. Inter-country conflicts have been few, with Mali and Burkina Faso's nearly bloodless Agacher Strip War being a rare exception. The region of West Africa has seen a number of civil wars in its recent past including the Nigerian Civil War (1967–1970), two civil wars in Liberia in 1989 and 1999, a decade of fighting in Sierra Leone from 1991–2002, the Guinea-Bissau Civil War from 1998–1999 and a recent conflict in Côte d'Ivoire that began on 2002 ending 2007 and a second conflict in 2010–11. After gaining full independence from the British Empire in 1963, Nigeria established the first republic. The republic was heavily influenced by British democracy and relied on majority rule. The first republic fell after a successful coup d'état led by southern Nigerian rebels on 15 January 1966. The fall of the first republic left behind apparent political division between North and South Nigeria. This led to the military governor of south-eastern Nigeria, Colonel Odumegwu Ojukwu, deeming that because of northern massacres and electoral fraud, the Southeast of Nigeria should be an independent state. The independent state became known as the Republic of Biafra. Northern Nigeria opposed the claim of southern secession. The Nigerian government called for police action in the area. The armed forces of Nigeria were sent in to occupy and take back the Republic of Biafra. Nigerian forces seized Biafra in a series of phases. The phases were, the Capture of Nsukka, the Capture of Ogoja, Capture of Abakaliki, and the Capture of Enugu. All of the perpetrated phases and campaigns were successful due to the advantaged army of Nigeria. By 1970, Biafraian general, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu, fled to the neighboring nation of Côte d'Ivoire. After the flee, Biafra, facing no other option, surrendered due to lack of resources and leadership. Biafra quickly united with the northern Nigeria on 15 January 1970. The conflict is estimated to have killed roughly 1 million people. The civil war began on 23 March 1991 as a result of an attempted overthrow against the administration of president, Joseph Saidu Momoh. The rebels went under the guise of the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) led by Foday Sankoh a previous army corporal. The Sierra Leoneian government called for action and soon the Sierra Leone Army (SLA) was sent in to control the situation and take back RUF occupied territory. By 1992 president Joseph Momoh was ousted by a successful military coup led by Captain Valentine Strasser. Capitan Strasser, soon established multi-party democratic elections in the region. On 18 January 2002, the civil war was officially ended by former president Kabbah. During the 11 year conflict, roughly 50,000 Sierra Leoneians were killed with 2,000,000 displaced. Before the civil war began, an attempted coup d'état took place led by military Brigadier General Ansumane Mané. Mané leading the coup, blamed the presidency of Joao Bernardo Vieira for the poverty and corruption of Guinea Bissau. President Vieira, controlling the armed forces, soon fired Mané from his position of Brigadier General. He was fired on charges of supplying Senegal rebels. On 7 June 1998, a second coup d'état began. The coup once again failed. Soon after, rebels received aid from the neighboring nations of Senegal and Guinea-Conakry. The conflict sparked a civil war. Many soldiers in the armed forces of Guinea-Bissau joined the side of the rebels. This was in part, due to the soldiers not being paid by the government. The rebels continued to fight from 1998 to 1999. President Vieira was ousted on 7 May 1999. By 10 May 1999, the war ended when President Vieira signed an unconditional surrender in a Portuguese embassy. Approximately 655 were killed as a result of the conflict. In the early 2000s, the Ivory Coast (also known as Côte d'Ivoire) experienced an economic rescission. The rescission began as a result of the previous economic boom crashing the economy as a whole. This led to the predominantly Muslim north and predominantly Christian south of the Ivory Coast becoming politically divided. The southern Ivory Coast was in control of the Ivorian government. The north however, was under the power of the rebel movement. The civil war between the two began officially on 19 September 2002 when rebels launched a series of attacks on the south. The city of Abidjan was primarily targeted. Northern rebels were successful in the attacks. As a result of the chaos, president Robert Guéï was killed in the rebellions. The south retailed with military action. France supported the south and sent 2500 soldiers to the region and called for United Nations action. French action in the area went under the guise and codename of Operation Unicorn. By 2004 most fighting in the region ceased. On 4 March 2007 the civil war official ended with the signing of a peace treaty. Traditional African medicine is a holistic discipline involving indigenous herbalism and African spirituality. Practitioners claim to be able to cure various and diverse conditions. Modern science has, in the past, considered methods of traditional knowledge as primitive and backward. Under colonial rule, traditional diviner-healers were outlawed because they were considered by many nations to be practitioners of witchcraft and declared illegal by the colonial authorities, creating a war against witchcraft and magic. During this time, attempts were also made to control the sale of herbal medicines. As colonialism and Christianity spread through Africa, colonialists built general hospitals and Christian missionaries built private ones, with the hopes of making headway against widespread diseases. Little was done to investigate the legitimacy of these practices, as many foreigners believed that the native medical practices were pagan and superstitious and could only be suitably fixed by inheriting Western methods. During times of conflict, opposition has been particularly vehement as people are more likely to call on the supernatural realm. Consequently, doctors and health practitioners have, in most cases, continued to shun traditional practitioners despite their contribution to meeting the basic health needs of the population. In recent years, the treatments and remedies used in traditional African medicine have gained more appreciation from researchers in Western science. Developing countries have begun to realise the high costs of modern health care systems and the technologies that are required, thus proving Africa's dependence to it. Due to this, interest has recently been expressed in integrating traditional African medicine into the continent's national health care systems. Disease has been a hindrance to human development in West Africa throughout history. The environment, especially the tropical rain-forests, allow many single cell organisms, parasites, and bacteria to thrive and prosper. Prior to the slave trade, West Africans strived to maintain ecological balance, controlling vegetation and game, and thereby minimising the prevalence of local diseases. The increased amount and intensity of warfare due to the slave trade meant that the ecological balance could not be sustained. Endemic diseases became epidemic in scale. Genetic mutations developed that provided increased resistance to disease, such as sickle cell, evident in the Kwa forest agriculturalists from , providing some protection from malaria. In the 1990s, AIDS became a significant problem for the region, particularly in Côte d'Ivoire, Liberia, and Nigeria. The onset of the HIV epidemic in the region began in 1985 with reported cases in Benin and Nigeri, and in nearby countries, such as Côte d'Ivoire, in subsequent years. AIDS was at first considered a disease of gay men and drug addicts, but in Africa it took off among the general population. As a result, those involved in the fight against HIV began to emphasize aspects such as preventing transmission from mother to child, or the relationship between HIV and poverty, inequality of the sexes, and so on, rather than emphasizing the need to prevent transmission by unsafe sexual practices or drug injection. This change in emphasis resulted in more funding, but was not effective in preventing a drastic rise in HIV prevalence. The global response to HIV and AIDS has improved considerably in recent years. Funding comes from many sources, the largest of which are the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria and the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief. , HIV prevalence in western Africa is lowest in Senegal and highest in Nigeria, which has the second largest number of people living with HIV in Africa after South Africa. Nigeria's infection rate relative to the entire population, however, is much lower (3.7 percent) compared to South Africa's (17.3 percent). Ebola virus disease, first identified in 1976, typically occurs in outbreaks in tropical regions of Sub-Saharan Africa, including West Africa. From 1976 through 2013, the World Health Organization reported 1,716 confirmed cases. The largest outbreak to date is the ongoing 2014 West Africa Ebola virus outbreak, which is affecting Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Nigeria The outbreak began in Guinea in December 2013, but was not detected until March 2014, after which it spread to Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Nigeria. The outbreak is caused by the Zaire ebolavirus, known simply as the Ebola virus (EBOV). It is the most severe outbreak of Ebola in terms of the number of human cases and fatalities since the discovery of the virus in 1976. , the World Health Organization (WHO) reported a total of 2,240 suspected cases and 1,229 deaths (1,383 cases and 760 deaths being laboratory confirmed). On 8 August, it formally designated the outbreak as a public health emergency of international concern. This is a legal designation used only twice before (for the 2009 H1N1 (swine flu) pandemic and the 2014 resurgence of polio) and invokes legal measures on disease prevention, surveillance, control, and response, by 194 signatory countries. Various aid organisations and international bodies, including the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and the European Commission have donated funds and mobilised personnel to help counter the outbreak; charities including Médecins Sans Frontières, the Red Cross, and Samaritan's Purse are also working in the area. Famine has been an occasional but serious problem in West Africa. In 1680s, famine extended across the entire Sahel, and in 1738 half the population of Timbuktu died of famine. Some colonial "pacification" efforts often caused severe famine. The introduction of cash crops such as cotton, and forcible measures to impel farmers to grow these crops, sometimes impoverished the peasantry in many areas, such as northern Nigeria, contributing to greater vulnerability to famine when severe drought struck in 1913. For the middle part of the 20th century, agriculturalists, economists and geographers did not consider Africa to be famine prone – most famines were localized and brief food shortages. From 1967-1969 large scale famine occurred in Biafra and Nigeria due to a government blockade of the Breakaway territory. It is estimated that 1.5 million people died of starvation due to this famine. Additionally, drought and other government interference with the food supply caused 500 thousand Africans to perish in Central and West Africa. Famine recurred in the 1970s and 1980s, when the west African Sahel suffered drought and famine. The Sahelian famine was associated with the slowly growing crisis of pastoralism in Africa, which has seen livestock herding decline as a viable way of life over the last two generations. Since the start of the 21st century, more effective early warning and humanitarian response actions have reduced the number of deaths by famine markedly. That said, many African countries are not self-sufficient in food production, relying on income from cash crops to import food. Agriculture in Africa is susceptible to climatic fluctuations, especially droughts which can reduce the amount of food produced locally. Other agricultural problems include soil infertility, land degradation and erosion, swarms of desert locusts, which can destroy whole crops, and livestock diseases. The Sahara spreads up to 30 miles per year. The most serious famines have been caused by a combination of drought, misguided economic policies, and conflict. Recent famines in Africa include the 2005–06 Niger food crisis, the 2010 Sahel famine, and in 2012, the Sahel drought put more than 10 million people in the western Sahel at risk of famine, according to the Methodist Relief & Development Fund (MRDF), due to a month-long heat wave. West African peoples were trading with the Arab world centuries before the influence of Europeans. Spices such as cinnamon were introduced and became part of the local culinary traditions. Centuries later, the Portuguese, French and British further influenced regional cuisines, but only to a limited extent. However, as far as is known, it was European explorers and slaves ships who brought chili peppers and tomatoes from the New World, and both have become ubiquitous components of West African cuisines, along with peanuts, corn, cassava, and plantains. In turn, these slave ships carried African ingredients to the New World, including black-eyed peas and okra. Around the time of the colonial period, particularly during the Scramble for Africa, the European settlers defined colonial borders without regard to pre-existing borders, territories or cultural differences. This bisected tribes and created colonies with varying culinary styles. As a result, it is difficult to sharply define, for example, Senegalese cuisine. Although the European colonists brought many new ingredients to the African continent, they had relatively little impact on the way people cook in West Africa. Its strong culinary traditions lives on despite the influence of colonisation and food migration that occurred long ago. Ounjougou (Middle Pleistocene), Ugwuele (1,600,000 - 95,000 BP), Mousteroid (30,000 BP), Bingerville (13,000 BP), Bosumpra Cave (11th millennium BCE), Iwo Eleru Rockshelter (11,000 BP), Kiffian Culture (8400 BCE), Ifetedo Rockshelter (9000/7000 BP), Dutsen Kongba Rockshelter (6th millennium BCE), Konduga (6300 BP), Ita Ogbolu Rockshelter (5000/2000 BP), Kagoro Rockshelter (5000/2000 BP), Tenerian Culture (4300 - 2400 BCE), Yengema Cave (2560 BCE), Kamabai Rockshelter (2560 BCE), Kintampo Complex (2500 - 1400 BCE), Karkarichinkat (4500/4200 BP), Rim (4000 BP), Dhar Tichitt (2000 - 500 BCE), Dhar Walata (2000 - 500 BCE), Dhar Nema (2000 - 800 BCE), Daima (2nd millennium BCE - 16th/17th century CE), Sekkiret (2nd millennium BCE), Lejja (2000 BCE), Gajiganna (1800 - 800 BCE), Nok Culture (1500 - 1 BCE), Yagala Rockshelter (1070 BCE), Kissi (1st millennium BCE - 13th century CE), Azelik (1st millennium BCE), Dia (9th century BCE), Walalde (800 BCE), Kursakata (800 BCE), Opi (5th century BCE), Senegambian Stone Circles (3rd century BCE - 16th century CE), Itaakpa Rockshelter (271 BCE), Djenne-Djenno (250 BCE - 1100 CE), Afikpo Rockshelter (105 BCE), Akjoujt (1st century BCE), Rop Rockshelter (25 BCE), Kirikongo (100 - 1700 CE), Hambarketolo (300 - 1000 CE), Bura Culture (3rd - 13th century CE), Birnin Lafiya (4th - 13th century CE), Niani (6th/10th century CE), Tondidarou (635/670 CE), Gao (700 CE), Tegdaoust (810 - 1800 CE), Chinguetti (8th century CE), Tissalaten (8th - 11th century CE), Toyla (890/980 CE), Igbo-Ukwu (9th century CE), Koumbi Saleh (9th - 15th century CE), Kawinza (950/715 CE), Begho (1000 CE), Walls of Benin (1st millennium CE), Sungbo's Eredo (10th century CE), Diouboye (1000 - 1400 CE), Azugi (11th century CE), Cekeen Tumuli (11th century CE), Ouadane (11th/12th century CE), Bandiagara Escarpment (11th - 13th century CE), Ruins of Loropeni (11th - 17th century CE), Ma'adin Ijafen (1170/1260 CE), Ifẹ (12th - 15th century CE), Kwiambana (1260 CE), Mejiro Rockshelter (1300 CE), Benin (13th century CE), Durbi Takusheyi (14th - 16th century CE), Agbaku Rockshelter (1403 CE), Bono Manso (1420 CE), Sidi Yahya Mosque (1440 CE), Ngazargamu (1488 CE), Bonduku (1586 CE), Ksar El Barka (1690 CE), Jenini (1870 - 1895 CE) History of Africa, History of Benin, History of Burkina Faso, History of Cape Verde, History of Côte d'Ivoire, History of the Gambia, History of Ghana, History of Guinea, History of Guinea-Bissau, History of Liberia, History of Mali, History of Mauritania, History of Niger, History of Nigeria, History of Saint Helena, History of Senegal, History of Sierra Leone, History of Togo, Trade & Pilgrimage Routes of Ghana Ajayi, J.F. Ade, and Michael Crowder. History of West Africa (2 vol. 1970-87), Hopkins, Antony Gerald. An economic history of West Africa (2nd ed. Routledge, 2014), Owusu-Ansah, David. Historical dictionary of Ghana (Rowman & Littlefield, 2014) The Dutch colonial empire () comprised the overseas territories and trading posts controlled and administered by Dutch chartered companies (mainly the Dutch West India and the Dutch East India Company) and subsequently by the Dutch Republic (1581–1795), and by the modern Kingdom of the Netherlands after 1815. It was initially a trade-based system which derived most of its influence from merchant enterprise and from Dutch control of international maritime shipping routes through strategically placed outposts, rather than from expansive territorial ventures. With a few notable exceptions, the majority of the Dutch colonial empire's overseas holdings consisted of coastal forts, factories, and port settlements with varying degrees of incorporation of their hinterlands and surrounding regions. Dutch chartered companies often dictated that their possessions be kept as confined as possible in order to avoid unnecessary expense, and while some such as the Dutch Cape Colony (modern South Africa) and Dutch East Indies (today's Indonesia) expanded anyway (due to the pressure of independent-minded Dutch colonists), others remained undeveloped, isolated trading centres dependent on an indigenous host-nation. This reflected the primary purpose of the Dutch colonial empire: commercial exchange as opposed to sovereignty over homogeneous landmasses. The imperial ambitions of the Dutch were bolstered by the strength of their existing shipping industry, as well as the key role they played in the expansion of maritime trade between Europe and the Orient. Because small European trading-companies often lacked the capital or the manpower for large- scale operations, the States General chartered larger organisations — the Dutch West India Company and the Dutch East India Company — in the early seventeenth century. These were considered the largest and most extensive maritime trading companies at the time, and once held a virtual monopoly on strategic European shipping-routes westward through the Southern Hemisphere around South America through the Strait of Magellan, and eastward around Africa, past the Cape of Good Hope. The companies' domination of global commerce contributed greatly to a commercial revolution and a cultural flowering in the Netherlands of the 17th century, known as the Dutch Golden Age. In their search for new trade passages between Asia and Europe, Dutch navigators explored and charted distant regions such as New Zealand, Tasmania, and parts of the eastern coast of North America. During the period of Proto- industrialization, the empire received 50% of textiles and 80% of silks import from the India's Mughal Empire, chiefly from its most developed region known as Bengal Subah. In the 18th century the Dutch colonial empire began to decline as a result of the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War of 1780–1784, in which the Netherlands lost a number of its colonial possessions and trade monopolies to the British Empire and the conquest of the wealthy Mughal Bengal at the Battle of Plassey. Nevertheless, major portions of the empire survived until the advent of global decolonisation following World War II (1939–1945), namely the East Indies (Indonesia) and Dutch Guiana (Surinam). Three former colonial territories in the West Indies islands around the Caribbean Sea—Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten—remain as constituent countries represented within the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The territories that would later form the Dutch Republic began as a loose federation known as the Seventeen Provinces, which Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and (as "Carlos I") King of Spain, inherited and brought under his direct rule in 1543. In 1566, a Protestant Dutch revolt broke out against rule by Roman Catholic Spain, sparking the Eighty Years' War. Led by William of Orange, independence was declared in the 1581 Act of Abjuration. The revolt resulted in the establishment of an de facto independent Protestant republic in the north by Treaty of Antwerp (1609), although Spain did not officially recognize Dutch independence until 1648. The eight decades of war came at a massive human cost, with an estimated 600,000 to 700,000 victims, of which 350,000 to 400,000 were civilians killed by disease and what would later be considered war crimes. The coastal provinces of Holland and Zeeland had been important hubs of the European maritime trade network for centuries prior to Spanish rule. Their geographical location provided convenient access to the markets of France, Scotland, Germany, England and the Baltic. The war with Spain led many financiers and traders to emigrate from Antwerp, a major city in Flanders and then one of Europe's most important commercial centres, to Dutch cities, particularly Amsterdam, which became Europe's foremost centre for shipping, banking, and insurance. Efficient access to capital enabled the Dutch in the 1580s to extend their trade routes beyond northern Europe to new markets in the Mediterranean and the Levant. In the 1590s, Dutch ships began to trade with Brazil and the Dutch Gold Coast of Africa, towards the Indian Ocean, and the source of the lucrative spice trade. This brought the Dutch into direct competition with Portugal, which had dominated these trade routes for several decades, and had established colonial outposts on the coasts of Brazil, Africa and the Indian Ocean to facilitate them. The rivalry with Portugal, however, was not entirely economic: from 1580, after the death of the King of Portugal, Sebastian I, and much of the Portuguese nobility in the Battle of Alcácer Quibir, the Portuguese crown had been joined to that of Spain in an "Iberian Union" under the heir of Emperor Charles V, Philip II of Spain. By attacking Portuguese overseas possessions, the Dutch forced Spain to divert financial and military resources away from its attempt to quell Dutch independence. Thus began the several decade-long Dutch-Portuguese War. In 1594, the Compagnie van Verre ("Company of Far Lands") was founded in Amsterdam, with the aim of sending two fleets to the spice islands of Maluku. The first fleet sailed in 1596 and returned in 1597 with a cargo of pepper, which more than covered the costs of the voyage. The second voyage (1598–1599), returned its investors a 400% profit. The success of these voyages led to the founding of a number of companies competing for the trade. The competition was counterproductive to the companies' interests as it threatened to drive up the price of spices at their source in Indonesia whilst driving them down in Europe. As a result of the problems caused by inter-company rivalry, the Dutch East India Company (, VOC) was founded in 1602. The charter awarded to the Company by the States-General granted it sole rights, for an initial period of 21 years, to Dutch trade and navigation east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. The directors of the company, the "Heeren XVII", were given the legal authority to establish "fortresses and strongholds", to sign treaties, to enlist both an army and a navy, and to wage defensive war. The company itself was founded as a joint stock company, similarly to its English rival that had been founded two years earlier, the English East India Company. In 1621, the Dutch West India Company (WIC) was set up and given a 25-year monopoly to those parts of the world not controlled by its East India counterpart: the Atlantic, the Americas and the west coast of Africa. The Dutch also established a trading post in Ayutthaya, modern day Thailand during the reign of King Naresuan, in 1604. The Spanish-Dutch War was for the Dutch part of their struggle for independence and religious freedom, during the Eighty Years' War. It was largely fought on the European continent, but war was also conducted against Phillip II's overseas territories, including Spanish colonies and the Portuguese metropoles, colonies, trading posts and forts belonging at that time to the King of Spain and Portugal. The Netherlands became part of the domains of the 'Spanish branch' of the Habsburg dynasty when Emperor Charles V divided the holdings of the Habsburg Empire following his abdication in 1555. In 1566, the Dutch revolt erupted and in 1568 the Dutch Republic embarked on the long, torturous path of the Eighty Years' War (also known as the Dutch War of Independence) and began the invasion and looting of Spanish (and, later, Portuguese) colonies in the Americas and of Asia, including an attempted invasion of the Philippines (then part of the Spanish East Indies). From 1517, the port of Lisbon in Portugal was the main European market for products from India that was attended by other nations to purchase their needs. But as a result of Portugal's incorporation in the Iberian Union with Spain by Philip II in 1580, all Portuguese territories were thereafter Spanish Habsburg branch territory, and thus all Portuguese markets were closed to the United Provinces. Thus, in 1595, the Dutch decided to set sail on their own to acquire products for themselves, making use of the "secret" knowledge of the Portuguese trade routes, which Cornelis de Houtman had managed to acquire in Lisbon. Pursuing their quest for alternative routes to Asia for trade, the Dutch were disrupting the Spanish-Portuguese trade, and they eventually ranged as far afield as the Philippines. The Dutch sought to dominate the commercial sea trade in Southeast Asia, going so far in pursuit of this goal as to engage in what other nations and powers considered to be little more than piratical activities. The joining of the two crowns deprived Portugal of a separate foreign policy, with King Phillip II's enemies becoming Portugal's enemies as well. War with the Dutch led to attacks on most of Portugal's far-flung trading network in and around Asia, including Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka), and Goa, as well as attacks upon her commercial interests in Japan, Africa (especially Mina), and South America. Even though the Portuguese had never been able to capture the entire island of Ceylon, they had been able to keep the coastal regions under their control for a considerable time before the coming of the Dutch in war. Portugal's South American colony, Brazil, was partially conquered by both France and the United Provinces. In the 17th century, the "Grand Design" of the West India Company involved attempting to corner the international trade in sugar by attacking Portuguese colonies in Brazil and Africa, seizing both the sugarcane plantations and the slave ports needed to resupply their labour. Although weakened by the Iberian Union with Spain, whose attention was focused elsewhere, the Portuguese were able to fight off the initial assault before the Battle of Matanzas Bay provided the WIC with the funds needed for a successful operation. Johan Maurits was appointed governor of "New Holland" and landed at Recife in January 1637. In a series of successful expeditions, he gradually extended the Dutch possessions from Sergipe on the south to Maranhão in the north. The WIC also succeeded in conquering Goree, Elmina Castle, Saint Thomas, and Luanda on the west coast of Africa. Both regions were also used as bases for Dutch privateers plundering Portuguese and Spanish trade routes. The dissolution of the Iberian Union in 1640 and Maurits's recall in 1643 led to increased resistance from the Portuguese colonists who still made up a majority of the Brazilian settlers. The Dutch were finally overcome during the 1650s but managed to receive 4 million reis (63 metric tons of gold) in exchange for extinguishing their claims over Brazil in the 1661 Treaty of the Hague. The war between Phillip II's possessions and other countries led to a deterioration of Portugal's Empire, as with the loss of Hormuz to England, but the Dutch colonial empire was the main beneficiary. The VOC began immediately to prise away the string of coastal fortresses that, at the time, comprised the Portuguese Empire. The settlements were isolated, difficult to reinforce if attacked, and prone to being picked off one by one, but nevertheless, the Dutch only enjoyed mixed success in its attempts to do so. Amboina was captured from the Portuguese in 1605, but an attack on Malacca the following year narrowly failed in its objective to provide a more strategically located base in the East Indies with favourable monsoon winds. The Dutch found what they were looking for in Jakarta, conquered by Jan Coen in 1619, later renamed Batavia after the putative Dutch ancestors the Batavians, and which would become the capital of the Dutch East Indies. Meanwhile, the Dutch continued to drive out the Portuguese from their bases in Asia. Malacca finally succumbed in 1641 (after a second attempt to capture it), Colombo in 1656, Ceylon in 1658, Nagappattinam in 1662 and Cranganore and Cochin in 1662. Goa, the capital of the Portuguese Empire in the East, was unsuccessfully attacked by the Dutch in 1603 and 1610. Whilst the Dutch were unable in four attempts to capture Macau from where Portugal monopolized the lucrative China-Japan trade, the Japanese shogunate's increasing suspicion of the intentions of the Catholic Portuguese led to their expulsion in 1639. Under the subsequent sakoku policy, from 1639 till 1854 (215 years) the Dutch were the only European power allowed to operate in Japan, confined in 1639 to Hirado and then from 1641 at Deshima. In the mid 17th century the Dutch also explored the western Australian coasts, naming many places. The Dutch colonised Mauritius in 1638, several decades after three ships out of the Dutch Second Fleet sent to the Spice Islands were blown off course in a storm and landed in 1598. They named it in honour of Prince Maurice of Nassau, the Stadtholder of the Netherlands. The Dutch found the climate hostile and abandoned the island after several further decades. The Dutch established a colony at Tayouan (present-day Anping), in the south of Taiwan, an island then largely dominated by Portuguese traders and known as Formosa; and, in 1642 the Dutch took northern Formosa from the Spanish by force. In 1646, the Dutch tried to take the Spanish colony in the Philippines. The Dutch had a large force at their disposal but when they tried to take Manila, they were defeated at the Battles of La Naval de Manila. After this defeat, the Dutch abandoned their efforts to take Manila and the Philippines. Between 1602 and 1796, the VOC sent almost a million Europeans to work in the Asia trade. The majority died of disease or made their way back to Europe, but some of them made the Indies their new home. Interaction between the Dutch and native population mainly took place in Sri Lanka and the modern Indonesian Islands. Through the centuries there developed a relatively large Dutch-speaking population of mixed Dutch and Indonesian descent, known as Indos or Dutch-Indonesians. In the Atlantic, the West India Company concentrated on wresting from Portugal its grip on the sugar and slave trade, and on opportunistic attacks on the Spanish treasure fleets on their homeward bound voyage. Bahia on the north east coast of Brazil was captured in 1624 but only held for a year before it was recaptured by a joint Spanish-Portuguese expedition. In 1628, Piet Heyn captured the entire Spanish treasure fleet, and made off with a vast fortune in precious metals and goods that enabled the Company two years later to pay its shareholders a cash dividend of 70%, though the Company was to have relatively few other successes against the Spanish. In 1630, the Dutch occupied the Portuguese sugar-settlement of Pernambuco and over the next few years pushed inland, annexing the sugar plantations that surrounded it. In order to supply the plantations with the manpower they required, a successful expedition was launched in 1637 from Brazil to capture the Portuguese slaving post of Elmina, and in 1641 successfully captured the Portuguese settlements in Angola. In 1642, the Dutch captured the Portuguese possession of Axim in Africa. By 1650, the West India Company was firmly in control of both the sugar and slave trades, and had occupied the Caribbean islands of Sint Maarten, Curaçao, Aruba and Bonaire in order to guarantee access to the islands' salt-pans. Unlike in Asia, Dutch successes against the Portuguese in Brazil and Africa were short-lived. Years of settlement had left large Portuguese communities under the rule of the Dutch, who were by nature traders rather than colonisers. In 1645, the Portuguese community at Pernambuco rebelled against their Dutch masters, and by 1654, the Dutch had been ousted from Brazil. In the intervening years, a Portuguese expedition had been sent from Brazil to recapture Luanda in Angola, by 1648 the Dutch were expelled from there also. On the north-east coast of North America, the West India Company took over a settlement that had been established by the Company of New Netherland (1614–18) at Fort Orange at Albany on the Hudson River, relocated from Fort Nassau which had been founded in 1614. The Dutch had been sending ships annually to the Hudson River to trade fur since Henry Hudson's voyage of 1609. To protect its precarious position at Albany from the nearby English and French, the Company founded the fortified town of New Amsterdam in 1625, at the mouth of the Hudson, encouraging settlement of the surrounding areas of Long Island and New Jersey. The fur trade ultimately proved impossible for the Company to monopolize due to the massive illegal private trade in furs, and the settlement of New Netherland was unprofitable. In 1655, the nearby colony of New Sweden on the Delaware River was forcibly absorbed into New Netherland after ships and soldiers were sent to capture it by the Dutch governor, Pieter Stuyvesant. Since its inception, the Dutch East India Company had been in competition with its counterpart, the English East India Company, founded two years earlier but with a capital base eight times smaller, for the same goods and markets in the East. In 1619, the rivalry resulted in the Amboyna massacre, when several English Company men were executed by agents of the Dutch. The event remained a source of English resentment for several decades, and indeed was used as a cause célèbre as late as the Second Anglo-Dutch War in the 1660s; nevertheless, in the late 1620s the English Company shifted its focus from Indonesia to India. In 1643, the Dutch West India Company established a settlement in the ruins of the Spanish settlement of Valdivia, in southern Chile. The purpose of the expedition was to gain a foothold on the west coast of the Americas, an area that was almost entirely under the control of Spain (the Pacific Ocean, at least most of it to the east of the Philippines, being at the time almost a 'Spanish lake'), and to extract gold from nearby mines. Uncooperative indigenous peoples, who had forced the Spanish to leave Valdivia in 1604 contributed to get the expedition to leave after some months of occupation. This occupation triggered the return of the Spanish to Valdivia and the building of one of the largest defensive complexes of colonial America. By the middle of the 17th century, the Dutch East India Company had overtaken Portugal as the dominant player in the spice and silk trade, and in 1652 founded a colony at the Cape of Good Hope on the southern African coast, as a victualing station for its ships on the route between Europe and Asia. Dutch immigration in the Cape rapidly swelled as prospective colonists were offered generous grants of land and tax exempt status in exchange for producing the food needed to resupply passing ships. The Cape authorities also imported a number of Europeans of other nationalities, namely Germans and French Huguenots, as well as thousands of slaves from the East Indies, to bolster the local Dutch workforce. Nevertheless, there was a degree of cultural assimilation between the various ethnic groups due to intermarriage and the universal adoption of the Dutch language, and cleavages were likelier to occur along social and racial lines. The Dutch colony at the Cape of Good Hope expanded beyond the initial settlement and its borders were formally consolidated as the composite Dutch Cape Colony in 1778. At the time, the Dutch had subdued the indigenous Khoisan and San peoples in the Cape and seized their traditional territories. Dutch military expeditions further east were halted when they encountered the westward expansion of the Xhosa people. Hoping to avoid being drawn into a protracted dispute, the Dutch government and the Xhosa chieftains agreed to formally demarcate their respective areas of control and refrain from trespassing on each other's borders. However, the Dutch proved unable to control their own settlers, who disregarded the agreement and crossed into Xhosa territory, sparking one of Southern Africa's longest colonial conflicts: the Xhosa Wars. In 1651, the English parliament passed the first of the Navigation Acts which excluded Dutch shipping from the lucrative trade between England and its Caribbean colonies, and led directly to the outbreak of hostilities between the two countries the following year, the first of three Anglo-Dutch Wars that would last on and off for two decades and slowly erode Dutch naval power to England's benefit. In 1661, amidst the Qing conquest of China, Ming general Koxinga led a fleet to invade Formosa. The Dutch defense, led by governor Frederick Coyett, held out for nine months. However, after Koxinga defeated Dutch reinforcements from Java, Coyett surrendered Formosa. The Dutch would never rule Formosa again. The Second Anglo-Dutch War was precipitated in 1664, when English forces moved to capture New Netherland. Under the Treaty of Breda (1667), New Netherland was ceded to England in exchange for the English settlements in Suriname, which had been conquered by Dutch forces earlier that year. Though the Dutch would again take New Netherland in 1673, during the Third Anglo-Dutch War, it was returned to England the following year, thereby ending Dutch rule in continental North America, but leaving behind a large Dutch community under English rule that persisted with its language, church and customs until the mid-18th century. In South America, the Dutch seized Cayenne from the French in 1658 and drove off a French attempt to retake it a year later. However, it was returned to France in 1664, since the colony proved to be unprofitable. It was recaptured by the Dutch in 1676, but was returned again a year later, this time permanently. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 saw the Dutch William of Orange ascend to the throne, and win the English, Scottish, and Irish crowns, ending eighty years of rivalry between the Netherlands and England, while the rivalry with France remained strong. During the American Revolutionary War, Britain declared war on the Netherlands, the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, in which Britain seized the Dutch colony of Ceylon. Under the Peace of Paris (1783), Ceylon was returned to the Netherlands and Negapatnam ceded to Britain. In 1795, the French revolutionary army invaded the Dutch Republic and turned the nation into a satellite of France, named the Batavian Republic. Britain, which was at war with France, soon moved to occupy Dutch colonies in Asia, South Africa and the Caribbean. Under the terms of the Treaty of Amiens signed by Britain and France in 1802, the Cape Colony and the islands of the Dutch West Indies that the British had seized were returned to the Republic. Ceylon was not returned to the Dutch and was made a British Crown Colony. After the outbreak of hostilities between Britain and France again in 1803, the British retook the Cape Colony. The British also invaded and captured the island of Java in 1811. In 1806, Napoleon dissolved the Batavian Republic and established a monarchy with his brother, Louis Bonaparte, on the throne as King of the Netherlands. Louis was removed from power by Napoleon in 1810, and the country was ruled directly from France until its liberation in 1813. The following year, the independent Netherlands signed the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 with Britain. All the colonies Britain had seized were returned to the Netherlands, with the exception of the Cape Colony, Guyana and Sri Lanka. After Napoleon's defeat in 1815, Europe's borders were redrawn at the Congress of Vienna. For the first time since the declaration of independence from Spain in 1581, the Dutch were reunited with the Southern Netherlands in a constitutional monarchy, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. The union lasted just 15 years. In 1830, a revolution in the southern half of the country led to the de facto independence of the new state of Belgium. The bankrupt Dutch East India Company was liquidated on 1 January 1800, and its territorial possessions were nationalized as the Dutch East Indies. Anglo- Dutch rivalry in Southeast Asia continued to fester over the port of Singapore, which had been ceded to the British East India Company in 1819 by the sultan of Johore. The Dutch claimed that a treaty signed with the sultan's predecessor the year earlier had granted them control of the region. However, the impossibility of removing the British from Singapore, which was becoming an increasingly important centre of trade, became apparent to the Dutch, and the disagreement was resolved with the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824. Under its terms, the Netherlands ceded Malacca and their bases in India to the British, and recognized the British claim to Singapore. In return, the British handed over Bencoolen and agreed not to sign treaties with rulers in the "islands south of the Straits of Singapore". Thus the archipelago was divided into two spheres of influence: a British one, on the Malay Peninsula, and a Dutch one in the East Indies. For most of the Dutch East Indies history, and that of the VOC before it, Dutch control over their territories was often tenuous, but was expanded over the course of the 19th century. Only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become the boundaries of modern-day Indonesia. Although highly populated and agriculturally productive, Java was under Dutch domination for most of the 350 years of the combined VOC and Dutch East Indies era, many areas remained independent for much of this time including Aceh, Lombok, Bali and Borneo. In 1871, all of the Dutch possessions on the Dutch Gold Coast were sold to Britain. The Dutch West India company was abolished in 1791, and its colonies in Suriname and the Caribbean brought under the direct rule of the state. The economies of the Dutch colonies in the Caribbean had been based on the smuggling of goods and slaves into Spanish America, but with the end of the slave trade in 1814 and the independence of the new nations of South and Central America from Spain, profitability rapidly declined. Dutch traders moved en masse from the islands to the United States or Latin America, leaving behind small populations with little income and which required subsidies from the Dutch government. The Antilles were combined under one administration with Suriname from 1828 to 1845. Slavery was not abolished in the Dutch Caribbean colonies until 1863, long after those of Britain and France, though by this time only 6,500 slaves remained. In Suriname, slave holders demanded compensation from the Dutch government for freeing slaves, whilst in Sint Maarten, abolition of slavery in the French half in 1848 led slaves in the Dutch half to take their own freedom. In Suriname, after the abolition of slavery, Chinese workers were encouraged to immigrate as indentured labourers, as were Javanese, between 1890 and 1939. In January 1942, Japan invaded the Netherlands East Indies. The Dutch surrendered two months later in Java, with Indonesians initially welcoming the Japanese as liberators. The subsequent Japanese occupation of Indonesia during the remainder of World War II saw the fundamental dismantling of the Dutch colonial state's economic, political and social structures, replacing it with a Japanese regime. In the decades before the war, the Dutch had been overwhelmingly successful in suppressing the small nationalist movement in Indonesia such that the Japanese occupation proved fundamental for Indonesian independence. However, the Indonesian Communist Party founded by Dutch socialist Henk Sneevliet in 1914, popular also with Dutch workers and sailors at the time, was in strategic alliance with Sarekat Islam (q.v.) as early as 1917 until the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence and was particularly important in the fight against Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies in the Second World War. The Japanese encouraged and backed Indonesian nationalism in which new indigenous institutions were created and nationalist leaders such as Sukarno were promoted. The internment of all Dutch citizens meant that Indonesians filled many leadership and administrative positions, although the top positions were still held by the Japanese. Two days after the Japanese surrender in August 1945, Sukarno and fellow nationalist leader Hatta unilaterally declared Indonesian independence. A four and a half-year struggle followed as the Dutch tried to re-establish their colony. Dutch forces eventually re-occupied most of the colonial territory and a guerrilla struggle ensued. The majority of Indonesians, and – ultimately – international opinion, favored independence, and in December 1949, the Netherlands formally recognized Indonesian sovereignty. Under the terms of the 1949 agreement, Western New Guinea remained under the auspices of Netherlands New Guinea. The new Indonesian government under President Sukarno pressured for the territory to come under Indonesian control as Indonesian nationalists initially intended. Following United States pressure, the Netherlands transferred it to Indonesia under the 1962 New York Agreement. In 1954, under the "Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands", the Netherlands, Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles (at the time including Aruba) became a composite state, known as the "Tripartite Kingdom of the Netherlands". The former colonies were granted autonomy, save for certain matters including defense, foreign affairs and citizenship, which were the responsibility of the Realm. In 1969, unrest in Curaçao led to Dutch marines being sent to quell rioting. In 1973, negotiations started in Suriname for independence, and full independence was granted in 1975, with 60,000 emigrants taking the opportunity of moving to the Netherlands. In 1986, Aruba was allowed to secede from the Netherlands Antilles federation, and was pressured by the Netherlands to move to independence within ten years. However, in 1994, it was agreed that its status as a Realm in its own right could continue. On October 10, 2010, the Netherlands Antilles were dissolved. Effective on that date, Curaçao and Sint Maarten acceded to the same country status within the Kingdom that Aruba already enjoyed. The islands of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba were granted a status similar to Dutch municipalities, and are now sometimes referred to as the Caribbean Netherlands. Generally, the Dutch do not celebrate their imperial past, and anti-colonial sentiments have prevailed since Jacob Haafner's 1807 treatise. Subsequently, colonial history is not featured prominently in Dutch schoolbooks. This perspective on their imperial past only recently shifted with prime minister Jan Peter Balkenende's contentious call for the return of the VOC mentality. In some Dutch colonies there are major ethnic groups of Dutch ancestry descending from emigrated Dutch settlers. In South Africa the Boers and Cape Dutch are collectively known as the Afrikaners. The Burgher people of Sri Lanka and the Indo people of Indonesia as well as the Creoles of Suriname are mixed race people of Dutch descent. In the USA there have been three American presidents of Dutch descent: Martin Van Buren, the first president who was not of British descent, and whose first language was Dutch, the 26th president Theodore Roosevelt, and Franklin D. Roosevelt, the 32nd president, elected to four terms in office (1933 to 1945) and the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms. Despite the Dutch presence in Indonesia for almost 350 years, the Dutch language has no official status and the small minority that can speak the language fluently are either educated members of the oldest generation, or employed in the legal profession, as some legal codes are still only available in Dutch. The Indonesian language inherited many words from Dutch, both in words for everyday life, and as well in scientific or technological terminology. One scholar argues that 20% of Indonesian words can be traced back to Dutch words. The century and half of Dutch rule in Ceylon and southern India left few to no traces of the Dutch language. Today, in Suriname, Dutch is the official language and 58 percent of the population speak it as their mother tongue. Twenty-four percent of the population speaks Dutch as a second language, and in total 82 percent of the population can speak Dutch. In Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao, Dutch is the official language but spoken as a first language by only seven to eight percent of the population, although most people on the islands can speak the language and the education system on these islands is in Dutch at some or all levels. The population of the three northern Antilles, Sint Maarten, Saba, and Sint Eustatius, is predominantly English-speaking. In New Jersey in the United States, an extinct dialect of Dutch, Jersey Dutch, spoken by descendants of 17th century Dutch settlers in Bergen and Passaic counties, was noted to still be spoken as late as 1921. The greatest linguistic legacy of the Netherlands was in its colony in South Africa, which attracted large numbers of Dutch farmer (in Dutch, Boer) settlers, who spoke a simplified form of Dutch called Afrikaans, which is largely mutually intelligible with Dutch. After the colony passed into British hands, the settlers spread into the hinterland, taking their language with them. , there were 10 million people for whom Afrikaans is either a primary and secondary language, compared with over 22 million speakers of Dutch. Other Creole languages with Dutch linguistic roots are Papiamento still spoken in Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, and Sint Eustatius; Saramaccan and Sranan Tongo still spoken in Suriname; Berbice an extinct language in Guyana; Pecok spoken but in danger of extinction in Indonesia and the Netherlands; Albany Dutch spoken but in danger of extinction in the USA. Extinct Dutch-based creole languages include: Skepi (Guyana); Negerhollands (aka "Negro Dutch"), Jersey Dutch and Mohawk Dutch (USA) and Javindo (Java). Some towns of New York and areas of New York City, once part of the colony of New Netherland have names of Dutch origin, such as Brooklyn (after Breukelen), Flushing (after Vlissingen), the Bowery (after Bouwerij, construction site), Harlem (after Haarlem), Coney Island (from Conyne Eylandt, modern Dutch spelling Konijneneiland: Rabbit island) and Staten Island (meaning "Island of the States"). The last Director-General of the colony of New Netherland, Pieter Stuyvesant, has bequeathed his name to a street, a neighborhood and a few schools in New York City, and the town of Stuyvesant. Many of the towns and cities along the Hudson in upstate New York have placenames with Dutch origins (for example Yonkers, Hoboken, Haverstraw, Newburgh, Staatsburg, Catskill, Kinderhook, Coeymans, Rensselaer, Watervliet). Nassau County, one of the four that make up Long Island, is also of Dutch origin. The Schuylkill river that flows into the Delaware at Philadelphia is also a Dutch name meaning hidden or skulking river. Many towns and cities in Suriname share names with cities in the Netherlands, such as Alkmaar and Groningen. The capital of Curaçao is named Willemstad and the capitals of both Saint Eustatius and Aruba are named Oranjestad. The first is named after the Dutch Prince Willem II van Oranje-Nassau (William of Orange-Nassau) and the two others after the first part of the current Dutch royal dynasty. Many of South Africa's major cities have Dutch names i.e. Johannesburg, Kaapstad, Vereeniging, Bloemfontein and Vanderbijlpark. The country name New Zealand originated with Dutch cartographers, who called the islands Nova Zeelandia, after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicized the name to New Zealand. The Australian island state Tasmania is named after Dutch explorer Abel Tasman, who made the first reported European sighting of the island on 24 November 1642. He first named the island Anthony van Diemen's Land after his sponsor Anthony van Diemen, the Governor of the Dutch East Indies. The name was later shortened to Van Diemen's Land by the British. It was officially renamed in honor of its first European discoverer on 1 January 1856. Arnhem Land is named after the Dutch ship named Arnhem. The captain of the Arnhem (Willem van Coolsteerdt) also named the large island, east of Arnhem Groote Eylandt, in modern Dutch spelling Groot Eiland: Large Island. There are many more Dutch geographical names in Australia. In the Surinamese Capital of Paramaribo, the Dutch Fort Zeelandia still stands today. The city itself also have retained most of its old street layout and architecture, which is part of the world's UNESCO heritage. In the centre of Malacca, Malaysia, the Stadthuys Building and Christ Church still stand as a reminder of Dutch occupation. There are still archaeological remains of Fort Goede Hoop (modern Hartford, Connecticut) and Fort Orange (modern Albany, New York). Dutch architecture is easy to see in Aruba, Curaçao, Bonaire and Saint Eustatius. The Dutch style buildings are especially visible in Willemstad, with its steeply pitched gables, large windows and soaring finials. Dutch architecture can also be found in Sri Lanka, especially in Galle where the Dutch fortification and canal have been retained intact, even to an extent the former tropical Villas of the VOC officials. Some of the most prominent example of these architecture is the former governor's mansion in Galle, currently known as Amangalla Hotel and the Old Dutch Reformed Church. In the capital Colombo, many of the Dutch and Portuguese architecture around The Fort have been demolished during the British period, few of the remaining include Old Colombo Dutch Hospital and Wolvendaal Church. During the period of Dutch colonisation in South Africa, a distinctive type of architecture, known as Cape Dutch architecture, was developed. These style of architecture can be found in historical towns such as Stellenbosch, Swellendam, Tulbagh and Graaff-Reinet. In the former Dutch capital of Cape Town, nearly nothing from the VOC era have survived except the Castle of Good Hope. Although the Dutch already started erecting buildings shortly after they arrived on the shores of Batavia, most Dutch-built constructions still standing today in Indonesia stem from the 19th and 20th centuries. Forts from the colonial era, used for defense purposes, still line a number of major coastal cities across the archipelago. The largest number of surviving Dutch buildings can be found on Java and Sumatra, particularly in cities such as Jakarta, Bandung, Semarang, Yogyakarta, Surabaya, Cirebon, Pasuruan, Bukittinggi, Sawahlunto, Medan, Padang and Malang. There are also significant examples of 17–19th century Dutch architecture around Banda Neira, Nusa Laut and Saparua, the former main spices islands, which due to limited economic development have retained many of its colonial elements. Another prominent example of Dutch colonial architecture is Fort Rotterdam in Makassar. The earlier Dutch construction mostly replicate the architecture style in the Homeland (such as Toko Merah). However these buildings were unsuitable to tropical climate and expensive to maintain. And as a result the Dutch officials begun to adapt to the tropical condition by applying native elements such as wide-open veranda, ventilation and indigenous high pitch roofing into their villas. "In the beginning (of the Dutch presence), Dutch construction on Java was based on colonial architecture which was modified according to the tropical and local cultural conditions," Indonesian art and design professor Pamudji Suptandar wrote. This was dubbed arsitektur Indis (Indies architecture), which combines the existing traditional Hindu-Javanese style with European forms. Many public buildings still standing and in use in Jakarta, such as the presidential palace, the finance ministry and the performing arts theater, were built in the 19th century in the classicist style. At the turn of the 20th century and partially due to the Dutch Ethical Policy, the number of Dutch people migrating to the colony grew with economic expansion. The increasing number of middle class population led to the development of Garden Suburbs in major city across the Indies, many of the houses were built in various style ranging from the Indies style, Neo-Renaissance to modern Art Deco. Some examples of these residential district include Menteng in Jakarta, Darmo in Surabaya, Polonia in Medan, Kotabaru in Yogyakarta, New Candi in Semarang and as well as most of North Bandung. Indonesia also became an experimental ground for Dutch Art Deco architectural movement such as Nieuwe Zakelijkheid, De Stijl, Nieuw Indische and Amsterdam School. Several famous architect such as Wolff Schoemaker and Henri Maclaine Pont also made an attempt to modernize indigenous architecture, resulting several unique design such as Pohsarang Church and Bandung Institute of Technology. The largest stock of these Art Deco building can be found in the city of Bandung, which "architecturally" can considered the most European city in Indonesia. Since Indonesia's independence, few governments have shown interest in the conservation of historical buildings. Many architecturally grand buildings have been torn down in the past decades to erect shopping centres or office buildings e.g. Hotel des Indes (Batavia), Harmony Society, Batavia. Presently, however, more Indonesians have become aware of the value of preserving their old buildings. "A decade ago, most people thought I was crazy when they learned of my efforts to save the old part of Jakarta. A few years later, the negative voices started to disappear, and now many people are starting to think with me: how are we going to save our city. In the past using the negative sentiment towards the colonial era was often used as an excuse to disregard protests against the demolition of historical buildings. An increasing number of people now see the old colonial buildings as part of their city’s overall heritage rather than focusing on its colonial aspect.", leading Indonesian architect and conservationist Budi Lim said. Beyond Indonesia's art deco architecture also much of the country's rail and road infrastructure as well as its major cities were built during the colonial period. Many of Indonesia's main cities were mere rural townships before colonial industrialization and urban development. Examples on Java include the capital Jakarta and Bandung, outside Java examples include Ambon and Menado city. Most main railroads and rail stations on Java as well as the main road, called Daendels Great Post Road (Dutch: Grote Postweg) after the Governor General commissioning the work, connecting west to east Java were also built during the Dutch East Indies era. Between 1800 and 1950 Dutch engineers created an infrastructure including of roads, of railways, many large bridges, modern irrigation systems covering 1.4 million hectares (5,400 sq mi) of rice fields, several international harbors, and 140 public drinking water systems. These Dutch constructed public works became the material base of the colonial and postcolonial Indonesian state. Crops such like coffee, tea, cocoa, tobacco and rubber were all introduced by the Dutch. The Dutch were the first to start the spread of the coffee plant in Central and South America, and by the early 19th century Java was the third largest producer in the world. In 1778 the Dutch brought cacao from the Philippines to Indonesia and commenced mass production. Currently Indonesia is the world's second largest producer of natural rubber, a crop that was introduced by the Dutch in the early 20th century. Tobacco was introduced from the Americas and in 1863 the first plantation was established by the Dutch. Today Indonesia is not only the oldest industrial producer of tobacco, but also the second largest consumer of tobacco. Java Man was discovered by Eugène Dubois in Indonesia in 1891. The Komodo dragon was firstly described by Peter Ouwens in Indonesia in 1912 after an airplane crash in 1911 and rumors about living dinosaurs on Komodo Island in 1910. Dutch colonization of the Americas, Dutch East India Company, Dutch West India Company, Dutch Language Union, List of Dutch East India Company trading posts, Verwantschapslanden, Ministry of the Colonies (Netherlands) Klooster, Wim. The Dutch Moment: War, Trade, and Settlement in the Seventeenth-Century Atlantic World (2016), Klooster, Wim, and Gert Oostindie. Realm between Empires: The Second Dutch Atlantic, 1680-1815 (Cornell UP, 2018) 348 pp. pnline review, Panikkar, K. M. (1953). Asia and Western dominance, 1498-1945, by K.M. Panikkar. London: G. Allen and Unwin. De VOCsite, Dutch and Portuguese Colonial History, VOC Kenniscentrum, The Atlas of Mutual Heritage database, showing the Dutch empire 1600–1800.

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The president of India is the head of state of India and the Supreme Commander of the Indian Armed Forces. The president is referred to as the first citizen of India. Although vested with these powers by the Constitution of India, the position is largely a ceremonial one and executive powers are de facto exercised by the prime minister. The president is elected by the Electoral College composed of elected members of the parliament houses, the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha, and also members of the Vidhan Sabha, the state legislative assemblies. Presidents may remain in office for a tenure of five years, as stated by article 56, part V, of the Constitution of India. In the case where a president's term of office is terminated early or during the absence of the president, the vice president assumes office. By article 70 of part V, the parliament may decide how to discharge the functions of the president where this is not possible, or in any other unexpected contingency. There have been 14 presidents of India since the post was established when India was declared as a republic with the adoption of the Indian constitution in 1950. Apart from these fourteen, three acting presidents have also been in office for short periods of time. Varahagiri Venkata Giri became the acting president in 1969 after Zakir Husain, died in office. Giri was elected president a few months later. He remains the only person to have held office both as a president and acting president. Rajendra Prasad, the first president of India, is the only person to have held office for two terms. Seven presidents have been members of a political party before being elected. Six of these were active party members of the Indian National Congress. The Janata Party has had one member, Neelam Sanjiva Reddy, who later became president. Two presidents, Zakir Husain and Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, have died in office. Their vice presidents served as acting presidents until a new president was elected. Following Zakir Husain's death, two acting presidents held office until the new president, V. V. Giri, was elected. When Giri resigned to take part in the presidential elections, he was succeeded by Mohammad Hidayatullah as acting president. The 12th president, Pratibha Patil, is the first woman to hold the office, elected in 2007. On 25 July 2017, Ram Nath Kovind took office as the 14th president of India. This list is numbered based on presidents elected after winning an Indian presidential election. The terms of Varahagiri Venkata Giri, Mohammad Hidayatullah, and Basappa Danappa Jatti, who served as acting president, are therefore not numbered or counted as actual terms in office. The president of India does not represent any political party. The colours used in the table indicate the following: Other Symbols -Died in office -Did not complete assigned term -Acting President Timeline President of India, Vice President of India, Prime Minister of India, Deputy Prime Minister of India, List of vice presidents of India, List of prime ministers of India, List of Presidents of India by longevity, List of Presidents of India by previous experience, List of heads of state and government of Indian origin Official website of the President of India, Rediff.com – Presidents of India, The Hindu – A presidential poll in the coalition age, Zee News: Former Presidents The prime minister of Canada () is the primary Minister of the Crown, chair of the Cabinet, and Canada's head of government. The current, and 23rd, prime minister of Canada is the Liberal Party's Justin Trudeau, following the 2019 Canadian federal election. Canadian prime ministers are styled as The Right Honourable (), a privilege maintained for life. The prime minister of Canada is in charge of the Prime Minister's Office. The prime minister also chooses the ministers who make up the Cabinet. The two groups, with the authority of the Parliament of Canada, manage the Government of Canada and the Canadian Armed Forces. The Cabinet and the prime minister also appoint members of the Senate of Canada, the judges of the Supreme Court of Canada and other federal courts, and the leaders and boards, as required under law, of various Crown Corporations, and selects the governor general of Canada. Under the Canadian constitution, all of the power to exercise these activities is actually vested in the monarch of Canada, but in practice the monarch (who is the head of state) or her representative, the governor general of Canada, approves them routinely, and their role is largely ceremonial, and their powers are only exercised under the advice of the prime minister. Not outlined in any constitutional document, the office exists only as per long-established convention (originating in Canada's former colonial power, the United Kingdom) that stipulates the monarch's representative, the governor general, must select as prime minister the person most likely to command the confidence of the elected House of Commons; this individual is typically the leader of the political party that holds the largest number of seats in that chamber. The position of prime minister is not outlined in any Canadian constitutional document and is mentioned only in passing in the Constitution Act, 1982, and the Letters Patent, 1947 issued by King George VI. The office and its functions are instead governed by constitutional conventions and modelled on the same office in the United Kingdom. The prime minister, along with the other ministers in cabinet, is appointed by the governor general on behalf of the monarch. However, by the conventions of responsible government, designed to maintain administrative stability, the governor general will call to form a government the individual most likely to receive the support, or confidence, of a majority of the directly elected members of the House of Commons; as a practical matter, this is often the leader of a party whose members form a majority, or a very large plurality, of Members of Parliament (MPs). While there is no legal requirement for the prime minister to be a member of parliament, for practical and political reasons the prime minister is expected to win a seat very promptly. However, in rare circumstances individuals who are not sitting members of the House of Commons have been appointed to the position of prime minister. Two former prime ministers—Sir John Joseph Caldwell Abbott and Sir Mackenzie Bowell—served in the 1890s while members of the Senate. Both, in their roles as Government Leader in the Senate, succeeded prime ministers who had died in office—John A. Macdonald in 1891 and John Sparrow David Thompson in 1894. That convention has since evolved toward the appointment of an interim leader from the commons in such a scenario. Prime ministers who are not Members of Parliament upon their appointment (or who lose their seats while in office) have since been expected to seek election to the commons as soon as possible. For example, William Lyon Mackenzie King, after losing his seat in the 1925 federal election (that his party won), briefly "governed from the hallway" before winning a by-election a few weeks later. Similarly, John Turner replaced Pierre Trudeau as leader of the Liberal Party in 1984 and subsequently was appointed prime minister while not holding a seat in the House of Commons; Turner won a riding in the next election but the Liberal Party was swept from power. Turner was the last serving prime minister to not hold a commons seat. Should a serving prime minister today lose his or her seat in the legislature, or should a new prime minister be appointed without holding a seat, the typical process that follows is that a junior member in the governing political party will resign to allow the prime minister to run in the resulting by-election. A safe seat is usually chosen; while the Liberal and Conservative parties traditionally observed a convention of not running a candidate against another party's new leader in the by-election, the New Democrats and smaller political parties typically do not follow the same convention. However, if the governing party selects a new leader shortly before an election is due, and that new leader is not a member of the legislature, he or she will normally await the upcoming election before running for a seat in parliament. In a poll conducted by Ipsos-Reid following the first prorogation of the 40th parliament on December 4, 2008, it was found that 51% of the sample group thought the prime minister was directly elected by Canadians. The Canadian prime minister serves at Her Majesty's pleasure, meaning the post does not have a fixed term. Once appointed and sworn in by the governor general, the prime minister remains in office until he or she resigns, is dismissed, or dies. The lifespan of parliament was limited by the constitution to five years, though the governor general may still, on the advice of the prime minister, dissolve parliament and issue the writs of election prior to the date mandated by the Canada Elections Act; the King–Byng Affair was the only time since Confederation that the governor general deemed it necessary to refuse his prime minister's request for a general vote. As of 2007, with an amendment to the Elections Act, Section 56.1(2) was changed to limit the term of a majority government to four years, with election day being set as the third Monday in October of the fourth calendar year after the previous polling date. Following parliamentary dissolution, the prime minister must run in the resulting general election if he or she wishes to maintain a seat in the House of Commons. Should the prime minister's party subsequently win a majority of seats in the House of Commons, it is unnecessary to re-appoint the prime minister or again swear him or her into office. If, however, an opposition party wins a majority of seats, the prime minister may resign or be dismissed by the governor general. Should the prime minister's party achieve a minority while an opposition party wins a plurality (i.e., more seats than any other party but less than a majority), the prime minister can attempt to maintain the confidence of the House by forming a coalition with other minority parties. This option was last entertained in 1925. Because the prime minister is, in practice, the most politically powerful member of the Canadian government, he or she is sometimes erroneously referred to as Canada's head of state, when, in fact, that post is held by the Canadian monarch, represented by the governor general. The prime minister is, instead, the head of government and is responsible for advising the Crown on how to exercise the Royal Prerogative and its executive powers, which are governed by the constitution and its conventions. However, the function of the prime minister has evolved with increasing power. Today, as per the doctrines of constitutional monarchy, the advice given by the prime minister is ordinarily binding, meaning the prime minister effectively carries out those duties ascribed to the sovereign or governor general, leaving the latter to act in predominantly ceremonial fashions. As such, the prime minister, supported by the Office of the Prime Minister (PMO), controls the appointments of many key figures in Canada's system of governance, including the governor general, the Cabinet, justices of the Supreme Court, senators, heads of crown corporations, ambassadors to foreign countries, the provincial lieutenant governors, and approximately 3,100 other positions. Further, the prime minister plays a prominent role in the legislative process—with the majority of bills put before parliament originating in the Cabinet—and the leadership of the Canadian Armed Forces. Pierre Trudeau is credited with, throughout his tenure as prime minister between 1968 and 1984, consolidating power in the PMO, which is itself filled by political and administrative staff selected at the prime minister's discretion and unaccountable to parliament. At the end of the 20th century and into the 21st, analysts—such as Jeffrey Simpson, Donald Savoie, Andrew Coyne, and John Gomery—argued that both parliament and the Cabinet had become eclipsed by prime ministerial power; Savoie wrote: "The Canadian prime minister has little in the way of institutional check, at least inside government, to inhibit his ability to have his way." Indeed, the position has been described as undergoing a "presidentialisation", to the point that its incumbents publicly outshine the actual head of state (and prime minister's spouses are sometimes called the "First Lady of Canada"). Former governor general Adrienne Clarkson alluded to what she saw as "an unspoken rivalry" that had developed between the prime minister and the Crown. It has been theorized that such is the case in Canada as its parliament is less influential on the executive than in other countries with Westminster parliamentary systems; particularly, Canada has fewer MPs, a higher turnover rate of MPs after each election, and an Americanised system for selecting political party leaders, leaving them accountable to the party membership rather than caucus, as is the case in the United Kingdom. There do exist checks on the prime minister's power: the Commons may revoke its confidence in an incumbent prime minister and Cabinet or caucus revolts can quickly bring down a serving premier and even mere threats of such action can persuade or compel a prime minister to resign his post, as happened with Jean Chrétien. The Reform Act, 2014, codifies the process by which a caucus may trigger a party leadership review and, if necessary, chose an interim leader, thereby making a prime minister more accountable to the MPs in his or her party. Caucuses may choose to follow these rules, though the decision would be made by recorded vote, thereby subjecting the party's choice to public scrutiny. The Senate may delay or impede legislation put forward by the Cabinet, such as when Brian Mulroney's bill creating the Goods and Services Tax (GST) came before the upper chamber and, given Canada's federal nature, the jurisdiction of the federal government is limited to areas prescribed by the constitution. Further, as executive power is constitutionally vested in the monarch, meaning the Royal Prerogative belongs to the Crown and not to any of its ministers, the sovereign's supremacy over the prime minister in the constitutional order is thus seen as a "rebuff to the pretensions of the elected: As it has been said, when the prime minister bows before the queen, he bows before us [the Canadian people]." Either the sovereign or his or her governor general may therefore oppose the prime minister's will in extreme, crisis situations. Near the end of her time as governor general, Adrienne Clarkson stated: "My constitutional role has lain in what are called 'reserve powers': making sure that there is a prime minister and a government in place, and exercising the right 'to encourage, to advise, and to warn'[...] Without really revealing any secrets, I can tell you that I have done all three." Two official residences are provided to the prime minister—24 Sussex Drive in Ottawa and Harrington Lake, a country retreat in Gatineau Park—as well an office in the Office of the Prime Minister and Privy Council (formerly known as Langevin Block), across from Parliament Hill. For transportation, the prime minister is granted an armoured car and shared use of two official aircraft—a CC-150 Polaris for international flights and a Challenger 601 for domestic trips. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police also furnish constant personal security for the prime minister and his or her family. All of the aforementioned is supplied by the Queen-in-Council through budgets approved by parliament, as is the prime minister's total annual compensation of CAD$357,800. The prime minister's total compensation consists of the Member of the House of Commons Basic Sessional Indemnity of CAD$178,900, the Prime Minister Salary of CAD$178,900, and the Prime Minister Car Allowance of CAD$2000. Should a serving or former prime minister die, he or she is accorded a state funeral, wherein their casket lies in state in the Centre Block of Parliament Hill. Only Bowell and the Viscount Bennett were given private funerals, Bennett also being the only former prime minister of Canada to die and be buried outside the country and Bowell the only whose funeral was not attended by politicians. John Thompson also died outside Canada, at Windsor Castle, where Queen Victoria permitted his lying-in-state before his body was returned to Canada for a state funeral in Halifax. In earlier years, it was traditional for the monarch to bestow a knighthood on newly-appointed Canadian prime ministers. Accordingly, several carried the prefix Sir before their name; of the first eight premiers of Canada, only Alexander Mackenzie refused the honour of a knighthood from Queen Victoria. Following the 1919 Nickle Resolution, however, the House of Commons motioned that it should be against the policy of the Canadian Sovereign (and Her Canadian Majesty's government advising the Monarch when such honours are not within the Monarch's personal gift) to bestow aristocratic or chivalric titles to Canadians. The Crown in right of Canada (but not the Crown in right of the United Kingdom, which has periodically bestowed such Imperial honours on such citizens) has since adopted this policy generally, such that the last prime minister to be knighted near appointment was Sir Robert Borden, who was premier at the time the Nickle Resolution was debated in the House of Commons (and was knighted before the resolution). Still, Bennett was, in 1941, six years after he stepped down as prime minister, elevated to the peerage of the United Kingdom by King George VI as Viscount Bennett, of Mickleham in the County of Surrey and of Calgary and Hopewell in Canada. No prime minister has since been titled (though other Canadians have since been given Imperial honours, such as The Lord Black of Crossharbour). The Canadian Heraldic Authority (CHA) has granted former prime ministers an augmentation of honour on the personal coat of arms of those who pursued them. The heraldic badge, referred to by the CHA as the mark of the Prime Ministership of Canada, consists of four red maple leaves joined at the stem on a white field ("Argent four maple leaves conjoined in cross at the stem Gules"); the augmentation has, so far, been granted either as a canton sinister or centred in the chief. To date, former prime ministers Joe Clark, Pierre Trudeau, John Turner, Brian Mulroney, Kim Campbell and Jean Chrétien were granted arms with the augmentation. Canada continues the Westminster tradition of using the title Prime Minister when one is speaking to the federal head of government directly; the Department of Canadian Heritage advises that it is incorrect to use the term Mr. Prime Minister. The written form of address for the prime minister should use his or her full parliamentary title: The Right Honourable [name], [post- nominal letters], Prime Minister of Canada. However, while in the House of Commons during Question Period, other members of parliament may address the prime minister as The Right Honourable, Member for [prime minister's riding] or simply The Right Honourable Prime Minister. Former prime ministers retain the prefix The Right Honourable for the remainder of their lives; should they remain sitting MPs, they may be referred as The Right Honourable Member for [member's riding] or by their portfolio title (if appointed to one), as in The Right Honourable Minister of National Defence. In the decades following Confederation, it was common practice to refer to the prime minister as Premier of Canada, a custom that continued until the First World War, around the time of Robert Borden's premiership. While contemporary sources will still speak of early prime ministers of Canada as premier, the modern practice is such that the federal head of government is known almost exclusively as the prime minister, while the provincial and territorial heads of government are termed premiers (save for within Quebec and New Brunswick, where the premiers are addressed in French as Premier ministre du [province], literally translated as Prime Minister of [province]). The Prime Minister–designate of Canada refers to the person who has been designated as the future prime minister by the Governor General, after either winning a general election, forming a confidence and supply government, or forming a coalition government. The term does not apply to incumbent prime ministers. After exiting office, former prime ministers of Canada have engaged in various pursuits. Some remained in politics: Bowell continued to serve as a senator, Stephen Harper returned to the House of Commons as a backbench Member of Parliament, and Bennett moved to the United Kingdom after being elevated to the House of Lords. A number led Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition in the Canadian parliament: John A. Macdonald, Arthur Meighen, Mackenzie King, and Pierre Trudeau, all before being re-appointed as prime minister (Mackenzie King twice); Alexander Mackenzie and John Diefenbaker, both prior to sitting as regular Members of Parliament until their deaths; Wilfrid Laurier dying while still in the post; and Charles Tupper, Louis St. Laurent, and John Turner, each before they returned to private business. Meighen was also appointed to the Senate following his second period as prime minister, but resigned his seat to seek re-election and moved to private enterprise after failing to win a riding. Following Meighen into civilian life were: Robert Borden, who served as Chancellor of Queen's and McGill Universities, as well as working in the financial sector; Lester B. Pearson, who acted as Chancellor of Carleton University; Joe Clark and Kim Campbell, who became university professors, Clark also consultant and Campbell working in international diplomacy and as the director of private companies and chairperson of interest groups; while Pierre Trudeau and Jean Chrétien returned to legal practice. Former prime ministers also commonly penned autobiographies—Tupper, for example—or published their memoirs—such as Diefenbaker and Paul Martin. List of Prime Ministers of Canada, Historical rankings of Canadian prime ministers, List of Prime Ministers of Canada by longevity, List of Prime Ministers of Canada by time in office, Prime Ministers of Canada in popular culture, List of books about Prime Ministers of Canada, List of Prime Ministers of Queen Victoria, List of Prime Ministers of King Edward VII, List of Prime Ministers of King George V, List of Prime Ministers of King Edward VIII, List of Prime Ministers of King George VI, List of Prime Ministers of Queen Elizabeth II Official government Web site of the Office of the Prime Minister, Prime Minister of Canada on YouTube, Library of Parliament of Canada, Canada's Best Prime Ministers: 2011 Maclean's article The Prime Minister of Israel (, Rosh HaMemshala, lit. Head of the Government, Hebrew acronym: ; , Ra'īs al-Ḥukūma) is the head of government and chief executive of Israel. Israel is a republic with a President as head of state. However, the President's powers are largely ceremonial; the Prime Minister holds the executive power. The official residence of the Prime Minister, Beit Aghion, is in Jerusalem. The current Prime Minister is Benjamin Netanyahu of Likud, the ninth person to hold the position (excluding caretakers). Following an election, the President nominates a member of the Knesset to become Prime Minister after asking party leaders whom they support for the position. The nominee has 42 days to put together a viable coalition. He then presents a government platform and must receive a vote of confidence from the Knesset to become Prime Minister. In practice, the Prime Minister is usually the leader of the largest party in the governing coalition. Between 1996 and 2001, the Prime Minister was directly elected, separately from the Knesset. Unlike most prime ministers in parliamentary republics, the Prime Minister is both de jure and de facto chief executive. This is because the Basic Laws of Israel explicitly vest executive power in the government, of which the Prime Minister is the leader. The office of Prime Minister came into existence on 14 May 1948, the date of the Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel, when the provisional government was created. David Ben-Gurion, leader of Mapai and head of the Jewish Agency, became Israel's first Prime Minister. The position became permanent on 8 March 1949, when the first government was formed. Ben- Gurion retained his role until late 1953, when he resigned to settle in the Kibbutz of Sde Boker. He was replaced by Moshe Sharett. However, Ben-Gurion returned in a little under two years to reclaim his position. He resigned for a second time in 1963, breaking away from Mapai to form Rafi. Levi Eshkol took over as head of Mapai and prime minister. He became the first Prime Minister to head the country under the banner of two parties when Mapai formed the Alignment with Ahdut HaAvoda in 1965. In 1968 he also became the only party leader to command an absolute majority in the Knesset, after Mapam and Rafi merged into the Alignment, giving it 63 seats in the 120-seat Knesset. On 26 February 1969, Eshkol became the first Prime Minister to die in office. He was temporarily replaced by Yigal Allon, whose stint lasted less than a month, as the party persuaded Golda Meir to return to political life and become prime minister in March 1969. Meir was Israel's first woman prime minister, and the third in the world (after Sirimavo Bandaranaike and Indira Gandhi). Meir resigned in 1974 after the Agranat Commission published its findings on the Yom Kippur War, even though it had absolved her of blame. Yitzhak Rabin took over, though he also resigned towards the end of the eighth Knesset's term following a series of scandals. Those included the suicide of Housing Minister Avraham Ofer after police began investigating allegations that he had used party funds illegally, and the affair involving Asher Yadlin (the Governor- designate of the Bank of Israel), who was sentenced to five years in prison for having accepted bribes. Rabin's wife, Leah, was also found to have had an overseas bank account, which was illegal in Israel at the time. Menachem Begin became the first right-wing prime minister when his Likud won the 1977 elections, and retained the post in the 1981 elections. He resigned in 1983 for health reasons, passing the reins of power to Yitzhak Shamir. After the 1984 elections had proved inconclusive with neither the Alignment nor Likud able to form a government, a national unity government was formed with a rotating prime ministership – Shimon Peres took the first two years, and was replaced by Shamir midway through the Knesset term. Although the 1988 elections produced another national unity government, Shamir was able to take the role alone. Peres made an abortive bid to form a left-wing government in 1990, but failed, leaving Shamir in power until 1992. Rabin became prime minister for the second time when he led Labour to victory in the 1992 elections. After his assassination on 4 November 1995, Peres took over as prime minister. During the thirteenth Knesset (1992–1996) it was decided to hold a separate ballot for prime minister modeled after American presidential elections. This system was instituted in part because the Israeli electoral system makes it all but impossible for one party to win a majority. While only two parties—Mapai/Labour and Likud—had ever led governments, the large number of parties or factions in a typical Knesset usually prevents one party from winning the 61 seats needed for a majority. In 1996, when the first such election took place, the outcome was a surprise win for Benjamin Netanyahu after election polls predicted that Peres was the winner. However, in the Knesset election held at the same time, Labour won more votes than any other party (27%). Thus Netanyahu, despite his theoretical position of power, needed the support of the religious parties to form a viable government. Ultimately Netanyahu failed to hold the government together, and early elections for both prime minister and the Knesset were called in 1999. Although five candidates intented to run, the three representing minor parties (Benny Begin of Herut – The National Movement, Azmi Bishara of Balad and Yitzhak Mordechai of the Centre Party) dropped out before election day, and Ehud Barak beat Netanyahu in the election. However, the new system again appeared to have failed; although Barak's One Israel alliance (an alliance of Labour, Gesher and Meimad) won more votes than any other party in the Knesset election, they garnered only 26 seats, the lowest ever by a winning party or alliance. Barak needed to form a coalition with six smaller parties to form a government. In early 2001, Barak resigned following the outbreak of the al-Aqsa Intifada. However, the government was not brought down, and only elections for prime minister were necessary. In the election itself, Ariel Sharon of Likud comfortably beat Barak, taking 62.4% of the vote. However, because Likud only had 21 seats in the Knesset, Sharon had to form a national unity government. Following Sharon's victory, it was decided to do away with separate elections for prime minister and return to the previous system. The 2003 elections were carried out in the same manner as prior to 1996. Likud won 38 seats, the highest by a party for over a decade, and as party leader Sharon was duly appointed PM. However, towards the end of his term and largely as a result of the deep divisions within Likud over Israel's unilateral disengagement plan, Sharon broke away from his party to form Kadima, managing to maintain his position as prime minister and also becoming the first prime minister not to be a member of either Labour or Likud (or their predecessors). However, he suffered a stroke in January 2006, in the midst of election season, leading Ehud Olmert to become acting prime minister in the weeks leading to the elections. He was voted by the cabinet to be interim prime minister just after the 2006 elections, when Sharon had reached 100 days of incapacitation. He thus became Israel's third interim prime minister, only days before forming his own new government as the official Prime Minister of Israel. In 2008, amid accusations of corruption and challenges from his own party, Olmert resigned. However his successor Tzipi Livni was unable to form a coalition government. In the election in the following year, while Kadima won the most seats, it was the Likud leader Benjamin Netanyahu who was given the task of forming a government. He was able to do so, thus beginning his second term as Prime Minister of Israel. In the 2013 election, the Likud Yisrael Beiteinu alliance emerged as the largest faction. After forming a coalition, Netanyahu secured his third prime ministership. If the prime minister dies in office, the cabinet chooses an interim prime minister to run the government until a new government is placed in power. Yigal Allon served as interim prime minister following Levi Eshkol's death, as did Shimon Peres following the assassination of Yitzhak Rabin. According to Israeli law, if a prime minister is temporarily incapacitated rather than dies (as was the case following Ariel Sharon's stroke in early 2006), power is transferred to the acting prime minister, until the prime minister recovers (Ehud Olmert took over from Sharon), for up to 100 days. If the prime minister is declared permanently incapacitated, or that period expires, the President of Israel oversees the process of assembling a new governing coalition, and in the meantime the acting prime minister or other incumbent minister is appointed by the cabinet to serve as interim prime minister. In the case of Sharon, elections were already due to occur within 100 days of the beginning of his coma; thus, the post-election coalition-building process pre-empted the emergency provisions for the selection of a new prime minister. Nevertheless, Olmert was appointed interim prime minister on 16 April 2006, after the elections, just days before he had formed a government on 4 May 2006, to become the official prime minister. Aside from the position of Acting Prime Minister, there are also Vice Prime Ministers and Deputy Prime Ministers. During his term of office, the prime minister lives in Jerusalem. Since 1974, the official residence of the prime minister is Beit Aghion, at the corner of Balfour and Smolenskin streets in Rehavia. Prime Minister's Office (Israel), Beit Aghion, Beit Rosh ha-Memshala All Prime Ministers of Israel Knesset website, The PM's Who Shaped Israel – slideshow by The First Post, Family Trees of all Prime Minister of Israel

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Data masking or data obfuscation is the process of hiding original data with modified content (characters or other data.) The main reason for applying masking to a data field is to protect data that is classified as personally identifiable information, sensitive personal data, or commercially sensitive data. However, the data must remain usable for the purposes of undertaking valid test cycles. It must also look real and appear consistent. It is more common to have masking applied to data that is represented outside of a corporate production system. In other words, where data is needed for the purpose of application development, building program extensions and conducting various test cycles. It is common practice in enterprise computing to take data from the production systems to fill the data component, required for these non-production environments. However, this practice is not always restricted to non-production environments. In some organizations, data that appears on terminal screens to call centre operators may have masking dynamically applied based on user security permissions (e.g. preventing call centre operators from viewing Credit Card Numbers in billing systems). The primary concern from a corporate governance perspective is that personnel conducting work in these non-production environments are not always security cleared to operate with the information contained in the production data. This practice represents a security hole where data can be copied by unauthorized personnel and security measures associated with standard production level controls can be easily bypassed. This represents an access point for a data security breach. The overall practice of Data Masking at an organizational level should be tightly coupled with the Test Management Practice and underlying Methodology and should incorporate processes for the distribution of masked test data subsets. Data involved in any data-masking or obfuscation must remain meaningful at several levels: 1. The data must remain meaningful for the application logic. For example, if elements of addresses are to be obfuscated and city and suburbs are replaced with substitute cities or suburbs, then, if within the application there is a feature that validates postcode or post code lookup, that function must still be allowed to operate without error and operate as expected. The same is also true for credit-card algorithm validation checks and Social Security Number validations. 2. The data must undergo enough changes so that it is not obvious that the masked data is from a source of production data. For example, it may be common knowledge in an organisation that there are 10 senior managers all earning in excess of $300K. If a test environment of the organisation's HR System also includes 10 identities in the same earning-bracket, then other information could be pieced together to reverse-engineer a real-life identity. Theoretically, if the data is obviously masked or obfuscated, then it would be reasonable for someone intending a data breach to assume that they could reverse engineer identity-data if they had some degree of knowledge of the identities in the production data-set. Accordingly, data obfuscation or masking of a data-set applies in such a manner as to ensure that identity and sensitive data records are protected - not just the individual data elements in discrete fields and tables. 3. The masked values may be required to be consistent across multiple databases within an organization when the databases each contain the specific data element being masked. Applications may initially access one database and later access another one to retrieve related information where the foreign key has been masked (e.g. a call center application first brings up data from a customer master database and, depending on the situation, subsequently accesses one of several other databases with very different financial products.) This requires that the masking applied is repeatable (the same input value to the masking algorithm always yields the same output value) but not able to be reverse engineered to get back to the original value. Additional constraints as mentioned in (1) above may also apply depending on the data element(s) involved. Where different character sets are used across the databases that need to connect in this scenario, a scheme of converting the original values to a common representation will need to be applied, either by the masking algorithm itself or prior to invoking said algorithm. Substitution is one of the most effective methods of applying data masking and being able to preserve the authentic look and feel of the data records. It allows the masking to be performed in such a manner that another authentic looking value can be substituted for the existing value. There are several data field types where this approach provides optimal benefit in disguising the overall data sub set as to whether or not it is a masked data set. For example, if dealing with source data which contains customer records, real life surname or first name can be randomly substituted from a supplied or customised look up file. If the first pass of the substitution allows for applying a male first name to all first names, then the second pass would need to allow for applying a female first name to all first names where gender equals "F". Using this approach we could easily maintain the gender mix within the data structure, apply anonymity to the data records but also maintain a realistic looking database which could not easily be identified as a database consisting of masked data. This substitution method needs to be applied for many of the fields that are in DB structures across the world, such as telephone numbers, zip codes and postcodes, as well as credit card numbers and other card type numbers like Social Security numbers and Medicare numbers where these numbers actually need to conform to a checksum test of the Luhn algorithm. In most cases, the substitution files will need to be fairly extensive so having large substitution datasets as well the ability to apply customized data substitution sets should be a key element of the evaluation criteria for any data masking solution. The shuffling method is a very common form of data obfuscation. It is similar to the substitution method but it derives the substitution set from the same column of data that is being masked. In very simple terms, the data is randomly shuffled within the column. However, if used in isolation, anyone with any knowledge of the original data can then apply a "What If" scenario to the data set and then piece back together a real identity. The shuffling method is also open to being reversed if the shuffling algorithm can be deciphered. Shuffling, however, has some real strengths in certain areas. If for instance, the end of year figures for financial information in a test data base, one can mask the names of the suppliers and then shuffle the value of the accounts throughout the masked database. It is highly unlikely that anyone, even someone with intimate knowledge of the original data could derive a true data record back to its original values. The numeric variance method is very useful for applying to financial and date driven information fields. Effectively, a method utilising this manner of masking can still leave a meaningful range in a financial data set such as payroll. If the variance applied is around +/- 10% then it is still a very meaningful data set in terms of the ranges of salaries that are paid to the recipients. The same also applies to the date information. If the overall data set needs to retain demographic and actuarial data integrity then applying a random numeric variance of +/- 120 days to date fields would preserve the date distribution but still prevent traceability back to a known entity based on their known actual date or birth or a known date value of whatever record is being masked... Encryption is often the most complex approach to solving the data masking problem. The encryption algorithm often requires that a "key" be applied to view the data based on user rights. This often sounds like the best solution but in practice the key may then be given out to personnel without the proper rights to view the data and this then defeats the purpose of the masking exercise. Old databases may then be copied with the original credentials of the supplied key and the same uncontrolled problem lives on. Recently, the problem of encrypting data while preserving the properties of the entities got a recognition and newly acquired interest among the vendors and academia. New challenge gave birth to algorithms called FPE (format preserving encryption). They are based on the accepted AES algorithmic mode that makes them being recognized by NIST. Sometimes a very simplistic approach to masking is adopted through applying a null value to a particular field. The null value approach is really only useful to prevent visibility of the data element. In almost all cases it lessens the degree of data integrity that is maintained in the masked data set. It is not a realistic value and will then fail any application logic validation that may have been applied in the front end software that is in the system under test. It also highlights to anyone that wishes to reverse engineer any of the identity data that data masking has been applied to some degree on the data set. Character scrambling or masking out of certain fields is also another simplistic yet very effective method of preventing sensitive information to be viewed. It is really an extension of the previous method of nulling out but there is greater emphasis on keeping the data real and not fully masked all together. This is commonly applied to credit card data in production systems. For instance, an operator in a Call Centre might bill an item to a customer's credit card. They then quote a billing reference to the card with the last 4 digits of XXXX XXXX xxxx 6789. As an operator they can only see the last 4 digits of the card number, but once the billing system passes the customer's details for charging, the full number is revealed to the payment gateway systems. This system is not very effective for test systems but is very useful for the billing scenario detailed above. It is also commonly known as a dynamic data masking method. Additional rules can also be factored into any masking solution regardless of how the masking methods are constructed. Product agnostic White Papers are a good source of information for exploring some of the more common complex requirements for enterprise masking solutions which include Row Internal Synchronisation Rules, Table Internal Synchronisation Rules and Table to Table Synchronisation Rules. Data masking is tightly coupled with building test data. Two major types of data masking are static and on-the-fly data masking. Static Data Masking is usually performed on the golden copy of the database, but can also be applied to values in other sources, including files. In DB environments, production DBAs will typically load table backups to a separate environment, reduce the dataset to a subset that holds the data necessary for a particular round of testing (a technique called "subsetting"), apply data masking rules while data is in stasis, apply necessary code changes from source control, and/or and push data to desired environment. There are also alternatives to the static data masking that rely on stochastic perturbations of the data that preserve some of the statistical properties of the original data. Examples of statistical data obfuscation methods include differential privacy and the DataSifter method On-the-Fly Data Masking happens in the process of transferring data from environment to environment without data touching the disk on its way. The same technique is applied to "Dynamic Data Masking" but one record at a time. This type of data masking is most useful for environments that do continuous deployments as well as for heavily integrated applications. Organizations that employ continuous deployment or continuous delivery practices do not have the time necessary to create a backup and load it to the golden copy of the database. Thus, continuously sending smaller subsets (deltas) of masked testing data from production is important. In heavily integrated applications, developers get feeds from other production systems at the very onset of development and masking of these feeds is either overlooked and not budgeted until later, making organizations non-compliant. Having on-the-fly data masking in place becomes essential. Dynamic Data Masking is similar to On-the-Fly Data Masking but it differs in the sense that On-the-Fly Data Masking is about copying data from one source to another source so that the latter can be shared. Dynamic data masking happens at runtime, dynamically, and on-demand so that there doesn't need to be a second data source where to store the masked data dynamically. Dynamic data masking enables several scenarios, many of which revolve around strict privacy regulations e.g. the Singapore Monetary Authority or the Privacy regulations in Europe. Dynamic data masking is attribute-based and policy- driven. Policies include: Doctors can view the medical records of patients they are assigned to (data filtering), Doctors cannot view the SSN field inside a medical record (data masking). Dynamic data masking can also be used to encrypt or decrypt values on the fly especially when using format-preserving encryption. Several standards have emerged in recent years to implement dynamic data filtering and masking. For instance, XACML policies can be used to mask data inside databases. There are five possible technologies to apply Dynamic data masking: 1. In the Database: Database receives the SQL and applies rewrite to returned masked result set. Applicable for developers & DBAs but not for applications (because connection pools, application caching and data-bus hide the application user identity from the database and can also cause application data corruption). 2. Network Proxy between the application and the database: Captures the SQL and applies rewrite on the select request. Applicable for developers & DBAs with simple 'select'requests but not for stored procedures (which the proxy only identifies the exec.) and applications (because connection pools, application caching and data-bus hide the application user identity from the database and can also cause application data corruption). 3. Network Proxy between the end-user and the application: identifying text strings and replacing them. This method is not applicable for complex applications as it will easily cause corruption when the real-time string replacement is unintentionally applied. 4. Code changes in the applications & XACML: code changes are hard to perform, impossible to maintain and not applicable for packaged applications. 5. Within the application run-time: By instrumenting the application run-time, policies are defined to rewrite the result set returned from the data sources, while having full visibility to the application user. This method is the only applicable way to dynamically mask complex applications as it enables control to the data request, data result and user result. 6. Supported by a browser plugin: In the case of SaaS or local web applications, browser add-ons can be configured to mask data fields corresponding to precise CSS Selectors. This can either be accomplished by marking sensitive fields in the application, for example by a HTML class or by finding the right selectors that identify the fields to be obfuscated or masked. In latest years, organizations develop their new applications in the cloud more and more often, regardless of whether final applications will be hosted in the cloud or on- premises. The cloud solutions as of now allow organizations to use Infrastructure as a Service or IaaS, Platform as a Service or PaaS, and Software as a Service or SaaS. There are various modes of creating test data and moving it from on-premises databases to the cloud, or between different environments within the cloud. Data masking invariably becomes the part of these processes in SDLC as the development environments' SLAs are usually not as stringent as the production environments' SLAs regardless of whether application is hosted in the cloud or on-premises. Masking and unmasking by intelligence agencies Pseudonymization is a data management and de-identification procedure by which personally identifiable information fields within a data record are replaced by one or more artificial identifiers, or pseudonyms. A single pseudonym for each replaced field or collection of replaced fields makes the data record less identifiable while remaining suitable for data analysis and data processing Pseudonymization (or pseudonymisation) can be one way to comply with the European Union's new General Data Protection Regulation demands for secure data storage of personal information. Pseudonymized data can be restored to its original state with the addition of information which then allows individuals to be re-identified, while anonymized data can never be restored to its original state. The choice of which data fields are to be pseudonymized is partly subjective. Less selective fields, such as Birth Date or Postal Code are often also included because they are usually available from other sources and therefore make a record easier to identify. Pseudonymizing these less identifying fields removes most of their analytic value and is therefore normally accompanied by the introduction of new derived and less identifying forms, such as year of birth or a larger postal code region. Data fields that are less identifying, such as date of attendance, are usually not pseudonymized. It is important to realize that this is because too much statistical utility is lost in doing so, not because the data cannot be identified. For example, given prior knowledge of a few attendance dates it is easy to identify someone's data in a pseudonymized dataset by selecting only those people with that pattern of dates. This is an example of an inference attack. The weakness of pseudonymized data to inference attacks is commonly overlooked. A famous example is the AOL search data scandal. Protecting statistically useful pseudonymized data from re-identification requires: 1. a sound information security base 2. controlling the risk that the analysts, researchers or other data workers cause a privacy breach The pseudonym allows tracking back of data to its origins, which distinguishes pseudonymization from anonymization, where all person-related data that could allow backtracking has been purged. Pseudonymization is an issue in, for example, patient-related data that has to be passed on securely between clinical centers. The application of pseudonymization to e-health intends to preserve the patient's privacy and data confidentiality. It allows primary use of medical records by authorized health care providers and privacy preserving secondary use by researchers. In the US, HIPAA provides guidelines on how health care data must be handled and data de-identification or pseudonumization is one way to simplify HIPAA compliance. However, plain pseudonymization for privacy preservation often reaches its limits when genetic data are involved (see also genetic privacy). Due to the identifying nature of genetic data, depersonalization is often not sufficient to hide the corresponding person. Potential solutions are the combination of pseudonymization with fragmentation and encryption. An example of application of pseudonymization procedure is creation of datasets for de-identification research by replacing identifying words with words from the same category (e.g. replacing a name with a random name from the names dictionary), however, in this case it is in general not possible to track data back to its origins. Clinical information system, Dynamic Data Masking, FLAIM, Privacy Data re-identification or de-anonymization is the practice of matching anonymous data (also known as de-identified data) with publicly available information, or auxiliary data, in order to discover the individual to which the data belong to. This is a concern because companies with privacy policies, health care providers, and financial institutions may release the data they collect after the data has gone through the de-identification process. The de- identification process involves masking, generalizing or deleting both direct and indirect identifiers; the definition of this process is not universal, however. Information in the public domain, even seemingly anonymized, may thus be re-identified in combination with other pieces of available data and basic computer science techniques. The Protection of Human Subjects ('Common Rule#Signatories'), a collection of multiple U.S. federal agencies and departments including the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, speculate that re-identification is becoming gradually easier because of "big data"—the abundance and constant collection and analysis of information along the evolution of technologies and the advances of algorithms. However, others have claimed that de-identification is a safe and effective data liberation tool and do not view re-identification as a concern. More and more data are becoming publicly available over the Internet. These data are released after applying some anonymization techniques like removing personally identifiable information (PII) such as names, addresses and social security numbers to ensure the sources' privacy. This assurance of privacy allows the government to legally share limited data sets with third parties without requiring written permission. Such data has proved to be very valuable for researchers, particularly in health care. A 2000 study found that 87 percent of the U.S. population can be identified using a combination of their gender, birthdate and zip code. Others do not think that re-identification is a serious threat, and call it a "myth"; they claim that the combination of zip code, date of birth and gender is rare or partially complete, such as only the year and month birth without the date, or the county name instead of the specific zip code, thus the risk of such re-identification is reduced in many instances. Existing privacy regulations typically protect information that has been modified, so that the data is deemed anonymized, or de-identified. For financial information, the Federal Trade Commission permits its circulation if it is de-identified and aggregated. The Gramm Leach Bliley Act (GLBA), which mandates financial institutions give consumers the opportunity to opt out of having their information shared with third parties, does not cover de- identified data if the information is aggregate and does not contain personal identifiers, since this data is not treated as personally identifiable information. In terms of university records, authorities both on the state and federal level have shown an awareness about issues of privacy in education and a distaste for institutions' disclosure of information. The U.S. Department of Education has provided guidance about data discourse and identification, instructing educational institutions to be sensitive to the risk of re- identification of anonymous data by cross-referencing with auxiliary data, to minimize the amount of data in the public domain by decreasing publication of directory information about students and institutional personnel, and to be consistent in the processes of de-identification. Medical information of patients are becoming increasingly available on the Internet, on free and publicly accessing platforms such as HealthData.gov and PatientsLikeMe, encouraged by government open data policies and data sharing initiatives spearheaded by the private sector. While this level of accessibility yields many benefits, concerns regarding discrimination and privacy have been raised. Protections on medical records and consumer data from pharmacies are stronger compared to those for other kinds of consumer data. The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) protects the privacy of identifiable data about health, but authorize information release to third parties if de-identified. In addition, it mandates that patients receive breach notifications should there be more than a low probability that the patient's information was inappropriately disclosed or utilized without sufficient mitigation of the harm to him or her. The likelihood of re-identification is a factor in determining the probability that the patient's information has been compromised. Commonly, pharmacies sell de-identified information to data mining companies that sell to pharmaceutical companies in turn. There have been state laws enacted to ban data mining of medical information, but they were struck down by federal courts in Maine and New Hampshire on First Amendment grounds. Another federal court on another case used "illusive" to describe concerns about privacy of patients and did not recognize the risks of re-identification. The Notice of Proposed Rule Making, published by the Common Rule Agencies in September 2015, expanded the umbrella term of "human subject" in research to include biospecimens, or materials taken from the human body - blood, urine, tissue etc. This mandates that researchers using biospecimens must follow the stricter requirements of doing research with human subjects. The rationale for this is the increased risk of re-identification of biospecimen. The final revisions affirmed this regulation. There have been a sizable amount of successful attempts of re-identification in different fields. Even if it is not easy for a lay person to break anonymity, once the steps to do so are disclosed and learnt, there is no need for higher level knowledge to access information in a database. Sometimes, technical expertise is not even needed if a population has a unique combination of identifiers. In the mid 1990s, a government agency in Massachusetts called Group Insurance Commission (GIC), which purchased health insurance for employees of the state, decided to release records of hospital visits to any researcher who requested the data, at no cost. GIC assured that the patient's privacy was not a concern since it had removed identifiers such as name, addresses, social security numbers. However, information such as zip codes, birth date and sex remained untouched. The GIC assurance was reinforced by the then governor of Massachusetts, William Weld. Latanya Sweeney, a graduate student at the time, put her mind to picking out the governor's records in the GIC data. By combining the GIC data with the voter database of the city Cambridge, which she purchased for 20 dollars, Governor Weld's record was discovered with ease. In 1997, a researcher successfully de-anonymized medical records using voter databases. In 2001, Professor Latanya Sweeney again successfully matched anonymized hospital visit records in the state of Washington to individual persons using the state's voting records 43% of the time. There are existing algorithms used to re-identify patient with prescription drug information. Two researchers at the University of Texas, Arvind Narayanan and Professor Vitaly Shmatikov, were able to re-identity some portion of anonymized Netflix movie-ranking data with individual consumers on the streaming website. The data was released by Netflix 2006 after de-identification, which consisted of replacing individual names with random numbers and moving around personal details. The two researchers de-anonymized some of the data by comparing it with non-anonymous IMDb (Internet Movie Database) users’ movie ratings. Very little information from the database, it was found, was needed to identify the subscriber. In the resulting research paper, there were startling revelations of how easy it is to re-identify Netflix users. For example, simply knowing data about only two movies a user has reviewed, including the precise rating and the date of rating give or take three days allows for 68% re- identification success. In 2006, after AOL published its users' search queries, data that was anonymized prior to the public release, New York Times reporters successfully carried out re-identification of individuals by taking groups of searches made by anonymized users. AOL had attempted to suppress identifying information, including usernames and IP addresses, but had replaced these with unique identification numbers to preserve the utility of this data for researchers. Bloggers, after the release, pored over the data, either trying to identify specific users with this content, or to point out entertaining, depressing, or shocking search queries, examples of which include "how to kill you wife," "depression and medical leave," "car crash photos." Two reporters, Michael Barbaro and Tom Zeller, were able to track down a 62 year old widow named Thelma Arnold from recognizing clues to the identity of User 417729 search histories. Arnold acknowledged that she was the author of the searches, confirming that re-identification is possible. Location data - series of geographical positions in time that describe a person's whereabouts and movements - is a class of personal data that is specifically hard to keep anonymous. Location shows recurring visits to frequently attended places of everyday life such as home, workplace, shopping, healthcare or specific sparetime patterns. Only removing a person's identity from location data will not remove identifiable patterns such as commuting rhythms, sleeping places, or work places. By mapping coordinates onto addresses, location data is easily re-identified or correlated with a person's private life contexts. Streams of location information play an important role in the reconstruction of personal identifiers from smartphone data accessed by apps. In 2019, Professor Kerstin Noëlle Vokinger and Dr. Urs Jakob Mühlematter, two researchers at the University of Zurich, analyzed cases of the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland to assess which pharmaceutical companies and which medical drugs were involved in legal actions against the Federal Office of Public Health (FOPH) regarding pricing decisions of medical drugs. In general, involved private parties (such as pharmaceutical companies) and information that would reveal the private party (for example, drug names) are anonymized in Swiss judgments. The researchers were able to re-identify 84% of the relevant anonymized cases of the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland by linking information from publicly accessible databases. This achievement was covered by the media and started a debate if and how court cases should be anonymized. The individuals whose data is re-identified is also at risk of having their information, with their identity attached it, sold to organizations they do not want possessing private information about their finances, health or preferences. The release of this data may cause anxiety, shame or embarrassment. Once an individual's privacy has been breached as a result of re-identification, future breaches become much easier: once an link is made between one piece of data and a person's real identity, any association between the data and an anonymous identity breaks anonymity of the person. Re- identification may expose companies which have pledged to assure anonymity to increased liability to contract or to tort and cause them to violate their privacy policies by having released information to third parties that can identify users after re-identification. Not only will they violate internal policies, institutions may also violate state and federal laws, such laws concerning financial confidentiality or medical privacy. To address the risks of re-identification, several proposals have been suggested: Higher standards and uniform definition of de-identification while retaining data utility: the definition of de-identification should balance privacy protections to reduce re-identification risk with the refusal of companies to delete data, Heightened privacy protections of anonymized information, Tighter security for databases that store anonymized information, Strong ban on malicious re-identification, the passing of broader anti-discrimination and privacy legislation that ensures privacy protections as well as encourage participation in data sharing projects and endeavors, as well as establishment of uniform data protection standards in academic communities, such as in the scientific community, in order to minimize privacy violations, Creation of data-release policies: making sure de-identification rhetoric is accurate, drawing up contracts that prohibit re-identification attempts and dissemination of sensitive information, establishing data enclaves, and utilizing data-based strategies to match required protection standards to the level of risk., Implementation of Differential Privacy on requested data sets, Generation of Synthetic Data that exhibits the statistical properties of the raw data, without allowing real individuals to be identified While a complete ban on re-identification has been urged, enforcement would be difficult. There are, however, ways for lawmakers to combat and punish re- identification efforts, if and when they are exposed: pair a ban with harsher penalties and stronger enforcement by the Federal Trade Commission and the Federal Bureau of Investigation; grant victims of re-identification a right of action against those who re-identify them; and mandate software audit trails for people who utilize and analyze anonymized data. A small-scale re- identification ban may also be imposed on trusted recipients of particular databases, such as government data miners or researchers. This ban would be much easier to enforce and may discourage re-identification. "Researchers at MIT and the Université catholique de Louvain, in Belgium, analyzed data on 1.5 million cellphone users in a small European country over a span of 15 months and found that just four points of reference, with fairly low spatial and temporal resolution, was enough to uniquely identify 95 percent of them. In other words, to extract the complete location information for a single person from an “anonymized” data set of more than a million people, all you would need to do is place him or her within a couple of hundred yards of a cellphone transmitter, sometime over the course of an hour, four times in one year. A few Twitter posts would probably provide all the information you needed, if they contained specific information about the person's whereabouts.", "Sharing sequencing data short tandem repeats on the Y chromosome and querying recreational genetic genealogy databases. It is shown that a combination of a surname with other types of metadata, such as age and state, can be used to identity of the person..." De-identification, doxing, K-anonymity, Statistical disclosure control

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Balaam (; , Bilʻam Bilʻām) is a diviner in the Torah (Old Testament) whose story begins in Chapter 22 of the Book of Numbers (). Every ancient reference to Balaam considers him a non-Israelite, a prophet, and the son of Beor, though Beor is not clearly identified. Though some sources may only describe the positive blessings he delivers upon the Israelites, he is reviled as a "wicked man" in both the Torah and the New Testament (). Balaam refused to speak what God did not speak and would not curse the Israelites, even though King Balak of Moab offered him money to do so (). But Balaam's error and the source of his wickedness came from sabotaging the Israelites as they entered the Promised Land. According to Revelation (), Balaam told King Balak how to get the Israelites to commit sin by enticing them with sexual immorality and food sacrificed to idols. The Israelites fell into transgression due to these traps and God sent a deadly plague to them as a result (). The main story of Balaam occurs during the sojourn of the Israelites in the plains of Moab, east of the Jordan River, at the close of 40 years of wandering, shortly before the death of Moses and the crossing of the Jordan. The Israelites have already defeated two kings in Transjordan: Sihon, king of the Amorites, and Og, king of Bashan. Balak, king of Moab, consequently becomes alarmed, and sends elders of Midian and his Moabite messengers, to Balaam, son of Beor, to induce him to come and curse Israel. Balaam's location, Pethor, is simply given as "which is by the river of the land of the children of his people" in the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint, though the Samaritan Pentateuch, Vulgate, and Peshitta all identify his land as Ammon. Balaam sends back word that he can only do what YHWH commands, and God has, via a nocturnal dream, told him not to go. Balak consequently sends higher- ranking priests and offers Balaam honours; Balaam continues to press God, and God finally permits him to go but with instructions to say only what he commands. Balaam then sets out in the morning with the princes of Moab. God becomes angry that he went, and sends the Angel of the Lord (Numbers 22:22) to prevent him. At first, the angel is seen only by the donkey Balaam is riding, which tries to avoid the angel. After Balaam starts punishing the donkey for refusing to move, it is miraculously given the power to speak to Balaam (Numbers 22:28), and it complains about Balaam's treatment. At this point, Balaam is allowed to see the angel, who informs him that the donkey's turning away from the messenger is the only reason the angel did not kill Balaam. Balaam immediately repents, but is told to go on. Balak meets with Balaam at Kirjat Huzoth, and they go to the "high places of Baal", and offer sacrifices on seven altars, leading to Balaam being given a prophecy by Yahweh, which he speaks to Balak. However, the prophecy blesses Israel; Balak remonstrates, but Balaam reminds him that he can only speak the words put in his mouth, so Balak takes him to another "high place" at Pisgah, to try again. Building another seven altars here, and making sacrifices on each, Balaam provides another prophecy blessing Israel. Balaam finally gets taken by a now very frustrated Balak to Peor, and, after the seven sacrifices there, decides not to "seek enchantments" but instead looks upon the Israelites from the peak. The Spirit of God comes upon Balaam and he delivers a third positive prophecy concerning Israel. Balak's anger rises to the point where he threatens Balaam, but Balaam merely offers a prediction of fate. Balaam then looks upon the Kenites, and Amalekites and offers two more predictions of their fates. Balak and Balaam then go to their respective homes. Later, Numbers 25:1-9 describes how Israel engaged in the Heresy of Peor. Numbers 31:16 blames this on Balaam's advice and because of his culpability in the incident, which resulted in deadly divine judgements against the Israelites who participated, he was eventually killed in a retaliatory battle against Midian in Numbers 31:8. Deuteronomy 23:3–6 summarises these incidents, and further states that the Ammonites were associated with the Moabites. Joshua, in his farewell speech, also makes reference to it. With God's protection taken from him, Balaam is later listed among the Midianites who were killed in revenge for the "matter of Peor". Joshua 13:22 records that Balaam died "by the sword" during a battle for the Reubenite occupation of Moabite land. Revelation also states that Balaam "taught Balak to cast a stumbling block before the children of Israel." The story of Balaam and Balak is also made reference to in chapter 10 of 2 Meqabyan, a book considered canonical in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. All the prophecies which Balaam makes take the form of (Hebrew) poems: The first, Numbers 23:7–10, prophesies the unique exaltation of the Kingdom of Israel, and its countless numbers., The second, Numbers 23:18–24, celebrates the moral virtue of Israel, its monarchy, and military conquests., The third, Numbers 24:3–9, celebrates the glory and conquests of Israel's monarchy., The fourth, Numbers 24:14–19, prophesies the coming of a king who will conquer Edom and Moab., The fifth, Numbers 24:20, concerns the ruins of Amalek., The sixth, Numbers 24:21–22, concerns the destruction of the Kenites by Assyria., The seventh, Numbers 24:23–24, concerns "ships of Kittim" coming from the west to attack Assyria and Eber. The poems fall into three groups. The first group consists of two poems which characteristically start immediately. The third group of three poems also start immediately, but are much shorter. The second group, however, consists of two poems which both start: Balaam the son of Beor hath said, and the man whose eyes are open hath said: He hath said, which heard the words of God, which saw the vision of the Almighty, falling into a trance, but having his eyes open ... Of these, the first and third groups are considered, according to the Documentary Hypothesis, to originate within the Elohist text, whereas the second group is considered to belong to the Jahwist. Thus the Elohist describes Balaam giving two blessings, making sacrifices on seven altars, at the high places of Baal, before each, then deciding not to "seek enchantments" after the third set of sacrifices, but to "set his face upon the wilderness," which Balak views as a third blessing, and so Balaam then gives the three final predictions of fate. Conversely, in the Jahwist source, Balaam arrives, the spirit of God comes upon him, and he simply delivers a blessing and a prophecy, in succession. The poems themselves are considered to predate the Jahwist and Elohist, and simply to have been embedded by them in their works. While the Elohist took off whatever introduction was present in the poems they chose, the Jahwist left it on. An archaeological discovery in 1967 uncovered references to a Book of Balaam, from which these poems may have originally been taken. The first four poems are commonly regarded as ancient lyrics of the early monarchy of Israel and Judah, although several critics suspect that they have been edited either from less edifying oracles or from oracles which did not refer to Israel. Agag, mentioned in the third poem, is described as a great king, which does not correspond to the king of the Amalekites who was named Agag, and described in I Samuel 15, since that description considers Amalek to be small and obscure. While it is the Masoretic text of the poem that uses the word Agag, the Septuagint, other Greek versions, and the Samaritan Pentateuch, all have Gog. These names are consequently thought to be textual corruptions, and Og has been suggested as the original. The final three poems do not refer either to Israel or to Moab, and are thus considered unusual, since they seem to have little relevance to the narrative. It is thought that they may have been added to bring the number of poems either up to five, if inserted into the Elohist source, or up to seven, if only inserted once JE was constructed. While the sixth poem refers to Assyria, it is uncertain whether it is an historical reference to ancient Ninevah, or a prophecy, which some religious commentators consider refers to the Seleucid kingdom of Syria, which also took the name Assyria. The seventh is also ambiguous, and may either be a reference to the Sea Peoples, or, again in the view of some religious commentators, to the conquest of Persia by Alexander the Great. In the view of some schools of textual criticism the narrative, excepting the episode involving the donkey, is simply a framework invented in order to be able to insert much older poems. In rabbinic literature Balaam is represented as one of seven gentile prophets; the other six being Beor (Balaam's father), Job, and Job's four friends (Talmud, B. B. 15b). In this literature, Balaam gradually acquired a position among the non-Jews, which was exalted as much as that of Moses among the Jews (Midrash Numbers Rabbah 20); at first being a mere interpreter of dreams, but later becoming a magician, until finally the spirit of prophecy descended upon him (ib. 7). According to a negative view of Balaam in the Talmud, Balaam possessed the gift of being able to ascertain the exact moment during which God is wroth — a gift bestowed upon no other creature. Balaam's intention was to curse the Israelites at this moment of wrath, and thus cause God himself to destroy them; but God purposely restrained His anger in order to baffle the wicked prophet and to save the nation from extermination (Talmud, Berachot 7a). The Talmud also recounts a more positive view of Balaam, stating that when the Law was given to Israel, a mighty voice shook the foundations of the earth, so much so that all kings trembled, and in their consternation turned to Balaam, inquiring whether this upheaval of nature portended a second deluge; the prophet assured them that what they heard was the voice of God, giving the sacred law to the Israelites (Talmud, Zeb. 116a). According to Jewish legend, Balaam was made this powerful in order to prevent the non- Jewish tribes from saying: "If we had only had our own Moses, we would be as pious as the Jews." The wicked Balaam is included in the list of persons born circumcised along with Moses in the book Abbot De-Rabbi Natan. In rabbinical literature the epithet rasha, translating as the wicked one, is often attached to the name of Balaam (Talmud Berachot l.c.; Taanit 20a; Midrash Numbers Rabbah 20:14). Balaam is pictured as blind in one eye and lame in one foot (Talmud Sanhedrin 105a); and his disciples (followers) are distinguished by three morally corrupt qualities: an evil eye, a haughty bearing, an avaricious spirit Due to his behavior with the Midianites, the Rabbis interpret Balaam as responsible for the behavior during the Heresy of Peor, which they consider to have been unchastity, and consequently the death of 24,000 victims of the plague which God sent as punishment. When Balaam saw that he could not curse the children of Israel, the Rabbis assert that he advised Balak, as a last resort, to tempt the Hebrew nation to immoral acts and, through these, to the worship of Baal-peor. The God of the Hebrews, adds Balaam, according to the Rabbis, hates lewdness; and severe chastisement must follow (San. 106a; Yer. ib. x. 28d; Num. R. l.c.). The Rabbis, playing on the name Balaam, call him "Belo 'Am" (without people; that is, without a share with the people in the world to come), or "Billa' 'Am" (one that ruined a people); and this hostility against his memory finds its climax in the dictum that whenever one discovers a feature of wickedness or disgrace in his life, one should preach about it (Sanh. 106b). In the process of killing Balaam (Num. xxxi. 8), all four legal methods of execution—stoning, burning, decapitating, and strangling—were employed (Sanh. l.c.). He met his death at the age of thirty-three (ib.); and it is stated that he had no portion in the world to come (Sanh. x. 2; 90a). The book devotes a special section to the history of the prophet discussing why God has taken away the power of prophecy from the Gentiles (Tan., Balak, 1). Moses is expressly mentioned as the author of this episode in the Pentateuch (B. B. 14b).J. Sr. H. M. "Ahithophel of the house of Israel and Balaam of the heathen nations were the two great sages of the world who, failing to show gratitude to God for their wisdom, perished in dishonor. To them the prophetic word finds application: 'Let not the wise man glory in his wisdom,' Jer. ix. 23" (Num. R. xxii.). In (Sanhedrin 106b) and (Giṭtin 57a) Balaam may be likened to Jesus. Some have theorized that Balaam became used as a pseudonym for Jesus in Jewish literature. Balaam's father Beor was a son of Laban The Book of JAsher reports Balaam's sons were Jannes and Jambres In the New Testament, Balaam is cited as a type of avarice; for example in Book of Revelation 2:14 we read of false teachers at Pergamum who held the "teaching of Balaam, who taught Balak to cast a stumbling-block before the children of Israel, to eat things sacrificed to idols, and to commit fornication." Balaam has attracted much interest, alike from Jews, Christians, and Muslims. Josephus paraphrases the story more so, and speaks of Balaam as the best prophet of his time, but with a disposition ill-adapted to resist temptation. Philo describes him as a great magician in the Life of Moses; elsewhere he speaks of "the sophist Balaam, being," i.e. symbolizing "a vain crowd of contrary and warring opinions" and again as "a vain people" — both phrases being based on a mistaken etymology of the name Balaam. A man also named Balaam also figures as an example of a false prophet motivated by greed or avarice in both 2 Peter 2:15 and in Jude 1:11. This Balaam is listed as the son of Bezer, which is usually identified as Beor. Some authors claim that Bezer was the Aramaic pronunciation of Beor, while others hold that the author was attempting to play off the Hebrew word basar or "flesh" to insult Balaam. Later Jewish tradition similarly played with Balaam's name to call him corrupt and imply bestiality. Still other authors hold that Bezer and Beor are distinct, while still identifying the Balaams of the Old and New Testaments, claiming that Beor is Balaam's father and Bezer is Balaam's home town. Regarding the Islamic view of Balaam, no clear reference is made to Balaam in the Qur'an. However, the commentators argue that he is the one to whom the following text is referring: The Muslim commentators explain that Balaam was a Canaanite who had been given knowledge of some of the books of God. His people asked him to curse Moses (Musa) and those who were with him, but he said, "How can I curse one who has angels with him?" They continued to press him, however, until he cursed the Israelites, and, as a consequence, they remained 40 years in the Wilderness of the Wanderings. Then, when he had cursed Moses, his tongue came out and fell upon his breast, and he began to pant like a dog. The story as told by Tabari is somewhat more Biblical. Balaam had the knowledge of the Most Sacred Name of God, and whatever he asked of God was granted to him. The story of Balaam and the ass, then follows at length. When it came to the actual cursing, God "turned his tongue" so that the cursing fell upon his own people and the blessing upon Israel. Then his tongue came out and hung down on his breast. Finally, he advised his people to adorn and beautify their women and to send them out to ensnare the Israelites. The story of the plague at Baal-peor and of Cozbi and Zimri follows. According to another story which al-Tabari gives, Balaam was a renegade Israelite who knew the Most Sacred Name, and to gain the things of this world, went over to the Canaanites. Al-Tha'labi adds that Balaam was descended from Lot. He gives, too, the story of Balaam's dream, his being forbidden by God to curse Israel. Another version is that Balak, the king of Bal'a, compelled Balaam to use the Most Sacred Name against Israel. The curse fell automatically, and Moses, having learned from whence it came, entreated God to take from Balaam his knowledge of the Name and his faith. This being done, they went out from him in the form of a white dove. In 1967, at Deir Alla, Jordan, archaeologists found an inscription with a story relating visions of the seer of the gods Bala'am, son of Be'or, who may be the same Bala'am mentioned in Numbers 22–24 and in other passages of the Bible. This Bala'am differs from the one in Numbers in that rather than being a prophet of Yahweh he is associated with Ashtar, a god named Shgr, and Shadday gods and goddesses. The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies describes it as "the oldest example of a book in a West Semitic language written with the alphabet, and the oldest piece of Aramaic literature." The inscription is datable to ca. 840–760 BCE; it was painted in red and black inks, apparently to emphasize the text, on fragments of a plastered wall: 119 pieces of inked plaster were recovered. According to the story in the inscription, Balaam wakes up weeping and tells his people that the gods appeared to him in the night telling him about a goddess threatening to destroy the land. She is to cover the sky and reduce the world to complete darkness. Meindert Dijkstra suggests that "the reticence of OT scholarship to take account of the text may be attributable to its damaged state, the difficulty of reconstructing and reading it, and the many questions it raises of script, language, literary form and religious content." Balak (parsha), Biblical archaeology Ausloos, Hans, On an Obedient Prophet and a Fickle God. The Narrative of Balaam in Numbers 22–24, in Old Testament Essays 20 (2007) 84-104, Hoftijzer, Jacob. “The Prophet Balaam in a 6th Century Aramaic Inscription.” Biblical Archaeologist 39.1 (March 1976), pp. 11–17 (electronic edition 2001)., McCarter, P. Kyle. “The Balaam Texts from Deir Allā: The First Combination.” Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, no. 239 (Summer 1980), pp. 49–60., Savelle, Charles. 2009. Canonical and Extracanonical portraits of Balaam. Bibliotheca Sacra 166:387-404., Shenk, Robert. “The Coherence of the Biblical Story of Balaam.” Literature and Belief 13 (1993), 31-51., Van Kooten, George H. and Jacques van Ruiten (edd.). Prestige of the Pagan Prophet Balaam in Judaism, Early Christianity and Islam. Leiden: Brill, 2008. Attribution Bibliography on Balaam, Biblical Hebrew Poetry – Reconstructing the Original Oral, Aural and Visual Experience, The Oracles of Balaam (poetic portions of Numbers 23:7–24:24) Reconstructed, The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia (ISBE), James Orr, M.A., D.D., General Editor – 1915 (online), Easton's Bible Dictionary, M.G. Easton M.A., D.D., published by Thomas Nelson, 1897. (online), Hitchcock Bible Names Dictionary (online), Nave Topical Bible, Orville J. Nave, AM., D.D., LL.D. (online), Smith's Bible Dictionary (1896) (online) The miller, his son and the donkey is a widely dispersed fable, number 721 in the Perry Index and number 1215 in the Aarne–Thompson classification systems of folklore narratives. Though it may have ancient analogues, the earliest extant version is in the work of the 13th-century Arab writer Ibn Said. There are many eastern versions of the tale and in Europe it was included in a number of Mediaeval collections. Since then it has been frequently included in collections of Aesop's fables as well as the influential Fables of Jean de la Fontaine. The basic situation in this fable is of a man and his son who are accompanied by their donkey and meet constant criticism from passers-by of the way it is used or treated by them. The story's purpose is to show that everyone has their own opinion and there is no way one can satisfy all. There are four or five different elements to the story that are ordered differently according to version. When both walk beside the donkey they are criticised for not riding it. When the father rides, he is blamed for making his young son walk; when the son rides, he is blamed for leaving his elderly father on foot. When both ride, they are berated for overburdening their beast. In later versions the father then exclaims that the only option left is to carry the donkey on his back; in others he does so, or father and son tie the donkey to a pole which they carry on their shoulders. This action causes general mirth and has an unhappy outcome, resulting in the donkey's death through one cause or another. Although there is no ancient source for the tale, there may be some link with a dialogue in Aristophanes' The Frogs, produced in 405 BC. Dionysos is talking to his slave Xanthias, who is riding on a donkey but also carrying a burden himself. Xanthias says the donkey is no help with that weight on his shoulders. "All right, then," answers Dionysos, "Since you claim the donkey’s useless to you, why not take your turn and carry it?" The oldest documented occurrence of the actual story is in the work of the historian, geographer and poet Ibn Said (1213-1286), born and educated in Al- Andalus. There are many versions of the tale in the East. It occurs in the Forty Vezirs translated from Arabic into Turkish by Sheykh Zada in the early 17th century, summarised as: The story occurs in the Mulla Nasreddin corpus, where it is the Mulla and his son who are subject to the advice and comments of passers-by. After the experience is over, the Mulla advises his son: Many Nasreddin tales are also told of Goha in the Arab world, and sure enough, Goha features in a similar story, popular as a subject for the patchwork story cloths of the tentmakers of the Street of Tentmakers (Sharia al Khiyamiya) in Cairo. The story is framed as a deliberate lesson on the part of the father. As Sarah Gauch comments in The adventures of Goha, the Wise Fool, a book illustrated with the tentmakers' creations, "every tentmaker has a Goha... but whatever the Goha, it seems the favourite story is the tale 'Goha Gives His Son a Lesson About Life'." In Mediaeval Europe it is found from the 13th century on in collections of parables created for inclusion in sermons, of which Jacques de Vitry's Tabula exemplorum is the earliest. Among collections of fables in European tongues, it makes its earliest appearance in the Castilian of Don Juan Manuel. Titled "What happened to a good Man and his Son, leading a beast to market" (story 23), it is included in his Tales of Count Lucanor (1335). Here it is the son who is so infirm of will that he is guided by the criticisms of others along the road until the father expostulates with him that they have run out of alternatives. The moral given is: In this version the episode of the two carrying the ass is absent, but it appears in Poggio Bracciolini's Facetiae (1450), where the story is related as one that a papal secretary has heard and seen depicted in Germany. The miller and his son are on the way to sell the ass at market but finally the father is so frustrated by the constant criticism that he throws the ass into the river. The same story is told among the "100 Fables" (Fabulae Centum) of Gabriele Faerno (1564) and as the opening poem in Giovanni Maria Verdizotti's Cento favole morali (1570). It also appeared in English in Merry Tales and Quick Answers or Shakespeare's Jest Book (c.1530) with the same ending of the old man throwing the ass into the water. A slightly later version by the German meistersinger Hans Sachs was created as a broadsheet in 1531. In his retelling a man is asked by his son why they are living secluded in the woods and replies that it is because there is no pleasing anyone in the world. When the son wishes to test this, they set off with their ass and meet criticism whatever they do. Finally they beat the ass to death, are criticised for that too and retreat back into the forest. In drawing the lesson that one should stick to one's decisions despite what the world says, Sachs refers to the story as an 'old fable', although it is obviously not the one with which Poggio's fellow secretary was acquainted. The Latin version created in Germany by Joachim Camerarius under the title Asinus Vulgi ("The public ass") follows the standard story with the single variation that father and son throw the ass over a bridge when they reach it. It is this version too that the Dane Niels Heldvad (1563-1634) used for his translation of the fable. When Jean de La Fontaine included the tale in his work (Fables III.1, 1668), he related that it had been told by the poet François de Malherbe to his indecisive disciple Honorat de Bueil, seigneur de Racan. The order of the episodes are radically altered, however, and the story begins with the father and son carrying the ass between them so that it will arrive fresh for sale at market. The laughter of bystanders causes him to set it free and subsequent remarks have them changing places until the miller loses patience and decides he will only suit himself in future, for "Doubt not but tongues will have their talk" whatever the circumstances. Earlier on he had reflected that 'He's mad who hopes to please the whole world and his brother'. Robert Dodsley draws the same conclusion in his version of 1764: 'there cannot be a more fruitless attempt than to endeavour to please all mankind', a sentiment shortened by later authors to 'there's no pleasing everyone'. Anne Finch, Countess of Winchilsea had also made a close translation of the poem, published in 1713. The fable has been illustrated in a number of connections, including on a 1960 Hungarian postage stamp. In around 1800, a composite version of the episodes in the tale appeared as a design for printed cotton fabric in France and in 1817 Hippolyte Lecomte designed a lithograph of the fable suitable to be displayed in people's homes. Later in the 19th century it was the subject of cards issued by the Liebig meat extract company and Guérin Boutron chocolates. An educational postcard was also issued with the text on the back. Elsewhere, the American Encaustic Tiling Company of Zanesville, Ohio, produced in 1890 a series of printed decal tiles taken directly from the original plates of Walter Crane's Baby’s Own Aesop. The fable was one of these and featured a composite design of its episodes. At the start of the 18th century, French artist Claude Gillot produced a coloured drawing of father and son riding side by side on the donkey. In 1835 it is recorded that the French Baron Bastien Felix Feuillet de Conches, a collector and great enthusiast of La Fontaine’s fables, got a colleague to commission a miniature of this and other fables from the Punjabi court painter Imam Bakhsh Lahori. The composite design shows the group positioned sideways along a street of handsome Indian buildings. It is now on exhibition at the at Château-Thierry, as well as Hortense Haudebourt-Lescot's oil painting of the father riding through the town with the son holding onto the bridle. Other minor artists who painted the subject were Jules Salles-Wagner (1814-1900), Jules-Joseph Meynier (1826-1903) and Emile Louis Foubert (1848-1911). Some artists painted more than one version of episodes from the fable. One was Honoré Daumier, whose painting of 1849/50 is now in the Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum. This shows a group of three women turning back to mock the miller and son as they cross the end of the street; but another version has them watched by a woman and her children as they take the road round the edge of the town. Another such artist was the American Symbolist painter Elihu Vedder, whose nine scenes from the story (dating from 1867/8) are in the Metropolitan Museum of Art and follow the donkey's course through an Italian hill town until it topples over a bridge into a ravine. European Symbolist painters who treated the subject include the French Gustave Moreau, who made it part of a set of watercolours dedicated to La Fontaine's fables, and the Swiss Ferdinand Hodler (1853-1918). In the 20th century there has been an etching by Marc Chagall and a coloured woodcut by André Planson (1898-1981). , the Aesop's fable translated by George Fyler Townsend (1887) from, The Man, the Boy, and the Donkey, Folktales of Aarne-Thompson-Uther Type 1215 translated and/or edited by D. L. Ashliman, illustrations of the fable, Pater, Filius, et Asinus, on laurakgibbs photostream on flickr In Jewish tradition, the Messiah's Donkey (Hebrew: חמורו של משיח) refers to the donkey upon which the Messiah will arrive to redeem the world at the end of days. In Modern Hebrew the phrase "the Messiah's donkey" is used to refer to someone who does the 'dirty work' on behalf of someone else. The origin of the belief can be found in : "... your king is coming to you; righteous and having salvation is he, humble and mounted on a donkey, on a colt, the foal of a donkey." The 'king' referred to in this verse is interpreted by Chazal as referring to the Messiah. In the discussion regarding this verse in the Babylonian Talmud (Sanhedrin 98a) a story is told of the Persian king Shevor, who asks Samuel one of the Amoraim: Why doesn't your Messiah come riding on a horse? If he lacks one, I'll be glad to provide him with one of my fast horses! In response to the ridicule of the king, Samuel answers: Do you have a horse that has a hundred shades of color? [As the donkey of the messiah will be such]. In the New Testament () it is told that as Jesus approached the Mount of Olives, he sent two of his disciples to a nearby village to fetch him a donkey. Upon their return, Jesus then rode the donkey into Jerusalem where he was met by cheering crowds. According to the Christian religious tradition, this was the fulfillment of the prophecy of Zechariah 9:9. According to some Muslim historians and scholars the prophecy of the Messiah's Donkey was fulfilled when Umar ibn al-Khattab travelling alone with one donkey and one servant. When he arrived in Jerusalem, he was greeted by Sophronius, who undoubtedly must have been amazed that the caliph of the Muslims, one of the most powerful people in world arriving on a donkey which fulfilled the prophecy in Zechariah 9:9: "... your king is coming to the arrival." In Israel, the phrase "the Messiah's Donkey" can also refer to the controversial political-religious doctrine ascribed to the teachings of Avraham Yitzhak Kook which claims that secular Jews, which represent the material world, are an instrument in the hands of God whose purpose it was to establish the State of Israel and begin the process of redemption, but upon its establishment they would be required to step aside and allow the Religious-Haredi public to govern the state. According to this analogy, the secular Jewish public are the "donkey", while the Religious-Haredi public who would take their place represent a collective quasi-Messianic body. A book called The Messiah's Donkey, which focuses on this issue, was published in 1998 by Seffi Rachlevsky and caused widespread controversy among the Jewish- Israeli public; according to Hassidic teaching the donkey is a symbol of the fact that the Messiah and Messianic age will not oppose the material world, but rather harness it for sacred purposes. Thus, the act of riding upon the donkey is a symbol of the sovereignty of the Messiah over the material world (represented by the donkey).

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Mandalay Bay is a 43-story luxury resort and casino on the Las Vegas Strip in Paradise, Nevada. It is owned and operated by MGM Resorts International. One of the property's towers operates as the Delano; the Four Seasons Hotel is independently operated within the Mandalay Bay tower, occupying five floors (35–39). Mandalay Bay has 3,209 hotel rooms, 24 elevators and a casino of . Adjacent to the hotel is the Mandalay Bay Convention Center and the 12,000-seat Mandalay Bay Events Center. The Mandalay Bay Tram connects the resort to its sister properties, Excalibur and Luxor, all three of which were constructed by Circus Circus Enterprises before its sale to MGM. In 1995, Circus Circus Enterprises bought the Hacienda for $80 million and an adjacent site for $73 million. They closed the Hacienda on December 1, 1996, and razed it a month later on New Year's Eve. Plans for the tropical-themed "Project Paradise" were revealed the same day, with an estimated budget of $800 million to $1 billion. In February 1998 the project was renamed Mandalay Bay to evoke the exotic tropical romanticism of the poem "Mandalay." Problems arose during construction because of excessive and uneven settling of the soil beneath the building; the core of the building sank by , while one of the wings had settled by only . Rumors about the severity of the issues depressed Circus Circus's stock price. The problem was solved by installing 536 micropiles (200-foot-long metal pipes filled with grout, each capped with a hydraulic jack) below the building, at an estimated cost of $8 million to $10 million. The resort opened on March 2, 1999, with grand opening festivities that included the Blues Brothers (Dan Aykroyd, James Belushi, and John Goodman) leading a procession of 200 motorcycles to Mandalay Bay's front doors, and a concert by Bob Dylan at the House of Blues. In June 1999, Circus Circus changed its name to Mandalay Resort Group. Construction of a major convention center at Mandalay Bay had begun in June 2001, with its opening originally set for mid-2002. After a delay in the wake of the September 11, 2001 attacks, the Mandalay Bay Convention Center opened in January 2003. With of space, it was the fifth largest convention center in the nation. On May 23, 2002, the Mandalay Resort Group announced a second 1,122-room hotel tower, with a cost of at least $200 million. Construction began on the project in September 2002. The name of the tower, THEhotel at Mandalay Bay, was revealed in October 2003. The tower opened on December 17, 2003. In February 2005, Mandalay Resort Group was sold to MGM Mirage (later MGM Resorts International), which currently owns the resort. The acquisition was finalized on April 25, 2005. In January 2020, MGM Resorts announced that it would sell the Mandalay Bay to a joint venture consisting of MGM Growth Properties and The Blackstone Group. MGM would own 50.1 percent of the joint venture, and Blackstone would own the remainder. The deal is expected to be finalized during the first quarter of 2020. On October 1, 2017, gunman Stephen Paddock opened fire on the Route 91 Harvest, a country music festival, from a room on the 32nd floor of the hotel, killing 58 and wounding 546. The shooting ended when Paddock died by suicide before Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department officers reached the hotel room. The incident is the deadliest mass shooting by a lone gunman in modern U.S. history. The gold coloring of the hotel is a result of gold leaf used on the windows. Levels 40-42 (numbered as floors 60–62) are designed as penthouse suites, with a penthouse lounge on level 62 for guests staying in the penthouses. Level 43 (numbered as 64) is the Foundation Room, a restaurant and bar. Five floors (floors 35–39) of the main hotel building are occupied by the five-star and AAA Five-Diamond Four Seasons Hotel Las Vegas. The resort's second tower, with 45 stories and 1,117 suites, previously operated as THEhotel at Mandalay Bay, now operates as Delano Las Vegas. Each suite is at least . A production of the classic Broadway musical Chicago debuted at Mandalay Bay's 1999 grand opening and ran for one year. Storm, an original production show featuring Latin music, ran from April 2001 to July 2002. Mamma Mia! was a long-running stage production at the resort from 2003 to 2009. The show was replaced with Disney's The Lion King, which opened on May 15, 2009. Its run ended in 2011 to make way for , by Cirque du Soleil, which opened May 2013. Another popular attraction is the House of Blues, a venue for live music and a restaurant, with a capacity of approximately 1,800. On the top floor of the hotel is the House of Blues Foundation Room, featuring a dining room, private dining rooms, and a balcony looking down the Las Vegas Strip. Mandalay Beach is an pool area with three heated pools, a wave pool with connecting pool for small children, and a lazy river that features a small waterfall. The wave machine was designed and manufactured by Scottish Company Murphys Waves Ltd and features 1.6 million gallons of water and waves in 45 to 90 second intervals with heights ranging anywhere from two to four feet. The wave machine can actually produce surfing waves up to 10ft high but these are only ever used during special events. Consequently, it has a strict 48" height requirement. The European-style pool, called Moorea, features its own private bar as well as the allowance of female guests to bathe topless. As a result, Moorea is separated from the rest of the pool by smoked glass windows and an over-21 requirement. There are also two restaurants at the Beach. The pool area won the [[Las Vegas Review Journal]s Reader's "Best Pool of Las Vegas" award for seven years in a row. One pool remains open throughout the winter months. In keeping with the resort's tropical theme, it features a [[saltwater aquarium]], the [[Shark Reef at Mandalay Bay|Shark Reef Aquarium]], which contains the third largest tank in North America. Shark Reef Aquarium contains numerous other exhibits, including two tunnel-shaped, walk-through aquariums. The Mandalay Bay Events Center, a 12,000-seat arena, hosts major events including concerts, [[boxing]] matches, the [[Las Vegas Aces]] of the [[WNBA]] and [[Ultimate Fighting Championship|UFC]] events. It has played host to the [[Latin Grammy Awards]] several times, and the [[Miss Universe]] pageant. This facility is one of the largest privately owned convention centers in the world. It has several ballrooms ranging in size up to , and can support up to 75 breakout sessions. The Shoppes at Mandalay Place is a - long retail sky bridge on the north side of the property that connects to the Luxor. There are 24 restaurants at the resort. [[Michael Mina]], [[Alain Ducasse]], [[Rick Moonen]], [[Charlie Palmer (chef)|Charlie Palmer]], [[Hubert Keller]], [[Wolfgang Puck]], [[Mary Sue Milliken]] and [[Susan Feniger]] are all associated with restaurants on the property. Evening Call, Eyecandy Lounge, Foundation Room, Franklin, [[Alain Ducasse|Mix Lounge]], O.N.E. Oasis Bar, Hazel Coffee + Cocktails (formerly Orchid Lounge), [[Sports book|Sports Book Lounge]] [[Play It to the Bone]] 2000, [[Ocean's Eleven]] 2001 – Foreground shot when the 'pinch' knocks out power, [[Las Vegas (TV series)|Las Vegas]] 2003–2005 – was the interior of the fictional Montecito casino, [[Fear Factor]] 2003, [[CSI: Crime Scene Investigation]] 2006–2008 – From opening credits as a symbol of Las Vegas., [[Rocky Balboa (film)|Rocky Balboa]] 2006, [[Ocean's Thirteen]] 2007, [[Kathy Griffin: My Life on the D-List]] 2007, [[The Hangover (film)|The Hangover]] 2009 – various background shots., [[Wisin & Yandel]] – Te Siento (promotional video)., [[Top Chef]] 2009 – Bryan Voltaggio used the resort for his inspiration for his dish., [[The Amazing Race 15]] 2009 – Team members had to rappel down the building., [[What Happens in Vegas]] 2008 – The group heads off to Las Vegas., [[Defiance (TV series)|Defiance]] 2012 – supplementary material states that it was converted into a [[for-profit prison]], [[Modern Family]] 2014 – setting of the episode "Las Vegas", [[Dominion (TV series)|Dominion]] 2014 – establishing shot of the city in the pilot episode shows it to be battle-damaged and outside the fortified protective wall "Me and My Monkey", from the album [[Escapology (album)|Escapology]] by [[Robbie Williams]], 2002, "No Beef" Afrojack & Steve Aoki (featuring Miss Palmer) 2011 [[Category:1999 establishments in Nevada]] [[Category:Casino hotels]] [[Category:Casinos completed in 1999]] [[Category:Casinos in the Las Vegas Valley]] [[Category:Darts venues]] [[Category:Hotel buildings completed in 1999]] [[Category:Hotels established in 1999]] [[Category:Las Vegas Strip]] [[Category:Mandalay Resort Group]] [[Category:MGM Resorts International]] [[Category:Resorts in the Las Vegas Valley]] [[Category:Skyscraper hotels in Paradise, Nevada]] [[Category:2017 Las Vegas shooting]] [[Category:Mandalay Bay| ]] The Las Vegas Strip is a stretch of South Las Vegas Boulevard in Clark County, Nevada that is known for its concentration of resort hotels and casinos. The Strip is approximately in length, located immediately south of the Las Vegas city limits in the unincorporated towns of Paradise and Winchester. However, the Strip is often referred to as being in Las Vegas. Many of the largest hotel, casino, and resort properties in the world are located on the Strip. The boulevard's cityscape is highlighted by its use of contemporary architecture, lights, and a wide variety of attractions. Its hotels, casinos, restaurants, residential high-rises, entertainment offerings, and skyline have established the Strip as one of the most popular and iconic tourist destinations in the world and is one of the driving forces for Las Vegas' economy. Most of the Strip has also been designated as an All-American Road and is considered a scenic route at night. Historically, the casinos that were not in Downtown Las Vegas along Fremont Street were limited to outside the city limits on Las Vegas Boulevard. In 1959, the Welcome to Fabulous Las Vegas sign was constructed exactly outside the city limits. The sign is currently located in the median just south of Russell Road, across from the location of the now-demolished Klondike Hotel and Casino and about south of the southernmost entrance to Mandalay Bay, which is the Strip's southernmost casino. In the strictest sense, "the Strip" refers only to the stretch of Las Vegas Boulevard that is roughly between Sahara Avenue and Russell Road, a distance of . However, the term is often used to refer not only to the road but also to the various casinos and resorts that line the road, and even to properties that are not on the road but are in proximity to it. Phrases such as Strip Area, Resort Corridor or Resort District are sometimes used to indicate a larger geographical area, including properties or more away from Las Vegas Boulevard, such as the Hard Rock, Rio, Palms, and Oyo casinos. A long-standing definition considers the Strip's northern terminus as the Sahara, though travel guides typically extend it to include the Stratosphere to the north. Mandalay Bay, located just north of Russell Road, is the southernmost resort considered to be on the Strip (the Klondike was the southernmost until 2006, when it was closed, although it was not included in the Strip on some definitions and travel guides). The "Welcome to Fabulous Las Vegas" sign is often considered part of the Strip, despite it being 0.4 miles south of the Mandalay Bay and Russell Road. Because of the number and size of the resorts, the resort corridor can be quite wide. Interstate 15 runs roughly parallel and to the west of Las Vegas Boulevard for the entire length of the Strip. Paradise Road runs to the east in a similar fashion, and ends at St. Louis Avenue. The eastern side of the Strip is bounded by McCarran International Airport south of Tropicana Avenue. North of this point, the resort corridor can be considered to extend as far east as Paradise Road, although some consider Koval Lane as a less inclusive boundary. Interstate 15 is sometimes considered the western edge of the resort corridor from Interstate 215 to Spring Mountain Road. North of this point, Industrial Road serves as the western edge. Newer hotels and resorts such as South Point, Grandview Resort, and M Resort are on Las Vegas Boulevard South as distant as 8 miles south of the "Welcome to Fabulous Las Vegas" sign. Marketing for these casinos and hotels usually states that they are on southern Las Vegas Boulevard and not "Strip" properties. The first casino to be built on Highway 91 was the Pair-o-Dice Club in 1931, but the first resort on what is currently the Strip was the El Rancho Vegas, opening on April 3, 1941, with 63 rooms. That casino-resort stood for almost 20 years before being destroyed by a fire in 1960. Its success spawned a second hotel on what would become the Strip, the Hotel Last Frontier in 1942. Organized crime figures such as New York's Bugsy Siegel took interest in the growing gaming center leading to other resorts such as the Flamingo, which opened in 1946, and the Desert Inn, which opened in 1950. The funding for many projects was provided through the American National Insurance Company, which was based in the then notorious gambling empire of Galveston, Texas. Las Vegas Boulevard South was previously called Arrowhead Highway, or Los Angeles Highway. The Strip was named by Los Angeles police officer and businessman Guy McAfee, after his hometown's Sunset Strip. In 1950, mayor Ernie Cragin of the City of Las Vegas sought to annex the Strip, which was unincorporated territory, in order to expand the city's tax base to fund his ambitious building agenda and pay down the city's rising debt. Instead, Gus Greenbaum of the Flamingo led a group of casino executives to lobby the Clark County commissioners for town status. Two unincorporated towns were eventually created, Paradise and Winchester. More than two decades later, the Supreme Court of Nevada struck down a 1975 Nevada state law that would have folded the Strip and the rest of the urban areas of Clark County into the City of Las Vegas. Caesars Palace was established in 1966. In 1968, Kirk Kerkorian purchased the Flamingo and hired Sahara Hotels Vice President Alex Shoofey as President. Alex Shoofey brought along 33 of Sahara's top executives. The Flamingo was used to train future employees of the International Hotel, which was under construction. Opening in 1969, the International Hotel, with 1,512 rooms, began the era of mega-resorts. The International is known as Westgate Las Vegas today.The first MGM Grand Hotel and Casino, also a Kerkorian property, opened in 1973 with 2,084 rooms. At the time, this was one of the largest hotels in the world by number of rooms. The Rossiya Hotel built in 1967 in Moscow, for instance, had 3,200 rooms; however, most of the rooms in the Rossiya Hotel were single rooms of 118 sq. ft (roughly 1/4 size of a standard room at the MGM Grand Resort). On November 21, 1980, the MGM Grand suffered the worst resort fire in the history of Las Vegas as a result of electrical problems, killing 87 people. It reopened eight months later. In 1986, Kerkorian sold the MGM Grand to Bally Manufacturing, and it was renamed Bally's. The Wet 'n Wild water park opened in 1985 and was located on the south side of the Sahara hotel. It closed at the end of the 2004 season and was later demolished. The opening of The Mirage in 1989 set a new level to the Las Vegas experience, as smaller hotels and casinos made way for the larger mega-resorts. The Rio and the Excalibur opened in 1990. These huge facilities offer entertainment and dining options, as well as gambling and lodging. This change affected the smaller, well-known and now historic hotels and casinos, like the Dunes, the Sands, the Stardust, and the Sahara. The lights along the Strip have been dimmed in a sign of respect to six performers and one other major Las Vegas figure upon their deaths. They are Elvis Presley (1977), Sammy Davis Jr. (1990), Dean Martin (1995), George Burns (1996), Frank Sinatra (1998), former UNLV basketball head coach Jerry Tarkanian (2015), and Don Rickles (2017). The Strip lights were dimmed later in 2017 as a memorial to victims of a mass shooting at a concert held adjacent to the Strip. In 2005, Clark County renamed a section of Industrial Road (south of Twain Avenue) as Dean Martin Drive, also as a tribute to the famous Rat Pack singer, actor, and frequent Las Vegas entertainer. In an effort to attract families, resorts offered more attractions geared toward youth, but had limited success. The current MGM Grand opened in 1993 with MGM Grand Adventures Theme Park, but the park closed in 2000 due to lack of interest. Similarly, in 2003 Treasure Island closed its own video arcade and abandoned the previous pirate theme, adopting the new ti name. In addition to the large hotels, casinos and resorts, the Strip is home to many attractions, such as M&M;'s World, Adventuredome and the Fashion Show Mall. Starting in the mid-1990s, the Strip became a popular New Year's Eve celebration destination. With the opening of Bellagio, Venetian, Palazzo, Wynn and Encore resorts, the strip trended towards the luxurious high end segment through most of the 2000s, while some older resorts added major expansions and renovations, including some de-theming of the earlier themed hotels. High end dining, specialty retail, spas and nightclubs increasingly became options for visitors in addition to gambling at most Strip resorts. There was also a trend towards expensive residential condo units on the strip. In 2004, MGM Mirage announced plans for CityCenter, a , $7 billion multi-use project on the site of the Boardwalk hotel and adjoining land. It consists of hotel, casino, condo, retail, art, business and other uses on the site. City Center is currently the largest such complex in the world. Construction began in April 2006, with most elements of the project opened in late 2009. Also in 2006, the Las Vegas Strip lost its longtime status as the world's highest-grossing gambling center, falling to second place behind Macau. In 2012, the High Roller Ferris wheel and a retail district called The LINQ Promenade broke ground in an attempt to diversify attractions beyond that of casino resorts. Renovations and rebrandings such as The Cromwell Las Vegas and the SLS Las Vegas continued to transform the Strip in 2014. The Las Vegas Festival Grounds opened in 2015. In 2016, the T-Mobile Arena, The Park, and the Park Theater opened. On October 1, 2017, a mass shooting occurred on the Strip at the Route 91 Harvest country music festival, adjacent to the Mandalay Bay hotel. 58 people were killed and 851 were injured. This incident became the deadliest mass shooting in modern United States history. In 2019, the Monte Carlo Resort and Casino finished a makeover into the Park MGM, while the SLS transitioned back to its Sahara name. The Stratosphere is to be rebranded as The STRAT Hotel, Casino, and Skypod, with upgrades to public spaces scheduled for early 2020. Rooms will be upgraded in stages over the following few years., Genting Group bought the site of the Stardust/Echelon Place with plans to build and open Resorts World Las Vegas in summer 2021., The MSG Sphere Las Vegas, including a monorail stop, is being built behind The Palazzo and The Venetian and is to be completed in 2021., Astral Hotels plans to build Astral, a 34-story, 620-room hotel and casino on the southern Las Vegas Strip. Construction is expected to begin in 2020 for a 2022 opening., The opening of 4,000 room The Drew Las Vegas (formerly planned as the Fontainebleau) has been pushed back to the second quarter of 2022., Groundbreaking of the Majestic Las Vegas is expected for 2020 with completion expected in 2023., As of June 2019, construction of the All Net Resort and Arena is expected to start "as soon as possible" and will take about 3 years. RTC Transit (previously Citizens Area Transit, or CAT) provides bus service on the Strip with double decker buses known as The Deuce. The Deuce runs between Mandalay Bay at the southern end of the Strip (and to the Welcome to Fabulous Las Vegas sign and South Strip Transfer Terminal after midnight) to the Bonneville Transit Center (BTC) and the Fremont Street Experience in Downtown Las Vegas, with stops near every casino. RTC also operates an express bus called the Strip and Downtown Express (SDX). This route connects the Strip to the Las Vegas Convention Center and Downtown Las Vegas to the north, with stops at selected hotels and shopping attractions (Las Vegas Premium Outlets North & South). Several free trams operate between properties on the west side of the Strip: While not on the Strip itself, the Las Vegas Monorail runs on the east side of the Strip corridor from Tropicana Avenue to Sahara Avenue, with stops at several on-Strip properties including the MGM Grand and the Sahara at each end of the route. Concerning pedestrian safety and to help alleviate traffic congestion at popular intersections, several pedestrian footbridges were erected in 1990s. Some feature designs that match the theme of the nearby resorts. The Tropicana – Las Vegas Boulevard footbridges were the first to be installed, and based on the success of this project additional footbridges have been built on Las Vegas Boulevard at the Flamingo Road intersection connecting Bellagio, Caesars Palace, Bally's, and The Cromwell; between The Mirage/Treasure Island and The Venetian, and at the Las Vegas Boulevard-Spring Mountain and Sands Avenue intersection connecting the Wynn with the Fashion Show Mall, The Palazzo and Treasure Island. The latest to be completed connects Planet Hollywood, CityCenter and The Cosmopolitan at the Harmon Avenue intersection. According to the Las Vegas Convention and Visitors Authority's annual Las Vegas Visitor Profile Study, only 36% of people said they walked around the Strip, a figure that is a drop from 2013 (52%). In 2000, Bali Hai Golf Club opened just south of Mandalay Bay and the Strip. As land values on the Strip have increased over the years, the resort- affiliated golf courses been removed to make way for building projects. The Tropicana Country Club closed in 1990 and the Dunes golf course in the mid-90s. Steve Wynn, founder of previously owned Mirage Resorts, purchased the Desert Inn and golf course for his new company Wynn Resorts and redeveloped the course as the Wynn Golf Club. This course closed in 2017, but the development planned for the course was cancelled and the course will be renovated and re-opened in late 2019. The Aladdin also had a nine-hole golf course in the 1960s. In 2016, a TopGolf opened near the Strip. The Strip is home to the Adventuredome indoor amusement park, and the Stratosphere tower has several rides: Big Shot, X-Scream, SkyJump Las Vegas Other rides on the Strip include: The Roller Coaster (also known as Big Apple Coaster), High Roller, Fly Linq Bonanza Gift Shop is billed as the "World's Largest Gift Shop", with over of shopping space., The Shoppes at the Palazzo featuring luxury stores., Fashion Show Mall is adjacent to Treasure Island and opposite Wynn Las Vegas., Grand Canal Shoppes is a luxury mall connected to The Venetian with canals, gondolas and singing gondoliers., The LINQ Promenade is an open-air retail, dining, and entertainment district located between The Linq and Flamingo resorts that began a soft open in January 2014. It leads from a Strip-side entrance to the High Roller., Miracle Mile Shops is part of the Planet Hollywood hotel., The Forum Shops at Caesars is a luxury mall connected to Caesars Palace, with more than 160 shops and 11 restaurants., Crystals at CityCenter is a luxury high-fashion mall at CityCenter., Harmon Corner is a three-story retail center located next to Planet Hollywood with shops and restaurants., Showcase Mall is next to MGM Grand, and displays a 100-foot Coca-Cola bottle., The Park, a short east-west street between the Park MGM and New York-New York resorts is a park-like boulevard lined with retail shops and restaurants, leading to T-Mobile Arena. The Las Vegas Strip is well known for its lounges, showrooms, theaters and nightclubs; most of the attractions and shows on the Strip are located on the hotel casino properties. Some of the more popular free attractions visible from the Strip include the water fountains at Bellagio, the volcano at The Mirage, and the Fall of Atlantis and Festival Fountain at Caesars Palace. There are several Cirque du Soleil shows, such as Kà at the MGM Grand, O at Bellagio, Mystère at Treasure Island, Zumanity for adults at New York-New York, and at Mandalay Bay. Many notable artists have performed in Las Vegas, including Elvis Presley, Frank Sinatra, Judy Garland, Wayne Newton, Liza Minnelli, Dean Martin, Sammy Davis Jr. and Liberace, and in more recent years Celine Dion, Britney Spears, Barry Manilow, Cher, Elton John, Bette Midler, Diana Ross, Donny and Marie Osmond, Garth Brooks, Jennifer Lopez, Reba McEntire, Mariah Carey, Shania Twain, Criss Angel, Olivia Newton-John, Queen + Adam Lambert, and Lady Gaga have had residencies in the various resorts on the Strip. The only movie theatre directly on the Strip was the 10-screen Regal Showcase Theatre in the Showcase Mall. The theater opened in 1997 and was operated by Regal Entertainment Group, until its closure in 2018. The Strip is home to many entertainment venues. Most of the resorts have a showroom, nightclub and/or live music venue on the property and a few have large multipurpose arenas. Major venues include: All Net Resort and Arena, The Colosseum at Caesars Palace, Las Vegas Festival Grounds, Mandalay Bay Events Center, MGM Grand Garden Arena, MSG Sphere Las Vegas, T-Mobile Arena, Zappos Theater Aladdin: Opened in 1962 as the Tallyho, became the King's Crown Tallyho in 1963, the Aladdin in 1966, and was demolished in 1998. A new Aladdin resort opened on the property in 2000, and was renamed Planet Hollywood in 2007., Big Red's Casino: Opened in 1981 and closed in 1982. Property developed for CBS Sports World Casino in 1997. Changed name to Sports World Casino after CBS threatened to sue. Closed in 2001, now a shopping center., Barbary Coast Hotel and Casino: Closed in 2007, now The Cromwell., Boardwalk Hotel and Casino: Closed on January 6, 2006, demolished May 9, 2006 to make way for CityCenter., Castaways Hotel and Casino: Opened in 1957 as the San Souci Hotel and became the Castaways in 1963 and was demolished in 1987. Now The Mirage., Desert Inn: Closed on August 28, 2000, demolished in 2004, now Wynn Las Vegas and Encore Las Vegas; Desert Inn golf course was retained and improved., Dunes Hotel and Casino: Closed on January 26, 1993, demolished in 1993, now Bellagio. The Dunes golf course is now occupied by parts of Park MGM, New York-New York, CityCenter, Cosmopolitan, and T-Mobile Arena., El Rancho (formerly Thunderbird/Silverbird): Closed in 1992 and demolished in 2000. Now the unfinished The Drew Las Vegas., El Rancho Vegas: Burned down in 1960. The Hilton Grand Vacations Club timeshare now exists on the south edge of the site where the resort once stood; the remainder is now the Las Vegas Festival Grounds., Hacienda: Closed and demolished in 1996, now Mandalay Bay. Until 2015, a separate Hacienda operated outside Boulder City, formerly the Gold Strike Inn., Holy Cow Casino and Brewery: First micro brewery in Las Vegas. Closed in 2002, now a Walgreens store., Jackpot Casino: Closed in 1977, now part of Bonanza Gift Shop, Klondike Hotel and Casino: Closed in 2006, demolished in 2008., Little Caesars Casino: Opened in 1970 and closed in 1994. Paris Las Vegas now occupies the area., Money Tree Casino: Closed in 1979, now Bonanza Gift Shop., Marina Hotel and Casino: Closed, adapted into MGM Grand, now the West Wing of the MGM Grand., New Frontier: Closed July 16, 2007, demolished November 13, 2007. Currently being redeveloped as Wynn West., Nob Hill Casino: Opened in 1979 and closed in 1990. Now Casino Royale, Riviera Hotel and Casino: Opened in 1955; Closed in May 2015 to make way for the Las Vegas Global Business District., Sands Hotel and Casino: Closed on June 30, 1996, demolished in 1996, now The Venetian., Silver City Casino: Closed in 1999, now the Silver City Plaza Shopping Center., Silver Slipper Casino: Opened in 1950 and closed and demolished in 1988. It became the parking lot for the New Frontier until its closure and demolition in 2007., Stardust Resort and Casino: Closed on November 1, 2006, demolished on March 13, 2007. Currently being redeveloped as Resorts World Las Vegas., Vegas World: Opened in 1979 and closed in 1995. Now the Stratosphere Las Vegas, Westward Ho Hotel and Casino: Closed in 2005, demolished in 2006. List of Las Vegas Strip hotels, Downtown (Nevada gaming area), West Las Vegas On the night of October 1, 2017, Stephen Paddock opened fire on a crowd of concertgoers at the Route 91 Harvest music festival on the Las Vegas Strip in . He killed 58 people and wounded 413, with the ensuing panic bringing the injury total to 869. Paddock, a 64-year-old man from Mesquite, Nevada, fired more than 1,100 rounds of ammunition from his suite on the 32nd floor of the Mandalay Bay Hotel. The shooting occurred between 10:05 and 10:15p.m. PDT; about an hour later, Paddock was found dead in his room from a self-inflicted gunshot wound. His motive remains officially undetermined. The incident is the deadliest mass shooting committed by an individual in the history of the United States. It focused attention on gun laws in the U.S., particularly with regard to bump stocks, which Paddock used to fire shots in rapid succession, at a rate of fire similar to automatic weapons. As a result, bump stocks were banned by the U.S. Justice Department in December 2018, with the regulation in effect as of March 2019. The Las Vegas Strip is a stretch of Las Vegas Boulevard immediately south of the city of Las Vegas in Clark County, Nevada. The Strip is known for its concentration of casinos and resort hotels, including the 43-story Mandalay Bay southwest of its intersection with Mandalay Bay Road, in the unincorporated town of Paradise. Las Vegas Village, a lot used for outdoor performances, is located diagonally across the intersection to the northeast. From 2014 onward, the venue hosted the annual Route 91 Harvest country music festival. The 2017 festival ran from September 29 to October 1, with over 22,000 attendees on the final day. Stephen Paddock was a 64-year-old former auditor and real estate businessman who had been living northeast of Las Vegas in a retirement community in Mesquite, Nevada. Paddock was twice divorced, had a long-term girlfriend, and had no known children. He was a son of Benjamin Paddock, a bank robber who was on the FBI's most-wanted list between 1969 and 1977. Paddock's only recorded interactions with law enforcement were traffic citations. Paddock was a high- stakes gambler who placed bets at a high enough level to earn valuable comps—free benefits such as rooms and meals. He was a familiar figure to casino hosts in Las Vegas, but was not well known among other high-stakes gamblers because he mostly played video poker. He reportedly kept to himself and was a heavy drinker. Paddock had lost a significant amount of his wealth over the previous two years, but had paid off all gambling debts before the shooting. Paddock may have considered attacking other events. He had researched large-scale venues in cities such as Boston since at least May 2017, and had reserved a room overlooking the August 2017 Lollapalooza festival in Chicago, but did not use it. According to his girlfriend, she and Paddock were at the Mandalay Bay during an earlier stay a month before the attack when he repeatedly cased out Las Vegas Village from different windows in their room. From September 17, Paddock stayed at The Ogden in Downtown Las Vegas, which overlooked the open-air Life Is Beautiful festival that ran from September 22 to 24. Paddock's Internet search terms from mid-September included "swat weapons", "ballistics chart 308", "SWAT Las Vegas", and "do police use explosives". Paddock arrived at Mandalay Bay on September 25, 2017. He was booked into Room 32-135, a complimentary room on the 32nd floor. Four days later, he also checked into the directly-connected Room 32-134. Both suites overlook the site of the concert at Las Vegas Village. Between September 25 and October 1—the day of the shooting—he stockpiled an arsenal of weapons, associated equipment and ammunition that included fourteen AR-15 rifles (all of which were equipped with bump stocks and twelve of which had 100-round magazines), eight AR-10 rifles, a bolt-action rifle, and a revolver. A bump stock modifies a semi- automatic weapon so that it can shoot in rapid succession, mimicking automatic fire. Often with the help of hotel bellmen, he brought five suitcases to his room on September 25, seven on the 26th, two on the 28th, on the 30th, and two on October 1. Cell phone records show that he also made multiple visits to his home in Mesquite. On September 30, he placed "Do not disturb" signs on the doors of both rooms. Before the shooting Paddock spent much of his time at Mandalay Bay gambling, often at night. He interacted with Mandalay Bay employees more than ten times during his stay, including twice on the day of the shooting; an MGM Resorts International spokesperson said they were all "normal in nature". The mass shooting occurred between 10:05 and 10:15 p.m. PDT on October 1, 2017, which was the third and final night of the festival. When the shooting began, country music singer Jason Aldean was giving the closing performance. Shortly before 10:00p.m., hotel security guard Jesus Campos was sent to the 32nd floor to investigate an open-door alert. He attempted to open a door that provided immediate access to the floor, but found that it would not open. After Campos entered the floor, he discovered an L-shaped bracket screwed into the door and door frame, which was responsible for barring the door from opening. After reporting the discovery to his dispatch center, he heard the sound of rapid drilling coming from Room 32-135 and went to investigate the matter. At approximately 10:05, he was hit in the right thigh by one of about 35 bullets that Paddock fired through the door of his suite. After Campos was hit, he took cover in the alcove between Rooms 32-122 and 32-124 and immediately informed the hotel by radio and cellphone that he had been shot, though he believed he had been shot with a BB or pellet gun. At the same time, maintenance worker Stephen Schuck was on the same floor to fix the door that Campos had reported as being barricaded. Campos, who was already wounded, encountered Schuck and told him to take cover. Schuck contacted hotel dispatchers over his radio, informed them of the ongoing shooting, and told them to call the police. Neither Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department nor MGM Resorts International, the Mandalay Bay's owner, have confirmed when information about the initial shooting was relayed to the police. After Paddock used a hammer to break two of the windows in both of his suites, he began shooting through them at 10:05p.m. He ultimately fired more than 1,100 rifle rounds approximately into the festival audience. He initially started out with a few single gunshots before firing in prolonged bursts. Many people in the crowd initially mistook the gunfire for fireworks. During the shooting, a security fence hindered concertgoers from fleeing the 15-acre concrete lot. The gunfire continued, with some momentary pauses, over the span of ten minutes and ended by 10:15p.m. In addition to shooting at the concertgoers, Paddock fired eight bullets at a large jet fuel tank at McCarran International Airport away. Two of those bullets struck the exterior of the tank, with one bullet penetrating the tank. The fuel did not explode because jet fuel is mostly kerosene, which is unlikely to ignite when struck by a bullet. During the shooting, police officers were initially confused whether the shots were coming from the Mandalay Bay, the nearby Luxor hotel, or the festival grounds. There were also multiple false reports of additional shooters at other hotels on the Strip. Officers eventually spotted multiple flashes of gunfire from the middle of the northern side of Mandalay Bay and responded to the hotel. At 10:12p.m., two officers on the 31st floor reported the sounds of gunfire on the floor above them. When officers arrived on the 32nd floor at 10:17p.m. and encountered Campos a minute later, he directed them to Paddock's room and helped others evacuate. Campos was then directed to seek medical attention for himself. Between 10:26 and 10:30p.m., eight additional officers arrived at the 32nd floor; some of those officers manually breached through the door Paddock had screwed shut with the bracket. The gunfire had ceased, and the police moved systematically down the hallway, searching and clearing each room, using a master key that was provided by Campos. At 10:55p.m., the officers finished evacuating guests. At 11:20p.m., police breached Room 32-135 with explosives. Paddock was found dead on the floor from a self-inflicted gunshot wound to the head. Police then breached Room 32-134; while entering the hotel suite, an officer accidentally fired a three-round burst from his weapon, but the bullets did not hit anyone. At 11:27p.m., officers announced over the police radio that a suspect was down. McCarran International Airport, adjacent to the shooting site, was shut down for several hours. Approximately 300 people entered the airport property as they fled from the shooting. This prompted officials to shut down all four runways. More than 25 flights were rerouted to ensure that no aircraft would be hit by gunfire, while other flights were canceled before airfield operations resumed at 12:40a.m. on October 2. Much of Las Vegas Boulevard was closed while police SWAT teams combed the venue and neighboring businesses. At approximately 2:45p.m. PDT on October 2, a state of emergency was declared in Clark County. Early on October 2, Sheriff Lombardo identified the suspect as . Fifty-eight people were fatally shot at the music festival; Paddock's suicide was the only death at the Mandalay Bay Hotel. The fatalities included 36 women and 22 men. The oldest was 67; the youngest was 20. Six were from Nevada, 35 from California, 13 from other states, and four from Canada. The Clark County Coroner's Office determined that all 58 victims died as a result of gunshot wounds. Thirty-one of the victims were pronounced dead at the scene, while the rest were pronounced dead at hospitals. Approximately 869 people were injured, 413 of them with gunshot wounds or shrapnel injuries. In the aftermath, many victims were transported to area hospitals, which included University Medical Center of Southern Nevada, Sunrise Hospital & Medical Center, and at least one of the six hospitals of Valley Health System. Sunrise Hospital treated the largest portion of the wounded: 199 patients, 150 of whom arrived within a timespan of about 40 minutes. University Medical Center, the Level I trauma center in Las Vegas, was difficult to access for the more than 50 percent of patients transported by private vehicles because Interstate 15, the most direct route from the shooting location, was closed to the public. Also, an erroneous emergency services announcement made one hour after the shooting reported UMC had reached capacity and was on diversion. This confusion persisted for several hours and led to most patients being transported to Sunrise, a Level II trauma center. University Medical Center treated 104 patients. Additionally, six victims sought medical treatment in Southern California; UC Irvine Medical Center treated four and Loma Linda University Medical Center treated two. Victims of the shooting required blood transfusions totaling 499 components in the first 24 hours of treatment, but this blood was rapidly replaced by available blood from local and national blood banks. The incident is the deadliest mass shooting committed by an individual in the United States, exceeding the death toll of the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting, where 49 people were shot and killed. Kimberly Gervais, of Mira Loma, California, was paralyzed in the shooting and died at Redlands Community Hospital in Redlands on November 15, 2019, more than two years after the shooting. She was 57 years old. An autopsy was carried out to establish the cause and manner of her death. On December 18, it was reported that the ruling on the cause and manner of her death was pending because investigators were waiting for laboratory test results. Several persons at the shooting were also present at another mass shooting in November 2018 at the Borderline Bar and Grill in Thousand Oaks, California. One person stated that the number of Las Vegas survivors at the bar may have been as high as 60. It was confirmed that a survivor of the massacre in Las Vegas died in the shooting in Thousand Oaks. On the morning after the shooting, lines to donate blood in Las Vegas stretched for blocks. Wait times were as much as six hours or more. In Las Vegas alone, 800 units of blood were donated to the local blood bank in the days following the shooting, and the American Red Cross reported a 53% increase in blood donation in the two days following the shooting. It was later reported that over 15% of the blood donated in Las Vegas after the shooting went unused, prompting questions about the benefit of widespread calls for blood donation following mass shootings. Millions of dollars have also been raised to help victims and their families. Nevada Governor Brian Sandoval called the shooting "a tragic and heinous act of violence that has shaken the Nevada family". Jason Aldean, who was singing when the shooting started, posted his condolences on Instagram and noted all of those working with him at the show had survived the attack. At a press conference, U.S. President Donald Trump described Paddock as "a very very sick individual", and "a demented man, [with] a lot of problems". He added, "the police department has done such an incredible job, and we'll be talking about gun laws as time goes by". A White House official talking points memo, distributed to Trump allies, opposed tightening gun control since "new laws won't stop a mad man", but "will curtail the freedoms of law abiding citizens". On October 2, Trump issued a proclamation to honor the victims and their families. On October 4, Trump visited the shooting victims and first responders. A unity prayer walk and ceremony was held in Las Vegas on October 7 in honor of the dead. Speakers at the ceremony included Vice President Mike Pence and Las Vegas Mayor Carolyn Goodman. On the evening of October 15, thousands participated in a commemorative 3 mile walk between Circus Circus and Mandalay Bay. The annual Rock 'n' Roll Las Vegas Marathon took place on November 12 and was the largest event to be held in the city since the shooting. The event received a massive amount of security, which included 350 officers, counter-sniper surveillance posts, and a number of barriers composed of dump trucks, buses, and other large vehicles. The expansion Vegas Golden Knights of the NHL held a tribute to the victims and honored response personnel before their inaugural home game on October 10. Later during the season, the number 58 became the first number in team history to be retired, chosen for the 58 deaths during the shooting. The future of the Las Vegas Village remained undetermined until September 2019. MGM Resorts International intends to create a community center which will host sporting events. The shooting prompted support in the U.S. Congress for assault weapons legislation that would ban bump stocks. Many Congressional Democrats and some Republicans expressed support. House leaders said the issue of bump stock regulation should be decided by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms, which originally approved bump stocks. The National Rifle Association (NRA) came out in favor of administrative bump fire stock regulations. Firearms retailers reported increased consumer interest in bump stocks. On November 6, 2017, Massachusetts became the first state to ban the sale, possession, or use of the devices. In December 2018, Acting United States Attorney General Matthew Whitaker signed a regulation banning bump stocks in the U.S., effective March 2019. The regulation bans new sales and requires current owners to surrender or destroy existing bump stocks. Eighteen Democratic U.S. Senators introduced a bill, the Keep Americans Safe Act, which would ban gun magazines that hold more than ten rounds of ammunition. Stock prices of firearms manufacturers rose the day after the shooting, as has happened after similar incidents. Investors expected gun sales to increase over concerns that such an event could lead to more stringent gun-control legislation, and possibly due a rush of customers wishing to defend themselves against future attacks, but firearm sales did not increase after the shooting. In November 2017, a lawsuit was filed on behalf of 450 of the victims of the shooting, which claimed that the Mandalay Bay Hotel had shown negligence by allowing Paddock to bring a large amount of weaponry into the building. In July 2018, MGM Resorts International counter sued hundreds of victims, claiming that it had "no liability of any kind" for the attack. On October 3, 2019, MGM Resorts reached a settlement of between $735 and $800 million with the victims of the shooting. A British soldier, Trooper Ross Woodward, from the 1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards, who was visiting a nearby hotel while off-duty when the shooting began, was awarded the Queen's Commendation for Bravery for his actions during the event. His citation stated that "he consciously, deliberately and repeatedly advanced towards danger, moving people to safety and treating casualties". A U.S. Navy Petty Officer First Class, Brian Mazi, who was attending the event with his wife, was awarded the Navy and Marine Corps Medal for his actions. A Detective of the Rhode Island State Police, Conor O’Donnell, who was attending the event with his girlfriend, was awarded a service ribbon for his actions. Assistant Scoutmaster, Martin Heffernan, was honored by Boy Scouts of America for demonstrating unusual heroism and extraordinary skill in saving or attempting to save a life at extreme risk to self with the Honor Award with Crossed Palms. According to authorities with the Clark County Commission, the name "1 October" was declared the official title for investigations into the mass shooting. Investigators found hidden surveillance cameras that were placed inside and outside the hotel room, presumably so Paddock could monitor the arrival of others. The cameras were not in record mode. Police said a handwritten note found in the room indicated Paddock had been calculating the distance, wind, and trajectory from his 32nd floor hotel suite to the concertgoers he was targeting on the festival lot. At a press conference on October 4, Clark County Sheriff Joe Lombardo stated there was evidence—which he declined to discuss—that Paddock intended to escape the scene, and that he may have had assistance from an accomplice. Investigators searched Paddock's room and found a "bulletproof vest" and breathing apparatus, neither of which were used by Paddock. There have been several changes in the official account and timeline of Paddock's shooting of hotel security guard Campos. Police officials described these adjustments as "minute changes" that are common in complex investigations. In their first statement about the incident, police officials inaccurately reported that Campos arrived on the scene after Paddock began firing into the crowd. In a second statement, police officials reported, again inaccurately, that Campos was shot six minutes before Paddock began firing into the crowd. That report had been based on a 9:59 p.m. notation in a hotel security log, which in a third statement was determined to have been the time when Campos encountered the barricaded door. Sheriff Lombardo dismissed allegations that the changing timeline was the result of some kind of conspiracy between the police department, the FBI, and MGM Resorts International saying, "Nobody is attempting to hide anything in reference to this investigation. The dynamics and the size of this investigation requires us to go through voluminous amounts of information in order to draw an accurate picture." The Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department released a preliminary report on the event on January 18, 2018. Police speculate that Paddock acted alone and have not determined his motive. No links have been identified to any hate groups, terrorist groups or ideologies, and he did not record a reason for his actions. On February 2, 2018, Douglas Haig, an Arizona ammunition dealer, was charged in a Nevada federal court with "conspiracy to manufacture and sell armor-piercing ammunition without a license" after his fingerprints were discovered on unfired armor-piercing ammunition inside Paddock's suite. On August 3, 2018, Las Vegas Sheriff Joe Lombardo held a press conference on the release of the "LVMPD Criminal Investigative Report of the 1 October Mass Casualty Shooting". He said the 10-month investigation had revealed no evidence of conspiracy or a second gunman, and that the gunman's motive had not been definitely determined. Lombardo said "What we have been able to answer are the questions of who, what, when, where and how... what we have not been able to definitively answer is why Stephen Paddock committed this act." A report published by the FBI's Behavioral Analysis Unit in January 2019 said that "there was no single or clear motivating factor" for the shooting. Twenty-four firearms, a large quantity of ammunition, and numerous high- capacity magazines capable of holding up to 100 rounds apiece were found in the suite. Fourteen of the firearms were .223-caliber AR-15-type semi- automatic rifles: three manufactured by Colt, two by Daniel Defense, two by FN Herstal, two by LWRC International, two by POF-USA, one with a .223 Wylde chamber by Christensen Arms, one made-to-order by LMT, and one by Noveske. The others were eight .308-caliber AR-10-type rifles, one .308-caliber Ruger American bolt-action rifle, and one .38-caliber Smith & Wesson Model 342 revolver. The AR-15 rifles were fitted with vertical forward grips and bump fire stocks, the latter of which allowed for recoil to actuate their triggers at a rate of 90 rounds in 10 seconds. The AR-10 rifles were equipped with various telescopic sights and mounted on bipods. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives determined that the firearms found in his hotel room, along with more guns found in his homes, had been legally purchased in Nevada, California, Texas, and Utah. In the month preceding the shooting, he had attempted to purchase tracer ammunition, but the gun dealer he approached did not have the item in stock. He bought tracer ammunition from a private seller at a Phoenix, Arizona gun show. During subsequent investigations, ammonium nitrate (often used in improvised explosive devices) was found in the trunk of his Hyundai Tucson SUV, along with 1,600 rounds of ammunition and of Tannerite, a binary explosive used to make explosive targets for gun ranges. Undersheriff Kevin McMahill said that while Paddock had "nefarious intent" with the material, he did not appear to have assembled an explosive device. In the hours and days after the shooting, false information and fake news about the shooter's identity and motive went viral on social media: A 4chan /pol/ thread, which misidentified the shooter and described him as a registered Democrat, briefly featured in the "Top Stories" section of a Google search for the shooter's name. The misinformation was circulated by a number of websites including The Gateway Pundit., The fake news website Your News Wire spread false information about a second gunman who was shooting from the fourth floor of the hotel., Two of Facebook's top trending pages were items from Sputnik, a Russian government news agency. These included one story that falsely claimed the FBI had linked the shooter to a terrorist group. The stories were later removed from Sputnik with an apology., Stories linking the shooter to the Antifa movement have also been discredited., The terrorist group Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIS) claimed that Paddock was its "soldier" and that he had answered Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi's call to attack coalition countries' citizens. ISIS provided no evidence for its claim, and had previously released multiple false claims of responsibility for incidents with which it had no known connection. On October 9, 2017, the FBI declared that Paddock's attack was not linked to international terrorism. Google and Facebook were criticized for displaying such false news stories in some of their search results. The two technology companies were said to have failed in their responsibility of keeping false stories from reaching the public. Facebook later said its algorithms were designed to detect and remove false stories, but failed to work adequately in this instance. In the aftermath of the shooting, some media outlets reported that YouTube search results for information about the shooting returned links to conspiracy videos. YouTube stated that it had tweaked its search algorithm to promote news sources which it considered more authoritative. Some experts have stated that the removal of this content ironically fuels conspiracy theories by making a cover-up seem evident. Survivors of the shooting have been accused of being paid actors, with some having received death threats on social media. Conspiracy theorists claim that there were multiple shooters and that details of the massacre are being covered up for the sake of promoting gun control laws. Gun violence in the United States, Gun law in the United States, Gun politics in the United States, Gun laws in Nevada, Mass shootings in the United States, List of disasters in the United States by death toll, List of rampage killers, List of rampage killers (Americas) Videos Joe Lombardo Press Conference on release of the LVMPD Criminal Investigative Report of the 1 October Mass Casualty Shooting Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department Press Conference, LVMPD Criminal Investigative Report of the 1 October Mass Casualty Shooting Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department Final report, LVMPD Preliminary Investigative Report 1 October / Mass Casualty Shooting Event: 171001-3519 Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department, Recording of police radio communications for the incident - from Broadcastify.com, LVMPD Dispatch Logs dated 10/03/2017, LVMPD Officer Reports, LVMPD Witness Statements, Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department: Press Releases, dated: October 2, 2017, List of victims fatally shot, Short tribute to each victim

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The NFC Championship Game is the annual championship game of the National Football Conference (NFC) and one of the two semi-final playoff games of the National Football League (NFL), the largest professional American football league in the United States. The game is played on the penultimate Sunday in January by the two remaining playoff teams, following the NFC postseason's first two rounds. The NFC champion then advances to face the winner of the AFC Championship Game in the Super Bowl. The game was established as part of the 1970 merger between the NFL and the American Football League (AFL), with the merged league realigning into two conferences. Since 1984, each winner of the NFC Championship Game has also received the George Halas Trophy, named after the founder and longtime owner of the Chicago Bears, George Halas. The first NFC Championship Game was played following the 1970 regular season after the merger between the NFL and the American Football League. The game is considered the successor to the original NFL Championship, and its game results are listed with that of its predecessor in the annual NFL Record and Fact Book. Since the pre-merger NFL consisted of six more teams than the AFL (16 teams for the NFL and 10 for the AFL), a realignment was done as part of the merger to create two conferences with an equal number of teams: The NFL's Baltimore Colts, the Cleveland Browns, and the Pittsburgh Steelers joined the ten former AFL teams to form the AFC; while the remaining 13 pre-merger NFL clubs formed the NFC. Every NFC team has played in an NFC Championship at least once. The Seattle Seahawks, who have been members in both the AFC and the NFC, hold the distinction of appearing in both conference title games. Only the Detroit Lions have yet to win or host an NFC Championship Game. The San Francisco 49ers have the most appearances in the NFC Championship Game at 16, and have hosted the most at 10. The Dallas Cowboys have won the most NFC Championships at 8. The Los Angeles Rams and the Minnesota Vikings are the only two NFC teams to appear in at least one NFC Championship game in every decade since 1970. At the end of each regular season, a series of playoff games involving the top six teams in the NFC are conducted. In the current (since 2002–03 season) NFL playoff structure, this consists of the four division champions and two wild card teams (those clubs that possess the two best win-loss records after the regular season yet fail to win their division). The two teams remaining following the Wild Card round (first round) and the divisional round (second round) play in the NFC Championship game. Initially, the site of the game was determined on a rotating basis. Since the 1975–76 season, the site of the NFC Championship has been based on playoff seeding based on the regular season won-loss record, with the highest surviving seed hosting the game. A wild card team can only host the game if both participants are wild cards, in which case the fifth seed would host the sixth seed. Such an instance has never occurred in the NFL. Beginning with the 1984–85 NFL playoffs, the winner of the NFC Championship Game has received the George Halas Trophy, named after the longtime owner and coach of the Chicago Bears, a charter member of the NFL. The original design consisted of a wooden base with a sculpted NFC logo in the front and a sculpture of various football players in the back. It, and the Lamar Hunt Trophy that is awarded to the AFC champion, were redesigned for the 2010–11 NFL playoffs by Tiffany & Co. at the request of the NFL in an attempt to make both awards more significant. The trophies are now a new, silver design with the outline of a hollow football positioned on a small base to more closely resemble the Vince Lombardi Trophy, awarded to the winner of the Super Bowl. The George Halas Trophy should not be confused with the Newspaper Enterprise Association's George S. Halas Trophy which was awarded to the NFL's defensive player of the year from 1966 to 1996 or the Pro Football Writers Association's George S. Halas Courage Award. Most victories: 8 – Dallas Cowboys (1970–1971, 1975, 1977–1978, 1992–1993, 1995), Most losses: 9*, – San Francisco 49ers (1970–1971, 1983, 1990, 1992–1993, 1997, 2011, 2013), Most appearances: 16 – San Francisco 49ers (1970–1971, 1981, 1983–1984, 1988–1990, 1992–1994, 1997, 2011–2013, 2019), Most consecutive appearances: 4 (tie, 2 teams, 3 times), Dallas Cowboys (1970–1973, 1992–1995), Philadelphia Eagles (2001–2004), Most consecutive victories: 2 – (tie, 6 teams, 8 times), Dallas Cowboys (1970–1971, 1977–1978, 1992–1993), Minnesota Vikings (1973–1974), Washington Redskins (1982–1983), San Francisco 49ers (1988–1989), Green Bay Packers (1996–1997), Seattle Seahawks (2013–2014), Most victories without a loss: 5*, – New York Giants (1986, 1990, 2000, 2007, 2011), Most appearances without a win: 1 – Detroit Lions (1991), Most consecutive appearances without a win: 6 – Minnesota Vikings (1977, 1987, 1998, 2000, 2009, 2017), Most defensive shutouts: 2**; – New York Giants (Jan 11, 1987, 17–0 vs Redskins and Jan 14, 2001, 41–0 vs Vikings), Most times shut out: 2**; – Los Angeles Rams (Jan 7, 1979, 0–28 vs Cowboys and Jan 12, 1986, 0–24 vs Bears), Most consecutive losses: 3, – (tie, 3 times), Los Angeles Rams (1974–1976), Dallas Cowboys (1980–1982), Philadelphia Eagles (2001–2003), Most games hosted: 10 – San Francisco 49ers (1970, 1981, 1984, 1989–1990, 1992, 1994, 1997, 2011, 2019), Most numerous matchup: 6*, – Dallas Cowboys vs. San Francisco 49ers (1970–1971, 1981, 1992–1994), Most points scored: 49 points – January 24, 2016 – Carolina Panthers vs. Arizona Cardinals (2015), Largest margin of victory: 41 points – January 14, 2001 (2000), New York Giants (41) vs. Minnesota Vikings (0), Closest margin of victory: 1 point – San Francisco 49ers (28) vs. Dallas Cowboys (27), 1981 NFC Championship Game*, , Fewest points scored, winning team: 9; January 6, 1980 (1979) – Los Angeles Rams vs. Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Fewest points scored: 0*; (tie, 5 teams, 6 times), Los Angeles Rams 0 vs Dallas Cowboys 28 January 7, 1979, Tampa Bay Buccaneers 0 vs Los Angeles Rams 9 January 6, 1980, Chicago Bears 0 vs San Francisco 49ers 23 January 6, 1985, Los Angeles Rams 0 vs Chicago Bears 24 January 12, 1986, Washington Redskins 0 vs New York Giants 17 January 11, 1987, Minnesota Vikings 0 vs New York Giants 41 January 14, 2001, Most points scored, losing team: 28 (tie); January 15, 1995 (1994) – Dallas Cowboys vs. San Francisco 49ers, January 24, 2010 (2009) – Minnesota Vikings at New Orleans Saints, Most combined points scored: 66; January 15, 1995 (1994) – San Francisco 49ers (38) vs. Dallas Cowboys (28), Fewest combined points scored: 9**; January 6, 1980 (1979) – Los Angeles Rams (9) vs. Tampa Bay Buccaneers (0), Longest game: 71 minutes, 52 seconds**; January 17, 1999 (1998) – Atlanta Falcons (30) @ Minnesota Vikings (27), OT, Most NFC Championships won in overtime: 2*, – New York Giants (2007, 2011), Most NFC Championships lost in overtime: 2, (tie) – Green Bay Packers (2007, 2014) Minnesota Vikings (1998, 2009), Current teams which have never hosted an NFC Championship Game:, Detroit Lions, Current teams which have never won an NFC Championship:, Detroit Lions (0–1), Longest drought without appearing in an NFC Championship Game: 27 years, Detroit Lions (last appearance – 1991), Washington Redskins (last appearance – 1991), Longest drought without an NFC Championship: 49 years***; Detroit Lions, Largest comeback: 17 points (trailed 17–0; won 28–24), San Francisco 49ers, 2012, Overtime games:, 1998 Atlanta Falcons 30 Minnesota Vikings 27, 2007 New York Giants 23 Green Bay Packers 20, 2009 New Orleans Saints 31 Minnesota Vikings 28, 2011 New York Giants 20 San Francisco 49ers 17, 2014 Seattle Seahawks 28 Green Bay Packers 22, 2018 Los Angeles Rams 26 New Orleans Saints 23 Notes: *Tied for Conference Championship record 2006: 35.233 million viewers; post gun: 24.641 million; post-game: 15.279 million, 2007: million viewers; post-game: million, 2008: million viewers; post-game: million, 2009: million viewers; post-game: 23.83 million (10:27pm–11:02pm), 2010: 57.9 million viewers, 2011: 51.9 million viewers;, 2012: 57.6 million viewers ; Post Game: million, 2013: 42.0 million viewers; post-game: million, 2014: 55.91 million viewers (peak: 66.3 million viewers); (6:42-9:59pm); post-game (9:55-9:59pm): 44.903 million ; The OT (9:59-10:19pm): 30.339 million viewers, 2015: 49.8 million viewers (peak: 60.5 million viewers); The OT: 16.280 million viewers (6:40-7:06pm) Time Almanac 2004 The National Football League playoffs for the 2004 season began on January 8, 2005. The postseason tournament concluded with the New England Patriots defeating the Philadelphia Eagles in Super Bowl XXXIX, 24–21, on February 6, at Alltel Stadium in Jacksonville, Florida. In the United States, ABC broadcast the first two Wild Card playoff games, then CBS broadcast the rest of the AFC playoff games. Fox televised the rest of the NFC games and Super Bowl XXXIX. Although the Rams barely made the playoffs with an 8–8 record, two of their regular season wins were against Seattle. And they proved they were up to the task again, beating the Seahawks in a back and forth game by scoring a touchdown with 2:11 left to go and then forcing a turnover on their own 5-yard line. With the win, the Rams became the first team in NFL history to win a playoff game after going 8–8 in the regular season. St. Louis' defense held Seahawks running back Shaun Alexander, the NFL's second leading rusher during the season, to only 40 yards on 15 carries. Shortly after the opening kickoff, Rams quarterback Marc Bulger completed a 52-yard pass to Torry Holt at the Seahawks 11-yard line. Three plays later, he threw a 15-yard touchdown pass to Holt to give the Rams an early 7–0 lead. Then on Seattle's first play of the game, defensive back Travis Fisher intercepted a pass from Matt Hasselbeck at the Seahawks 44-yard line. Bulger once again tried to go deep, but the Seahawks were ready and Ken Hamlin picked off his pass at the 4. After an exchange of punts, Seattle drove 46 yards in 9 plays and scored with Josh Brown's 47-yard field goal, cutting their deficit to 7–3. Early in the second quarter, Bulger's 52-yard completion to Kevin Curtis set up a 1-yard touchdown run by Marshall Faulk. But Seattle responded by driving 84 yards in 9 plays. On the eighth play of the drive, Hasselbeck's pass was intercepted, but a 15-yard penalty on Trev Faulk nullified the play and gave Seattle the ball at the Rams 19-yard line. Taking advantage of his second chance, Hasselbeck threw a 19-yard touchdown completion to Bobby Engram on the next play, making the score 14–10. On the opening drive of the third quarter, the Seahawks moved the ball 64 yards in 14 plays and scored with Brown's 30-yard field goal, cutting their deficit to 1 point. The Rams responded with a field goal from Jeff Wilkins to retake their 4-point lead, but Hasselbeck stormed back, completing five consecutive passes for 75 yards on Seattle's ensuing drive and finishing it off with a 23-yard touchdown pass to Darrell Jackson, giving his team their first lead of the game 1:17 into the fourth quarter. But the Rams struck back with an 11-play, 60-yard drive to tie the game with a second field goal from Wilkins. Then after forcing a punt, St. Louis drove 76 yards in seven plays, featuring two key receptions by players who had not caught a pass yet in the game. The first was a 31-yard completion from Bulger to Shaun McDonald on third down and 2. Then three plays later, Bulger threw a 17-yard touchdown pass to Cam Cleeland with 2:11 left in regulation. Hasselbeck started out the ensuing drive with three of four completions for 54 yards, moving the ball to the Rams 11-yard line. But over the next two plays, he threw an incompleted pass and was sacked for a 6-yard loss by St. Louis lineman Jimmy Kennedy. After that, he completed a 12-yard pass to Engram, bringing up fourth down and four on the Rams 5-yard line. With 27 seconds left, Hasselbeck tried to connect with Engram in the end zone, but the pass zipped through his hands and the Seahawks turned the ball over on downs. Bulger finished the game with 313 passing yards and 2 touchdowns, with 1 interception. Holt caught 6 passes for 108 yards and a touchdown, while Curtis added 4 receptions for 107 yards. Hasselbeck completed 27 of 43 passes for 341 yards and two touchdowns, with 1 interception, and rushed for 26 yards. Jackson caught 12 passes for 128 yards. The game, notably, was also the last of wide receiver Jerry Rice's legendary career. this was the Rams' last playoff win as the St. Louis Rams as they would relocate to Los Angeles in 2016. They would not win a playoff game until 2018. This is also the last time the Seahawks have lost a home playoff game, having gone 10-0 since then in such games. New York entered the game after losing their last two regular season games, but managed to defeat the Chargers with a Doug Brien field goal in overtime. This game proved to be as close and competitive as the earlier playoff game in Seattle, featuring numerous key plays in the fourth quarter and in overtime that kept it going until 14:55 had elapsed in the extra period. New York took the opening kickoff and drove to the Chargers 11-yard line. But San Diego's defense kept them out of the end zone and Brien missed a 31-yard field goal attempt. In the second quarter, San Diego drove 88 yards and scored with Drew Brees' 26-yard touchdown pass to Keenan McCardell, which was initially ruled an incompletion, but overturned to a touchdown after a replay challenge. Later in the quarter, a 15-yard unsportsmanlike penalty against the Chargers on a punt gave New York the ball on the San Diego 37-yard line. Five plays later, quarterback Chad Pennington completed a 13-yard touchdown pass to Anthony Becht, tying the game at 7. On their ensuing drive, the Chargers mounted a scoring threat by moving the ball to the Jets 37-yard line, but Reggie Tongue intercepted a pass from Brees and the score remained tied at halftime. After forcing a punt on the opening second half drive, Pennington completed three consecutive passes for 68 yards, the last one a 47-yard touchdown pass to Santana Moss. Then after forcing a punt, New York drove 42 yards in eight plays, featuring two receptions by Curtis Martin for 33 yards and scored with a 42-yard field goal from Brien, giving them a 17–7 lead going into the fourth quarter. In the final period, the Chargers managed to rally back. First they drove 54 yards in 12 plays and scored with a 35-yard field goal by Nate Kaeding. The Jets responded with a drive to San Diego's 33-yard line, Pennington threw an incomplete pass on third down and they decided to punt rather than risk a 51-yard field goal. The Chargers subsequently moved the ball 80 yards in 10 plays to tie the game on a thrilling drive in which they nearly turned the ball over twice. On the first play, Brees fumbled the ball while being sacked by linebacker Jonathan Vilma, but he recovered it himself. Then he completed a 21-yard pass to tight end Antonio Gates to pick up the first down. One play later, he completed a 44-yard pass to Gates at the Jets 22-yard line. Two runs by LaDainian Tomlinson for 13 yards and a 7-yard run by Brees brought up third down on the Jets 2-yard line. After Tomlinson was tackled for a 1-yard loss, A fourth-down pass Brees with under 20 seconds left fell incomplete into the end zone, but Jets linebacker Eric Barton was penalized for roughing the passer, giving the Chargers a first down from the one-yard line. Brees threw a touchdown pass to Gates on the following play, sending the game into overtime. After an exchange of punts in overtime, the Chargers drove to the Jets 22-yard line, but Kaeding missed a 40-yard field goal attempt late in the extra period, allowing the Jets to come back down the field. Two Pennington completions for 29 yards and a 19-yard run by LaMont Jordan then set up a 28-yard field goal from Brien with five seconds remaining in overtime. Pennington completed 23 of 33 passes for 272 yards and 2 touchdowns. Moss finished the game with 4 receptions for 100 yards and a touchdown. Brees completed 31 of 42 passes for 319 yards and 2 touchdowns, with 1 interception. Tomlinson rushed for 80 yards and caught 9 passes for 53 yards. The Colts followed up their wild-card blowout of the Broncos in the previous year's Wild Card Round, and also made up for a loss in Denver's INVESCO Field at Mile High a week earlier with another thrashing. Indianapolis scored a franchise playoff record seven touchdowns and led 35–3 at the half. Colt quarterback Peyton Manning, who threw a record 49 touchdown passes in the 2004 regular season, completed 27 of 33 passes for 457 yards (the second highest total ever in a playoff game) and four touchdowns, including two to receiver Reggie Wayne (who had 10 receptions for 221 yards receiving on the day), and one each to tight end Dallas Clark (who caught 6 passes for 113 yards) and running back James Mungro. Manning and running backs Edgerrin James and Dominic Rhodes scored rushing touchdowns. For Denver, quarterback Jake Plummer threw for 284 yards and 2 touchdowns, with 1 interception, while receiver Rod Smith caught 7 passes for 99 yards and a score. Manning dominated the Broncos in the first quarter, completing 11 of 14 passes for 156 yards. On the Colts second drive of the game, he completed two passes to Wayne for 41 yards and a 25-yard pass to tight end Marcus Pollard before throwing a 2-yard touchdown pass to Mungro. Then after a Denver punt, Manning completed three passes to Clark for 63 yards on an 87-yard drive that ended with a 1-yard touchdown run by James, giving Indianapolis a 14–0 lead with 38 seconds left in the first quarter. On Denver's opening drive of the second quarter, safety Mike Doss intercepted a pass Plummer on the Colts 41-yard line. One play later, Manning threw a 49-yard completion to Wayne at the Denver 9. Rookie defensive back Kelly Herndon ended the drive by intercepting a pass from Manning in the end zone, but it did not matter. Denver was forced to punt after three plays and Troy Walters returned the ball 9 yards to the Colts 48-yard line. Manning then completed three consecutive passes for 48 yards, the last one a 19-yard touchdown throw to Clark. This time the Broncos managed to respond. Smith caught 2 passes for 41 yards on a 51-yard drive that ended with a 33-yard field goal by Jason Elam, cutting the score to 21–3. Then the Broncos tried to fool the Colts with a surprise onside kick, but it did not work. Indianapolis' Nick Rogers recovered the ball on the Denver 40-yard line, and one play later, Manning threw a 35-yard touchdown pass to Wayne. Before the end of the half, the Colts put together another touchdown drive. This time Manning went to Marvin Harrison, who had been dominated all game, completing two passes to him for 41 yards before a 20-yard catch by Wayne moved the ball to the Broncos 1-yard line. Manning finished the drive with a 1-yard touchdown run with 6 seconds left in the half, increasing the Colts lead to 35–3. The Broncos scored on the opening drive of the second half, moving the ball 75 yards and scoring with Plummer's 9-yard touchdown pass to Smith. Then after forcing a punt, they drove 85 yards and scored with Plummer's 35-yard touchdown pass to Jeb Putzier, cutting the score to 35–17. But on the Colts ensuing drive, Wayne caught a screen pass from Manning and took it 43 yards for a touchdown, giving Indianapolis a 42–17 lead early in the fourth quarter. Denver receiver Triandos Luke returned the ensuing kickoff 41 yards to the 43-yard line, setting up a 57-yard scoring drive that ended with a 1-yard touchdown run by Tatum Bell. But Harrison recovered Elam's onside kick attempt and the Colts subsequently closed out the scoring with a 2-yard touchdown run by Rhodes. This was the last NFL game played on the first-generation AstroTurf. The Vikings, like the Rams, went 8–8 during the regular season. Furthermore, they had stumbled into the post-season losing 7 of their last 10 games, the worst performance in NFL history by a playoff team in a final 10-game span. Two of their losses, by identical 34–31 scores, came in last-second games to the Packers. This time, however, there was no denying the Vikings as they avenged their regular-season sweep, coming out with a stellar performance on both sides of the ball. Quarterback Daunte Culpepper threw for 284 yards and four touchdowns and rushed for 54 yards, while the Vikings defense, who only intercepted 11 passes all season, picked off Green Bay counterpart Brett Favre four times. Wide receiver Randy Moss caught two touchdowns for Minnesota, but drew controversy for his celebration after his second, which decided the outcome of the contest. Moss pretended to "moon" Packer fans by pretending to pull down his pants, mocking a move done by Packer fans to the losing team's bus as they left Green Bay. Fox play-by-play announcer Joe Buck was visibly upset by Moss's celebratory move, calling it "a disgusting act". The NFL was also not amused and fined Moss $10,000 for his actions a few days later. When asked by a fan on how he would the pay the fine, Moss replied "straight cash homie". On the Vikings' opening drive, Culpepper narrowly avoided a sack with a short completion to running back Moe Williams, who then dodged a tackle attempt from safety Darren Sharper and took off for a 68-yard touchdown reception. The Packers were forced to punt after Favre was sacked for a 10-yard loss on third down by Chris Claiborne, and Nate Burleson returned the ball 7 yards to the 45-yard line. Three plays later, Culpepper threw a 20-yard touchdown pass to Moss, giving Minnesota a 14–0 lead after just 5:05 had elapsed in the game. A 30-yard kickoff return by Najeh Davenport gave the Packers good field position on their 42-yard line, but two plays later, defensive back Antoine Winfield intercepted a pass from Favre and returned it 3 yards to the Vikings 43. After that, Culpepper completed two passes for 19 yards and rushed for 23, setting up a 35-yard field goal by Morten Andersen and increasing the lead to 17–0. After being completely dominated up to this point, the Packers managed to rally back. First Davenport returned the ensuing kickoff 20 yards to the 38-yard line. Then a 21-yard completion from Favre to Javon Walker set up a 43-yard field goal by Ryan Longwell. The Vikings were forced to punt after Culpepper was sacked on third down by Michael Hawthorne, and Green Bay subsequently drove 54 yards in 12 plays and scored on Favre's 4-yard touchdown pass to tight end Bubba Franks, cutting their deficit to 17–10 with 10:24 left in the second quarter. But on the Vikings' next drive, a 29-yard reception by Burleson and a 23-yard run by Culpepper helped move the ball to the Packers 9-yard line. Green Bay seemed to catch a break when Anderson slipped on a field goal attempt, resulting in a block. But on the next play, safety Brian Russell intercepted a pass from Favre and returned it 14 yards to the Packers 28-yard line. One play later, Culpepper threw a 19-yard touchdown pass to Burleson, putting the Vikings up 24–10. The Packers subsequently drove to Minnesota's 8-yard line, but while scrambling around looking for an open receiver, Favre threw an illegal forward pass when he could have run for a first down. On the next play, Longwell missed a 28-yard field goal. After a scoreless third quarter, Green Bay drove 78 yards in 9 plays to score on Davenport's 1-yard touchdown run, cutting their deficit to 24–17. But the Vikings responded by driving 66 yards and scoring with a 34-yard touchdown completion for Culpepper to Moss. Then after forcing a punt, Minnesota put the game away with an 8-minute drive that ran the clock down to 23 seconds. The Jets came out on the losing end of this overtime game when placekicker Doug Brien missed two consecutive field goals at the end of regulation, setting an NFL record of 3 missed game winning field goals in a single post- season. Despite a subpar performance by Steelers' rookie quarterback Ben Roethlisberger, the Steelers managed to win after Jeff Reed made a game- winning 33-yard field goal 11:04 into the extra period. Steelers running back Jerome Bettis finished the game with 101 rushing yards and a touchdown, along with a 21-yard reception. The Steelers opened up the scoring with a 43-yard field goal by Reed. Then after the ensuing kickoff, Steelers safety Troy Polamalu intercepted a pass from Chad Pennington and returned it 15 yards to the Jets 25-yard line, setting up a 3-yard touchdown run by Bettis. New York Responded with a 42-yard field goal from Brien on their next drive to cut their deficit to 10–3. Later in the second quarter, Jets receiver Santana Moss returned a punt 75 yards for a touchdown to tie the game. Midway through third quarter, Jets defensive back Reggie Tongue intercepted a pass from Roethlisberger and returned it 86 yards for a touchdown. On Pittsburgh's next drive, they drove all the way to New York's 23-yard line. But then Bettis fumbled and New York's Erik Coleman recovered it. After forcing a punt, the Steelers drove into scoring range for the third consecutive drive, this time scoring with Roethlisbeger's 4-yard touchdown pass to Hines Ward to tie it at 17. The Jets responded with a drive inside the Steelers 30-yard line, but Brien missed a 47-yard field goal attempt with 2 minutes left in regulation. Two plays later, New York defensive back David Barrett gave his team another chance to score the winning points by intercepting a pass from Roethlisberger and returning it 25 yards to Pittsburgh's 36-yard line. But Brien missed another field goal, this one from 43 yards, as time expired in the fourth quarter, and the game went into overtime. The Jets won the coin toss, but were forced to punt. Pittsburgh then drove 72 yards in 14 plays and won the game with a 33-yard field goal from Reed. In a classic rout, quarterback Michael Vick and the Falcons steamrolled over the Rams in their first home playoff game since 1999, scoring on six of their nine possessions, while racking up 327 rushing yards and 232 yards on special teams. Vick combined for 201 yards (including 119 rushing yards, a playoff record for a quarterback) and threw 2 touchdown passes, while running back Warrick Dunn rushed for 142 yards and 2 touchdowns. Allen Rossum set an NFL post-season record with 152 punt return yards and added another 80 on kickoff returns. On the Falcons opening drive, Vick rushed for 47 yards and later threw an 18-yard touchdown pass to tight end Alge Crumpler, giving his team a 7–0 lead after just 3:02 had elapsed in the game. The Rams responded with Marc Bulger's 57-yard touchdown pass to Kevin Curtis, but four plays after the ensuing kickoff, Atlanta running back Warrick Dunn scored on a 62-yard touchdown run. Early in the second quarter, Atlanta drove 80 yards in 13 plays. Dunn rushed for 46 total yards on the drive and caught a pass for 2, eventually finishing it off with a 19-yard touchdown run to give the Falcons a 21–7 lead. The Rams struck back with an 8-play, 75-yard drive in which Stephen Jackson had three carries for 29 yards. On the last play, Bulger threw a 28-yard touchdown pass to Torry Holt. Then linebacker Tommy Polley ended Atlanta's next drive by forcing a recovering a fumble from Vick on the Rams 18-yard line. But the Falcons defense forced a punt and Rossum returned it 68 yards for a touchdown. The Rams responded by driving 43 yards and scoring on Jeff Wilkins' 55-yard field goal to cut the deficit to 28–17 on the last play of the second quarter, but the Falcons dominated the second half. First they forced the Rams to punt, and Rossum returned the ball 39 yards to the St. Louis 32-yard line. Five plays later, Vick threw a 6-yard touchdown pass to Peerless Price. Then Rossum returned the Rams next punt 45 yards to the Rams 13-yard line, setting a 38-yard field goal by Jay Feely. Throughout the rest of the game, the Falcons intercepted a pass from Bulger, forced him to lose a fumble, and Brady Smith sacked him in the end zone for a safety. After the safety, Atlanta drove 58 yards in 15 plays, taking 9:45 off the clock on the way to running back T. J. Duckett's 4-yard touchdown run with 2 minutes left in the game. Bulger finished with 292 passing yards and 2 touchdowns, with 1 interception. Curtis caught 7 passes for 128 yards. Duckett rushed for 66 yards and a touchdown. This would be the last playoff game for the St. Louis Rams, as they relocated to Los Angeles in 2016, and the franchise's last overall until 2017, which would also be against Atlanta. The Eagles advanced to the NFC Championship Game for the fourth straight year on the strength of quarterback Donovan McNabb (21 out of 33 completions for 286 yards and 2 touchdowns). Meanwhile, the Vikings repeatedly shot themselves in the foot with penalties (including 3 pass interference calls for 78 yards), turnovers (including two third quarter interceptions), and other miscues. The most notable was a blown fake field goal attempt which failed because they did not send the right personnel onto the field. Midway through the first quarter, McNabb scored the first points of the game with a 2-yard touchdown pass to Freddie Mitchell. The next time the Eagles got the ball, McNabb completed a 52-yard pass to receiver Greg Lewis, setting up his second touchdown pass on a 7-yard toss to Brian Westbrook. Mewelde Moore returned the ensuing kickoff 39 yards to his own 42-yard line, and two plays later, Vikings quarterback Daunte Culpepper threw a 40-yard completion to Marcus Robinson. After that, he finished the drive with a 7-yard touchdown run, cutting the score to 14–7. But the Eagles struck right back on their next drive. First, J. R. Reed returned the kickoff 48 yards to the Vikings 46-yard line. After two penalties against Minnesota gave them 33 yards, McNabb completed two passes to tight end L. J. Smith. Smith fumbled the ball on the second pass, but Mitchell recovered it in the end zone for a touchdown, increasing the Eagles' lead to 21–7. The Vikings responded with a drive to Philadelphia's 3-yard line. On fourth down, coach Mike Tice called a fake field goal that was supposed to involve backup quarterback Gus Frerotte passing the ball. But the lineman next to the long snapper didn't hear the call. He remained in and Randy Moss, who was supposed to receive the pass, had to run off the field to avoid a penalty. When the ball was snapped, a confused Frerotte had no receivers to pass too, and was forced to throw the ball away. The Eagles then drove 93 yards the Vikings 4-yard line, but were unable to stop the clock from running out before they could score. After a scoreless third quarter, Philadelphia kicker David Akers kicked two field goals in the final period. The Vikings managed to respond with an 80-yard drive capped by Culpepper's 32-yard touchdown pass to Robinson, but they could not recover the onside kick and the Eagles ran out the rest of the clock. Culpepper threw for 354 yards and 1 touchdown, but was intercepted twice. Robinson caught five passes for 119 yards and a touchdown. Westbrook rushed for 70 yards and caught five passes for 47 yards and a touchdown. In a snowstorm, the Patriots dismantled the league's highest scoring team by forcing three turnovers and holding them to just 276 yards and 3 points, their lowest point total since their opening game of the 2003 season. Peyton Manning suffered his seventh loss in Foxborough, even though he had more yards passing than Brady did in the game. The Patriots limited Manning to 238 passing yards with 1 interception and no touchdowns, and Edgerrin James to just 39 rushing yards. The Patriots also held possession of the ball for 37:43, including 21:26 in the second half and recording three long scoring drives that each took over 7 minutes off the clock. New England running back Corey Dillon, playing in his first career playoff game after suffering through 7 losing seasons as a member of the Cincinnati Bengals, rushed for 144 yards and caught 5 passes for 17 yards. Both teams defenses dominated early, as the first five possessions of the game ended in punts. But after that, the Patriots put together a 16-play, 78 yards scoring drive that took 9:07 off the clock. They lost a touchdown when Dillons' 1-yard score was overturned by a penalty, but Adam Vinatieri kicked a 24-yard field goal to give them a 3–0 lead. The next time New England got the ball, a 42-yard run by Dillon set up another Vinatieri field goal, increasing the Patriots lead to 6–0. The Colts responded with a drive to New England's 39-yard line, but linebacker Tedy Bruschi ended it by forcing and recovering a fumble from running back Dominic Rhodes. After a Patriots punt, Manning led the Colts 67 yards to a Mike Vanderjagt field goal, cutting the score to 6–3 going into halftime. But the Patriots dominated the second half, holding the ball for nearly all the time in regulation with two long drives. After a criticized Indianapolis punt on 4th and 1 from the New England side of the field, the Patriots drove 87 yards in 15 plays on a drive that consumed 8:16 and ended with Brady's 5-yard touchdown pass to David Givens. At the end of the Colts next drive, Hunter Smith's 54-yard punt pinned New England back at their own 6-yard line. But it didn't stop them. The Patriots stormed down the field on a 14-play, 94-yard drive that ate up another 7:24. Dillon rushed for 35 yards and caught a pass for 9 on the drive, including a 27-yard run on third down and 8, while Brady finished it with a 1-yard touchdown run, giving the Patriots a 20–3 lead with just over 7 minutes left in the game. Then two plays after the ensuing kickoff, safety Rodney Harrison stripped the ball from Reggie Wayne and Bruschi recovered it, allowing his team to take more time off the clock. Indianapolis responded with a drive to the Patriots 20-yard line, but Harrison intercepted Manning's pass in the end zone with 10 seconds left. Despite a game-time temperature of and a swirling wind that sent wind chills into sub-zero temperatures, the Eagles finally succeeded in advancing to the Super Bowl in their fourth straight NFC Championship Game appearance. The Eagles' defense held Michael Vick to a combined total of 162 yards, sacking him four times. Tight end Chad Lewis caught two touchdown passes of three and two yards from Donovan McNabb; however, he suffered a Lisfranc injury to his foot in the process of catching the second touchdown, and would miss the Super Bowl. On their first drive of the game, the Eagles drove to Atlanta's 32-yard line. But they turned the ball over after trying to convert a fourth down with a fake field goal attempt. The next time they got the ball, a 36-yard run by Brian Westbrook and a 21-yard catch by L. J. Smith set up a 4-yard touchdown run by Dorsey Levens, giving them a 7–0 lead. Atlanta responded with a drive to the Eagles 3-yard line, but was forced to settle for a Jay Feely field goal after Vick was sacked by Hollis Thomas on third down. Six plays after the ensuing kickoff, Greg Lewis' 45-yard reception moved the ball to the Falcons 4-yard line, setting up McNabb's 3-yard touchdown pass to Chad Lewis one play later. Atlanta struck right back on their next drive, moving the ball 70 yards in just five plays, one a 31-yard reception by tight end Alge Crumpler, and scoring with Warrick Dunn's 10-yard touchdown run with 21 seconds left in the first half. The Eagles dominated the second half, forcing Atlanta to punt on every possession except one which resulted in an interception, and their last one, which ended when they turned the ball over on downs. Meanwhile, Eagles kicker David Akers kicked two field goals, one at the 60-yard drive to start the second half, and the second set up by Brian Dawkins' 19-yard interception return to the Falcons 11-yard line. A 65-yard drive in the fourth quarter, featuring McNabb's 20-yard pass to Greg Lewis, resulted in the final score of the game; McNabb's 2-yard touchdown toss to Chad Lewis with 3:21 left in regulation McNabb threw for 180 yards and two touchdowns, while also rushing for 32 yards. Westbrook rushed for 96 yards and caught five passes for 39. Atlanta defensive back Allen Rossum returned 4 kickoffs for 102 yards and 2 punts for 20. The game-time temperature of made it the second-coldest game ever in Pittsburgh and the coldest ever in Steel City playoff annals. However, it was the Patriots that handed Ben Roethlisberger his first loss as a starter after a 14-game winning streak, the longest by a rookie quarterback in NFL history, as the Steelers became the second NFL team ever to record a 15–1 record and fail to reach the Super Bowl. The Patriots converted four Pittsburgh turnovers into 24 points, while committing no turnovers themselves. The Patriots' win also prevented an all-Pennsylvania Super Bowl from being played. The Steelers never recovered from their poor performance in the first quarter. Patriots defensive back Eugene Wilson intercepted Roethlisberger's first pass of the game on his own 48-yard line, setting up Adam Vinatieri's 48-yard field goal to take a 3–0 lead. Pittsburgh responded with a drive to the Patriots 39-yard line. But then running back Jerome Bettis lost a fumble while being tackled by Rosevelt Colvin and linebacker Mike Vrabel recovered it. On the next play, Tom Brady threw a 60-yard touchdown pass to receiver Deion Branch. With 1:28 left in the first quarter, the Steelers cut their deficit to 10–3 with Jeff Reed's 23-yard field goal. But after an exchange of punts, Branch caught a 45-yard reception on Pittsburgh's 14-yard line. Two plays later, Brady threw a 9-yard touchdown pass to David Givens. Then on the Steelers ensuing drive, safety Rodney Harrison intercepted a pass from Roethlisberger and returned it 87 yards for a touchdown, giving the Patriots a 24–3 halftime lead. In the second half, the teams scored three consecutive touchdowns. New England was forced to punt on the opening drive of the third quarter, and Antwaan Randle El returned the ball 9 yards to the Steelers 44-yard line. Then on the Steelers ensuing possession, he caught two passes for 46 yards as they drove 56 yards in five plays. Bettis finished the drive with a 5-yard touchdown run, cutting their deficit to 24–10. New England responded by moving the ball 69 yards in seven plays and scoring with Corey Dillon's 25-yard touchdown run. But Pittsburgh stormed right back, driving 60 yards in ten plays and scoring with Roethlisberger's 30-yard touchdown pass to Hines Ward. Then after forcing a punt, Randle El returned the ball 22 yards to the Steelers 49-yard line. On their ensuing drive, Ward's 26-yard reception on the last play of the third quarter set up Reed's second field goal, making the score 31–20 with 13:32 left in the game. However, the Patriots took over the rest of the quarter. They responded with a 49-yard drive that took 5:26 off the clock and ended with Vinatieri's 31-yard field goal. Then two plays after the ensuing kickoff, Wilson intercepted another pass from Roethlisberger at New England's 45-yard line. The Patriots subsequently marched down the field on another long scoring drive, taking 5:06 off the clock. Branch capped it off with a 23-yard touchdown run on a reverse play, giving the Patriots a 41–20 lead. The Steelers responded with Roethlisberger's 7-yard touchdown pass to Plaxico Burress on their next drive, but by then there was only 1:31 left in the game. Brady completed 14 of 21 passes for 207 yards and 2 touchdowns. Dillon rushed for 73 yards and a touchdown. Branch caught 4 passes for 116 yards, rushed for 37 yards, and scored two touchdowns. Roethlisberger threw for 226 yards and 2 touchdowns, and rushed for 45 yards, but was intercepted 3 times. Ward caught 5 passes for 109 yards and a touchdown. NFL.com scores for the 2004 playoffs (Last accessed January 9, 2006) The 2017–18 NFL playoffs began on January 6, 2018, after the 2017 season, and concluded with Super Bowl LII on Sunday, February 4, 2018, when the Philadelphia Eagles defeated the New England Patriots at U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Several teams broke long playoff droughts, as the Buffalo Bills, Los Angeles Rams, Jacksonville Jaguars, and Tennessee Titans each qualified for the playoffs for the first time since 1999, 2004, 2007, and 2008, respectively. The playoffs were also notable for the Patriots reaching a seventh consecutive AFC Championship Game, extending their own NFL record, and the Eagles snapping a 57-year championship drought and claiming their first in the Super Bowl era. For the first time since 2013-14, no games went to overtime. Source: The Tennessee Titans overcame an 18-point halftime deficit to defeat the Kansas City Chiefs 22–21 and won their first playoff game since the 2003 season. Kansas City opened the scoring on their second possession of the game. After Alex Smith connected with Tyreek Hill for 45 yards and Travis Kelce for a 27-yard completion, Kareem Hunt ran in for a one-yard touchdown. On their next drive the Chiefs drove 76 yards in five plays, with Smith completing a 26-yard pass to Hill and an 18-yard pass to receiver Albert Wilson. Following an 18-yard run by Hunt, Smith hit Kelce for a 13-yard touchdown. Smith finished the quarter with 154 passing yards, a career high. In the second quarter, Tennessee advanced to Kansas City's 21-yard line before Marcus Mariota was intercepted by Marcus Peters, who returned the ball 28 yards to the Chiefs' 37-yard line. Following a punt, tight end Delanie Walker's 22-yard reception sparked a drive to the Chiefs' 22-yard line; but on third-and-4, linebacker Derrick Johnson sacked Mariota and forced the team to settle for a 49-yard Ryan Succop field goal. The Chiefs increased their lead to 18 points by the end of the half, however, with a nine-play, 79-yard drive that culminated in a 14-yard scoring pass from Smith to Demarcus Robinson with three seconds left in the half. Kansas City went into halftime with a 21–3 lead, with more total yards (284 to 127) and more first downs (16 to 3). However, Kelce suffered a game-ending injury while catching a 12-yard pass on the final drive. Tennessee opened the second half with a 15-play, 91-yard drive that consumed 8:29 off the clock. On a third-down play from the Kansas City 6-yard line, Mariota attempted a pass, which was deflected by Darrelle Revis, back to Mariota, who promptly ran it in for a touchdown, making him the first quarterback to complete a touchdown pass to himself in a postseason game. The Chiefs were forced to punt on their next drive, but Adoree' Jackson muffed the catch and Keith Reaser recovered for Kansas City. They were unable to capitalize on the turnover, however, as they lost two yards over their next three plays and Harrison Butker hit the upright from a 48-yard field goal attempt. Tennessee took the ball back and drove 62 yards in six plays, scoring on a 35-yard run by Derrick Henry on the second play of the fourth quarter to cut the score to 21–16 after a failed two-point conversion. Again forcing a Kansas City punt, Tennessee drove 81 yards in 11 plays to take their first lead of the game. Mariota converted three third downs on the drive, completing a 9-yard pass to Walker on third-and-3, scrambling 17 yards for a first down on third-and-8, and then connecting a 10-yard pass to tight end Jonnu Smith on third-and-2. Eventually, Mariota finished the drive by throwing to Eric Decker for a 22-yard touchdown, giving Tennessee a 22–21 lead following another failed two-point conversion with 6:06 remaining. Kansas City then drove into Tennessee territory, but Alex Smith was sacked on third down by Derrick Morgan and then missed a pass to Wilson on fourth down with 2:09 left. On the second play of Tennessee's drive, Johnson recovered a Henry fumble and returned it 56 yards for a touchdown, but Henry was ruled down by contact upon review. One play later, Kansas City had one last chance to get the ball back on a third- and-10 situation. Mariota handed the ball off to Henry, who started to run to the middle, but then switched direction and ran to the left. Aided by a key block from Mariota against linebacker Frank Zombo, Henry raced 22 yards down the left sideline for a game-clinching first down, and the Titans ran out the rest of the clock, having held the Chiefs to 41 yards and three first downs in the second half. Alex Smith finished as the leading passer with 264 yards and two touchdowns, but only 110 yards after the first quarter. Mariota threw for 205 yards, two touchdowns and an interception in his first playoff start; his self-caught touchdown pass made him the first player since at least 1950 to throw and catch a touchdown pass in the same playoff game. Henry gained 156 yards on 23 carries and 191 total yards from scrimmage, while Hunt, the league's leading rusher during the regular season, gained just 42 yards on 11 carries. Chiefs coach Andy Reid faced criticism for not relying on Hunt to protect their lead in the second half, as Hunt only carried the ball five times after halftime. Tennessee became the first road team to erase an 18-point deficit to win a postseason game since the 1972 playoffs. The loss was Kansas City's sixth consecutive home playoff loss, extending a league record. In the first playoff game at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum since the 1993 NFL season, and the first Rams playoff hosted at the venue since the 1978 NFL season, Matt Ryan threw for 218 yards and a touchdown, and kicker Matt Bryant kicked 4 field goals to beat the Rams. Atlanta got an early scoring opportunity when Blake Countess muffed a punt that Falcons linebacker LaRoy Reynolds recovered on the Rams' 17-yard line, leading to Matt Bryant's 29-yard field goal. Then, after a punt, Atlanta receiver Julio Jones caught a 27-yard pass and rushed for 13 yards on an end-around play as the team drove 57 yards in nine plays to go up 6–0 on Bryant's 51-yard field goal. Damontae Kazee forced a fumble from Pharoh Cooper on the ensuing kickoff, which Kemal Ishmael recovered for Atlanta on the Rams' 32-yard line. This time, the Falcons were able to take the ball to the end zone, scoring on a 3-yard touchdown run by Devonta Freeman as a result of center Alex Mack literally dragging him across the goal line. Late in the second quarter, the Rams finally managed to get on the board, sparked by a 26-yard run by Todd Gurley. Jared Goff finished the drive with passes to Cooper Kupp, the first for 15 yards, and the second a 14-yard touchdown completion that made the score 13–7. The next time they had the ball, only 1:15 remained in the half, but they were able to convert a 38-yard completion from Goff to Robert Woods into a 35-yard Sam Ficken field goal, making the score 13–10 at halftime. The Falcons took up more than half the third quarter with their opening drive, moving the ball 76 yards in 16 plays. Freeman carried the ball six times for 42 yards, while quarterback Matt Ryan converted a fourth-and-1 with a 1-yard sneak. Bryant finished the possession with his third field goal, this one from 25 yards, increasing their lead to 16–10. After a Rams punt, Ryan's completions to Jones for gains of 12 and 16 yards set up Bryant's fourth field goal, a 51-yard kick, to put the team up 19–10. The Rams quickly struck back, with Gurley rushing twice for gains of 14 and 33 yards, along with Goff completing an 18-yard pass to Woods. Ficken's 32-yard field goal at the end of the drive cut the deficit to 19–13 with just over 10 minutes left. However, Atlanta came back with an eight-play, 83-yard drive featuring a 52-yard completion from Ryan to Mohamed Sanu. On the last play, Ryan's 8-yard touchdown pass to Jones put his team up 26–13. The Rams responded with one last drive to try and get back in the game, moving the ball to a third-and-goal situation on Atlanta's 5-yard line. Goff then threw a touchdown pass to tight end Tyler Higbee, but the call was reversed by a review, as replays showed the ball hit the ground as Higbee was going to the turf. On the next play, Goff threw an incomplete pass, causing a turnover on downs with 2:05 left. The Rams received the ball one more time, but this resulted in another turnover on downs. Ryan completed 21 of 30 passes for 213 yards and a touchdown, while Jones caught nine passes for 94 yards and a touchdown. Goff finished the day 24-for-45 for 259 yards and a touchdown. His top target was Woods, who caught nine passes for 142 yards. Gurley was the game's top rusher with 101 yards on 14 carries, while also catching four passes for 10 yards. In the Jaguars' first playoff appearance since 2007 and the lowest scoring NFL postseason game since the 1997 season, Jacksonville's 15-play, 86-yard touchdown drive in the third quarter was enough to propel them to victory. Every drive in the first quarter ended in a punt. Early in the second quarter, Jacksonville got a chance to score when Aaron Colvin intercepted a pass from Bills quarterback Tyrod Taylor on the Buffalo 35-yard line. However, the team lost three yards over the next three plays and decided to punt rather than risk a long field goal. From there, Buffalo took up nearly all the remaining time in the quarter, driving all the way to the Jaguars' 1-yard line. However, an offensive pass interference penalty against receiver Kelvin Benjamin pushed them back 10 yards and they ended up settling for a 31-yard Steven Hauschka field goal to take a 3–0 lead with 1:49 left in the half. After an exchange of punts, Jacksonville got the ball on their own 47-yard line with 40 seconds left, and quarterback Blake Bortles scrambled twice for gains of 20 and 12 yards to set up Josh Lambo's 44-yard field goal, tying the score at halftime. On the Jaguars' second possession of the second half, they drove 86 yards in 15 plays to take a 10–3 lead. The key player of the drive was running back Leonard Fournette, who carried the ball eight times for 33 yards and caught a pass for 12 yards. Eventually the team faced fourth-and-goal on the 1-yard line, and decided to go for the touchdown, which paid off as Bortles threw a pass to tight end Ben Koyack for the score with 42 seconds left in the third quarter. Jacksonville's defense then locked the Bills down in the fourth quarter, forcing three punts and an interception by Jalen Ramsey on the Jaguars' 48-yard line with 26 seconds left. Bortles completed only 12 of 23 passes for 87 yards and a touchdown, but was also the game's leading rusher with 88 yards on the ground. Bills running back LeSean McCoy rushed for 75 yards and caught six passes for 44 yards. Saints safety Vonn Bell (Who finished with 9 tackles and a sack) sacked Cam Newton on fourth down to win the game. This was the first postseason meeting between the Panthers and Saints. Carolina had a chance to score on their second possession of the game, driving to a third-and-goal on the Saints' 7-yard line. But over the next two plays, Kaelin Clay dropped a potential touchdown catch in the end zone and then Graham Gano missed a 25-yard field goal attempt. On the second play after the missed field goal, New Orleans quarterback Drew Brees threw a deep pass down the middle of the field to Ted Ginn Jr., who evaded a tackle attempt by James Bradberry and ran all the way to the end zone for an 80-yard touchdown reception. This gave New Orleans a 7–0 lead with less than two minutes left in the first quarter. Carolina responded on their next drive, converting a 22-yard completion from Cam Newton to Greg Olsen and a 39-yard pass interference penalty against defensive back Ken Crawley into a 27-yard Gano field goal that cut the score to 7–3. However, New Orleans responded immediately, with Brees completing passes to Michael Thomas for gains of 19, 8, and 13 yards, as well as passes to running backs Mark Ingram and Alvin Kamara for gains of 13 and 10 yards. On the last play of the drive, Brees put the Saints up 14–3 with a 9-yard touchdown pass to tight end Josh Hill. Carolina struck back, with Newton completing a 19-yard pass to Brenton Bersin and converting a fourth-and-1 with a quarterback sneak. Gano finished the 54-yard drive with a 39-yard field goal to make the score 14–6 with 2:47 left in the half. Brees responded by completing 4 of 6 passes for 67 yards on the way to a 1-yard touchdown run by fullback Zach Line, increasing the Saints' lead to 21–6. Taking the ball back with just over 40 seconds left, Newton completed a 24-yard pass to Devin Funchess. A few more plays moved the ball to the Saints' 40-yard line, where Gano barely managed to squeeze a 58-yard field goal inside the left upright, tying the NFL record for the longest field goal in postseason history. The Panthers continued to chip away at their deficit with their first drive of the second half, as they moved the ball 64 yards in nine plays on a possession that featured a 29-yard run by Jonathan Stewart. Gano finished the drive with his fourth field goal, making the score 21–12. But New Orleans was able to respond, with Ginn catching two passes for 30 yards on a 36-yard drive that ended with Wil Lutz kicking a 57-yard field goal, bringing their lead back up to 24–12. With less than two minutes left in the third quarter, the Panthers started a 68-yard drive in which Olsen caught three passes for 54 total yards, the last one a 14-yard touchdown catch that cut the score to 24–19 after the two-point conversion failed. Following a few punts, Brees' 46-yard completion to Thomas gave the Saints a first down on the Carolina 5-yard line, where they went on to score with Kamara's 2-yard touchdown run and go up 31–19 with 5:08 left. On the third play of the Panthers' next drive, Newton completed a short pass to running back Christian McCaffrey, who raced 56 yards for a touchdown, cutting the score to 31–26. New Orleans took the ball back and drove to a fourth-and-2 situation on the 47-yard line at the two-minute warning. Deciding to go for the first down, Brees threw a pass that was intercepted by safety Mike Adams, giving the ball back to the Panthers, though Adams' decision to intercept the ball instead of knocking the pass down ended up costing his team 16 yards. Carolina then drove to the Saints' 21-yard line. On second down, Newton was flagged for intentional grounding while throwing a pass to avoid a sack, bringing up third-and-23. Then after an incompletion, safety Vonn Bell sacked Newton, forcing a turnover on downs with four seconds left. Newton finished the game 24-of-40 for 349 yards and two touchdowns, along with 37 yards on the ground. His top target was Olsen (eight receptions for 107 yards and a touchdown), who was one of four players in this game to have over 100 receiving yards. The others were McCaffrey (six for 101 yards and a touchdown), Thomas (eight receptions for 131 yards) and Ginn (four receptions for 115 yards and a touchdown). Brees was 23-of-33 for 376 yards with two touchdowns and one interception. Bell had nine tackles – seven solo – and a sack. Philadelphia's defense recorded three sacks, held Atlanta to 281 yards – 83 below their season average – and stopped the Falcons on four consecutive plays after a first-and-goal on their own 9-yard line in the final minutes to preserve a 15–10 win. The Eagles seemed primed to score on their opening drive when a 42-yard pass interference penalty on Falcons defensive back Brian Poole gave them the ball on the Falcons' 33-yard line. But on the next play, Ricardo Allen forced a fumble from Jay Ajayi that was recovered by safety Keanu Neal. Atlanta then drove 59 yards in 12 plays to score on Matt Bryant's 33-yard field goal, giving them a 3–0 lead. After the teams exchanged punts, Ajayi rushed four times for 26 yards and receiver Nelson Agholor ran for 21 yards on an end-around play as the team drove to a fourth-and-goal on the Atlanta 1-yard line. On the next play, LeGarrette Blount finished the 86-yard drive with a rush for the touchdown, putting the team up 6–3 with 10:28 left in the half after Jake Elliott hit the upright on his extra point attempt. Atlanta had to punt on their next drive, but the ball bounced into Eagles blocker Bryan Braman and was recovered by Falcons linebacker LaRoy Reynolds on the Philadelphia 18-yard line, where they went on to go up 10–6 with Matt Ryan's six-yard touchdown pass to running back Devonta Freeman. Following a punt from each team, Philadelphia got the ball on their own 28-yard line with 46 seconds left in the half. Quarterback Nick Foles then completed passes to Corey Clement, Torrey Smith and Alshon Jeffery for gains of 7, 20 and 15 yards, setting up Elliott's 53-yard field goal, which cut the score to 10–9 at halftime. With just under six minutes left in the third quarter, the Eagles got the ball on their own 7-yard line due to a 39-yard punt by Matt Bosher. From there, Foles completed 5 of 7 passes for 70 yards – Jeffery caught three of them for 46 – on a 74-yard, 12-play drive to take the lead at 12–10 with Elliott's 37-yard field goal. Elliott's ensuing kickoff went out of bounds, giving Atlanta good field position on their own 40-yard line. On the next play, the last of the third quarter, Ryan was sacked for a 10-yard loss by safety Rodney McLeod. The Falcons ended up going three-and-out, and their defense was soon back on the field trying to contain another long Eagles drive. This one went for 14 plays and 80 yards, 32 of them on a reception by Ajayi, taking 7:57 off the clock. Desmond Trufant managed to end the drive on the Falcons' 3-yard line by tackling Clement a yard short of a first down on third-and-3. However, Elliott kicked his third field goal on the next play, giving Philadelphia a 15–10 lead with 6:02 remaining. Atlanta took the ball back and drove to a first down on the Eagles' 9-yard line, featuring a 20-yard reception by Julio Jones on fourth-and-6. After throwing incomplete passes on the next two plays, Ryan threw a seven-yard pass to Jones on the 2-yard line. Then with 1:05 left, Ryan tried to connect with Jones in the end zone, but the pass went just through his hands, enabling the Eagles to get the ball and run out the clock. Filling in for injured starter Carson Wentz, Foles completed 23 of 30 passes for 246 yards. Ajayi rushed for 54 yards and caught three passes for 44 yards. Ryan completed 22 of 36 passes for 210 yards and a touchdown. Jones caught nine passes for 101 yards, and rushed for 21 yards, while Tevin Coleman was the top rusher of the game with 10 carries for 79 yards, while also catching a pass for 14 yards. With the win, the Eagles won their first playoff game and advanced to their first NFC Championship appearance since 2008, and their first at home since 2004. New England racked up eight sacks, 438 yards, and 31 first downs as they advanced to their seventh consecutive AFC Championship game. Midway through the first quarter, Tennessee drove 95 yards in 11 plays, featuring a 36-yard completion from Marcus Mariota to tight end Delanie Walker. Mariota finished the drive with a 15-yard touchdown pass to Corey Davis, who made a running one-handed catch in the back corner of the end zone to put the Titans up 7–0. However, the Patriots stormed right back, with Tom Brady completing five consecutive passes for 67 yards, the longest a 32-yard completion to Dion Lewis and the last a five-yard shovel pass to James White for a touchdown that tied the score. After a Tennessee punt, Brady completed three consecutive passes for 28 yards as the team drove 48 yards in six plays to go up 14–7 on White's six-yard touchdown run with 9:20 left in the half. The next time New England got the ball, they had to punt after three plays, but a neutral zone infraction penalty on Titans defensive back Brynden Trawick gave them a first down. Taking advantage of their second chance, they ended up driving 91 yards in 16 plays to take a 21–7 lead on Brady's six-yard touchdown pass to Chris Hogan. Tennessee then drove to the Patriots' 46-yard line; on fourth-and-1, Derrick Henry tried to run for a first down, but defensive backs Malcolm Butler and Stephon Gilmore tackled him for no gain. With 17 seconds left, the Patriots were able to get to the Titans' 35-yard line with time remaining, but Stephen Gostkowski missed a 53-yard field goal attempt as time expired. In the first half alone, Brady completed 21 of 31 passes for 206 yards and two touchdowns. In the third quarter, Brett Kern's 40-yard punt from his own 16-yard line gave the Patriots good field position on their 44-yard line. On the next play, Brady completed a 27-yard pass to tight end Rob Gronkowski, and the team went on to increase their lead to 28–7 with Brandon Bolden's two-yard touchdown run. The next time New England got the ball, they went on a 15-play, 90-yard drive in which they only faced two third downs. Brady completed seven passes for 78 yards on the drive, the longest a 25-yard throw to Danny Amendola, and finished it off with a four-yard touchdown toss to Gronkowski, making the score 35–7 with 10:22 left. Before the end of the quarter, the Titans were able to make it 35–14 with Mariota's 11-yard touchdown pass to Davis on fourth down at the end of an 80-yard, 16-play drive. At , Brady became the oldest quarterback to lead his team to victory in a postseason game, finishing the day 35-of-53 for 337 yards and three touchdowns. Amendola caught 11 passes for 112 yards, while also returning three punts for 18 yards. Lewis rushed for 62 yards, caught nine passes for 79 yards, and returned a kickoff for 27 yards. Linebacker Geneo Grissom and defensive tackle Deatrich Wise Jr. each had two sacks for New England. Mariota completed 22 of 37 passes for 225 yards and two touchdowns. This game set the NFL postseason record for largest the age difference between opposing quarterbacks: Brady was 40 and Mariota was 24. Jacksonville built up a 28–7 first-half lead and held off a second-half Steelers comeback to win the fourth highest scoring NFL playoff game. It was a week 5 game rematch between the 2 teams, which the Jags won 30-9 thanks to a defense that intercepted Steelers quarterback Ben Roethlisberger 5 times. The Jaguars drove 66 yards in eight plays on their opening drive, with Blake Bortles completing passes to tight ends Ben Koyack and James O'Shaughnessy for gains of 21 and 19 yards on the way to a one-yard fourth-down touchdown run by Leonard Fournette. Later in the first quarter, linebacker Myles Jack intercepted a pass from Steelers quarterback Ben Roethlisberger on the Pittsburgh 18-yard line, and Fournette increased Jacksonville's lead to 14–0 with a touchdown run on the next play. The Steelers responded with a drive to the Jacksonville 21-yard line, but on fourth-and-1, running back Le'Veon Bell was tackled by Jalen Ramsey and Malik Jackson for a four-yard loss. The Jaguars then drove 75 yards in 11 plays and scored on T. J. Yeldon's 4-yard touchdown run, increasing their lead to 21–0 with just over 11 minutes left in the half. This time, the Steelers responded with a 64-yard scoring drive, featuring a 21-yard run by Bell and ending on Roethlisberger's 23-yard touchdown pass to Antonio Brown. But the next time Pittsburgh got the ball, Roethlisberger lost a fumble while being sacked by Yannick Ngakoue. Linebacker Telvin Smith recovered the ball and returned it 50 yards for a touchdown, making the score 28–7 with less than two minutes left until halftime. However, the Jaguars were penalized 15 yards for excessive celebration, and then Cameron Sutton returned the ensuing kickoff 22 yards to the Jacksonville 49-yard line. Pittsburgh went on to drive 51 yards and cut their deficit to 28–14 on Roethlisberger's 36-yard touchdown completion to Martavis Bryant with 25 seconds remaining. The Steelers drove 77 yards in 10 plays on their opening drive of the second half, cutting their deficit to 28–21 with Roethlisberger's 19-yard touchdown pass to Bell. Early in the final period, the Steelers got the ball on the Jaguars' 48-yard line due to a deflected punt, but ended up turning the ball over with an incomplete pass on fourth-and-1. On the ensuing Jacksonville drive, Bortles' 45-yard completion to Keelan Cole put them on the Steelers' 3-yard line, and Fournette ran the ball in for a touchdown on the next play, giving the Jaguars a 35–21 lead. This was the start of a scoring run from both teams, cumulatively totaling 38 points in the fourth quarter. After Fournette's score, Roethlisberger started the next drive with a 21-yard completion to Brown, and eventually ended it with a 43-yard touchdown pass to Brown that cut the score to 35–28. Jacksonville stormed right back, moving the ball 75 yards in eight plays, one of them a 40-yard completion from Bortles to Yeldon on third-and-5. Fullback Tommy Bohanon caught a 14-yard touchdown pass from Bortles with 4:19 left, giving the Jaguars a 42–28 lead. The Steelers responded by moving the ball 75 yards in 12 plays, the longest a 22-yard reception from Bell. Bell finished the drive with an eight-yard touchdown run, reducing his team's deficit to 42–35 with 2:19 to play. However, Pittsburgh failed to recover their ensuing onside kick attempt, resulting in Jacksonville getting the ball back on the Steelers' 36-yard line and leading to a 45-yard Josh Lambo field goal that put the Jaguars up 45–35. Pittsburgh then drove 75 yards in 10 plays, including a 42-yard completion from Roethlisberger to Brown. He ended up throwing a four-yard touchdown pass to JuJu Smith-Schuster, but by then, one second remained. Bortles completed 14 of 26 passes for 214 yards and a touchdown. Fournette was the top rusher of the game with 25 carries for 109 yards and three touchdowns, along with two receptions for 10 yards. Setting several franchise playoff records, Roethlisberger completed 37 of 58 passes for 469 yards – the second highest total in NFL postseason history, behind Bernie Kosar's 489-yard tally, from January 1987 – with five touchdowns and an interception. Bell rushed for 67 yards and a touchdown, while also catching nine passes for 88 yards, while Brown caught seven passes for 132 yards and two touchdowns. Tight end Vance McDonald also went over 100 yards receiving, making 10 receptions for 112 yards. The Steelers lost despite gaining 545 yards of total offense, the most yards gained by a losing team in a playoff game (this record would later be surpassed by the Patriots in Super Bowl LII). Ben Roethlisberger became the first NFL quarterback in a playoff game to throw for 5 touchdowns in a losing effort. He was the first NFL quarterback to do this in any game since Tony Romo in 2013 against the Denver Broncos. Following the game, the Steelers were criticized by their fans and the media for looking past the Jaguars to the Patriots in the AFC Championship Game, which, had the Steelers won, would've been the 2nd consecutive AFC Championship meeting between the 2 teams. This would also be the last game that running back Le'Veon Bell would play for the Steelers, as he would sit out the 2018 season due to a contract dispute, then sign with the New York Jets once he became a free agent at the start of 2019. Vikings quarterback Case Keenum's 61-yard pass to Stefon Diggs on the game's final play sent them to the NFC title game for the first time since the 2009 season and marked the first time in the NFL postseason that a game was won with a touchdown on the final play of regulation. The game has been referred to as the "Minneapolis Miracle". Minnesota dominated the first half, building up a 17–0 lead. The Saints had to punt on their opening drive, and Marcus Sherels returned the ball 19 yards to the Vikings' 45-yard line before being tackled by punter Thomas Morstead. The Vikings then drove 55 yards in eight plays, including a 22-yard catch by Jarius Wright on third-and-3, to score on Jerick McKinnon's 14-yard touchdown run. The next time they got the ball, two pass interference penalties on defensive back Ken Crawley gave the Vikings 54 yards on a 79-yard drive that ended with Kai Forbath's 20-yard field goal, increasing their lead to 10–0. Following two more possessions, Vikings safety Andrew Sendejo intercepted a pass from Drew Brees, giving Minnesota the ball on their own 42-yard line with 1:06 left in the first quarter. Keenum went 5-of-7 for 54 yards on a 58-yard drive that ended with Latavius Murray's one- yard touchdown run, giving the Vikings a 17–0 lead. New Orleans responded with a drive to the Vikings' 14-yard line, but lost their chance to score when Brees threw a pass that was tipped at the line by Everson Griffen and intercepted by linebacker Anthony Barr. Then after a punt, Brees led the team to the Minnesota 30-yard line. But after two incompletions, Brees was sacked by safety Harrison Smith for a 10-yard loss, and Wil Lutz missed a 58-yard field goal attempt with 26 seconds left in the half. The Vikings would also get a field goal try before halftime, which resulted in Forbath missing from 49 yards out. Minnesota took the opening kickoff and drove to the Saints' 30-yard line. However, in what turned out to be a crucial turning point, Keenum was sacked by Sheldon Rankins for a 10-yard loss on third down, pushing the team out of field goal range. New Orleans took the ball back and drove 80 yards in 12 plays, featuring a 23-yard reception by receiver Michael Thomas. Brees finished the drive with a 14-yard touchdown pass to Thomas, putting New Orleans on the board at 17–7. Then on the first play after the kickoff, Keenum threw a pass that was intercepted by rookie safety Marcus Williams, who returned it 12 yards to the Vikings' 30-yard line. New Orleans then drove for another touchdown, scoring on Brees' three-yard pass to Thomas that narrowed the gap to 17–14 with 13:09 left in the game. Minnesota responded with a seven-play, 44-yard drive that included a 27-yard completion from Keenum to Wright and ended on Forbath's 49-yard field goal that increased the Vikings' lead to 20–14. Furthermore, Saints coach Sean Payton lost two timeouts on the drive as a result of failed replay challenges. After forcing the Saints to punt, the Vikings ran the clock under six minutes before having to kick the ball back to New Orleans. Saints lineman George Johnson blocked the punt, enabling his team to take over on the Vikings' 40-yard line. From there, Brees completed four consecutive passes, the last one a 14-yard touchdown completion to running back Alvin Kamara, giving them their first lead of the game at 21–20 with 3:01 left. Undaunted, the Vikings stormed back, mainly on the strength of a 24-yard Adam Thielen reception, moving the ball to the Saints 35-yard line, where Forbath made a 53-yard field goal that gave the team a 23–21 lead with 1:29 remaining. Brees was able to answer, throwing an 18-yard pass to tight end Josh Hill, an 11-yard pass to Ted Ginn Jr. and a 13-yard completion to Willie Snead on fourth-and-10. Minnesota eventually halted the drive on their own 25-yard line, where Lutz kicked a 43-yard field goal. The Vikings were now down 24–23 with 25 seconds and one timeout left. After a touchback and a false start penalty put the ball on the 20-yard line, Keenum completed a 19-yard pass to Diggs on the 39-yard line, where the team promptly called their last timeout. Following two incomplete passes, they faced third- and-10 with 10 seconds left. On the next play, Keenum threw a deep pass near the right sideline to Diggs, who made a leaping catch near the Saints' 35-yard line. Williams was in front of Diggs when he made the catch, but while trying to make a tackle, he completely missed Diggs and instead collided with Crawley (his own teammate and the other defender in range), leaving the receiver with no one around him. Diggs nearly fell over at this point, but was able to stay on his feet by using his off-hand and stay in bounds as he ran all the way to the end zone for a 61-yard touchdown completion to give the Vikings a 29–24 win. After several minutes of pandemonium, the Vikings knelt on the extra point try to close out the victory. Keenum completed 25 of 40 passes for 318 yards, a touchdown and an interception. Diggs was the game's leading receiver with six receptions for 137 yards and a touchdown. Like Keenum, Brees also finished the game 25-of-40, but for 294 yards, three touchdowns and two interceptions. Kamara rushed for 43 yards, while also catching six passes for 72 yards and a touchdown. This was the first conference championship game to feature a team from Florida in 15 years (the Super Bowl XXXVII champion Tampa Bay Buccaneers won the 2002 NFC championship game). New England overcame a 10-point deficit in the fourth quarter to earn the franchise's 10th Super Bowl appearance. On the opening drive of the game, Patriots quarterback Tom Brady completed a 31-yard pass to Brandin Cooks and a 20-yard pass to wide receiver Danny Amendola on fourth- and-1 as the team drove 62 yards in 10 plays to score on Stephen Gostkowski's 31-yard field goal. Following a pair of punts, Jacksonville quarterback Blake Bortles completed two passes to running back Corey Grant for 44 total yards as the team drove 76 yards in seven plays to take a 7–3 lead on a four-yard touchdown pass to tight end Marcedes Lewis on the second play of the second quarter. The next time they got the ball, Bortles completed all four pass attempts for 47 yards, one of them a 27-yard completion to Allen Hurns, as the team drove 77 yards in 10 plays to score on Leonard Fournette's four-yard touchdown run, increasing their lead to 14–3. On the Jaguars' next drive, they moved the ball to a third-and-7 on the Patriots' 47-yard line. Bortles completed a 12-yard pass to Lewis that would have picked up a first down, but the team was flagged for a delay of game and Bortles was sacked by Adam Butler on the next play. New England got the ball on their own 15-yard line with 2:02 left in the half, and proceeded to drive 85 yards in six plays – 47 yards from Jaguars penalties – to score on James White's 1-yard touchdown run, cutting the score to 14–10. However, Jacksonville safety Barry Church delivered a helmet-to-helmet hit on Patriots tight end Rob Gronkowski. Church drew a 15-yard penalty, and Gronkowski was escorted off for medical testing that determined that he had suffered a concussion. Jacksonville got the ball back with 55 seconds and all three timeouts remaining, but chose to run out the clock and go to halftime, a choice that would later earn them criticism, as no team had deliberately run the first half clock out with more than 50 seconds left during the season. Jacksonville received the second half kickoff and drove 39 yards in nine plays, with 20 yards from a reception by fullback Tommy Bohanon. Josh Lambo finished the drive with a 54-yard field goal, increasing his team's lead to 17–10. Later in the period, the Jaguars advanced 66 yards in 11 plays, including 18 yards on a completion from Bortles to Marqise Lee on third-and-3. On the second play of the fourth quarter, Lambo scored with a 43-yard field goal, making the score 20–10. The game seemed to be slipping away from New England, particularly on their ensuing drive when linebacker Myles Jack forced and recovered a fumble from Dion Lewis on a trick play in which Amendola completed a forward pass to Lewis on the Jacksonville 33-yard line. However, the New England defense rose to the occasion and forced a three-and-out. Taking the ball back on the Patriots' 15-yard line, Brady started the drive with an 18-yard pass to Cooks, and then converted a third- and-18 with a 21-yard completion to Amendola on the 46-yard line. From there, Brady completed passes to Phillip Dorsett for 31 yards and Amendola for 14 yards before finishing the drive with a nine-yard touchdown pass to Amendola, making the score 20–17. Following a pair of punts, Ryan Allen's 35-yard kick pinned the Jaguars back at their own 10-yard line. The Jaguars lost one yard over their next three plays, and then Amendola returned Brad Nortman's 41-yard punt 20 yards to the Jacksonville 30-yard line with 4:58 left. From there, New England drove 30 yards in five plays, scoring on Brady's four-yard touchdown pass to Amendola to take a 24–20 lead with 2:48 left. After taking the ball back, Bortles' 29-yard completion to Dede Westbrook gave the Jaguars a first down on the Patriots' 38-yard line. But over the next two plays, Bortles threw an incompletion and then fumbled the ball while being sacked by linebacker Kyle Van Noy. Jacksonville tackle Cam Robinson recovered the fumble, but the team lost nine yards on the play, bringing up third-and-19. After a four-yard pass to James O'Shaughnessy, Bortles' next pass was swatted away by Stephon Gilmore, causing a turnover on downs with 1:47 left. New England got a key first down on third-and-10 with an 18-yard run by Lewis that let them run out the clock. Brady completed 26 of 38 passes for 290 yards and two touchdowns, Cooks was the top receiver of the game with six receptions for 100 yards, while Amendola caught seven passes for 84 yards and two touchdowns, and also returning two punts for 24 yards. Van Noy had nine tackles – including five solo tackles – a sack and a forced fumble. Bortles completed 23 of 36 passes for 293 yards and a touchdown, while Fournette was the leading rusher of the game with 76 yards and a touchdown and Hurns was the Jaguars' leading receiver with six receptions for 80 yards. This was the first time a Super Bowl host team had appeared in the conference championship. Although the Vikings scored with their opening drive, they were soon buried by Philadelphia, who racked up 456 total yards and 38 unanswered points. Meanwhile, the Vikings' seven drives after their game-opening touchdown would result in three punts, two interceptions, two turnovers on downs, and one lost fumble. Minnesota drove 75 yards in nine plays on their first possession, taking a 7–0 lead with Case Keenum's 25-yard touchdown pass to tight end Kyle Rudolph. The Eagles had to punt on their next drive, but after moving the ball to the 43-yard line, Keenum threw a pass that was intercepted by cornerback Patrick Robinson and returned 50 yards for a touchdown. Following a Vikings punt, Philadelphia drove 75 yards in 12 plays to take a 14–7 lead. Jay Ajayi started the drive with two carries for 20 yards, while Nick Foles converted a third-and-10 with an 11-yard completion to Zach Ertz and LeGarrette Blount finished the drive with an 11-yard rushing score on the third play of the second quarter. Later on, the Vikings drove to a third-and-5 on the Eagles' 16-yard line. But on the next play, Derek Barnett forced a fumble while sacking Keenum and defensive end Chris Long recovered the ball. Philadelphia then drove 76 yards in six plays, scoring on Foles' 53-yard touchdown pass to Alshon Jeffery to go up 21–7 with 3:16 left in the half. Following a punt, the Eagles got the ball on their 20-yard line with 29 seconds on the clock. Foles started the drive with an 11-yard pass to Ajayi, who managed to get out of bounds, before throwing a 36-yard completion on Ertz on the Vikings' 33-yard line. On the next play, Foles' 13-yard completion to Ajayi moved the ball to the 20 yard line with four seconds left, where Jake Elliott kicked a 38-yard field goal, making the score 24–7 at halftime. The Eagles increased their lead to 31–7 less than five minutes into the second half, scoring with Foles' 41-yard touchdown pass to Torrey Smith on a flea- flicker play. The Vikings responded with a drive to a first-and-goal on the Eagles' seven-yard line. After three incomplete passes, Keenum threw a pass to Adam Thielen that was initially ruled a touchdown, but overturned to an incomplete pass after replays showed the ball had hit the ground, causing a turnover on downs. The Eagles took over and drove 92 yards in 12 plays, including a 42-yard completion from Foles to Nelson Agholor on third-and-5. Foles finished the drive with a five-yard touchdown pass to Jeffery on the second play of the fourth quarter, making the score 38–7. The Vikings had only two drives on the final period, one of them ending with a turnover on downs and another with an interception by Eagles defensive back Corey Graham. Foles completed 26 of 33 passes for 352 yards and three touchdowns, Ertz was the leading receiver of the game with eight receptions for 93 yards, while Jeffery caught five passes for 85 yards and two touchdowns. Ajayi rushed for 73 yards and caught three passes for 26 yards. Keenum finished the game 28-of-48 for 271 yards and a touchdown, with two interceptions, while Jerick McKinnon was the Vikings' leading rusher with 40 yards, and their leading receiver with 11 receptions for 86 yards. This was the final game of referee Ed Hochuli’s 28-year career. All playoff games were broadcast nationally on network television. ABC and ESPN simulcast one AFC Wild Card game, while CBS broadcast all the other AFC playoff games. Coverage of the NFC Wild Card and Divisional rounds was split between Fox and NBC, with each network having coverage of one game in each of those two rounds. CBS had exclusive coverage of the AFC Championship Game. Fox had exclusive coverage of the NFC Championship Game. NBC had exclusive coverage of Super Bowl LII.

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Maigret is a British television series made by the BBC and which – following a pilot episode broadcast in 1959 – ran for 51 episodes from 1960 to 1963. Based on the Maigret stories of Georges Simenon, the series starred Rupert Davies in the title role. The series starred Rupert Davies as the Police Judiciaire detective Commissaire Jules Maigret, who took up the role in 1960 after Basil Sydney, who had played Maigret in the pilot episode, was unable to continue. The main cast were:- Ewen Solon as Lucas, Neville Jason as Lapointe, Victor Lucas as Torrence, Helen Shingler as Madame Maigret Episodes included such well-known faces as Stratford Johns, Leon Cortez, Terence Alexander, Roger Delgado, William Franklyn, Michael Goodliffe, and Barry Foster, among others. Although staying largely true to the storyline of the books, the series featured only three of Maigret's team of detectives (the “faithful four”, omitting any casting for Janvier. The choice of Davies to play Maigret was enthusiastically approved by Simenon himself. Remembering the role in a 1964 interview Davies said "When Andrew Osborn, the producer of the show, offered me the part on Good Friday in 1960, I knew very little about Maigret. I knew he was a famous French fictional detective, but that was all." Rather than read the books to get the feel for the character, Davies thought it would be better to meet Maigret's creator and hear from him how he saw the character. The BBC agreed and a meeting was arranged between Davies and Simenon in Lausanne. "The moment Simenon saw me he shouted: "C'est Maigret, c'est Maigret. You are the flesh and bones of Maigret!" Davies later remembered. "That was a wonderful beginning. Then he drove us to his lovely château in the village of Enchandens, where I met his wife. Later he began to coach me in Maigret's idiosyncrasies." Simenon himself said of Davies "At last, I have found the perfect Maigret!" The series was written by a set of ten writers, each contributing individual episodes; the most prolific being Giles Cooper, credited with nineteen episodes, and Roger East, with twelve. Directing was similarly shared by sixteen directors, with Gerard Glaister and Terence Williams responsible for eight each, Andrew Osborn seven, and Eric Taylor six. Each episode was shot in black-and-white and lasted 50 minutes, and (as it was made for the BBC) was intended to be screened without commercial breaks. It was shot mainly in studio, though many of the exteriors were filmed on location in Paris. Theme music and various incidental music was composed by Ron Grainer for which he won an Ivor Novello award. Apart from the pilot, all 52 episodes still reside within the BBC's archives. Maigret on the Internet Movie Database, Maigret on Whirligig, Maigret fansite, Maigret on Television Heaven Maigret et l'affaire Saint-Fiacre is a 1959 French crime film directed by Jean Delannoy that stars Jean Gabin as the fictional police detective Jules Maigret. Adapted from the novel l'Affaire Saint-Fiacre by the Belgian writer Georges Simenon, it tells how Maigret goes privately to the aid of his late father's employer who has received an anonymous death threat and, though unable to prevent the death, unmasks the plotters. Commissioner Maigret returns to Saint-Fiacre, the village he grew up in, where his father had been estate manager for the family owning the château. The widowed countess has asked him to come urgently because she has received an anonymous letter saying she will die next day, which is Ash Wednesday. He finds the château in a sorry state: its contents are being systematically sold by the countess' young assistant Sabatier and its lands by the current estate manager Gautier and his young son Émile, a bank clerk. They say they are doing this to fund the countess' son Maurice, an alcoholic playboy who rarely visits his now-sick mother. Early next morning the countess goes to mass at the village church where, on returning to her pew after receiving the sacrament, she falls dead. The local doctor Bouchardon is not surprised, telling Maigret that her heart was weak and that she died of natural causes. When that day's local paper arrives, the front page reports that the young count Maurice killed himself in Paris the day before. But Maurice is in fact alive and has rushed back on learning of his mother's death. Ringing the newspaper, Maigret is told that the report was phoned in last thing without time to check. Now convinced of a plot to rob and kill the countess, whose young favourite he had once been, Maigret starts his own investigation of what caused her sudden death and who wanted her dead. On returning to her pew she had opened her missal, which has disappeared. He finds it hidden in the sacristry and pasted in it is the newspaper report of her son's suicide. At the time of her death the day's newspapers had not reached the village shop, so somebody brought the cutting from the town where the paper was printed. Without revealing his hand, Maurice has also been investigating and, while his mother's body is still lying upstairs, organises a macabre dinner party for those he suspects. At it, Maigret accuses both the doctor and the assistant of negligence, but not homicide, and then reveals that the plotters were the manager and his son, who sought to cut out Maurice and enrich themselves. He calls the local police to take them away. Jean Gabin : Commissioner Maigret, Michel Auclair : Maurice de Saint-Fiacre, Valentine Tessier : Countess de Saint-Fiacre, Robert Hirsch : Lucien Sabatier, Paul Frankeur : Doctor Bouchardon, Michel Vitold : Father Jodet, the parish priest, Camille Guérini : Gautier, the estate manager, Serge Rousseau : Émile Gautier, the manager's son Maigret is a 1991 international television serial based on Georges Simenon's books. Detective Jules Maigret was played by Bruno Cremer. Only actor Jean Richard has portrayed Maigret more than Bruno Cremer. Bruno Cremer as Detective Jules Maigret Anne Bellec as Madame Maigret (seasons 1-5), as Detective Janvier (seasons 1-6), Philippe Pollet as Detective LaPointe (seasons 1-2) Philippe Duquesne as Louis Paumelle (season 1), Karin Viard as Thérèse (season 1), Myriam Boyer as Élyane Michonnet (season 2), Françoise Bertin as Catherine (season 4), François Perrot as Professor Gouin (season 4), Albert Delpy as The captain (season 5), Arielle Dombasle as Mylène Turner (season 7), Laure Duthilleul as Evelyne Tremblet (season 9), Jeanne Herry as Félicie (season 11), Pascale Arbillot as Gisèle Marton (season 13), Valérie Karsenti as Isabelle Fresco (season 14) In 2018, MHz Choice announced they had digitally remastered and re-subtitled the entire series. The show was available for HD streaming or purchase on SD DVD.

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Asian immigration to the United States refers to immigration to the United States from part of the continent of Asia, which includes East Asia, Southeast Asia, and South Asia. Asian-origin populations have historically been in the territory that would eventually become the United States since the 16th century. The first major wave of Asian immigration occurred in the late 19th century, primarily in Hawaii and the West Coast. Asian Americans experienced exclusion, and limitations to immigration, by the United States law between 1875 and 1965, and were largely prohibited from naturalization until the 1940s. Since the elimination of Asian exclusion laws and the reform of the immigration system in the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, there has been a large increase in the number of immigrants to the United States from Asia. The first Asian-origin people known to arrive in North America after the beginning of the European colonization were a group of Filipinos known as "Luzonians" or Luzon Indians. These Luzonians were part of the crew and landing party of the Spanish galleon Nuestra Señora de Buena Esperanza. The ship set sail from Manila and landed in Morro Bay in what is now the California Coast on 17 October 1587 as part of the Galleon Trade between the Spanish East Indies (the colonial name for what would become the Philippines) and New Spain (Spain's colonies in North America). More Filipino sailors arrived along the California Coast when both places were part of the Spanish Empire. By 1763, "Manila men" or "Tagalas" had established a settlement called St. Malo on the outskirts of New Orleans, Louisiana. Indians have been documented in Colonial America as early as 1775. With the establishment of the Old China Trade in the late 18th century, a handful of Chinese merchants were recorded as residing in the United States by 1815. By the 1830s, East Asian groups had begun immigrating to Hawaii, where American capitalists and missionaries had established plantations and settlements. Originating primarily from China, Japan, Korea, and the Philippines, these early migrants were predominantly contract workers who labored on plantations. With the annexation of Hawaii by the United States in 1893, a large population of Asians lived in US territory and more would continue to immigrate. As American capitalists established sugar cane plantations in Hawaii in the 19th century, they turned, through organizations such as the Royal Hawaiian Agricultural Society, to the Chinese as a source of cheap labor as early as the 1830s, with the first formal contract laborers arriving in 1852. Resistance from plantation laborers protesting low wages and tensions between various native and immigrant groups encouraged plantation owners to import more labor from different Asian countries to keep wages low. Between 1885 and 1924, "some 30,000 Japanese had gone to [Hawaii] as kan'yaku imin, or government-sponsored contract laborers." Between 1894 and 1924, roughly 170,000 Japanese immigrants went to Hawaii as private contract laborers, family members of existing immigrants, and merchants. Taking refuge from Japanese imperialism and growing poverty and famine in Korea, and encouraged by Christian missionaries, thousands of Koreans migrated to Hawaii in the early 1900s. Filipinos, who were American colonial subjects after 1898, migrated by the "tens of thousands" to Hawaii in the early 1900s. The first major wave of Asian immigration to the continental United States occurred primarily on the West Coast during the California Gold Rush, starting in the 1850s. Whereas, Chinese immigrants numbered less than 400 in 1848 and 25,000 by 1852. Most Chinese immigrants in California, which they called Gam Saan ("Gold Mountain"), were also from the Guangdong province; they sought sanctuary from conflicts such as the Opium Wars and ensuing economic instability, and hoped to earn wealth to send back to their families. As in Hawaii, many capitalists in California and elsewhere (including as far as North Adams, Massachusetts) sought Asian immigrants to fill an increasing demand for labor in gold mines, factories, and on the Transcontinental Railroad. Some plantation owners in the South sought Chinese labor as a cheap means to replace the free labor of slavery. Chinese laborers generally arrived in California with the help of brokers in Hong Kong and other ports under the credit-ticket system, where they would pay back money loaned from brokers with their wages upon arrival. In addition to laborers, merchants also migrated from China, opening businesses and stores, including those that would form the beginnings of China towns. Japanese, Korean, and South Asian immigrants also arrived in the continental United States starting from the late 1800s and onwards to fill demands for labor. Japanese immigrants were primarily farmers facing economic upheaval during the Meiji Restoration; they began to migrate in large numbers to the continental United States (having already been migrating to Hawaii since 1885) in the 1890s, after the Chinese exclusion (see below). By 1924, 180,000 Japanese immigrants had gone to the mainland. Filipino migration to North America continued in this period with reports of "Manila men" in early gold camps in Mariposa County, California in the late 1840s. The 1880 census counted 105,465 Chinese and 145 Japanese, indicating that Asian immigration to the continent by this point consisted primarily of Chinese immigrants, overwhelmingly present in California. In the 1860s and 1870s, nativist hostility to the presence of Asian laborers in the continental United States grew and intensified, with the formation of organizations such as the Asiatic Exclusion League. East Asian immigrants, particularly Chinese Americans who composed the majority of the population on the mainland, were seen as the "yellow peril" and suffered violence and discrimination. Lynchings of Chinese were common and a large-scale of attacks also occurred. The most prominent act of violence at the time was the Rock Springs massacre, in which a mob of white miners killed nearly 30 Chinese immigrants because they were accused of taking the white miners' jobs. In 1875, Congress passed the Page Act, the first restrictive immigration law. This law recognized forced laborers from Asia as well as Asian women who would potentially engage in prostitution as "undesirable" people, who would henceforth be barred from entering the United States. In practice, the law was enforced to institute a near-complete exclusion of Chinese women from the United States, preventing male laborers from bringing their families with or after them. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 prohibited virtually all immigration from China, the first immigration law to do so on the basis of race or national origin. Minor exceptions were made for select merchants, diplomats, and students. The law also prevented Chinese immigrants from naturalizing as U.S. citizens. The Geary Act of 1892 further "required Chinese to register and secure a certificate as proof of their right to be in the United States" if they sought to leave and reenter the United States, with imprisonment or deportation as potential penalties. Although racial discrimination intensified in the exclusion era, Chinese immigrants fought to defend their existing rights and continued to pursue voting rights and citizenship. The children of these immigrants began to develop "a sense of themselves as having a distinct identity as Chinese Americans." Initially, Japanese and South Asian laborers filled the demand that could not be met by new Chinese immigrants. The 1900 census counted 24,326 Japanese residents, a sharp increase, and 89,863 Chinese residents. The first South Asian immigrants landed in the United States in 1907, and were predominantly Punjabi Sikh farmers. As immigration restrictions specific to South Asians would begin two years later and against Asians generally eight years after that, "[a]ltogether only sixty-four hundred came to America" during this period. Like the Chinese and Japanese immigrants of the time, these South Asians were predominantly men. South Asian migrants also arrived on the East Coast, although to a lesser extent in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, predominantly Bengali Muslims who worked as craftsmen and merchants, selling 'exotic' goods such as embroidered silks and rugs. The 1910 census, the first to count South Asians, recorded that there were 2,545 "Hindus" in the United States. Anti-Asian hostility against these both older and newer Asian immigrant groups continued, becoming explosive in events such as the Pacific Coast race riots of 1907 in San Francisco, California; Bellingham, Washington; and Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The San Francisco riot was led by anti-Japanese activist, rebelling with violence in order to receive segregated schools for Caucasian and Japanese students. In the Bellingham riots, a mob of 400-500 white men attacked the homes of hundreds of South Asian immigrants, beating them and driving them out of town, with over 400 South Asians held in "protective custody" by local authorities. Along with geopolitical factors, these events encourage the United States to pursue the 1907 Gentleman's Agreement with Japan, wherein the Japanese government agreed to prohibit emigration to the United States and the latter's government agreed to impose less restrictions on Japanese immigrants. In practice, this meant that Japanese immigrants were barred unless they had previously acquired property or were immediate relatives of existing immigrants. While overall Japanese immigration was sharply curtailed, the family reunification provision allowed for the gender gap among Japanese Americans to be reduced significantly (including through "picture brides"). As Koreans were Japanese colonial subjects at the time and could be issued Japanese passports, many Korean women also immigrated as family members and "picture brides". After the Spanish–American War ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1898, the United States replaced Spain as the colonial ruler of the Philippines. As Filipinos become colonial subjects of the United States, they also became US nationals. As American colonial subjects, Filipinos were considered US nationals and thus were not initially subject to exclusion laws. Many Filipinos came as agricultural laborers to fill demands once answered by Chinese and Japanese immigration, with migration patterns to Hawaii extending to the mainland starting from the 1920s. The US government also initially sponsored select Filipino students, known as pensionados, to attend US colleges and universities. However, in 1934, the Tydings–McDuffie Act, which promised independence to the Philippines by 1945, also sharply curtailed Filipino immigration with a quota of 50 immigrants per year. The prohibitions of Chinese and Japanese immigration were consolidated and the exclusion was expanded to Asia as a whole in the Asiatic Barred Zone Act of 1917, which prohibited all immigration from a zone that encompassed parts of the Middle East, Central Asia, South Asia (then-British India), and Southeast Asia. The Immigration Act of 1924 introduced national origin quotas for the entire Eastern Hemisphere, and barred the immigration of "aliens ineligible for citizenship." This introduced a period of near complete exclusion of Asian immigration to the United States. The act also formed the United States Border Patrol to take over duties of the United States Immigration Service (Chinese Division). There were some key exceptions to this broad exclusion: in addition to continuing Filipino immigration due to their status as US nationals until 1934, Asian immigrants continued to immigrate to Hawaii, which was a US territory and therefore not subject to the same immigration laws until it achieved statehood in 1959. Many Chinese had also immigrated to Puerto Rico after 1882, which would become a US territory in 1898 and remains one today. After exclusion, existing Chinese immigrants were further excluded from agricultural labor by racial hostility, and as jobs in railroad construction declined, they increasingly moved into self-employment as laundry workers, store and restaurant owners, traders, merchants, and wage laborers; and they congregated in Chinatowns established in California and across the country. Of the various Asian immigrant groups present in the United States after broad exclusion was introduced in 1917 and 1924, the South Asian population had the most severe gender gap. This led to many of the Punjabi Sikhs in California at the time to marry women of Mexican descent, avoiding anti-miscegenation laws and racial prejudice that prevented them from marrying into white communities. Two important Supreme Court cases in the exclusion era determined the citizenship status of Asian Americans. In 1922, the Court ruled in Takao Ozawa v. United States that ethnic Japanese were not Caucasian, and therefore did not meet the "free white persons" requirement to naturalize according to the Naturalization Act of 1790. A few months later in 1923, the Court ruled in United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind that while Indians were considered Caucasian by contemporary racial anthropology, they were not seen as "white" in the common understanding, and were therefore ineligible for naturalization. Whereas United States vs. Wong Kim Ark had determined that all persons born in the United States, including Asian Americans, were citizens, these cases confirmed that foreign-born Asian immigrants were legally excluded from naturalized citizenship on the basis of race. During this period, Asian immigrants continued to face racial discrimination. In addition to first- generation immigrants whose permanent ineligibility for citizenship curtailed their civil and political rights, second-generation Asian Americans (who formally had birthright citizenship) continued to face segregation in schools, employment discrimination, and prohibitions on property and business ownership. The most severe discrimination against Asian Americans occurred during the height of the World War II, when 110,000 to 120,000 Japanese Americans (primarily on the West Coast) were incarcerated in internment camps between 1942–1946. While roughly a third of those interned were issei (first- generation immigrants) who were ineligible for citizenship, the vast majority were nisei or sansei (second- and third-generation) who were citizens by birth. After the Second World War, immigration policy in the United States began to undergo significant changes. In 1943, the Magnuson Act ended 62 years of Chinese exclusion, providing for a quota of 105 persons to immigrate each year, and permitting the Chinese present in the United States to become naturalized citizens. Despite these provisions, the Act consolidated the prohibition of property or business ownership by Chinese Americans. In 1946, the Luce–Celler Act allowed Filipino and Indian nationals to naturalize and provided for a quota of 100 persons to immigrate from each country. Many Asian Americans (including future congressman Dalip Singh Saund) had been campaigning for such a law for decades. Under the act, upon attaining citizenship, immigrants would be able to own property (a right not afforded to Chinese immigrants in the Magnuson Act) and petition for family from their nation of origin. This wave of reform eventually led to the McCarran–Walter Act of 1952, which repealed the remnants of the "free white persons" restriction of the Naturalization Act of 1790, permitting Asian and other non- white immigrants to become naturalized citizens. However, this Act retained the quota system that effectively banned nearly all immigration from Asia, except for small annual quotas. Its primary exception to the quota system was family reunification provisions for US citizens, which allowed both relatives of longstanding Asian American families and those who had married American soldiers during World War II and the Korean War (also known as "war brides") to immigrate. The McCarran–Walter Act also introduced some labor qualifications for the first time, and allowed the government to bar the entry of or deport immigrants suspected of engaging in "subversive activities", such as membership in a Communist Party. After the enactment of the 1965 Immigration Act, Asian American demographics changed rapidly. This act replaced exclusionary immigration rules of the 1924 Immigration Act and its predecessors, which effectively excluded "undesirable" immigrants, including most Asians. The 1965 rules set across-the-board immigration quotas for each country. Senator Hiram Fong (R-HI) answered questions concerning the possible change in our cultural pattern by an influx of Asians: "Asians represent six-tenths of 1 percent of the population of the United States ... with respect to Japan, we estimate that there will be a total for the first 5 years of some 5,391 ... the people from that part of the world will never reach 1 percent of the population .. .Our cultural pattern will never be changed as far as America is concerned." (U.S. Senate, Subcommittee on Immigration and Naturalization of the Committee on the Judiciary, Washington, D.C., 10 Feb. 1965, pp.71, 119.) Immigration of Asian Americans was also affected by U.S. war involvement from the 1940s to the 1970s. In the wake of World War II, immigration preferences favored family reunification. This may have helped attract highly skilled workers to meet American workforce deficiencies. Another instance related to World War II was the Luce–Celler Act of 1946, which helped immigrants from India and the Philippines. The end of the Korean War and Vietnam War and the "Secret Wars" in Southeast Asia brought a new wave of Asian American immigration, as people from Korea, Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia arrived. Some of the new immigrants were war brides, who were soon joined by their families. Others, like the Southeast Asians, were either highly skilled and educated, or part of subsequent waves of refugees seeking asylum. Some factors contributing to the growth of sub-groups such as South Asians and mainland Chinese were higher family sizes, higher use of family-reunification visas, and higher numbers of technically skilled workers entering on H-1 and H-1B visas. Ethnic Chinese immigration to the United States since 1965 has been aided by the fact that the United States maintains separate quotas for Mainland China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong. During the late 1960s and early and mid-1970s, Chinese immigration into the United States came almost exclusively from Taiwan creating the Taiwanese American subgroup. A smaller number of immigrants from Hong Kong arrived as college and graduate students. Immigration from Mainland China was almost non-existent until 1977, when the PRC removed restrictions on emigration leading to immigration of college students and professionals. These recent groups of Chinese tended to cluster in suburban areas and to avoid urban Chinatowns. One notable suburban Chinatown was Monterey Park. While it was a predominantly White middle-class community in the 1970s, the demographics quickly changed with the incoming Chinese population. The emergence of Chinese-Americans in Monterey Park could be credited to the efforts of the Chinese realtor Frederic Hsieh. He began investing in abandoned properties in Monterey Park in order to gain the interest of wealthy Chinese in Taiwan. He broadcast his plans back in Taiwan and Hong Kong. He aggressively marketed his project as the new mecca of Chinese Americans: in his own words, "Chinese Beverly Hills". Due to political unrest in Asia, there was a lot of interest in overseas investment for Monterey Park from wealthy Chinese in Taiwan. The contrasts between Japanese Americans and South Asian Americans are emblematic of the dramatic changes since the immigration reforms. Japanese Americans are among the most widely recognized of Asian American sub-groups during the 20th century. At its peak in 1970, there were nearly 600,000 Japanese Americans, making it the largest sub-group, but historically the greatest period of immigration was generations past. Today, given relatively low rates of births and immigration, Japanese Americans are only the sixth-largest Asian American group. In 2000, there were between 800,000 and 1.2 million Japanese Americans (depending on whether multi-ethnic responses are included). The Japanese Americans have the highest rates of native-born, citizenship, and assimilation into American values and customs. Before 1990, there were slightly fewer South Asians in the U.S. than Japanese Americans. By 2000, Indian Americans nearly doubled in population to become the third largest group of Asian Americans, with increasing visibility in high-tech communities such as the Silicon Valley and the Seattle area. Indian Americans have some of the highest rates of academic achievement among American ethnic groups. Most immigrants speak English and are highly educated. South Asians are increasingly accepted by most Asian organizations as another significant Asian group. Currently, Chinese, Indians, and Filipinos are the three largest Asian ethnic groups immigrating to the United States. Asians in the United States are a highly diverse group that is growing fast. Asian immigrants comprise 6% of the United States population and are estimated to rise to 10% by 2050. 1875 Page Act, the first restrictive immigration law, enabled the prohibition of the entry of forced laborers from Asia and Asian women who would potentially engage in prostitution, who were defined as "undesirable". Enforcement of the law resulted in near-complete exclusion of Chinese women from the United States., 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act: Cessation of immigration from China., 1898 United States v. Wong Kim Ark: A US-born son of Chinese immigrants was ruled to be a US citizen under the birthright citizenship clause of the 14th Amendment; the Chinese Exclusion Act was held not to apply to someone born in the US., 1915 Guinn & Beal v. United States: Ruling found that Filipinos can naturalize., 1917 Asiatic Barred Zone Act prohibits immigration to the U.S. from most of the Asian continent, including the region of British India, Southeast Asia, and parts of the Middle East., 1922 Takao Ozawa v. United States: Japanese, despite being light-skinned, were deemed non-white as they were not considered Caucasian by contemporary racial science, and were thereby not accorded the rights and privileges of naturalization., 1923 United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind: Indians, despite being anthropologically Caucasian, were ruled to be non-white as they were not seen as white in the "common understanding", thus excluding non-U.S. born South Asians from citizenship under the racial prerequisites for naturalization at the time. Indians were further ruled to instead be Asian, thereby subjecting them to pre-existing anti-Asian laws., 1924 Immigration Act of 1924 introduces quotas for immigration based on national origin, creating a quota of zero for Asian countries, as well as forming the United States Border Patrol., 1935 Nye–Lae Bill grants citizenship to veterans of World War I, including those from "Barred Zones"., 1943 Magnuson Act: Resumption of naturalization rights to Chinese Americans and limited immigration permitted from China., 1945 War Brides Act temporarily lifts the ban on Asian immigration for spouses and adopted children of service members., 1946 The Fiancé's Act allows entrance of foreign-born fiancées of service members to enter as a nonimmigrant temporary visitor visa for three months, and were required to provide proof of valid marriage within that time frame., 1946 Luce–Celler Act: Resumption of naturalization rights to Indian Americans and Filipino Americans. Token immigration allowed, quota set at 100 per year from India and 100 per year from the Philippines., 1946 Filipino Naturalization Act allows naturalization of Filipino Americans, and grants citizenship to those who arrived prior to March 1943., 1952 Walter–McCarran Act nullifies all federal anti-Asian exclusion laws; allowed for naturalization of all Asians. Immigration quotas still remain in place., 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act Amendments of 1965 eliminates racial/nationality-based discrimination in immigration quotas., 1989 American Homecoming Act: Allowed Amerasian children from Vietnam to immigrate to the United States. History of immigration to the United States, Immigration history and patterns of Asian ethnic groups in the United States, Bangladeshi Americans, Burmese Americans, Cambodian Americans, Chinese Americans, Filipino American immigration history, Hmong Americans, Indian American immigration history, Japanese American immigration history, Karen Americans, Korean Americans, Pakistani Americans, Vietnamese Americans, United States Immigration Station, Angel Island A History of Chinese Immigration Into Arizona Territory: by R. Tintle. A case history regarding the positive reception of Chinese immigrants during the nineteenth century, Timeline of Asian Pacific Americans and Immigration Law, Closed Borders and Mass Deportations: The Lessons of the Barred Zone Act The history of immigration to the United States details the movement of people to the United States starting with the first European settlements from around 1600. Beginning around this time, British and other Europeans settled primarily on the east coast. In 1619, Africans began being imported as slaves. The United States experienced successive waves of immigration, particularly from Europe. Immigrants sometimes paid the cost of transoceanic transportation by becoming indentured servants after their arrival in the New World. Later, immigration rules became more restrictive; the ending of numerical restrictions occurred in 1965. Recently, cheap air travel has increased immigration from Asia and Latin America. Attitudes towards new immigrants have cycled between favorable and hostile since the 1790s. In 1607 the first successful English colony settled in Jamestown, Virginia. Once tobacco was found to be a profitable cash crop, many plantations were established along the Chesapeake Bay in Virginia and Maryland. Thus began the first and longest era of immigration, lasting until the American Revolution in 1775; during this time settlements grew from initial English toe-holds from the New World to British America. It brought Northern European immigrants, primarily of British, German, and Dutch extraction. The British ruled from the mid-17th century and they were by far the largest group of arrivals, remaining within the British Empire. Over 90% of these early immigrants became farmers. Large numbers of young men and women came alone as indentured servants. Their passage was paid by employers in the colonies who needed help on the farms or in shops. Indentured servants were provided food, housing, clothing and training but they did not receive wages. At the end of the indenture (usually around age 21, or after a service of seven years) they were free to marry and start their own farms. Seeking religious freedom in the New World, one hundred English Pilgrims established a small settlement near Plymouth, Massachusetts in 1620. Tens of thousands of English Puritans arrived, mostly from the East Anglian parts of England (Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex), as well as Kent and East Sussex., and settled in Boston, Massachusetts and adjacent areas from around 1629 to 1640 to create a land dedicated to their religion. The earliest New English colonies, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire, were established along the northeast coast. Large scale immigration to this region ended before 1700, though a small but steady trickle of later arrivals continued. The New English colonists were the most urban and educated of all their contemporaries, and they had many skilled farmers, tradesmen and craftsmen among them. They started the first university, Harvard, in 1635 in order to train their ministers. They mostly settled in small villages for mutual support (nearly all of them had their own militias) and common religious activities. Shipbuilding, commerce, agriculture, and fishing were their main sources of income. New England's healthy climate (the cold winters killed the mosquitoes and other disease-bearing insects), small widespread villages (minimizing the spread of disease), and an abundant food supply resulted in the lowest death rate and the highest birth rate of any of the colonies. The Eastern and Northern frontier around the initial New England settlements was mainly settled by the descendants of the original New Englanders. Immigration to the New England colonies after 1640 and the start of the English Civil War decreased to less than 1% (about equal to the death rate) in nearly all of the years prior to 1845. The rapid growth of the New England colonies (approximately 900,000 by 1790) was almost entirely due to the high birth rate (>3%) and the low death rate (<1%) per year. The Dutch, primarily driven by the United East Indian Company, first established settlements along the Hudson River in New York starting about 1626. Wealthy Dutch patroons set up large landed estates along the Hudson River and brought in farmers who became renters. Others established rich trading posts to trade with Native Americans and started cities such as New Amsterdam (now New York City) and Albany, New York. After the British took over and renamed the colony New York, Germans (from the Palatinate), and Yankees (from New England) began arriving. Maryland, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware formed the middle colonies. Pennsylvania was settled by Quakers from Britain, followed by Ulster Scots (Northern Ireland) on the frontier and numerous German Protestant sects, including the German Palatines. The earlier colony of New Sweden had small settlements on the lower Delaware River, with immigrants of Swedes and Finns. These colonies were absorbed by 1676. The middle colonies' were scattered West of New York City (established 1626; taken over by the English in 1664) and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (established 1682). The initial Dutch colony of New York had the most eclectic collection of residents from many different nations and prospered as a major trading and commercial center after about 1700. From around 1680 to 1725, the Pennsylvania colonial center was dominated by the Quakers for decades after they emigrated, mainly from the North Midlands of England. During this time, the main commercial center of Philadelphia was run mostly by prosperous Quakers, supplemented by many small farming and trading communities, with a strong German contingent located in several small towns in the Delaware River valley. Starting around 1680, when Pennsylvania was founded, many more settlers arrived to the middle colonies. Many Protestant sects were encouraged to settle there for freedom of religion and good, cheap land. Their origins were about 60% British and 33% German. By 1780, New York's population were around 27% descendants of Dutch settlers, about 6% were African, and the remainder were mostly English with a wide mixture of other Europeans. New Jersey, and Delaware had a British majority, with 7–11% German- descendants, about 6% African population, and a small contingent of the Swedish descendants of New Sweden. The colonial frontier was mainly settled from about 1717 to 1775. These were mostly Presbyterian settlers from North England border lands, Scotland, and Ulster, fleeing hard times and religious persecution. The fourth major center of settlement was the Western frontier, located in the Western parts of Pennsylvania and in the South, which was settled during the early to late 18th century by mostly Scots-Irish, with others mostly from North England border lands. Some French Huguenots and Germans were also present. Between 250,000 and 400,000 Scots-Irish migrated to America in the 18th century. The Scots- Irish soon became the dominant culture of the Appalachians from Pennsylvania to Georgia. Areas where people reported 'American' ancestry were the places where, historically, northern English, Scottish and Scots-Irish Protestants settled: in the interior of the South, and the Appalachian region. Scots-Irish American immigrants, were made up of people from the southernmost counties of Scotland who had initially settled in Ireland. They were heavily Presbyterian, and largely self-sufficient. The Scots-Irish arrived in large numbers during the early 18th century and they often preferred to settle in the back country and the frontier from Pennsylvania to Georgia, where they mingled with second generation and later English settlers. They enjoyed the very cheap land and independence from established governments common to frontier settlements. Often, the main port of entry for these immigrants was Philadelphia, after which they (or, in many cases, their descendants) migrated west and south. The mostly agricultural Southern English colonies initially had very high death rates for new settlers due to malaria, yellow fever, and other diseases as well as skirmishes with Native Americans. Despite this, a steady flow of new immigrants, mostly from Central England and the London area, kept up population growth. As early as 1630, initial areas of settlement had been largely cleared of Native Americans by major outbreaks of measles, smallpox, and bubonic plague beginning already decades before European settlers began arriving in large numbers. The leading killer was smallpox, which arrived in the New World around 1510–1530. Initially, the plantations established in these colonies were mostly owned by friends (mostly minor aristocrats) of the British-appointed governors. A group of Gaelic-speaking Scottish Highlanders created a settlement at Cape Fear in North Carolina, which remained culturally distinct until the mid-18th century, at which point it was swallowed up by the dominant English-origin culture. Many settlers from Europe arrived as indentured servants who had to work off their passage with five to seven years of work for room and board, clothing, and training, but no cash wages. After their terms of indentures expired, many of these former servants settled small farms on the frontier. By the early 18th century, involuntary migration of African slaves was a significant component of the immigrant population in the southern colonies. Between 1700 and 1740 a large majority of the net overseas migration to these colonies were Africans. In the third quarter of the century, the population of that region amounted to roughly 55% British, 38% Black, and 7% German. In 1790, 42% of the population in South Carolina and Georgia was of African origin. Plantation agriculture in the southern colonies (later states) – most notably before 1800, tobacco, rice and indigo – relied heavily on the labor of slaves from Africa or of African origin. The Atlantic slave trade to mainland North America declined after 1775, and it was outlawed in United States from 1808 on, although some slaves were smuggled in afterwards. While the thirteen colonies differentiated in how they were settled and by whom, they had many commonalities. Nearly all were settled and financed by privately organized British settlers or families using free enterprise without any significant English Royal or Parliamentary government support or input. Nearly all commercial activity was run in small, privately owned businesses with good credit both at home and in England, which was essential since they were often cash poor. Most settlements were nearly independent of British trade since they grew or made nearly everything they needed; the average cost of imports per household was 5–15 pounds per year. Most settlements were created by complete family groups with several generations often present. The population was typically rural, with close to 80% owning the land they lived and farmed on. After 1700, as the Industrial Revolution progressed, more of the population started to move to cities, much like what had happened in Britain. Initially, the Dutch and German Americans primarily spoke dialects brought over from Europe, while English was the main trade language. Governments and laws primarily copied the English. The only major British institution to be abandoned was the aristocracy, noted by nearly universal absence. The settlers generally established their own popularly elected governments and courts on as many levels as they could and were nearly all, within a few years, self-governing, self-supporting, and self-replicating. This self-ruling pattern became so ingrained that almost all new settlements would have their own government up and running shortly after arrival for the next 200 years. After the colonies were initially settled, their population growth was made up almost entirely of natural growth with foreign-born immigrant populations rarely exceeding 10% (except in isolated instances). The last significant colonies to be settled primarily by immigrants were Pennsylvania (1680s+), the Carolinas (1663+), and Georgia (1732+). Even here the immigrants came mostly from England and Scotland with the exception of a large Germanic contingent to Pennsylvania. Elsewhere internal American migration from other colonies provided nearly all of the settlers for each new colony or state. Populations grew by about 80% at a 3% "natural" annual growth rate sustained over a 20-year interval. Over half of all new British immigrants in the South initially arrived as indentured servants. They were mostly poor young people who could not find work in England and could not afford passage to America. In addition, about 60,000 British convicts were transported to the British colonies in the 18th century. Most of these so- called convicts were guilty of being very poor and out of work. "Serious" criminals were generally executed. Ironically, these "convicts" are often the only immigrants with nearly complete immigration records as other immigrants typically showed up with few or no records. Although Spain set up a few forts in Florida, notably San Agustín (present-day Saint Augustine) in 1565, they sent few settlers to Florida. Spaniards moving north from Mexico founded the San Juan on the Rio Grande in 1598, and Santa Fe in 1607–1608. The settlers were forced to leave temporarily for 12 years (1680–1692) by the Pueblo Revolt before returning. Spanish Texas lasted from 1690 to 1821 when Texas was governed as a colony which was separate from New Spain. In 1731, Canary Islanders (or "Isleños") arrived to establish San Antonio. The majority of the few hundred Texan and New Mexican colonizers in the Spanish colonial period were Spaniards and criollos. California, New Mexico, and Arizona all had Spanish settlements. In 1781 Spanish settlers founded Los Angeles. At the time they joined the U.S., Californios in California numbered about 10,000 and Tejanos in Texas about 4,000. New Mexico had 47,000 Spanish settlers in 1842. Arizona was only thinly settled. However, not all these settlers were of European descent. As in the rest of the American colonies, new settlements were based on the casta system, and although all could speak Spanish, it was a melting pot of whites, Natives, and mestizos. In the late 17th century, French expeditions established a foothold on the Saint Lawrence River, Mississippi River, and Gulf Coast. Interior trading posts, forts, and cities were thinly spread throughout Louisiana such as Saint Louis, Baton Rouge, Sault Sainte Marie, Prairie du Rocher, and Sainte- Geneviève. The city of Detroit was the third largest settlement in New France. New Orleans expanded when several thousand French-speaking refugees from the region of Acadia (now Nova Scotia, Canada) made their way to Louisiana following British expulsion, settling largely in the Southwest Louisiana region now called Acadiana. Their descendants are now called Cajun and still dominate the coastal areas. It is estimated that 7,000 European immigrants settled in Louisiana during the 18th century. The following were the countries of origin for new arrivals to the United States before 1790. The regions marked with an asterisk were part of Great Britain. The ancestry of the 3.9 million population in 1790 has been estimated by various sources by sampling last names from the 1790 census and assigning them a country of origin. The Irish in the 1790 census were mostly Scots- Irish. The French were primarily Huguenots. The total U.S. Catholic population in 1790 was probably less than 5%. The Native American population inside territorial U.S. boundaries was less than 100,000. The 1790 population reflected the loss of approximately 46,000 Loyalists, or "Tories", who immigrated to Canada at the end of the American Revolution, 10,000 who went to England and 6,000 to the Caribbean. The USA of 1790 recorded 3.9 million inhabitant (not counting American Indians). Of the total white population of just under 3.2 million in 1790, 85% was of British ancestry – 60% were English or 1.9 million. 4.3% Welsh, 5.4% Scots, Irish (South) 5.8%, Scots-Irish 10.5%, Germans were 9%, Dutch 3.4%, French 2.1% and Swedish 0.25%; blacks made up 19.3% (or 762,000) The number of Scots was 200,000; Irish and Scot-Irish 625,000. The overwhelming majority of Southern Irish were Protestant as there were only 60,000 Catholics in the US in 1790, 1.6% of the population. Many were descendants of English Catholics settlers in the 17th century. The rest were Irish, German and some Acadians who remained. In this era the population roughly doubled mostly due to natural increase every 23 years. Relentless population expansion pushed the U.S. frontier to the Pacific by 1848. Most immigrants came long distances to settle in the U.S. However, many Irish left Canada for the U.S. in the 1840s. French Canadians who came down from Quebec after 1860 and the Mexicans who came north after 1911 found it easier to move back and forth. There was relatively little immigration from 1770 to 1830; while there was significant emigration from the U.S. to Canada, including about 75,000 Loyalists as well as Germans and others looking for better farmland in what is now Ontario. Large scale immigration resumed in the 1830s from Britain, Ireland, Germany, and other parts of Central Europe as well as Scandinavia. Most were attracted by the cheap farmland. Some were artisans and skilled factory workers attracted by the first stage of industrialization. The Irish Catholics were primarily unskilled workers who built a majority of the canals and railroads, settling in urban areas. Many Irish went to the emerging textile mill towns of the Northeast, while others became longshoremen in the growing Atlantic and Gulf port cities. Half the Germans headed to farms, especially in the Midwest (with some to Texas), while the other half became craftsmen in urban areas. Nativism took the form of political anti-Catholicism directed mostly at the Irish (as well as Germans). It became important briefly in the mid-1850s in the guise of the Know Nothing party. Most of the Catholics and German Lutherans became Democrats, and most of the other Protestants joined the new Republican Party. During the Civil War, ethnic communities supported the war and produced large numbers of soldiers on both sides. Riots broke out in New York City and other Irish and German strongholds in 1863 when a draft was instituted, particularly in light of the provision exempting those who could afford payment. Based on available records, immigration totaled 8,385 in 1820, with immigration totals gradually increasing to 23,322 by the year 1830; for the 1820s decade immigration more than doubled to 143,000. Between 1831 and 1840, immigration more than quadrupled to a total of 599,000. These included about 207,000 Irish, starting to emigrate in large numbers following Britain's easing of travel restrictions, and about 152,000 Germans, 76,000 British, and 46,000 French, constituting the next largest immigrant groups of the decade. Between 1841 and 1850, immigration nearly tripled again, totaling 1,713,000 immigrants, including at least 781,000 Irish, 435,000 Germans, 267,000 British, and 77,000 French. The Irish, driven by the Potato Famine (1845–1849), emigrated directly from their homeland to escape poverty and death. The failed revolutions of 1848 brought many intellectuals and activists to exile in the U.S. Bad times and poor conditions in Europe drove people out, while land, relatives, freedom, opportunity, and jobs in the US lured them in. Starting in 1820, some federal records, including ship passenger lists, were kept for immigration purposes, and a gradual increase in immigration was recorded; more complete immigration records provide data on immigration after 1830. Though conducted since 1790, the census of 1850 was the first in which place of birth was asked specifically. The foreign-born population in the U.S. likely reached its minimum around 1815, at approximately 100,000 or 1% of the population. By 1815, most of the immigrants who arrived before the American Revolution had died, and there had been almost no new immigration thereafter. Nearly all population growth up to 1830 was by internal increase; around 98% of the population was native-born. By 1850, this shifted to about 90% native-born. The first significant Catholic immigration started in the mid-1840s, shifting the population from about 95% Protestant down to about 90% by 1850. In 1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, concluding the Mexican War, extended U.S. citizenship to approximately 60,000 Mexican residents of the New Mexico Territory and 10,000 living in California. An additional approximate 2,500 foreign born California residents also become U.S. citizens. In 1849, the California Gold Rush attracted 100,000 would-be miners from the Eastern U.S., Latin America, China, Australia, and Europe. California became a state in 1850 with a population of about 90,000. Between 1850 and 1930, about 5 million Germans migrated to the United States, peaking between 1881 and 1885 when a million Germans settled primarily in the Midwest. Between 1820 and 1930, 3.5 million British and 4.5 million Irish entered America. Before 1845 most Irish immigrants were Protestants. After 1845, Irish Catholics began arriving in large numbers, largely driven by the Great Famine. After 1880 larger steam-powered oceangoing ships replaced sailing ships, which resulted in lower fares and greater immigrant mobility. In addition, the expansion of a railroad system in Europe made it easier for people to reach oceanic ports to board ships. Meanwhile, farming improvements in Southern Europe and the Russian Empire created surplus labor. Young people between the ages of 15 to 30 were predominant among newcomers. This wave of migration, constituting the third episode in the history of U.S. immigration, may be better referred to as a flood of immigrants, as nearly 25 million Europeans made the long trip. Italians, Greeks, Hungarians, Poles, and others speaking Slavic languages made up the bulk of this migration. 2.5 to 4 million Jews were among them. Each group evinced a distinctive migration pattern in terms of the gender balance within the migratory pool, the permanence of their migration, their literacy rates, the balance between adults and children, and the like. But they shared one overarching characteristic: they flocked to urban destinations and made up the bulk of the U.S. industrial labor pool, making possible the emergence of such industries as steel, coal, automotive, textile, and garment production, enabling the United States to leap into the front ranks of the world's economic giants. Their urban destinations, numbers, and perhaps an antipathy towards foreigners, led to the emergence of a second wave of organized xenophobia. By the 1890s, many Americans, particularly from the ranks of the well-off, white, and native-born, considered immigration to pose a serious danger to the nation's health and security. In 1893 a group formed the Immigration Restriction League, and it, along with other similarly inclined organizations, began to press Congress for severe curtailment of foreign immigration. Irish and German Catholic immigration was opposed in the 1850s by the Nativist/Know Nothing movement, originating in New York in 1843 as the American Republican Party (not to be confused with the modern Republican Party). It was empowered by popular fears that the country was being overwhelmed by Catholic immigrants, who were often regarded as hostile to American values and controlled by the Pope in Rome. Active mainly from 1854–56, it strove to curb immigration and naturalization, though its efforts met with little success. There were few prominent leaders, and the largely middle-class and Protestant membership fragmented over the issue of slavery, most often joining the Republican Party by the time of the 1860 presidential election. European immigrants joined the Union Army in large numbers, including 177,000 born in Germany and 144,000 born in Ireland. Many Germans could see the parallels between slavery and serfdom in the old fatherland. Between 1840 and 1930, about 900,000 French Canadians left Quebec in order to immigrate to the United States and settle, mainly in New England. Considering the fact that the population of Quebec was only 892,061 in 1851, this was a massive exodus. 13.6 million Americans claimed to have French ancestry in the 1980 census. A large portion of them have ancestors who emigrated from French Canada, since immigration from France was low throughout the history of the United States. During the same period almost 4 million other Canadians immigrated to the U.S. In the New England states 12% of the population can trace its ancestry back to Quebec and 10% can trace its ancestry back to the Maritime Provinces. The communities established by these immigrants became known as Little Canada. Shortly after the U.S. Civil War, some states started to pass their own immigration laws, which prompted the U.S. Supreme Court to rule in 1875 that immigration was a federal responsibility. In 1875, the nation passed its first immigration law, the Page Act of 1875, also known as the Asian Exclusion Act, outlawing the importation of Asian contract laborers, any Asian woman who would engage in prostitution, and all people considered to be convicts in their own countries. In 1882 Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act. By excluding all Chinese laborers from entering the country, the Chinese Exclusion Act severely curtailed the number of immigrants of Chinese descent allowed into the United States for 10 years. The law was renewed in 1892 and 1902. During this period, Chinese migrants illegally entered the United States through the loosely guarded U.S.-Canadian border. Prior to 1890, the individual states, rather than the Federal government, regulated immigration into the United States. The Immigration Act of 1891 established a Commissioner of Immigration in the Treasury Department. The Canadian Agreement of 1894 extended U.S. immigration restrictions to Canadian ports. The Dillingham Commission was set up by Congress in 1907 to investigate the effects of immigration on the country. The Commission's 40-volume analysis of immigration during the previous three decades led it to conclude that the major source of immigration had shifted from Central, Northern, and Western Europeans to Southern Europeans and Russians. It was, however, apt to make generalizations about regional groups that were subjective and failed to differentiate between distinct cultural attributes. The 1910s marked the high point of Italian immigration to the United States. Over two million Italians immigrated in those years, with a total of 5.3 million between 1880 and 1920. About half returned to Italy, after working an average of five years in the U.S. About 1.5 million Swedes and Norwegians immigrated to the United States within this period, due to opportunity in America and poverty and religious oppression in united Sweden-Norway. This accounted for around 20% of the total population of the kingdom at that time. They settled mainly in the Midwest, especially Minnesota and the Dakotas. Danes had comparably low immigration rates due to a better economy; after 1900 many Danish immigrants were Mormon converts who moved to Utah. Over two million Central Europeans, mainly Catholics and Jews, immigrated between 1880 and 1924. People of Polish ancestry are the largest Central European ancestry group in the United States after Germans. Immigration of Eastern Orthodox ethnic groups was much lower. Lebanese and Syrian immigrants started to settle in large numbers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The vast majority of the immigrants from Lebanon and Syria were Christians, but smaller numbers of Jews, Muslims, and Druze also settled. Many lived in New York City's Little Syria and in Boston. In the 1920s and 1930s, a large number of these immigrants set out West, with Detroit getting a large number of Middle Eastern immigrants, as well as many Midwestern areas where the Arabs worked as farmers. Congress passed a literacy requirement in 1917 to curb the influx of low-skilled immigrants from entering the country. Congress passed the Emergency Quota Act in 1921, followed by the Immigration Act of 1924, which supplanted earlier acts to effectively ban all immigration from Asia and set quotas for the Eastern Hemisphere so that no more than 2% of nationalities as represented in the 1890 census were allowed to immigrate to America. "New immigration" was a term from the late 1880s that came from the influx of Catholic and Jewish immigrants from southern and eastern Europe (areas that previously sent few immigrants). Though the majority of immigrants came through Ellis Island in New York, thus making the Northeast a major target of settlement, there were various efforts, such as the Galveston Movement, to redirect immigrants to other ports and disperse some of the settlement to other areas of the country. Nativists feared the new arrivals lacked the political, social, and occupational skills needed to successfully assimilate into American culture. This raised the issue of whether the U.S. was still a "melting pot," or if it had just become a "dumping ground," and many old-stock Americans worried about negative effects on the economy, politics, and culture. A major proposal was to impose a literacy test, whereby applicants had to be able to read and write in their own language before they were admitted. Restriction proceeded piecemeal over the course of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but immediately after the end of World War I (1914–18) and into the early 1920s, Congress changed the nation's basic policy about immigration. The National Origins Formula of 1921 (and its final form in 1924) not only restricted the number of immigrants who might enter the United States, but also assigned slots according to quotas based on national origins. A complicated piece of legislation, it essentially gave preference to immigrants from Central, Northern and Western Europe, severely limiting the numbers from Soviet Union and Southern Europe, and declared all potential immigrants from Asia unworthy of entry into the United States. The legislation excluded the Western Hemisphere from the quota system, and the 1920s ushered in the penultimate era of U.S. immigration history. Immigrants could and did move quite freely from Mexico, the Caribbean (including Jamaica, Barbados, and Haiti), and other parts of Central and South America. This era, which reflected the application of the 1924 legislation, lasted until 1965. During those 40 years, the United States began to admit, case by case, limited numbers of refugees. Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany before World War II, Jewish Holocaust survivors after the war, non-Jewish displaced persons fleeing Communist rule in Central Europe and the Soviet Union, Hungarians seeking refuge after their failed uprising in 1956, and Cubans after the 1960 revolution managed to find haven in the United States when their plight moved the collective conscience of America, but the basic immigration law remained in place. This law allowed foreign-born children of American mothers and alien fathers who had entered America before the age of 18 and had lived in America for five years to apply for American citizenship for the first time. It also made the naturalization process quicker for the alien husbands of American wives. This law equalized expatriation, immigration, naturalization, and repatriation between women and men. However, it was not applied retroactively, and was modified by later laws, such as the Nationality Act of 1940. In 1934, the Tydings–McDuffie Act provided independence of the Philippines on July 4, 1946. Until 1965, national origin quotas strictly limited immigration from the Philippines. In 1965, after revision of the immigration law, significant Filipino immigration began, totaling 1,728,000 by 2004. In 1945, the War Brides Act allowed foreign-born wives of U.S. citizens who had served in the U.S. Armed Forces to immigrate to the United States. In 1946, The War Brides Act was extended to include the fiancés of American soldiers. In 1946, the Luce–Celler Act extended the right to become naturalized citizens to those from the newly independent nation of The Philippines and to Asian Indians, the immigration quota being set at 100 people per year per country. At the end of World War II, "regular" immigration almost immediately increased under the official national origins quota system as refugees from war torn Europe began immigrating to the U.S. After the war, there were jobs for nearly everyone who wanted one, when most women employed during the war went back into the home. From 1941 to 1950, 1,035,000 people immigrated to the U.S., including 226,000 from Germany, 139,000 from the UK, 171,000 from Canada, 60,000 from Mexico and 57,000 from Italy. The Displaced Persons Act of 1948 finally allowed the displaced people of World War II to start immigrating. Some 200,000 Europeans and 17,000 orphans displaced by World War II were initially allowed to immigrate to the United States outside of immigration quotas. President Harry S. Truman signed the first Displaced Persons (DP) act on June 25, 1948, allowing entry for 200,000 DPs, then followed with the more accommodating second DP act on June 16, 1950, allowing entry for another 200,000. This quota, including acceptance of 55,000 Volksdeutschen, required sponsorship for all immigrants. The American program was the most notoriously bureaucratic of all the DP programs and much of the humanitarian effort was undertaken by charitable organizations, such as the Lutheran World Federation as well as other ethnic groups. Along with an additional quota of 200,000 granted in 1953 and more in succeeding years, a total of nearly 600,000 refugees were allowed into the country outside the quota system, second only to Israel's 650,000. In 1950, after the start of the Korean War, the Internal Security Act barred admission of Communists, who might engage in activities "which would be prejudicial to the public interest, or would endanger the welfare or safety of the United States." In 1950, the invasion of South Korea by North Korea started the Korean War and left a war-ravaged Korea behind. There was little U.S. immigration due to the national origin quotas of the immigration law. Significant Korean immigration began in 1965 after revision of the law, totaling 848,000 by 2004. The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 affirmed the national-origins quota system of 1924 and limited total annual immigration to one-sixth of one percent of the population of the continental United States in 1920, or 175,455. This exempted the spouses and children of U.S. citizens and people born in the Western Hemisphere from the quota. In 1953, the Refugee Relief Act extended refugee status to non-Europeans. In 1954, Operation Wetback forced the return of thousands of illegal immigrants to Mexico. Between 1944 and 1954, "the decade of the wetback," the number of illegal immigrants coming from Mexico increased by 6,000 percent. It is estimated that before Operation Wetback got under way, more than a million workers had crossed the Rio Grande illegally. Cheap labor displaced native agricultural workers, and increased violation of labor laws and discrimination encouraged criminality, disease, and illiteracy. According to a study conducted in 1950 by the President's Commission on Migratory Labor in Texas, the Rio Grande Valley cotton growers were paying approximately half of the wages paid elsewhere in Texas. The United States Border Patrol aided by municipal, county, state, federal authorities, and the military, began a quasi-military operation of the search and seizure of all illegal immigrants. Fanning out from the lower Rio Grande Valley, Operation Wetback moved Northward. Initially, illegal immigrants were repatriated through Presidio because the Mexican city across the border, Ojinaga, had rail connections to the interior of Mexico by which workers could be quickly moved on to Durango. The forces used by the government were relatively small, perhaps no more than 700 men, but were augmented by border patrol officials who hoped to scare illegal workers into fleeing back to Mexico. Ships became a preferred mode of transport because they carried illegal workers farther from the border than buses, trucks, or trains. It is difficult to estimate the number of illegal immigrants that left due to the operation—most voluntarily. The INS claimed as many as 1,300,000, though the number officially apprehended did not come anywhere near this total. The program was ultimately abandoned due to questions surrounding the ethics of its implementation. Citizens of Mexican descent complained of police stopping all "Mexican looking" people and utilizing extreme "police-state" methods including deportation of American- born children who were citizens by law. The failed 1956 Hungarian Revolution, before being crushed by the Soviets, forged a temporary hole in the Iron Curtain that allowed a burst of refugees to escape, with 245,000 Hungarian families being admitted by 1960. From 1950 to 1960, the U.S. had 2,515,000 new immigrants with 477,000 arriving from Germany, 185,000 from Italy, 52,000 from the Netherlands, 203,000 from the UK, 46,000 from Japan, 300,000 from Mexico, and 377,000 from Canada. The 1959 Cuban revolution led by Fidel Castro drove the upper and middle classes to exile, and 409,000 families immigrated to the U.S. by 1970. This was facilitated by the 1966 Cuban Adjustment Act, which gave permanent resident status to Cubans physically present in the United States for one year if they entered after January 1, 1959. This all changed with passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, a by-product of the civil rights movement and a jewel in the crown of President Lyndon Johnson's Great Society programs. The measure had not been intended to stimulate immigration from Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and elsewhere in the developing world. Rather, by doing away with the racially based quota system, its authors had expected that immigrants would come from "traditional" societies such as Italy, Greece, and Portugal, places subject to very small quotas in the 1924 Act. The 1965 Act replaced the quotas with preferential categories based on family relationships and job skills, giving particular preference to potential immigrants with relatives in the United States and with occupations deemed critical by the U.S. Department of Labor. After 1970, however, following an initial influx from European countries, immigrants from places like Korea, China, India, the Philippines, and Pakistan, as well as countries in Africa became more common. In 1986, the Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) was passed, creating, for the first time, penalties for employers who hired illegal immigrants. IRCA, as proposed in Congress, was projected to give amnesty to about 1,000,000 workers in the country illegally. In practice, amnesty for about 3,000,000 immigrants already in the United States was granted. Most were from Mexico. Legal Mexican immigrant family numbers were 2,198,000 in 1980, 4,289,000 in 1990 (includes IRCA), and 7,841,000 in 2000. Adding another 12,000,000 illegal immigrants of which about 80% are thought to be Mexicans would bring the Mexican family total to over 16,000,000—about 16% of the Mexican population. Passed in September 1996, the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigration Responsibility Act (IIRIRA) was a comprehensive immigration reform focused on restructuring the process for admitting or removing undocumented immigrants. Its passing helped to strengthen U.S. immigration laws, restructured immigration law enforcement, and sought to limit immigration by addressing undocumented migration. These reforms affected legal immigrants, those seeking entry into the U.S., and those living undocumented in the U.S. IIRIRA created new barriers for refugees seeking asylum in the U.S. by narrowing asylum criteria previously established in the Refugee Act of 1980. To prevent fraudulent asylum filings from people who were migrating for economic or work related reasons, IIRIRA imposed an all inclusive filing deadline called the "One Year Bar" to asylum. IIRIRA provided limited exceptions to this rule when an "alien demonstrates to the satisfaction of the Attorney General either the existence of changed circumstances which materially affect the applicant's eligibility for asylum or extraordinary circumstances relating to the delay in filing the application." IIRIRA also made the asylum process more difficult for refugees by allowing for the resettlement of refugees to third countries, "precluding appeals" to denied asylum applications, implementing higher processing fees, and having enforcement officers rather than judges determine the expedited removal of refugees. Law enforcement under IIRIRA was strengthened to restrict unlawful immigration. The Act sought to prevent illegal immigration by expanding the number of Border Patrol agents and allowing for the Attorney General to obtain resources from other federal agencies. Provisions were also made to improve infrastructure and barriers along the U.S. border area. IIRIRA also delegated law enforcement capabilities to state and local officers via 287(g) agreements. Illegal entry into the U.S. was made more difficult by cooperation between federal and local law enforcement, in addition to stiffening penalties for illegal entry and racketeering activities which included alien smuggling and document fraud. IIRIRA addressed unlawful migration already present in the U.S. through enhanced tracking systems that included detecting employment eligibility and visa stay violations as well as creating counterfeit-resistant forms of identification. The Act also established the 3 and 10 year re-entry bars for immigrants who accumulated unlawful presence in the U.S. and become inadmissible upon leaving the country. The restructuring of law enforcement contributed to an increased number of arrests, detentions, and removals of immigrants. Under IIRIRA, the mandatory detention of broad groups of immigrants occurred, including those who had legal residence status but upon removal could have their status be removed after committing violent crimes. Relief and access to federal services were also redefined for immigrants as IIRIRA reiterated the 1996 Welfare Reform Act's tier system between citizens, legal immigrants, refugees, and illegal immigrants which determined public benefits eligibility. In addition, IIRIRA also redefined financial self- sufficiency guidelines of sponsors who previously did not have to meet an income requirement to sponsor an immigrant. The top ten birth countries of the foreign born population since 1830, according to the U.S. Census, are shown below. Blank entries mean that the country did not make it into the top ten for that census, not that there is no data from that census. The 1830 numbers are from immigration statistics as listed in the 2004 Year Book of Immigration Statistics. • The 1830 numbers list un-naturalized foreign citizens and does not include naturalized foreign born. The 1850 census is the first census that asks for place of birth. The historical census data can be found online in the Virginia Library Geostat Center. Population numbers are in thousands. Anglo, Demographics of the United States, History of immigration to Canada, Hyphenated American, Guest Worker Program, Melting pot, Race and ethnicity in the United States European Americans, Emigration from Europe, American Jews, Albanian Americans, Austrian Americans, Baltic Americans, Estonian Americans, Latvian Americans, Lithuanian Americans, Belgian Americans, British Americans, Cornish Americans, English Americans, Manx Americans, Scottish Americans, Welsh Americans, Slavic Americans, Belarusian Americans, Bosnian Americans, Bulgarian Americans, Croatian Americans, Czech Americans, Macedonian Americans, Montenegrin Americans, Polish Americans, Russian Americans, Rusyn Americans, Serbian Americans, Slovak Americans, Slovenian Americans, Ukrainian Americans European Americans (continued), Scandinavian Americans, Danish Americans, Faroese Americans, Finnish Americans, Greenlandic Americans, Icelandic Americans, Norwegian Americans, Sami Americans, Swedish Americans, Swedish emigration to the United States, Armenian Americans, Cypriot Americans, Dutch Americans, Flemish Americans, French Americans, Breton Americans, Georgian Americans, German Americans, Greek Americans, Hungarian Americans, Irish Americans, Italian Americans, Sicilian Americans, Luxembourg Americans, Maltese Americans, Pennsylvania Dutch, refers to German immigrants in colonial Pennsylvania, Portuguese Americans, Romani Americans, Romanian Americans, Spanish Americans, Basque Americans, Swiss Americans African immigration to the United States, African Americans, Central Africans in the United States, North Africans in the United States, Southeast Africans in the United States, Southern Africans in the United States, West Africans in the United States, Middle Eastern Americans, Afghan Americans, Arab Americans, Assyrian Americans, Azerbaijani Americans, Iranian Americans, Iraqi Americans, Kurdish Americans, Lebanese Americans, Pashtun Americans, Saudi Americans, Syrian Americans, Turkish Americans Asian immigration to the United States, Asian Americans, Bangladeshi Americans, Burmese Americans, Cambodian Americans, Chinese Americans, Hmong Americans, Indian Americans, Japanese Americans, Karen Americans, Korean Americans, Laotian Americans, Pakistani Americans, Filipino Americans, Tajikistani Americans, Uzbek Americans, Vietnamese Americans, Pacific Islander Americans, Australian Americans, Fijian Americans, French Polynesian Americans, Marshallese Americans, Māori Americans, Micronesian Americans, New Zealand Americans, Palauan Americans, Samoan Americans, Tongan Americans, Canadian Americans, Hispanic and Latino Americans Barkan, Elliott Robert. And Still They Come: Immigrants and American Society, 1920 to the 1990s (1996), by leading historian, Barkan, Elliott Robert, ed. A Nation of Peoples: A Sourcebook on America's Multicultural Heritage (1999), 600 pp; essays by scholars on 27 groups, Barone, Michael. The New Americans: How the Melting Pot Can Work Again (2006), Bayor, Ronald H., ed. The Oxford Handbook of American Immigration and Ethnicity (2015), Bodnar, John. The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in Urban America (1985), Dassanowsky, Robert, and Jeffrey Lehman, eds. Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America (2nd ed. 3 vol 2000), anthropological approach to 150 culture groups; 1974 pp, Gjerde, Jon, ed. Major Problems in American Immigration and Ethnic History (1998) primary sources and excerpts from scholars., Levinson, David and Melvin Ember, eds. American Immigrant Cultures 2 vol (1997) covers all major and minor groups, Meier, Matt S. and Gutierrez, Margo, eds. The Mexican American Experience: An Encyclopedia (2003) (), Steidl, Annemarie et al. From a Multiethnic Empire to a Nation of Nations: Austro-Hungarian Migrants in the US, 1870–1940 (Innsbruck: Studien Verlag, 2017). 354 pp., Thernstrom, Stephan, ed. Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups (1980) (), the standard reference, covering all major groups and most minor groups online, Yans-McLaughlin, Virginia ed. Immigration Reconsidered: History, Sociology, and Politics (1990) Borjas, George J. "Does Immigration Grease the Wheels of the Labor Market?" Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 2001, Hernández, Kelly Lytle. "The Crimes and Consequences of Illegal Immigration: A Cross-Border Examination of Operation Wetback, 1943 to 1954," Western Historical Quarterly, 37 (Winter 2006), 421–44., Kemp, Paul. Goodbye Canada? (2003), from Canada to U.S., Khadria, Binod. The Migration of Knowledge Workers: Second-Generation Effects of India's Brain Drain, (2000), Mullan, Fitzhugh. "The Metrics of the Physician Brain Drain." New England Journal of Medicine, Volume 353:1810–18 October 27, 2005 Number 17, Odem, Mary and William Brown. Living Across Borders: Guatemala Migrants in the U.S. South Southern Spaces, 2011., Palmer, Ransford W. In Search of a Better Life: Perspectives on Migration from the Caribbean Praeger, 1990., Skeldon, Ronald, and Wang Gungwu; Reluctant Exiles? Migration from Hong Kong and the New Overseas Chinese 1994., Smith, Michael Peter, and Adrian Favell. The Human Face of Global Mobility: International Highly Skilled Migration in Europe, North America and the Asia-Pacific, (2006) Alexander, June Granatir. Daily Life in Immigrant America, 1870–1920: How the Second Great Wave of Immigrants Made Their Way in America (2nd ed. Ivan R. Dee, 2009) 332 pp., Archdeacon, Thomas J. Becoming American: An Ethnic History (1984), Bankston, Carl L. III and Danielle Antoinette Hidalgo, eds. Immigration in U.S. History (2006), Bergquist, James M. Daily Life in Immigrant America, 1820–1870: How the First Great Wave of Immigrants Made Their Way in America (2nd ed. Ivan R. Dee, 2009) 329 pp., Cohn, Raymond L. Mass Migration under Sail: European Immigration to the Antebellum United States (2009) 254 pp.; emphasis on economic issues, Daniels, Roger. Coming to America 2nd ed. (2002), Daniels, Roger. Guarding the Golden Door: American Immigration Policy and Immigrants Since 1882 (2005), Eltis, David; Coerced and Free Migration: Global Perspectives (2002) emphasis on migration to Americas before 1800, Glynn, Irial: Emigration Across the Atlantic: Irish, Italians and Swedes compared, 1800–1950 , European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: June 16, 2011., Handlin, Oscar. The Uprooted: The Epic Story of the Great Migrations That Made the American People (1951), classic interpretive history; Pulitzer prize for history, Hoerder, Dirk and Horst Rössler, eds. Distant Magnets: Expectations and Realities in the Immigrant Experience, 1840–1930 1993. 312 pp, Hourwich, Isaac. Immigration and Labor: The Economic Aspects of European Immigration to the United States (1912), argues immigrants were beneficial to natives by pushing them upward, Jenks, Jeremiah W. and W. Jett Lauck, The Immigrant Problem (1912; 6th ed. 1926) based on 1911 Immigration Commission report, with additional data, Kulikoff, Allan; From British Peasants to Colonial American Farmers (2000), details on colonial immigration, LeMay, Michael, and Elliott Robert Barkan. U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Laws and Issues: A Documentary History (1999), Miller, Kerby M. Emigrants and Exiles (1985), influential scholarly interpretation of Irish immigration, Motomura, Hiroshi. Americans in Waiting: The Lost Story of Immigration and Citizenship in the United States (2006), legal history, Wittke, Carl. We Who Built America: The Saga of the Immigrant (1939), 552 pp good older history that covers major groups Archdeacon, Thomas J. "Problems and Possibilities in the Study of American Immigration and Ethnic History", International Migration Review Vol. 19, No. 1 (Spring, 1985), pp. 112–34 in JSTOR, Diner, Hasia. "American Immigration and Ethnic History: Moving the Field Forward, Staying the Course", Journal of American Ethnic History, Summer 2006, Vol. 25 Issue 4, pp. 130–41, Gabaccia, Donna. "Immigrant Women: Nowhere at Home?" Journal of American Ethnic History Vol. 10, No. 4 (Summer, 1991), pp. 61–87 in JSTOR, Gabaccia, Donna R. "Do We Still Need Immigration History?", Polish American Studies Vol. 55, No. 1 (Spring, 1998), pp. 45–68 in JSTOR, Gerber, David A. "Immigration Historiography at the Crossroads." Reviews in American History v39#1 (2011): 74–86. in Project MUSE, Gerber, David A. "What's Wrong with Immigration History?" Reviews in American History v 36 (December 2008): 543–56., Gjerde, Jon. "New Growth on Old Vines – The State of the Field: The Social History of Ethnicity and Immigration in the United States", Journal of American Ethnic History 18 (Summer 1999): 40–65. in JSTOR, Harzig, Christiane, and Dirk Hoerder. What is Migration History (2009) excerpt and text search, Joranger, Terje, and Mikael Hasle. "A Historiographical Perspective on the Social History of Immigration to and Ethnicity in the United States", Swedish-American Historical Quarterly, Jan 2009, Vol. 60 Issue 1, pp. 5–24, Jung, Moon-Ho. "Beyond These Mythical Shores: Asian American History and the Study of Race", History Compass, March 2008, Vol. 6 Issue 2, pp. 627–38, Kazal, Russell A. "Revisting Assimilation: The Rise, Fall, and Reappraisal of a Concept in American Ethnic History", American Historical Review Vol. 100, No. 2 (Apr. 1995), pp. 437–71 in JSTOR, Kenny, Kevin. "Twenty Years of Irish American Historiography", Journal of American Ethnic History, Summer 2009, Vol. 28 Issue 4, pp. 67–75, Lederhendler, Eli. "The New Filiopietism, or Toward a New History of Jewish Immigration to America", American Jewish History, March 2007, Vol. 93 Issue 1, pp. 1–20, Meagher, Timothy J. "From the World to the Village and the Beginning to the End and After: Research Opportunities in Irish American History", Journal of American Ethnic History, Summer 2009, Vol. 28 Issue 4, pp. 118–35 in JSTOR, Persons, Stow. Ethnic Studies in Chicago, 1905–1945 (1987), on Chicago school of sociology, Ross, Dorothy. The Origins of American Social Science (1992), pp. 143–71, 303–89 on early sociological studies, Rothman, David J. "The Uprooted: Thirty Years Later", Reviews in American History 10 (September 1982): 311–19, on influence of Oscar Handlin in JSTOR, Stolarik, M. Mark. "From Field to Factory: The Historiography of Slovak Immigration to the United States", International Migration Review, Spring 1976, Vol. 10 Issue 1, pp. 81–102 in JSTOR, Vecoli, Rudolph J. "Contadini in Chicago: A Critique of The Uprooted", Journal of American History 5 (December 1964): 404–17, critique of Handlin in JSTOR, Vecoli, Rudolph J. "'Over the Years I Have Encountered the Hazards and Rewards that Await the Historian of Immigration,' George M. Stephenson and the Swedish American Community", Swedish American Historical Quarterly 51 (April 2000): 130–49., Weinberg, Sydney Stahl, et al. "The Treatment of Women in Immigration History: A Call for Change" Journal of American Ethnic History Vol. 11, No. 4 (Summer, 1992), pp. 25–69 in JSTOR U.S. Immigration Commission, Reports of the Immigration Commission (1911) complete set of reports, Abstracts of Reports, 2 vols. (1911); summary of the full 42-volume report; see also Jenks and Lauck, Reports of the Immigration Commission: Statements (1911) text of statements pro and con, Chicago Foreign Language Press Survey: English translations of 120,000 pages of newspaper articles from Chicago's foreign language press from 1855 to 1938. Italian Americans ( or italo-americani ) are citizens of the United States of America who are of Italian descent. Residing mainly in Northeastern and urban industrial Midwestern metropolitan areas, Italian Americans are the fifth largest self-identified ethnic group in the United States behind German Americans, Irish Americans, English Americans and Mexican Americans, though realistically the various Americans of British, Northwestern European, and Germanic ancestries that do not identify their ancestry in censuses or identify simply as “American” are much higher in number. About 5.5 million Italians immigrated to the United States from 1820 to 2004. In 1870, there were fewer than 25,000 Italian immigrants in America, many of them Northern Italian refugees from the wars that accompanied the Risorgimento—the struggle for Italian unification and independence from foreign rule which ended in 1871. Immigration began to increase during the 1870s, when more than twice as many Italians immigrated (1870–79: 46,296) than during the five previous decades combined (1820–69: 22,627). The 1870s were followed by the greatest surge of immigration, which occurred between 1880 and 1914 and brought more than 4 million Italians to the United States, the greatest number coming from Southern Italy (namely Campania, Apulia, Basilicata, Calabria and Sicily), areas which were still largely rural and agricultural, and where much of the populace had been impoverished by centuries of foreign misrule, and an oppressive taxation system imposed after Italian unification in 1861. This period of large-scale immigration ended abruptly with the onset of the First World War in 1914 and, except for one year (1922), never fully resumed. Further immigration was greatly limited by several laws Congress passed in the 1920s. Following the unification, the unitary Italian state initially encouraged emigration to relieve economic pressures in the South. After the American Civil War, which resulted in over a half million killed or wounded, immigrant workers were recruited from Italy and elsewhere to fill the labor shortage caused by the war. In the United States, most Italians began their new lives as manual laborers in eastern cities, mining camps and farms. The descendants of the Italian immigrants gradually rose from a lower economic class in the first generation to a level comparable to the national average by 1970. The Italian community has often been characterized by strong ties to family, the Catholic Church, fraternal organizations, and political parties. Italian navigators and explorers played a key role in the exploration and settlement of the Americas by Europeans. Christopher Columbus, the explorer who first reached the Americas in 1492–1504, was Italian. Another notable Italian explorer, Amerigo Vespucci, who explored the east coast of South America between 1499 and 1502, is the source of the name America. England's claims in North America were based on the voyages of the Italian explorer John Cabot (Giovanni Caboto) and his son Sebastian Cabot (Sebastiano Caboto) in the early 16th century. In 1524 the Italian explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano was the first European to map the Atlantic coast of today's United States, and to enter New York Bay. A number of Italian navigators and explorers in the employ of Spain and France were involved in exploring and mapping their territories, and in establishing settlements; but this did not lead to the permanent presence of Italians in America. In 1539, Marco da Nizza, explored the territory that later became the states of Arizona and New Mexico. The first Italian to reside in America was Pietro Cesare Alberti, a Venetian seaman who, in 1635, settled in what would eventually become New York City. A small wave of Protestants, known as Waldensians, who were of French and northern Italian heritage (specifically Piedmontese), occurred during the 17th century. The first Waldensians began arriving around 1640, with the majority coming between 1654 and 1663. They spread out across what was then called New Netherland, and what would become New York, New Jersey and the Lower Delaware River regions. The total American Waldensian population that immigrated to New Netherland is currently unknown; however, a 1671 Dutch record indicates that, in 1656 alone, the Duchy of Savoy near Turin, Italy, had exiled 300 Waldensians due to their Protestant faith. Henri de Tonti (Enrico de Tonti), together with the French explorer LaSalle, explored the Great Lakes region. De Tonti founded the first European settlement in Illinois in 1679, and in Arkansas in 1683. With LaSalle, he co-founded New Orleans, and was governor of the Louisiana Territory for the next 20 years. His brother Alphonse de Tonty (Alfonso de Tonti), with French explorer Antoine Cadillac, was the co-founder of Detroit in 1701, and was its acting colonial governor for 12 years. Spain and France were Catholic countries and sent many missionaries to convert the native American population. Included among these missionaries were numerous Italians. In 1519-25, Alessandro Geraldini was the first Catholic bishop in the Americas, at Santo Domingo. Father François-Joseph Bressani (Francesco Giuseppe Bressani) labored among the Algonquin and Huron Indians in the early 17th century. The southwest and California were explored and mapped by Italian Jesuit priest Eusebio Kino (Chino) in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. His statue, commissioned by the state of Arizona, is displayed in the U.S. Capital. The Taliaferro family, originally from Venice, was one of the first families to settle in Virginia. Francesco Maria de Reggio, an Italian nobleman who served under the French, came to Louisiana in 1751 where he held the title of Captain General of Louisiana until 1763. Another colonial, merchant Francis Ferrari of Genoa, was naturalized as a citizen of Rhode Island in 1752. He died in 1753 and in his will speaks of Genoa, his ownership of three ships, cargo of wine and his wife Mary, who went on to own one of the oldest coffee houses in America, the Merchant Coffee House of New York on Wall Street at Water St. Her Merchant Coffee House moved across Wall Street in 1772, retaining the same name and patronage. Today, the descendants of the Alberti/Burtis, Taliaferro, Fonda, Reggio and other early families are found all across the United States. This period saw a small stream of new arrivals from Italy. Some brought skills in agriculture and the making of glass, silk and wine, while others brought skills as musicians. In 1773–85, Philip Mazzei, a physician and promoter of liberty, was a close friend and confidant of Thomas Jefferson. He published a pamphlet containing the phrase: "All men are by nature equally free and independent", which Jefferson incorporated essentially intact into the Declaration of Independence. Italian Americans served in the American Revolutionary War both as soldiers and officers. Three regiments, totaling some 1,500 men, fought for American independence. Francesco Vigo aided the colonial forces of George Rogers Clark during the American Revolutionary War by being one of the foremost financiers of the Revolution in the frontier Northwest. Later, he was a co-founder of Vincennes University in Indiana. After American independence numerous political refugees arrived, most notably: Giuseppe Avezzana, Alessandro Gavazzi, Silvio Pellico, Federico Confalonieri, and Eleuterio Felice Foresti. Giuseppe Garibaldi resided in the United States in 1850–51. At the invitation of Thomas Jefferson, Carlo Bellini became the first professor of modern languages at the College of William & Mary, in the years 1779-1803. In 1801, Philip Trajetta (Filippo Traetta) established the nation's first conservatory of music in Boston where, in the first half of the century, organist Charles Nolcini and conductor Louis Ostinelli were also active. In 1805 Thomas Jefferson recruited a group of musicians from Sicily to form a military band, later to become the nucleus of the U.S. Marine Band. The musicians included the young Venerando Pulizzi who became the first Italian director of the Band, and served in this capacity from 1816 to 1827. Francesco Maria Scala, an Italian-born naturalized American citizen, was one of the most important and influential directors of the U. S. Marine Band, from 1855 to 1871, and was credited with the instrumental organization the band still maintains. Joseph Lucchesi, the third Italian leader of the U. S. Marine Band, served from 1844 to 1846. The first opera house in the country opened in 1833 in New York through the efforts of Lorenzo Da Ponte, Mozart's former librettist, who had immigrated to America and had become the first Professor of Italian at Columbia College in 1825. During this period Italian explorers continued to be active in the West. In 1789–91 Alessandro Malaspina mapped much of the west coast of the Americas, from Cape Horn to the Gulf of Alaska. In 1822–23 the headwater region of the Mississippi was explored by Giacomo Beltrami in the territory that was later to become Minnesota, which named a county in his honor. Joseph Rosati was named the first Catholic bishop of St. Louis in 1824. In 1830–64 Samuel Mazzuchelli, a missionary and expert in Indian languages, ministered to European colonists and Native Americans in Wisconsin and Iowa for 34 years and, after his death, was declared Venerable by the Catholic Church. Father Charles Constantine Pise, a Jesuit, served as Chaplain of the Senate from 1832 to 1833, the only Catholic priest ever chosen to serve in this capacity. Missionaries of the Jesuit and Franciscan orders were active in many parts of America. Italian Jesuits founded numerous missions, schools and two colleges in the west. Giovanni Nobili founded the Santa Clara College (now Santa Clara University) in 1851. The St. Ignatius Academy (now University of San Francisco) was established by Anthony Maraschi in 1855. The Italian Jesuits also laid the foundation for the wine-making industry that would later flourish in California. In the east, the Italian Franciscans founded hospitals, orphanages, schools, and the St. Bonaventure College (now St. Bonaventure University), established by Panfilo da Magliano in 1858. In 1837, John Phinizy (Finizzi) became the mayor of Augusta, Georgia. Samuel Wilds Trotti of South Carolina was the first Italian American to serve in the US Congress (a partial term, from December 17, 1842 to March 3, 1843). In 1849, Francesco, de Casale began publishing the Italian American newspaper "L'Eco d'Italia" in New York, the first of many to eventually follow. In 1848 Francis Ramacciotti, piano string inventor and manufacturer, immigrated to the U.S. from Tuscany. Approximately 7000 Italian Americans served in the Civil War, both as soldiers and as officers. While some served in the Confederate Army (including general William B. Taliaferro), the majority, for both demographic and ideological reasons, served in the Union Army (including generals Edward Ferrero and Francis B. Spinola). The Garibaldi Guard recruited volunteers for the Union Army from Italy and other European countries to form the 39th New York Infantry Six Italian Americans received the Medal of Honor during the war, among whom was Colonel Luigi Palma di Cesnola, who later became the first Director of the Metropolitan Museum of Arts in New York (1879-1904). Beginning in 1863, Italian immigrants were one of the principal groups, along with the Irish, that built the Transcontinental Railroad west from Omaha, Nebraska. In 1866 Constantino Brumidi completed the frescoed interior of the United States Capitol dome in Washington, and spent the rest of his life executing still other artworks to beautify the Capitol. The first Columbus Day celebration was organized by Italian Americans in San Francisco in 1869. An immigrant, Antonio Meucci, brought with him a concept for the telephone. He is credited by many researchers with being the first to demonstrate the principle of the telephone in a patent caveat he submitted to the U.S. Patent Office in 1871; however, considerable controversy existed relative to the priority of invention, with Alexander Graham Bell also being accorded this distinction. (In 2002, the U.S. Congress passed a resolution (H.R. 269) declaring Antonio Meucci the true inventor of the telephone). During this period, Italian Americans established a number of institutions of higher learning. Las Vegas College (now Regis University) was established by a group of exiled Italian Jesuits in 1877 in Las Vegas, New Mexico. The Jesuit Giuseppe Cataldo, founded Gonzaga College (now Gonzaga University) in Spokane, Washington in 1887. In 1886, Rabbi Sabato Morais, a Jewish Italian immigrant, was one of the founders and first president of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America in New York. Also during this period, there was a growing presence of Italian Americans in higher education. Vincenzo Botta was a distinguished professor of Italian at New York University from 1856 to 1894, and Gaetano Lanza was a professor of mechanical engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for over 40 years, beginning in 1871. Italian Americans continued their involvement in politics. Anthony Ghio became the mayor of Texarkana, Texas in 1880. Francis B. Spinola, the first Italian American to serve a full term in Congress, was elected in 1887 from New York. From 1880 to 1915, 13 million Italians migrated out of Italy, making Italy the scene of the largest voluntary emigration in recorded world history. This migration wave single-handedly accounts for the large Italian element in the European-descended population of South America, as there were lower language and cultural barriers in countries like Brazil and Argentina than in the United States. During this period of mass migration, 4 million Italian immigrants arrived in the United States, with 3 million coming between 1900 and 1914. Most planned to stay a few years then take their money and return home. The immigrants faced great challenges. The unskilled immigrants took low-wage manual-labor jobs, and unable to find jobs on their own turned to the padrone system whereby Italian middlemen (padroni) found jobs for groups of men and controlled their wages, transportation, and living conditions for a fee. According to historian Alfred T. Banfield: In terms of the push-pull model of immigration, America provided the pull factor by the prospect of jobs that unskilled uneducated Italian peasant farmers could do. Peasant farmers accustomed to hard work in the Mezzogiorno, for example, took jobs building railroads and constructing buildings, while others took factory jobs that required little or no skill. The push factor came from Italian unification in 1861, which caused economic conditions to considerably worsen for many. Major factors that contributed to the large exodus from both northern and southern Italy after unification included political and social unrest, the government's allocation of much more of its resources to the industrialization of the North than to that of the South, an inequitable tax burden on the South, tariffs on the products of the South, soil exhaustion and erosion, and military conscription lasting seven years. The poor economic situation following unification became untenable for many sharecroppers, tenant farmers, and small business and land owners. Multitudes chose to emigrate rather than face the prospect of a deepening poverty. A large number of these were attracted to the U.S., which at the time was actively recruiting workers from Italy and elsewhere to fill the labor shortage that existed in the years following the Civil War. Often the father and older sons would go first, leaving the mother and the rest of the family behind until the male members could afford their passage. Many sought housing in the older sections of the large Northeastern cities where they settled, that became known as "Little Italies", frequently in overcrowded substandard tenements which were often dimly lit with poor heating and ventilation. Tuberculosis and other communicable diseases were a constant health threat for the immigrant families that were compelled by economic circumstances to live in these dwellings. Other immigrant families lived in single-family abodes, which was more typical in areas outside of the enclaves of the large Northeastern cities, and other parts of the country as well. An estimated 49 per cent of Italians who migrated to the Americas between 1905 (when return migration statistics began) and 1920 did not remain in the United States. These so-called "birds of passage", intended to stay in the United States for only a limited time, followed by a return to Italy with enough in savings to re-establish themselves there. While many did return to Italy, others chose to stay, or were prevented from returning by the outbreak of World War I. The Italian male immigrants in the Little Italies were most often employed in manual labor and were heavily involved in public works, such as the construction of roads, railway tracks, sewers, subways, bridges and the first skyscrapers in the northeastern cities. As early as 1890, it was estimated that around 90 percent of New York City's and 99% of Chicago's public works employees were Italians. The women most frequently worked as seamstresses in the garment industry or in their homes. Many established small businesses in the Little Italies to satisfy the day-to-day needs of fellow immigrants. A New York Times article from 1895 provides a glimpse into the status of Italian immigration at the turn of the century. The article states: The New York Times in May 1896 sent its reporters to characterize the Little Italy/Mulberry neighborhood: The masses of Italian immigrants that entered the United States (1890-1900) posed a change in the labor market, prompting Fr. Michael J. Henry to write a letter in October 1900 to the Bishop John J. Clency of Sligo, Ireland; warning: The Brooklyn Eagle in a 1900 article addressed the same reality: In spite of the economic hardship of the immigrants, civil and social life flourished in the Italian American neighborhoods of the large Northeastern cities. Italian theater, band concerts, choral recitals, puppet shows, mutual-aid societies, and social clubs were available to the immigrants. An important event, the "festa", became for many an important connection to the traditions of their ancestral villages in Italy. The festa involved an elaborate procession through the streets in honor of a patron saint or the Virgin Mary in which a large statue was carried by a team of men, with musicians marching behind. Followed by food, fireworks and general merriment, the festa became an important occasion that helped give the immigrants a sense of unity and common identity." An American teacher who had studied in Italy, Sarah Wool Moore was so concerned with grifters luring immigrants into rooming houses or employment contracts in which the bosses got kickbacks that she pressed for the founding of the Society for the Protection of Italian Immigrants (often called the Society for Italian Immigrants). The Society published lists of approved living quarters and employers. Later, the organization began establishing schools in work camps to help adult immigrants learn English. Wool and the Society began organizing schools in the labor camps which employed Italian workers on various dam and quarry projects in Pennsylvania and New York. The schools focused on teaching phrases that workers needed in their everyday tasks. Because of the Society's success in helping immigrants, they received a commendation from the Commissioner of Emigration for the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1907. To assist the immigrants in the Little Italies, who were overwhelmingly Catholic, Pope Leo XIII dispatched a contingent of priests, nuns and brothers of the Missionaries of St. Charles Borromeo. Among these was Sister Francesca Cabrini, who founded schools, hospitals and orphanages. She was canonized as the first American saint in 1946. Hundreds of parishes were founded by the St. Charles missionaries to serve the needs of the Italian communities. By 1910, Italians had founded 219 Italian Catholic churches and 41 parochial schools, served by 315 priests and 254 nuns, 2 Catholic seminaries and 3 orphanages. The destinations of many of the Italian immigrants were not only the large cities of the East Coast, but also more remote regions of the country, such as Florida and California. They were drawn there by opportunities in agriculture, fishing, mining, railroad construction, lumbering and other activities underway at the time. Oftentimes, the immigrants contracted to work in these areas of the country as a condition for payment of their passage. It was not uncommon, especially in the South, for the immigrants to be subjected to economic exploitation, hostility and sometimes even violence. The Italian laborers who went to these areas were in many cases later joined by wives and children, which resulted in the establishment of permanent Italian American settlements in diverse parts of the country. A number of towns, such as Roseto, Pennsylvania, Tontitown, Arkansas, and Valdese, North Carolina were founded by Italian immigrants during this era. A number of major business ventures were founded by Italian Americans. Amadeo Giannini originated the concept of branch banking to serve the Italian American community in San Francisco. He founded the Bank of Italy, which later became the Bank of America. His bank also provided financing to the film industry developing on the West Coast at the time, including that for Walt Disney's Snow White, the first full-length animated motion picture to be made in the U.S. Other companies founded by Italian Americans – such as Ghirardelli Chocolate Company, Progresso, Planters Peanuts, Contadina, Chef Boyardee, Italian Swiss Colony wines and Jacuzzi – became nationally known brand names in time. An Italian immigrant, Italo Marciony (Marcioni), is credited with inventing the earliest version of an ice cream cone in 1898. Another Italian immigrant, Giuseppe Bellanca, brought with him in 1912 an advanced aircraft design, which he began producing. It was Charles Lindbergh's first choice for his flight across the Atlantic, but other factors ruled this out; however, one of Bellanca's planes, piloted by Cesare Sabelli and George Pond, made one of the first non-stop trans-Atlantic flights in 1934. A number of Italian immigrant families, including Grucci, Zambelli and Vitale, brought with them expertise in fireworks displays, and their pre-eminence in this field has continued to the present day. Following in the footsteps of Constantino Brumidi, other Italians and their descendants helped create Washington's impressive monuments. An Italian immigrant, Attilio Piccirilli, and his five brothers carved the Lincoln Memorial, which they began in 1911 and completed in 1922. Italian construction workers helped build Washington's Union Station, considered one of the most beautiful in the country, which was begun in 1905 and completed in 1908. The six statues that decorate the station's facade were sculpted by Andrew Bernasconi between 1909 and 1911. Two Italian American master stone carvers, Roger Morigi and Vincent Palumbo, spent decades creating the sculptural works that embellish Washington National Cathedral. Italian conductors contributed to the early success of the Metropolitan Opera of New York (founded in 1880), but it was the arrival of impresario Giulio Gatti-Casazza in 1908, who brought with him conductor Arturo Toscanini, that made the Met an internationally known musical organization. Many Italian operatic singers and conductors were invited to perform for American audiences, most notably, tenor Enrico Caruso. The premiere of the opera La Fanciulla del West on December 10, 1910, with conductor Toscanini and tenor Caruso, and with the composer Giacomo Puccini in attendance, was a major international success as well as an historic event for the entire Italian American community. Francesco Fanciulli (1853-1915) succeeded John Philip Sousa as the director of United States Marine Band, serving in this capacity from 1892 to 1897. Italian Americans became involved in entertainment and sports. Rudolph Valentino was one of the first great film icons. Dixieland jazz music had a number of important Italian American innovators, the most famous being Nick LaRocca of New Orleans, whose quintet made the first jazz recording in 1917. The first Italian American professional baseball player, Ping Bodie (Francesco Pizzoli), began playing for the Chicago White Sox in 1912. Ralph DePalma won the Indianapolis 500 in 1915. Italian Americans became increasingly involved in politics, government and the labor movement. Andrew Longino was elected Governor of Mississippi in 1900. Charles Bonaparte was Secretary of the Navy and later Attorney General in the Theodore Roosevelt administration, and founded the Federal Bureau of Investigation. Salvatore A. Cotillo was the first Italian-American to serve in both houses of the New York State Legislature and the first who served as Justice of the New York State Supreme Court. Fiorello LaGuardia was elected from New York in 1916 to serve in the US Congress. Numerous Italian Americans were at the forefront in fighting for worker's rights in industries such as the mining, textiles and garment industries, the most notable among these being Arturo Giovannitti, Carlo Tresca and Joseph Ettor. The United States entered World War I in 1917. The Italian American community wholeheartedly supported the war effort and its young men, both American-born and Italian-born, enlisted in large numbers in the American Army. It was estimated that, during the two years of the war (1917–18), Italian-American servicemen made up approximately 12% of the total American forces, a disproportionately high percentage of the total. An Italian-born American infantryman, Michael Valente, was awarded the Medal of Honor for his service. Another 103 Italian Americans (83 Italian born) were awarded the Distinguished Service Cross, the second highest decoration. The war, together with the restrictive Emergency Quota Act of 1921, Immigration Act of 1924 and the implementation of the discriminatory National Origins Formula heavily curtailed Italian immigration. The quota allocated for Italians was 1/13 of that allocated for Germans and, in general, Anglo-Saxon and Northern European immigration was heavily favored. Despite implementation of the quota, the inflow of Italian immigrants remained between 6 or 7% of all immigrants. By 1920, the Little Italies had stabilized and grown considerably more prosperous as workers were able to obtain higher-paying jobs, often in skilled trades. English was now the language most commonly heard on the streets of the Little Italies. In the post-war years, jobs as policemen, firemen and civil servants became available to Italian Americans; while others found employment as plumbers, electricians, mechanics and carpenters. Women found jobs as civil servants, secretaries, dressmakers, and clerks. With better paying jobs they moved to more affluent neighborhoods outside of the Italian enclaves. The Great Depression (1929–1939) had a major impact on the Italian American community, and temporarily reversed some of the earlier gains made. Many unemployed men (and a few women) found jobs on President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal work programs, such as the Works Progress Administration and the Civilian Conservation Corp. In the 1920s and 1930s Italian Americans contributed significantly to American life and culture via, politics, music, film, the arts, sports, the labor movement and business. In politics, Al Smith (Ferrara) was the first governor of New York of Italian ancestry—although the media characterized him as an Irish Catholic. He was the first Catholic to receive a major party presidential nomination, as Democratic candidate for president in 1928. He lost Protestant strongholds in the South, but energize the Democratic vote in immigrant centers across the entire North. Angelo Rossi was mayor of San Francisco in 1931–1944. In 1933–34 Ferdinand Pecora led a Senate investigation of the Wall Street Crash of 1929, which exposed major financial abuses, and spurred Congress to rein in the banking industry. Liberal leader Fiorello La Guardia served as Republican and Fusion mayor of New York City in 1934–1945. On the far left Vito Marcantonio was first elected to Congress in 1934 from New York. Robert Maestri was mayor of New Orleans in 1936–1946. The Metropolitan Opera continued to flourish under the leadership of Giulio Gatti-Casazza, whose tenure continued until 1935. Rosa Ponselle and Dusolina Giannini, daughters of Italian immigrants, performed regularly at the Metropolitan Opera and became internationally known. Arturo Toscanini returned in the United States as the main conductor of the New York Philharmonic Orchestra (1926–1936) and introduced many Americans to classical music through his NBC Symphony Orchestra radio broadcasts (1937–54). Ruggiero Ricci, a child prodigy born of Italian immigrant parents, gave his first public performance in 1928 at the age of 10, and had a long international career as a concert violinist. Popular singers of the period included Russ Columbo, who established a new singing style that influenced Frank Sinatra and other singers that followed. On Broadway, Harry Warren (Salvatore Guaragna) wrote the music for 42nd Street, and received three Academy Awards for his compositions. Other Italian American musicians and performers, such as Jimmy Durante, who later achieved fame in movies and television, were active in vaudeville. Guy Lombardo formed a popular dance band, which played annually on New Year's Eve in New York City's Times Square. The film industry of this era included Frank Capra, who received three Academy Awards for directing and Frank Borzage, who received two Academy Awards for directing. Italian American cartoonists were responsible for some of the most popular animated characters: Donald Duck was created by Al Taliaferro, Woody Woodpecker was a creation of Walter Lantz (Lanza), Casper the Friendly Ghost was co-created by Joseph Oriolo, and Tom and Jerry was co-created by Joseph Barbera. The voice of Snow White was provided by Adriana Caselotti, a 21-year-old soprano. In public art, Luigi Del Bianco was the chief stone carver at Mount Rushmore from 1933 to 1940. Simon Rodia, an immigrant construction worker, built the Watts Towers over a period of 33 years, from 1921 to 1954. In sports, Gene Sarazen (Eugenio Saraceni) won both the Professional Golf Association and U.S. Open Tournaments in 1922. Pete DePaolo won the Indianapolis 500 in 1925. Tony Lazzeri and Frank Crosetti started playing for the New York Yankees in 1926. Tony Canzoneri won the lightweight boxing championship in 1930. Lou Little (Luigi Piccolo) began coaching the Columbia University football team in 1930. Joe DiMaggio, who was destined to become one of the most famous players in baseball history, began playing for the New York Yankees in 1936. Hank Luisetti was a three time All- American basketball player at Stanford University from 1936 to 1940. Louis Zamperini, the American distance runner, competed in the 1936 Olympics, and later became the subject of the bestselling book by Laura Hillenbrand, published in 2010, and a 2014 movie of the same title. Italian Americans continued their significant involvement in the labor movement during this period. Well known labor organizers included Carlo Tresca, Luigi Antonini, James Petrillo, and Angela Bambace. Italian American businessmen specialized in growing and selling fresh fruits and vegetables, which were cultivated on small tracts of land in the suburban parts of many cities. They cultivated the land and raised produce, which was trucked into the nearby cities and often sold directly to the consumer through farmer's markets. In California, the DiGiorgio Corporation was founded, which grew to become a national supplier of fresh produce in the United States. Italian Americans in California were leading growers of grapes, and producers of wine. Many well known wine brands, such as Mondavi, Carlo Rossi, Petri, Sebastiani, and Gallo emerged from these early enterprises. Italian American companies were major importers of Italian wines, processed foods, textiles, marble and manufactured goods. As a member of the Axis powers, Italy declared war on the United States in December 1941. Over 1.5 million Italian-Americans served in the armed forces during World War II, amounting to some 10% of American soldiers in total. Some Italians were outspoken admirers of Mussolini, while others had never taken out American citizenship. Those viewed as a potential threat to the country were interned in detention camps, some for up to 2 years. As many as 600,000 others, who had not become citizens, were required to carry identity cards identifying them as "resident alien". Thousands more on the West Coast were required to move inland, often losing their homes and businesses in the process. A number of Italian-language newspapers were forced to close because of their past support of Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini. Two books, Una Storia Segreta by Lawrence Di Stasi and Uncivil Liberties by Stephen Fox; and a movie, Prisoners Among Us, document these World War II developments. Anti- fascist Italian expatriates in the United States founded the Mazzini Society in Northampton, Massachusetts in September 1939 to work toward ending Fascist rule in Italy. Political refugees from Mussolini's regime, they disagreed among themselves whether to ally with Communists and anarchists or to exclude them. The Mazzini Society joined together with other anti-Fascist Italian expatriates in the Americas at a conference in Montevideo, Uruguay in 1942. They unsuccessfully promoted one of their members, Carlo Sforza, to become the post-Fascist leader of a republican Italy. The Mazzini Society dispersed after the fall of Mussolini as most of its members returned to Italy. Italian Americans served with distinction during the war, and 14 were awarded the Medal of Honor. Among these was Sgt. John Basilone, one of the most decorated and famous servicemen in World War II, who was later featured in the HBO series The Pacific. Army Ranger Colonel Henry Mucci led one of the most successful rescue missions in U.S. history, that freed 511 survivors of the Bataan Death March from a Japanese prison camp in the Philippines, in 1945. In the air, Capt. Don Gentile became one of the war's leading aces, with 25 German planes destroyed. Biagio (Max) Corvo, an agent of the U.S. Office of Strategic Services (O.S.S.), drew up plans for the invasion of Sicily, and organized operations behind enemy lines in the Mediterranean region during World War II. He led the Italian Secret Intelligence branch of the O.S.S., which was able to smuggle hundreds of agents behind enemy lines, supply Italian partisan fighters, and maintain a liaison between Allied field commands and Italy's first post-Fascist Government. Corvo was awarded the Legion of Merit for his efforts during the war. The work of Enrico Fermi was crucial in developing the atom bomb. Fermi, a Nobel Prize laureate nuclear physicist, who immigrated to the United States from Italy in 1938, led a research team at the University of Chicago that achieved the world's first sustained nuclear chain reaction, which clearly demonstrated the feasibility of an atom bomb. Fermi later became a key member of the team at Los Alamos Laboratory that developed the first atom bomb. He was subsequently joined at Los Alamos by Emilio Segrè, one of his colleagues from Italy, who was also destined to receive the Nobel Prize in physics. Three United States World War II destroyers were named after Italian Americans: was named for Sgt. John Basilone; was named for Corporal Anthony P. Damato, who was awarded the Medal of Honor posthumously for his valor during World War II; and was named for Rear Admiral Bancroft Gherardi, who served during the Mexican–American and U.S. Civil Wars. World War II ended the unemployment and relief that characterized the 1930s, opening up new employment opportunities for large numbers of Italian Americans. Much of the Italian American population was concentrated in urban areas where the new munitions plants were located. Many Italian American women took war jobs, such as Rose Bonavita, who was recognized by President Roosevelt with a personal letter commending her for her performance as an aircraft riveter. She, together with a number of other women workers, provided the basis of the name, "Rosie the Riveter", which came to symbolize all of the millions of American women workers in the war industries. Chef Boyardee, the company founded by Ettore Boiardi, was one of the largest suppliers of rations for U.S. and allied forces during World War II. For his contribution to the war effort, Boiardi was awarded a gold star order of excellence from the United States War Department. Director Frank Capra made a series of wartime documentaries known as Why We Fight, for which he received the U.S. Distinguished Service Medal in 1945, and the Order of the British Empire Medal in 1962. From the onset of the war, and particularly following Pearl Harbor many viewed Italian Americans with suspicion. Groups such as The Los Angeles Council of California Women's Clubs petitioned General DeWitt to place all enemy aliens in concentration camps immediately, and the Young Democratic Club of Los Angeles went a step further, demanding the removal of American-born Italians and Germans—U.S. citizens—from the Pacific Coast. These calls along with substantial political pressure from congress resulted in President Franklin D. Roosevelt issuing Executive Order No. 9066, as well as the Department of Justice classifying unnaturalised Italian Americans as "enemy aliens" under the Alien and Sedition Act. Thousands of Italians were arrested, and hundreds of Italians were interned in military camps, some for up to 2 years. As many as 600,000 others were required to carry identity cards identifying them as "resident alien". Thousands more on the West Coast were required to move inland, often losing their homes and businesses in the process. A number of Italian-language newspapers were forced to close. Two books, Una Storia Segreta by Lawrence Di Stasi and Uncivil Liberties by Stephen Fox; and a movie, Prisoners Among Us, document these World War II developments. On November 7, 2000 Bill Clinton signed the Wartime Violation of Italian American Civil Liberties Act. This act ordered a comprehensive review by the Attorney General of the United States of the treatment of Italian Americans during the Second World War. The findings concluded that: 1. The freedom of more than 600,000 Italian-born immigrants in the United States and their families was restricted during World War II by Government measures that branded them ‘enemy aliens’ and included carrying identification cards, travel restrictions, and seizure of personal property. 2. During World War II more than 10,000 Italian Americans living on the West Coast were forced to leave their homes and prohibited from entering coastal zones. More than 50,000 were subjected to curfews. 3. During World War II thousands of Italian-American immigrants were arrested, and hundreds were interned in military camps. 4. Hundreds of thousands of Italian Americans performed exemplary service and thousands sacrificed their lives in defense of the United States. 5. At the time, Italians were the largest foreign-born group in the United States, and today are the fifth largest immigrant group in the United States, numbering approximately 15 million. 6. The impact of the wartime experience was devastating to Italian-American communities in the United States, and its effects are still being felt. 7. A deliberate policy kept these measures from the public during the war. Even 50 years later much information is still classified, the full story remains unknown to the public, and it has never been acknowledged in any official capacity by the United States Government. In 2010, California officially issued an apology to the Italian Americans whose civil liberties had been violated. Italians continued to immigrate to the United States, and an estimated 600,000 arrived in the decades following the war. Many of the new arrivals had professional training, or were skilled in various trades. The post-war period was a time of great social change for Italian Americans. Many aspired to a college education, which became possible for returning veterans through the GI Bill. With better job opportunities and better educated, Italian Americans entered mainstream American life in great numbers. The Italian enclaves were largely abandoned by the younger generation, who more often chose to live in other urban areas and in the suburbs. Many married outside of their ethnic group, most frequently with other ethnic Catholics, but increasingly also with those of diverse religious and ethnic backgrounds. Italian Americans took advantage of the new opportunities that generally became available to all in the post-war decades. They made many significant contributions to American life and culture. Numerous Italian Americans became involved in politics at the local, state and national levels in the post-war decades. Those that became U.S. senators included: John Pastore of Rhode Island, who was the first Italian American elected to the Senate in 1950; Pete Domenici, who was elected to the U.S. Senate from New Mexico in 1973, and served six terms; Patrick Leahy who was elected to the U.S. Senate from Vermont in 1973, and has served continuously since then; and Alfonse D'Amato, who served as U.S. Senator from New York from 1981 to 1999. Benjamin Civiletti served as the United States Attorney General during the last year and a half of the Carter administration, from 1979 to 1981. Scores of Italian Americans became well known singers in the post-war period, including: Frank Sinatra, Mario Lanza, Perry Como, Dean Martin, Tony Bennett, Frankie Laine, Bobby Darin, Julius La Rosa, and Connie Francis. Italian Americans who hosted popular musical/variety TV shows in the post-war decades included: Perry Como (1949 to 1967), piano virtuoso Liberace (1952–1956), Jimmy Durante (1954–1956), Frank Sinatra (1957–1958) and Dean Martin (1965–1974). Broadway, musical stars included: Rose Marie, Carol Lawrence, Anna Maria Alberghetti, Sergio Franchi, Patti LuPone, Ezio Pinza and Liza Minnelli. In music composition, Henry Mancini and Bill Conti received numerous Academy Awards for their songs and film scores. Classical and operatic composers John Corigliano, Norman Dello Joio, David Del Tredici, Paul Creston, Dominick Argento, Gian Carlo Menotti and Donald Martino were honored with Pulitzer Prizes and Grammy Awards. Numerous Italian Americans became well known in movies, both as actors and directors, and many were Academy Award recipients. Movie directors included: Frank Capra, Francis Ford Coppola, Michael Cimino, Vincente Minnelli, Martin Scorsese and Brian De Palma. Italian Americans were active in professional sports as players, coaches and commissioners. Well-known professional baseball coaches in the post-war decades included: Yogi Berra, Billy Martin, Tony La Russa, Tommy Lasorda and Joe Torre. In professional football, Vince Lombardi set the standard of excellence for all coaches to follow. A. Bartlett Giamatti became president of the National Baseball League in 1986, and Commissioner of Baseball in 1989. Paul Tagliabue was Commissioner of the National Football League from 1989 to 2006. In college football, Joe Paterno became one of the most successful coaches ever. Seven Italian American players won the Heisman Trophy: Angelo Bertelli of Notre Dame, Alan Ameche of Wisconsin, Gary Beban of UCLA, Joe Bellino of Navy, John Cappelletti of Penn State, Gino Torretta and Vinny Testaverde of Miami. In college basketball, a number of Italian Americans became well known coaches in the post-war decades, including: John Calipari, Lou Carnesecca, Rollie Massimino, Rick Pitino, Jim Valvano, Dick Vitale, Tom Izzo, Mike Fratello, Ben Carnevale and Geno Auriemma. Italian Americans became nationally known in other diverse sports. Rocky Marciano was the undefeated heavyweight boxing champion from 1952 to 1956; Ken Venturi won both the British and U.S. Open golf championships in 1956; Donna Caponi won the U.S. Women's Open golf championships in 1969 and 1970; Linda Frattianne was the woman's U.S. figure skating champion four years in a row, from 1975–1978, and world champion in 1976 and 1978; Willie Mosconi was a 15-time World Billiard champion; Eddie Arcaro was a 5-time Kentucky Derby winner; Mario Andretti was a 3-time national race car champion; Mary Lou Retton won the all-around gold medal in Olympic woman's gymnastics; Matt Biondi won a total of 8 gold medals in Olympic swimming; and Brian Boitano won a gold medal in Olympic men's singles figure skating. Italian Americans founded many successful business enterprises, both small and large, in the post-war decades, including: Barnes & Noble, Tropicana Products, Zamboni, Transamerica, Subway, Mr. Coffee and Conair Corporation. Other enterprises founded by Italian Americans were Fairleigh Dickinson University, the Eternal Word Television Network, and the Syracuse Nationals basketball team – later to become the Philadelphia 76ers. Seven Italian Americans became Nobel Prize laureates in the post-war decades: Mario Capecchi, Renato Dulbecco, Riccardo Giacconi, Salvatore Luria, Franco Modigliani, Rita Levi Montalcini and Emilio G. Segrè. Italian Americans continued to serve with distinction in the military, with four Medal of Honor recipients in the Korean War and eleven in the Vietnam War., including Vincent Capodanno, a Catholic chaplain. By the close of the 20th century, Italian Americans had achieved education, employment and income parity with Americans in general. They had excelled in all fields of endeavor, and had made substantial contributions in virtually all areas of American life and culture. Italian Americans had served with distinction in all of America's wars, and over thirty had been awarded the Medal of Honor. A number of Italian Americans were serving as top-ranking generals in the military, including Anthony Zinni, Raymond Odierno, Carl Vuono and Peter Pace, the latter three having also been appointed Chief of Staff of their respective services. Over two dozen of Italian descent had been elected as state governors, most recently Paul Cellucci of Massachusetts, John Baldacci of Maine, Janet Napolitano of Arizona, Donald Carcieri of Rhode Island, Joseph Manchin of West Virginia, Gina Raimondo of Rhode Island, Chris Christie of New Jersey, and Andrew Cuomo of New York. At the close of the 20th century, 31 men and woman of Italian descent were serving in the U.S. House and Senate. Two Italian Americans, Antonin Scalia and Samuel Alito, were serving as U.S. Supreme Court justices. Over two dozen Italian Americans were serving in the Catholic Church as bishops. Four—Joseph Bernardin, Justin Rigali, Anthony Bevilacqua and Daniel DiNardo—had been elevated to Cardinals. Italian Americans were responsible for major breakthroughs in engineering, medicine and science. Federico Faggin developed the first micro-chip and micro-processor; Robert Gallo led research that identified a cancer-causing virus, and also the AIDS virus; Anthony Fauci conducted significant research that led to the discovery of the AIDS virus; Riccardo Giacconi developed the X-ray telescope; and Enrico Fermi ushered in the nuclear-power age. At the close of the 20th century, according to the National Italian American Foundation, 82 of the 1,000 largest U.S. cities had mayors of Italian descent, and 166 college and university presidents were of Italian descent Nine Italian Americans, including a woman, had gone into space as astronauts: Wally Schirra, Dominic Antonelli, Charles Camarda, Michael Massimino, Richard Mastracchio, Ronald Parise, Mario Runco, Albert Sacco and Nicole Marie Passonno Stott. Rocco Petrone was the third director of the NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, from 1973 to 1974. Americans of Italian descent were well known television personalities. Talk-show hosts included Jay Leno, Jimmy Kimmel and Kelly Ripa. Current-affairs and financial-show hosts included Maria Bartiromo and Neil Cavuto. Italian Americans had changed the eating habits of America. An increasing number of Italian dishes were known and enjoyed. Italian American TV personalities, such as Mario Batali, Giada DeLaurentiis, Rachael Ray and Lidia Bastianich were hosting popular cooking shows featuring Italian cuisine. Within a century of the period of peak immigration, Italian Americans had achieved prominence in politics, the judiciary, business, the professions, the military and the Catholic hierarchy. They were counted among the country's best known sports and entertainment figures. In the 1930s, Italian Americans voted heavily Democratic. Carmine DeSapio in the late 1940s became the first to break the Irish Catholic hold on Tammany Hall since the 1870s. By 1951 more than twice as many Italian American legislators as in 1936 served in the six states with the most Italian Americans. Since 1968, voters have split about evenly between the Democratic (37%) and the Republican (36%) parties. The U.S. Congress includes Italian Americans who are leaders in both the Republican and Democratic parties. In 2007, Nancy Pelosi (D-CA) became the first woman and Italian American Speaker of the United States House of Representatives. Former Republican New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani was a candidate for the U.S. presidency in the 2008 election, as was Colorado Congressman Tom Tancredo. Rick Santorum won many primaries in his candidacy for the 2012 Republican presidential nomination. In the 2016 election, Santorum and New Jersey governor Chris Christie ran for the Republican nomination, as did Ted Cruz and George Pataki, who both have a smaller amount of Italian ancestry. Geraldine Ferraro was the first woman on a major party ticket, running for Vice President as a Democrat in 1984. Two justices of the Supreme Court have been Italian Americans, Antonin Scalia and Samuel Alito. Both were appointed by Republican presidents, Scalia by Ronald Reagan and Alito by George W. Bush. The Italian American Congressional Delegation currently includes 30 members of Congress who are of Italian descent. They are joined by more than 150 associate members, who are not Italian American but have large Italian American constituencies. Since its founding in 1975, the National Italian American Foundation (NIAF) has worked closely with the bicameral and bipartisan Italian American Congressional Delegation, which is led by co-chairs Rep. Bill Pascrell of New Jersey and Rep. Pat Tiberi of Ohio. The NIAF hosts a variety of public policy programs, contributing to public discourse on timely policy issues facing the nation and the world. These events are held on Capitol Hill and other locations under the auspices of NIAF's Frank J. Guarini Public Policy Forum and its sister program, the NIAF Public Policy Lecture Series. NIAF's 2009 public policy programs on Capitol Hill featured prominent Italians and Italian Americans as keynote speakers, including Leon Panetta, Director of the CIA, and Franco Frattini, Minister of Foreign Affairs for the Republic of Italy. By the 1890s Italian Americans in New York City were mobilizing as a political force. They helped elect Fiorello La Guardia (a Republican) as mayor in 1933, and helped reelect him in 1937, and 1941. They rallied for Vincent R. Impellitteri (a Democrat) in 1950, and Rudolph W. Giuliani (a Republican) in 1989 (when he lost), and in 1993 and 1997 (when he won). All three Italian Americans aggressively fought to reduce crime in the city; each was known for his good relations with the city's powerful labor unions. La Guardia and Giuliani have had the reputation among specialists on urban politics as two of the best mayors in American history. Democrat Bill de Blasio, the third mayor of Italian ancestry, is the 109th and current mayor of New York City. Mario Cuomo (Democratic) served as the 52nd Governor of New York for three terms, from 1983 to 1995. His son Andrew Cuomo is the 56th (and current) Governor of New York and previously served as Secretary of Housing and Urban Development from 1997 to 2001, and as the Attorney General of New York from 2007 to 2010. Italian Americans have played a prominent role in the economy of the United States, and have founded companies of great national importance, such as Bank of America (by Amadeo Giannini in 1904), and many companies that have contributed to the local culture and character of U.S. cities, such as Petrini's Markets (founded by Frank Petrini in 1935), among many others. Italian Americans have also made important contributions to the growth of the U.S. economy through their business expertise. Italian Americans have served as CEO's of numerous major corporations, such as the Ford Motor Company and Chrysler Corporation by Lee Iacocca, IBM Corporation by Samuel Palmisano, Lucent Technologies by Patricia Russo, The New York Stock Exchange by Richard Grasso, Honeywell Incorporated by Michael Bonsignore, and Intel by Paul Otellini. About two thirds of America's Italian immigrants arrived during 1900–1924. Many were of agrarian backgrounds, with little formal education and industrial skills, who became manual laborers heavily concentrated in the cities. Others came with traditional Italian skills as: tailors; barbers; bricklayers; stonemasons; stone cutters; marble, tile and terrazzo workers; fishermen; musicians; singers; shoe makers; shoe repairers; cooks; bakers; carpenters; grape growers; wine makers; silk makers; dressmakers; and seamstresses. Others came to provide for the needs of the immigrant communities, notably doctors, dentists, midwives, lawyers, teachers, morticians, priests, nuns, and brothers. Many of the skilled workers found work in their speciality, first in the Italian enclaves, and eventually in the broader society. Traditional skills were often passed down from father to son, and from mother to daughter. By the second-generation approximately 70% of the men had blue collar jobs, and the proportion was down to approximately 50% in the third generation, according to surveys in 1963. By 1987, the level of Italian-American income exceeded the national average, and since the 1950s it grew faster than any other white ethnic group except the Jews. By 1990, according to the U.S. census, more than 65% of Italian Americans were employed as managerial, professional, or white-collar workers. In 1999, the median annual income of Italian-American families was $61,300, while the median annual income of all American families was $50,000. Italian women who arrived during the period of mass immigration had to adapt to new and unfamiliar social and economic conditions. Mothers, who had the task of raising the children and providing for the welfare of the family, commonly demonstrated great courage and resourcefulness in meeting these obligations, often under adverse living conditions. Their cultural traditions, which placed the highest priority on the family, remained strong as Italian immigrant women adapted to these new circumstances. Married women typically avoided factory work and chose home-based economic activities such as dressmaking, taking in boarders, and operating small shops in their homes or neighborhoods. Italian neighborhoods also proved attractive to midwives, women who trained in Italy before coming to America. Many single women were employed in the garment industry as seamstresses, often in unsafe working environments. Many of the 146 who died in the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in 1911 were Italian-American women. Angela Bambace was an 18-year-old Italian American organizer for the International Ladies Garment Workers Union in New York who worked to secure better working conditions and shorter hours for women workers in the garment industry. The American scene in the 1920s featured a widespread expansion of women's roles, starting with the vote in 1920, and including new standards of education, employment and control of their own sexuality. "Flappers" raised the hemline and lowered the old restrictions in women's fashion. The Italian-American media disapproved. It demanded the holding of the line regarding traditional gender roles in which men controlled their families. Many traditional patriarchal values prevailed among Southern European male immigrants, although some practices like dowry were left behind in Europe. The community spokesmen were shocked at the notion of a woman marking her secret ballot. They ridiculed flappers and proclaimed that feminism was immoral. They idealized an old male model of Italian womanhood. Mussolini was popular with readers and subsidized some papers, so when he expanded the electorate to include some women voting at the local level, the Italian American editorialists applauded him, arguing that the true Italian woman was, above all, a mother and a wife and, therefore, would be reliable as a voter on local matters but only in Italy. Feminist organizations in Italy were ignored, as the editors purposely associated emancipation with Americanism and transformed the debate over women's rights into a defense of the Italian-American community to set its own boundaries and rules. The ethnic papers featured a woman's page that updated readers on the latest fabrics, color combinations, and accessories including hats, shoes, handbags, and jewelry. Food was a major concern, and recipes were presented which adjusted to the availability of ingredients in the American market. Food supplies were limited in Italy by poverty and strict import controls, but abundant in America, so new recipes were needed to take advantage. In the second and third generations, opportunities expanded as women were gradually accepted in the workplace and as entrepreneurs. Women also had much better job opportunities because they had a high school or sometimes college education, and were willing to leave the Little Italies and commute to work. During World War II large numbers of Italian American women entered the workforce in factories providing war materiel, while others served as auxiliaries or nurses in the military services. After the war, Italian American women had much greater freedom in choosing a career, and seeking higher levels of education. Consequently, the second half of the 20th century was a period in which Italian American women excelled in virtually all fields of endeavor. They were responsible for a significant number of firsts: The National Organization of Italian American Women (NOIAW), founded in 1980, is an organization for women of Italian heritage committed to preserving Italian heritage, language and culture by promoting and supporting the advancement of women of Italian ancestry. The culture the Italian immigrants brought with them was generally not the high Italian culture of Dante and Michelangelo, but the culture of the region or village from which they came. These individual but related cultures established the basis of contemporary Italian American culture. A University of Chicago study of fifteen ethnic groups showed that Italian Americans were among those groups having the lowest percentages of divorce, unemployment, people on welfare and those incarcerated. On the other hand, they were among those groups with the highest percentages of two-parent families, elderly family members still living at home, and families who eat together on a regular basis. Italian-American culture, and transplanted Italian culture, have influenced American culture in a variety of ways, such as: restaurants, foods, coffees and desserts; wine production (in California and elsewhere in the U.S.); popular music, starting in the 1940s and 1950s, and continuing into the present; operatic, classical and instrumental music; jazz; fashion and design; "Capra-esque" movies (in the style of Frank Capra); Italianate architecture, in homes, churches, and public buildings; Montessori schools; Christmas crèches; fireworks displays; bocce; Columbus Day parades; and the commemoration of Columbus, as reflected in numerous monuments, city names, names of institutions and the poetic name, "Columbia", for the United States itself. San Francisco's Museo ItaloAmericano, Albany's American Italian Heritage Museum & Cultural Center, New York City's Italian American Museum, and the Italian American Museum of Los Angeles are all dedicated to preserving and sharing the experiences and contributions of Italian immigrants and their descendants. The Italic Institute of America is dedicated to fostering and preserving knowledge of the classical Italian heritage of American society, through the Latin language and Greco-Roman-Etruscan civilization, as well as 5 centuries of contributions to American society by Italians and their descendants. The National Italian American Foundation (NIAF) – a nonpartisan, nonprofit organization headquartered in Washington, D.C. – works to represent Italian Americans, spread knowledge of the Italian language, foster U.S./Italy relations and connect the greater Italian American community. Additionally, two major Italian American fraternal and service organizations, Order Sons of Italy in America and Unico National, actively promote knowledge of Italian American history and culture. The Italian Heritage and Culture Committee – NY, Inc. was founded in 1976, and has organized special events, concerts, exhibits and lectures celebrating Italian culture in New York City. Each year it focuses on a theme representative of the history and culture of Italy and Italian Americans. The works of a number of early Italian-American authors and poets, born of immigrant parents, were published in the first half of the 20th century. Pietro Di Donato, born in 1911, was a writer best known for his novel, Christ in Concrete, which was hailed by critics in the United States and abroad as a metaphor for the immigrant experience in America. Frances Winwar, born Francesca Vinciguerra in 1907 in Sicily, came to the United States at age ten. She is best known for her series of biographies of 19th Century English writers. She was also a frequent translator of classic Italian works into English, and published several romantic novels set during historical events. John Ciardi, born in 1916, was primarily a poet. Among his works is a highly respected English-language rendition of Dante's Divine Comedy. John Fante, born in 1909, was a novelist, short story writer and screenwriter. Later in the century, a growing number of books by recognized Italian-American authors, such as Don DeLillo, Giannina Braschi, Paul Gallico (Poseidon Adventure), Gilbert Sorrentino, Gay Talese, Camille Paglia and Mario Puzo (The Fortunate Pilgrim) found a place in mainstream American literature. Other notable 20th- century authors included: Dana Gioia, Executive Director of the National Endowment for the Arts; John Fusco, author of Paradise Salvage; Tina DeRosa; and Daniela Gioseffi, winner of the John Ciardi Award for Lifetime Achievement in Poetry, and The American Book Award; and Josephine Gattuso Hendin (The Right Thing to Do). Poets Sandra (Mortola) Gilbert and Kim Addonizio were also winners of the John Ciardi Award for Lifetime Achievement in Poetry from Italian Americana, as was writer Helen Barolini and poet Maria Mazziotti Gillan. These women have authored many books depicting Italian American women in a new light. Helen Barolini's The Dream Book: An Anthology of Writings by Italian American Women (1985) was the first anthology that pulled together the historic range of writing from the late 19th century to the 1980s. It exhibited the wealth of fiction, poetry, essays, and letters, and paid special attention to the interaction of Italian American women with American social activism. Italian American poets Lawrence Ferlinghetti and Gregory Corso played a prominent role in the Beat Generation. Ferlinghetti was also the co- founder of City Lights Bookstore, a San Francisco bookstore and publishing company that published much of the work of other Beat Generation writers. Many of these authors' books and writings are easily found on the internet, as for example on an archive of Contemporary Italian American authors, as well as in bibliographies online at Stonybrook University's Italian American Studies Department in New York, or at the Italian American Writers Association website. A scholarly literature has also emerged that critiques the literary output. Common themes include conflicts between marginal Italian American and mainstream culture, and tradition-bound immigrant parents opposed by their more assimilated children. Mary Jo Bona provided the first full-length scholarly analysis of the literary tradition. She is especially interested in showing how authors portrayed the many configurations of family relationships, from the early immigrant narratives of journeying to a new world, through novels that stress intergenerational conflicts, to contemporary works about the struggle of modern women to form nontraditional gender roles. Among the scholars who have led the renaissance in Italian-American literature are professors Richard Gambino, Anthony Julian Tamburri, Paolo Giordano, and Fred Gardaphé. The latter three founded Bordighera Press and edited From the Margin, An Anthology of Italian American Writing, Purdue University Press. At Brooklyn College, Dr. Robert Viscusi founded the Italian American Writers Association, and is an author and American Book Award winner himself. As a result of the efforts of magazines like Voices in Italian Americana, Ambassador, a publication of the National Italian American Foundation and Italian Americana, edited by Carla Simonini, Italian Americans have been reading more works of their own writers. A supplemental website at www.italianamericana.com to the journal Italian Americana, edited by novelist Christine Palamidessi Moore, also offers historical articles, stories, memoirs, poetry, and book reviews. Dana Gioia, was Poetry Editor of Italian Americana from 1993 to 2003, followed by poet Michael Palma, who also selects poems for Italian Americanas webpage supplement. Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Daniela Gioseffi and Paul Mariani, are among the internationally known authors who have been awarded The John Ciardi Award for Lifetime Achievement in Poetry during Michael Palma's tenure as Poetry Editor. Daniela Gioseffi, with Alfredo De Palchi, founded The Annual $2000 Bordighera Poetry Prize to further the names of Italian American poets in American literature. As of 1997, twelve books have been published in the bilingual series from Bordighera Press. In the field of academic cinema studies, Peter Bondanella, Peter Brunette, and Frank P. Tomasulo have made significant contributions to film scholarship as authors, editors, and educators. Italian Americans have written not only about the Italian American experience but, indeed, the human experience. Some of the most popular inspirational books have been authored by Italian Americans – notably, those of Og Mandino, Leo Buscaglia and Antoinette Bosco. A series of inspirational books for children has been written by Tomie dePaola. Contemporary best-selling fiction writers include David Baldacci, Kate DiCamillo, Richard Russo, Adriana Trigiani and Lisa Scottoline. The vast majority of Italian Americans are Catholics, at least nominally. Four hundred Italian Jesuit priests left Italy for the American West between 1848 and 1919. Most of these Jesuits left their homeland involuntarily, expelled by Italian nationalists in the successive waves of Italian unification that dominated Italy. When they came to the West, they ministered to Indians in the Northwest, Irish-Americans in San Francisco and Mexican Americans in the South West; they also ran the nation's most influential Catholic seminary, in Woodstock, Md. In addition to their pastoral work, they founded numerous high schools and colleges, including Regis University, Santa Clara University, the University of San Francisco, and Gonzaga University. In some Sicilian American communities, primarily Buffalo and New Orleans, Saint Joseph's Day (March 19) is marked by parades and celebrations, including traditional "St. Joseph's tables", where meatless dishes are served for the benefit of the communities' poor. Columbus Day is also widely celebrated, as are the feasts of some regional Italian patron saints. In Boston's North End, the Italian immigrants celebrate the "Feast of all Feasts" Saint Anthony's Feast. Started by Italian immigrants from Montefalcione, a small town near Naples, Italy in 1919, the feast is widely considered the largest and most authentic Italian Religious festival in the United States. Over 100 vendors and 300,000 people attend the feast over a 3-day period in August. San Gennaro (September 19) is another popular saint, especially among Neapolitans. Santa Rosalia (September 4), is celebrated by immigrants from Sicily. Immigrants from Potenza celebrate the San Rocco's Day (August 16) feast at the Potenza Lodge in Denver the third weekend of August. San Rocco is the patron saint of Potenza, as is San Gerardo. Many still celebrate the Christmas season with a Feast of the Seven Fishes. The Feast of the Assumption is celebrated in Cleveland's Little Italy on August 15. On this feast day, people will pin money on a Blessed Virgin Mary statue as a symbol of prosperity. The statue is then paraded through Little Italy to Holy Rosary Church. For almost 25 years, Cleveland Bishop Anthony Pilla participated in the parade and Mass to celebrate his Italian heritage. Bishop Pilla retired in April 2006, but continues to participate. While most Italian-American families have a Catholic background, there are converts to Protestantism as well. In the early 20th century, about 300 Protestant missionaries worked in urban Italian American neighborhoods. Some have joined the Episcopal Church, which still retains much of the Catholic liturgical form. Some have converted to evangelical churches. Fiorello La Guardia was an Episcopalian on his father's side; his mother was from the small but significant community of Italian Jews. There is a small charismatic denomination, known as the Christian Church of North America, which is rooted in the Italian Pentecostal Movement that originated in Chicago in the early 20th century. A group of Italian immigrants in Trenton, New Jersey and Wakefield, Mass.( built their own small Baptist Chapel) and converted to the Baptist denomination. The Church of Jesus Christ (Bickertonite), a denomination of the Latter Day Saint movement, which is headquartered in Monongahela, Pennsylvania, counts significant numbers of Italian Americans in its leadership and membership. The town of Valdese, North Carolina was founded in 1893 by a group of Italians of Waldensian religion, originally from the Cottian Alps in Italy. The Jewish emigration from Italy was never of a magnitude that resulted in the formation of Italian-Jewish communities in the United States. Religious Italian Jews integrated into existing Jewish communities without difficulty, especially in Sephardic communities; and those who were secular found Jewish secular institutions in the United States ready to welcome them. Despite their small numbers, Italian American Jews have had a great impact on American life, starting with Lorenzo Da Ponte (born Emanuele Conegliano), Mozart's former librettist, opera impresario and the first Professor of Italian at Columbia College in New York where he lived from 1805 to his death in 1838. From a religious point of view the figure of greatest influence is that of Rabbi Sabato Morais who, at the end of the nineteenth century, was the leader of the large Sephardic community of Philadelphia and, in 1886, he became one of the founders of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America in New York, where he became its first dean. Two other Italian Jews achieved prominence in the United States in the first half of the twentieth century: Giorgio Polacco was the principal conductor of the Metropolitan Opera House (1915–1917), and the Chicago Civic Opera (1921–30); and Fiorello La Guardia was a member of the U.S. Congress (1917–1919 and 1923–1933), and a popular Mayor of New York (1934–1945). A descendant on his mother's side of the great Italian rabbi Samuel David Luzzatto, La Guardia could address his constituency in both Italian and Yiddish. Under the Italian Racial Laws of 1938, Jewish Italians, who had lived in Italy for over two millennia, were denied many civil liberties. Because they were forbidden to teach at Italian universities, some sought refuge in the United States, where they subsequently made significant contributions. Many achieved international importance, including: Giorgio Levi Della Vida, Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Vittorio Rieti, Bruno Rossi, Emilio Segre, Giorgio Cavaglieri, Ugo Fano, Robert Fano, Guido Fubini, Eugene Fubini, and Silvano Arieti. Of particular importance also are the contributions of the Italian Jewish women Maria Bianca Finzi-Contini, Bianca Ara Artom, and Giuliana Tesoro, who opened the fields of university and scientific research to Italian American women. After the war, four Italian-American Jews received the Nobel prize: Franco Modigliani, Emilio Segre, Salvador Luria and Rita Levi Montalcini. Also of significance are the contributions of communication specialist Andrew Viterbi, journalist/writer Ken Auletta and economist Guido Calabresi. The international recognition of the work of Primo Levi and other Italian-Jewish authors, such as Giorgio Bassani and Carlo Levi, has increased the interest in the United States in Italian Judaism, as demonstrated by the opening in 1998 of the Primo Levi Center of New York. During the era of mass immigration, rural families in Italy did not place a high value on formal education since they needed their children to help with chores as soon as they were old enough. For many, this attitude did not change upon arriving in America, where children were expected to help support the family as soon as possible. This view toward education steadily changed with each successive generation. The 1970 census revealed that those under age 45 had achieved a level of education comparable to the national average, and within six decades of their peak immigration year, Italian Americans as a whole had equaled the national average in educational attainment. Presently, according to Census Bureau data, Italian Americans have an average high school graduation rate, and a higher rate of advanced degrees compared to the national average. Italian Americans throughout the United States are well represented in a wide variety of occupations and professions, from skilled trades, to the arts, to engineering, science, mathematics, law, and medicine, and include a number of Nobel prize winners. There are two Italian international schools in the United States, La Scuola International in San Francisco, and La Scuola d'Italia Guglielmo Marconi in New York City. According to the Sons of Italy News Bureau, from 1998 to 2002 the enrollment in college Italian language courses grew by 30%, faster than the enrollment rates for French and German. Italian is the fourth most commonly taught foreign language in U.S. colleges and universities behind Spanish, French, and German. According to the U.S. 2000 Census, Italian (including Sicilian) is the sixth most spoken language in the United States (tied with Vietnamese) after English with over 1 million speakers. As a result of the large wave of Italian immigration to the United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Italian and Sicilian were once widely spoken in much of the U.S., especially in northeastern and Great Lakes area cities like Buffalo, Rochester, Detroit, Chicago, Cleveland, and Milwaukee, as well as San Francisco, St. Louis and New Orleans. Italian-language newspapers exist in many American cities, especially New York City, and Italian-language movie theatres existed in the U.S. as late as the 1950s. L'Idea is a bilingual quarterly published in Brooklyn since 1974. Arba Sicula (Sicilian Dawn) is a semiannual publication of the society of the same name, dedicated to preserving the Sicilian language. The magazine and a periodic newsletter offer prose, poetry and comment in Sicilian, with adjacent English translations. Today, prizes like the Bordighera Annual Poetry Prize, founded by Daniela Gioseffi, Pietro Mastrandrea and Alfredo di Palchi, with support from the Sonia Rraiziss-Giop Foundation and Bordighera Press, which publishes the winners in bilingual editions, have helped to encourage writers of the diaspora to write in Italian. Chelsea Books in New York City and Gradiva Press on Long Island have published many bilingual books due to the efforts of bilingual writers of the diaspora like Paolo Valesio, Alfredo de Palchi, and Luigi Fontanella. Dr. Luigi Bonaffini of the City University of New York, publisher of The Journal of Italian Translation at Brooklyn College, has fostered Italian dialectic poetry throughout Italy and the U.S. Joseph Tusiani of New York and New York University, a distinguished linguist and prize-winning poet born in Italy, paved the way for Italian works of literature in English and has published many bilingual books and Italian classics for the American audience, among them the first complete works of Michelangelo's poems in English to be published in the United States. All of this literary endeavor has helped to foster the Italian language, along with Italian opera, of course, in the United States. Many of these authors and their bilingual books are located throughout the internet. Author Lawrence Distasi argues that the loss of spoken Italian among the Italian American population can be tied to U.S. government pressures during World War II. During World War II, in various parts of the country, the U.S. government displayed signs that read, "Don't Speak the Enemy's Language". Such signs designated the languages of the Axis powers, German, Japanese, and Italian, as "enemy languages". Shortly after the Axis powers declared war on the U.S., many Italian, Japanese and German citizens were interned. Among the Italian Americans, those who spoke Italian, who had never become citizens, and who belonged to groups that praised Benito Mussolini, were most likely to become candidates for internment. Distasi claims that many Italian language schools closed down in the San Francisco Bay Area within a week of the U.S. declaration of war on the Axis powers. Such closures were inevitable since most of the teachers in Italian languages were interned. Despite previous decline, Italian and Sicilian are still spoken and studied by those of Italian American descent, and it can be heard in various American communities, especially among older Italian Americans. The official Italian taught in schools is Standard Italian, which is sometimes described as an amalgam of the Tuscan and Roman dialects. However, the "Italian" with which Italian Americans are generally acquainted is often rooted in the Regional Italian and Italo- Dalmatian languages their immigrant ancestors brought from Italy to American, primarily southern Italian and Sicilian dialects of pre-unification Italy. Despite it being the fifth most studied language in higher education (college and graduate) settings throughout America, the Italian language has struggled to maintain being an AP course of study in high schools nationwide. It was only in 2006 that AP Italian classes were first introduced, and they were soon dropped from the national curricula after the spring of 2009. The organization which manages such curricula, the College Board, ended the AP Italian program because it was "losing money" and had failed to add 5,000 new students each year. Since the program's termination in the spring of 2009, various Italian organizations and activists have attempted to revive the course of study. Most notable in the effort is Margaret Cuomo, sister of New York Governor Andrew Cuomo. She provided the impetus for the program's birth in 2006 and is currently attempting to secure funding and teachers to reinstate the program. It is also worth noting that Italian organizations have begun fundraisers to revive AP Italian. Organizations such as the NIAF and Order Sons of Italy in America have made strides in collecting money, and are prepared to aid in the monetary responsibility any new AP Italian program would bring with it. Moreover, Web-based Italian organizations, such as ItalianAware, have begun book donation campaigns to improve the status and representation of Italian and Italian American literature in the New York public libraries. According to ItalianAware, the Brooklyn Public Library is the worst offender in New York City. It has 11 books pertaining to the Italian immigrant experience available for checkout spread across 60 branches. That amounts to 1 book for every 6 branches in Brooklyn, which (according to ItalianAware) cannot supply the large Italian/Italian American community in the borough. ItalianAware aims to donate 100 books to the Brooklyn Public Library by the end of 2010. Generoso Pope (1891–1950), the owner of a chain of Italian-language newspapers in major cities, stands out as the epitome of the Italian American ethnic political broker. He bought Il Progresso Italo-Americano in 1928 for $2 million; he doubled its circulation to 200,000 in New York City, making it the largest Italian-language paper in the country. He purchased additional papers in New York and Philadelphia, which became the chief source of political, social, and cultural information for the community. Pope encouraged his readers to learn English, become citizens, and vote; his goal was to instill pride and ambition to succeed in modern America. A conservative Democrat who ran the Columbus Day parade and admired Mussolini, Pope was the most powerful enemy of anti-Fascism among Italian Americans. Closely associated with Tammany Hall politics in New York, Pope and his newspapers played a vital role in securing the Italian vote for Franklin D. Roosevelt's Democratic tickets. He served as chairman of the Italian Division of the Democratic National Committee in 1936, and helped persuade the president to take a neutral attitude over Italy's invasion of Ethiopia. He broke with Mussolini in 1941 and enthusiastically supported the American war effort. In the late 1940s Pope supported the election of William O'Dwyer as mayor in 1945 and Harry S. Truman as president. His business concerns continued to prosper under New York's Democratic administrations, and in 1946 he added the Italian-language radio station WHOM to his media holdings. In the early years of the Cold War, Pope was a leading anti-Communist and orchestrated a letter-writing campaign by his subscribers to stop the Communists from winning the Italian elections in 1948. Voters did not always vote the way editorials dictated, but they depended on the news coverage. At many smaller papers, support for Mussolini, short- sighted opportunism, deference to political patrons who were not members of the Italian-American communities, and the necessity of making a living through periodicals with a small circulation, generally weakened the owners of Italian-language newspapers when they tried to become political brokers of the Italian American vote. James V. Donnaruma purchased Boston's La Gazzetta del Massachusetts in 1905. La Gazzetta enjoyed a wide readership in Boston's Italian community because it emphasized detailed coverage of local ethnic events and explained how events in Europe affected the community. Donnaruma's editorial positions, however, were frequently at odds with the sentiments of his readership. Donnaruma's conservative views and desire for greater advertising revenue prompted him to court the favor of Boston's Republican elite, to whom he pledged editorial support in return for the purchase of advertising space for political campaigns. La Gazzetta consistently supported Republican candidates and policy positions, even when the party was proposing and passing laws to restrict Italian immigration. Nevertheless, voting records from the 1920s–1930s show that Boston's Italian Americans voted heavily for Democratic candidates. Carmelo Zito took over the San Francisco newspaper Il Corriere del Popolo in 1935. Under Zito, it became one of the fiercest foes of Mussolini's fascism on the West Coast. It vigorously attacked Italy's 1935 invasion of Ethiopia and its intervention in the Spanish Civil War. Zito helped form the Italian-American Anti-Fascist League and often attacked certain Italian prominenti like Ettore Patrizi, publisher of L'Italia and La Voce del Popolo. Zito's paper campaigned against alleged Italian pro-Fascist language schools of San Francisco. In 1909, Vincenzo Giuliano, an immigrant from Calabria, Italy, and his wife Maria (Oliva) founded La Tribune Italiana d'America, known today as The Italian Tribune, which circulates throughout southeastern Michigan. A second newspaper founded by a Catholic order of priests, La Voce del Popolo also served the Metro Detroit community until the 1920s, when that newspaper merged with La Tribuna Italiana d'America. Upon Giuliano's death in the 1960s, his family continued the paper. The most characteristic and popular of Italian American cultural contributions has been their feasts. Throughout the United States, wherever one may find an "Italian neighborhood" (often referred to as "Little Italy"), one can find festive celebrations such as the well-known Feast of San Gennaro in New York City, the unique Our Lady of Mount Carmel "Giglio" Feast in the Williamsburg section of Brooklyn, New York, Italian feasts involve elaborate displays of devotion to Jesus Christ and patron saints. On the weekend of the last Sunday in August, the residents of Boston's North End celebrate the "Feast of all Feasts" in honor of St. Anthony of Padua, which was started over 300 years ago in Montefalcione, Italy. Perhaps the most widely known is St. Joseph's feast day on March 19. These feasts are much more than simply isolated events within the year. Feast (Festa in Italian) is an umbrella term for the various secular and religious, indoor and outdoor activities surrounding a religious holiday. Typically, Italian feasts consist of festive communal meals, religious services, games of chance and skill and elaborate outdoor processions consisting of statues resplendent in jewels and donations. The celebration usually takes place over the course of several days, and is communally prepared by a church community or a religious organization over the course of several months. Currently, there are more than 300 Italian feasts celebrated throughout the United States. The largest is Festa Italiana, held in Milwaukee every summer. These feasts are visited each year by millions of Americans from various backgrounds who come together to enjoy Italian music and food delicacies. In the past, as to this day, an important part of Italian American culture centers around music and cuisine. During the period of mass immigration to the United States, Italians suffered widespread discrimination in housing and employment. They were often victims of prejudice, economic exploitation, and sometimes even violence, particularly in the South. Beginning in the late 1880s, anti-ethnic sentiment increased, and Catholic churches were often vandalized and burned and Italians were attacked by mobs. In the 1890s, it is estimated that more than 20 Italians were lynched. Much of the anti-Italian hostility in the United States was directed at Southern Italians and Sicilians, who began immigrating to the United States in large numbers after 1880. Before that, there were relatively few Italians in North America. Italian stereotypes abounded as a means of justifying the maltreatment of the immigrants. The print media greatly contributed to the stereotyping of Italians with lurid accounts of secret societies and criminality. Between 1890 and 1920, Italian neighborhoods were often depicted as violent and controlled by criminal networks. Two highly publicized cases illustrate the impact of these negative stereotypes: In 1891, eleven Italian immigrants in New Orleans were lynched due to their alleged role in the murder of the police chief David Hennessy. This was one of the largest mass lynchings in U.S. history. The lynching took place after nine of the immigrants were tried for the murder and acquitted. Subsequently, a mob broke into the jail where they were being held and dragged them out to be lynched, together with two other Italians who were being held in the jail at the time, but had not been accused in the killing. In 1920, two Italian immigrants, Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, were tried for robbery and murder in Braintree, Massachusetts. Many historians agree that they were given a very unfair and biased trial because of their anarchistic political beliefs and their Italian immigrant status. In spite of worldwide protests, Sacco and Vanzetti were eventually executed. While the vast majority of Italian immigrants brought with them a tradition of hard work and were law-abiding citizens, as documented by police statistics of the early 20th century in Boston and New York City which show that Italian immigrants had an arrest rate no greater than that of other major immigrant groups, a very small minority brought a very different custom. This criminal element preyed on the immigrants of the Little Italies, using intimidation and threats to extract protection money from the wealthier immigrants and shop owners, and were also involved in a multitude of other illegal activities. When the Fascists came to power in Italy, they made the destruction of the Mafia in Sicily a high priority. Hundreds fled to America in the 1920s and 1930s to avoid prosecution. Prohibition, which went into effect in 1920, proved to be an economic windfall for those in the Italian American community already involved in illegal activities, and those who had fled from Sicily. This entailed smuggling liquor into the country, wholesaling it, and then selling it through a network of outlets. While other ethnic groups were also deeply involved in these illegal ventures, and the associated violence, Chicago mobster Al Capone became the most notorious figure of the Prohibition era. Though eventually repealed, Prohibition had a long-term effect as the spawning ground for later criminal activities. In the 1950s, the scope of Italian-American organized crime became well known though a number of highly publicized congressional hearings that followed a police raid on a top-level meeting of racketeers in Apalachin, New York. With advanced surveillance techniques, the Witness Protection Program, the Racketeer Influenced & Corrupt Organizations Act, and vigorous and sustained prosecution the power and influence of organized crime were greatly diminished in the decades that followed. Two Italian American prosecutors, Rudy Giuliani and Louis Freeh, were instrumental in bringing this about. Freeh was later appointed director of the FBI, while Giuliani would serve two terms as Mayor of New York City. From the earliest days of the movie industry, Italians have been portrayed as violent criminals and sociopaths. This trend has continued to the present day. The stereotype of Italian Americans is the standardized mental image which has been fostered by the entertainment industry, especially through commercially successful movies like The Godfather, Goodfellas and Casino; and TV programs such as The Sopranos. This follows a known pattern in which it is possible for the mass media to effectively create universally recognized, and sometimes accepted, stereotypes. A highly publicized protest from the Italian-American community came in 2001 when the Chicago-based organization AIDA (American Italian Defamation Association) unsuccessfully sued Time Warner for distribution of HBO's series The Sopranos because of its negative portrayal of Italian Americans. The DreamWorks animated film, Shark Tale, was widely protested by virtually all major Italian-American organizations as introducing the mob genre and negative stereotyping into a children's movie. In spite of the protests, which started during its early production, the movie was produced and released in 2004. In 2009, MTV launched a reality show, Jersey Shore, which prompted severe criticism from Italian American organizations such as the National Italian American Foundation, Order Sons of Italy in America, and Unico National for its stereotypical portrayal of Italian Americans. The effective stereotyping of Italian Americans as being associated with organized crime was shown by a comprehensive study of Italian American culture on film, conducted from 1996 to 2001 by the Italic Institute of America. The findings showed that over two-thirds of the more than 2,000 films studied portray Italian Americans in a negative light. Further, close to 300 movies featuring Italian Americans as criminals have been produced since The Godfather, an average of nine per year. According to the Italic Institute of America: In actuality, according to recent FBI statistics, Italian American organized crime members and associates number approximately 3,000; and, given an Italian American population estimated to be approximately 18 million, the study concludes that only one in 6,000 has any involvement with organized crime. Little Italies were, to a considerable extent, the result of Italophobia. The ethnocentrism and anti-Catholicism exhibited by the earlier Anglo-Saxon and northern European settlers helped to create an ideological foundation for fixing foreignness on urban spaces occupied by immigrants. Communities of Italian Americans were established in most major industrial cities of the early 20th century, such as Baltimore, Maryland; New York City, New York; Newark, New Jersey; Boston, Massachusetts; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Hartford, Connecticut; Waterbury, Connecticut; New Haven, Connecticut; Providence, Rhode Island; St. Louis, Missouri; Chicago, Illinois; Cleveland, Ohio; Buffalo, New York; and Kansas City, Missouri. New Orleans, Louisiana was the first site of immigration of Italians and Sicilians into America in the 19th century, before Italy was a unified nation-state. This was before New York Harbor and Baltimore became the preferred destinations for Italian immigrants. In sharp contrast to the Northeast, most of the Southern states (with the exception of Central and South Florida and the New Orleans area) have relatively few Italian-American residents. During the labor shortage in the 19th and early 20th centuries, planters in the Deep South did attract some Italian immigrants to work as sharecroppers, but they soon left the extreme anti-Italian discrimination and strict regimen of the rural areas for the cities or other states. The state of California has had Italian-American residents since the 1850s. By the 1970s gentrification of inner city neighborhoods and the arrival of new immigrant groups caused a sharp decline in the old Italian-American and other ethnic enclaves. Many Italian Americans moved to the rapidly growing Western states, including Arizona, Colorado, Nevada, and California. Today, New York and New Jersey have the largest numbers of Italian Americans in the U.S. while smaller Northeastern cities such as Pittsburgh, Providence and Hartford have the highest percentage of Italian Americans in their metropolitan areas. New York City is home to the largest Italian-American population in the country and the third largest Italian population outside of Italy. Several Little Italies exist in New York City, including Manhattan, Belmont, Bensonhurst, Howard Beach and Rosebank. Historically, Little Italy on Mulberry Street in Manhattan, extends as far south as Canal Street, as far north as Bleecker, as far west as Lafayette and as far east as the Bowery. The neighborhood was once known for its large population of Italians. Today it consists of Italian stores and restaurants. The Italian immigrants congregated along Mulberry Street in Manhattan's Little Italy to celebrate San Gennaro as the Patron Saint of Naples. The Feast of San Gennaro is a large street fair, lasting 11 days, that takes place every September along Mulberry Street between Houston and Canal Streets. The festival is as an annual celebration of Italian culture and the Italian-American community. Today, much of the neighborhood has been absorbed and engulfed by Chinatown, as immigrants from China moved to the area. Arthur Avenue in the Belmont section of New York City's northernmost borough, The Bronx, was once the heart of the Bronx's "Little Italy". Robert De Niro's directing debut, A Bronx Tale, takes place within Little Italy, however, it was largely filmed in Astoria, Queens. The series Third Watch was initially based on Arthur Avenue, with the first episode referring to the firehouse as "Camelot", based on its location at the intersection of King Street and Arthur Avenue. The 1973 film The Seven-Ups, starring Roy Scheider, was filmed on Arthur Avenue and Hoffman Street. In 2003, a scene from the HBO series The Sopranos was shot in Mario's Restaurant. Leonard, of James Frey's A Million Little Pieces, grew up in this area. Much of the novel Underworld takes place near Arthur Avenue. The author, Don DeLillo, himself grew up in that neighborhood. Bensonhurst is heavily Italian- American, and it is usually considered the main "Little Italy" of Brooklyn. The Italian-speaking community remains over 20,000 strong, according to the census of 2000. However, the Italian-speaking community is becoming "increasingly elderly and isolated, with the small, tight-knit enclaves they built around the city slowly disappearing as they give way to demographic changes". Its main thoroughfare, 18th Avenue (also known as Cristoforo Colombo Boulevard) between roughly 60th Street and Shore Parkway, is lined with predominantly small, Italian family-owned businesses—many of which have remained in the same family for several generations. 86th Street is another popular local thoroughfare, lined by the arches of the elevated BMT West End Subway Line. The 18th Avenue Station was popularized in opening credits of Welcome Back, Kotter. Rosebank in Staten Island was another one of NYC's main area of Italian immigrants since the 1880s, and their descendants have continued as its predominant ethnic group, exemplified by the location of the Garibaldi Memorial in the community. In recent years the town has experienced an influx of other ethnic groups, including Eastern Europeans, various Latin nationalities as well as Asians, particularly from the Philippines. Howard Beach in the Queens is also home to a large Italian population. Philadelphia's Italian-American community is the second-largest in the United States. Italian Americans compose 21% of South Philadelphia's 163,000 people, and the area has numerous Italian stores and restaurants. Philadelphia is well known for its Italian Market in South Philadelphia. The Italian Market is the popular name for the South 9th Street Curb Market, an area of Philadelphia featuring many grocery shops, cafes, restaurants, bakeries, cheese shops, and butcher shops, many with an Italian influence. The historical heart of the market is the area of 9th Street between Christian Street and Washington Avenue, and is now generally considered to extend from Fitzwater Street at the north to Wharton Street at the south. The term Italian Market is also used to describe the surrounding neighborhood between South Street to the North and Wharton Street to the South running a few blocks to the east and west of 9th Street. It is entirely contained in the Bella Vista neighborhood. The "outdoor" market features bright, colorful metal awnings that cover the sidewalks where vendors of fruit, vegetables, fish, and housewares conduct business year round. Ground floor shops in traditional Philadelphia rowhouses line the street. Owners would have originally lived above their shops, and many still do. The market has also played a role in the culture of Philadelphia, and is often included in cultural depictions of the city. For example, the Italian Market was featured in the Rocky films, most notably the running/training montage where a vendor tosses the boxer an orange in Rocky. The television series Hack also filmed several episodes that featured the Italian Market. The Italian Market was also featured on a Season-5 episode of the television show It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia. Philadelphia has played a large role in Italian-American cooking, featuring numerous cheesesteak shacks such as Pat's and Geno's throughout the city and suburbs. Italian Philadelphians have strongly influenced the creation of Philadelphia's brand of cuisine with cheesesteak sandwiches, Hoagies, Italian ices, Philly style Soft Pretzels, Stromboli and bakery styled tomato pies. South Philadelphia has produced many well-known Italian American popular singers and musicians, including: Tony Mottola (famous for the "Tony Mottola" or "Danger" Chord), Frankie Avalon, Bobby Rydell, Mario Lanza, Al Martino, Jim Croce, Fabian Forte, Joey DeFrancesco, Buddy DeFranco, Fred Diodati (lead singer of The Four Aces), Buddy Greco, Charlie Ventura, Eddie Lang, Joe Venuti, Mark Valentino, and Vinnie Paz, Vincent "Jimmy Saunders" LaSpada. The North End in Boston since the early 20th century became the center of the Italian community of Boston. It is still largely residential and well known for its small, authentic Italian restaurants and for the first Italian cafe, Caffe Vittoria. The influx of Italian inhabitants has left a lasting mark on the area; many seminal Italian American. Prince Pasta was begun by three Sicilian immigrants Gaetano LaMarco, Giuseppe Seminara, and Michele Cantella. Pastene was formed by Sicilian immigrant Luigi Pastene. Both companies have grown into million-dollar-a-year businesses, and continue to be successful to the present day. To fully understand the sheer size of the Italian immigrant population, one must look back at the groups that preceded them. The Irish, at their peak, numbered roughly 14,000 and the Jews numbered 17,000. The Italians, however, peaked at over 44,000. In its heyday, Seventh Avenue in Newark was one of the largest Little Italies in the U.S. with a population of 30,000, in an area of less than a square mile. The center of life in the neighborhood was St. Lucy's Church, founded by Italian immigrants in 1891. Throughout the year, St. Lucy's and other churches sponsored processions in honor of saints that became community events. The most famous procession was the Feast of St. Gerard, but there were also great feasts for Our Lady of Mt. Carmel, Our Lady of Snow, the Assumption, and St. Rocco. Joe DiMaggio loved the restaurants of Seventh Avenue so much that he would take the New York Yankees to Newark to show them "real Italian food". Frank Sinatra had bread from Giordano's Bakery sent to him every week until his death, no matter where in the world he was. New York Yankees catcher Rick Cerone also grew up in the First Ward. One of the nation's largest Italian newspapers, The Italian Tribune, was founded on Seventh Avenue. Seventh Avenue produced stars such as Joe Pesci and Frankie Valli of the Four Seasons. Congressman Peter Rodino, Chairman of the House Judiciary Committee during its impeachment proceedings against Richard Nixon was a native of the First Ward as well. Seventh Avenue was notoriously devastated by urban renewal efforts during the 1950s. Eighth Avenue was obliterated by the city council, scattering the Italian American residents. Most of its businesses never recovered. The construction of Interstate 280 also served to cut the neighborhood off from the rest of the city. After the devastating urban renewal, some of the First Ward's Italians stayed in the neighborhood, while others migrated to other Newark neighborhoods like Broadway, Roseville, and the Ironbound, or other parts of New Jersey. Attracted by employment in its growing railroad and meat packing industries, Italians primarily from Calabria and Sicily immigrated to Kansas City in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Kansas City's Calabrese mainly passed through the port of New York, sometimes stopping in industrial cities like Pittsburgh along the way, en route to their final destination in the Midwest. Meanwhile, Kansas City's Sicilian community generally came through the port of New Orleans, staying there for a decade or more before bringing their families north. In Kansas City, these communities settled close to one another, often overlapping: the Sicilians taking root in what is now known as the River Market and Columbus Park neighborhoods, and the Calabrese mainly settling in the adjacent "Old Northeast" area. Italian immigrants from Lombardy came to St. Louis in the late 18th Century. As the city grew, immigrants from Southern Italy and Sicily also came. They clustered in an area called "The Hill" arguably the center of Italian American culture for the city of St. Louis. Professional baseball players Joe Garagiola and his friend since boyhood, Yogi Berra, grew up on The Hill. There are many Italian eateries in and around St. Louis. Italian Americans in St. Louis have contributed to local cuisine, known locally for Imo's Pizza and toasted ravioli. South St. Louis is well known for its large Italian American population, and for the numerous Italian Catholic parishes located there. Approximately 94,000 Italian American descendants now reside in the greater St. Louis area, making them a large population in St. Louis. Italian immigrants first came to the area around Syracuse, New York (a city named for Siracusa, Sicily) in 1883 after providing labor for the construction of the West Shore Railroad. At first, they were quite transient and came and went, but eventually settled down on the Northside. By 1899, the Italian immigrants were living on the Northside of the city in the area centered around Pearl Street. The Italians all but supplanted the Germans in that area of the city and had their own business district along North State and North Salina Streets. By September 2009, Syracuse's Little Italy district received millions of dollars of public and private investment for new sidewalks, streetscapes, landscaping, lighting and to set up a "Green Train" program, which trains men to work in green construction and renovation industries. In recent years, the neighborhood is a mix of Italian shops, restaurants and businesses that cater to the area's South Asian and African population. Although the neighborhood is far less Italian than in past years, banners throughout the district still read Little Italy. By 2010, demographics showed that 14.1% of the population in Syracuse was Italian descent. Federal Hill in Providence, Rhode Island, is best known for its Italian American community and abundance of restaurants. The first two decades of the 20th century witnessed heavy Italian American immigration into Federal Hill, making it the city's informal Little Italy. Though the area today is more diverse, Federal Hill still retains its status as the traditional center for the city's Italian American community. The neighborhood features a huge square dedicated to Giuseppe Garibaldi, a monumental gateway arch decorated with La Pigna sculpture (a traditional Italian symbol of welcome, abundance, and quality) and a DePasquale Plaza used for outdoor dining. Providence's annual Columbus Day parade marches down Atwells Avenue. The neighborhood around Chicago's Taylor Street has been called the port of call for Chicago's Italian-American immigrants. Taylor Street's Little Italy was home to Hull House, an early settlement house, founded by Jane Addams and Ellen Starr in 1889. Chicago's Italian American experience begins with the mass migration from the shores of southern Italy, the Hull House experiment, the Great Depression, World War II, and the machinations behind the physical demise of a neighborhood by the University of Illinois in 1963. Italian Americans dominated the inner core of the Hull House neighborhood, 1890s–1930s. One of the first newspaper articles about Hull House (Chicago Tribune, May 19, 1890) is an invitation, written in Italian, to the residents of the Hull House neighborhood signed, "Le Signorine, Jane Addams and Ellen Starr". The 1924 historic picture, "Meet the 'Hull House Kids'", was taken by Wallace K. Kirkland Sr., one of the Hull House directors. It served as a poster for Jane Addams and the Hull House Settlement House. All twenty kids were first generation Italian Americans...all with vowels at the end of their names. "They grew up to be lawyers and mechanics, sewer workers and dump truck drivers, a candy shop owner, a boxer and a mob boss." As suburbs grew in the post-World War II era, Chicago's Italian American population spread from the central city. Chicago's northwest side and the neighboring village of Elmwood Park has the highest concentration of Italian Americans in the state. Harlem Avenue, "La Corsa Italia", is lined with Italian stores, bakeries, clubs and organizations. The Feast of our Lady of Mount Carmel, in nearby Melrose Park, has been a regular event in the area for more than one hundred years. The near-west suburbs of Melrose Park, Schiller Park, Franklin Park, River Grove, Norridge, Chicago Heights, and Harwood Heights are also home to many Italian Americans. West suburban Stone Park is home of Casa Italia, an Italian American cultural center. The far-northwestern suburb of Rockford has a large population of Italian Americans. Cleveland's Little Italy, also known as Murray Hill, is the epicenter of Italian culture in Northeast Ohio, a combined statistical area reporting 285,000 (9.9%) Italian Americans. Little Italy took root when Joseph Carabelli, immigrating in 1880, saw the opportunity for monument work in Cleveland's Lake View Cemetery and established what soon became the city's leading marble and granite works. Most fresco and mosaic work in Cleveland was accomplished by Italian artist immigrants. Local Cleveland industrial billionaire John D. Rockefeller took a special liking to the Italian immigrants of the neighborhood and commissioned the building of the community center Alta House, named after his daughter Alta Rockefeller Prentice, in 1900. In 1906, Italian immigrant Angelo Vitantonio invented the first hand- crank pasta machine, which made pasta much easier to produce by eliminating the need to flatten and cut it by hand. Some other famous Italian Americans from Northeast Ohio included Anthony J. Celebrezze (49th Mayor of Cleveland), Ettore "Hector" Boiardi (Chef Boyardee), Frank Battisti (Federal Judge), and Dean Martin, born Dino Paul Crocetti in Steubenville, Ohio. Ohio's largest outdoor Italian-American street festival, the Feast of the Assumption, takes place the weekend of August 15 every year and draws over 100,000 people to the Little Italy neighborhood. The festival is sponsored by the congregation of Holy Rosary Church, which was founded in 1892 with the current church built in 1905. Italians first came to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in the late 19th century. Then in the 19th and 20th centuries large numbers of Italian immigrants began to come in mainly from Sicily and southern Italy. Brady Street, the historic Third Ward and the east side of Milwaukee is considered the heart of Italian immigration to the city, where as many as 20 Italian grocery stores once existed on Brady Street alone. Every year the largest Italian American festival in the United States, Festa Italiana, takes place in Milwaukee. Italian Americans number at around 16,992 in the city, but in Milwaukee County they number at 38,286. There is also an Italian newspaper called The Italian Times printed by the Italian Community Center (ICC). The community of Ybor City in Tampa, Florida is a cigar-centric company town founded in 1885 and originally populated by a unique mix of Spanish, Cuban, Jewish, and Italian immigrants, with most of the Italians coming from a small group of villages in southwestern Sicily. At first, Italians found it difficult to find employment in the insular and guild-like cigar industry, which had moved to Tampa from Cuba and Key West and was dominated by Hispanic workers. Many founded businesses to serve cigar workers, most notably small grocery stores in the neighborhood's commercial district supplied by Italian- owned vegetable and dairy farms located on open land east of Tampa's city limits. The immigrant cultures in town became better integrated as time went by; eventually, approximately 20% of the workers in the cigar industry were Italian Americans. The tradition of local Italian-owned groceries continued, however, and a handful of such businesses founded in the late 1800s were still operating into the 21st century. Many descendants of Sicilian immigrants eventually became prominent local citizens, such as mayors Nick Nuccio and Dick Greco. Birmingham, Alabama, was representative of smaller industrial centers. Most Italians in the early 20th century came to work in the burgeoning iron and coal industries. Dorothy L. Crim founded the Ensley Community House in the Italian district in 1912 at the behest of the Birmingham City Mission Board. From 1912 to 1969, Ensley House eased the often difficult transition to American life by providing direct assistance such as youth programs and day care services, social clubs, and 'Americanization' programs. According to the 1940 census, 18.5% of all European immigrants were Italian, the largest in the city. North Beach is San Francisco's Little Italy, and has historically been home to a large Italian American population. The American Planning Association (APA) has named North Beach as one of ten 'Great Neighborhoods in America'. Los Angeles is home to the largest Italian-American community in California (and on the West Coast), with 95,300 people identifying as Italian-American. Unlike other cities with sizable Italian-American communities, Los Angeles does not have an extant Little Italy. The district with the highest number of Italians is San Pedro, California, which is estimated to contain some 45,000 Italian-Americans. Most worked as fisherman during the first half of the 20th- century. The traditional center of Los Angeles' Italian American community, was the area north of the historic Los Angeles Plaza. It survived somewhat intact until the construction of Los Angeles Union Station, in 1939. The station was built in the center of Los Angeles' Old Chinatown, displacing half of the total Chinese community. The Chinese were allowed to relocate to Little Italy, where they quickly outnumbered the Italian community. Only a few relic- businesses survive, such as San Antonio Winery (the only winery, out of 92, to survive prohibition). The Italian American Museum of Los Angeles opened in 2016 in the historic Italian Hall. Historically, Little Italy in San Diego was the home to Italian fishermen and their families. Many Italians moved to San Diego from San Francisco after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake in search of tuna and other deep-sea sport and commercial fish. When Interstate 5 was constructed through Little Italy in the early 1970s, 35% of the neighborhood was destroyed and during the same time the California tuna industry was declining, which caused the neighborhood to suffer nearly 30 years of decline. With the creation of the Little Italy Association in 1996, the neighborhood has gone through gentrification and has seen a renaissance as Community Benefit District specializing in Italian food, boutique shopping and maintenance that makes this shopping district the place to live in Downtown San Diego. Prior to gentrification, the neighborhood was mainly composed of low-density commercial businesses and single-family detached homes. Currently, the neighborhood is mainly composed of residential units, mostly mid-rises, high-rises, and lofts, with ground floor retail stores and a few commercial buildings. Tens of thousands of Italians came to West Virginia during the late 1800s and early 1900s to work in the coal camps. As pick-and-shovel miners, Italians hold most of the state's coal production records. One Carmine Pellegrino mined 66 tons of coal by hand in a 24 hour period. Italian miners created the pepperoni roll, a popular snack throughout the region. Many of these immigrants left for larger cities once they earned enough money, but some of their descendants remain, particularly in the north central counties. The communities of Clarksburg, Wheeling, and Bluefield each hold their own annual Italian Heritage Festival. Fairmont puts on a street festival every December that pays homage to the Feast of the Seven Fishes, an Italian tradition of eating seafood dishes on Christmas Eve instead of meat. In the 2000 U.S. Census, Italian Americans constituted the fifth largest ancestry group in America with about 15.6 million people, 5.6% of the total U.S. population. Sicilian Americans are the largest subset of numerous Americans of regional Italian ancestries, with 83% of Italian American being from Sicily. As of 2006, the U.S. Census estimated the Italian-American population at 17.8 million persons, or 6% of the population, constituting a 14% increase over the six-year period. U.S. states number and percentage Italian American in 2010 1. Alabama 81,587 (1.7%) 2. Alaska 23,633 (3.3%) 3. Arizona 281,944 (4.4%) 4. Arkansas 45,836 (1.6%) 5. California 1,496,669 (4.0%) 6. Colorado 263,456 (5.1%) 7. Connecticut 670,030 (18.7%) 8. Delaware 89,845 (9.9%) 9. Florida 1,183,957 (6.2%) 10. Georgia 215,321 (2.2%) 11. Hawaii 28,490 (2.1%) 12. Idaho 50,497 (3.2%) 13. Illinois 800,779 (6.2%) 14. Indiana 173,396 (2.7%) 15. Iowa 65,528 (2.1%) 16. Kansas 65,619 (2.3%) 17. Kentucky 195,561 (2.0%) 18. Louisiana 219,606 (4.8%) 19. Maine 74,704 (5.6%) 20. Maryland 306,074 (5.2%) 21. Massachusetts 915,687 (13.9%) 22. Michigan 466,461 (4.7%) 23. Minnesota 249,178 (2.3%) 24. Mississippi 52,235 (1.8%) 25. Missouri 206,984 (3.4%) 26. Montana 34,971 (3.5%) 27. Nebraska 51,299 (2.8%) 28. Nevada 172,633 (6.3%) 29. New Hampshire 135,450 (10.3%) 30. New Jersey 1,487,161 (16.8%) 31. New Mexico 49,803 (2.4%) 32. New York 2,636,152 (13.5%) 33. North Carolina 287,101 (3.0%) 34. North Dakota 7,949 (1.2%) 35. Ohio 744,277 (6.4%) 36. Oklahoma 64,694 (1.7%) 37. Oregon 146,120 (3.8%) 38. Pennsylvania 1,550,850 (12.2%) 39. Rhode Island 198,721 (18.9%) 40. South Carolina 135,422 (2.9%) 41. South Dakota 11,520 (1.4%) 42. Tennessee 139,333 (2.2%) 43. Texas 480,716 (1.9%) 44. Utah 75,513 (2.7%) 45. Vermont 46,549 (7.4%) 46. Virginia 322,298 (4.0%) 47. Washington 245,696 (3.6%) 48. West Virginia 87,213 (4.7%) 49. Wisconsin 202,490 (3.5%) 50. Wyoming 17,697 (3.1%) 51. District of Columbia 20,531 (3.3%) 1. Rhode Island 18.9% 2. Connecticut 18.7% 3. New Jersey 16.8% 4. Massachusetts 13.9% 5. New York 13.5% 6. Pennsylvania 12.2% 7. New Hampshire 10.7% The top 25 U.S. communities with the highest percentage of people claiming Italian ancestry are: 1. Johnston, Rhode Island 46.7% 2. Monroe, Massachusetts 46.5% 3. Hammonton, New Jersey 45.9% 4. Frankfort, New York (village) 44.7% 5. East Haven, Connecticut 43.1% 6. Roseto, Pennsylvania 41.8% 7. Old Forge, Pennsylvania 41.3% 8. Franklin Square, New York 40.0% 9. North Massapequa, New York 38.9% 10. Frankfort, New York 38.5% 11. Totowa, New Jersey 37.7% 12. Lowellville, Ohio 37.4% 13. Fairfield, New Jersey 37.2% 14. North Providence, Rhode Island 36.6% 15. Thornwood, New York 36.5% 16. South Hackensack, New Jersey 36.3% 17. Hawthorne, New York 36.2% 18. Saugus, Massachusetts 36.1% 19. Nutley, New Jersey 36.0% 20. Jessup, Pennsylvania 35.9% 21. Stoneham, Massachusetts 35.8% 22. Revere, Massachusetts (greatest percentage of any city) 35.7% 23. East Hanover, New Jersey 35.6% 24. Harrison, New York 34.9% 25. Deer Park, New York 34.9% 26. Staten Island, New York (greatest percentage of any county) 34.7% 27. West Paterson, New Jersey 34.3% 28. Valhalla, New York 34.2% 29. Lyndhurst, New Jersey 33.8% Sicilian Americans, Italophilia, Anti-Italianism, Immigration to the United States, Pietro Cesare Alberti, Taliaferro, Valdese, North Carolina, Tontitown, Arkansas, Italian-American cuisine, Italian diaspora, Italy–USA Foundation, Padrone system, Utah Italians, March 14, 1891 lynchings Agnoletto, Stefano. "Ethnicity Versus Structural Factors in North American History: The Case Study of the Italian Economic Niches." Studia Migracyjne-Przeglad Polonijny 40.1 (151) (2014): 161-181. online, Alba, Richard D. Italian Americans: Into the twilight of ethnicity (Prentice Hall, 1985), Baily, Samuel L. Immigrants in the Lands of Promise: Italians in Buenos Aires and New York City, 1870-1914 (1999) Online in ACLS History E-book Project, Barton, Josef J. Peasants and Strangers: Italians, Rumanians, and Slovaks in an American City, 1890-1950 (1975). [Cleveland, OH], Bayor, Ronald H. Neighbors in Conflict: The Irish, Germans, Jews, and Italians of New York City, 1929-1941 (1978), Bona, Mary Jo. Claiming a Tradition: Italian American Women Writers (1999) online edition, Bonomo Albright, Carol and Christine Palamidessi Moore, ed. American Woman, Italian Style Fordham Press, 2011., Brennan, Marcia, "Put It On the Windowsill: An Italian-American Family Memoir" Dark River, an imprint of Bennoin Kearny, 2019. https://www.bennionkearny.com/book/put-it-on-the-windowsill-an-italian-american-family-memoir-marcia-brennan/, Candeloro, Dominic. "Suburban Italians" in Melvin G. Holli and Peter Jones, eds. Ethnic Chicago (1984) pp 239–68, Cannistraro, Philip, and Richard Juliani, ed. Italian-Americans: The Search for a Usable Past. (The American Italian Historical Association, 1989)., Cinel, Dino. From Italy to San Francisco: The Immigrant Experience (1982), Cinotto, Simone. The Italian American Table: Food, Family, and Community in New York City. (University of Illinois Press, 2013), Cinotto, Simone. Soft Soil, Black Grapes: The Birth of Italian Winemaking in California, (New York University Press, 2012), Connell, William J. and Fred Gardaphé, eds., Anti-Italianism: Essays on a Prejudice (2010), Connell, William J. and Stanislao Pugliese, eds., The Routledge History of Italian Americans (2018), D'Agostino, Peter R. Rome in America: Transnational Catholic Ideology from the Risorgimento to Fascism (2004)., Delicato, Armando, Italians in Detroit. 2005., De Ville, John. "Italians in the United States." The Catholic Encyclopedia (1910) vol 8 online, Demarco, William M. Ethnics and Enclaves: Boston's Italian North End (1981), Diggins, John P. Mussolini and Fascism: The View from America (1972), Diner, Hasia R. Hungering for America: Italian, Irish, and Jewish Foodways in the Age of Migration (2001). 292 pp., Fichera, Sebastian. Italy on the Pacific: San Francisco's Italian Americans. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012., Fox, Stephen, The unknown internment: an oral history of the relocation of Italian Americans during World War II, (1990)., Gabaccia, Donna R. From Sicily to Elizabeth Street: Housing and Social Change among Italian Immigrants, 1880-1930 (1984), New York, Gallo, Patrick. Old Bread, New Wine: A Portrait of the Italian-Americans (1981), Gans, Herbert J. Urban Villagers (1982), sociological study, Gems, Gerald R. Sport and the Shaping of Italian-American Identity. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, (2013) 312 pp., Giordano, Paolo A. and Anthony Julian Tamburri, eds. Italian Americans in the Third Millennium : Social Histories and Cultural Representations. New York: American Italian Historical Association, 2009., Giovinazzo, William, Italianità: The Essence of Being Italian and Italian-American" Dark River, an imprint of Bennion Kearny, 2018. https://www.bennionkearny.com/book/italianita/, Glynn, Irial: Emigration Across the Atlantic: Irish, Italians and Swedes compared, 1800-1950 , European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: June 16, 2011., Guglielmo, Thomas A. White on Arrival: Italians, Race, Color, and Power in Chicago, 1890-1945 (2003) online edition, Gardaphe, Fred L. Italian Signs, American Streets: The Evolution of Italian American Narrative (1996)online edition, Gardaphe, Fred. L. "The Art of Reading Italian Americana", New York: Bordighera Press, 2011., Gardaphe, Fred L. "Leaving Little Italy: Essaying Italian American Culture", Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 2003., Giordano, Paolo A. and Anthony Julian Tamburri, eds. "Beyond the Margin: Essays on Italian Americana" (1998)., Hobbie, Margaret. Italian American Material Culture: A Directory of Collections, Sites, and Festivals in the United States and Canada (1992)., Johnson, Colleen Leahy, and Colleen L. Johnson. Growing up and growing old in Italian-American families (Rutgers University Press, 1985), Juliani, Richard N. The Social Organization of Immigration: The Italians in Philadelphia (1980) excerpt and text search, Juliani, Richard N. Building Little Italy: Philadelphia's Italians before Mass Migration (1998), Juliani, Richard N. Priest, Parish, and People: Saving the Faith in Philadelphia's Little Italy (2007), Lagumina, Salvatore J. et al. eds. The Italian American Experience: An Encyclopedia (2000), Landry, Harral, ed. To See the Past More Clearly: The Enrichment of the Italian Heritage, 1890-1990 (1994) Austin: Nortex Press, Leone, Castaldo. Italians in America (2001) Milanostampa, S.p.A.: Mockingbird Press, Lombardo, Robert M. "Chicago's Little Sicily", Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society Volume: 100. Issue: 1. 2007 Available Online., Luconi, Stefano. From Paesani to White Ethnics: The Italian Experience in Philadelphia (2001), Luconi, Stefano. The Italian-American Vote in Providence, R.I., 1916-1948 (2005), Luconi, Stefano, "Is Italian-American History an Account of the Immigrant Experience with the Politics Left Out? Some Thoughts on the Political Historiography about Italian Americans", in Italian Americans in the Third Millennium: Social Histories and Cultural Representations, ed. Paolo A. Giordano and Anthony Julian Tamburri, 55–72. (New York: American Italian Historical Association, 2009)., Nelli, Humbert S. The Business of Crime: Italians and Syndicate Crime in the United States (1981), Mangione, Jerre and Ben Morreale, La Storia: Five Centuries of the Italian American Experience. New York: Harper Perennial, 1992., Miller, James, with Cheryl Beattie-Repetti and Joseph Tropea. Support and Struggle (1986) Staten Island: The American Italian Historical Association, Mormino, Gary. "The Immigrant World of Ybor City: Italians and Their Latin Neighbors in Tampa, 1885–1985". Gainesville: University Press of Florida. (1987), Nelli, Humbert S. "Italians", in Stephan Thernstrom, ed. Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups (1980) pp 545–60, Nelli, Humbert S. Italians in Chicago, 1880–1930: A Study in Ethnic Mobility (2005)., Orsi, Robert A. The Madonna of 115th Street: Faith and Community in Italian Harlem, 1880–1950. Third Edition. 2010., Parati, Graziella, and Anthony Julian Tamburri, eds. The Cultures of Italian Migration: Diverse Trajectories and Discrete Perspectives. Cranberry, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press; 2011., Ruberto, Laura E. and Joseph Sciorra, eds. New Italian Migrations to the United States: Vol. 1: Politics and History since 1945 (University of Illinois Press, 2017). xvi, 201 pp, Rolle, Andrew. The Italian Americans (1980) a major scholarly survey., Serra, Ilaria. The Imagined Immigrant: Images of Italian Emigration to the United States Between 1890 and 1924 (2009), Sciorra, Joseph. Built with Faith: Italian American Immigration and Catholic Material Culture in New York City (University of Tennessee Press, 2015), Soresina, Marco. "Italian emigration policy during the Great Migration Age, 1888–1919: the interaction of emigration and foreign policy." Journal of Modern Italian Studies 21.5 (2016): 723-746., Stanger-Ross, Jordan. Staying Italian: Urban Change and Ethnic Life in Postwar Toronto and Philadelphia (2010)., Sterba, Christopher M. Good Americans: Italian and Jewish Immigrants During the First World (2003), Tamburri, Anthony Julian. To Hyphenate or not to Hyphenate: the Italian/American Writer: Or, An "Other" American? (1991), Tamburri, Anthony Julian. Re-viewing Italian Americana: Generalities and Specificities on Cinema (2011), Tamburri, Anthony Julian. Re-reading Italian Americana: Specificities and Generalities on Literature and Criticism (2014), Thernstrom, Stephan, ed. Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups (1980) online, Thomas, Teresa Fava. "Arresting the Padroni problem and Rescuing the White Slaves in America: Italian Diplomats, Immigration Restrictionists & the Italian bureau 1881-1901." Altreitalia Riviste 192 Tesi 194 (2010) 40: 57-82. online, Tommasi, LF (ed.), Italian Americans: New perspectives in Italian emigration and ethnicity (1985), Tricarico, Donald The Italians of Greenwich Village (1984), New York, Vecchio, Diane C. Merchants, Midwives, and Laboring Women: Italian Migrants in Urban America (2006)., Vecoli, Rudolph, ed. Italian Immigrants in Rural and Small Town America (1987) Staten Island: The American Italian Historical Association, Yans-McLaughlin, Virginia. Family and Community: Italian Immigrants in Buffalo, 1880–1930. 1982., Puleo, Stephen (2007). The Boston Italians: A Story of Pride, Perseverance, and Paesani, from the Years of the Great Immigration to the Present Day. Boston: Beacon Press. . Primary sources Bonomo Albright, Carol and Joanna Clapps Herman, eds. Wild Dreams Fordham Press, 2008. Stories, memoirs, poems by and about Italian Americans., Moquin, Wayne, ed. A Documentary History of Italian Americans (1974), Tamburri, Anthony Julian, Paolo A. Giordano, Fred L. Gardaphé, eds. From the Margin: Writings in Italian Americana (2000, 2nd ed.) La Gazzetta Italiana - The Italian American Voice, Italian American Digital Project, National Italian American Foundation, "Immigration -> Italian." Library of Congress., "Italian Immigration." Digital History, University of Houston, Italian American Museum, New York, Italy Revisited (photo archives), Taylor Street Archives, ItalianImmigrants.org 1855 through 1900, (Selected short newspaper articles, translated into English, 1855-1938)., The Italian Americans - PBS documentary

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The FIS Alpine Ski World Cup is the top international circuit of alpine skiing competitions, launched in 1966 by a group of ski racing friends and experts which included French journalist Serge Lang and the alpine ski team directors from France (Honore Bonnet) and the USA (Bob Beattie). It was soon backed by International Ski Federation president Marc Hodler during the FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 1966 at Portillo, Chile, and became an official FIS event in the spring of 1967 after the FIS Congress at Beirut, Lebanon. The first World Cup ski race was held in Berchtesgaden, West Germany, on January 5, 1967. Jean-Claude Killy of France and Nancy Greene of Canada were the overall winners for the first two seasons. Competitors attempt to achieve the best time in four disciplines: slalom, giant slalom, super G, and downhill. The fifth event, the combined, employs the downhill and slalom. The World Cup originally included only slalom, giant slalom, and downhill races. Combined events (calculated using results from selected downhill and slalom races) were included starting with the 1974–75 season, while the Super G was added for the 1982–83 season. The current scoring system was implemented in the 1991–92 season. For every race points are awarded to the top 30 finishers: 100 points to the winner, 80 for second, 60 for third, winding down to 1 point for 30th place. The racer with the most points at the end of the season in mid-March wins the Cup, with the trophy consisting of a 9 kilogram crystal globe. Sub-prizes are also awarded in each individual race discipline, with a smaller 3.5 kg crystal globe. (See the section on scoring system below for more information.) The World Cup is held annually, and is considered the premier competition for alpine ski racing after the quadrennial Winter Olympics. Many consider the World Cup to be a more valuable title than the Olympics or the biennial World Championships, since it requires a competitor to ski at an extremely high level in several disciplines throughout the season, and not just in one race. Races are hosted primarily at ski resorts in the Alps in Europe, with regular stops in Scandinavia, North America, and east Asia, but a few races have also been held in the Southern Hemisphere. World Cup competitions have been hosted in 25 different countries around the world: Andorra, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, Czech Republic, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States. (Note that all World Cup races hosted in Bosnia were held when it was still part of Yugoslavia.) Lower competitive circuits include the NorAm Cup in North America and the Europa Cup in Europe. Multiple individual overall World Cup winners are marked with (#). The following skiers have at least three overall alpine World Cup titles. The following skiers have at least three overall alpine World Cup titles. Men Women Combined crystal globe was officially awarded from 2007–2012. However, there are counted all season titles, both official and unofficial. The records for most World Cup titles in each discipline are as follows: Men Women Slalom In the following table men's slalom World Cup season-end podiums since first season in 1967. Downhill In the following table men's downhill World Cup season-end podiums since first edition in 1967. Giant Slalom In the following table men's giant slalom World Cup season-end podiums since first edition in 1967. Classic/Super/Alpine Combined In the following table men's combined World Cup season-end podiums since first edition in 1975. Super-G In the following table men's Super-G World Cup season-end podiums since first edition in 1986. In the following table ladies's slalom World Cup season-end podiums since first season in 1967. In the following table ladies's downhill World Cup season-end podiums since first season in 1967. In the following table ladies's giant slalom World Cup season-end podiums since first season in 1967. In the following table ladies's combined World Cup season-end podiums since first season in 1975. In the following table ladies's Super-G World Cup season-end podiums since first season in 1986. Total Downhill Super-G Giant Slalom Slalom Total Downhill Super-G Giant Slalom Slalom A common measurement of how good individual skiers are is the total number of World Cup races won during their skiing career. The following skiers have won at least 20 World Cup races: As of 23 November 2019. Based on ski-database super ranking system (since 1966), this scoring system is calculated using points from three categories: Olympic Games, World Championships, and World Cup (overall titles, discipline titles and individual top 10 results). Parallel slaloms from 1976 to 1991 counted for Nations Cup. Number of athletes are limitless. 32 in main competition. Qualifying introduced in 2017. Parallel city event is a version of parallel slalom where only Top16 ranked are allowed to compete. Length of the track and course/gates setting are also different from classic parallel slalom, and as of 2019/20 season, they are completely replaced with normal parallel races with qualification run. Introduced by the International Ski Federation to the World Cup as a spectator-friendly event in late 2015, the parallel giant slalom competition, or shortened parallel-G, joining the parallel slalom, is intended to lure more speed specialists into the faster of the two technical disciplines, along with attracting their fans to watch the races at the venue, on-line, and on television. The Federation has not indicated, as of early 2016, that they are fully committed to duplicating the effort, however, their long-term calendar shows that the plan is to return to Alta Badia twelve months after the inaugural event in December 2016, and then again, tentatively, through December 2018. Few venues offer the slope and conditions required to host an extremely short Giant Slalom course that can be readily viewed in its entirety by a compact gallery of fans. Modified or not, the Federation has not suggested that they will push the format to lower-level tours like the NorAm and Europa Cup. The Chief Race Director of the inaugural event at Alta Badia, Markus Waldner, on 20 December 2015 stated that "great performances" and "head-to-head fights" between the best Giant Slalom racers is the goal of the competition. The course for the first race was very compact at about 20–22 seconds duration, or about one-third of a normal GS run, however, the pace and cadence will be the same as Giant Slalom, not standard Slalom. Gates were set at roughly the same distances as GS and on a slope of about the same pitch. The field of thirty- two were drawn following an "invitational" format. The top four men in the overall World Cup rankings were automatic invitees, if they chose to compete. Another sixteen racers were selected from the top of the current GS start list rankings, and the final twelve competitors were selected from the 1st run efforts at the standard GS event the day prior at the same venue. Overlapping qualifications allowed the sponsors to invite lower ranked participants to fill in gaps, as needed, and to replace individuals who declined to participate. Points were awarded and accumulated according to current standards for the race season in all relevant categories: the GS discipline, Overall and Nations Cup. The field was filled with thirty-two first round participants, each getting a run on either course. The best combined times moved the fastest racer to the second round through bracket preference protocols. From the second round, skiers the head-to-head competitions were held over one run only, with the faster skier from the previous round granted course selection between the 'red-right' or 'blue-left' course. At about one- third the time of a standard GS event, top performers/finalists were able to make multiple runs without the fatigue of a longer event. The course was methodically set with lasers, and a GPS-equipped Snowcat, to guarantee that both courses on the hill were as identical as possible to ensure equity and a fair competition. The Race Director suggested the difference between the two lanes were within "1–to–2 centimeters" tolerance of one another. Only a few racers have ever managed to win races in all five classic World Cup alpine skiing disciplines during their career, as listed in the table below. Marc Girardelli (1988–89), Petra Kronberger (1990–91), Janica Kostelić (2005–06) and Tina Maze (2012–13) are the only skiers to have won all five events in a single season. Bode Miller is the only skier with at least five World Cup victories in all five disciplines. The following skiers have won at least 10 World Cup races in a single season (events not available in a given season are marked by NA): The World Cup scoring system is based on awarding a number of points for each place in a race, but the procedure for doing so and the often-arcane method used to calculate the annual champions has varied greatly over the years. Originally, points were awarded only to the top 10 finishers in each race, with 25 points for the winner, 20 for second, 15 for third, 11 for fourth, 8 for fifth, 6 for sixth, 4 for seventh, and then decreasing by 1 point for each lower place. To determine the winner for each discipline World Cup, only a racer's best 3 results would count, even though there would typically be 6–8 races in each discipline. For the overall Cup, the best three results in each discipline would be summed. Until 1970, also the results of Winter Olympic Games races and Alpine World Ski Championship races were included in the World Cup valuation (i.e. Grenoble 1968 and Val Gardena 1970); this was abandoned after 1970, mainly due to the limited number of racers per nation who are admitted to take part in these events. For the 1971–72 season, the number of results counted was increased to 5 in each discipline. The formula used to determine the overall winner varied almost every year over the next decade, with some seasons divided into two portions with a fixed number of results in each period counting towards the overall, while in other seasons the best 3 or 4 results in each discipline would count. Starting with the 1979–80 season, points were awarded to the top 15 finishers in each race. After 1980–81, the formula for the overall title stabilized for several years, counting the best 5 results in the original disciplines (slalom, giant slalom, and downhill) plus the best 3 results in combined. When Super G events were introduced for the 1982–83 season, the results were included with giant slalom for the first three seasons, before a separate discipline Cup was awarded starting in 1985–86 and the top 3 Super G results were counted towards the overall. The formula for the overall was changed yet again the following season, with the top 4 results in each discipline counting, along with all combined results (although the combined was nearly eliminated from the schedule, reduced to only 1 or 2 events per season). This perennial tweaking of the scoring formula was a source of ongoing uncertainty to the World Cup racers and to fans. The need for a complete overhaul of the scoring system had grown increasingly urgent with each successive year, and in 1987–88 the FIS decided to fully simplify the system: all results would now count in each discipline and in the overall. This new system was an immediate success, and the practice of counting all results has been maintained in every subsequent season. With the ongoing expansion of the number and quality of competitors in World Cup races over the years, a major change to the scoring system was implemented in the 1991–92 season. The top 30 finishers in each race would now earn points, with 100 for the winner, 80 for second, 60 for third, and then decreasing by smaller increments for each lower place. The point values were adjusted slightly the following season (to reduce the points for places 4th through 20th), and the scoring system has not been changed again since that year. The table below compares the point values under all five scoring systems which have been in use: Since the Top 30 scoring system was implemented in 1991–92., the number of completed men's or women's World Cup races each year has ranged from 30 to 44, so the maximum possible point total for an individual racer is about 3000–4400 under the current scoring system. However, very few racers actually ski in all events; for example, Bode Miller was "the only skier to have competed in every World Cup race" during the three seasons from 2003–2005. The current record for total World Cup points in a season is Tina Maze's 2414 points in 2012–13, with the men's record of 2000 points set by Hermann Maier in 1999–2000. The fewest points for an overall champion under the current system thus far have been 1009 for men by Aksel Lund Svindal in 2008–09 and 1248 for women by Vreni Schneider in 1994–95. The largest margin of victory in the overall has been Maze's 1313 points in 2012–13, more than doubling second-place finisher Maria Höfl-Riesch's total, while the largest men's margin was 743 points by Hermann Maier in 2000–01. Note that in the early days of World Cup (when the first place was awarded only 25 points), even larger relative margins of victory were recorded in 1967 by Jean-Claude Killy with 225 points over Heinrich Messner with 114 points and in 1973–74 by Annemarie Moser-Pröll with 268 points over Monika Kaserer with 153 points. The closest finishes since 1992 have been minuscule margins of 6 points in 1994–95 (Vreni Schneider over Katja Seizinger), 3 points in 2004–05 (Anja Pärson over Janica Kostelić) and in 2010–11 (Maria Riesch over Lindsey Vonn), and only 2 points in 2008–09 (Aksel Lund Svindal over Benjamin Raich). The current men's record for total World Cup points in one month of the season is Ivica Kostelić's 999 points from January 2011. The tables below contain a brief statistical analysis of the overall World Cup standings during the 21 seasons since the Top 30 scoring system was implemented in 1991–92. In general, over 1000 points are needed to contend for the overall title. At least 1 man and 1 woman has scored 1000 points in each of these seasons, but no more than 5 men's or women's racers have crossed that threshold in any single season. Of the 42 men's and women's overall champions in these years, 38 scored over 1200 points, 30 had over 1300 points, 19 reached 1500 points, and only 7 amassed more than 1700 points during their winning seasons. As for the runners-up, 37 of the 42 second-place finishers scored over 1000 points, 18 had over 1300 points, and only 4 reached 1500 points yet failed to win. Most overall titles have been won quite convincingly, by more than 200 points in 23 of 42 cases, while only 11 margins of victory have been tighter than 50 points. Since 1993 the International Ski Federation (FIS) has hosted a World Cup Final at the end of each season in March. During five days, men's and women's races are held in four disciplines: slalom, giant slalom, Super G, and downhill. Only a limited number of racers are invited to ski at the Finals, including the top 25 in the World Cup standings in each discipline, plus the current junior World Champions in each discipline. Because of the smaller field, World Cup points are only awarded to the top 15 finishers in each race. Hosts of the World Cup Finals: The 2004 final was held in all FIS disciplines except Ski Jumping. The Freestyle events were held in neighbouring Sauze d'Oulx and the Snowboard events in Bardonecchia. The 2008 final was held in all FIS disciplines except Ski Jumping. The Freestyle and Snowboard events were held in neighbouring Valmalenco. The table below lists those nations which have won at least one World Cup race (current as of 19 January 2020). Individual race wins are counted in this table, along with the nations team events held at World Cup Finals since 2006 (counts double as both men & women in mixed competition contribute to a win). The "parallel race" is a head-to- head slalom race format used occasionally from the 1970s through 1990s, and again in 2011. Team event wins are doubled (because on one team event race competed both women and men; so it's counted separately each for women and men). Results for West Germany and Germany are counted together in this table. All of Yugoslavia's wins are currently lumped in with Slovenia, since the skiers who won races for former Yugoslavia were all Slovenes from Slovenia (one of six Yugoslav Republics), and thus are listed under Slovenia in online databases. The Soviet Union and Russia are counted separately, as are Czechoslovakia and the Czech Republic. A total of 24 countries have won World Cup races, with 19 different countries winning men's races and 20 winning women's races. As expected, the top 10 nations in this list are the same as the 10 nations listed in the Nations Cup summary table (with slight changes in order). Some interesting facts can be found in the data: Marc Girardelli accounted for all of Luxembourg's 46 wins, while Janica Kostelić has 30 of Croatia's 56 and her brother Ivica has the rest. Ingemar Stenmark still has nearly one-half of Sweden's 192 wins more than two decades after his retirement. Some nations specialize in either speed (downhill and Super G) or technical (slalom and GS) disciplines, while others are strong across the board. Among nations with 30+ wins, the Canadian team has won 73% of its races in speed events, while Yugoslavia/Slovenia has won 84% and Sweden 86% of their races in technical events, especially notable in Sweden's case given its large number of wins. Several nations with under 30 wins have 100% of them in technical events, led by Finland and Spain. In contrast Germany and Norway have the most even distribution without disproportionate strength or weakness in any one discipline. Some nations have strong teams in only one gender, as 92% of Norway's wins have come from their men and 83% of Germany's from their women, while the Swiss and Canadian totals are split almost equally. The Nations Cup standings are calculated by adding up all points each season for all racers from a given nation. The early years of the World Cup were largely dominated by the French ski team, as reflected in their Nations Cup wins in 5 of the first 6 years. The Austrian team then took over throughout the rest of the 1970s, followed by Swiss superiority during most of the 1980s. A resurgent Austrian team charged back to the top in 1988, beginning a long streak of consecutive Nations Cup triumphs. Austrian dominance reached its zenith in the late 1990s and 2000s (decade), when their points total regularly doubled that of the second-place finisher, and was capped in the 1999–2000 and 2003–4 seasons with totals that tripled those of runner-up Italy. Their 17927-point total in 1999–2000 is a Nations Cup record, as is their 12066-point margin of victory in 2003–4. As of the end of the 2016–17 season, the Austrian team has won 30 consecutive Nations Cups, while topping the men's standings for 25 straight years. Austria is the only nation to have finished in the top 3 of the Nations Cup standings in all 50 years in which World Cup competition has been held, winning in 38 of those years, runner-up in 11 years, and third place in a single year. Austrian men have failed to make the podium in only one season: 1972. Austrian women have failed to make the podium in only 2 seasons: 1981 and 1982. Switzerland with 7 wins and France with 5 wins are the only other nations to have won the nations cup. In the midst of the ongoing Austrian juggernaut, the Swiss or Italian teams have usually held second place. The German team reached the runner-up spot for the first time in 1997–8, as did the Norwegians the next season. The US enjoyed its best placings ever starting in 2004–5, grabbing second in the Nations Cup for two straight years. Under the current scoring system (since 1992), the winning nation (Austria every year) has averaged over 13000 points, with an average of over 6400 for the runner-up, 5400 for third place, 4200 for fifth, and 1300 for tenth. The all-inclusive scoring system (simply adding together all World Cup points earned) favors national teams with great depth and many racers scoring World Cup points, and even teams with several top racers have no realistic chance of breaking the Austrian grip on the top spot, while a team with only one or two top-ranked racers will struggle to ever break the top five in the standings. There have been numerous calls for a revamped scoring system which would allow other nations to compete more readily for top spots in the Nations Cup, but no changes are likely to be made. In 2016, however, the Austrian men's team narrowly beat France by just 201 points. The total number of top-three placings for each nation in the Nations Cup (through the 2017–18 season) are summarized below: Since 1967, the big crystal globe has been awarded for the overall title. From the beginning to 1976–77, discipline titles were awarded with medals. Statistically, those titles have the same value as the small crystal globes, which first appeared for discipline titles in slalom, giant slalom and downhill in the 1977–78. In super-G, the small globe has been awarded since 1985–86. For super-g races in the three seasons previous, points were added and calculated in the giant slalom ranking. In combined, the small crystal globe was officially awarded only between 2007-2012. Before that, combined season winners could not officially be considered as season titles. In those years FIS simply calculated points from the other two races, DH and SL. Alpine skiing at the Winter Olympics, FIS Alpine World Ski Championships FisAlpine.com FIS Alpine World Cup – Official website, SkiWorldCup.org – History of the World Cup – by Serge Lang (see also ISHA: History of the World Cup), FIS-ski.com – official results for FIS alpine World Cup events, Ski-db.com – World Cup results database, Alpine Canada Alpin/Canadian Alpine Ski Team, U.S. Ski and Snowboard Association, U.S. Ski Team, Podium places in the World Cup Women TOP 150, Podium places in the World Cup Men TOP 150 The FIFA U-17 World Cup, founded as the FIFA U-16 World Championship, later changed to U-17 in 1991 and to its current name in 2007, is the world championship of association football for male players under the age of 17 organized by Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA). The current champion is Brazil, which won its fourth title at the 2019 tournament on home soil. The FIFA U-17 World Cup is a competition that was inspired by the Lion City Cup that was created by the Football Association of Singapore in 1977. The Lion City Cup was the first under-16 football tournament in the world. Following FIFA's then secretary-general Sepp Blatter's recommendation after he was in Singapore for the 1982 Lion City Cup, FIFA created the FIFA U-16 World Championship. The first edition was staged in 1985 in China, and tournaments have been played every two years since then. It began as a competition for players under the age of 16 with the age limit raised to 17 from the 1991 edition onwards. The most recent tournament was hosted by India, for the first time, in 2017, which became the most attended in the history of the tournament, with the total attendance of the FIFA U-17 World Cup reaching 1,347,133. Nigeria is the most successful nation in the tournament's history, with five titles and three runners up. Brazil is the second-most successful with four titles and two runners-up. Ghana and Mexico have won the tournament twice. A corresponding tournament for female players, the FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup, began in 2008, with North Korea winning the inaugural tournament. Each tournament consists of a group phase, in which four teams play against one another and standings in the group table decide which teams advance, followed by a knockout phase of successive matches where the winning team advances through the competition and the losing team is eliminated. This continues until two teams remain to contest the final, which decides the tournament winner. The losing semi-finalists also contest a match to decide third place. From 1985 to 2005 there were 16 teams in the competition, divided into four groups of four teams each in the group phase. Each team played the others in its group and the group winner and runner up qualified for the knockout phase. From 2007 the tournament was expanded to 24 teams, divided into six groups of four teams each. The top 2 places in each group plus the four best third-placed teams advanced to the knockout phase. Competition matches are played in two 45-minute halves (i.e., 90 minutes in total). In the knockout phase, until the 2011 tournament, if tied at the end of 90 minutes an additional 30 minutes of extra time were played, followed by a penalty shoot- out if still tied. Starting with the 2011 tournament, the extra time period was eliminated to avoid player burnout, and all knockout games progress straight to penalties if tied at the end of 90 minutes. The host nation of each tournament qualifies automatically. The remaining teams qualify through competitions organised by the six regional confederations. For the first edition of the tournament in 1985, all of the teams from Europe plus Bolivia appeared by invitation of FIFA. Notes: a.e.t. - after extra time, (p) - match won on penalty shootout Africa is the most successful continental zone with 7 tournament wins (5 for Nigeria, 2 for Ghana) and 6 times as runner up. Notably the 1993 final was contested by two African teams, when the final has been contested by two teams from the same confederation. The African teams repeated the 1993 final with Mali replacing Ghana (Disqualified for age violation) in 2015 when Nigeria and Mali made it to the last two standing and Nigeria got their sixth win. South America has 3 tournament wins and has been runner up three times. Additionally Argentina has finished in third place on 3 occasions, Chile has done so on one occasion and Colombia has finished in fourth place twice, but neither of the latter two have ever appeared in the final. Europe has 4 tournaments wins (1 each for France, USSR, Switzerland and England) and has been runner up 6 times. Spain has been runner up on 4 occasions. Additionally Portugal and Netherlands have won third-place medals in 1989 and 2005 respectively. The CONCACAF zone has 2 tournament wins (for Mexico in 2005 and 2011), this confederation has reached the final four times (with Mexico). Asia has 1 tournament win (for Saudi Arabia in 1989), the only time that a team from this confederation has reached the final and the only time an Asian team won a FIFA tournament in male category. (Australia was runner up in 1999 but at that time was in the Oceania Football Confederation). Oceania has no tournament wins and 1 occasion as runner up (for Australia in 1999). Australia has since moved to the Asian confederation. This tournament is peculiar in that the majority of titles have gone to teams from outside the strongest regional confederations (CONMEBOL and UEFA). Of the fifteen editions held so far, nine (60 percent of the total) have been won by teams from North and Central America, Africa and Asia. The following awards are now presented: The Golden Boot is awarded to the top goalscorer of the tournament., The Golden Ball is awarded to the most valuable player of the tournament., The Golden Glove is awarded to the most valuable goalkeeper of the tournament., The Fair Play Award is presented to the team with the best disciplinary record in the tournament. List of association football competitions, National team appearances in the FIFA U-17 World Cup, FIFA U-20 World Cup FIFA.com, RSSSF archive, FIFA U17 WC, FIFA U-17 World Cup 2017 The 1994 FIFA World Cup Final was a soccer game that took place at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California, United States, on July 17, 1994 to determine the winner of the 1994 FIFA World Cup. Brazil beat Italy 3–2 on penalties to claim their fourth World Cup title when the match finished 0–0 after extra time; this meant that Brazil surpassed Italy and Germany as the tournament's most successful nation. It was the first World Cup final to be both scoreless in regular and extra time and to be decided by a penalty shoot-out. Silver Ball winner Roberto Baggio missed the decisive penalty for Italy. Brazil had previously beaten Italy in the 1970 final, marking the 1994 final as the second time that the same teams had met in two different World Cup finals, after Argentina and Germany met in 1986 and 1990. Played at 12:30 local time, this was the most recent World Cup final to be played in a broad daylight. FIFA awarded the final game of the tournament to the famous college sports stadium near Los Angeles on June 30, 1992; the Rose Bowl was the largest stadium used for the tournament. The Brazilian team dedicated their win to the late triple Formula One motor racing world champion Ayrton Senna, who had died in an accident at that year's San Marino Grand Prix in Italy two and a half months before. With Italy finishing as runners-up, Franco Baresi became the sixth player in history to win gold, silver and bronze medals at the FIFA World Cup. In what was, and still is as of 2018, the only World Cup Final ever not to have a goal scored, the game would come to be defined by missed opportunities. Chances were few and far between in the first half, as Romário had Brazil's best chance of the half with a header, but he headed straight at Gianluca Pagliuca. Late in the first half, Daniele Massaro had what would turn out to be Italy's best chance of the match, as he had a good opportunity from the edge of the box after a counter-attack, but his shot was saved by Cláudio Taffarel. The second half was largely devoid of scoring chances, as Brazil were unable to break through the center back pairing of Franco Baresi and Paolo Maldini. The lack of attacking play in the match was down to strong holding midfield play by Dino Baggio for Italy, and by both Dunga and Mauro Silva for Brazil. As extra time began, chances would become more plentiful, as Brazil began to dominate play. Romário had another chance early in extra time after Pagliuca made an ill advised decision to come for a cross, leaving the goal exposed, but Bebeto was unable to find him. Roberto Baggio, who had been quiet for most of the match having picked up an injury earlier in the tournament, had his only sight of goal in the entire match in the first half of extra time, hitting a shot from around 25 yards, but Taffarel pushed the shot over. Zinho had a chance on the stroke of halftime in extra time, hitting his shot well from inside the area, but Pagliuca saved well at his near post. In the second half of extra time, Romário missed a golden chance to hand Brazil the trophy, as Cafu had found him inside the six yard box. With Pagliuca at least four yards away from him on the other side of the goal, and the entire goal to aim at, the off balance Romário put his shot wide of the post. This was the first time the World Cup would be decided on penalties. Italian captain Baresi took the first penalty and blazed his penalty over the bar. Brazilian center back Marcio Santos went next, but Pagliuca saved the Brazilian defender's effort low to his right. Demetrio Albertini went next for Italy, scoring his penalty into the top corner. Romário was next for Brazil, and he scored his penalty, placing it so far in the corner that it went in off the post, tying the score at 1–1. Alberigo Evani went third for Italy, he scored, putting his penalty high and in the middle, as Taffarel dove to the right. Branco went next for Brazil, and he scored in the bottom left corner. Massaro, who had scored twice in the Champions League Final less than two months previously, went next for Italy, but he was unable to put the ball in Taffarel's net just as he had been unable to do in the match, as the Brazilian keeper saved to his left. Brazilian captain Dunga was next, and he comfortably placed his shot into the bottom left corner, making it match point. With Italy needing to score to keep their dreams alive, talisman Baggio stepped up to take the penalty. In what would become an infamous moment in World Cup History, Baggio blazed his penalty over the bar, in similar fashion to Baresi, and this gave Brazil their fourth title. Match Rules 90 minutes., 30 minutes of extra time if necessary., Penalty shoot-out if scores still level., Two substitutions permitted, plus one for the goalkeeper. U.S. Vice President Al Gore, UEFA president Lennart Johansson, and FIFA president João Havelange were among those present at the stands during the awards ceremony. Vice President Gore handed the trophy to Brazilian captain Dunga. Brazil–Italy football rivalry

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Fiddler on the Roof is a musical with music by Jerry Bock, lyrics by Sheldon Harnick, and book by Joseph Stein, set in the Pale of Settlement of Imperial Russia in or around 1905. It is based on Tevye and his Daughters (or Tevye the Dairyman) and other tales by Sholem Aleichem. The story centers on Tevye, the father of five daughters, and his attempts to maintain his Jewish religious and cultural traditions as outside influences encroach upon the family's lives. He must cope both with the strong-willed actions of his three older daughters, who wish to marry for love – each one's choice of a husband moves further away from the customs of their Jewish faith and heritage – and with the edict of the Tsar that evicts the Jews from their village. The original Broadway production of the show, which opened in 1964, had the first musical theatre run in history to surpass 3,000 performances. Fiddler held the record for the longest-running Broadway musical for almost 10 years until Grease surpassed its run. The production was extraordinarily profitable and highly acclaimed. It won nine Tony Awards, including best musical, score, book, direction and choreography. It spawned five Broadway revivals and a highly successful 1971 film adaptation and has enjoyed enduring international popularity. It has also been a popular choice for school and community productions. Fiddler on the Roof is based on Tevye (or Tevye the Dairyman) and his Daughters, a series of stories by Sholem Aleichem that he wrote in Yiddish between 1894 and 1914 about Jewish life in a village in the Pale of Settlement of Imperial Russia at the turn of the 20th century. It is also influenced by Life Is with People, by Mark Zborowski and Elizabeth Herzog. Aleichem wrote a dramatic adaptation of the stories that he left unfinished at his death, but which was produced in Yiddish in 1919 by the Yiddish Art Theater and made into a film in the 1930s. In the late 1950s, a musical based on the stories, called Tevye and his Daughters, was produced Off-Broadway by Arnold Perl. Rodgers and Hammerstein and then Mike Todd briefly considered bringing this musical to Broadway but dropped the idea. Investors and some in the media worried that Fiddler on the Roof might be considered "too Jewish" to attract mainstream audiences. Other critics considered that it was too culturally sanitized, "middlebrow" and superficial; Philip Roth, writing in The New Yorker, called it shtetl kitsch. For example, it portrays the local Russian officer as sympathetic, instead of brutal and cruel, as Sholom Aleichem had described him. Aleichem's stories ended with Tevye alone, his wife dead and his daughters scattered; at the end of Fiddler, the family members are alive, and most are emigrating together to America. The show found the right balance for its time, even if not entirely authentic, to become "one of the first popular post-Holocaust depictions of the vanished world of Eastern European Jewry". Harold Prince replaced the original producer Fred Coe and brought in director/choreographer Jerome Robbins. The writers and Robbins considered naming the musical Tevye, before landing on a title suggested by various paintings by Marc Chagall (Green Violinist (1924), Le Mort (1924), The Fiddler (1912)) that also inspired the original set design. Contrary to popular belief, the "title of the musical does not refer to any specific painting". During rehearsals, one of the stars, Jewish actor Zero Mostel, feuded with Robbins, whom he held in contempt because Robbins had testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee and hid his Jewish heritage from the public. Other cast members also had run-ins with Robbins, who reportedly "abused the cast, drove the designers crazy [and] strained the good nature of Hal Prince". Tevye, a poor Jewish milkman with five daughters, explains the customs of the Jews in the Russian shtetl of Anatevka in 1905, where their lives are as precarious as the perch of a fiddler on a roof ("Tradition"). At Tevye's home, everyone is busy preparing for the Sabbath meal. His sharp-tongued wife, Golde, orders their daughters, Tzeitel, Hodel, Chava, Shprintze and Bielke, about their tasks. Yente, the village matchmaker, arrives to tell Golde that Lazar Wolf, the wealthy butcher, a widower older than Tevye, wants to wed Tzeitel, the eldest daughter. The next two daughters, Hodel and Chava, are excited about Yente's visit, but Tzeitel illustrates how it could have bad results ("Matchmaker, Matchmaker"). A girl from a poor family must take whatever husband Yente brings, but Tzeitel wants to marry her childhood friend, Motel the tailor. Tevye is delivering milk, pulling the cart himself, as his horse is lame. He asks God: Whom would it hurt "If I Were a Rich Man"? The bookseller tells Tevye news from the outside world of pogroms and expulsions. A stranger, Perchik, hears their conversation and scolds them for doing nothing more than talk. The men dismiss Perchik as a radical, but Tevye invites him home for the Sabbath meal and offers him food and a room in exchange for tutoring his two youngest daughters. Golde tells Tevye to meet Lazar after the Sabbath but does not tell him why, knowing that Tevye does not like Lazar. Tzeitel is afraid that Yente will find her a husband before Motel asks Tevye for her hand. But Motel resists: he is afraid of Tevye's temper, and tradition says that a matchmaker arranges marriages. Motel is also very poor and is saving up to buy a sewing machine before he approaches Tevye, to show that he can support a wife. The family gathers for the "Sabbath Prayer." After the Sabbath, Tevye meets Lazar for a drink at the village inn, assuming mistakenly that Lazar wants to buy his cow. Once the misunderstanding is cleared up, Tevye agrees to let Lazar marry Tzeitel – with a rich butcher, his daughter will never want for anything. All join in the celebration of Lazar's good fortune; even the Russian youths at the inn join in the celebration and show off their dancing skills ("To Life"). Outside the inn, Tevye happens upon the Russian Constable, who has jurisdiction over the Jews in the town. The Constable warns him that there is going to be a "little unofficial demonstration" in the coming weeks (a euphemism for a minor pogrom). The Constable has sympathy for the Jewish community but is powerless to prevent the violence. The next morning, after Perchik's lessons with the younger sisters, Tevye's second daughter Hodel mocks Perchik's Marxist interpretation of a Bible story. He, in turn, criticizes her for hanging on to the old traditions of Judaism, noting that the world is changing. To illustrate this, he dances with her, defying the prohibition against opposite sexes dancing together. The two begin to fall in love. Later, a hungover Tevye announces that he has agreed that Tzeitel will marry Lazar Wolf. Golde is overjoyed, but Tzeitel is devastated and begs Tevye not to force her. Motel arrives and tells Tevye that he is the perfect match for Tzeitel and that he and Tzeitel gave each other a pledge to marry. He promises that Tzeitel will not starve as his wife. Tevye is stunned and outraged at this breach of tradition, but impressed at the timid tailor's display of backbone. After some soul-searching ("Tevye's Monologue"), Tevye agrees to let them marry, but he worries about how to break the news to Golde. An overjoyed Motel celebrates with Tzeitel ("Miracle of Miracles"). In bed with Golde, Tevye pretends to be waking from a nightmare. Golde offers to interpret his dream, and Tevye "describes" it ("Tevye's Dream"). Golde's grandmother Tzeitel returns from the grave to bless the marriage of her namesake, but to Motel, not to Lazar Wolf. Lazar's formidable late wife, Fruma-Sarah, rises from her grave to warn, in graphic terms, of severe retribution if Tzeitel marries Lazar. The superstitious Golde is terrified, and she quickly counsels that Tzeitel must marry Motel. While returning from town, Tevye's third daughter, the bookish Chava, is teased and intimidated by some gentile youths. One, Fyedka, protects her, dismissing the others. He offers Chava the loan of a book, and a secret relationship begins. The wedding day of Tzeitel and Motel arrives, and all the Jews join the ceremony ("Sunrise, Sunset") and the celebration ("The Wedding Dance"). Lazar gives a fine gift, but an argument arises with Tevye over the broken agreement. Perchik ends the tiff by breaking another tradition: he crosses the barrier between the men and women to dance with Tevye's daughter Hodel. The celebration ends abruptly when a group of Russians rides into the village to perform the "demonstration". They disrupt the party, damaging the wedding gifts and wounding Perchik, who attempts to fight back, and wreak more destruction in the village. Tevye instructs his family to clean up the mess. Months later, Perchik tells Hodel he must return to Kiev to work for the revolution. He proposes marriage, admitting that he loves her, and says that he will send for her. She agrees ("Now I Have Everything"). They tell Tevye that they are engaged, and he is appalled that they are flouting tradition by making their own match, especially as Perchik is leaving. When he forbids the marriage, Perchik and Hodel inform him that they do not seek his permission, only his blessing. After more soul searching, Tevye relents – the world is changing, and he must change with it ("Tevye's Rebuttal"). He informs the young couple that he gives them his blessing and his permission. Tevye explains these events to an astonished Golde. "Love," he says, "it's the new style." Tevye asks Golde, despite their own arranged marriage, "Do You Love Me?" After dismissing Tevye's question as foolish, she eventually admits that, after 25 years of living and struggling together and raising five daughters, she does. Meanwhile, Yente tells Tzeitel that she saw Chava with Fyedka. News spreads quickly in Anatevka that Perchik has been arrested and exiled to Siberia ("The Rumor/I Just Heard"), and Hodel is determined to join him there. At the railway station, she explains to her father that her home is with her beloved, wherever he may be, although she will always love her family ("Far From the Home I Love"). Time passes. Motel has purchased a used sewing machine, and he and Tzeitel have had a baby. Chava finally gathers the courage to ask Tevye to allow her marriage to Fyedka. Again Tevye reaches deep into his soul, but marriage outside the Jewish faith is a line he will not cross. He forbids Chava to speak to Fyedka again. When Golde brings news that Chava has eloped with Fyedka, Tevye wonders where he went wrong ("Chavaleh Sequence"). Chava returns and tries to reason with him, but he refuses to speak to her and tells the rest of the family to consider her dead. Meanwhile, rumors are spreading of the Russians expelling Jews from their villages. While the villagers are gathered, the Constable arrives to tell everyone that they have three days to pack up and leave the town. In shock, they reminisce about "Anatevka" and how hard it will be to leave what has been their home for so long. As the Jews leave Anatevka, Chava and Fyedka stop to tell her family that they are also leaving for Kraków, unwilling to remain among the people who could do such things to others. Tevye still will not talk to her, but when Tzeitel says goodbye to Chava, Tevye prompts her to add "God be with you." Motel and Tzeitel go to Poland as well but will join the rest of the family when they have saved up enough money. As Tevye, Golde and their two youngest daughters leave the village for America, the fiddler begins to play. Tevye beckons with a nod, and the fiddler follows them out of the village. Act I "Prologue: Tradition" – Tevye and Company, "Matchmaker, Matchmaker" – Tzeitel, Hodel and Chava, "If I Were a Rich Man" – Tevye, "Sabbath Prayer" – Tevye, Golde, Company, "To Life" – Tevye, Lazar Wolf, Russian soloist and Men, "Tevye's Monologue" – Tevye, "Miracle of Miracles" – Motel, "Tevye's Dream" – Tevye, Golde, Grandma Tzeitel, Rabbi, Fruma-Sarah and Company, "Sunrise, Sunset" – Tevye, Golde, Perchik, Hodel and Company, "The Bottle Dance" – Instrumental Act II "Entr'acte" – Orchestra, "Now I Have Everything" – Perchik and Hodel, "Tevye's Rebuttal" – Tevye, "Do You Love Me?" – Tevye and Golde, "The Rumor/I Just Heard" – Yente and Villagers §, "Far From the Home I Love" – Hodel, "Chavaleh (Little Bird)" – Tevye, "Anatevka" – The Company § The 2004 revival featured a song for Yente and some women of the village (Rivka and Mirala) titled "Topsy Turvy", discussing the disappearing role of the matchmaker in society. The number replaced "The Rumor/I Just Heard". All of the characters are Jewish, except as noted: Tevye, a poor milkman with five daughters. A firm supporter of the traditions of his faith, he finds many of his convictions tested by the actions of his three oldest daughters., Golde, Tevye's sharp-tongued wife., Tzeitel, their oldest daughter, about nineteen. She loves her childhood friend Motel and marries him, even though he's poor, begging her father not to force her to marry Lazar Wolf., Hodel, their daughter, about seventeen. Intelligent and spirited, she falls in love with Perchik and later joins him in Siberia., Chava, their daughter, about fifteen. A shy book lover, who falls in love with Fyedka., Motel Kamzoil, a poor but hardworking tailor who loves, and later marries, Tzeitel., Perchik, a student revolutionary who comes to Anatevka and falls in love with Hodel. He leaves for Kiev, is arrested and exiled to Siberia., Fyedka, a young Christian. He shares Chava's passion for reading and is outraged by the Russians' treatment of the Jews., Lazar Wolf, the wealthy village butcher. Widower of Fruma-Sarah. Attempts to arrange a marriage for himself to Tzeitel., Yente, the gossipy village matchmaker who matches Tzeitel and Lazar., Grandma Tzeitel, Golde's dead grandmother, who rises from the grave in Tevye's "nightmare.", Fruma-Sarah, Lazar Wolf's dead wife, who also rises from the grave in the "nightmare.", Rabbi, the wise village leader., Constable, the head of the local Russian police, a Christian. Following its tryout at Detroit's Fisher Theatre in July and August 1964, then Washington in August to September, the original Broadway production opened on September 22, 1964, at the Imperial Theatre, transferred in 1967 to the Majestic Theatre and in 1970 to The Broadway Theatre, and ran for a record- setting total of 3,242 performances. The production was directed and choreographed by Jerome Robbins – his last original Broadway staging. The set, designed in the style of Marc Chagall's paintings, was by Boris Aronson. A colorful logo for the production, also inspired by Chagall's work, was designed by Tom Morrow. Chagall reportedly did not like the musical. The cast included Zero Mostel as Tevye the milkman, Maria Karnilova as his wife Golde (each of whom won a Tony for their performances), Beatrice Arthur as Yente the matchmaker, Austin Pendleton as Motel, Bert Convy as Perchik the student revolutionary, Gino Conforti as the fiddler, and Julia Migenes as Hodel. Mostel ad-libbed increasingly as the run went on, "which drove the authors up the wall." Joanna Merlin originated the role of Tzeitel, which was later assumed by Bette Midler during the original run. Carol Sawyer was Fruma Sarah, Adrienne Barbeau took a turn as Hodel, and Pia Zadora played the youngest daughter, Bielke. Both Peg Murray and Dolores Wilson made extended appearances as Golde, while other stage actors who have played Tevye include Herschel Bernardi, Theodore Bikel and Harry Goz (in the original Broadway run), and Leonard Nimoy. Mostel's understudy in the original production, Paul Lipson, went on to appear as Tevye in more performances than any other actor (until Chaim Topol), clocking over 2,000 performances in the role in the original run and several revivals. Florence Stanley took over the role of Yente nine months into the run. The production earned $1,574 for every dollar invested in it. It was nominated for ten Tony Awards, winning nine, including Best Musical, score, book, direction and choreography, and acting awards for Mostel and Karnilova. The original London West End production opened on February 16, 1967, at Her Majesty's Theatre and played for 2,030 performances. It starred Topol as Tevye, a role he had previously played in Tel Aviv, and Miriam Karlin as Golde. Alfie Bass, Lex Goudsmit and Barry Martin eventually took over as Tevye. Topol later played Tevye in the 1971 film adaptation, for which he was nominated for an Academy Award, and in several revivals over the next four decades. The show was revived in London for short seasons in 1983 at the Apollo Victoria Theatre and in 1994 at the London Palladium. The first Broadway revival opened on December 28, 1976, and ran for 176 performances at the Winter Garden Theatre. Zero Mostel starred as Tevye. Robbins directed and choreographed. A second Broadway revival opened on July 9, 1981, and played for a limited run (53 performances) at Lincoln Center's New York State Theater. It starred Herschel Bernardi as Tevye and Karnilova as Golde. Other cast members included Liz Larsen, Fyvush Finkel, Lawrence Leritz and Paul Lipson. Robbins directed and choreographed. The third Broadway revival opened on November 18, 1990, and ran for 241 performances at the George Gershwin Theatre. Topol starred as Tevye, and Marcia Lewis was Golde. Robbins' production was reproduced by Ruth Mitchell and choreographer Sammy Dallas Bayes. The production won the Tony Award for Best Revival. A fourth Broadway revival opened on February 26, 2004, and ran for 36 previews and 781 performances at the Minskoff Theatre. Alfred Molina, and later Harvey Fierstein, starred as Tevye, and Randy Graff, and later Andrea Martin and Rosie O'Donnell, was Golde. Barbara Barrie and later Nancy Opel played Yente, Laura Michelle Kelly played Hodel and Lea Michele played Sprintze. It was directed by David Leveaux. This production replaced Yente's song "The Rumor" with a song for Yente and two other women called "Topsy-Turvy". The production was nominated for six Tonys but did not win any. In June 2014, to celebrate the show's 50th anniversary, a gala celebration and reunion was held at The Town Hall in New York City to benefit National Yiddish Theatre Folksbiene, with appearances by many of the cast members of the various Broadway productions and the 1971 film. The fifth Broadway revival began previews on November 20 and opened on December 20, 2015 at the Broadway Theatre, with concept and choreography based on the original by Jerome Robbins. Bartlett Sher directed, and Hofesh Shechter choreographed. The cast starred Danny Burstein as Tevye, with Jessica Hecht as Golde, Alexandra Silber as Tzeitel, Adam Kantor as Motel, Ben Rappaport as Perchik, Samantha Massell as Hodel and Melanie Moore as Chava. Judy Kuhn replaced Hecht as Golde on November 22, 2016, for the last five weeks of the run. Designers include Michael Yeargan (sets), Catherine Zuber (costumes) and Donald Holder (lighting). Initial reviews were mostly positive, finding Burstein and the show touching. The production was nominated for three Tony Awards but won none. It closed on December 31, 2016 after 463 performances. Fiddler was first revived in London in 1983 at the Apollo Victoria Theatre (a four-month season starring Topol) and again in 1994 at the London Palladium for two months and then on tour, again starring Topol, and directed and choreographed by Sammy Dallas Bayes, recreating the Robbins production. After a two-month tryout at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, England, a London revival opened on May 19, 2007, at the Savoy Theatre starring Henry Goodman as Tevye, Beverley Klein as Golde, Alexandra Silber as Hodel, Damian Humbley as Perchik and Victor McGuire as Lazar Wolf. The production was directed by Lindsay Posner. Robbins' choreography was recreated by Sammy Dallas Bayes (who did the same for the 1990 Broadway revival), with additional choreography by Kate Flatt. A revival played at the Menier Chocolate Factory from November 23, 2018 until March 9, 2019, directed by Trevor Nunn and starring Andy Nyman as Tevye and Judy Kuhn as Golde. The production transferred to the Playhouse Theatre in the West End on March 21, 2019, with an official opening on March 27. Replacement players included Maria Friedman as Golde and Anita Dobson as Yente. The run is scheduled to close on November 2, 2019. A 2003 national tour played for seven months, with a radical design, directed by Julian Woolford and choreographed by Chris Hocking. The production's minimalist set and costumes were monochromatic, and Fruma-Sarah was represented by a 12-foot puppet. This production was revived in 2008 starring Joe McGann. The show toured the UK again in 2013 and 2014 starring Paul Michael Glaser as Tevye with direction and choreography by Craig Revel Horwood. A revival played at Chichester Festival Theatre from 10 July to 2 September 2017, directed by Daniel Evans and starring Omid Djalili as Tevye and Tracy-Ann Oberman as Golde. The original Australian production opened on June 16, 1967, at Her Majesty's Theatre in Sydney. It starred Hayes Gordon as Tevye and Brigid Lenihan as Golde. The production ran for two years. The first professional revival tour was staged by the Australian Opera in 1984 with Gordon again playing Tevye. A young Anthony Warlow played Fyedka. In 2005 and 2007, Topol recreated his role as Tevye in Australian productions, with seasons in Sydney, Brisbane, Melbourne, Perth, Wellington and Auckland. The musical was again revived in Melbourne and Sydney in 2015–2016 with Anthony Warlow as Tevye, Sigrid Thornton as Golde and Lior as Motel. The Shraga Friedman Yiddish language version, directed by Joel Grey, is scheduled to run in Sydney and Melbourne, Australia, in 2020. Topol in 'Fiddler on the Roof': The Farewell Tour opened on January 20, 2009, in Wilmington, Delaware. Topol left the tour in November 2009 due to torn muscles. He was replaced by Harvey Fierstein. National Yiddish Theater Folksbiene mounted a Yiddish adaptation, Fidler Afn Dakh, at the Museum of Jewish Heritage in New York City, under the direction of Joel Grey, with a translation by Shraga Friedman that was first used in a 1965 Israeli production. The cast included Jackie Hoffman as Yente, Steven Skybell as Tevye, Daniel Kahn as Perchik, Stephanie Lynne Mason as Hodel and Raquel Nobile as Shprintze. The first preview was on July 4, 2018, and opening night was July 15, 2018. The production played through the end of 2018. The production then transferred to Stage 42, an Off-Broadway theatre, with Skybell, Hoffman, Mason and Nobile reprising their roles. Previews began February 11, with opening night on February 21, 2019. Musical staging is by Staś Kmieć (based on the original choreography by Robbins), with set design by Beowulf Boritt, costumes by Ann Hould-Ward, sound by Dan Moses Schreier and lighting by Peter Kaczorowski. The production is expected to close on January 5, 2020. It won the 2019 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival of a Musical. The musical was an international hit, with early productions playing throughout Europe, in South America, Africa and Australia; 100 different productions were mounted in the former West Germany in the first three decades after the musical's premiere, and within five years after the collapse of the Berlin Wall, 23 productions were staged in the former East Germany; and it was the longest-running musical ever seen in Tokyo. According to BroadwayWorld, the musical has been staged "in every metropolitan city in the world from Paris to Beijing." A Hebrew language staging was produced in Tel Aviv by the Israeli impresario Giora Godik in the 1960s. This version was so successful that in 1965 Godik produced a Yiddish version translated by Shraga Friedman. A 2008 Hebrew language production ran at the Cameri Theatre in Tel Aviv for more than six years. It was directed by Moshe Kepten, choreographed by Dennis Courtney and starred Natan Datner. Un violon sur le toît was produced in French at Paris's théâtre Marigny from November 1969 to May 1970, resuming from September to January 1971 (a total of 292 performances) with Ivan Rebroff as Tevye and Maria Murano as Golde. Another adaptation was produced in 2005 at the théâtre Comédia in Paris with Franck Vincent as Tevye and Isabelle Ferron as Golde. The Stratford Shakespeare Festival produced the musical from April to October 2013 at the Festival Theatre directed and choreographed by Donna Feore. It starred Scott Wentworth as Tevye. The musical receives about 500 amateur productions a year in the US alone. The film version was released in 1971, directed and produced by Norman Jewison, and Stein adapted his own book for the screenplay. The casting of Chaim Topol over Zero Mostel for the role of Tevye caused controversy at first. The film received mostly positive reviews from film critics and became the highest-grossing film of 1971. Fiddler received eight Oscar nominations, including Best Picture, Best Director for Jewison, Best Actor in a Leading Role for Topol, and Best Actor in a Supporting Role for Leonard Frey (as Motel; in the original Broadway production, Frey was the rabbi's son). It won three, including best score/adaptation for arranger-conductor John Williams. In the film version, the character of Yente is reduced, and Perchik's song to Hodel "Now I Have Everything" is cut and replaced by a scene in Kiev. The "Chagall color palette" of the original Broadway production was exchanged for a grittier, more realistic depiction of the village of Anatevka. Theatre writer John Kenrick writes that the original Broadway cast album released by RCA Victor in 1964, "shimmers – an essential recording in any show lover's collection", praising the cast. The remastered CD includes two recordings not on the original album, the bottle dance from the wedding scene and "Rumor" performed by Beatrice Arthur. Kenrick writes that while the original Broadway cast version is the clear first choice among recordings of this musical, he also likes the Columbia Records studio cast album with Bernardi as Tevye; the film soundtrack, although he feels that the pace drags a bit; and some of the numerous foreign versions, including the Israeli, German and Japanese casts. The musical's popularity has led to numerous references in popular media and elsewhere. A documentary film about the musical's history and legacy, , was released in 2019. Parodies relating to the show have included Antenna on the Roof (Mad Magazine #156, January 1973), which speculated about the lives of Tevye's descendants living in an assimilated 1970s suburban America. The H. P. Lovecraft Historical Society published a musical theatre and album parody of Fiddler on the Roof called A Shoggoth on the Roof, which incorporates the works of H. P. Lovecraft. In the film Mrs. Doubtfire (1993), Robin Williams parodies "Matchmaker". References to the musical on television have included a 2005 episode of Gilmore Girls titled "Jews and Chinese Food", involving a production of the musical. A skit by The Electric Company about a village fiddler with a fear of heights, so he is deemed "Fiddler on the Chair". In the Family Guy episode "When You Wish Upon a Weinstein" (2003), William Shatner is depicted as playing Tevye in a scene from Fiddler. The second episode of Muppets Tonight, in 1996, featured Garth Brooks doing a piece of "If I were a Rich Man" in which he kicks several chickens off the roof. "The Rosie Show", a 1996 episode of The Nanny, parodied the dream scene, when Mr. Sheffield fakes a dream to convince Fran not to be a regular on a TV show. A 2011 episode of NBC's Community, entitled "Competitive Wine Tasting", included a parody of Fiddler titled, "Fiddler, Please!", with an all-black cast dressed in Fiddler on the Roof costumes singing "It's Hard to Be Jewish in Russia, Yo". Chabad.org kicked off their 2008 "To Life" Telethon with a pastiche of the fiddle solo and bottle dance from the musical. Broadway references have included Spamalot, where a "Grail dance" sends up the "bottle dance" in Fiddlers wedding scene. In 2001, Chicago's Improv Olympic produced a well- received parody, "The Roof Is on Fiddler", that used most of the original book of the musical but replaced the songs with 1980's pop songs. The original Broadway cast of the musical Avenue Q and the Broadway 2004 revival cast of Fiddler on the Roof collaborated for a Broadway Cares/Equity Fights AIDS benefit and produced an approximately 10-minute-long show, "Avenue Jew", that incorporated characters from both shows, including puppets. Songs from the musical have been covered by notable artists. For example, in 1964, jazz saxophonist Cannonball Adderley recorded the album Fiddler on the Roof, which featured jazz arrangements of eight songs from the musical. AllMusic awarded the album 4 stars and states "Cannonball plays near his peak; this is certainly the finest album by this particular sextet". That same year, Eydie Gormé released a single of "Matchmaker". In 1999, Knitting Factory Records released Knitting on the Roof, a compilation CD featuring covers of Fiddler songs by alternative bands such as The Residents, Negativland, and The Magnetic Fields. Indie rock band Bright Eyes recorded an adaptation of "Sunrise, Sunset" on their 2000 album Fevers and Mirrors. Allmusic gave the album a favorable review, and the online music magazine Pitchfork Media ranked it at number 170 on their list of top 200 albums of the 2000s. In 2005, Melbourne punk band Yidcore released a reworking of the entire show called Fiddling on Ya Roof. Gwen Stefani and Eve covered "If I Were a Rich Man" as "Rich Girl" for Stefani's 2004 debut solo album Love. Angel. Music. Baby. in 2004. The song was inspired by the 1993 British Louchie Lou & Michie One ragga version of the same name. Stefani's version reached #7 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, where it remained for over six months. It was certified gold by the RIAA and nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rap/Sung Collaboration. It was also covered in 2008 and 2009 by the Capitol Steps, poking fun at Illinois politics, especially then-Governor Rod Blagojevich. The Santa Clara Vanguard Drum and Bugle Corps performs the "Bottle Dance" from Fiddler as a "recurring trademark", including at the Drum Corps International World Championships. The song "Sunrise, Sunset" is often played at weddings, and in 2011 Sheldon Harnick wrote two versions of the song, suitable for same-sex weddings, with minor word changes. For example, for male couples, changes include "When did they grow to be so handsome". Fiddlers original Broadway production in 1964 was nominated for ten Tony Awards, winning nine, including Best Musical, score, and book, and Robbins won for best direction and choreography. Mostel and Karnilova won as best leading actor and best featured actress. In 1972, the show won a special Tony on becoming the longest-running musical in Broadway history. Its revivals have also been honored. At the 1981 Tony Awards, Bernardi was nominated as best actor. Ten years later, the 1991 revival won for best revival, and Topol was nominated as best actor. The 2004 revival was nominated for six Tony Awards and three Drama Desk Awards but won none. The 2007 West End revival was nominated for Olivier Awards for best revival, and Goodman was nominated as best actor. , p. 98, Rich, Frank. The Theatre Art of Boris Aronson (1987), Knopf Altman, Richard (1971). The Making of a Musical: Fiddler on the Roof. Crown Publishers., Isenberg, Barbara (2014). Tradition!: The Highly Improbable, Ultimately Triumphant Broadway-to-Hollywood Story of Fiddler on the Roof, the World’s Most Beloved Musical. New York: St. Martin's Press. ., Solomon, Alisa (2013). Wonder of Wonders: A Cultural History of Fiddler on the Roof. Metropolitan Books. . Fiddler on the Roof study guide, Fiddler on the Roof at Ovrtur, List of longest-running Broadway productions from Playbill.com A Shoggoth on the Roof is a parody musical of Fiddler on the Roof based on the works of H. P. Lovecraft. Published by the H. P. Lovecraft Historical Society, it is credited to a member of the society who is referred to only as "He Who (for legal reasons) Must Not Be Named". In a fictional backstory created by the H. P. Lovecraft Historical Society, A Shoggoth on the Roof was originally attempted by The Other Gods Theatre Company in 1979 in Los Angeles. The production was abandoned for reasons that are not entirely clear. The H. P. Lovecraft Historical Society have a mockumentary of this production on their website. There have been many legal difficulties in performing Shoggoth; however, it was staged for the first time, in a Swedish translation, at Miskatonicon, an H. P. Lovecraft convention in Sweden, on November 4, 2005. It was staged for the first time in English at the Leprecon gaming convention in Ireland on February 23, 2007. The production was organised by the Trinity College, Dublin Gamers Society. They avoided the legal issues surrounding the Fiddler on the Roof score by using a completely new score written for the musical by Aidan Marsh. The "Tevye" of this parody is Professor Henry Armitage, the librarian at the fictional Miskatonic University. It is set in 1920s America. The action is set in the fictional town of Arkham, Massachusetts. The action opens in a manner reminiscent of Fiddler, with a shoggoth on the roof of the Miskatonic library building. Armitage addresses the audience, speaking of all the strange things in Arkham and its horrific history. He then explains how a shoggoth can stay up on "such a pointed roof": Tentacles! ("Tentacles") Back at Armitage's house, his three daughters, Prudence, Asenath and Jill, along with their mother Marion are cleaning. The three daughters begin chatting and Prudence reveals that she has fallen in love with Herbert West, a doctor and assistant professor at the university. Meanwhile, Armitage arrives home, and he and Marion discuss finding a suitable husband for Prudence. Marion suggests Wilbur Whately, and Armitage agrees to ask him to lunch. ("Arkham, Dunwich") Prudence hears this and rushes off to see Herbert. The action then moves to a graveyard, where Randolph Carter and Harley Warren are discussing how best to enter an ancient tomb. A ghoul spies on them as they break in. Prudence and Herbert meet outside the library, and she confides in him about her parents' plans. He exclaims that he "needs her too much," and will ask her father for her hand in marriage. Later that night, Jill and Asenath sneak out to visit the library, and it is revealed that Asenath has plans to summon an incubus. They take the Book of Eibon from the library and summon a byakhee. ("Byakhee, Byakhee") However, the creature frightens them and they run away. Meanwhile, Carter and Warren are opening the tomb, and Warren arranges to go down and relay information to Carter via the telephone equipment they have. He then seems nervous of actually entering the tomb, so Carter pushes him in. In a scene that appears to take place a few days later, Jill and Asenath attend a ceremony at the Esoteric Order of Dagon. The head cultist intones a prayer to Cthulhu and sacrifices a victim. ("Shoggoth Prayer") Asenath seems attracted to the cultist, and asks Jill to follow her down to the beach to watch him. Jill, however, decides to stay, and watches Obed Marsh, a decrepit old man, clean up the hall. He sings to himself, wishing he were a Deep One. ("If I Were a Deep One") Jill then comes out from her hiding place and chats to him. He is attracted to her, but Jill plays hard to get, going to join her sister. A few days later, Armitage encounters Wilbur Whately at the library, and asks him to go on a date with Prudence. Wilbur accepts. ("Arkham, Dunwich - reprise") After Wilbur leaves, however, Prudence and Herbert West come to see Armitage, and Herbert asks his permission to marry her. He explains to Armitage about his "great work," the reanimation of dead tissue. ("To Life") Overwhelmed, Armitage gives his consent. The action then returns to Carter and Warren. Carter is being chased by a ghoul, while Warren discovers the tomb is actually empty, except for an inscription saying "Asenath was here". They decide to head home, but encounter Armitage on the way, who is being attacked by ghouls on his way home. Carter and Warren fight them off, but Armitage is still worried about how to break the news of Herbert and Prudence's marriage to his wife. A chance remark by Carter gives him the idea to tell his wife about a nightmare to get her consent. That night, Armitage and his wife are in bed, when Armitage starts screaming and tells his wife about a nightmare he had, featuring her Grandma Prudence and Lavinia Whately, saying that Prudence should marry Herbert West. ("The Nightmare") Marion is impressed by this and agrees to marry Prudence to Herbert. The next day, Jill goes to visit Marsh in his shack. The two of them talk about the Deep Ones, and they end up staring into each other's eyes. Meanwhile, Asenath finally talks to the head cultist at the beach, and he confesses he has fallen in love with her. ("Victim of Victims") They agree to ask Armitage's permission to marry. Obed Marsh and Jill ask Armitage for his blessing for them to marry, explaining that they have fallen in love. Armitage is horrified at the concept, but Jill explains her feelings ("Very Far From the Home I Love"). Armitage eventually gives them his blessing. Asenath and the head cultist then come to ask his blessing. However, Armitage has a violent prejudice against the cultists and refuses absolutely. The scene then changes to Prudence and Herbert's wedding, with almost everyone in the town present. Carter and Warren turn up, and head to the buffet table. Asenath and the head cultist then turn up, and they try to explain to Armitage how they are part of the same community. ("Arkham, Dunwich - second reprise") The song is interrupted by Wilbur Whateley, who is enraged at both being denied Prudence and at not being invited to the wedding. He vows revenge, and reads an incantation from the Necronomicon to summon Cthulhu, who appears behind the library and crushes many of the villagers. He then eats Wilbur, and demands to know what is going on. ("Do You Fear Me?") Cthulhu goes on a rampage, destroying the university and killing the entire cast. He then departs, and Herbert West uses his reanimating formula to return himself to life, as well as the rest of the cast. They discuss what to do, now that the Great Old Ones have returned. Armitage explains that no matter what the Old Ones do, they cannot kill knowledge, and that knowledge is the only weapon against them. ("Miskatonic") "Tentacles" (7:04), "Arkham, Dunwich" (3:32), "Byakhee Byakhee" (3:46), "Shoggoth Prayer" (1:54), "If I Were a Deep One" (4:30), "To Life" (3:35), "The Nightmare" (7:19), "Victim of Victims" (1:57), "Very Far From The Home I Love" (2:09), "Do You Fear Me?" (2:46), "Miskatonic" (2:47) In 2002 Chicago's Defiant Theatre considered a production, but cancelled the plans after being threatened with litigation., Additional performances have been contemplated, attempted and/or abandoned at: New York University's (NYU) Tisch School of the Arts, Brandeis University, University of Calgary, Harvard, Stanford, St. John's College, and other colleges and universities worldwide., , the 2005 Teater Tentakel production in Stockholm and the 2007 Trinity Gamers production in Dublin, Ireland were the only known successful productions of the show., In 2014, ShogGoth (name since changed to Showgoth) performed a successful run of three shows at that year's GothCon in Gothenburg, Sweden. Dr. Armitage and the Whateley family are characters from the Lovecraft short story "The Dunwich Horror.", Herbert West is the title character of the Lovecraft short story "Herbert West–Reanimator"., Obed Marsh, the Esoteric Order of Dagon, and the Deep Ones are central to the plot of the Lovecraft novella "The Shadow over Innsmouth"., Randolph Carter is featured in a number of stories by Lovecraft, while Harley Warren's adventure into the tomb forms the plot of the story "The Statement of Randolph Carter"., Asenath shares her given name with Asenath Waite, one of the principal characters of the Lovecraft short story "The Thing on the Doorstep"., The Necronomicon and the Book of Eibon are referenced in numerous Cthulhu Mythos stories. https://web.archive.org/web/20060528201704/http://www.cthulhulives.org/shoggoth/ - The H. P. Lovecraft Historical Society's page about Shoggoth, http://www.miskatonicon.com/eng_index.html - Miskatonicon official website, https://leprecontcd.wordpress.com/ - Trinity Gamers' Leprecon website Fiddler on the Roof is a 1971 American musical comedy-drama film produced and directed by Norman Jewison. It is an adaptation of the 1964 Broadway musical of the same name, with music composed by Jerry Bock, lyrics by Sheldon Harnick, and screenplay by Joseph Stein and based on stories by Sholem Aleichem. Starring Topol, Norma Crane, Leonard Frey, Molly Picon, and Paul Mann, the film centers on Tevye, the father of five daughters, and his attempts to maintain his Jewish religious and cultural traditions as outside influences encroach upon the family's lives. He must cope both with the strong-willed actions of his three older daughters, who wish to marry for love – each one's choice of a husband moves further away from the customs of his faith – and with the edict of the Tsar who evicts the Jews from the town of Anatevka. Throughout the film, Tevye talks to God and directly to the audience, breaking the fourth wall. In these monologues, Tevye ponders tradition, the difficulties of being poor, the Jewish community's constant fear of harassment from their non-Jewish neighbors, and important family decisions. The film was released to critical acclaim and won three Academy Awards, including Best Music, Scoring Adaptation and Original Song Score for arranger-conductor John Williams. It was nominated for several more, including Best Picture, Best Actor for Topol as Tevye, and Best Supporting Actor for Frey, who played Motel Kamzoil the Tailor. Topol and Frey had performed in stage productions of the musical; Topol as Tevye in the London production and Frey in a minor part as Mendel, the rabbi's son, on Broadway. The film's plot largely follows that of the musical from which it is adapted. In 1905, Tevye, a poor Jewish milkman living in the Ukrainian village of Anatevka, a typical shtetl in the Pale of Settlement of Imperial Russia, compares the lives of the Jews of Anatevka to a fiddler on the roof (who appears throughout the film in this metaphorical role), using tradition to "scratch out a pleasant, simple tune" without breaking their necks. In town, Tevye meets Perchik, a radical Marxist from Kiev, who admonishes them for talking but doing nothing about news of Jews being banished from their villages by the tsar. Tevye invites Perchik to stay with his family, offering him room and board in exchange for Perchik tutoring his daughters. Tevye arranges for his oldest daughter, Tzeitel, to marry Lazar Wolf, an older, and widowed, wealthy butcher. Tzeitel is in love with her childhood sweetheart, Motel Kamzoil, and begs her father not to make her marry Lazar. Although he is initially angry, Tevye realizes that Tzeitel loves Motel and yields to his daughter's demands. In order to convince his wife Golde that Tzeitel should not be married to Lazar, Tevye claims to have had a nightmare. He says that Golde's deceased grandmother told him Tzeitel is supposed to marry Motel, and that Lazar’s late wife, Fruma-Sarah, threatened to kill Tzeitel if the two are married. Golde concludes that the dream was a message from their ancestors, and Tzeitel and Motel arrange to be married. Meanwhile, Tevye's second daughter, Hodel, begins to fall in love with Perchik. They argue over the story of Leah and the place of old religious traditions in a changing world. The two dance together, which is considered forbidden by Orthodox Jewish tradition. Perchik tells Hodel that they just changed an old tradition. At Tzeitel and Motel's wedding, an argument breaks out after Lazar presents the newlyweds with gifts. When Tevye tries to speak to Lazar about the Torah, Lazar refuses to listen, arguing that the wedding should have been his all along. Minutes later, another argument breaks out over whether a girl should be able to choose her own husband. Perchik addresses the crowd and says that, since they love each other, it should be left for the couple to decide. He creates further controversy by asking Hodel to dance with him. The crowd gradually warms to the idea and Tevye and Golde, then Motel and Tzeitel, join in dancing. The wedding proceeds with great joy. Suddenly, the military presence in the town, along with the constable, arrive and begin a pogrom, the "demonstration" which he had earlier warned Tevye was coming. The constable stops the attack on the wedding celebration after Perchik is wounded in the scuffle with the tsar's men; however, he allows the men to continue destroying property in the village. Tevye and the immediate family stand still, until Tevye angrily orders them to clean up instead of standing around. Tevye silently asks why God allowed this to happen to them. In its original theatrical release, the film was shown with an intermission and entr'acte music.. Months later, Perchik prepares to leave Anatevka for the revolution. He proposes to Hodel, and she accepts. When they tell Tevye, he is furious that they have decided to marry without his permission, but he again relents because they love each other. Tevye tells Golde his reasons for consenting to their daughter's marriage, which leads them to re-evaluate their own arranged marriage. Tevye and Golde ultimately realize that, despite having been paired by a matchmaker, they do love each other. Weeks later, Perchik is arrested in Kiev and is exiled to Siberia. Hodel decides to join him there. She promises Tevye that she and Perchik will be married under a canopy. Meanwhile, Tzeitel and Motel become parents, and the latter finally buys the sewing machine for which he has long scrimped and saved. Tevye's third daughter Chava falls in love with a Russian Orthodox Christian named Fyedka. Tevye tells Chava to be distant friends with Fyedka, because of the difference in their religions. When Chava eventually works up the courage to ask Tevye's permission to marry Fyedka, Tevye tells her that marrying outside the family's faith is against tradition. He forbids her from having any contact with Fyedka or from even mentioning his name. The next morning, Fyedka and Chava elope and are married in a Russian Orthodox church. Golde learns of the marriage when she meets up with the priest. When a grief-stricken Golde tells Tevye about the marriage, he tells her that Chava is dead to the family and that they shall forget her altogether. Chava asks Tevye to accept her marriage. In a soliloquy, Tevye concludes that he cannot accept Chava marrying a non-Jew. He accuses her of abandoning the Jewish faith and disowns her. One winter day, the Jews of Anatevka are notified that they have three days to leave the village or be forced out by the government. Tevye, his family and friends begin packing up to leave, heading for various parts of Europe, Palestine, and the United States. Yente, the Matchmaker, plans to emigrate to Jerusalem, and says goodbye to Golde with an embrace before departing. Lazar plans to emigrate to Chicago, to live with his former brother in law, whom he detests, but "a relative is a relative". Lazar and Tevye share one last embrace before departing. Tevye receives letters from Hodel mentioning that she is working hard while Perchik stays in the Siberian prison. It is hoped that when Perchik is released, they will join the others in the United States. Chava and her husband Fyedka come to Tevye's house and tell the family that they are leaving for Kraków in Russian Poland, being unable to stay in a place that would force innocent people out. Tevye shows signs of forgiving Chava by murmuring under his breath "And God be with you", silently urging Tzeitel to repeat his words to Chava. Golde calls out to Chava and Fyedka, telling them where they will be living in New York with a relative. The Constable silently watches as the mass evacuation of Anatevka takes place. The community forms their circle at a crossroad one last time before scattering in different directions. Tevye spots the fiddler and motions to him to come along, symbolizing that even though he must leave his town, his traditions will always be with him. Chaim Topol as Τevye, Norma Crane as Golde, his wife, Rosalind Harris as Tzeitel, the oldest daughter, Michele Marsh as Hodel, the second daughter, Neva Small as Chava, the third daughter, Molly Picon as Yente, the matchmaker, Paul Mann as Lazar Wolf, the butcher, Tzeitel's older suitor, Leonard Frey as Motel Kamzoil, the tailor, Tzeitel's eventual husband, Paul Michael Glaser (credited as Michael Glaser) as Perchik, the Bolshevik revolutionary, Hodel's eventual husband, Raymond Lovelock as Fyedka, a Christian, Chava's eventual husband, Elaine Edwards as Shprintze, the fourth daughter, Candy Bonstein as Bielke, the fifth daughter, Shimen Rushkin as Mordcha, Zvee Scooler as Rabbi, Louis Zorich as Constable, Alfie Scopp as Avram, Howard Goorney as Nachum, Barry Dennen as Mendel, Ruth Madoc as Fruma-Sarah, the butcher's late wife, Patience Collier as Grandmother Tzeitel, Tutte Lemkow as Fiddler, Marika Rivera as Rifka, Aharon Ipalé as Sheftel, Roger Lloyd-Pack as Sexton, Vernon Dobtcheff as Russian official, Kenneth Waller as Man in the "Tevye's Dream" sequence (uncredited), Norman Jewison: (uncredited) as the Rabbi's voice (dubbed post filming) in the "Tevye's Dream" sequence (singing "Mazel Tov") 1. "Prologue / Tradition" – Tevye and Company 2. "Matchmaker, Matchmaker" – Tzeitel, Hodel, Chava, Shprintze, and Bielke 3. "If I Were a Rich Man" – Tevye 4. "Sabbath Prayer" – Tevye, Golde, and Chorus 5. "To Life" – Tevye, Lazar Wolf, and Male Company 6. "Tevye's Monologue (Tzeitel and Motel)" – Tevye 7. "Miracle of Miracles" – Motel 8. "Tevye's Dream" – Tevye, Golde, Grandmother Tzeitel, Rabbi, Fruma-Sarah, and Chorus 9. "Sunrise, Sunset" – Tevye, Golde, Perchik, Hodel, and Chorus 10. "Wedding Celebration / The Bottle Dance" 11. "Entr'acte" – Orchestra 12. "Tevye's Monologue (Hodel and Perchik)" – Tevye 13. "Do You Love Me?" – Tevye and Golde 14. "Far from the Home I Love" – Hodel 15. "Chava Ballet Sequence (Little Bird, Little Chavaleh)" – Tevye 16. "Tevye's Monologue (Chava and Fyedka)" – Tevye 17. "Anatevka" – Tevye, Golde, Lazar Wolf, Yente, Mendel, Mordcha, and Company The decision to cast Topol, instead of Zero Mostel, as Tevye was a somewhat controversial one, as the role had originated with Mostel and he had made it famous. Years later, Jewison said he felt Mostel's larger-than-life personality, while fine on stage, would cause film audiences to see him as Mostel, rather than the character of Tevye. Principal photography was done at Pinewood Studios in Buckinghamshire, England. Most of the exterior shots were done in SFR Yugoslavia—specifically in Mala Gorica, Lekenik, and Zagreb within the Yugoslav constituent republic of Croatia. Though the area was under heavy snow during location scouting in 1969, during the filming the producers had to ship in marble dust to stand in for snow. Three hundred extras conversant in various foreign languages were used, as were flocks of geese and pigs and their handlers. Isaac Stern performed the violin solos. Director Jewison has a cameo as a rabbi (voice only) during Tevye's dream sequence. The film follows the plot of the stage play very closely, retaining nearly all of the play's dialogue, although it omits the songs "Now I Have Everything" and "The Rumor (I Just Heard)". Lyrical portions of "Tevye's Dream (tailor Motel Kemzoil)" were omitted to avoid repetition. The film's soundtrack release notably contained some of these omissions, indicating they were removed during filming. These include Golde blessing herself, before going back to sleep. Changes were also made in the song "Tradition," with the film omitting the dialogue between Reb Nachum the beggar (who, in the film, cannot speak) and Lazar Wolf as well as dialogue spoken by Yente and Avram. In addition, in the film, two men argue about whether a horse claimed to be six years old was actually twelve, rather than whether the horse was actually a mule. The LP film soundtrack notably retained their names; Yitzhak and Avram, however this was also omitted the film's release. Instead, an on-set, improvised take of Topol (saying 'he sold him'), rather than the recorded dubbing, was used. Seven additional scenes were added to the film: 1. The Constable gets orders from his superior for a "demonstration" against the Jews (referred to by the superior as "Christ-killers") in Anatevka. 2. Perchik is arrested at a workers' rally in Kiev. 3. Golde goes to the priest to look for Chava (described by her in the stage production). She is confronted there with Christian images (of historically Jewish individuals) in a juxtaposition with the synagogue montage at the start of the film. 4. Motel gets dressed for his upcoming wedding to Tzeitel. 5. The rabbi and his students inside the synagogue receive news of the arrival of Motel's new sewing machine. 6. The rabbi takes the Torah out of the ark inside the synagogue for the last time. He weeps and chants quietly about having to abandon the synagogue. 7. Tevye feeds his animals in the barn for the final time. He tells his lame horse to take care of his leg and to treat his new owner and master well. The scene with Hodel and Perchik, where he plans to leave to start a revolution, was extended in the film. A new song sung by Perchik was recorded ("Any Day Now"), but was omitted from the final print; however, it was included in the 2004 reissue of the soundtrack. The song was later implemented in the 2018 Yiddish production as a song sung by Perchik to Shprintze and Bielke. When the film was re-released to theaters in 1979, 32 minutes were cut, including the songs "Far from the Home I Love" and "Anatevka". In the film, Tevye and Lazar Wolf discuss Wolf's proposed marriage to Tzeitel in Wolf's home, then go to the tavern for a celebration drink. In the stage version, the two meet directly in the tavern. The film shows Wolf's home as filled with golden artifacts. Prior to Lazar Wolf entering the scene, Tevye speaks to a female servant, who tells him not to touch anything. Although a faithful adaptation of the original stage version, Fiddler scholar Jan Lisa Huttner has noted several differences between stage and screen. She argues that changes in American culture and politics and developments in Israel led the filmmakers to portray certain characters differently and to offer a different version of Anatevka. For example, the Broadway production cast Bea Arthur as a tall, booming Yente, while the film portrays Yente as tiny and timid. Huttner also notes that the "Chagall color palette" of the original Broadway production was exchanged for a grittier, more realistic depiction of the village of Anatevka. Because the film follows the stage musical so closely, and the musical did not have an overture, the filmmakers chose to eliminate the customary film overture played before the beginning of most motion pictures shown in a roadshow-style presentation. However, there is a solo by the Fiddler played over the opening credits (after the conclusion of "Tradition"), an intermission featuring entr'acte music, and exit music played at the end after the closing credits. The film was a success, earning United Artists profits of $6.1 million, plus distribution profits of $8 million. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an 83% rating based on 40 reviews, with an average of 7.7/10. The consensus summarizes: "A bird may love a fish - and musical fans will love this adaptation of Fiddler on the Roof, even if it is not quite as transcendent as the long-running stage version." Roger Ebert thought the story line of the musical was "quite simply boring", but still gave the screen version three stars out of four, explaining that Jewison "has made as good a film as can be made" from the material. Gene Siskel awarded three-and-a-half stars out of four, writing that the musical numbers were "better staged and choreographed than in any recent Broadway film adaptation". Vincent Canby of The New York Times thought the film version was inferior, explaining that by "literalizing" the show with real landscapes and houses, Jewison and Stein "have effectively overwhelmed not only Aleichem, but the best things about the stage production ... pushed beyond its limits, the music goes flat and renders banal moments that, on the stage, are immensely moving." Charles Champlin of the Los Angeles Times wrote that the film "has been done not only with such artistry, but also with such evident love, devotion, integrity and high aspiration that watching it is a kind of duplex pleasure." Gary Arnold of The Washington Post stated, "Jewison's Fiddler is a great film, by which I mean great in the sense that matters most — greatly moving, an extraordinarily powerful, emotional experience." Pauline Kael of The New Yorker called it "an absolutely smashing movie; it is not especially sensitive, it is far from delicate, and it isn't even particularly imaginative, but it seems to me the most powerful movie musical ever made." American Film Institute recognition AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies - Nominated, AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs:, "Sunrise, Sunset" - Nominated, "If I Were a Rich Man" - Nominated, AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers - #82, AFI's Greatest Movie Musicals - Nominated List of American films of 1971

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The Florida attorney general is an elected cabinet official in the U.S. state of Florida. The attorney general serves as the chief legal officer of the state and is head of the Florida Department of Legal Affairs. The office is one of Florida's three elected state cabinet posts, along with the chief financial officer and agriculture commissioner. The current attorney general is Republican Ashley Moody, who took office on January 8, 2019. As with other elected statewide offices in Florida, the attorney general is limited to serving two consecutive four-year terms. The attorney general appoints the Florida solicitor general who serves at his or her pleasure. The current solicitor is Amit Agarwal. The attorney general is second (behind the lieutenant governor) in the line of succession to the office of Governor of Florida. The Florida attorney general can be impeached for committing a "misdemeanor in office" by the State House of Representatives, and then convicted and thereby removed from office by a two-thirds vote of the State Senate. As of , there are six living former Florida attorneys general, the oldest being James C. Smith (served 1979–1987, born 1940). The most recent attorney general to die was Robert L. Shevin on July 11, 2005 (served 1971–1979, born 1934). Constitution of Florida, Florida Cabinet, Florida Democratic Party, Republican Party of Florida Florida Attorney General official website, Florida Attorney General articles at Legal Newsline Legal Journal, Florida Attorney General articles at ABA Journal, News and Commentary at FindLaw, Florida Statutes at Law.Justia.com, U.S. Supreme Court Opinions - "Cases with title containing: State of Florida" at FindLaw, The Florida Bar, Florida Attorney General Pam Bondi profile at National Association of Attorneys General, Press releases at Florida Attorney General's office Charles Joseph Crist Jr. (; born July 24, 1956) is an American politician and lawyer who has been the U.S. Representative from since 2017. He served as the 44th governor of Florida from 2007 to 2011. Crist began his political career as a Republican, serving in the Florida Senate from 1993 to 1999, running unsuccessfully against incumbent Bob Graham for the U.S. Senate in 1998 and then serving as Florida Education Commissioner from 2001 to 2003 and Florida Attorney General from 2003 to 2007, before being elected governor in 2006. Crist decided not to run for reelection as governor in 2010, announcing on May 12, 2009 that he was running for the U.S. Senate seat being vacated by Republican Senator Mel Martinez. After initially leading in the race for the Republican nomination, he was overtaken in the polls by Marco Rubio, and in April 2010 Crist left the Republican Party and ran as an independent. In the general election he lost to Rubio in a three-way race, taking 30% of the vote to Rubio's 49% and Democratic nominee Kendrick Meek's 20%. Crist's term as governor ended in January 2011. On December 7, 2012, Crist joined the Democratic Party, having endorsed President Barack Obama for reelection in 2012. On November 1, 2013, he announced that he was running for governor in the 2014 election. He was defeated by incumbent Governor Rick Scott, Crist's successor, by a 1% margin. In 2016, Crist was elected to the United States House of Representatives from Florida's 13th congressional district, defeating incumbent David Jolly, 52%-48%. Crist was born in Altoona, Pennsylvania, on July 24, 1956, to Charles Joseph Crist, an American physician of Greek Cypriot and Lebanese descent, and Nancy (née Lee), of Scots-Irish, Swiss, and Welsh descent. His family name is adapted from the original Greek name "Christodoulou." As a child Crist moved to St. Petersburg, Florida, where he attended Riviera Middle School, Shorecrest Preparatory School, and St. Petersburg High School, from which he graduated in 1974. He is the second of four children and has three sisters: Margaret Crist Wood, Elizabeth Crist Hyden, and Catherine Crist Kennedy. He attended Wake Forest University for two years. Crist earned his undergraduate degree from Florida State University, where he was elected vice president of the student body and became a member of the Pi Kappa Alpha fraternity. He received his J.D. from Samford University Cumberland School of Law. After graduating from Cumberland School of Law in 1981, and passing the bar on his third attempt, Crist was hired as general counsel to Minor League Baseball, which was headquartered in St. Petersburg. Drawn to politics, Crist was a candidate for public office for the first time in 1986, in the Republican primary for a state Senate seat in Pinellas County. After losing in a runoff, Crist joined his brother-in-law in private practice in St. Petersburg, but soon returned to politics as an aide on the successful 1988 United States Senate campaign of Connie Mack III, whom he has since described as his political mentor. In 1992 Crist was elected to a two-year term to the Florida Senate from the 20th District, which encompassed parts of St. Petersburg and south Tampa. He defeated longtime incumbent Democratic State Senator Helen Gordon Davis of Tampa, 58.3 to 41.7%. Crist was able to unseat Gordon Davis following the 1992 decennial redistricting process, which significantly reconfigured the districts in the Tampa Bay area. His victory was credited with helping to end the Democratic Party's 128-year control of the Florida Senate, as the Republicans netted three seats in 1992, resulting in a 20-20 tie between the parties. Crist was known as a law-and-order senator, sponsoring legislation requiring inmates to serve at least 85% of their sentences before becoming eligible for parole. He supported teacher salary increases, charter schools, and a specialty license plate for Everglades conservation. With Crist as chairman, the Senate Ethics and Elections Committee investigated actions of then-governor Lawton Chiles amid allegations that Chiles's campaign had made "scare calls" to senior citizens days before the 1994 gubernatorial election. Chiles testified before the committee and admitted that his campaign had made the calls. In 1994 Crist was reelected to a four-year term in the Senate, defeating Democrat Dana Lynn Maley with 63.3% of the vote. Crist gained recognition in 1998 as the Republican challenger to incumbent Democratic U.S. Senator Bob Graham. He lost to Graham by 26 percentage points. In 2000 he was elected Education Commissioner of Florida, a position he held until it became an appointive office in 2003, as the result of a 1998 constitutional amendment. Crist left his position after he was elected attorney general. In 2002 Crist was elected Florida Attorney General. His candidacy was supported by the host of America's Most Wanted, John Walsh. Walsh and other supporters cited his work with the Center for Missing and Exploited Children. Civil rights and consumer groups praised Crist for expanding the attorney general's powers during his time in office. These powers enabled him and future attorneys general to have greater power to prosecute civil rights and fraud cases. Crist also worked to combat spam e-mail, freeze utility rates, end telecom deception, and protect the environment. Having won the 2006 election, Crist was inaugurated as governor of Florida on January 2, 2007. He was involved in the state's purchase of sugar plantations. He also worked on education, with Florida rising into the top 10 states for K12 education under his control. Crist supported President Obama's American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, a stimulus package in response to the Great Recession. Fellow Republicans were angered by Crist's support for the stimulus. Crist called the act a "godsend," maintaining that it had saved the jobs of nearly 20,000 Florida schoolteachers and other school workers in 2009-10. As governor, Crist supported capital punishment. In 2008 Crist signed a provision preventing employers from prohibiting employees to bring firearms to the workplace, as long as the weapons are secure and the employees have a concealed carry license. Crist's stance on abortion has been unclear at times. In 1995, while in the Florida Senate, Crist joined with two Democrats in the Senate Health Care Committee in voting against a proposal for a mandatory 24-hour waiting period before a woman could have an abortion, resulting in a 3-3 tie vote and the bill's defeat. In 1998, while running for the U.S. Senate, Crist wrote in a Tampa Bay Times questionnaire that "I believe that a woman has the right to choose, but would prefer only after careful consideration and consultation with her family, her physician and her clergy; not her government." In a debate that year he said he did not support a constitutional amendment banning abortion. In 2006, while running for governor, Crist said he did not support overturning Roe v. Wade and opposed a mandatory 24-hour waiting period before a woman could have an abortion. In 2010, while running for the U.S. Senate again, Crist said he would "fight for pro-life legislative efforts" and described himself as "pro-life." By March 2010, however, as rumors swirled that he would leave the Republican Party and become an independent, Crist reiterated that he did not support overturning Roe v. Wade and told a Christian Family Coalition group, "We ought to, instead of change laws, change hearts." In June 2010, after leaving the Republican Party and becoming an independent, Crist removed anti-abortion language from his website. Shortly thereafter he vetoed a bill to require women seeking abortions to pay for and receive an ultrasound, calling the measure "punitive" and "almost mean- spirited." The bill also included language barring abortion coverage "under a contract toward which any tax credit or cost-sharing credit is applied." Legislative Republicans and anti-abortion groups said his language was aimed at preventing "what they considered the possibility of federal funding being used for abortion in Florida," while abortion rights groups said the broadly written provision would have resulted "in hundreds of thousands of women losing health care coverage that they currently have." The bill Crist vetoed also included some provisions "intended to thwart" the Affordable Care Act, the federal health care reform legislation championed by President Obama. In 2006, as a proposed state constitutional amendment banning same-sex unions was headed to the ballot in Florida, Crist said that such an amendment was unnecessary because state law already barred same-sex marriages. But in September 2005 Crist had signed a petition for the amendment during the Republican primary at the Christian Coalition's request. Crist said in campaign materials at the time that he supported "traditional marriage." In 2008 Crist said he voted for the amendment, which passed. In a debate and a radio talk show appearance in 2006, Crist indicated support for civil unions. In 2010, after becoming an independent during the U.S. Senate race, he declared his support for civil unions encompassing "the full range of legal protections" including "access to a loved one in the hospital, inheritance rights, the fundamental things people need to take care of their families." It is unclear whether the 2008 state constitutional amendment Crist supported would have prohibited such civil unions. As governor Crist deemphasized the marriage issue, saying in a late 2007 CNN appearance, "It's not an issue that moves me. I'm just a live and let live kind of guy", and telling the Orlando Sentinel in 2008 that the issue was not "top-tier" for him. Crist initially supported Florida's ban on same-sex adoption, which had been in place since 1977. He publicly expressed support for the ban from the time he was attorney general in 2006 to his campaign for the U.S. Senate in 2010, even after some state legislators proposed dropping the ban in 2007 and a Miami-Dade judge struck down the ban as unconstitutional in 2008. Crist expressed support for the ban as late as February 2010, but by June 2010 he expressed openness to changing Florida law to allow same-sex adoption, saying a better approach "would be to let judges make that decision on a case-by-case basis." In September 2010 Crist said that he had had an "appropriate evolution" on gay rights and was considering dropping the state's appeal of the court ruling striking down Florida's ban on gay adoption. Days later, after an appeals court struck down the ban, Crist hailed the ruling "a very good day for Florida" and "a great day for children" and announced that the state would no longer seek to enforce the ban. In a Senate candidates' debate the next month he attributed his shift in positions to "the convergence of life experience and wisdom," saying that he had become more tolerant and become less judgmental with age. In January 2014 Crist apologized for his support for the 2008 same-sex marriage ban and for the same-sex adoption ban, telling an Orlando LGBT publication, "I'm sorry I did that. It was a mistake. I was wrong. Please forgive me." In June 2008 Crist proposed that Florida buy from the United States Sugar Corporation for $1.2 billion. The purchase would remove about 187,000 acres of sugar farming for restoration efforts. In front of supporters in Palm Beach County, Crist called the deal "as monumental as our nation's first national park." Economic changes forced the purchase to be reduced to of sugar and citrus plantations for Everglades restoration projects. Crist announced plans to sign executive orders to impose strict air pollution standards in Florida, with an aim to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 80% of 1990 levels by 2050. In his gubernatorial campaign Crist opposed offshore oil drilling. He altered that position in June 2008, when oil reached peak prices, saying, "I mean, let's face it, the price of gas has gone through the roof, and Florida families are suffering, and my heart bleeds for them." After claims that computerized voting machines undercounted votes in black communities, Crist endorsed legislation requiring paper records of all ballots cast in elections. He supported a tax cut to total $25 billion over a 5-year period aimed at property tax relief. In April 2010 Crist vetoed an education bill that would have linked teacher pay to test scores, a piece of legislation conservatives strongly supported. Crist supported increased regulation of the insurance industry, including property insurance rates (in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina) and health insurance. The Citizen's Property Insurance Corp and the Florida Hurricane Catastrophe Fund had been described as risky and underfunded. Standing next to former football star Dan Marino (whose son, Michael, is autistic and inspired the Dan Marino Foundation), Crist signed a law expanding health coverage statewide for autism disorders and legislation expanding low-income coverage and creating public and private insurance options in Florida. In February 2006, Crist attended a fundraiser at Mar-A-Lago, hosted by Donald Trump, with guests paying $500 to attend. Two of the guests became subjects of controversy. One, Volodymyr Shcherban, was a Ukrainian government official who had recently fled his country after being charged with corruption. The other, Russell Whitney, was a businessman from Cape Coral, Florida, who at the time was under investigation by Crist's office (and two of whose businesses had previously made the maximum allowable $500 contribution to Crist's campaign). Crist subsequently returned $1,000 to Whitney's businesses, and determined that Shcherban's entry fee had been paid by another guest. In 2009, Crist saw the man he had chosen as Florida GOP finance chairman, his former fraternity brother oil magnate Harry Sargeant III, forced to step down. One of Sargeant's employees, Ala'a al-Ali of the Dominican Republic, was indicted in Los Angeles for organizing $5,000 in illegal campaign contributions to Crist, as well as $50,000 to presidential candidates Hillary Clinton, John McCain and Rudy Giuliani. Senator John McCain endorsed Crist's 2006 campaign for governor, traveling the state to campaign with him. The day before the general election, Crist held a campaign event with McCain in Jacksonville. Later, when the Republican Presidential primary debates were held in St. Petersburg, Crist embraced McCain. Former New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani, who had also campaigned for Crist during the gubernatorial election, had sought his endorsement. In May 2007 Crist signed a bill moving the date of Florida's presidential primary to January 29, 2008, contrary to national political party rules. Crist joined Michigan governor Jennifer Granholm in asking that their states' delegates be seated. Both national conventions ended up seating all delegates, but with only a half vote each for the sanctioned states. On January 26, 2008, Crist endorsed McCain in the Republican primary. McCain won the Florida primary by five percentage points. On October 28, 2008, Crist extended early voting hours of operation and declared that a "state of emergency exists" due to record voter turnout and resultant hours-long waits at locations throughout the state. On November 12–14, 2008, Crist hosted the Republican Governors Association (RGA) annual meeting in Miami. Held the week after the Democratic Party victories in the 2008 election, there was speculation about the meeting's tone. Then Alaska Governor Sarah Palin, the defeated 2008 Republican vice presidential nominee, was a featured participant and speaker. Crist's speech at the RGA conference, "Listen to the Voters and Serve", included his sentiments on how the GOP should evolve: Crist held a joint interview with Governor Mark Sanford of South Carolina in which they discussed the split in the Republican Party over where to direct the party's efforts to gain more voters. On May 12, 2009, Crist announced that he would not run for reelection as governor in 2010, making him the first Florida governor not to run for reelection since 1964. Instead he ran for the US Senate. His two main opponents were former Florida House Speaker Marco Rubio, and Democratic nominee Kendrick Meek. Crist was initially the front-runner in the Republican primary, but later trailed Rubio in polls. Crist announced his intent to run as an unaffiliated candidate in the 2010 senate election, while at the same time, according to a press release from his campaign, he remained a registered Republican. Crist officially changed his registration status to "non party affiliated" on May 13, 2010. He did not return campaign contributions made while he was a Republican. Crist lost the general election, receiving 29.7% of the vote to Rubio's 48.9% and Meek's 20.2%. In April 2011, as part of a settlement of a copyright lawsuit brought by musician David Byrne, Crist apologized for his Senate campaign's use of Byrne's song "Road to Nowhere" without permission. By the spring of 2015 there was speculation that Crist would seek the Democratic nomination for Florida's 2016 senate race. This would have been his third run for the seat (he lost in 1998 and 2010). In March 2015 Crist said he would not seek the nomination. That same month he endorsed U.S. Congressman Patrick Murphy's Senate candidacy. In January 2011 Crist joined the Tampa office of national personal injury law firm Morgan & Morgan after expressing an interest in returning to the legal field during his final week in office as governor of Florida. Crist worked primarily in the firm's class action sector as a complex litigation attorney, serving as a "rainmaker" for the firm. In November 2016, after almost six years with the firm, he was elected to represent Florida's 13th Congressional District. In February 2018 Brad Slager of Sunshine State News cited evidence that Morgan & Morgan was "attempting to purge all evidence" of its relationship with Crist now that he was a "rookie congressman" with "little- to-no power." In 2013 Crist performed paid consulting work for Coastal Construction, a Miami-based construction firm owned by Crist's longtime friend Tom Murphy, the father of former U.S. Representative Patrick Murphy. Crist has been a part-time guest lecturer at Stetson University College of Law, with the title of Distinguished Professorial Lecturer. In August 2012 Crist endorsed President Obama in his campaign for reelection over Republican nominee Mitt Romney, saying that the Republican Party "pitched so far to the extreme right on issues important to women, immigrants, seniors and students that they've proven incapable of governing for the people." Crist was a speaker at the 2012 Democratic National Convention in Charlotte, North Carolina, saying, "I didn't leave the Republican Party; it left me." On December 7, 2012, Crist announced that he had joined the Democratic Party. In his 2014 book The Party's Over he recounted his journey from one party to the other. He claimed that his career in the Republican Party was destroyed by a hug between him and Obama at a Fort Myers town hall on February 10, 2009. "It was the kind of hug I'd exchanged with thousands and thousands of Floridians over the years," Crist wrote. "I didn't think a thing about it as it was happening." But it "ended my viable life as a Republican politician. I would never have a future in my old party again. My bipartisan hopes and dreams, I would discover soon enough to my shock and disappointment, were vastly overstated and hopelessly out of date." In May 2014, however, Crist told Fusion's Jorge Ramos that he had left the Republican Party because of its racial attitudes. "I couldn't be consistent with myself and my core beliefs, and stay with a party that was so unfriendly toward the African-American president—I'll just go there," Crist said. "I was a Republican and I saw the activists and what they were doing. It was intolerable to me." The Washington Post's Chris Cilizza rejected this claim, citing Tampa Bay Times political editor Adam Smith as saying that Crist "was happy as a Republican when the polls showed him leading Marco Rubio by 20 points." Cilizza wrote that Crist's party switch "epitomized for many within the Republican base that Crist lacked any core principles or beliefs and, instead, simply went with whatever was popular at the moment." In a New Republic review, Isaac Chotiner called The Party's Over an "account of why Crist switched parties" and wrote that Crist had "revealed himself". Writing in Rolling Stone Magazine in 2014, Jeb Lund described Crist as "a Republican conveniently converted to Democrat", adding, "what made Crist dynamic as a Republican ... was a vaguely populist nose- thumbing at Republican orthodoxy", and that "Charlie Crist is a Democrat only if you are a Republican." In July 2013 it was announced that Crist was releasing a new book in the process of being written. The release hinted that he would run in the 2014 gubernatorial election. The book, released in February 2014, is titled The Party's Over: How the Extreme Right Hijacked the GOP and I Became a Democrat. It details why Crist left the Republican Party and became a Democrat. On November 1, 2013, Crist filed to run for governor as a Democrat. He won the Democratic nomination but was defeated in the general election by Republican incumbent Rick Scott. Crist holds the rare distinction of losing a statewide general election in Florida as a Republican, Democrat and Independent candidate. On October 20, 2015, Crist announced that he would seek the Democratic nomination for Florida's 13th congressional district, his home district, in the 2016 U.S. House of Representatives elections. He had previously announced on Twitter that he would not run for political office in 2016. Republican incumbent David Jolly, who succeeded 43-year incumbent Bill Young in a 2014 special election, was vacating the seat to run for the same Senate seat for which Crist ran in 1998 and 2010. But when Senator Marco Rubio decided to run for reelection, Jolly dropped out of the Senate race and sought reelection to the House, even though the 13th district had become significantly more Democratic-leaning when a court tossed out Florida's original congressional map. The new map drew nearly all of St. Petersburg, along with most of the more Democratic southern portion of Pinellas County, into the 13th. Crist defeated Jolly 52-48%, becoming the first Democrat to win the seat since 1955. In 2018 Crist was endorsed by the League of Conservation Voters (LCV) Action Fund, which called him "a leader on protecting Florida from and planning for the impacts of climate change during his time as Governor and in Congress." Crist won the election. Crist was sworn in on January 3, 2017. He is a member of the Blue Dog Coalition, the New Democrat Coalition, the Climate Solutions Caucus and the U.S.-Japan Caucus. Committee on Appropriations, Subcommittee on Defense, Subcommittee on Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies, Subcommittee on Financial Services and General Government, Committee on Science, Space and Technology, Subcommittee on Environment, Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics In June 2017 Crist was one of 24 House Democrats to vote for Kate's Law. The next month he was one of five Democrats to vote to fund President Trump's border wall, and the next day issued a statement saying that he opposed the wall. On May 9, 2013, Crist announced that he supports same-sex marriage: "I most certainly support marriage equality in Florida and look forward to the day it happens here." In both 2006 and 2008, Crist announced his support for the Federal Marriage Amendment, but by 2010 he had endorsed adoption rights for gay couples. Crist wants to lift the United States embargo against Cuba, saying it has not helped to change the government of Cuba. He had supported the embargo earlier as Republican and independent. Following the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting in December 2012, Crist announced a reversal of some of his previous stances on gun control. Before 2012 he had sometimes accused his opponents of not supporting gun rights strongly enough. He was also endorsed by the NRA in 2006. In 2012 Crist announced that he supported reinstating the Federal Assault Weapons Ban, banning high-capacity magazines, and instating more extensive background checks. In the wake of the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting, he announced his support for additional measures, including a ban on bump stocks, and also said he does not support arming teachers. When he left the gubernatorial office in 2011, Crist had an A rating from the NRA. In 2016 he received an F rating from the NRA, its lowest rating. In a February 12, 2018, op-ed for USA Today, Crist complained that Florida was "one of only three states that permanently bans non-violent, ex-felons from voting" and that this "disenfranchisement of 1.5 million of our fellow citizens is shameful." In July 1979 Crist married Amanda Morrow. They divorced within a year. Crist became engaged to Carole Rome on July 3, 2008, after nine months of dating, and they married on December 12 of that year at the First Methodist Church of St. Petersburg, where Crist is a member. In February 2017 Crist announced that he had filed for divorce. The Party's Over: How the Extreme Right Hijacked the GOP and I Became a Democrat (2014) List of Arab and Middle-Eastern Americans in the United States Congress, List of American politicians who switched parties in office Congressman Charlie Crist official U.S. House website, Charlie Crist for Congress official campaign site Pamela Jo Bondi (born November 17, 1965) is an American attorney, lobbyist and politician. A Republican, she served as the 37th Florida Attorney General from 2011 to 2019. Bondi's hometown is Temple Terrace, Florida. Her father, Joseph Bondi, was a city council member and then Mayor of Temple Terrace. She is a graduate of C. Leon King High School in Tampa. Bondi graduated from the University of Florida in 1987 with a degree in Criminal Justice and was a member of Delta Delta Delta sorority at Florida. She then graduated from Stetson Law School with a JD in 1990 and was admitted to the Florida Bar on June 24, 1991. She is a former prosecutor and spokeswoman in Hillsborough County, Florida, where she worked as an Assistant State Attorney. Bondi resigned this position to seek the office of Attorney General of Florida. She has made guest appearances on Scarborough Country with Joe Scarborough and various other cable news programming on MSNBC and worked for Fox News as a guest host. Bondi prosecuted former Major League Baseball player Dwight Gooden in 2006 for violating the terms of his probation and for substance abuse. In 2007, Bondi also prosecuted the defendants in Martin Anderson's death. In 2010, Bondi defeated Democratic State Senator Dan Gelber by a 55% to 41% margin to become the first woman Attorney General of the State of Florida. Bondi was the lead attorney general in an unsuccessful lawsuit seeking to overturn the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA, or "Obamacare") in Florida et al v. United States Department of Health and Human Services. In the lawsuit the State of Florida and 26 other states argued that the individual mandate provision of the ACA violates the United States Constitution. In 2018, Bondi joined with 19 other Republican-led states in a lawsuit to overturn the ACA's bans on ban on health insurance companies charging people with pre-existing conditions higher premiums or denying them coverage outright. In 2013, Bondi persuaded Governor Rick Scott to postpone a scheduled execution because it conflicted with her reelection kickoff/fundraising event. After questions were raised in the media, Bondi apologized for moving the execution date. Bondi was re-elected in November 2014, receiving 55% of the vote. Her challenger, George Sheldon, received 42%. Bondi opposed same-sex marriage and other LGBT rights issues on behalf of the state. Following the Orlando nightclub shooting in June 2016, Bondi was interviewed by CNN reporter Anderson Cooper, who questioned her about her sudden change in attitude towards the LGBT community in Florida. Bondi claimed to not only support the gay community, but had posted as such on her website. Bondi in a radio interview stated that the CNN interview had not been aired in its entirety and most of it was left on the cutting room floor, omitting the portion about potential scamming of survivors' families. While the entire interview had been aired live, only the portion involving Bondi's position on LGBT issues was originally uploaded to the CNN website. The website featured the interview in its entirety following this comment. In August 2018, while still serving as Attorney General, Bondi co-hosted Fox News' The Five three days in a row while also appearing on Sean Hannity's Fox News show. Fox News claimed that the Florida Commission on Ethics had approved Bondi's appearance on the program; however the commission's spokeswoman denied that, telling the Tampa Bay Times that "no opinion was rendered" and that the commission's general counsel "did not express a view as to whether [Bondi's proposed hosting of the Fox shows] would or would not violate the Code of Ethics". The Tampa Bay Times described it as "unprecedented" for a sitting elected official to host a TV show. Bondi was criticized for some of her election fundraising activities, including contributions received from Donald Trump and his associates. The Florida Attorney General's office received at least 22 fraud complaints about Trump University. In 2013 a spokesperson for Bondi announced that her office was considering joining a lawsuit initiated by New York's Attorney General against Trump regarding tax fraud. Four days later 'And Justice for All', a political action committee (PAC) established by Bondi to support her re- election campaign, received a $25,000 donation from the Donald J. Trump Foundation, after which Bondi declined to join the lawsuit against Trump University. When controversy over their actions first arose in 2013, both the Bondi PAC and Donald Trump defended the propriety of the nonprofit foundation's political donation. By contrast in March 2016, after Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington filed a complaint with the Internal Revenue Service about the illegal donation, the Trump Foundation stated that the donation had been made in error. It said that the Foundation had intended for the donation to go not to Bondi's PAC but instead to an unrelated Kansas non-profit called Justice for All. However in June 2016, as Bondi was facing renewed criticism over the Trump donation and her decision not to join the lawsuit, her spokesman said that Bondi had solicited the donation directly from Trump several weeks before her office announced it was considering joining the lawsuit against him. Bondi and Trump did not reconcile their competing versions of events. On March 14, 2016, Bondi endorsed Trump in the Florida presidential primary, saying she has been friends with Trump "for many years." In June 2016, a spokesperson for Governor Rick Scott stated that the state's ethics commission is looking into the matter. Nothing further came from that investigation. In September 2016, the IRS determined that the donation to Bondi's PAC violated laws against political contributions from nonprofit organizations, and ordered Donald Trump to pay a fine for the illegal contribution. Trump also was required to reimburse the foundation for the sum that had been donated to Bondi. Neither Bondi nor her PAC were fined or criminally charged for soliciting and accepting an illegal donation. In November 2019, Trump was ordered by a New York state court to close down the foundation and pay $2 million in damages for misusing it, including the illegal payment to Bondi. Pam Bondi also pressured two attorneys to resign who were investigating the technology giant Black Knight, then LPS, following the robosigning scandal, as part of their work for Florida's Economic Crime Division, after she received large campaign contributions from LPS. Bondi's association with Scientology and the multiple fundraisers that wealthy Scientologists have organized for Bondi's political campaigns over the years have also provoked controversy. Bondi has justified those contacts and her speeches before leading Scientologists by arguing that the group wishes to help her crack down on human trafficking. However her public association with Scientology began in 2010, when it was already being investigated by the FBI for involvement in human trafficking and abusing its workers. In 2016, Bondi gave a speech at the Republican National Convention during which she led "Lock Her Up" chants directed at the Democratic nominee Hillary Clinton. In 2019 after she left the Attorney General's office, Bondi was hired by Ballard Partners, a firm with close ties to Donald Trump, and she began working as a registered lobbyist for Qatar. In November of that year, she was hired by the Trump administration with “special government employee” status to help the White House in messaging during the president's battle against impeachment. Her job was described the following month as being to "attack the process" of the impeachment inquiry. On January 17, 2020, Bondi was named as part of Trump's defense team for the Senate impeachment trial. Bondi married Garret Barnes in 1990; the couple divorced after 22 months. In 1996, Bondi married Scott Fitzgerald; they divorced in 2002. Impeachment inquiry against Donald Trump, List of female state attorneys-general in the United States Pam Bondi for Attorney General (Campaign website)

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"The Last Question" is a science fiction short story by American writer Isaac Asimov. It first appeared in the November 1956 issue of Science Fiction Quarterly and was anthologized in the collections Nine Tomorrows (1959), The Best of Isaac Asimov (1973), Robot Dreams (1986), The Best Science Fiction of Isaac Asimov (1986), the retrospective Opus 100 (1969), and in Isaac Asimov: The Complete Stories, Vol. 1 (1990). It was Asimov's favorite short story of his own authorship, and is one of a loosely connected series of stories concerning a fictional computer called Multivac. The story overlaps science fiction, theology, and philosophy. In conceiving Multivac, Asimov was extrapolating the trend towards centralization that characterized computation technology planning in the 1950s to an ultimate centrally managed global computer. After seeing a planetarium adaptation of his work, Asimov "privately" concluded that this story was his best science fiction yet written; he placed it just higher than "The Ugly Little Boy" (September 1958) and "The Bicentennial Man" (1976). "The Last Question" ranks with "Nightfall" (1941) as one of Asimov's best-known and most acclaimed short stories. He wrote in 1973: The story deals with the development of a series of computers called Multivac and their relationships with humanity through the courses of seven historic settings, beginning in 2061. In each of the first six scenes a different character presents the computer with the same question; namely, how the threat to human existence posed by the heat death of the universe can be averted. The question was: "How can the net amount of entropy of the universe be massively decreased?" This is equivalent to asking: "Can the workings of the second law of thermodynamics (used in the story as the increase of the entropy of the universe) be reversed?" Multivac's only response after much "thinking" is: "INSUFFICIENT DATA FOR MEANINGFUL ANSWER." The story jumps forward in time into later eras of human and scientific development. In each of these eras someone decides to ask the ultimate "last question" regarding the reversal and decrease of entropy. Each time, in each new era, Multivac's descendant is asked this question, and finds itself unable to solve the problem. Each time all it can answer is an (increasingly sophisticated, linguistically): "THERE IS AS YET INSUFFICIENT DATA FOR A MEANINGFUL ANSWER." In the last scene, the god-like descendant of humanity (the unified mental process of over a trillion, trillion, trillion humans that have spread throughout the universe) watches the stars flicker out, one by one, as matter and energy ends, and with it, space and time. Humanity asks AC, Multivac's ultimate descendant, which exists in hyperspace beyond the bounds of gravity or time, the entropy question one last time, before the last of humanity merges with AC and disappears. AC is still unable to answer, but continues to ponder the question even after space and time cease to exist. AC ultimately realizes that it has not yet combined all of its available data in every possible combination, and thus begins the arduous process of rearranging and combining every last bit of information it has gained throughout the eons and through its fusion with humanity. Eventually AC discovers the answer, but has nobody to report it to; the universe is already dead. It therefore decides to answer by demonstration, since that will also create someone to give the answer to. The story ends with AC's pronouncement, Planetarium shows "The Last Question" was first adapted for the Abrams Planetarium at Michigan State University (in 1966), featuring the voice of Leonard Nimoy, as Asimov wrote in his autobiography In Joy Still Felt (1980)., It was adapted for the Strasenburgh Planetarium in Rochester, New York (in 1969), under the direction of Ian C. McLennan., It was adapted for the Edmonton Space Sciences Centre in Edmonton, Alberta (early 1970s), under the direction of John Hault. It subsequently played, as well, at the: Fels Planetarium of the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia in 1973, Planetarium of the Reading School District in Reading, Pennsylvania in 1974, Buhl Planetarium, Pittsburgh in 1974, Vanderbilt Planetarium in Centerport New York, in 1978, read by singer-songwriter and Long Island resident Harry Chapin., Hansen Planetarium in Salt Lake City, Utah (in 1980 and 1989), Morrison Planetarium in San Francisco, California (in the early 1980s), A reading of the story was played on BBC Radio 7 in 2008 and 2009. "The Last Question" on the Internet Archive "Let there be light" is an English translation of the Hebrew (yehi 'or) found in of the Torah, the first part of the Hebrew Bible. In Old Testament translations of the phrase, translations include the Greek phrase (genēthētō phōs) and the Latin phrases and . The phrase comes from the of the Book of Genesis. In the King James Bible, it reads, in context: In the Torah, the phrase in which is typically translated in English as "let there be light" is in Hebrew (wayyō’mer ’ĕlōhîm yəhî ’ôr wayəhî-’ôr). In the Koine Greek Septuagint the phrase is translated "" — kaì eîpen ho Theós genēthḗtō phôs kaì egéneto phôs. Γενηθήτω is the imperative form of γίγνομαι, "to come into being". The original Latinization of the Greek translation used in the Vetus Latina was lux sit ("light – let it exist" or "let light exist"), which has been used occasionally, although there is debate as to its accuracy. In the Latin Vulgate Bible, the Hebrew phrase is translated in Latin as fiat lux. In context, the translation is "" ("And said God let there be light, and there was light"). Literally, fiat lux would be translated as "let light be made" (fiat is the third person singular present passive subjunctive form of the verb facio, meaning "to do" or "to make"). The Douay–Rheims Bible translates the phrase, from the Vulgate, as "Be light made. And light was made." Fiat lux or Sit lux appears in the motto and on the seals of a number of educational institutions, including: Albion College (rendered as "Lux fiat"), Alfred University, Angelo State University, Atlantic Union College, Central Memorial High School, Clark University, Cornway College (rendered in English), Dennis Memorial Grammar School, Onitsha, Nigeria, Dover Grammar School for Boys, Milwaukee Downer College (as "Sit lux"), Emmanuel College, University of Queensland, Ethical Culture Fieldston School, New York City, Fiat Lux Academe in Cavite, Philippines, Green Mountain College, Hartley College, Point Pedro, Sri Lanka, Hiram College, Jacksonville University, Jacksonville, Florida, Johnson C. Smith University, Charlotte, North Carolina (rendered as "Sit Lux"), Kitsilano Secondary School, Vancouver, British Columbia, Kojonup District High School, Kojonup, Western Australia, Limerick Institute of Technology, Mayo College, Ajmer, India, Moeding College in Otse, Botswana, Monmouth College, Monmouth, Illinois (rendered as "Sit Lux"), Nelson McIntyre Collegiate, Queen's College (Barbados), Rollins College, Selma University, St. Andrew's School, Bloemfontein, St. Joseph's College, Colombo, Tusculum College (rendered as "Sit Lux"), Union County College, University of Akron, University of California system, University of Lethbridge, University of Liverpool, University of Victoria (written in Hebrew), University of Washington (rendered as "Lux sit"), University of Western States, Waynesburg University, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute, Melbourne, Australia Fiat Lux also appears on the outside of Kerns Religious Life Center at Capital University in Columbus, Ohio. The second half of the same verse, Et facta est lux appears on the seal of Morehouse College. The English phrase concludes Isaac Asimov's The Last Question, symbolizing the godlike growth in power of an extremely advanced computer as it creates a new universe from the ashes of a dead one, drawing comparisons and suggesting an explanation for the biblical Book of Genesis., Victor Hugo's novel Les Misérables (The Miserable Ones) speaks about the importance of daring and writes "That cry, 'Audace,' is a Fiat Lux!", "Fiat Lux!" is the activating phrase in the setting of a Ward Major in Katherine Kurtz's novel series Chronicles of the Deryni., The Fiat Lux Agency is the name of Nestor Burma's private detective agency, in Léo Malet's novel series New Mysteries of Paris., One of the three main divisions of Walter M. Miller, Jr.'s novel A Canticle for Leibowitz is titled "Fiat Lux"., Alexander Pope adapted the phrase in his epitaph for Isaac Newton, who made important advances in optics: "Nature and nature's laws lay hid in Night. / God said, 'Let Newton be!' and all was light.", "Fiat Lux" is also used in the 1982 novel Die Insel des zweiten Gesichts by Albert Vigoleis Thelen. ., ., . Let There Be Light (1946) — known to the U.S. Army as PMF 5019 — is a documentary film directed by American filmmaker John Huston (1906–1987). It was the last in a series of four films directed by Huston while serving in the U.S. Army Signal Corps during World War II. Intended to educate the public about posttraumatic stress disorder and its treatment among returning veterans, the film's unscripted presentation of mental disability led to Let There Be Light being suppressed by the U.S. government; it was not released until the 1980s. As the U.S. Army was demobilizing near the end of World War II it had the task of reintegrating returning military veterans back into peacetime society. An obstacle veterans faced was the stigma surrounding "shell shock" or "psychoneurosis", the old terms for posttraumatic stress disorder. To convince the public, and especially employers, that veterans being treated for battle- induced mental instability were completely normal after psychiatric treatment, on June 25, 1945, the Army Signal Corps tasked Major John Huston with producing the documentary The Returning Psychoneurotics. Huston visited multiple Army hospitals on the East and West Coasts before deciding upon Mason General Hospital on Brentwood, Long Island. The reasons being that Mason General was the biggest mental health facility on the East Coast, the hospital was located near the Army motion picture production center at Astoria Studio in Queens, New York, and the doctors were very open and receptive to the filming and any psychiatric questions he had. The new title that Huston gave the film, Let There Be Light, was a reference to Genesis 1:3 of the King James Version of the Bible. This was an allusion to the documentary revealing truths that were previously concealed as too frightening or shameful for acknowledgement. The film begins with an introduction, stating that 20 percent of wartime casualties are of a psychiatric nature. Veterans are transported from a medical ship to Mason General Hospital to be treated for mental conditions brought about by war. A group of seventy-five U.S. service members — recent combat veterans suffering from various "nervous conditions" including psychoneurosis, battle neurosis, conversion disorder, amnesia, severe stammering, and anxiety states — arrive at the facility. They are brought into a room and told by an admissions officer to not be alarmed by the cameras, which will make a photographic record of their progress. Next are scenes of interviews between a doctor and some of the patients about their problems and circumstances leading to that point. Afterwards, various treatment methods are employed to cure them. Treatments depicted include narcosynthesis, hypnosis, group psychotherapy, music therapy, and work therapy. One soldier who had amnesia was hypnotized to remember the trauma of the Japanese bombings on Okinawa and his life before then. Another is given an intravenous injection of sodium amytal to induce a hypnotic state, curing him of his mental inability to walk. The treatments are followed by classes (designed to reintegrate patients into civilian life) and group therapy sessions. Therapists make a point of reassuring the patients that there is nothing to be ashamed of for receiving treatment for their mental conditions, and that civilians subjected to the same stresses would develop the same conditions. At this point the documentary shifts the tone to a sense of normalcy, with the soldiers performing regular activities and complaining about everyday problems. The film ends with a number of the featured patients participating in a ceremony in which they are discharged, not just from the hospital, but from military service, and returned to civilian life. The film was made as one of the early entries in the Army's Professional Medical Film series, which began in 1945. It was shot during spring 1945 at Edgewood State Hospital, Deer Park, Long Island, New York which between 1944 and 1946 was part of Mason General Hospital, a psychiatric hospital run by the United States War Department named for an Army doctor and general. There are no personal credits in the film. Offscreen credits have been compiled by several sources. The film includes scoring by Dimitri Tiomkin. The cinematography has been credited to Stanley Cortez, John Doran, Lloyd Fromm, Joseph Jackman, and George Smith. The film's editors were William H. Reynolds and Gene Fowler Jr.. The film crew shot about 375,000 feet of film – close to 70 hours of film. The final product was edited down to less than 1 hour. Instead of hindering treatment, the cameras actually seemed to have a stimulating effect on the patients. Patients that were filmed showed greater progress in recovering than those that were not. This is an example of the Hawthorne effect where patients responded better to being observed. The documentary was revolutionary for its time with the use of unscripted but real footage of interviews. Huston put hidden cameras in the doctor-patient interview rooms, one focused on the doctor and the other focused on the patient. This style of showing raw emotion would not be replicated in documentaries for another decade or two. Another unusual aspect of the film was its integration of African-Americans with whites. Although some Army hospitals were integrated at the time, it wasn't until President Truman's executive order in 1948 that the military was desegregated. In the summer and fall of 1947, the U.S. Army Pictorial Service created a reconstruction of Let There Be Light called Shades of Gray (PMF 5047). Joseph Henabery directed Shades of Gray, using an all-white cast of actors to recreate scenes and dialogue from Huston's documentary. The film was controversial in its portrayal of psychologically traumatized veterans of the war. "Twenty percent of our army casualties", the narrator says, "suffered psychoneurotic symptoms: a sense of impending disaster, hopelessness, fear, and isolation." Due to the potentially demoralizing effects the film might have on post-war recruitment, it was subsequently banned by the Army after its production, although some unofficial copies had been made. Military police once confiscated a print Huston was about to show friends at the Museum of Modern Art. The Army claimed it invaded the privacy of the soldiers involved, and the releases Huston had obtained were lost; the War Department refused to get new ones. Huston claimed that the military banned his film to maintain a "warrior" myth; that American soldiers went to war and came back stronger, everyone was a hero, and though there were casualties their spirits remained unbroken. The film's eventual release in the 1980s by Secretary of the Army Clifford Alexander, Jr. was attributed to his friend Jack Valenti who worked to get the ban lifted. The film was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1981 Cannes Film Festival. The copy of the film that was released was poor, with a garbled sound track that "made it almost impossible to understand the whispers and mumbles of soldiers in some scenes. In 2010, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". The National Film Preservation Foundation then funded restoration of the print and its soundtrack. The restored version was released in May, 2012. The National Archives now sells and rents copies of the film and, as a federal government work, it is in the public domain. Paul Thomas Anderson's 2012 film The Master borrowed lines and themes from Let There Be Light, which is included as an extra on the DVD/Blu-ray releases. Professional Medical Film Bibliography of articles/books (via UC Berkeley) Entire film online from the United States Government's "FedFlix" collection at archive.org

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Toy Story 3 is a 2010 American computer-animated comedy film produced by Pixar Animation Studios for Walt Disney Pictures. It is the third (originally intended final) installment in Pixar's Toy Story series, and the sequel to 1999's Toy Story 2. It was directed by Lee Unkrich, the editor of the first two films and the co-director of Toy Story 2, written by Michael Arndt, while Unkrich wrote the story along with John Lasseter and Andrew Stanton, respectively director and co-writer of the first two films. The plot focuses on Woody, Buzz Lightyear, and Andy's other remaining toys accidentally being donated to a day care center, while Andy, now 17 years old, is preparing to leave for college, and their ensuing race to get home before Andy leaves. In the film's ensemble voice cast, Tom Hanks, Tim Allen, Joan Cusack, Don Rickles, Wallace Shawn, John Ratzenberger, Estelle Harris, Jodi Benson, John Morris, Laurie Metcalf and R. Lee Ermey, reprise their roles from previous films. Jim Varney, who voiced Slinky Dog in the first two films, died on February 10, 2000, 10 years before the release of the third film, so the role of Slinky was passed down to Blake Clark. The returning cast is joined by Ned Beatty, Michael Keaton, Whoopi Goldberg, Timothy Dalton, Kristen Schaal, Bonnie Hunt, and Jeff Garlin who voice the new characters introduced in this film. The film was released in theaters June 18, 2010, and played worldwide from June through October in the Disney Digital 3-D, RealD, and IMAX 3D formats. Toy Story 3 was the first film to be released theatrically with Dolby Surround 7.1 sound. Like its predecessors, Toy Story 3 received critical acclaim upon release, with critics praising the vocal performances, screenplay, emotional depth, animation, and Randy Newman's musical score. It became the second Pixar film (after Up) and third animated film overall (after Beauty and the Beast and Up) to receive an Academy Award nomination for Best Picture. The film received four more Academy Award nominations for Best Adapted Screenplay, Best Sound Editing, Best Animated Feature and Best Original Song, winning the latter two. Toy Story 3 was the first animated film to gross over $1 billion worldwide in ticket sales, becoming the highest- grossing film of 2010—both in North America and worldwide—and the fourth- highest-grossing film at the time of its release, as well as the highest- grossing animated film of all time, and Pixar's highest-grossing film, all records held at the time of its release. A sequel, Toy Story 4, directed by Josh Cooley, was released on June 21, 2019. Andy is preparing to leave for college. He has not played with his toys for years, and most have gone, except for Woody, Buzz Lightyear, Jessie, Bullseye, Rex, Slinky, Hamm, Mr. and Mrs. Potato Head, the Aliens, and three toy soldiers. The despondent toys reflect on their future, and the soldiers parachute out the window and leave. Andy intends to take Woody to college and puts the others into a trash bag to put them in the attic; however, Andy's mother mistakes the bag for trash and puts it on the curb. The toys narrowly escape, and believing Andy threw them away, they get into a donation box in his mother's car with Molly's old Barbie doll, bound for Sunnyside Daycare. Woody follows, but is unable to convince them of Andy's real intentions, and goes along when Andy's mother drives to Sunnyside. At Sunnyside, Andy's toys are welcomed by the other toys, led by Lots-O'-Huggin' Bear ("Lotso"). The toys (except Woody) are delighted to learn that Sunnyside never runs out of children, and Barbie is enamored with a Ken doll. Woody attempts to return home, but in an incident with a paraglider, he ends up hanging from a tree, where he is found by Sunnyside toddler Bonnie. She brings him home and plays with him and her other toys. Bonnie's toys are shocked that Woody came from Sunnyside, and Chuckles, a toy clown, explains that he, Lotso, and Big Baby were owned by a girl named Daisy, but were lost during a family trip. When they made it home, Lotso found out that he had been replaced. His personality changed; he lied to Big Baby, saying Daisy had replaced all of them. They went to Sunnyside, where Lotso took over, turning it into a toy prison. Chuckles was eventually broken and later found by Bonnie. After Andy's toys are subjected to a very rough playtime with the toddlers, Buzz asks Lotso to move the toys to the older children's room, but Lotso switches Buzz to his original factory setting, erasing his memory, and making him a security guard. Mrs. Potato Head, through an eye she lost in Andy's room, sees Andy searching for them. They realize that Woody was telling the truth about Andy's intentions, but before they could leave, they are aprehended by Lotso's henchmen, who do so to prevent themselves from being exposed to the rough play. Buzz guards them at night, and subverts Mr. Potato Head to confinement in a sandbox for talking back. Woody returns to Sunnyside, where a Chatter Telephone tells him that there is now only one way out – the trash chute. Andy's toys subdue Buzz, but accidentally reset him to his Spanish mode. Buzz allies himself with Woody and falls in love with Jessie. The toys reach the daycare's dumpster, but are cornered by Lotso's gang. As a garbage truck approaches, Woody reveals Lotso's deception to Big Baby, who throws Lotso into the dumpster. As the toys try to leave, Lotso pulls Woody into the dumpster right before the truck arrives. The rest of Andy's toys jump into the truck's container to rescue him. Buzz returns to normal after a television falls onto him inside the truck. The truck takes the toys to a landfill, where the Aliens are swept away by a bulldozer after spotting an industrial claw, and the other toys are swept onto a conveyor belt that leads to an incinerator. After narrowly avoiding a shredder, Woody and Buzz help Lotso reach an emergency stop button, but Lotso refuses, shouts at them "Where's your kid now, sherrif?", and runs off. The toys fall into the incinerator and resign themselves to their fate, but are rescued by the Aliens operating the claw crane. Lotso is later found by a garbage truck driver, who ties him to his truck's radiator grille. Woody and the other toys ride another garbage truck back to Andy's house. Woody leaves a note for Andy, who, thinking the note is from his mother, donates the toys to Bonnie. Andy introduces the toys individually to Bonnie, and to Andy's surprise, Woody is at the bottom of the donation box, and Bonnie recognizes him. Though initially hesitant, Andy passes Woody on to Bonnie, and they play together before he leaves. Woody and the other toys witness Andy's departure as they begin their new lives with Bonnie. In the film's epilogue, Barbie, Ken, and Big Baby have made vast improvements to Sunnyside and maintain contact with Bonnie's toys through letters. The toy soldiers parachute in and are welcomed to Sunnyside. This is the list of the voice cast for the film: Tom Hanks as Woody, Tim Allen as Buzz Lightyear, Joan Cusack as Jessie, Ned Beatty as Lotso, John Morris as Andy, Don Rickles as Mr. Potato Head, Blake Clark as Slinky Dog, Wallace Shawn as Rex, John Ratzenberger as Hamm, Estelle Harris as Mrs. Potato Head, Michael Keaton as Ken, Jodi Benson as Barbie, Emily Hahn as Bonnie, Jeff Pidgeon as Aliens, Timothy Dalton as Mr. Pricklepants, Kristen Schaal as Trixie, Jeff Garlin as Buttercup, Bonnie Hunt as Dolly, Whoopi Goldberg as Stretch, Jack Angel as Chunk, Jan Rabson as Sparks, John Cygan as Twitch, Laurie Metcalf as Andy's mother, Lori Alan as Bonnie's mother, Beatrice Miller as Molly, R. Lee Ermey as Sarge, Teddy Newton as Chatter Telephone, Richard Kind as Bookworm, Bud Luckey as Chuckles, Javier Fernández Peña as Spanish Buzz, Charlie Bright as Young Andy / Pea-in-a-Pod, Amber Kroner as Pea-in-a-Pod, Brianna Maiwand as Pea-in-a-Pod, Erik von Detten as Sid, Jack Willis as Frog, Woody Smith as Big Baby Several other characters (such as Bo Peep, RC, Etch, and Wheezy) are only seen in flashbacks or briefly mentioned. The character of Slinky Dog appeared to be in limbo after the death of his original voice actor Jim Varney on February 10, 2000, three months after Toy Story 2 was released. Varney was replaced by Blake Clark. After Clark was cast to play Slinky Dog, the producers realized that Clark and Varney had coincidentally been close friends since they appeared in the 1989 film Fast Food, making the transition a lot easier. According to the terms of Pixar's initial seven-film deal with Disney, all characters created by Pixar for their films were owned by Disney. Furthermore, Disney retained the rights to make sequels to any Pixar film, though Pixar retained the right of first refusal to work on these sequels. In 2004, when the contentious negotiations between the two companies made a split appear likely, Michael Eisner, Disney chairman at the time, put plans in motion to produce Toy Story 3 at a new Disney studio, Circle 7 Animation. Tim Allen, the voice of Buzz Lightyear, indicated a willingness to return, even if Pixar was not on board. It was slated for a theatrical release sometime in Spring 2008. Bradley Raymond who previously directed Disney's direct-to-video sequels such as The Hunchback of Notre Dame II, and The Lion King 1½ was hired to direct the film. Among the scripts Circle 7 had under consideration was one from Teacher's Pet screenwriters Bill and Cheri Steinkellner. Their idea for the film involves Andy and his toys (Woody, Buzz, Hamm, Rex, Slinky, Mr. Potato Head, Jessie, and Bullseye) paying a visit to his grandmother's house for the night, because his room is getting remodeled. So a set of Andy's toys and new characters Hee-Hee, and Gladiola are trying to figure out who stole the toys one by one in a whodunit-style murder mystery story. Though it was rejected, Disney was so impressed with the script that this version would have been considered for a possible fourth installment. The final version of the Circle 7 script was written by Meet the Parents screenwriter Jim Herzfeld. It focused on Andy's toys shipping a malfunctioning Buzz to factory in Taiwan where he was built called Wocka-Wocka, with the other toys hoping he will be fixed there. While searching on the Internet, they then discovered that many more Buzz Lightyear toys are malfunctioning around the world and the company has issued a massive recall. Fearing Buzz's destruction, a group of Andy's toys (Woody, Rex, Slinky, Mr. Potato Head, Hamm, Jessie, and Bullseye) all ship themselves to Taiwan and venture out to rescue Buzz. At the same time, Buzz meets other toys from around the world that were once loved, but have been recalled such as Rosey, a warm cozy toy and Jade, a leggy doll with a evening gown. Along with meeting the recalled toys, Buzz also meet a new Star Command action figure that was going to be the replacement of Buzz, Daxx Blastar, along with his accessory pet cat named Comet. In January 2006, Disney bought Pixar in a deal that put Pixar chiefs Edwin Catmull and John Lasseter in charge of all Disney Animation. Shortly thereafter, Circle 7 Animation was shut down and its version of Toy Story 3 was canceled. The following month, Disney CEO Robert Iger confirmed that Disney was in the process of transferring the production to Pixar. John Lasseter, Andrew Stanton, Pete Docter, and Lee Unkrich visited the house where they first pitched Toy Story and came up with the story for the film over a weekend. Stanton then wrote a treatment. This story had no traces of the Circle 7 version of the film, since the filmmakers did not read its script: "Not out of spite, but we wanted to start fresh, and not be influenced by what they'd done," said Unkrich. "We didn't look at any of the work they'd done. We really didn't want to know anything about it." In February 2007, Lasseter announced Toy Story 2s co- director, Unkrich, as the sole director of the film instead of himself (Lasseter had directed the first two films and was busy directing Cars 2), and Michael Arndt as screenwriter. 2010 was also announced as the tentative release date. Unkrich, who had been working with Arndt and story development artists on the film since the middle of 2006, said that he felt pressure to avoid creating "the first dud" for Pixar, since (as of 2010) all of Pixar's films had been critical and commercial successes. In February 2008, the film's plotline was reported: "Woody the cowboy and his toy box friends are dumped in a daycare centre after their owner, Andy, leaves for college." During the initial development stages of the film, Pixar revisited their work from the original Toy Story and found that, although they could open the old computer files for the animated 3D models, error messages prevented them from editing the files. This necessitated recreating the models from scratch. To create the chaotic and complex junkyard scene near the film's end, more than a year and a half was invested on research and development to create the simulation systems required for the sequence. Instead of sending Tom Hanks, Tim Allen and John Ratzenberger scripts for their consideration in reprising their roles, a complete story reel of the film was shown to the actors in a theater. The reel was made up of moving storyboards with pre-recorded voices, sound effects, and music. At the conclusion of the preview, the actors signed on to the film. Dolby Laboratories announced that Toy Story 3 would be the first film to feature theatrical 7.1 surround sound. Thus, even the Blu-ray version would feature original 7.1 audio, unlike other films which were remixed into 7.1 for Blu-ray. Toy Story 3 had its worldwide premiere on June 12, 2010, opening at Taormina Film Fest in Italy. In the United States, it premiered on June 13, 2010, at El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood, California. El Capitan also hosted on June 17, 2010, a Toy Story marathon, showing for the first time all three Toy Story films together. The film went into its wide release on June 18, 2010, along with a release to IMAX 3D theaters. The film was theatrically accompanied with the Pixar short film Day & Night, which focuses on what happens when an animated personification of Day meets his opposite, Night, and the resulting growth for both. The film's first teaser trailer was released with Up in Disney Digital 3-D on May 29, 2009. On October 2, 2009, Toy Story and Toy Story 2 were re-released as a double feature in Disney Digital 3-D. The first full-length trailer was attached as an exclusive sneak peek and a first footage to the Toy Story double feature on October 12, 2009. A second teaser was released on February 10, 2010, followed by a second full-length trailer on February 11, and appeared in 3D showings of Alice in Wonderland and How to Train Your Dragon. On March 23, 2010, Toy Story and Toy Story 2 were released separately on Blu- ray/DVD combo packs; Toy Story included a small feature of "The Story of Toy Story 3" and Toy Story 2 included one on the "Characters of Toy Story 3." Mattel, Thinkway Toys, and Lego are among companies that produced toys to promote the film. Fisher Price, a Mattel Company, released Toy Story 3 with 21 3D images for viewing with the View-Master viewer. Disney Interactive Studios also produced a video game based on the film , which was released for Microsoft Windows, Xbox 360, Wii, PlayStation 3, Nintendo DS, and PSP on June 15, 2010. A PlayStation 2 version was released on October 30, 2010 as part of a PS2 bundle and separately on November 2, 2010 (the same day Toy Story 3 was released on DVD and Blu-ray). It was also the last Disney/Pixar game to be released for PlayStation 2. Toy Story 3 was featured in Apple's iPhone OS 4 Event on April 8, 2010, with Steve Jobs demonstrating a Toy Story 3-themed iAd written in HTML5. Pixar designed a commercial for the toy Lots-O'-Huggin' Bear and formatted it to appear as if it came from an old VCR recording. The recording was altered with distorted sound, noise along the bottom of the screen, and flickering video, all designed to make it look like a converted recording from around 1983. A Japanese version of the commercial was also released online, with the name "Lots-O'-Huggin Bear" replaced with "Little Hug-Hug Bear" (Japanese:ハグハグベアちゃん/Hagu Hagu Beya-Chan). On Dancing with the Stars May 11, 2010 episode, the Gipsy Kings performed a Spanish-language version of the song "You've Got a Friend in Me," which featured a paso doble dance choreographed by Cheryl Burke and Tony Dovolani. Both the song and dance are featured in the film. Toy Story 3 was promoted with airings of the first and second film on several channels in the weeks preceding the film's release, including Disney Channel, Disney XD, and ABC Family. Sneak peeks of Toy Story 3 were also revealed, primarily on Disney Channel. Toy Story 3s "Not since..." Oscar campaign drew a lot of attention, emphasizing the film's uniqueness and critical acclaim. The campaign consisted of posters featuring characters from the film, comparing Toy Story 3 to previous winners such as , Shakespeare in Love, Titanic, and more. Walt Disney Studios Chairman Rich Ross explained they were going for the Best Picture win, not just Best Animated film. The Hollywood Reporter gave the campaign a bronze award in Key Art Awards Winners 2011. Toy Story 3 was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment in North America on November 2, 2010, in a standard DVD edition, a two-disc Blu-ray Disc, and in a four-disc Blu-ray/DVD/Digital Copy combo pack. Features included behind-the-scenes, including a sneak peek teaser for the then- upcoming Cars 2 (the sequel to the 2006 film Cars). A 10-disc Toy Story trilogy Blu-ray box set arrived on store shelves that same day. A 3D version of the Blu-ray was released in North America on November 1, 2011. On its first week of release (November 2–7, 2010), it sold 3,859,736 units (equal to $73,096,452), ranking No.1 for the week and immediately becoming the bestselling animated film of 2010 in units sold (surpassing How to Train Your Dragon). As of July 18, 2012, it had sold 10,911,701 units ($185,924,247). It became the bestselling DVD of 2010 in units sold, but it lacked in sales revenue and therefore ranked second behind Avatar on that list. It also sold about 4 million Blu-ray units, ranking as the fourth bestselling film of 2010. In the United Kingdom, it broke the record for the largest first day ever for an animated feature in sales revenue, on both DVD and Blu-ray. Additionally, on the first day of its iTunes release, it immediately became the most downloaded Disney film ever. Toy Story 3 was released on 4K UHD Blu-ray on June 4, 2019. Toy Story 3 earned $415 million in North America and $652 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $1.067 billion, earning more revenue than the previous two films of the series combined. It became the highest-grossing animated film, surpassing the six-year-old record held by 2004's Shrek 2 ($919 million), until Walt Disney Animation Studios' computer-animated musical Frozen surpassed it in 2014, followed by Minions in 2015, Incredibles 2 in 2018, and then computer-animated remake version of The Lion King in 2019. It is the 30th-highest-grossing film, the highest-grossing film of 2010, the fifth-highest-grossing animated film (behind Frozen, Incredibles 2, 2019 CGI version of The Lion King, and Minions), the highest-grossing film in the Toy Story series, the second-highest-grossing Pixar film (behind Incredibles 2), and the 15th-highest-grossing film distributed by Disney. In estimated attendance, though, it still ranks fourth on the list of modern animated films, behind Shrek 2, Finding Nemo, and The Lion King. On its first weekend, Toy Story 3 topped the worldwide box office with $145.3 million ($153.7 million with weekday previews), the ninth-largest opening weekend worldwide for an animated feature. On August 27, 2010 – its seventy-first day of release, it surpassed the $1 billion mark, becoming the third Disney film, the second Disney-distributed film in 2010 (after Alice in Wonderland), the first animated film, and the seventh film in cinematic history to do so. In North America, Toy Story 3 is the 19th-highest-grossing film, unadjusted for inflation. Adjusted for ticket price inflation, though, it ranks 96th on the all-time chart. It is also the highest-grossing film of 2010, the second- highest-grossing Pixar film (behind Finding Dory), the second-highest-grossing G-rated film (behind The Lion King), the fourth-highest-grossing animated film, and the seventh-highest-grossing film distributed by Disney. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 52 million tickets in the U.S. The film earned $41.1 million on its opening day (June 18, 2010) from 4,028 theaters, including $4 million at midnight shows from about 1,500 theaters, setting an opening day record for an animated film (surpassed by Minions and later Finding Dory). During its opening weekend, the film topped the box office with $110.3 million, setting an opening weekend record among Pixar films (surpassed by Finding Dory), films released in June (surpassed by Man of Steel and later Jurassic World), and G-rated films. The film also achieved the second-largest opening weekend among animated films and the fourth-largest opening weekend among 2010 films. Its average of $27,385 per venue is the second-highest for a G-rated film and the third-highest for an animated feature. Its opening week gross (Friday through Thursday) of $167.6 million is the second-largest among animated films, the second-largest among 2010 films, and the 23rd-largest of all time. It also achieved the largest 10-day gross among 2010 films. It topped the box office for two consecutive weekends. Outside of North America, Toy Story 3 is the 29th-highest-grossing film, the sixth-highest-grossing animated film, the third-highest-grossing film of 2010, the highest-grossing Pixar film, and the 11th-highest-grossing Disney film. It topped the box office outside North America three times, in its first ($35 million), second, and sixth weekend (which was its largest). Its highest- grossing market after North America is Japan ($126.7 million), where it is the second-highest-grossing U.S. animated feature (behind Finding Nemo), followed by the UK and Ireland, and Malta (£73.8 million – $116.6 million), where it is the sixth-highest-grossing film, and Mexico ($59.4 million), where it is the second-highest-grossing film. It set opening weekend records for animated films in Ecuador, Colombia, Mexico, China, Argentina, Hong Kong, Spain, and the UK. It is the highest-grossing animated film of all time in the UK, Ireland and Malta, Mexico, Hong Kong, and Egypt. It is the highest-grossing film of 2010 in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Hong Kong, Mexico, Spain, the UK, Ireland, and Malta. On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 98% based on 303 reviews, with an average rating of 8.87/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Deftly blending comedy, adventure, and honest emotion, Toy Story 3 is a rare second sequel that really works." Toy Story 3 was the best-reviewed film of 2010 on Rotten Tomatoes. Metacritic, another review aggregator which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, gave the film a score of 92 out of 100 based on 39 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". TIME named Toy Story 3 the "best film of 2010," as did Quentin Tarantino. In 2011, TIME named it one of "The 25 All-TIME Best Animated Films." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale, the same score as the first film, but down from the "A+" earned by the second film. A. O. Scott of The New York Times stated "This film—this whole three-part, 15-year epic—about the adventures of a bunch of silly plastic junk turns out also to be a long, melancholy meditation on loss, impermanence and that noble, stubborn, foolish thing called love." Owen Gleiberman from Entertainment Weekly gave the film an "A" saying "Even with the bar raised high, Toy Story 3 enchanted and moved me so deeply I was flabbergasted that a digitally animated comedy about plastic playthings could have this effect." Gleiberman also wrote in the next issue that he, along with many other grown men, cried at the end of the film. Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter also gave the film a positive review, saying "Woody, Buzz and playmates make a thoroughly engaging, emotionally satisfying return." Mark Kermode of the BBC gave the film, and the series, a glowing review, calling it "the best movie trilogy of all time." In USA Today, Claudia Puig gave the film a complete 4-star rating, writing "This installment, the best of the three, is everything a movie should be: hilarious, touching, exciting, and clever." Lou Lumenick of the New York Post wrote "Toy Story 3 (which is pointlessly being shown in 3-D at most locations) may not be a masterpiece, but it still had me in tears at the end." Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune gave the film 3 out of 4 stars, writing that "Compared with the riches of all kinds in recent Pixar masterworks such as Ratatouille, WALL-E, and Up, Toy Story 3 looks and plays like an exceptionally slick and confident product, as opposed to a magical blend of commerce and popular art." Roger Moore of the Orlando Sentinel, who gave the film 3½ out of 4 stars, wrote "Dazzling, scary, and sentimental, Toy Story 3 is a dark and emotional conclusion to the film series that made Pixar famous." On January 25, 2011, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences announced that Toy Story 3 was not only nominated for Best Animated Feature, but also for Best Picture. This makes Toy Story 3 not only the first animated sequel in history to be nominated for Best Picture, but also just the third animated film to ever be so nominated (following Beauty and the Beast and Up), with Toy Story 3 becoming the second Pixar film to be nominated for both awards. Toy Story 3 also became the first ever Pixar film—and the first animated feature film since Shrek—to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay, though six of Pixar's previous films were nominated for the Best Original Screenplay: Toy Story, Finding Nemo, The Incredibles, Ratatouille, WALL-E, and Up. In 2011, it was nominated for a Kids' Choice Award for Favorite Animated Movie, but lost to Despicable Me. The film score for Toy Story 3 was composed and conducted by Randy Newman, his sixth for Pixar after Toy Story, A Bug's Life, Toy Story 2, Monsters, Inc., and Cars. Initially, Disney released the soundtrack only as digital download. This was the second instance where Disney did not release the award-winning soundtrack of a Pixar film on CD, the first being Up. In January 2012, Intrada released the Toy Story 3 soundtrack on Compact Disc. In addition to the tracks included in the soundtrack album, the film also uses several other tracks such as "Dream Weaver" by Gary Wright, "Le Freak" by Chic, and Randy Newman's original version of "You've Got a Friend in Me." Furthermore, tracks "Cowboy!" and "Come to Papa" included material from Newman's rejected score to Air Force One. The song "Losing You" from Newman's own album Harps and Angels was also used in the first trailer for the film. The Judas Priest song "Electric Eye" was also used in the film in the temp score for the opening scene of Toy Story 3. The aliens are playing the tune in their sports car. The song was ultimately replaced by Newman's score. Chart positions Music awards A sequel, titled Toy Story 4, was released on June 21, 2019, with most of the main cast returning for the film. The film was originally to be directed by John Lasseter and co-directed by Josh Cooley, but in July 2017 Cooley was confirmed as the sole director. Don Rickles had signed on to return to voice Mr. Potato Head, but died before any lines could be recorded. Cooley later confirmed that archived recordings of Rickles would be used instead. at Disney, at Pixar, Production notes Bo Peep is a fictional character in the Toy Story franchise created by Pixar. The character is voiced by Annie Potts. Bo appears in the first two films as a supporting character, portrayed as a love interest to the protagonist, Sheriff Woody. After being given away prior to the events of Toy Story 3, Bo returns as a main character in Toy Story 4. She is inspired by the nursery rhyme "Little Bo-Peep". Bo Peep was a secondary character in the first two films of the franchise, missing the main action in both of them. John Lasseter's wife Nancy considered that Jessie was a great addition to the cast in Toy Story 2, because she was perceived as a stronger character and with more substance than Bo. However, Bo was given a major role in Toy Story 4. Regarding the portrayal of Bo in this film, story artist Carrie Hobson explained to GameSpot that the production staff decided to redefine the character for the fourth installment, working to nail down specific personality traits and ultimately positioning her as "a character who decided she didn't just want to sit on a shelf waiting for life to happen. She learned to adapt." Stylist interviewed some members of the staff, who explained that they "were trying to create a very strong character." To reinforce that idea, we never wanted to see her hair move." Regarding her look, Kihm added: "she’s athletic, and perhaps her new outfit gives her this sense of freedom to express that athleticism." Bo Peep is portrayed as a very romantic and levelheaded toy. She is depicted as gentle, ladylike, and kindhearted. She has strong feelings for Woody and cares for him, which cause her (along with Slinky) to give him the benefit of the doubt when he allegedly murders Buzz Lightyear, whom she clearly considers attractive as well, and consistently whispers to the wall her worries about where Woody could be. Despite this, she still behaves like a free spirit. She only believes what she has witnessed for herself, such as when she looks into Lenny's visor and sees Buzz riding behind Woody aboard RC, while the rest of the toys immediately take her word for it. By the time she is moved to Molly's room, she becomes more of a leader amongst her toys as she is described by Woody to be the most capable of easing Molly's cries at night which often caused great dismay to everyone. Since she parted ways with Andy, Bo has taken on a different point of view in life. As a lost toy, she never worries about being loved by a child and is open to see the world. Voice actress Annie Potts voiced the character in Toy Story, Toy Story 2 and Toy Story 4. Regarding the new portrayal of Bo in the fourth film, Potts told Glamour that Bo "is modern, independent, capable and confident. Bo is written and conceived to be inspiring as she has weathered life’s ups and downs with grace." Story supervisor Valerie LaPointe said that Potts gave this new version of Bo a deeper voice, more grit and natural charm. Directing animator Patty Kihm said: "If you look closely, you'll see cracking in her hair – this is a subtle but constant reminder to the audience that she's made of porcelain. In the video game Toy Story Racer, Bo is voiced by Rebecca Wink. The character is introduced in Toy Story as a porcelain figurine that is a detachable component of a bedside lamp along with a three-headed-sheep belonging to Andy's younger sister Molly. Nonetheless, Andy is seen playing with her and the rest of his toys; in Andy's games of imaginative play, Bo is used as the damsel-in-distress of the stories. Bo is the protagonist Woody's romantic interest, and acts as a voice of reason for him. She is depicted as gentle, ladylike, and kindhearted. Woody is excluded from the group of toys when Buzz Lightyear starts to attract more attention, but Bo remains loyal to him rather than taunting him because of Buzz's rise in popularity. After Woody accidentally knocked Buzz out the window, she is one of the only toys who does not antagonize him. At the end of the film, when Woody and Buzz return, she gives Woody a kiss. Bo is just seen at the beginning and the end of Toy Story 2. She continues to show her attraction to Woody, flirting with him, and also assures him that Andy will always care about him while playing a minor role. Bo appeared briefly in the beginning of Toy Story 3 but doesn't speak. Her cameo is in the home movies Andy's mom makes. By the time of the actual events of the film, it is revealed that Bo is one of the toys that have been given away. In August 2015, it was revealed that Bo Peep would have a major role in Toy Story 4, with initial reports stating that the film would center on a quest by Woody and Buzz to find Bo. The film's opening sequence reveals how Bo is separated from Woody: after coordinating the rescue of RC, Bo and her sheep are given away by Andy's mother, and although Woody tries to convince Bo to stay, she states that she understands that part of the cycle of a toy is being taken away. For a brief moment, Woody considers going with Bo, but changes his mind after realizing that Andy needs him. The main plot of the film is set after Andy gives his toys away to a girl named Bonnie at the end of the third film. Bonnie takes her toys—including Forky, whom she makes herself out of a spork and some trash—on a road trip. During the road trip, Forky gets lost and Woody goes after him to retrieve him. Woody spots Bo's lamp through a window of the store, and decides to look for Bo inside. Bo is not in the store, but Woody subsequently runs into her at a carnival near the store. Bo is still with her sheep, who are revealed to be female, and mentions the name of the three heads to Woody: Billy, Goat, and Gruff. In a conversation with Woody, Bo reveals her fate and that of her sheep after being given away: she spends two years being owned by a girl who does not care much for Bo, and then in the antique store, so she decides to leave and be on her own with Billy, Goat, and Gruff. Bo changes her outfit: she takes off her dress and transforms it into a cape, wears a white bandage to fix her broken right arm and a purple bandage to fix her broken left hand, and devotes her new life to help lost toys to return to their owners. Bo rejects both Woody's proposal to go with him and become one of Bonnie's toys, since she has embraced her life as a "lost toy", as well as his call for help to search for Forky, though she ultimately agrees to accompany him to the latter, because she acquiesces "for old time's sake", and because Woody reminded her of how much she provided to Molly Davis as a toy when Molly was scared at night. To him though, she is still gentle, ladylike, and kindhearted. Bo reveals that her arm was broken off some time ago, but she managed to re-attach it to herself using scotch tape with his help. With the assistance of some lost toys and after being joined by Buzz, Bo leads the rescue mission for Forky, who has been captured by the film's main antagonist Gabby Gabby; however, Woody rushes out to free Forky in time to return to Bonnie, who is in the store, but this results in Bo's sheep being captured by Gabby Gabby and her toy henchmen. Though Bo manages to free her sheep, they are chipped in the process. Bo angrily refuses a second attempt to free Forky, which causes Woody to question her understanding of loyalty. After listening to Giggle badmouth Woody for his loyalty, Bo then realizes that loyalty is what she loves the most from Woody, and goes back to help. The group try to help Gabby Gabby be adopted by a girl named Harmony who constantly visits the antique store, but she is rejected. Bo then helps Woody in trying to reach Bonnie along with Forky and Gabby Gabby, but Gabby Gabby spots a lost girl and decides to stay with her. Bo and Woody arrive to Bonnie's rental RV, and the two of them say goodbye to each other. But Woody feels uncertain about his decision and Buzz encourages him to stay with Bo. In the mid-credits scene, Bo and Woody are seen helping toys being won by children who attend the carnival. A short film titled Lamp Life, which will reveal Bo's whereabouts between leaving and reuniting with Woody, will be released on Disney+ later in its first year. Bo Peep's role in the first two films was called by Slate a "trophy for male cinematic heroism: a blond, blue-eyed, delicate, and conventionally beautiful female who existed to be rescued and to reward Woody for his heroic acts with chaste kisses." Her participation in action scenes in these films was described by the Washington Post as limited, "suggesting she was perhaps as fragile as porcelain itself." Following her return and protagonism in Toy Story 4, Bo gained significant coverage. Describing her new look, The Telegraph says that "Wearing trousers instead of her old, pink floor-length shepherdess dress and bonnet, the new version of the Bo Peep is simply the right way to tell the story." Michael Cavna from The Washington Post wrote that "no character emerges from Pixar’s Toy Story 4 exuding a stronger sense of self than Bo", and stated that Bo's new presence in the film rises as a symbol that reflects the contributions of leading women. Inkoo Kang from Slate considers that Bo had become "the rare female character expanded in a sequel whose journey doesn’t feel secondary." Claire Corkery from The National wrote that Bo transformed "into a superhero who spearheads the many rescue missions the film series has become famous for." Josh Newis-Smith stated in Glamour that Bo "is just the empowered female Disney character we need in 2019." However, there was negative criticism regarding Bo's new portrayal. Writer and film critic Stella Duffy said that the new portrayal of Bo is not feminist because "She’s still going to fall in love, she’s still going to have the happily ever after, that’s not feminism! It’s a woman who kicks off her skirt to reveal bloomers." Nell Frizzell from Vogue wrote that Bo changed from a "shepherdess in distress" into "badass", but considered that while movie studios (particularly Disney) have set a new binary between damsels in distress or action heroines, all of them are slim, blond, and beautiful. Ernesto Huerta asked in Mexican newspaper Milenio if Bo's new personality responds to a need of the audience or to the political correctness that currently reigns in Hollywood. Beth Webb asked in British magazine Little White Lies: "The return of the sheep-herding heroine in Toy Story 4 signals a new chapter for the studio – but has anything changed behind the scenes?", in regards to what she considers the neglection of the female staff by animation studios, as well as John Lasseter's "missteps". Toy Story is a computer animated Disney media franchise that commenced in 1995 with the release of the animated film of the same name, produced by Pixar Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures. The franchise is based on the anthropomorphic concept that all toys, unknown to humans, are secretly alive, and the films focus on a diverse group of toys that feature a classic cowboy doll named Sheriff Woody and a modern spaceman action figure named Buzz Lightyear, principally voiced by Tom Hanks and Tim Allen, respectively. The group unexpectedly embark on adventures that challenge and change them. The franchise consists mainly of four CGI animated films: Toy Story (1995), Toy Story 2 (1999), Toy Story 3 (2010), and Toy Story 4 (2019). Toy Story was the first feature-length film to be made entirely using computer-generated imagery. The first two films of the franchise were directed by John Lasseter, the third by Lee Unkrich, who acted as the co-director of the second film (together with Ash Brannon), and the fourth by Josh Cooley. Toy Story is the 20th highest-grossing franchise worldwide, the fourth highest-grossing animated franchise, and is among the most critically acclaimed franchises of all time. The films, produced on a total budget of $520 million, have grossed more than $3 billion worldwide. Each film set box office records, with the third and fourth included in the top 50 all-time worldwide films. All four films have received universal acclaim from critics and audiences. The first two films were re-released in theaters as a Disney Digital 3-D "double feature" for at least two weeks in October 2009, as a promotion for the then- upcoming third film. Toy Story, the first film in the franchise, was released on November 22, 1995. It was the first feature-length film created entirely by CGI and was directed by John Lasseter. The plot involves Andy (voiced by John Morris), an imaginative young boy, getting a new Buzz Lightyear (Tim Allen) action figure for his birthday, causing Sheriff Woody (Tom Hanks), a vintage cowboy doll, to think that he has been replaced as Andy's favorite toy. In competing for Andy's attention, Woody accidentally knocks Buzz out a window, leading the other toys to believe he tried to murder Buzz. Determined to set things right, Woody attempts to save Buzz, and both must escape from the house of the next- door neighbor Sid Phillips (Erik von Detten), who likes to torture and destroy toys. In addition to Hanks and Allen, the film featured the voices of Don Rickles, Jim Varney, Wallace Shawn, John Ratzenberger, and Annie Potts. The film was critically and financially successful, grossing over $373 million worldwide. The film was later re-released in Disney Digital 3-D as part of a double feature, along with Toy Story 2, for a 2-week run, which was later extended due to its financial success. Toy Story 2, the second film in the franchise, was released on November 24, 1999. Lasseter reprised his role as director. The plot involves Woody getting stolen by a greedy toy collector named Al McWhiggin (Wayne Knight). Buzz and several of Andy's toys set off to attempt to free Woody, who meanwhile has discovered his origins as a historic television star. In addition to the returning cast, Toy Story 2 included voice acting from Joan Cusack, Kelsey Grammer, Estelle Harris, and Jodi Benson. Toy Story 2 was not originally intended for release in theaters, but as a direct-to-video sequel to the original Toy Story, with a 60-minute running time. However, Disney's executives were impressed by the high quality of the in-work imagery for the sequel, and were also pressured by the main characters' voice actors Hanks and Allen, so they decided to convert Toy Story 2 into a theatrical film. It turned out to be an even greater success than the original Toy Story, grossing over $497 million worldwide. The film was re-released in Disney Digital 3-D as part of a double feature, along with Toy Story, on October 2, 2009. Toy Story 3, the third film in the franchise, was released on June 18, 2010, nearly 11 years after Toy Story 2. The plot focuses on the toys being accidentally dropped off at a daycare center while their owner, Andy, is getting ready to go to college. The toys discover that all of the toys are ruled by Lotso (Ned Beatty), a mean teddy bear, while Woody finds potential hope for a new home in the hands of Bonnie, a toddler that takes great care of her toys. Blake Clark replaced Varney after Varney's death in 2000, while other new cast members included Michael Keaton, Timothy Dalton, Jeff Garlin, Kristen Schaal, and Bonnie Hunt. It was the first Toy Story film not to be directed by Lasseter (although he remained involved in the film as executive producer), but by Lee Unkrich, who edited the first two films and co-directed the second. It was Pixar's highest-grossing film of all time both domestically, surpassing Finding Nemo, until it was surpassed by Finding Dory in 2016 and worldwide, also surpassing Finding Nemo, until it was surpassed by Incredibles 2 in 2018. Toy Story 3 grossed more than the first and second films combined, making it the first animated film to have crossed the $1 billion mark. In August 2010, it surpassed Shrek 2, becoming the highest- grossing animated film of all time until it was surpassed by Frozen, another Disney production, in March 2014. Toy Story 3 was released on DVD and Blu-ray on November 2, 2010. Toy Story 4, the fourth film in the franchise, was released on June 21, 2019. Taking place some years after Toy Story 3, the story involves Woody, Buzz, and the other toys living well with their new owner. On her first day of kindergarten, Bonnie creates a toy spork, named Forky (Tony Hale), out of garbage. Woody, having been neglected by Bonnie lately, personally takes it upon himself to keep Forky out of harm's way. During a road trip with Bonnie's family, Woody meets up with Bo Peep (Potts) and has to deal with fears of becoming a "lost toy". Rickles had died in 2017 prior to the production of the film, but Pixar used archival recordings from him to continue his voice work for the film. Additional new cast members include Keegan-Michael Key, Jordan Peele, Keanu Reeves, Ally Maki and Christina Hendricks. The film had been originally announced on November 6, 2014 during an investor's call with Lasseter to direct, Galyn Susman to produce, with the screenplay written by Rashida Jones and Will McCormack based on the story developed by Lasseter, Andrew Stanton, Pete Docter and Lee Unkrich. However, during production, Lasseter stepped down from his position at Pixar in 2017, though remained to consult for the film; Josh Cooley was named as the film's director, with Jonas Rivera replacing Susman as producer. The film underwent a major revision following the departures of Jones and McCormack later in 2017, with Stephany Folsom replacing them as screenwriter. Much of the original script by Jones and McCormack had to be dropped, delaying the release of the film. On an episode of The Ellen DeGeneres Show, Tom Hanks said that the fourth film would be the final film in the series. He said that Tim Allen had "warned him about the emotional final goodbye between their characters Woody and Buzz Lightyear in Toy Story 4." However, producer Mark Nielsen didn't rule out a possibility of a fifth film stating “Every film we make, we treat it like it’s the first and the last film we’re ever going to make, so you force yourself to make it hold up. You don’t get in over your skis. Whether there’s another one? I don’t know. If there is, it’s tomorrow’s problem." Shortly after the fourth film's release, Annie Potts said that despite her not knowing if another film would be made, she believes a lot of fans will be interested to see what the toys do next. A few months before the film's release, Tim Allen hinted that a fifth film is possible, while also expressing interest in doing another film stating: "Once you've gotten to four, you're passed that trilogy [point], so I don't see any reason why they wouldn't do it, certainly. If you ask me, I'd say do five." In 1996, a series of shorts known as Toy Story Treats were created as interstitials on ABC Saturday Morning, the predecessor to Disney's One Saturday Morning and ABC Kids. They did not necessarily follow the continuity from Toy Story, taking place before, during and after the events of the first film. They were aired roughly around the time of Toy Story's release to home video. The shorts also appeared as bonus features on both "The Ultimate Toy Box" and as Easter eggs on the "10th Anniversary Edition" DVD menu of the first film, they were also restored in HD in a 1.33:1 aspect ratio and presented in the special features of the 2010 Blu-ray release of the film. In 2011, Pixar started releasing short animated films to supplement the Toy Story films, called Toy Story Toons. The shorts pick up where Toy Story 3 has left off, with Woody, Buzz, and Andy's other toys finding a new home at Bonnie's. So far, three shorts have been released; Hawaiian Vacation, Small Fry, and Partysaurus Rex. Another short, titled Mythic Rock, was in development in 2013 but was never released. On Disney's investor day meeting, Pete Docter announced a series of shorts named Forky Asks a Question for Disney+, with the new character Forky from Toy Story 4, voiced by Tony Hale. The series was released on the launch date of the service on November 12, 2019. Pixar has also developed two 22-minute Toy Story television specials. The first, a Halloween-themed special, titled Toy Story of Terror!, aired on October 16, 2013, on ABC, while the second, a Christmas-themed special titled Toy Story That Time Forgot, aired on December 2, 2014. In 2011, Pixar started releasing short animated films to supplement the Toy Story films, called Toy Story Toons. The shorts pick up where Toy Story 3 has left off, with Woody, Buzz, and Andy's other toys finding a new home at Bonnie's. So far, three shorts have been released; Hawaiian Vacation, Small Fry, and Partysaurus Rex. Another short, titled Mythic Rock, was in development in 2013 but was never released. Toy Story Toons: Hawaiian Vacation is a 2011 Pixar animated short directed by Gary Rydstrom. The short features characters from the Toy Story series and takes place after the events of Toy Story 3. It was released in theaters before Pixar's feature film Cars 2. In the short film, Ken and Barbie want to go to Hawaii with Bonnie's family, who had prior plans to vacation in Hawaii, but get left behind by mistakenly climbing into Bonnie's school bookbag instead of her luggage. Once in Bonnie's bedroom, Woody, Buzz and the other toys from the previous film attempt to console them by creating their own "Hawaiian vacation" for Barbie and Ken in Bonnie's bedroom. Toy Story Toons: Small Fry, another Toy Story short, premiered before The Muppets. This marks the second time a Pixar short has screened with a non- Pixar film, after Tokyo Mater screened with Bolt. Directed by Angus MacLane, the short involves Buzz getting trapped at a fast food restaurant at a support group for discarded toys, with a kids' meal toy version of Buzz taking his place. Toy Story Toons: Partysaurus Rex, the third of the series of animated shorts, was released with the theatrical 3D re-release of Finding Nemo. Directed by Mark Walsh with music composed by electronic artist BT, the short involves Rex getting left in the bathroom and making friends with bath toys. A short film titled Lamp Life, reveals Bo Peep's whereabouts between leaving and reuniting with Woody. It will be released on Disney+ on January 31, 2020. Toy Storys first five days of domestic release (on Thanksgiving weekend), earned the film $39.1 million. The film placed first in the weekend's box office with $29.1 million, and maintained its number one position at the domestic box office for the following two weekends. It was the highest- grossing domestic film in 1995, and the third highest-grossing animated film at the time. Toy Story 2 opened at #1 over the Thanksgiving Day weekend, with a three-day tally of $57.4 million from 3,236 theaters. It averaged $17,734 per theater over three days during that weekend, and stayed at #1 for the next two weekends. It was the third highest-grossing film of 1999. Toy Story 3 had a strong debut, opening in 4,028 theaters and grossing $41.1 million at the box office on its opening day. In addition, Toy Story 3 had the highest opening day gross for an animated film on record. During its opening weekend, the film grossed $110.3 million, making it #1 for the weekend; it was the biggest opening weekend ever for any Pixar film. Toy Story 3 stayed at the #1 spot for the next weekend. The film had the second highest opening ever for an animated film at the time. It was the highest-grossing film of 2010, both domestically and worldwide. Toy Story 3 grossed over $1 billion, making it the seventh film in history, the second Disney film in 2010, the third Disney film overall, and the first animated film to do so. According to Rotten Tomatoes, the Toy Story franchise is the most critically acclaimed franchise of all time. The first two films received a 100% "Certified Fresh" rating, while the third and fourth respectively earned 98% and 97% "Certified Fresh" ratings. According to the site, no other franchise has had all of its films so highly rated – the Before trilogy comes closest with 98%, and the Dollars trilogy and The Lord of the Rings trilogy come after with average ratings of 95% and 94% respectively, while the Toy Story franchise has an average of 99%. According to Metacritic, the Toy Story franchise is tied as the most critically acclaimed franchise of all time, it and The Lord of the Rings trilogy each having an average rounded score of 91 out of 100. According to CinemaScore, polls conducted during the opening weekend, cinema audiences gave the first, third and fourth installments of the series an average grade of "A," while the second earned an "A+," on an A+ to F scale. Toy Story was nominated for three Academy Awards, including Best Original Screenplay, Best Original Score and Best Original Song for Randy Newman's "You've Got a Friend in Me." John Lasseter, the director of the film, also received a Special Achievement Award for "the development and inspired application of techniques that have made possible the first feature-length computer-animated film." Toy Story was also the first animated film to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay. At the 53rd Golden Globe Awards, Toy Story earned two Golden Globe nominations – Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy and Best Original Song. It was also nominated for Best Special Visual Effects at the 50th British Academy Film Awards. Toy Story 2 won a Golden Globe for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy and earned a single Academy Award nomination for the song "When She Loved Me," performed by Sarah McLachlan. The Academy Award for Best Animated Feature was introduced in 2001 after the first two Toy Story installments. Toy Story 3 won two Academy Awards – Best Animated Feature and Best Original Song, "We Belong Together". It earned three other nominations, including Best Picture, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Sound Editing. It was the third animated film in history to be nominated for Best Picture, after Beauty and the Beast and Up. Toy Story 3 also won the Golden Globe for Best Animated Feature Film and the award for Best Animated Film at the British Academy Film Awards. Toy Story 4 is nominated for two Academy Awards including Best Animated Feature and Best Original Song, "I Can't Let You Throw Yourself Away". It's the first animated franchise in which all of their movies are nominated in the same category. It was also nominated to the Golden Globe for Best Animated Feature Film (but lost against Missing Link) and it's nominated for Best Animated Film at the British Academy Film Awards. A dark gray cell indicates the character did not appear in that medium. Buzz Lightyear of Star Command is a spin-off TV series. The series takes place in the far future. It features Buzz Lightyear (voiced by Patrick Warburton), a famous, experienced Space Ranger who takes a crew of rookies under his wing as he investigates criminal activity across the galaxy and attempts to bring down Evil Emperor Zurg once and for all. It aired on ABC from October 2, 2000 to January 13, 2001. Buzz Lightyear of Star Command: The Adventure Begins is a spin-off animated direct-to-video film, partially based on Toy Story. The film was released on August 8, 2000. It acts as a pilot to the television series Buzz Lightyear of Star Command and features Tim Allen as the voice of Buzz Lightyear, who is voiced by Patrick Warburton in the main series. In this film, Buzz Lightyear is a space ranger who fights against the evil Emperor Zurg, showing the inspiration for the Buzz Lightyear toyline that exists in the Toy Story series. Although the film was criticized for not using the same animation as in Toy Story and Toy Story 2, it sold three million VHS and DVDs in its first week of release. A 4-issue limited series, Toy Story: Mysterious Stranger was published by Boom! Entertainment from May to August 2009. This was followed by an 8-issue ongoing series, starting with #0 in November 2009. Two Buzz Lightyear one-shots were released in 2010, for Free Comic Book Day and Halloween. A second 4-issue limited series, Toy Story: Toy Overboard was published by Boom! Entertainment from July to October 2010., A 4-issue limited series by Marvel Comics Toy Story: Tales from the Toy Chest was published from May to August 2012., Toy Story magazine was first released on 21 July 2010. Each edition was 24 pages in length, apart from the launch edition, which was 28 pages., An one-shot anthology comic book by Dark Horse Comics was released to tie in with Toy Story 4 in 2019. The comic picks up just after the events of the film, also exploring the backstories of Duke Caboom, Ducky, Bunny, Bo Peep and Giggle McDimples during their exploits as a band of lost toys. Toy Story (1995) (Sega Genesis, Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Microsoft Windows, and Game Boy), Disney's Activity Center: Toy Story (1996) (Microsoft Windows), Disney's Animated Storybook: Toy Story (1996) (Microsoft Windows and macOS), Disney's Activity Center: Toy Story 2 (1999) (Microsoft Windows), (1999) (Dreamcast, PlayStation, Nintendo 64, Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Game Boy Color), Toy Story 2: Woody Sousaku Daisakusen!! (2000) (Sega Pico) – released only in Japan, Buzz Lightyear of Star Command (2000) (Game Boy Color, PlayStation, and Microsoft Windows), Jessie's Wild West Rodeo (2001) (Microsoft Windows and macOS), Toy Story Racer (2001) (PlayStation and Game Boy Color), Disney Hotshots: Toy Story 2 (2003) (Microsoft Windows), Toy Story 2: Operation Rescue Woody! (2005) (V.Smile), Toy Story Mania! (2009) (Wii, Microsoft Windows, Xbox 360, and PlayStation 3), Disney•Pixar Toy Story 3 (2010) (LeapPad, LeapPad2, LeapPad3, LeapPad Platinum, LeapPad Ultra, LeapPad Jr., Leapster Explorer, and LeapsterGS Explorer), (2010) (PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Wii, PlayStation Portable, Nintendo DS, Microsoft Windows, macOS, and iOS), Shooting Beena: Toy Story 3 – Woody to Buzz no Daibōken! (2010) (Advanced Pico Beena) – released only in Japan, (2013) (iOS and Android) Disney Learning: 1st Grade (2000) (Microsoft Windows and macOS), Disney Learning: 2nd Grade (2000) (Microsoft Windows and macOS), Disney•Pixar Learning: 1st Grade (2002) (Microsoft Windows and macOS), Disney•Pixar Learning: 2nd and 3rd Grade (2002) (Microsoft Windows and macOS), Disney's Extreme Skate Adventure (2003) (Game Boy Advance, PlayStation 2, Xbox, and GameCube), LittleBigPlanet 2 (2011) (PlayStation 3), Disney•Pixar Pixar Pals (2011) (LeapPad, LeapPad2, LeapPad3, LeapPad Platinum, LeapPad Ultra, LeapPad Jr., Leapster Explorer, and LeapsterGS Explorer), (2011) Xbox 360, Xbox One, and Microsoft Windows), (2012) (Xbox 360, Xbox One, and Microsoft Windows), Disney Infinity (2013) (PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Wii, Wii U, Nintendo 3DS, Microsoft Windows, iOS, and Apple TV), Lego The Incredibles (2018) (PlayStation 4, Xbox One, Nintendo Switch, Microsoft Windows, and macOS), Kingdom Hearts III (2019) (PlayStation 4 and Xbox One) Pixar created some original animations for the games, including fully animated sequences for PC titles. Woody and Buzz Lightyear were originally going to appear in the Final Mix version of the Disney/Square Enix video game Kingdom Hearts II. They were omitted from the final product, but their models appear in the game's coding, without textures. The director of the Kingdom Hearts series, Tetsuya Nomura, stated that he would like to include Pixar property in future Kingdom Hearts games, given Disney's purchase of Pixar. This eventually came true, as a stage based on Toy Story made its debut appearance in the series in Kingdom Hearts III, marking the first time that Pixar-based content appears in the series, along with Monsters, Inc.. Toy Story had a large promotion before its release, leading to numerous tie- ins with the film including images on food packaging. A variety of merchandise was released during the film's theatrical run and its initial VHS release including toys, clothing, and shoes, among other things. When action figures for Buzz Lightyear and Sheriff Woody were created, they were initially ignored by retailers. However, after over 250,000 figures were sold for each character before the film's release, demand continued to expand, eventually reaching over 25 million units sold by 2007. Also, and Disney's Activity Center: Toy Story were released for Windows and Mac. Disney's Animated Storybook: Toy Story was the best selling software title of 1996, selling over 500,000 copies. Buzz Lightyear attractions in many Disney Parks., Toy Story Midway Mania! at Disney's Hollywood Studios at the Walt Disney World Resort, Disney California Adventure at the Disneyland Resort and Tokyo DisneySea at Tokyo Disney Resort., Toy Story Land themed lands at Walt Disney Studios Park, Hong Kong Disneyland, Shanghai Disneyland and Disney's Hollywood Studios., on Disney Cruise Line's ship Disney Wonder., Totally Toy Story, an "instant theme park" then a theme area in Tomorrowland at Disneyland. Totally Toy Story was an instant theme park and a promotional event for the Toy Story movie premiere held at El Capitan Theatre and Masonic Convention Hall. For the November 18, 1995 Toy Story premiere at El Capitan Theatre, Disney rented the Masonic Convention Hall, the next door building, for Totally Toy Story, an instant theme park and a promotional event for the movie. Movie goers paid an additional fee for the pop up park. The promotional event had pre-sales over $1 million and remained opened until January 1, 1996. The Toy Story Funhouse part was moved to Disneyland's Tomorrowland and opened there on January 27, 1996 and closed on May 27, 1996. Totally Toy Story, while in Hollywood, consisted of "Toy Story Art of Animation" exhibit in El Capitan's basement and the Toy Story Funhouse at the convention hall. The fun house consisted of 30,000-square-foot of various attractions. These attractions continue the story of the movie with the toys life-size. Toy Story Funhouse attractions Hamm's Theater – "Hamm’s All-Doll Revue" has energetic dancing and original songs lasted 20 minutes, Buzz's Galaxy -, "Buzz & the Buzz Lites" show included music from Frank Sinatra, two arcade-style games, "Whack-A-Alien", a motion-simulator ride, Woody's Roundup dance hall, live musicians and country line-dancing lessons, Pizza Planet restaurant, Green Army Men's obstacle course, participants strap on foot base to tackle the course, Mr. Potato Head's Playroom, contained Etch-a-Sketches and other dexterity games had a floor made up of old game boards, Totally Interactive Room, had Sega and Nintendo Toy Story games, souvenir shop Toy Story innovative computer animation had a large impact on the film industry. After the film's debut, various industries were interested in the technology used for the film. Graphics chip makers desired to compute imagery similar to the film's animation for personal computers; game developers wanted to learn how to replicate the animation for video games; and robotics researchers were interested in building artificial intelligence into their machines that compared to the lifelike characters in the film. Various authors have also compared the film to an interpretation of Don Quixote as well as humanism. The free and open-source Linux distribution Debian takes its codenames from Toy Story characters, the tradition of which came about as Bruce Perens was involved in the early development of Debian while working at Pixar. In 2013, Pixar designed a "Gromit Lightyear" sculpture based on the Aardman Animations character Gromit from Wallace and Gromit for Gromit Unleashed which sold for £65,000. Buzz Lightyear's classic line "To infinity and beyond!" has seen usage not only on T-shirts, but among philosophers and mathematical theorists as well. Lucia Hall of The Humanist linked the film's plot to an interpretation of humanism. She compared the phrase to "All this and heaven, too!", indicating one who is happy with a life on Earth as well as having an afterlife. In 2008, during STS-124, astronauts took an action figure of Buzz Lightyear into space on the Discovery Space Shuttle as part of an educational experience for students that also stressed the catchphrase. The action figure was used for experiments in zero-g. Also, in 2008, the phrase made international news when it was reported that a father and son had continually repeated the phrase to help them keep track of each other while treading water for 15 hours in the Atlantic Ocean. at Disney

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The following is a list of characters in the Roald Dahl book Charlie and the Chocolate Factory and Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator, and the former's film adaptations, Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory (1971) and Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (2005). Listings include actors that have played the characters in various media. In the novels and films, Willy Wonka is the eccentric owner of the world's largest candy factory, making candy and chocolate. Wonka holds a contest, hiding five Golden Tickets within the wrappers of his chocolate bars, promising their finders a tour of his factory and a lifelong supply of his creations. Wonka has a black goatee and "marvelously" bright eyes, a high and "flutey" voice, a face "alight of fun and laughter", and quick little jerky movements "like a squirrel". He is enthusiastic, talkative, friendly and charming, but is sometimes insensitive and has been given to glossing self- criticism. In the 1971 film Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, he is portrayed by Gene Wilder. While his personality remains generally the same as in the original, he is more melancholy here, and frequently quotes books and poems, including William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet ("Is it my soul that calls upon my name?") or John Masefield's "Sea-Fever" ("All I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by"), and the famous "Candy is dandy, but liquor is quicker" from "Reflections on Ice-Breaking" by Ogden Nash, among many others. Toward the end of the film, he tests Charlie's conscience by reprimanding him and pretending to deny him any reward, but assumes an almost paternal role when Charlie proves to be honest after all. In the 2005 film Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, he is portrayed by Johnny Depp. In this version, a backstory was added that Willy Wonka's father (being a dentist) would not let him eat sweets because of the potential risk to his teeth, and that the young Wonka left home to become a chocolatier. Charlie Bucket is the second main character of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, its sequel Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator, and the film adaptations of these books. He is depicted as a kind-hearted and selfless boy who lives with his mother, father and his four grandparents. In 1971, he has a newspaper route after school. He and his family follow the progress of the hunt for the Golden Tickets in newspapers and television. Unlike the first four finalists, Charlie is honest and generous; he is actually worried if the other nasty children such as Augustus and Veruca will actually be alive after their ordeals. In the 1971 film, Charlie was portrayed by Peter Ostrum, in his only film appearance. His nationality is never explicitly stated, but in the 1971 film, he speaks with an American accent, and in the 2005 film, he speaks with an English accent. The filmmakers have stated that it was their intention that Charlie's hometown be kept ambiguous. In this version, when Grandpa Joe decided to accompany Charlie to the factory, Charlie explains that the family needs the money now, instead of the ticket; then Grandpa George explains the reason why Charlie still has to go to the factory, and indeed he and Grandpa Joe do go. In the novel, at the end of the tour, Wonka declares Charlie the heir to the factory for his refusal of vice, and Charlie's family are permitted to move into the factory. In the 1971 film, Charlie wins the factory when he returns an Everlasting Gobstopper given to him by Wonka, thereby passing Wonka's moral test. In the 2005 film, Wonka initially refuses to allow Charlie's family to join them in the factory, and Charlie rejects Wonka's offer. When Charlie helps Wonka reconcile with his father, the family move into the factory, and Charlie and Wonka both became partners. Grandpa Joe is the third main character. He is one of Charlie's four bed- ridden grandparents. He tells Charlie (and the reader) the story of Willy Wonka's chocolate factory and the mystery of the secret workers. When Charlie finds the Golden Ticket, Grandpa Joe leaps out of bed in joy and is chosen as the one to accompany Charlie in the tour of the factory. In the sequel book, he and all members of Charlie's family ride with Charlie and Wonka in the Great Glass Elevator and assists the rescue of the Commuter Capsule from the Vermicious Knids. Grandpa Joe's age is given as "ninety-six and a half" in "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory", making him the eldest of Charlie's grandparents, but in the musical, it is stated he is almost ninety and a half. The character was played by Jack Albertson in the 1971 film adaptation Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory. In this film, he is often excitable, paranoid, and stubborn, and appears anxious that Charlie won the contest, and becomes angry when Charlie is dismissed without reward because they had violated the rules by stealing Fizzy Lifting Drinks and not following the tour, which indicated that Charlie violated the contract, before realizing that returning the everlasting gobstopper the true test. He tells Charlie that he expects him to find all five Golden Tickets and most certainly expects Charlie to find one when he receives a Wonka Bar for his birthday. The character was played by David Kelly in the 2005 film adaptation, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. Veteran actor Gregory Peck was originally selected to play the role, but he died in 2003 before filming began. This version of the character is written as more calm than the 1971 version. An original backstory to Grandpa Joe's past was added to Tim Burton's film, wherein it is said that Joe worked for Wonka until the latter fired all his workers from his factory due to constant corporate espionage by rival confectionery manufacturers. When he returns to the factory with Charlie for the tour, Wonka asks if he was a spy working for a competing factory, which Joe assures he wasn't. Augustus Gloop is an obese, greedy, gluttonous 9-year-old boy, the first person to find a Golden Ticket and one of the four main antagonists of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. He hails from the fictional town of Dusselheim, Germany in the 1971 film, and Düsseldorf, Germany in the 2005 film. His mother takes great pride in his gluttonous eating and seems to enjoy the attention of the media. In the novel and both films, he is portrayed as "enormously fat". Augustus is the first to be removed from the tour: while drinking from the Chocolate Room’s Chocolate River, he accidentally falls into the river and is drawn through a pipe to the factory's Fudge Room. His parents are summoned to retrieve him from the mixing-machine. In the book, he is depicted leaving the factory, having lost most of his weight, and covered in melted chocolate. In the 1971 film, despite eating constantly, he has decent table manners, is not as obese as he is in the book, and is polite to Charlie and the other three finalists. He is portrayed by Michael Bollner in this film. Since Bollner could not speak fluent English at the time of the film's production, the 1971 Augustus has fewer lines and less screen time. In the 2005 film, Augustus is always shown consuming chocolate. He has a binge eating disorder and often has food smeared on his face. He is a bully towards Charlie in the one instance when they interact, as Augustus offers Charlie a bite of his Wonka Bar and then retracts it, saying that Charlie should have brought some himself. As in the book, he is shown leaving the factory toward the end of the story; but in this version, he is his normal size, licking his fingers to remove the adherent chocolate that he is still coated in, to which his mother tells him to stop, but Augustus refuses, saying that "he tastes so good." The actor, Philip Wiegratz, wore a fat suit for the production. In the book, both of Augustus's parents accompany him to the factory. Both film versions contradict this, however, and only his mother goes with him. In the 2013 London musical, Augustus Gloop is known as "the Bavarian Beefcake" in his Alpine community. His mother and father indulge his eating habits with sweets and pieces of sausage of which they (and sometimes Augustus) butcher themselves. In his number, "More of Him to Love", Frau Gloop reveals that she had vital organs removed to retrieve Augustus from the womb. They arrive at the factory wearing traditional Eastern European clothing, with Augustus in a red, argyle sweater and green shorts. When Augustus falls into the Chocolate River, Wonka summons the diversionary pumping system to divert the flow, while Oompa-Loompas dressed in red boiler suits sing, "Auf Wiedersehen, Augustus Gloop", as they prepare the chocolate, while Augustus travels through the main industrial pipe, occasionally getting stuck in it. The 2017 Broadway rendition of the musical does not largely alter the character, though he and all the other finalists (sans Charlie) are portrayed by adults. Further, Augustus's father is confirmed to be deceased; it is implied that Augustus actually devoured him. Violet Beauregarde, a 10-year-old girl, is the third person to find a Golden Ticket, one of the four main antagonists of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, and the second to be eliminated from the tour. She is the skillful, self- centered, rude, and a chewing gum-obsessed girl. Violet chews gum obsessively and boasts that she has been chewing the same piece "for three months solid", a world record which Violet proclaims was previously held by her best friend Cornelia Prinzmetel. She is also aggressively competitive, prideful, and has won trophies for gum chewing and other activities. She has brown hair in the 1971 film, while in the 2005 film, she has blonde hair. In the 1971 film, she is shown to be from Miles City, Montana, while in the 2005 film, she is from Atlanta, Georgia. When Wonka shows the group around the Inventing Room, he stops to display a new type of gum he is working on. The gum doubles as a three-course meal which is composed of tomato soup, roast beef and baked potato, and blueberry pie and ice cream. Violet is intrigued and eager to try it out, despite Wonka's protests, snatches and chews the gum. She is delighted by its effects but, when she reaches the dessert, blueberry pie, her skin starts turning a somewhat indigo color and her body begins to swell up, filling with blueberry juice. Eventually, Violet's head, legs, and arms get sucked into her gigantic body, but she is still mobile and is able to waddle. When her swelling stops, she resembles a blueberry, causing Wonka to have the Oompa-Loompas roll her to the Juicing Room to have the juice squeezed out of her, in fear that she may explode. She is last seen leaving the factory with the other children, restored to her normal size and becomes more flexible, but her indigo skin remains, and is most likely permanent as Wonka says there is nothing that can be done to change Violet's skin back to its original pigment. In the 1971 film, Violet is impatient, arrogant, self-centered, vain, and impulsive. She is accompanied by her father, Sam Beauregarde, a fast-talking car salesman and politician who tries to advertise his business during Violet's television interview. She demeans Cornelia Prinzmetel more than she did in the book. She is polite to everyone, with the exception of Veruca Salt, with whom she persistently argues. Her blueberry form is relatively small, and her hair color remains unchanged. Violet is informed that she must be juiced immediately before she explodes and is last seen en route to the Juicing Room, with her father following her. In the 2005 film, Violet (portrayed by AnnaSophia Robb) is 10 years old, has blonde hair, green eyes, and a rude and competitive personality. Aside from gum-chewing, she also has many other interests that reflect her obsession with always winning, such as in karate. She is accompanied by her single mother, Scarlett Beauregarde (a former baton champion herself), whose own competitive personality appears to have had an influence on her daughter, as Scarlett expresses pride over Violet's 263 trophies and medals. Cornelia Prinzmetel was not mentioned in this film. In this version, when she and Veruca interact with each other, they suggest being best friends, though they do not really like each other. Violet is also shown to be anti-social and bullying when she briefly insults Charlie, snatching a piece of confectionery from his hand and calling him a loser when he tries to interact with her. She turns blue, although her lips remain red, her eyes and hair turn blue, and swells up into a 12-foot blueberry before being rolled off to the Juicing Room by the Oompa-Loompas to prevent her from bursting. Violet is shown leaving the factory gymnastically cartwheeling as a consequence of her increased flexibility, which she is actually happy about, although her mother is less than pleased with her daughter's possibly permanently indigo colour. In the 2013 Sam Mendes London musical, Violet Beauregarde is portrayed as an African-American, Californian fame-hungry wannabe, with her agent/father Eugene Beauregarde parlaying her mundane talent of gum chewing into celebrity status, with multitude of endorsements including her own TV show, line of perfume, and a clothing boutique franchise. Her theme is called "The Double- Bubble Duchess". It is revealed that Violet's chewing "skill" was picked up when she was a baby and her mom tried to get her to stop talking all the time. Violet and her father are escorted by an entourage to the factory entrance. Violet comes dressed in a sparkly purple and pink disco jumper and a pink backpack. Upon swelling in the influence of the experimental gum (which consisted of tomato soup, roast chicken, potatoes and gravy, Fizzy Orange, cheese and crackers and blueberry pie), she panics and runs away as the Oompa- Loompas break into a disco number, "Juicy", and roller skate along the stage as Violet lifts into the air, resembling a giant purple disco ball. Mr. Beauregarde phones his lawyer excitedly, with intent to profit from Violet's new size, until Violet explodes. Wonka's only reassurance of her survival is the prospect of rescuing the pieces and de-juicing them. In the Broadway version, the song "Juicy" is cut out (the only child-exit song to be cut from the London version), and Violet instead becomes a blueberry and explodes in the background when an Oompa-Loompa blows an air-dart at her while Wonka explains how he met the Ooompa-Loompas to the group. Veruca Salt is greedy, demanding, stingy, spoiled brat and one of the four main antagonists of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. She demands every single thing she wants and is the second person to find a Golden Ticket and the third eliminated from the tour. A selfish, rotten brat who shows her wealthy family no mercy and has absolutely no regard for other people's property, Veruca frequently pesters her parents to purchase a variety of different objects for her; when the tour reached the Nut Room—a room where trained squirrels test each nut to see if it is good or bad by tapping them with their knuckles-and Veruca demands her parents to buy one for herself, Wonka refused, so she goes in and get one for herself, but the squirrels grabbed her and declared her a bad nut; after that, both she and her parents are thrown down the garbage chute, all three Salts are seen exiting the factory "covered in garbage". In the 1971 film adaptation, Veruca has a fiery temper, rudely demands various desires nonstop, brags about her wealth, and chastises anyone who questions her. In this film, it is not squirrels but geese that lay special golden chocolate-filled eggs for Easter, one of which she demands as a new pet. She and Violet, in this film, bicker on two occasions. Veruca is eliminated at the end of her musical number in the film ("I Want it Now") after climbing a machine designed to tell whether or not the goose eggs are "good" or "bad" eggs, and it judges her as a bad one. Her father then follows and is also deemed bad. In the , Veruca and her father manage to escape the furnace right before it ignites while trapping Tom inside. Veruca demands to be taken home and have her father make her a different chocolate factory, but Mr. Salt, having had enough of Veruca's spoiled and selfish behavior, finally decides to discipline her, as the near- death experience that they have both gone through seems to have finally gotten to him. In the 2005 film adaptation, Veruca's elimination remains virtually the same as in the book and the Tom and Jerry version, with only a few changes made. Her demeanour is less vehement, but more obnoxious, compared to the 1971 version. In the 2005 film, it is revealed that she owns a pony, two dogs, four cats, six rabbits, two parakeets, three canaries, a parrot, a turtle, and a hamster, totalling up to 21 pets. But when she interferes with the trained squirrels used by Willy Wonka to select the best nuts to bake into chocolate bars, she is judged as a "bad nut" by the squirrels and discarded into the adjacent garbage chute and her dad, being with her, follows suit. Both are later seen leaving the factory covered in garbage, with Veruca's father trying with extraordinary effort to contain his visible anger against her. When she sees the Great Glass Elevator, she demands one like it; however, instead of cheerfully catering to Veruca’s demands like before, as he had been reformed by the Oompa-Loompas (whom he felt had taught him a good parenting lesson), Veruca's father tells her sternly and firmly that the only thing she will be getting that day “is a bath, and that’s final”. Not only did he change his opinion of Veruca, but he also changed his ways of disciplining her by realizing that both he and his wife had been constantly spoiling her. When she speaks up, he fiercely glares at her, prompting her to be quiet. Her nationality was never specified in Dahl's novel, but she hails from an upper- class family in the United Kingdom in both films - in the 2005 film, she lives in Buckinghamshire. In the book, both of Veruca's parents accompany her to the factory. Both film versions contradict this, however, and have only her father go with her. In the 2013 Sam Mendes London musical, Veruca Salt is a British billionaire's daughter, dressed in a pink ballerina tutu and baby seal fur coat - "clubbed and tickled pink". Her father, Sir Robert Salt, is portrayed as a spineless dolt for giving his daughter her wishes. In the Nut Sorting Room, Veruca runs foul of the nut-testing squirrels who deem her a 'bad nut' when she tries to steal one of them. This summons oversized squirrels with Oompa-Loompas riding on their backs. They sing a nightmarish ballet "Veruca's Nutcracker Sweet" that concludes with Veruca and her father sent down the garbage chute; it has similar lyrics to the original book-although in the book version, both of Veruca parents follow her down the garbage chute. In the Broadway version, Veruca's nationality is changed to Russian, and the squirrels tear her apart limb by limb, but Wonka assures the group that the Ooompa-Loompas will be able to put her back together again. Mike Teavee is a 9-year-old boy who does nothing but watch television, both the fourth Golden Ticket finder and the fourth to be eliminated from the tour, and one of the four main antagonists of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. He was described as adorned with 18 toy pistols that he "fires" while watching gangsters on TV. He is bad-tempered and slothful, but also intelligent. How he found his Golden Ticket is never explained in the book or 1971 film, as he is too absorbed in his television viewing to talk to the press about it. In the 2005 film, he does have an explanation on how he found the Golden Ticket: he used an algorithm to find it as an intellectual exercise. In the book, both of Mike's parents tour the factory with him. During a display of miniaturization technology, used to transport chocolate, Mike shrinks himself to a tiny size, Willy Wonka has an Oompa-Loompa take the Teavee family to the Gum-Stretcher Room to get Mike stretched back to normal. Mike is last seen exiting the factory, now tall because the Oompa-Loompas had overstretched him. His last name resembles the word TV in connection to his love of electronics. In the 1971 film, Mike is played by Paris Themmen and his surname is spelled "Teevee" in the credits. Mike is nine years old and accompanied to the factory by his high-strung mother. He is from the fictional town of Marble Falls, Arizona, enjoys Western films and wears cowboy attire. He makes constant references to television shows throughout the factory tour and comes across as somewhat of a know-it-all. Although easily annoyed, he does not have any major anger issues and gets along relatively well with the other kids. After being shrunk to three inches, Mike is being taken to the Taffy Pulling Room to be stretched back to normal, which causes his mother to faint; unlike the book, he (on the advice of his mother) is receptive to Slugworth's bribe. In the 2005 film, 13-year-old Mike is portrayed by Jordan Fry, and his interests are updated to being very destructive, with the Internet and video games (especially gory first-person shooters), in addition to television viewing. In this version, he is from Denver, Colorado, is accompanied by his father, and is portrayed as more disrespectful and violent. In the Chocolate Room, when Wonka told everyone to enjoy his candy, he did not eat anything, instead he was stomping on a candy pumpkin, completely destroying it in the process, and when Mr. Teavee told him to stop, he ignores him with a brief sentence: "Dad, he said 'enjoy'!" Also, whenever he says something critical of Wonka's company, or his ideas, Wonka reacts as if Mike is mumbling, even though he does not. He is able to find the Golden Ticket by using math and logic, though he admits that he does not even like chocolate. When Mike demands to know why candy is pointless, Charlie tries to reason with him, saying candy does not have to have a point, then he demands that candy is a waste of time (like Wonka's father), but then Wonka’s flashback reappears again. When they arrive in the Television Chocolate Room, Mike points that Wonka could use his teleportation device to revolutionize mankind, as opposed to distributing his products, ignoring the fact that anything sent by television gets shrunk. When Mr. Teavee tries to reason with his son, the boy insults Wonka and sends himself by television. After the incident in the Television Chocolate Room, Willy Wonka has an Oompa-Loompa take Mr. Teavee and Mike to the Taffy-Puller Room to have Mike stretched back to normal. When Mike and his father are later seen leaving the factory, Mike is tall, as well as incredibly thin and flat. In the 2013 Sam Mendes London musical, Mike Teavee (now age 10) lives in a suburban neighborhood with his disinterested father Norman Teavee and neurotic, alcoholic mother, Doris Teavee; in this version, he is wearing a black shirt with an orange jacket on the outside. Their opening number, "It's Teavee Time!" has Mrs. Teavee presenting her family as a normal, functioning household, downplaying Mike's violent tendencies like setting a cat on fire, chloroforming a nurse, and stealing a German tank. In the Department of the Future, where Wonka transmits chocolate by television, Mike jumps into the machine and transmits himself, much to his mother's horror. Wonka summons the monitors to see on which channel Mike has ended, as the Oompa-Loompas rave around the room, singing, "Vidiots". Near the end, Mrs. Teavee joins the rave, as they conclude that Mike still has a future on "mike.com". When Mike is shrunk as a result of the transporter, Mrs. Teavee happily takes him home, as he can no longer cause trouble and she can take care of him like when he was a baby. In the Broadway version of the musical, Mike hails from Iowa, and the lyrics in Mike's song and some of Mike's mannerisms reference Donald Trump. In the book, Arthur Slugworth is one of Willy Wonka's rival chocolatiers. Slugworth, along with Wonka's other rivals Mr. Fickelgruber and Mr. Prodnose, sent in spies to steal the secret recipes to Wonka's treats, which he plagiarized, nearly ruining Wonka's factory. After Wonka re-opens his factory (operated exclusively by the Oompa-Loompas), Slugworth is never heard from again, but it is stated that Fickelgruber would give each of his front teeth to enter Wonka's inventing room (laboratory/chocolate room in the book) for three minutes. In the 1971 movie, Willy Wonka states that Slugworth would give his false teeth to get in for just five minutes. Slugworth has a much larger role as an enigmatic villain in the 1971 film. Inside Bill's Candy Shop, Wonka's products and signs are the most visible; but Slugworth's Sizzlers are also prominent, and one is even sold to a child. Also seen are signs for Fickelgruber's candy. Grandpa Joe describes Slugworth as the worst of Wonka's rivals. As each Golden Ticket is found, a sinister man approaches the finder and whispers something into his or her ear. After Charlie finds the last ticket, the same man approaches Charlie as well, introduces himself as Arthur Slugworth, and offers the child a bribe to bring him one piece of the newly invented 'Everlasting Gobstopper', allowing him to plagiarize the formula and prevent the future invention from ruining his business. Two of the children (Veruca and Mike) respond to Slugworth's bribe; but Charlie, when tempted, returns the Everlasting Gobstopper to Wonka. Wonka eventually reveals that the tempter is not Slugworth, but his own employee Mr. Wilkinson, and that his offer was a moral test of character. Slugworth/Wilkinson was played by Günter Meisner, a West German actor, while his speaking voice is provided by an uncredited Walker Edmiston. Slugworth only makes a split-second appearance in Tim Burton's Charlie and the Chocolate Factory where he, alongside Mr. Ficklegruber and Mr. Prodnose, are sending spies to steal ingredients from Wonka's factory. He is here played by Philip Philmar. In the Tom and Jerry version of the 1971 film, Slugworth is the main antagonist, instead of an enigmatic villain. When he first meets Charlie, he sings a cover of Veruca's song "I Want it Now!" and also sings it as a duet with Veruca during her downfall. He teams up with Spike to steal a Gobstopper from the factory, but the two are thwarted by Charlie, Tom, and Jerry. Despite being more emphasized as a villain, he is still revealed to be Wonka's employee Mr. Wilkinson, much to Tom and Jerry's dismay. Nevertheless, the cat and mouse get the last word on Slugworth/Wilkinson (and Spike) by shrinking them with the Wonkavision. Mr. Turkentine is Charlie Bucket's school teacher and appears in the 1971 film, but not in the book or the 2005 film. He has an odd sense of humor, which he uses to express knowledge. He asks Charlie to assist him in making a medicine using several scientific elements for the class, but the project is interrupted due to the frantic Golden Ticket search for Willy Wonka. Mr. Turkentine, when hearing the news about the Golden Tickets during the project, dismisses the class and runs out. Later, when it is revealed that all of the tickets have supposedly been found ending with a Paraguayan millionaire, he decides to use Wonka bars as an example to teach his class about percentages. He uses a few students as examples for the class, including Charlie. Charlie, however, reveals that he only opened two Wonka bars during the search and so, to help make it easier for his class, he decides to pretend that Charlie opened 200. Mr. Turkentine is played by British actor David Battley. Prince Pondicherry is a prince who lives in India. He appears in the third chapter of the novel when Grandpa Joe is telling Charlie a story. In the story, Willy Wonka makes him a chocolate palace in India, and advises him to eat it before it melts. He does not take this advice, and the palace melts in the heat from the sun. His name derives from the city of Pondicherry (officially spelled Puducherry since 2006) in southeastern India. He is absent from the 1971 film version, but makes a brief appearance in Tim Burton's Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, where he is played by Nitin Ganatra. His story here matches that in the book, except in depicting his wife (Shelley Conn) and stating that the Prince demanded a second palace, but was refused, due to Wonka dealing with problems of his own at the time that involved spies sent by his rivals. In the 2013 musical, he drowns in the melted chocolate from his palace, along with his wife. The Oompa-Loompas are small humans who would end up being preyed upon by the various predators that also reside in Loompaland before Wonka invited them to work at his factory. They are paid in their favorite food, cocoa beans, which were extremely rare on their island. The Oompa-Loompas are also mischievous, loving to play practical jokes and singing songs which, according to Wonka, they are very good at improvising. They sing a song at the end of each child's comeuppance. In early editions of the novel, the Oompa-Loompas (originally called "Whipple-Scrumpets" before publication) are shown as African pygmies, before Dahl rewrote them to be white-skinned and golden-haired. In both editions, despite working in the factory, the Oompa-Loompas insist on maintaining their native clothing: men wear animal skins, women wear leaves, and children wear nothing. In the 1971 film, Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory, they were written to be played by actors with dwarfism and are portrayed as orange-skinned, green-haired men in striped shirts and baggy lederhosen-like pants. Prominent portrayers included Angelo Muscat, Rusty Goffe, George Claydon, Rudy Borgstaller, Jo Kilkenny, Andy Wilday, Malcom Dixon, Ismed Hassan, Norman Mcglen, Pepe Poupee, Marcus Powell, Akary, Romana, and Albert Wilkinson. In the 2005 film, the Oompa- Loompas are all played by Deep Roy and are virtually identical. They wear their tribal clothing during their time in Loompaland, and typical factory worker uniforms in Wonka's factory. Some of the female Oompa-Loompas, like Doris, work in the administration offices. In the reboot, Willy Wonka explained to the visitors how the Oompa-Loompas were hired to work in the factory. The Vermicious Knids are a fictional species of amorphous aliens that invade the "Space Hotel USA" in Roald Dahl's Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator. They are also mentioned in the 1971 feature film adaptation, Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory, but only as predators of the Oompa-Loompas. In the book, Vermicious Knids are huge, dark, egg-shaped predators who swallow their victims whole, and are capable of surviving, operating, and traveling faster than light, in the vacuum of space. Although normally oviform, they can assume any shape at will, while retaining their native texture and features. They originate (according to Mr. Wonka) on the planet Vermes, a fictional planet located (in dialogue) from Earth (52 times Pluto's distance). In the presence of victims, they cannot resist shaping themselves to spell out the word "SCRAM" (the only Earth word that they know) before they attack. They are stated to be extremely voracious, having devoured an entire race that once lived on the Moon, and they only avoid Earth because entering the atmosphere causes them to burn up via atmospheric friction. In Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator, a swarm of Knids take possession of the new "Space Hotel USA". When the transport capsule brings the staff to the Space Hotel, the Knids consume some of the staff, and the survivors retreat to the capsule. There, the Knids bludgeon the capsule with their own bodies, until its retrorockets are useless; whereupon Wonka, Charlie, and Grandpa Joe connect the capsule to the Elevator, in hope of towing it to Earth, and one Knid wraps itself around the Elevator while the others form a chain, intending to draw the Elevator and the capsule to their home planet. The Elevator then returns to Earth, and the Knids are incinerated in Earth's atmosphere. When Nestlé created its interpretation of Wonka's world to sell chocolate bars under the name "Wonka", they released a number of downloadable flash games, wherein Knids seemed to have entered the factory and had the appearance of flying green blobs with single red eyes. The etymology of the name was not provided by Dahl. Pronunciation of Knid is said in the book to approximate adding a schwa between the "K" and "nid", or in Dahl's words, "K'nid". Cnidaria is the name of the taxonomic phylum containing stinging aquatic invertebrates such as jellyfish and corals, in turn derived from the classical Greek word for nettle, κνίδη. Vermicious is a real word, meaning "worm-like". The Vermicious Knids are also mentioned in other Dahl stories, including James and the Giant Peach (where the New York City Police Department misidentify Miss Spider as one) and The Minpins. Charlie and the Chocolate Factory is a media franchise. It includes two books, two live-action theatrical films, two video games, and a ride. Charlie and the Chocolate Factory is a 1964 children's book by British author Roald Dahl. The story features the adventures of young Charlie Bucket inside the chocolate factory of eccentric chocolatier Willy Wonka. Charlie and the Chocolate Factory was first published in the United States by Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. in 1964 and in the United Kingdom by George Allen & Unwin in 1967. Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator is the sequel to Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, continuing the story of Charlie Bucket and Willy Wonka as they travel in the Great Glass Elevator. Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator was first published in the United States by Alfred A. Knopf in 1972, and in the United Kingdom by George Allen & Unwin in 1973. Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory is a 1971 musical film adaptation of the 1964 novel Charlie and the Chocolate Factory by Roald Dahl. It was directed by Mel Stuart, and starred Gene Wilder as Wonka. The film tells the story of Charlie Bucket as he receives a golden ticket and visits Willy Wonka's chocolate factory with four other children from around the world. Filming took place in Munich in 1970, and the film was released on June 30, 1971. It received positive reviews, but it was a box office disappointment despite the fact that it recouped its budget. However, it developed into a cult film due to its repeated television airings and home video sales. In 1972, the film received an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Score. Charlie and the Chocolate Factory is a 2005 film adaptation of the 1964 book of the same name by Roald Dahl. The film was directed by Tim Burton. The film stars Freddie Highmore as Charlie Bucket and Johnny Depp as Willy Wonka. The storyline concerns Charlie, who takes a tour he has won, led by Wonka, through the most magnificent chocolate factory in the world. Development for another adaptation of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, filmed previously as Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory, began in 1991, 20 years after the first film version, which resulted in Warner Bros. providing the Dahl Estate with total artistic control. Prior to Burton's involvement, directors such as Gary Ross, Rob Minkoff, Martin Scorsese and Tom Shadyac had been involved, while Warner Bros. either considered or discussed the role of Willy Wonka with Nicolas Cage, Jim Carrey, Michael Keaton, Brad Pitt, Will Smith and Adam Sandler. Burton immediately brought regular collaborators Johnny Depp and Danny Elfman aboard. Charlie and the Chocolate Factory represents the first time since The Nightmare Before Christmas that Elfman contributed to the film score using written songs and his vocals. Filming took place from June to December 2004 at Pinewood Studios in the United Kingdom, where Burton avoided using digital effects as much as possible. Charlie and the Chocolate Factory was released to critical praise and was a box office success, grossing approximately $475 million worldwide, but received mixed to negative reviews when compared with the original 1971 film. A direct-to-video animated crossover film adaptation starring Tom and Jerry, entitled Tom and Jerry: Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory, was released in 2017. It stars JP Karliak as Willy Wonka and is dedicated to Gene Wilder, who died less than a year before the release. In October 2016 it was confirmed that Warner Bros are planning a prequel film depicting Willy Wonka's "early adventures" prior to the events depicted in the books and films. However, Warner Bros claims that this movie will not be an origin story. In February 2018, Paul King entered final negotiations to direct the film. In June 2018, the producer confirmed it would be a prequel film, which would explore the adventures of Willy Wonka before he opened the chocolate factory. On November 27, 2018, Netflix announced they are developing an "animated series event" based on Roald Dahl's books, which will include a television series based on Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. Roald Dahl's Willy Wonka is a musical that combines elements of both Roald Dahl's book Charlie and the Chocolate Factory and of the 1971 movie Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory with newly created material. The musical has several versions: the original version which premiered in 2004, the Junior version, the Kids version, and the Theatre for Young Audience version. All are owned by Music Theatre International, the company that owns the Willy Wonka license. The Estate of Roald Dahl sanctioned an operatic adaptation called The Golden Ticket. It was written by composer Peter Ash and British librettist Donald Sturrock. The Golden Ticket has completely original music and was commissioned by the American Lyric Theater, Lawrence Edelson (producing artistic director), and Felicity Dahl. The opera received its world premiere at Opera Theatre of Saint Louis on 13 June 2010, in a co-production with American Lyric Theater and Wexford Festival Opera. A musical based on the novel, titled Charlie and the Chocolate Factory premiered at the West End's Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in May 2013 and officially opened on 25 June. The show is directed by Sam Mendes, with new songs by Marc Shaiman and Scott Wittman, and stars Douglas Hodge as Willy Wonka. The production broke records for weekly ticket sales. Coincidentally, Hodge was also the voice of a Charlie and the Chocolate Factory audiobook, as part of a package of Roald Dahl CDs read by celebrities. There are two Charlie and the Chocolate Factory video games, one made in 1985 and another in 2005. The games are based on the book of the same name. Charlie and the Chocolate Factory: The Ride is a dark ride located in the Cloud Cuckoo Land area of Alton Towers theme park, Staffordshire, England. It is based upon the famous Roald Dahl book of the same name, and takes its thematic inspiration from the illustrations of Quentin Blake. The ride is split into two segments, the first being a boat ride along the chocolate river inside Willy Wonka's Chocolate Factory. Passengers encounter all the characters from the book (going from Augustus Gloop to Veruca Salt) either as simple animatronics or CGI projections. After disembarking the boats the second segment begins with a short pre-show video (involving Mike Teevee). The video is presented as if the viewers are actually trapped within the TV set. The ride continues inside one of two 'Great Glass Elevators' which simulate passengers taking an airborne trip through the rest of the factory. Each elevator is a static room with semi-translucent walls and ceiling on which CGI animations are projected from the outside, and only the floor trembles slightly to give the impression of movement. List indicator(s) A dark grey cell indicates the character was not in the media. Charlie and the Chocolate Factory is a 2005 musical fantasy film directed by Tim Burton and written by John August, based on the 1964 British novel of the same name by Roald Dahl. The film stars Johnny Depp as Willy Wonka and Freddie Highmore as Charlie Bucket, alongside David Kelly, Helena Bonham Carter, Noah Taylor, Missi Pyle, James Fox, Deep Roy and Christopher Lee. The storyline follows Charlie as he wins a contest along with four other children and is led by Wonka on a tour of his chocolate factory. Development for a second adaptation of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (filmed previously as Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory in 1971) began in 1991, which resulted in Warner Bros. providing the Dahl Estate with total artistic control. Prior to Burton's involvement, directors such as Gary Ross, Rob Minkoff, Martin Scorsese and Tom Shadyac had been involved, while actors Bill Murray, Nicolas Cage, Jim Carrey, Michael Keaton, Brad Pitt, Will Smith, Adam Sandler, and many others, were either in discussion with or considered by the studio to play Wonka. Burton immediately brought regular collaborators Depp and Danny Elfman aboard. Charlie and the Chocolate Factory represents the first time since The Nightmare Before Christmas (Which was produced by Burton) that Elfman contributed to a film score using written songs and his vocals. Filming took place from June to December 2004 at Pinewood Studios in the United Kingdom. Charlie and the Chocolate Factory was released to positive critical reception and was a box office success, grossing $475 million worldwide. Charlie Bucket is a poor boy who lives near the Wonka Candy Company. The company's owner, Willy Wonka, has long closed access to his factory due to problems concerning industrial espionage that led him to fire all his employees, among them Charlie's Grandpa Joe. One day, Wonka announces a contest in which Golden Tickets have been placed in five random Wonka Bars worldwide, and the winners will be given a full tour of the factory as well as a lifetime supply of chocolate, while one ticketholder will be given a special prize at the end of the tour. Wonka's sales subsequently skyrocket, and the first four tickets are found fairly quickly. The recipients are Augustus Gloop, a gluttonous German boy; Veruca Salt, a very spoiled English girl; Violet Beauregarde, an arrogant gum chewer; and Mike Teavee, an ill-tempered television and video game addict. Charlie tries twice to find a ticket, but both bars come up empty. After overhearing that the final ticket was found in Russia, Charlie finds a ten-dollar note, and purchases a Wonka Bar at a news shop. At the exact moment it is revealed that the Russian ticket was forged, Charlie discovers the real fifth ticket inside the wrapper. Charlie receives monetary offers for the ticket, but decides to keep it and bring Grandpa Joe to accompany him on the factory tour. Charlie and the other ticket holders are greeted outside the factory by Wonka, who then leads them into the facility. Individual character flaws cause four children to give into temptation, resulting in their elimination from the tour, while the Oompa-Loompas sing a song of morality after each elimination. During the tour, flashbacks reveal Wonka's troubled past; his father, a prominent dentist named Wilbur, strictly forbade Wonka from consuming candy due to the potential risk to his teeth, and also made Wonka wear uncomfortable braces. After sneaking over a piece of candy, Wonka was instantly hooked, and ran away from home to follow his dreams. When he returned, both his father and their house were gone. After the tour, the four children leave the factory with an exaggerated characteristic or deformity related to their demise, while Charlie learns Wonka intended to find a worthy heir to his factory. Since Charlie was the "least rotten" of the five, Wonka invites Charlie to come live and work in the factory with him, on the condition that Charlie leave his family behind, just as Wonka did. Charlie declines, as his family is the most important thing in his life. Charlie and his family live contently a while later; however, Wonka is too depressed to make candy the way he used to, causing his candy to sell poorly and his company to decline. He turns to Charlie for advice. Charlie decides to help Wonka confront and reconcile with his estranged father; Wonka finally realizes the value of family, while his father learns to accept his son for who he is, and not what he does. Afterward, Wonka allows Charlie and his family to move into the factory together. Johnny Depp as Willy Wonka, Blair Dunlop as Young Willy Wonka, Freddie Highmore as Charlie Bucket, David Kelly as Grandpa Joe, Helena Bonham Carter as Mrs. Bucket, Noah Taylor as Mr. Bucket, Missi Pyle as Mrs. Beauregarde, James Fox as Mr. Salt, Adam Godley as Mr. Teavee, Franziska Troegner as Mrs. Gloop, Christopher Lee as Dr. Wilbur Wonka, Deep Roy as Oompa-Loompas (with vocal work by Danny Elfman), AnnaSophia Robb as Violet Beauregarde, Philip Wiegratz as Augustus Gloop, Julia Winter as Veruca Salt, Jordan Fry as Mike Teavee, Liz Smith as Grandma Georgina, Eileen Essell as Grandma Josephine, David Morris as Grandpa George, Geoffrey Holder as the Narrator Author Roald Dahl disapproved of the 1971 film adaptation and declined the film rights to produce the sequel, Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator. Warner Bros. and Brillstein-Grey Entertainment entered discussions with the Dahl estate in 1991, hoping to purchase the rights to produce another film version of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. The purchase was finalized in 1998, with Dahl's widow, Felicity ("Liccy"), and daughter, Lucy, receiving total artistic control and final privilege on the choices of actors, directors and writers. The Dahl Estate's subsequent protection of the source material was the main reason that Charlie and the Chocolate Factory had languished in development hell since the 1990s. Scott Frank was hired to write the screenplay in February 1999, after approaching Warner Bros. for the job. Frank, a recent Oscar-nominee for the R-rated crime film Out of Sight, wanted to work on a film that his children could enjoy. As an enthusiastic fan of the book, he intended to remain more faithful to Dahl's vision than the 1971 film had been. Nicolas Cage was under discussions for Willy Wonka, but lost interest. Gary Ross signed to direct in February 2000, which resulted in Frank completing two drafts of the screenplay, before leaving with Ross in September 2001. Both Warner Bros. and the Dahl Estate wanted Frank to stay on the project, but he faced scheduling conflicts and contractual obligations with Minority Report (2002) and The Lookout (2007). Rob Minkoff entered negotiations to take the director's position in October 2001, and Gwyn Lurie was hired to start from scratch on a new script in February 2002. Lurie said she would adapt the original book and ignore the 1971 film adaptation. Dahl's estate championed Lurie after being impressed with her work on another Dahl adaptation, a live-action adaptation of The BFG, for Paramount Pictures, which was never made (Paramount distributed the earlier 1971 film version of Charlie, and later sold the rights to WB). In April 2002, Martin Scorsese was involved with the film, albeit briefly, but opted to direct The Aviator instead. Warner Bros. president Alan F. Horn wanted Tom Shadyac to direct Jim Carrey as Willy Wonka, believing the duo could make Charlie and the Chocolate Factory relevant to mainstream audiences, but Liccy Dahl opposed this. After receiving enthusiastic approval from the Dahl Estate, Warner Bros. hired Tim Burton to direct in May 2003. Burton compared the project's languishing development to Batman (1989), which he directed, in how there had been varied creative efforts with both films. He said, "Scott Frank's version was the best, probably the clearest, and the most interesting, but they had abandoned that." Liccy Dahl commented that Burton was the first and only director the estate was happy with. He had previously produced another of the author's adaptations with James and the Giant Peach (1996) (also produced by Burton), and, like Roald and Liccy, disliked the 1971 film because it strayed from the book's storyline. During pre-production Burton visited Dahl's former home in the Buckinghamshire village of Great Missenden. Liccy Dahl remembers Burton entering Dahl's famed writing shed and saying, "This is the Buckets' house!" and thinking to herself, "Thank God, somebody gets it." Liccy also showed Burton the original handwritten manuscripts, which Burton discovered were more politically incorrect than the published book. The manuscripts included a child named Herpes, after the sexually transmitted disease. Burton immediately thought of Johnny Depp for the role of Willy Wonka, who in August 2003 joined the film, his fourth collaboration with the director. Lurie's script received a rewrite by Pamela Pettler, who worked with Burton on Corpse Bride, but the director hired Big Fish screenwriter John August in December 2003 to start from scratch. Both August and Burton were fans of the book since their childhoods. August first read Charlie and the Chocolate Factory when he was eight years old, and subsequently sent Dahl a fan letter. He did not see the 1971 film prior to his hiring, which Burton believed would be fundamental in having August stay closer to the book. The writer updated the Mike Teavee character into an obsessive video game player, as compared to the novel, in which he fantasized about violent crime films. The characters Arthur Slugworth and Prodnose were reduced to brief cameo appearances, while Mr. Beauregarde was entirely omitted. Burton and August also worked together in creating Wilbur Wonka, Willy's domineering dentist father. Burton thought the paternal character would help explain Willy Wonka himself and that otherwise he would be "just a weird guy". The element of an estranged father-son relationship had previously appeared in Big Fish, similarly directed by Burton and written by August. Warner Bros. and the director held differences over the characterizations of Charlie Bucket and Willy Wonka. The studio wanted to entirely delete Mr. Bucket and make Willy Wonka the idyllic father figure Charlie had longed for his entire life. Burton believed that Wonka would not be a good father, finding the character similar to a recluse. Burton said, "In some ways, he's more screwed up than the kids." Warner Bros. also wanted Charlie to be a whiz kid, but Burton resisted the characterization. He wanted Charlie to be an average child who would be in the background and not get in trouble. Prior to Burton's involvement, Warner Bros. considered or discussed Willy Wonka with Bill Murray, Christopher Walken, Steve Martin, Robin Williams, Nicolas Cage, Jim Carrey, Michael Keaton, Robert De Niro, Brad Pitt, Will Smith, Mike Myers, Ben Stiller, Leslie Nielsen, John Cleese, Eric Idle, Michael Palin, Patrick Stewart, and Adam Sandler. Dustin Hoffman and Marilyn Manson reportedly wanted the role as well. Pitt's production company, Plan B Entertainment, however, stayed on to co-finance the film with Warner Bros. Johnny Depp was the only actor Burton considered for the role, although Dwayne Johnson was Burton's second choice in case Depp was unavailable. Depp signed on without reading the script under the intention of going with a completely different approach than what Gene Wilder did in the 1971 film adaptation. Depp said regardless of the original film, Gene Wilder's characterization of Willy Wonka stood out as a unique portrayal. Depp and Burton derived their Willy Wonka from children's television show hosts such as Bob Keeshan (Captain Kangaroo), Fred Rogers, and Al Lewis from The Uncle Al Show, and Depp also took inspiration from various game show hosts. Burton recalled from his childhood that the characters were bizarre but left lasting impressions. He said, "It was kind of a strange amalgamation of these weird children's TV show hosts." Depp based Wonka's look (exaggerated bob cut and sunglasses) on Vogue magazine editor Anna Wintour. Comparisons were drawn between Willy Wonka and Michael Jackson. Burton disagreed with the comparisons and said Jackson, unlike Wonka, liked children. Depp said the similarities with Jackson never occurred to him. Instead, he compared Wonka to Howard Hughes due to his "reclusive, germaphobe, controlling" nature. Burton agreed with the similarity to Hughes. He also cited Charles Foster Kane from Citizen Kane as an inspiration for Wonka, as Kane is "somebody who was brilliant but then was traumatized and then retreats into their own world". Depp wanted to sport prosthetic makeup for the part and have a long, elongated nose, but Burton believed it would be too outrageous. During production, Gene Wilder, in an interview with The Daily Telegraph, accused the filmmakers of only remaking the 1971 film for the purpose of money. Depp said he was disappointed by Wilder's comment, and responded that the film was not a remake, but a new adaptation of Dahl's 1964 book. The casting calls for Charlie Bucket, Violet Beauregarde, Veruca Salt, and Mike Teavee took place in the United States and United Kingdom, while Augustus Gloop's casting took place in Germany. Burton said he sought actors "who had something of the character in them", and found Mike Teavee the hardest character to cast. Burton was finding trouble casting Charlie, until Depp, who had worked with Freddie Highmore on Finding Neverland, suggested Highmore for the part. Highmore had already read the book before, but decided to read it once more prior to auditioning. The actor did not see the original film adaptation, and chose not to see it until after Burton's production, so his portrayal would not be influenced. Before Adam Godley was officially cast as Mr. Teavee, Dan Castellaneta, Tim Allen, Ed O'Neill, Bob Saget, and Ray Romano were all considered for the role. It has been rumored that Gregory Peck was considered for the role of Grandpa Joe. Other actors that were considered for Grandpa Joe included Richard Attenborough, Kirk Douglas, Albert Finney, Anthony Hopkins, Paul Newman, Max von Sydow, David Warner, Christopher Lloyd and Peter Ustinov. Principal photography for Charlie and the Chocolate Factory started on June 21, 2004 at Pinewood Studios in England. Director Tim Burton and composer Danny Elfman found filming somewhat difficult because they were simultaneously working on Corpse Bride. The Wonka Factory exterior was coincidentally constructed on the same backlot Burton had used for Gotham City in Batman (1989). The ceremonial scene required 500 local extras. The Chocolate Room/River setpiece filled Pinewood's 007 Stage. As a consequence of British Equity rules, which state that children can only work four and a half hours a day, filming for Charlie and the Chocolate Factory took six months, ending in December 2004. The architecture of the Bucket family home was influenced by Burton's visit to Roald Dahl's writing hut. Like the book, the film has a "timeless" setting and is not set in a specific country. "We've tried not to pinpoint it to any place," production designer Alex McDowell explained. "The cars, in fact, drive down the middle of the road." The town, whose design was shaped by the black and white urban photography of Bill Brandt, as well as Pittsburgh and Northern England, is arranged like a medieval village, with Wonka's estate on top and the Bucket shack below. The filmmakers also used fascist architecture for Wonka's factory exterior, and designed most of the sets on 360° sound stages, similar to cycloramas. Burton biographer Mark Salisbury wrote that Charlie and the Chocolate Factory "melds 1950s and '70s visuals with a futuristic sensibility that seems straight out of a 1960s sense of the future." The "TV Room" was patterned after photographs from the films , , and THX 1138. Danger Diabolik also served as inspiration for the Nut Room and Inventing Room. Tim Burton avoided using too many digital effects because he wanted the younger actors to feel as if they were working in a realistic environment. As a result, forced perspective techniques, oversized props and scale models were used to avoid computer-generated imagery (CGI). Deep Roy was cast to play the Oompa-Loompas based on his previous collaborations with Burton on Planet of the Apes and Big Fish. The actor was able to play various Oompa-Loompas using split screen photography, digital and front projection effects. "Tim told me that the Oompa-Loompas were strictly programmed, like robots — all they do is work, work, work," Roy commented. "So when it comes time to dance, they're like a regiment; they do the same steps." A practical method was considered for the scene in which Violet Beauregarde turns blue and swells up into a giant 10-foot blueberry. A suit with an air hose was considered at one point for the beginnings of the swelling scene, before the decision was made to do the entire transformation in CGI. The visual effects house Cinesite was recruited for this assignment. In some shots of AnnaSophia Robb's head, a facial prosthetic was worn to give the impression that her cheeks had swelled up as well. Because this decision was made late in the film's production, any traces of Violet's blueberry scene were omitted from trailers or promotional material. Rather than rely on CGI, Burton wanted the 40 squirrels in the Nut Room to be real. The animals were trained every day for 10 weeks before filming commenced. They began their coaching while newborns, fed by bottles to form relationships with human trainers. The squirrels were each taught how to sit upon a little blue bar stool, tap and then open a walnut, and deposit its meat onto a conveyor belt. "Ultimately, the scene was supplemented by CGI and animatronics," Burton said, "but for the close-ups and the main action, they're the real thing." Wonka's Viking boat for the Chocolate River sequence floats down a realistic river filled with 192,000 gallons of faux melted chocolate. "Having seen the first film, we wanted to make the chocolate river look edible," McDowell said. "In the first film, it's so distasteful." The production first considered a CGI river, but Burton was impressed with the artificial substance when he saw how it clung to the boat's oars. Nine shades of chocolate were tested before Burton settled on the proper hue. The original music score was written by Danny Elfman, a frequent collaborator with director Tim Burton. Elfman's score is based around three primary themes: a gentle family theme for the Buckets, generally set in upper woodwinds; a mystical, string-driven waltz for Willy Wonka; and a hyper-upbeat factory theme for full orchestra, Elfman's homemade synthesizer samples and the diminutive chanting voices of the Oompa-Loompas. Elfman also wrote and performed the vocals for four songs, with pitch changes and modulations to represent different singers. The lyrics to the Oompa-Loompa songs are adapted from the original book, and are thus credited to Roald Dahl. Following Burton's suggestion, each song in the score is designed to reflect a different archetype. "Wonka's Welcome Song" is a maddeningly cheerful theme park ditty, "Augustus Gloop" a Bollywood spectacle (per Deep Roy's suggestion), "Violet Beauregarde" is 1970s funk, "Veruca Salt" is 1960s bubblegum pop / psychedelic pop, and "Mike Teavee" is a tribute to late 1970s hard rock (such as Queen) and early 1980s hair bands. The original motion picture soundtrack was released on July 12, 2005 by Warner Bros. Records. Charlie and the Chocolate Factory had its premiere at the Grauman's Chinese Theatre, on July 10, 2005, where money for the Make-a-Wish Foundation was raised. The film was released in the United States on July 15, 2005 in 3,770 theaters (including IMAX theaters). Early in the development of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory in February 2000, Warner Bros. announced their intention of marketing the film with a Broadway theatre musical after release. The studio reiterated their interest in May 2003, however, the idea was postponed by the time filming began in June 2004. The main tie-in for Charlie and the Chocolate Factory focused on The Willy Wonka Candy Company, a division of Nestlé. A small range of Wonka Bars were launched, utilizing their prominence in the film. The release of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory also rekindled public interest in Roald Dahl's 1964 book, and appeared on the New York Times Best Seller list from July 3 to October 23, 2005. The film was released on VHS and DVD on November 8, 2005. It was later released on Blu-Ray, alongside a 10th anniversary edition in 2015. Charlie and the Chocolate Factory earned $56,178,450 in its opening weekend, the fifth-highest opening weekend gross for 2005, and stayed at #1 for two weeks. The film eventually grossed $206,459,076 in US totals and $268,509,687 in foreign countries, coming to a worldwide total of $474,968,763. It was the fifty-eighth highest-grossing film of all time when released, as well as seventh-highest for the US and eighth-highest worldwide for the year of 2005. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 83% based on 230 reviews, with an average rating of 7.18/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Closer to the source material than 1971's Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory is for people who like their Chocolate visually appealing and dark." On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 72 out of 100, based on 40 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A–" on an A+ to F scale. Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly praised Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, writing "Johnny Depp as Willy Wonka may be a stone freak, but he is also one of Burton's classic crackpot conjurers, like Beetlejuice or Ed Wood." Roger Ebert gave an overall positive review and enjoyed the film. He was primarily impressed by Tim Burton's direction of the younger cast members, but was disappointed with Depp's performance: "What was Depp thinking of? In he was famously channeling Keith Richards, which may have primed us to look for possible inspirations for this performance." Mick LaSalle from the San Francisco Chronicle found Charlie and the Chocolate Factory Burton's "best work in years. If all the laughs come from Depp, who gives Willy the mannerisms of a classic Hollywood diva, the film's heart comes from Highmore, a gifted young performer whose performance is sincere, deep and unforced in a way that's rare in a child actor." Peter Travers wrote in Rolling Stone magazine that "Depp's deliciously demented take on Willy Wonka demands to be seen. Depp goes deeper to find the bruises on Wonka's secret heart than what Gene Wilder did. Depp and Burton may fly too high on the vapors of pure imagination, but it's hard to not get hooked on something this tasty. And how about that army of Oompa-Loompas, all played by Deep Roy, in musical numbers that appear to have been choreographed by Busby Berkeley on crack." Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post criticized Depp's acting. "The cumulative effect isn't pretty. Nor is it kooky, funny, eccentric or even mildly interesting. Indeed, throughout his fey, simpering performance, Depp seems to be straining so hard for weirdness that the entire enterprise begins to feel like those excruciating occasions when your parents tried to be hip. Aside from Burton's usual eye-popping direction, the film's strenuous efforts at becoming a camp classic eventually begin to wear thin." In 2007, Gene Wilder said he chose not to see the film. "The thing that put me off ... I like Johnny Depp, I like him, as an actor I like him very much ... but when I saw little pieces in the promotion of what he was doing, I said I don't want to see the film, because I don't want to be disappointed in him." In 2013, when Wilder was asked about the Burton remake, he said "I think it's an insult. It's probably Warner Bros.' insult." He also criticized the choices that Burton made as a director, saying "I don't care for that director. He's a talented man, but I don't care for him doing stuff like he did." Costume designer Gabriella Pescucci received an Academy Award nomination, but lost to Colleen Atwood for Memoirs of a Geisha. Johnny Depp lost the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy to Joaquin Phoenix in Walk the Line. More nominations followed from the British Academy Film Awards for Visual Effects, Costume Design (Pescucci), Makeup & Hair (Peter Owen and Ivana Primorac) and Production Design (Alex McDowell). Charlie and the Chocolate Factory was also nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Fantasy Film, as well as Performance by a Younger Actor (Freddie Highmore), Music (Danny Elfman) and Costume (Pescucci). Elfman and screenwriter John August were nominated for a Grammy Award with "Wonka's Welcome Song". List of films featuring miniature people A Golden Ticket

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Tracy Mosby (née McConnell) (colloquial: "The Mother") is the title character from the CBS television sitcom How I Met Your Mother. The show, narrated by Future Ted (Bob Saget), tells the story of how Ted Mosby (Josh Radnor) met The Mother. Tracy McConnell appears in eight episodes, from "Lucky Penny" to "The Time Travelers", as an unseen character; she was first seen fully in "Something New" and was promoted to a main character in season 9. The Mother is played by Cristin Milioti. The story of how Ted met The Mother is the framing device behind the series; many facts about her are revealed throughout the series, including the fact that Ted once unwittingly owned her umbrella before accidentally leaving it behind in her apartment. Ted and The Mother meet at the Farhampton train station following Barney Stinson (Neil Patrick Harris) and Robin Scherbatsky's (Cobie Smulders) wedding; this scene is shown in "Last Forever", the series finale. The Mother's death from an unspecified terminal illness in 2024, also revealed in the series finale, received a mixed reaction from fans. In the alternate ending on the ninth season DVD, The Mother is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030. During its first eight seasons, the sitcom often hinted at the unseen character of The Mother. Well-known actresses often made guest appearances on the show. Many fans expected that another would play one of the most-wanted roles in Hollywood, but creators Carter Bays and Craig Thomas wanted an unknown. Using Anne Hathaway and Amy Adams as examples, Thomas said that "We didn’t want it to be a big famous star because we didn’t want the wider audience to have associations with whatever actress this would be ... The whole idea is that Ted’s never seen this woman before, so it better feel that way to the audience", similar to how Cobie Smulders being cast as Robin Scherbatsky had "kept the show alive" when it began. Bays and Thomas also did not want a large casting call. They chose Cristin Milioti after seeing her on 30 Rock and Once; her musical ability was also helpful, as The Mother had been described as a band member. Milioti filmed her first scene for the last episode of season 8 having never watched How I Met Your Mother before. She only learned of the character's importance after binge watching the show during the summer. The Mother was born on September 19, 1984. The Mother, joined by her roommate Kelly (Ahna O'Reilly), awaits the arrival of her boyfriend Max, only to receive a call informing her of his death. After the funeral service, she returns to the apartment to open Max's last gift to her — a ukulele. The Mother spends the next few years grieving the passing of the man she believes was her one true love. In "Wait for It", it is revealed that the short story of how they met involved her yellow umbrella. In "No Tomorrow", Ted finds the umbrella at a club and takes it home after attending a St. Patrick's Day party which she also attended, as it had been two and a half years since Max's death. She is still grieving, but Kelly encourages her to go out and date again, bringing her to the same bar where Barney Stinson (Neil Patrick Harris) and Ted are celebrating. The two women run into Mitch (Adam Paul), her old orchestra instructor; The Mother offers to give Mitch her cello for his work at a school and they head to her apartment. Mitch tries to seduce her with a move called "The Naked Man", but she turns him down. Nevertheless, Mitch encourages her to pursue her dreams. The Mother expresses her desire to end poverty by taking up economics in college. On his first day of teaching as Professor Mosby, as seen in the season 4 finale "The Leap", he is seen in front of the classroom of students, one of which Future Ted says is the titular mother. But in the first episode of season 5, "Definitions", it is revealed that he was actually in the wrong classroom — Economics instead of Architecture. At the same time in "How Your Mother Met Me", the Mother sits her first session in Economics 305 and meets another graduate student named Cindy (Rachel Bilson), whom she offers to move in with her as her roommate. They see Ted enter the room, but when he announces the subject, The Mother thinks she is in the wrong room and runs off. She heads back to the room after seeing Ted scramble to his actual classroom. Later, in "Girls Versus Suits", Ted dates Cindy, not knowing that her roommate is his future wife. Throughout the episode, Ted notes that Cindy had spent most of their first date talking jealously about her roommate. When in Cindy and the mother's apartment he picks up many of The Mother's belongings, attempting to show how compatible he and Cindy are (thinking the items are Cindy's) and glimpses the mother's foot as she disappears into her room after taking a shower. Ted finds out at this time that she plays bass guitar in a band. Ted forgets to take the yellow umbrella with him when he goes out and Future Ted mentions, "this is how your mother got her yellow umbrella back." In "How Your Mother Met Me", it is revealed that, after Ted left the apartment, the Mother had discovered the umbrella and, upon going to question Cindy, finds her crying. As the Mother tried to console her, Cindy kissed her, revealing that her jealousy towards her roommate was actually a crush. While this incident made Cindy realise that she is a lesbian, it also made the Mother decide to go back into dating, as the kiss was her first in a long time. Some time after this, a man named Darren (Andrew Rannells) approaches the Mother and is welcomed into her band, Superfreakonomics. Darren gradually takes over the band, and becomes her nemesis. In the season 6 opener "Big Days" it is revealed Ted meets his future wife "the day of" the wedding at which he is the best man. In the episode "False Positive" Robin asks Ted to be her future best man, should she ever get married. In the episode "Challenge Accepted", it is revealed that Ted meets the mother of his children the day of Barney's wedding. In the last episode of season 7, "The Magician's Code" it is shown that Barney will marry Robin, and Ted will meet the Mother "the day of" their wedding. On the premiere of season 8, Ted's wife appears after Barney and Robin's wedding, outside at the "Farhampton" station while holding a yellow umbrella and her bass guitar. In the season 8 episode "Band or DJ?," Ted runs into Cindy and her partner on the subway and tells them that the band Barney and Robin hired to play at their wedding cancelled at the last minute. The end result of the encounter is that Cindy's (now ex-) roommate's band plays at Barney and Robin's wedding. The Mother is first shown meeting Louis (Louis Ferrigno Jr.) in "How Your Mother Met Me" as she is left to carry the band equipment while the now-lead band member Darren talks to his fans. Later at MacLaren's Pub, she tells him she's not yet ready to date. Louis asks her to give him a call if she changes her mind, and they begin dating not long after. They live together for the next two years, but she knows deep down that she doesn't love him. The Mother meets all of Ted's best friends – Barney, Robin, Lily Aldrin (Alyson Hannigan), and Marshall Eriksen (Jason Segel) – before she meets him. The Mother is responsible for convincing Barney to pursue Robin, as revealed through a flashback in "Platonish". In "The Locket", Tracy meets Lily on a train journey. In "Bass Player Wanted", the Mother picks up a hitchhiking Marshall, carrying his infant son Marvin, on her way to Farhampton Inn. On their way, it is revealed that the Mother is a bass player in the band that is scheduled to play at the wedding reception, but Darren forced her to quit. The Mother ultimately decides to confront Darren and retake the band. Before she can, however, Darren walks up to her, furious the groom's best man punched him for "no reason", and quits the band. In "How Your Mother Met Me", it is shown that after this incident, the Mother returns to Louis' summer cottage not far from the Farhampton Inn where she has been staying for the duration of the wedding weekend. As she walks in the door, Louis proposes to her, but she goes outside to think about it for a few minutes. She looks skyward and asks Max for permission to let him go and move on; she takes a sudden gust of wind as a "yes", says goodbye, and declines Louis' proposal when she goes back inside. She leaves his cottage and checks in at Farhampton Inn. On her room's balcony, she plays the ukulele and sings "La Vie en Rose". Ted hears her singing from his room next door. In "Gary Blauman", Ted and the Mother are on their first date. Ted picks her up at her New York City apartment and they proceed to walk to a Scottish-Mexican fusion restaurant for dinner. On the way there, Ted is telling her a story when they nearly have a run-in with Louis. She says that she is in the "weirdest place on earth" right now and that it is too soon for her to be dating. Ted walks her back to her apartment. They say goodnight and Ted begins to walk away. The Mother then stops him and asks him to finish the story he was telling her. When the story is over, they say goodnight again. The Mother takes a step towards Ted and they kiss for the first time, before deciding to carry on their date. In a flashforward in "The Lighthouse", Ted proposes to the Mother at the top of the lighthouse near Farhampton Inn. She immediately accepts. In another flashfoward in "Unpause", the Mother is revealed to be pregnant with their second child, Luke, in the year 2017. She goes into labor while she and Ted are staying at Farhampton. The Mother's real name is not revealed until the series finale, "Last Forever". When Ted meets her at the Farhampton train station, she reveals that her name is Tracy McConnell. In the season 1 episode "Belly Full of Turkey", Ted meets a stripper named Tracy and says "...that, kids, is the true story of how I met your mother". The children are horrified, but then he says he is joking, which led some fans to correctly guess that the Mother's name is Tracy. In the series finale, it is revealed that six years prior to Ted telling the story to his children, Tracy died in 2024 from an undisclosed illness. In the finale the characters do not directly state that the Mother is dead. Ted says that she "became sick" and his children said that she has been "gone" for six years. Many fans expressed considerable disappointment with the Mother's death. Milioti cried when she learned her character was supposed to die, but came to accept the ending was what the writers had planned from the beginning. Bill Kuchman from Popculturology said that the Mother was "an amazing character" and that "over the course of this final season HIMYM made us care about Tracy. Kuchman said that "asking fans to drop all of that with a simple line about The Mother getting sick and passing away was a very difficult request", that the finale "advanced too quickly" and that "HIMYM was a victim of its own success on this issue". A petition was started, aiming to rewrite and reshoot the finale. The petition has over 20,000 signatures and considerable online news coverage. On April 5, 2014, Carter Bays announced on Twitter that an alternate ending would be included on the Season 9 DVD. No new material was shot for this scene. In the alternate ending, The Mother is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030. Future Ted is heard saying, "...When I think how lucky I am to wake up next to your mom every morning, I can't help but be amazed how easy it all really was...", indirectly stating that The Mother is alive. The video ends right after the train passes at Farhampton station and credits start rolling, implying that Ted never went back to Robin and went on to have a long, happy marriage with Tracy. "The Stinsons" is the 15th episode in the fourth season of the television series How I Met Your Mother and 79th overall. It originally aired on March 2, 2009. At the beginning of the episode, Barney is seen skipping out hitting on a hot girl because he tells everyone he has to go somewhere, but he is secretive about where. The gang becomes suspicious that Barney might have a secret girlfriend, so they follow him to what turns out to be the house of his mother, Loretta. Barney then reveals that he has a wife, Betty, and a son, Tyler. Barney then tells the gang that they are both actors he hired because his mother was dying and he thought it would make her happy to think he was married. When his mother recovered, Barney was stuck with the fake family. Marshall at first argues that Barney should tell his mother the truth because there shouldn't be secrets within families. After he discovers that Lily hates his mother, Marshall starts to think that some things are better left unsaid. Ted and Betty begin to develop a connection, since they're both fascinated by theatre. Betty gives Ted some acting tips, after he reveals becoming an actor has always been a secret ambition of his. After dinner, Ted is caught kissing Betty, and Barney is forced to confront him in front of his mother, but the tables are turned when Ted starts using Betty's acting tips to improvise a story that Barney long ago stole his fiancée. Barney then finally tells his mother the truth, and she is relieved because she admits she hates Betty and Tyler. She really hates Tyler because he keeps saying, "Tyler no likey!," (the child actor's attempt to create a catchphrase for his character). After that moment, they share a hug and she tells him to make sure to go for it when he does meet the right girl. At that moment, Robin walks in and Barney looks at her as he tells his mother he will try. On the ride home, Ted and Betty are in one cab while Barney, Robin, Marshall and Lily are in another. Lily then fakes a conversation on her cell phone with Betty pretending to be Marshall's mother in order to make him think she's on good terms with his mother. Donna Bowman of The A.V. Club rated the episode A−. Michelle Zoromski of IGN gave it 8.6 out of 10. Cindy McLennan of Television Without Pity rated the episode with a grade B. "How Your Mother Met Me" is the sixteenth episode of the ninth season of the CBS sitcom How I Met Your Mother and the 200th episode overall. This is the only episode of the series in which the episode title was used instead of the usual opening that featured the cast and series's title. The plot is mainly focused on Cristin Milioti's role as The Mother, and how some of her life events coincide with those of Ted's and the rest of the gang. The episode has been very well received by viewers and critics, becoming the highest-rated episode of the series according to the online review aggregator IMDb. At MacLaren's Pub in September 2005, a woman passes by Barney and Ted as they get ready for another round of "Have you met Ted?" It turns out that the woman, Kelly, went to the wrong MacLaren's Pub and takes a cab to another MacLaren's on the East Side to join The Mother (her roommate) on her 21st birthday. She awaits the arrival of her boyfriend Max only to receive a call informing her of his death. After the funeral service, she returns to the apartment to open Max's last gift to her—a ukulele. At St Patrick's Day three years later, Kelly encourages The Mother to go out and date again, bringing her to the same bar where Ted and Barney are celebrating. The two women run into Mitch, her old orchestra instructor who was then a music teacher at a Bronx public school. Inspired by his work, The Mother offers Mitch her cello and they head back to her apartment to get it. However, The Mother prepares the cello only to see Mitch pull off The Naked Man. She is disgusted at his move, but momentarily forgets he is naked while he shares some valuable wisdom with here. "What is it you want to do with your life." "I want to end poverty," she replies. "Then every decision you make from here on out should be in the service of that." He leaves and she remembers her yellow umbrella at the bar and goes out to get it, leaving behind Kelly (who earlier rebuffed Barney at the bar) to have sex with Mitch. She learns that a "super inconsiderate person" (Ted) took the umbrella. The Mother acts on the wisdom from the naked orchestra teacher revealing her desire to end poverty by taking up economics in college. In the fall of 2009, The Mother sits her first session in Econ 305 and meets Cindy, whom she offers to move in with her as her roommate. They see Ted enter the room (after which the Mother laughs at his "shellfish" joke), but The Mother thinks she's in the wrong room when he announces the subject and runs off. She heads back to the room after seeing Ted scramble to his actual classroom. A few months later, she gets her umbrella back. Cindy tells her that she broke up with the "architecture professor" because the man picked out The Mother's items and saw that they were more compatible; in the ensuing conversation, Cindy spontaneously kisses the Mother, which makes her realise her homosexuality. In turn, the Mother decides to start dating again, having not been kissed in a long time. Some time later, a man named Darren approaches The Mother and is welcomed into her band—however, Darren gradually takes it over and makes The Mother carry band equipment. The Mother meets Louis and he helps her with the equipment, but later at MacLaren's Pub (which Louis thought was named "Puzzles"), she tells him she's not yet ready to date because of her loss. Louis asks her to give him a call if she changes her mind and she leaves just before Ted appears to Lily and Barney in a green dress. They begin dating not long after, but they are not really a perfect match (for example, Louis is not amused when the Mother has her English muffin sing show tunes). The Mother's band is eventually booked for Barney and Robin's wedding; she stays at Louis's summer cottage not far from the Farhampton Inn. In a flash-forward to the eve of the wedding, The Mother discovers Darren's ad for a replacement bass player and heads down to the Inn to confront him, eventually picking up Marshall and Marvin along the way. After seeing Darren get his comeuppance, she returns to Louis's house, where he proposes to her, but she goes outside to think about it. She begins talking to Max and asks his permission to move on with her life. Interpreting a gust of wind as Max's answer, The Mother bids him one last goodbye and declines Louis's proposal, later checking in at Farhampton Inn. On her room's balcony, she plays the ukulele and sings "La Vie en Rose". Ted hears her next door (with Future Ted saying that it was the first and most favorite time he heard his future wife sing this song) and gets back inside to tell Barney about it, only to find out he has disappeared. In interviews before it aired, Carter Bays stated that the episode is "a fun little Disneyland tour through the series from the perspective of someone outside the group". He also added that they used some "fun trickery" to incorporate scenes from the pilot and other past episodes. Unlike the 100th episode, which Bays said was more of a celebration of the cast, he stated that the 200th episode was "a different kind of story ... but it felt like the right one to do in terms of the greater story of the show." There were a few mistakes in the episode; for instance, the St. Patrick's Day scene was said to take place in April. Carter Bays stated that these will be fixed for future airings of the episode. Donna Bowman of The A.V. Club graded the episode at A−, saying it felt like "the fastest episode this season". Max Nicholson of IGN gave the episode 8.5/10, saying The Mother's story was "both entertaining and heartwarming" and opining that while the episode was "jam-packed with amusing callbacks", the "sheer number of similarities between Ted and the Mother" was "kind of irritating". Alan Sepinwall from HitFix has praised the episode, saying, "As an episode, "How Your Mother Met Me" was pretty terrific. I can quibble with a couple of things here and there — they were stuck with Darren, for instance, even though I'd have been fine never seeing him again — but overall it did about as good a job as possible as a single episode could at both telling a story of the Mother's last seven years, while weaving her into the larger continuity of the series." Kaitlin Thomas from TV.com has also given the episode a positive review, saying, "'How Your Mother Met Me' was a great 200th episode for How I Met Your Mother. It was something different, but it was also a long time coming. It fleshed out a character we've been hearing about for nearly nine years but still didn't really know, and it was one of those patented emotional episodes the series does so well that sometimes I wonder why it even bothers with pure comedy. How I Met Your Mother could easily be a successful 30-minute dramedy if it wanted to be, and I maintain that it's at its best when it's doing these kinds of emotional stories. I didn't expect the Mother to have loved and lost at such a young age, but it worked for the show and for her character, and it added a nice bit of depth to the woman Ted will soon love, and that we already do." Kevin Fitzpatrick from ScreenCrush complimented the writers for producing a Mother-centric plot, saying "A 200th installment offers the most visible payout yet of that ninth season gamble, allowing us to get to know the titular lady with an all-too-brief installment that revisits a number of moments from the series past." Jessica Goodman from HuffPost said the episode was "pure delight for "HIMYM" fans with encyclopedic knowledge of the gang's universe", complimenting its many Easter eggs. Goodman also described the storyline as "heartbreaking" and summarised that the episode was "one of the strongest, most beautiful episodes ... in years". Sandra Gonzalez of Entertainment Weekly summarised the episode as "an unraveling a person". Gonzalez said it changed her perception of what The Mother was like, replacing a mental image of "this Dream Girl put on this Earth solely to be the opposite end of Ted Mosby’s two-piece puzzle life" with "a real woman" going through heartbreak.

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The Notre Dame Fighting Irish were led by Tyrone Willingham and represented the University of Notre Dame in NCAA Division I college football from 2002 to 2004. The team was an independent and played their home games in Notre Dame Stadium. Throughout the three seasons, the Irish were 21–16 (21–15 before Willingham was fired) and were invited to two bowl games, both of which they lost. After the 2001 season, fifth-year head coach Bob Davie was fired. His immediate replacement, George O'Leary, was forced to resign under some controversy for discrepancies on his resume, and Willingham was chosen to replace him. Willingham made immediate changes to the program and won his first eight games. Although his team floundered at the end of the season and lost their bowl game, he led the team to 10 wins and was named "Coach of the Year" by two different publications. His second year began with the signing of a top-5 recruiting class to replace a number of players who graduated. Although the team began the season with a win, they lost their next two games, and freshman quarterback Brady Quinn became the starter. Quinn led the Irish to four more wins that season, and the team finished a 5–7 record. Willingham's third season started with a loss, but three straight wins brought the team back into national prominence. The team went on to win six games, but their fifth loss of the season, a blowout to the University of Southern California (USC) Trojans, was Willingham's final game at Notre Dame. Although the Irish were invited to a bowl game at the end of the season, Willingham was fired. The eventual hiring of Charlie Weis as Willingham's replacement was called a good move, but Willingham's firing remained a controversial subject for years following his tenure. In the 2001 season, the Fighting Irish, led by fifth-year head coach Bob Davie, had a record of five wins and six losses. A day after the season ended, athletic director Kevin White announced to the media that Davie would not be retained as head coach of Notre Dame. A week after the firing of Davie, George O'Leary, seven-year head coach of Georgia Tech, was hired by Notre Dame for the head coaching position. Despite being a controversial choice criticized by some in the media, and Notre Dame being criticized for making a premature decision, O'Leary was happy to accept what was called his dream job. Five days after being hired, however, O'Leary resigned from the position. It was later revealed that O'Leary had lied on his résumé about receiving a varsity letter and a master's degree while in school. While O'Leary was criticized for lying, some in the media said that his resignation gave Notre Dame a chance to make a better decision. Two weeks after O'Leary resigned, Notre Dame signed Tyrone Willingham, the seventh-year coach of Stanford, to a six-year contract. Willingham became the school's first African American head coach in any sport. He immediately made changes to the Irish program, including changing the long used Irish offense from an option attack to a West Coast type. He also made his first-year Fighting Irish team only the second in Notre Dame history to pick captains on a game-by-game basis. The 2002 season became known as a "Return to Glory" for the Irish. This phrase appeared on a student shirt that created a "Sea of Green" in the Irish stands. It was picked up by many in the media and was used on the front cover of Sports Illustrated. Despite not scoring an offensive touchdown in their first two games, the Irish won both, and in the process made Willingham the 24th Notre Dame head coach to win his opener in his first season. The team went on to win its next six games, including wins over Willingham's alma mater, Michigan State, and Stanford, his former team. The team was initially led throughout the season by quarterback Carlyle Holiday, former quarterback and wide receiver Arnaz Battle, and on defense, Shane Walton. Running back Ryan Grant, who had to replace Julius Jones who was out for academic reasons, also played an important role. During the Michigan State game, however, Holiday was injured and replaced by backup Pat Dillingham. Dillingham led the Irish to a comeback win on a screen pass to Battle in that game, and he continued the winning streak until Holiday returned for the Florida State game. In that game, Holiday he threw a 65-yard touchdown on his first play to Battle that helped the Irish win the game. The first Irish loss of the season came against the Boston College Eagles, mirroring the 1993 season when Notre Dame narrowly lost a chance to participate in the national championship game due to a loss to Boston College. Willingham, wanting the team to be a part of the "Sea of Green" in the stands, decided that the team should wear green for the game. In 1985, the last time the Irish wore green at home, they came out after halftime against USC and won the game 37–3. The ploy, however, did not work this time, as, after an injured Holiday was replaced by Dillingham, and the Eagles defense returned an interception that sealed the loss for the Irish. The Fighting Irish won their next two games, including their 39th straight victory over Navy and a 42–0 blowout victory over struggling Rutgers. This gave Notre Dame a legitimate shot at a Bowl Championship Series (BCS) bowl game if they could win against perennial rival USC. The Irish were ranked higher than the Trojans, but USC quarterback Carson Palmer, who cited the game as the reason he went on to win the Heisman Trophy, threw for 425 yards in the Trojans' 31 point win. The Irish won 10 games but were not invited to a BCS bowl game, and they accepted a bid to play North Carolina State in the Gator Bowl instead. With both an offense and defense that outmatched the Irish, the Wolfpack won the game 28–6, giving the Irish their sixth consecutive bowl loss. Despite the loss, the Irish ended the season ranked in both the Associated Press (AP) and Coaches Polls. After the season, some Irish were honored with post-season awards. Battle was named by one foundation as their sportsman of the year, while Walton was named as a Consensus All-American. Finally, Willingham was honored with two Coach of the Year awards, was named by Sporting News as "Sportsman of the Year", and was the only coach listed by Sporting News as one of their "Most Powerful People in Sports". The 2003 season began with the Irish losing a number of key players to graduation, including Arnaz Battle and center Jeff Faine. They were boosted, however, by the return of running back, Julius Jones, who was reinstated to the team after a year of academic ineligibility. In Willingham's first full year of recruiting, he signed a top-5 class. Of the 20 recruits signed, 12 were four-star recruits (high school recruits are rated on a star scale, with one star indicating a low-quality recruit and five stars indicating the highest-quality recruit). These new recruits included future stars Victor Abiamiri, Chinedum Ndukwe, Brady Quinn, Jeff Samardzija, and Tom Zbikowski. The Irish began their season ranked 19th and facing the hardest schedule in the nation. They opened against the Washington State Cougars, playing the team for the first time in the history of the program. The Irish came back from being down by 19 points to win in overtime, but Carlyle Holiday struggled as quarterback. In the next game against rival Michigan, the Wolverines avenged their 2002 loss by beating the Irish by a score of 38–0 in the first shutout in the series in 100 years and the largest margin of victory ever between the two teams. After another loss to Michigan State, many Irish fans were calling for Holiday to be taken out of the game in favor of freshman Brady Quinn, who saw his first collegiate action in the fourth quarter of the Michigan rout. Holiday was replaced as starter for the next game against Purdue. In Quinn's first start, the Irish were bolstered with Quinn's 297 passing yards on 59 attempts. However, Purdue's defense intercepted four of Quinn's passes and sacked him five times en route to a 23–10 Boilermaker victory. Quinn remained as the starter and, with Willingham's acknowledgment that the running game needed to take more of a role in the next game, got his first win against Pittsburgh. He was helped by Julius Jones' school-record 262 rushing yards. Notre Dame lost their next three games, including Willingham's second straight 31 point loss to USC, a last minute loss to Boston College, and their first home shutout since 1978 to Florida State. The Irish players began to call the season disappointing, as the team needed to win their last four games to make a bowl game. They looked to have a chance of becoming bowl eligible, as their next three games were a last minute win that improved their streak to 40 games over Navy, a win on senior day over the Brigham Young University (BYU) Cougars, and a win over Stanford that saw the Irish offense finally connect in the season. Notre Dame lost their final game to Syracuse, however. With a 5–7 record, the Irish finished with the twelfth losing season in the history of the Notre Dame football program. The 2004 season began with doubts and criticism for the Irish. With Julius Jones graduating as fourth-leading rusher in Notre Dame history, the Irish hoped to replace him with a talented recruiting class. However, Willingham struggled in his second full year of recruiting and the new class was ranked 30th in the nation. Despite signing highly sought after recruit Darius Walker, the 17 man class only included three four-star recruits. The season began poorly for the Irish with a loss at BYU. Despite Brady Quinn improving at the quarterback position and completing over 50 percent of his passes for 265 yards, the Irish only managed to gain 11 yards rushing. They next faced a highly ranked Michigan team at home and Willingham stated that an improved running game would be important if the Irish were to be able to beat the Wolverines. Darius Walker answered Willingham in his first collegiate game, gaining 115 yards and scoring two late touchdowns to lead the Irish in the upset. The Irish were rejuvenated with this win, and they rallied to move to 3–1 on the season with wins over Michigan State and Washington. Some in the media began comparing Willingham to some of Notre Dame's legendary coaches and said the team would win seven or eight games in the season and be back in national championship contention by 2005. With renewed expectations, the Irish hoped to continue their streak and beat 15th ranked Purdue, who had not won at Notre Dame in 30 years. The Boilermakers' quarterback, Kyle Orton, outplayed the Irish defense, handing them a 25-point loss to end the rally. The Irish got back on track and beat Stanford, making Notre Dame the second school to reach 800 wins. They also beat Navy for the 41st straight time, which moved Notre Dame into the rankings for the first time since their 2003 loss to Michigan. The Irish did not stay ranked for long, as Boston College once again beat the Irish on a late score. The Irish had three games left and needed one win to become bowl eligible, their next game was against the 9th ranked Tennessee Volunteers in Knoxville. The Irish defense stepped up and, after knocking out quarterback Eric Ainge on a sack, returned an interception for a touchdown to upset the Volunteers and become bowl eligible. Once again ranked, the Irish returned home for their final home game against Pittsburgh. Losing on a late score, the team allowed five passing touchdowns by an opponent for the first time ever at home. Visiting USC for the final regular season game, the Irish again lost to the Trojans by 31 points. The Irish accepted a bowl bid to play in the Insight Bowl. In a highly criticized move, Willingham was fired two days later. Defensive coordinator Kent Baer led the Irish, hoping to "win one for Ty." However, the Oregon State Beavers, led by four touchdown passes from Derek Anderson, beat the Irish in Notre Dame's seventh consecutive bowl loss. The Irish ended 2004 with a 6–6 record and in need of a coach. In firing Willingham, the Notre Dame athletic department cited a relatively poor record of 21–15, a weak recruiting class, and three losses, each by 31 points, to rival USC. However, the Irish also hoped to entice Urban Meyer, the head coach of the Utah Utes, to lead Notre Dame. Meyer had just led the Utes to an undefeated season and he had a clause in his contract that stated he could leave Utah without a penalty to coach for the Irish. When Meyer instead took the head coaching position at Florida, the Irish were ridiculed in the media with claims that the Notre Dame coaching position was no longer as prestigious as it was in the past. After over a week without a coach, the Irish hired New England Patriots' offensive coordinator Charlie Weis as head coach. Weis was an alumnus of Notre Dame, and he became the first alumnus to coach the team since 1963. At least one sports writer stated that Weis was a choice that made sense for the program. Willingham, meanwhile, accepted a position as head coach of the University of Washington Huskies football team. Notre Dame Fighting Irish football under Bob Davie, Notre Dame football yearly totals The Notre Dame–USC football rivalry is an American college football rivalry between the Notre Dame Fighting Irish football team of the University of Notre Dame and USC Trojans football team of the University of Southern California, customarily on the Saturday following Thanksgiving Day when the game is played in Los Angeles or on the second or third Saturday of October when the game is played in South Bend. Notre Dame and USC have traditionally been counted among the elite programs in college football, with the schools having won a combined 39 national championships and 14 Heisman Trophies. This football rivalry, which began in 1926, is considered one of the most important in college football, and is often called the greatest intersectional rivalry in college football. The rivalry game has been played every year from 1926 to the present, with the exception of three seasons, 1943-1945, during the World War II years. Accordingly, it is one of the longest-running rivalries in college football. Several times, the winner of this series has gone on to win or play for the college football national title. Both schools claim 11 national titles while the NCAA recognizes 13 Notre Dame championships and 9 USC championships. Moreover, both schools are acclaimed for their All-Americans (101 for Notre Dame and 80 for USC), College Football Hall of Famers (52 from Notre Dame and 35 from USC), and Pro Football Hall of Famers (13 from Notre Dame and 12 from USC). The rivals account for the highest numbers of players taken in the NFL Draft of any school; USC has had 502 players taken and Notre Dame has had 495. No rivalry in college football accounts for as many combined honors. The teams play for the Jeweled Shillelagh, a trophy that goes home with the winning team each year. Notre Dame leads the series 47–37–5. Despite many close games, the series has seen dominant runs by both side: USC went 12–2–2 from 1967 through 1982, Notre Dame went undefeated (11–0–1) from 1983 through 1995, and USC went undefeated (8–0) from 2002 through 2009. However, while Notre Dame and USC have defeated the other in landmark games enabling one of them to move onto a national title, the two teams have also played spoiler to each other several times: Notre Dame – #1 undefeated Notre Dame beat #2 undefeated USC in the Coliseum en route to the national title in 1988. The Irish also spoiled Trojan title campaigns by giving them their first loss in the last game of the season in 1947 and 1952, as well as handing them a first loss in 1927, 1973 and 1995. They also tied #1 ranked USC in 1968, 21–21, knocking them down to #2 behind Ohio State (who then beat USC in a 1 vs. 2 matchup in the Rose Bowl). The Irish tied the Trojans again in 1969, 14–14, the only blemish in USC's 10–0–1 season. USC – Spoiled legitimate Irish title hopes in 1938, 1964, 1970, 1980, and tying them in 1948 (after Michigan already had been voted #1 by AP). Each game came in the final week of the season. USC also spoiled Irish campaigns in 1931 and 1971. Notre Dame leads the series on the field, 49–36–5. The origin of the series is quite often recounted as a "conversation between wives" of Notre Dame head coach Knute Rockne and USC athletic director Gywnn Wilson. In fact, many sports writers often cite this popular story as the main reason the two schools decided to play one another. As the story goes, the rivalry began with USC looking for a national rival. USC dispatched Wilson and his wife to Lincoln, Nebraska, where Notre Dame was playing Nebraska on Thanksgiving Day. On that day (Nebraska 17, Notre Dame 0) Knute Rockne resisted the idea of a home-and-home series with USC because of the travel involved, but Mrs. Wilson was able to persuade Mrs. Rockne that a trip every two years to sunny Southern California was better than one to snowy, hostile Nebraska. Mrs. Rockne spoke to her husband and on December 4, 1926, USC became an annual fixture on Notre Dame's schedule. While the "wives story" remains the classic explanation for starting the series, college football historian Murray Sperber, who in researching his book on the early days of Notre Dame football, Shake Down the Thunder, uncovered a different explanation for the creation of the series that somewhat contradicts the story. Sperber documents that the series was created primarily for financial and political reasons, and that Rockne's resistance to the series is misstated. During the 1920s, many college institutions, including the Big Ten (then called the Western Conference), sought to combat the commercialism that was steadily increasing in college athletics. Part of the concern over commercialism stemmed from the large money payouts teams would receive by traveling long distances to play in Bowl Games. Meanwhile, Notre Dame had difficulty scheduling local Western Conference opponents because of a ban placed on member schools from playing them. The Irish were initially forced to seek out opponents nationally to fill its schedule, often traveling far away to do so. After Notre Dame started winning landmark games against college behemoths such as Georgia Tech and Army, Notre Dame started to grow in popularity and could command more money for games it scheduled. Notre Dame garnered interest from the Rose Bowl Committee to have Notre Dame come and play a Pacific Coast Conference (now Pac-12) opponent for the 1924 football season. Coach Rockne and the Notre Dame administration realized how lucrative an annual trip to Los Angeles would be for the football program. Notre Dame's West Coast alumni began lobbying Rockne to bring the team to the Rose Bowl as a season finale every year. The Rose Bowl Committee favored this arrangement (at the time there was no tie in with the Big Ten); however, the Pacific Coast Conference had reservations. Specifically, two members schools, Stanford and California refused to play Notre Dame "on account of [Notre Dame's] low scholastic standards." Since Notre Dame was a Catholic school, its academics were considered inferior at the time. USC's coach, Gus Henderson reached out to Rockne through correspondence stating that "USC would welcome the chance to play Notre Dame New Year's Day in Pasadena." While Rockne favored playing USC, Stanford, which won the Pacific Coast Conference title, had first choice and eventually realized that playing Notre Dame would be lucrative, and the two played in the 1925 Rose Bowl. The series between Notre Dame and USC was created because of the still-existing desire for Notre Dame to travel to Los Angeles to please its alums and earn a large payout, as well as the still- standing invitation to play them from Coach Henderson. While the creation of the series was contradictory to Notre Dame's efforts to follow the Big Ten in combating commercialism (the Big Ten had a 26-year Bowl ban, which Notre Dame followed even longer), Rockne and other administrators justified the game since it was created as a home-and-home series, only to be played in Los Angeles every other year. The creation of the series was also likely influenced by the hiring of Howard Jones, who knew Rockne from coaching against him at Iowa. To the priests who ran Notre Dame, playing USC in Los Angeles every other year was preferable to making further trips to the Rose Bowl game. Notre Dame would not play in another bowl game until the 1970 Cotton Bowl. Another factor in the creation of the series is the connection between both schools' coaches, Knute Rockne and Howard Jones. Following Notre Dame's 1924 championship season, Rockne was approached by USC to take over its football program. Rockne would often entertain such advances and let the news slip out to the Notre Dame administration in order to get a raise and bolster his position internally and nationally. While Rockne ultimately turned down the offer, he recommended that USC look at his friend Howard Jones, whom he knew from taking his Notre Dame teams to play Iowa. Barry LeBrock, author of The Trojan Ten, also confirms that Rockne lent the Trojans a helping hand in recommending that they consider hiring Iowa's coach Howard Jones, after USC fired "Gloomy Gus" Henderson. The creation of the series was likely influenced by their friendship, and by Jones' desire to take USC to Notre Dame's elite level. Notre Dame and USC played their first game in 1926, a 13–12 win for the Irish. Rockne was quoted as saying it was the greatest game he ever saw. The following year, Notre Dame and USC would play a memorable game at Soldier Field in Chicago, a slim 7–6 Irish victory. An estimated 120,000 people were in attendance, a crowd that is considered to be one of the largest attended games in NCAA history. USC's first win in the series also came during the same year they won their first national title in 1928. From 1928–1932, USC and Notre Dame combined to win the national title five straight years, with USC winning in 1928, 1931, and 1932, and Notre Dame winning in 1929 and 1930. During this period, there was some talk of canceling the series, due to the long amount of travel time it took by train from South Bend to Los Angeles. Rockne argued for the series against the Notre Dame faculty board and its chair, Father Mulcaire, countering that "he saw the day coming when most college teams will be going by air exclusively.." Notable Games: 1929 – Notre Dame 13, USC 12 : This game played at Soldier field has the second largest verified attendance in the history of NCAA football at 112,912. 1930 – Notre Dame 27, USC 0 : Notre Dame won its second consecutive national championship (3rd overall) and 19th straight game in what turned out to be the last regular season game under coach Knute Rockne. Rockne himself rated the 1930 squad as his best. 1931 – USC 16, Notre Dame 14 : More than 300,000 fans welcomed the Trojans home from this thrilling victory in South Bend — a victory clinched by what sportswriter Maxwell Stiles called "Johnny Baker's 10 little toes and three BIG points." After trailing 14–0, USC won the game with a Johnny Baker 33-yard field goal with one minute remaining. The win snapped Notre Dame's 26-game unbeaten string and was the Trojans' first win in South Bend. Called "...the biggest upset since Mrs. O'Leary's cow knocked over that lantern" by El Rodeo, USC's student yearbook, it clinched USC's second national title. Sports historians cite this come-from-behind victory with Jones as coach that prompted the school from the West to catapult into the same elite circle with ND. 1932 – USC 13, Notre Dame 0 : USC shut out Notre Dame on its way to a second consecutive consensus national title, matching Notre Dame's feat in 1929 and 1930. The 1940s were good for the Irish, which earned national titles in 1943, 1946, 1947, and 1949. Meanwhile, USC was fielding competitive teams, but none of title caliber. Still, this era provided some memorable games, with USC playing spoiler to the Irish in 1948. Notable Games: 1938 – USC 13, Notre Dame 0 : Played at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, Notre Dame was undefeated and ranked #1 in the nation. USC was ranked 8th with a 7–2 record. Notre Dame fell to a #5 ranking the following week, but were still named national champions by the Dickinson System. 1947 – Notre Dame 38, USC 7 : 104,953 were on hand, the highest attendance for a football game in the Coliseum, to see 7–0–1 Rose Bowl-bound USC lose to 8–0 Notre Dame 38–7. Notre Dame was awarded the AP National Championship. USC would lose to Michigan 49–0 in the Rose Bowl, leading Michigan to also claim a national championship. 1948 – USC 14, Notre Dame 14 : The Irish were undefeated and untied riding a 21-game winning streak, before this game on December 2. 1950 – USC 9, Notre Dame 7 : USC's 300th victory in a dismal 4–4–1 season for the Irish, their worst under coach Frank Leahy. 1954 – Notre Dame 23, USC 17 : Notre Dame quarterback Ralph Guglielmi throws a 72 pass to Jim Morse with 5:52 remaining for the win. 1959 – Notre Dame 16, USC 6 : This was the last game played between the two teams in South Bend in November. Athletic Director Jess Hill proposed moving USC's games at Notre Dame Stadium to October, while continuing to play the Coliseum games in late November, to which Notre Dame agreed. The 1960s–1982 period is considered by most fans to be the golden age of the rivalry, as Notre Dame and USC combined to win eight national titles. Notre Dame won national titles in the 1966, 1973, and 1977 seasons; USC won titles in 1962, 1967, 1972, 1974, and 1978. USC also played spoiler to Notre Dame in the 1964 season, costing them a chance at the national title. The rivalry was equally intense between USC coach John McKay and Notre Dame coach Ara Parseghian. 1960 – Notre Dame 17, USC 0 : Notre Dame was 1–8 coming into this game, having lost eight straight games, a school record that still stands. The Trojans, under rookie coach John McKay, finished 4–6. 1961 – Notre Dame 30, USC 0 : The Irish improved to 3–0 for the season in notching their fifth straight win against the Trojans in dominating fashion in the first meeting between the two rivals played in October. USC ended up with zero net rushing yards as their quarterbacks were sacked repeatedly. It was the largest margin of victory for a Joe Kuharich-coached Notre Dame team and in the process, Kuharich became the only Irish coach to date to post back-to- back shutouts over USC. 1962 – USC 25, Notre Dame 0 : USC was undefeated and ranked #1 in the nation while Notre Dame was 5–4, having won four straight. The Trojans would be voted national champions after this game and would go on to outlast Wisconsin in a wild Rose Bowl victory, while Irish coach Joe Kuharich would resign the following spring. 1963 – Notre Dame 17, USC 14 : Ken Ivan's fourth-quarter field goal proved to be the difference as the Irish avoided an 0–3 start by knocking off the defending national champions. Notre Dame won only one more game all season long, a 27–12 victory over UCLA the following week, and finished a dismal 2–7 under interim head coach Hugh Devore. 1964 – USC 20, Notre Dame 17 : Notre Dame was ranked #1, undefeated and an 11-point favorite going into the game at USC's Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. Ara Parseghian, Notre Dame's first-year head coach, was in the midst of a huge Irish turnaround at 9–0, after ND went 2–7 the previous year. USC was unranked and was 6–3 on the season. Star quarterback and eventual Heisman winner John Huarte directed the Irish to a 17–0 lead at halftime. That lead would evaporate, however, as the Trojans, aided at least twice on critical plays late in the game by highly questionable officiating, took a 20–17 lead on a fourth-down pass from Trojan quarterback Craig Fertig to wide receiver Rod Sherman with 1:35 remaining. The first dubious call came as Notre Dame scored a touchdown in the second half on a one-yard dive by Joe Kantor. But an official called holding on tackle Bob Meeker and the score was nullified. Video clearly shows that Meeker actually lunged forward into the endzone and fell onto the ground, holding nothing except turf. Nevertheless, that error kept the Irish from extending their lead. The unequivocally game changing call came on USC's last touchdown drive when Fertig was hit and either threw or fumbled the ball backwards and it was recovered by ND. Inexplicably the officials ruled that this was an incomplete pass, despite it being "thrown" in the direction of no eligible receiver. Notre Dame put together a last-minute drive, and with six seconds left, Huarte threw a pass to receiver Jack Snow that was broken up in the end zone. The Irish's hopes of a national title were stolen; the Trojans' bid for the Rose Bowl berth also fell short despite the upset. Notre Dame fell to number 3 in the ranking the following week, but were still awarded the MacArthur Bowl. 1965 – Notre Dame 28, USC 7 : USC came into this game undefeated while the Irish were 3–1. Heisman Trophy winner Mike Garrett was held to 43 yards rushing as the Irish avenged their 20–17 loss the previous season. Fullback Larry Conjar scored all four Irish touchdowns and rushed for 116 yards. It was Ara Parseghian's only win against the Trojans to not come during a national title year for the Irish. 1966 – Notre Dame 51, USC 0 : Undefeated Notre Dame, following its controversial 10–10 tie with Michigan State, routed the Trojans, 51–0, earning Notre Dame the number one ranking. Backup quarterback Coley O'Brien, who came off the bench the previous week after Terry Hanratty was injured, made the most of his only collegiate start, completing 21 of 31 passes for 255 yards and three touchdowns. Tom Schoen and Dave Martin each returned interceptions for touchdowns. It was and still stands as the worst defeat in Trojan history and until 2009 it was one of only two times the Trojans had given up 50 points in a game. (USC lost to Cal 52–30 in 1991) Supposedly McKay vowed never to lose to Notre Dame again after that game, although he denied ever making such a statement. He did, however, say the Trojans would never lose again by a score of 51–0. 1967 – USC 24, Notre Dame 7 : Coming off the previous year's worst lost in its history, the Trojans came into the game ranked number 1 in the polls, although Notre Dame was a heavy favorite. The win marked USC's first win in South Bend since 1939, behind the running of tailback O. J. Simpson, the junior college transfer from San Francisco. Simpson rushed for 160 yards on 38 carries and scored all three USC touchdowns after Notre Dame led at halftime, 7–0. The victory solidified USC's place at the top of the final rankings. 1968 – Notre Dame 21, USC 21 : USC came into the game undefeated and ranked number 1 in the nation behind the running of eventual Heisman Trophy winner O. J. Simpson, while the Irish were 7–2. The game was one of the most widely viewed in college football history with a 22.9 rating, surpassing even the 1966 Notre Dame match-up with Michigan State. Joe Theismann started at quarterback in place of the injured Terry Hanratty, and on the second play of the game, he threw an interception that Sandy Durko returned for a touchdown and a quick 7–0 lead for the Trojans. But Theismann didn't let that bother him and by halftime had staked the Irish to a 21–7 lead, the third touchdown coming on a halfback-to-quarterback option pass by Coley O'Brien. The Trojans scored twice in the second half to tie the score and after two unsuccessful field goal attempts by Notre Dame, the game ended in a tie. Simpson was held to 55 net rushing yards, his lowest output of the season. The Irish finished with a fifth-place ranking with a 7–2–1 record, while the Trojans would lose to the eventual national champion Ohio State in the Rose Bowl. It marked the last season of self-imposed bowl abstinence for Notre Dame. 1969 – USC 14, Notre Dame 14 : For the second straight year, the Irish tied the Trojans. Notre Dame came into this game at 3–1, having lost to Purdue and their quarterback, Mike Phipps, while USC was undefeated. After a scoreless first half, the Irish scored first, but the Trojans took a 14–7 lead in the fourth quarter. Notre Dame tied it after blocking a USC punt deep in their own territory. As was the case a year earlier, the Irish missed a field goal late in the game that would have put them ahead. USC would finish 10–0–1 with a Rose Bowl win over Michigan while Notre Dame would make its first bowl appearance in 45 years, losing to eventual national champion Texas in the Cotton Bown in a 21–17 thriller. 1970 – USC 38, Notre Dame 28 : Notre Dame was 9–0 and ranked #2 behind Texas, whom they would face in a rematch in the Cotton Bowl Classic, while USC was 5–4–1. In one of the most remarkable performances in college football history, Heisman Trophy runner-up Joe Theismann set a still-standing single game school record with 526 passing yards – in a losing effort. The fact that the game was played in a torrential downpour made Theismann's feat that much more amazing. Down 24–14 at the half, two fumbles, one in their own end zone, proved costly for the Irish, as the Trojans extended their lead to 38–14. Notre Dame came back to within ten early in the fourth quarter, but would not get any closer. They would go on to end Texas's 30-game winning streak with a 24–11 victory in the Cotton Bowl. 1972 – USC 45, Notre Dame 23 : USC was 10–0 and ranked #1, fielding what was arguably their best squad in school history while the Irish were 8–1 and Orange Bowl-bound. Trojan tailback Anthony Davis did the most damage, scoring six touchdowns including two kickoff returns that went the distance. The Trojans went on to rout Ohio State in the Rose Bowl and to claim the national championship while Notre Dame would suffer its worst defeat under coach Ara Parseghian against Nebraska in the Orange Bowl, 40–6. 1973 – Notre Dame 23, USC 14 : Notre Dame was 5–0. while the Trojans were 5–0–1. Anthony Davis was a marked man all day, managing only 55 yards rushing. Eric Penick's 85-yard touchdown run early in the third quarter was the key play of the game. Notre Dame's defense set the tone on the first play of the game when Trojan quarterback Pat Haden attempted a swing pass to Lynn Swann, who was hit so hard by freshman Luther Bradley that his helmet flew off. Bradley's interception late in the game sealed the victory, only the third for Ara Parseghian against the Trojans. The Irish would proceed to run the table and stake their claim to the national championship after a thrilling 24–23 win over Alabama in the Sugar Bowl. . 1974 – USC 55, Notre Dame 24 "The Comeback" : In one of the most notable comebacks in college football history, the 1974 Trojans erased a 24-point deficit to beat defending national champion Notre Dame, 55–24, in the Coliseum. Many football historians cite this game as one of USC's 10 greatest games. The Irish jumped out to a 24–0 lead, but with 10 seconds remaining before halftime, Anthony Davis scored on a 7-yard pass from Pat Haden. At the start of second half, Davis took the opening kickoff and raced 102 yards for a score, opening the floodgates as USC rallied for 35 points in the third quarter. Davis scored 2 more touchdowns that quarter, and Haden threw two TD passes to J. K. McKay, the head coach's son. In the fourth quarter, Haden connected with Shelton Diggs for a touchdown and Charles Phillips returned an interception 58 yards for a touchdown. Adding to the shock of the comeback was the fact that USC scored 55 points in under 17 minutes. After the game, the Rev. Theodore Martin Hesburgh, the then-president of Notre Dame, said to Trojan coach John McKay, "That wasn't very nice." McKay, an Irish Catholic known for his quick wit, replied (referring to Parseghian's faith), "That's what you get for hiring a Presbyterian!" A few weeks later, Ara Parseghian announced his resignation, and the Irish gave him a fitting farewell present with an emotional 13–11 win over Alabama and Bear Bryant in the Orange Bowl. 1975 – USC 24, Notre Dame 17 : Notre Dame came into this game at 5–1, losing only to Michigan State, while USC was 6–0 and ranked third in the country. Joe Montana made his first start at quarterback for Notre Dame, having engineered two fourth-quarter comeback victories in as many weeks against North Carolina and Air Force. Al Hunter's 52-yard touchdown run gave the Irish an early lead. The extra point was missed, and the lead stayed at 6–0. After USC subsequently took a 7–6 lead, Notre Dame blocked a punt and returned it for an apparent touchdown, but the play was nullified by a penalty. Undaunted, the Irish blocked the punt a second time and also returned it for a touchdown. The play stood, and after a successful two-point conversion, the Irish were back in front, 14–7. They took a 17–14 lead into the fourth quarter, but USC would score ten unanswered points to put it away. Following the game Trojans coach John McKay announced he would jump to the NFL expansion Tampa Bay Buccaneers the following season. The Trojans would lose their last four regular season games en route to an 8–4 campaign while the Irish would finish 8–3 with no bowl game. 1977 – Notre Dame 49, USC 19 "The Green Jersey Game" : Dan Devine entered his third year as the Irish head coach, while coach John Robinson was in his second year at USC following the departure of John McKay to the NFL. Notre Dame sat at 4–1, with an upset loss coming to unranked Ole Miss in the second game of the season. Patience was running thin with Irish fans who considered Devine's consecutive 8–3 and 9–3 seasons as lackluster compared to what they were accustomed to with coach Ara Parseghian. The loss to Ole Miss only served to fuel the fire. Devine needed a win against the 5–1 Trojans, whose only blemish was a 1-point loss to Alabama. Little did anyone know that Devine had something special in mind for the game. During Pregame warmups, the Irish players wore their traditional navy blue jerseys. Following their warmups, they went into the locker room and found co-captains Terry Eurick and Willie Fry clad in emerald green jerseys. A similar green jersey sat in each player's locker. The players quickly returned to the field, followed by a Trojan Horse, containing students dressed as Notre Dame players, but wearing blue jerseys, being dragged by students wearing togas. The sight of the team wearing green sent the crowd at Notre Dame Stadium into a frenzy that would carry on through the entire game. Quarterback Joe Montana led the Irish offense to a quick 7–0 lead, but the USC linebacker Mario Celloto tied the score on a five-yard fumble return. After several missed field goals, Montana led the offense on a quarterback sneak, and directed the Irish to 28 unanswered points, including two touchdown passes to All-American tight end Ken MacAfee. Ted Burgmeier proved to be an unsung hero. In the second quarter alone, the senior defensive back intercepted a Rob Hertel pass that would have been a sure Trojan touchdown, executed a fake field goal to perfection and turned a botched snap on a point after touchdown into a successful two-point conversion when he lofted a pass to halfback Tom Domin, who made a spectacular catch as he was falling down across the sideline, yet still managed to keep both feet in bounds. While the game was quite sloppy, with both teams combing for 10 turnovers, USC could not find the end zone until the 4th quarter. Notre Dame went on to win the game and wore the green jerseys all the way to a victory over Texas in the Cotton Bowl Classic and captured the National Championship. 1978 – USC 27, Notre Dame 25 : Notre Dame came into the game with an 8–2 record, having won eight straight after dropping their first two games and was headed to the Cotton Bowl Classic. For three quarters, USC moved the ball at will and was overwhelming the Irish. Trailing 24–6, Irish quarterback Joe Montana found his touch in the fourth quarter and led a spectacular comeback which saw Notre Dame take a 25–24 lead with 45 seconds remaining. Notre Dame went for two after the go ahead touchdown but was stopped; this would prove critical. In the ensuing series, Notre Dame recovered an apparent fumble by Trojan quarterback Paul McDonald, but it was ruled an incomplete pass. Given new life, the Trojans moved into field goal range, and with four seconds left, Frank Jordan drilled the game winner for a 27–25 win. USC would go on to beat Michigan in the Rose Bowl and share the national title with Alabama (who they beat 24–14 early in the season in Birmingham). Montana would work his magic one last time in the 1979 Cotton Bowl Classic. 1979 – USC 42, Notre Dame 23 : Notre Dame was 4–1, while USC came into this game at 5–0–1. Both teams would accumulate over 500 yards of total offense apiece as the Trojans pulled away in the second half after being tied 7–7 after 30 minutes. Heisman Trophy winner Charles White accounted for 261 rushing yards on 44 carries. 1980 – USC 20, Notre Dame 3 : Notre Dame entered this game at 9–0–1 and headed for a matchup against Georgia in the Sugar Bowl and a shot at a national championship. They came out flat and sputtered offensively all afternoon. Trojan tailback Marcus Allen didn't play because of an eye injury. This was the final regular season game for Irish coach Dan Devine, who announced in August that he would be leaving Notre Dame at season's end. Notre Dame would subsequently lose to Georgia in the Sugar Bowl and finish 9–2–1. 1982 – USC 17, Notre Dame 13 : The Trojans pulled this one out in the closing seconds in what was Trojan coach John Robinson's last game in his first stint with the team; he had stated that he wanted his players to, "win one for the fat guy." Michael Harper appeared to have fumbled before crossing the goal line and despite the fact that Notre Dame recovered the ball, the touchdown stood. Notre Dame finished 6–4–1 for the season, losing their last three games, while the Trojans, on probation and not going to a bowl, wound up 8–3. From 1983 to 1993, Notre Dame entered an unprecedented run of success in the series, beating USC 11 straight times. Including a 1994 tie, USC did not beat Notre Dame until 1996, going 13 years without a win. Despite the one-sided nature of the series during this time period, the rivalry still produced several memorable games, including the series' first and only #1 vs #2 matchup to date. Notable Games: 1983 – Notre Dame 27, USC 6 : Notre Dame began an undefeated streak against USC which did not end until 1996. Coach Gerry Faust pulled out all the stops in an effort to halt a five-game slide for the Irish in the series. As in the 1977 "green jersey" game, when Coach Dan Devine had the Irish warm up in traditional blue, then come out of the tunnel in Irish Green jerseys, Coach Gerry Faust did the same in this game. Notre Dame football guide> 1985 – Notre Dame 37, USC 3 : Notre Dame head coach Gerry Faust had his team switched to green jerseys during halftime with the Irish leading, 24–0. 1986 – Notre Dame 38, USC 37 : Trailing 37–20 in the fourth quarter, the Irish staged a furious rally to win the game on John Carney's 19-yard field goal as time expired in Lou Holtz's first season as head coach. More officiating controversy as USC appeared to have a first down on a 4th and 1 play deep in Notre Dame territory while leading 37–27. But the officials did not award forward progress, and then hastily flagged USC QB Rodney Peete for unsportsmanlike conduct when he threw his arms up in disgust at where the ball was marked. It wasn't enough to prevent a losing season, as Notre Dame finished 5–6, but this game marked a turning point in the program, laying the cornerstone for the team's 1988 national championship. It was also a breakout game for future Heisman Trophy Winner Tim Brown. 1987 – Notre Dame 26, USC 15 : Notre Dame entered this game at 4–1 while USC was 4–2. After the Trojans scored a quick touchdown on their first possession, the Irish unleashed an overpowering running attack that would net 351 rushing yards. USC would not score again until the closing seconds. 1988 – Notre Dame 27, USC 10 – #1 vs #2 1989 – Notre Dame 28, USC 24 : Notre Dame was ranked #1 with an 18-game winning streak. The game was marred by a brawl in the tunnel before the start of the contest. Once it began, it was a thriller. USC quarterback Todd Marinovich completed 33 of 55 passes and staked the Trojans to a 17–7 halftime lead. The Irish fought back in the second half with Tony Rice scoring the winning TD on a keeper, then Notre Dame's defense held off one last Trojan thrust. 1995 – Notre Dame 38, USC 10 : USC came into the game, played in October, undefeated and ranked #5, while Notre Dame was ranked #17. Riding a six-game win streak with dominating wins over #25 Arizona and conference opponent Arizona State, it was USC's best start to their football season since 1988. The Irish, however, had other ideas, and the defense held USC to 10 points, including a spectacular forced fumble on the goal line by Irish linebacker Kinnon Tatum. USC went on to lose the game but would finish at 9–2–1 with a Rose Bowl title, while Notre Dame finished 9–3. It would be Holtz's last victory against USC, as USC would finally end its woes against the Irish the following year. For a six-year period, USC and Notre Dame went .500 against each other, with Southern California winning the first three games and Notre Dame winning the last three. The 2001 Notre Dame victory was also their last until their 2010 defeat of the Trojans. Notable games: 1996 – USC 27, Notre Dame 20 : After 11 straight years of losses and 13 straight years without beating Notre Dame, the Trojans finally defeated the Irish. USC was struggling at 5–6 after a wild double-overtime loss to UCLA the previous week. while Notre Dame was standing tall with an 8–2 record. and a New Year's Day bowl bid in the works. The Trojans managed to stay in the game despite playing without starting quarterback Brad Otton for large portions of the game due to injury. When Notre Dame scored a touchdown to go ahead 20–12 (with the PAT pending) in the fourth quarter, things looked bleak for USC. But Irish kicker Jim Sanson missed the extra point and the margin stayed at eight. The Trojans responded with an eight-play, 67-yard drive culminating in Delon Washington's 15-yard touchdown run with 1:50 remaining. Washington also ran in the two-point conversion and the score was tied at 20. Neither team could score before the end of regulation and overtime ensued. On USC's first drive, Otton passed to Rodney Sermons for a five-yard touchdown pass and the Trojans went ahead for the first time, 27–20. Jubilation erupted in the Coliseum when Mark Cusano batted down Ron Powlus' fourth-down pass for a Trojan victory. It was Lou Holtz's last game as coach of the Irish and his first loss to the Trojans. It was also the first overtime game in the series. Holtz compiled a 9–1–1 record against USC. 1998 – USC 10, Notre Dame 0 : USC came into this matchup at 7–4 under first- year coach Paul Hackett while Notre Dame was 9–1 and hoping to secure a major bowl bid with a victory. Their chances were dealt a severe blow the previous week when quarterback Jarious Jackson suffered a knee injury on the last play of the game against LSU, sidelining him for the USC game. Without Jackson, the Irish offense was powerless, suffering their first shutout in this series since 1962. They had to settle for the Gator Bowl, losing to Georgia Tech. 1999 – Notre Dame 25, USC 24: In an otherwise dismal season by the Irish, Notre Dame overcame a 21-point deficit to beat the Trojans 25–24 at Notre Dame stadium. The game winner came in one of many lucky breaks, with tight end Jabari Halloway recovering a Jarious Jackson fumble in the endzone with 2:40 remaining on the game clock. The Irish also had the wind at their backs in both the third and fourth quarters, helping the Irish kickers with field position and field goal attempts. It marked the first time since 1996 that Notre Dame beat USC. 2000 – Notre Dame 38, USC 21: The Irish secured their first BCS bowl berth in history by knocking off the Trojans. Head coach Bob Davie was rewarded with a contract extension afterwards, but lasted only one more season. 2001 – Notre Dame 27, USC 16: After an 0–3 start, the first in school history, Bob Davie's squad managed a win against USC in South Bend. It was the last win the Irish recorded against USC until 2010. Until 2009, the Irish were the only team to have beaten a Pete-Carroll-coached Trojan squad by more than seven points. From 2002 – 2009, USC defeated Notre Dame eight straight times, in some games winning in a lopsided fashion unprecedented in the series. Despite the one- sided nature of this stretch, the series still produced a classic game in 2005. Notable Games: 2002 – USC 44, Notre Dame 13 This game reestablished USC on a national level after a decade-long absence from the elite ranks. The Trojans had not played in such a high-stakes game since the 1988 No. 1 vs. No. 2 loss to the Irish. The victory for the Trojans helped them clinch their first-ever BCS bowl berth and established Trojan quarterback Carson Palmer as a Heisman Trophy candidate, which he eventually won. The game culminated USC's most successful season since 1979. A capacity crowd and a national television audience saw USC quarterback Carson Palmer throw for 425 yards and four touchdowns—then Notre Dame opponent records. Palmer led the Trojan offense to 610 total yards, the most yards ever against the Irish. Notre Dame briefly took a 13–10 lead, but Palmer led the Trojans on a 75-yard drive in just over a minute culminating in a pass that sailed over the outstretched hands of two Irish defenders and into the waiting arms of Mike Williams for a 19-yard touchdown. The Trojans sprinted into the locker room with a 17–13 halftime lead and never looked back. USC's 44 points were the most against the Irish by a USC team since Troy's 55–24 victory in 1974. 2005 – USC 34, Notre Dame 31 "The Bush Push" : After beating the Irish by 31 points each of the past three years, the Trojans came into South Bend to meet Notre Dame and first-year head coach Charlie Weis. The Irish players entered the stadium before the game wearing green jerseys, and put the crowd into a frenzy. A close game throughout, the Irish took the lead with two minutes left on a Brady Quinn touchdown run. The Trojans stormed back after a 4th and 9 pass by Matt Leinart to Dwayne Jarrett that brought the ball inside the ND 15-yard line. As Leinart scrambled and tried to dive into the endzone, he was hit hard short of the goal line, and the ball was knocked out of bounds with 7 seconds to go. However, the clock continued to count down, and after it hit zero, the Irish fans began to storm the field. There was no replay in this game, at the request of coach Pete Carroll, but after huddling, the officials spotted the ball on the one-yard line and put 7 seconds back on the clock. On the next play, instead of securing a tie that would have resulted in overtime, the Trojan offense surprised the Irish by running the ball. Trojan running back Reggie Bush pushed Matt Leinart, but although technically against the rules at that time, referees seldom, if ever, made that call. Weis said he would hope his running back would make a play like that in a similar situation. The Trojans went on to face the Texas Longhorns in the BCS championship game, losing in an equally thrilling fashion. In 2010, USC was sanctioned by the NCAA for displaying a lack of institutional control for its football, men's basketball and women's tennis programs. As a result, all USC football victories from December 2004 through the 2005 season were vacated, including this classic game. These sanctions have been criticized by some NCAA football writers, including ESPN's Ted Miller, who wrote, "It's become an accepted fact among informed college football observers that the NCAA sanctions against USC were a travesty of justice, and the NCAA's refusal to revisit that travesty are a massive act of cowardice on the part of the organization." 2007 – USC 38, Notre Dame 0: This was the largest margin of victory the Trojans have put forth on the Irish. It was also their first shutout against them since 1998. USC came into this game 5–1, while Notre Dame came in 1–6. Notre Dame head coach Charlie Weis announced during that summer that his team would wear throwback green jerseys for the matchup, signifying the 30-year anniversary of the Irish beating the Trojans in their green jerseys in 1977, when Weis was a senior at Notre Dame. Because of John David Booty's injured finger, USC back-up quarterback, Mark Sanchez, was the starter. In his second game as a starter, Sanchez managed to complete 21 of 38 passes with a combined total of 235 yards and 4 touchdown passes. This was the Trojans' 6th consecutive victory over the Irish as well. In the process, they became only the third team to accomplish this feat (Michigan and Michigan State share the record with eight straight wins in non consecutive years). After eight straight victories by USC, the 2010s were a period of relative dominance by Notre Dame, as the Irish won 7 out of 10 games after Pete Carroll left USC to become the head coach of the Seattle Seahawks. While USC had four different coaches during the 2010s, Brian Kelly has been the Irish's head coach for the entire decade. 2010 – Notre Dame 20, USC 16: For the first time since 1941, both teams faced each other with first-year head coaches – who had never met and did not know each other. With the Irish coming off of two stellar performances against #14 Utah and Army (27–3 at Yankee Stadium), Notre Dame was riding high, while USC was one week removed from one of their most one-sided defeats in the last decade, a 36–7 loss to the Oregon State Beavers and would be starting fifth-year senior and backup QB Mitch Mustain for the first time due to an injury to starter Matt Barkley. Three key touchdown drives all taking place in the last three minutes of either half and a dropped pass by Ronald Johnson with a little over a minute remaining in the game led the Irish to their first victory over USC since 2001. They would go on to defeat Miami in the Sun Bowl and finish 8–5 under new coach Brian Kelly. 2011 – USC 31, Notre Dame 17: USC defeated Notre Dame on the road for an unprecedented fifth straight win in South Bend. It was the first night game played in South Bend in 21 years. The turning point came in the third quarter. Down, 17–10, Notre Dame drove all the way to the USC 1-yard-line and were poised to tie the score when a fumbled snap from center was returned the other way for a touchdown by USC's Jawanza Starling to make it 24–10. For the game, Notre Dame debuted a shiny gold helmet. Nearly 50 recruits attended the game. 2012 – Notre Dame 22, USC 13: Going into the game, the teams found themselves in an unforeseen reversal of preseason expectations. Notre Dame was ranked #1 in the AP poll after being unranked in that poll to start the season, while USC entered the game unranked after starting the season as the preseason #1 team. With a balanced offensive attack and several late goal-line stands on defense, Notre Dame won the game 22–13. The Irish held on to their #1 BCS ranking and propelled themselves to the BCS Championship Game in Miami. With more than 16 million viewers, it was the most-watched regular-season college football game on ABC since 2006 and the most-viewed ABC Saturday night game ever. Notre Dame vacated this win in 2016 after "the NCAA determined that a Notre Dame trainer committed academic misconduct for two football players and provided six other players with extra benefits;" the NCAA identified one player who was ineligible for every game in the 2012 season, and another player who was ineligible for every game in the 2013 season. 2014 – USC 49, Notre Dame 14: Both teams were ranked in the preseason, with USC at #15 in both the AP and Coaches Polls while Notre Dame was #17 in both polls. Going into the game, both teams were unranked with identical 7–4 records. With a 49–14 victory, USC scored its highest points in the series in 40 years (#6 USC's 55–24 victory over #5 Notre Dame in 1974) and the highest score by either team in the series in 37 years (#11 Notre Dame's 49–19 victory over #5 USC in 1977). USC Quarterback Cody Kessler threw six touchdown passes, the first time in Notre Dame history that any team had ever made six touchdown passes against the Irish. The Jeweled Shillelagh (shi-LAY-lee) is the trophy awarded to the winner of the annual Notre Dame–USC football rivalry game. The shillelagh, an Irish club, is made of oak or blackthorn saplings from Ireland. On the end of the club is engraved the following: From the Emerald Isle. The trophy was introduced in 1952 to commemorate the first game in the series played on December 4, 1926. The trophy was donated by the Notre Dame Alumni Club of Los Angeles, stating that "this shillelagh will serve to symbolize in part the high tradition, the keen rivalry, and above all the sincere respect which these two great universities have for each other." For each victory, a respective jeweled ornament is added to the foot-long club. For each USC victory, a ruby-adorned Trojan head is added, marked with the year and game score; for each Notre Dame victory, a similarly detailed emerald-studded shamrock is added. For tie games, a combined Trojan head/shamrock medallion is used (in 1996 NCAA changed the rules to allow for overtime and thus no more ties are possible). Although the shillelagh was introduced in 1952, the medallions go back to the start of the series in 1926. In 1996, after USC defeated Notre Dame for the first time in 14 years, Notre Dame did not turn over the shillelagh, stating that it had run out of space for the Trojan heads and shamrocks after the 1989 game. The original shillelagh was retired in a 1995 ceremony and is now permanently displayed at Notre Dame. Instead, Jim Gillis, former head of the Notre Dame Club of Los Angeles, commissioned a second shillelagh, longer than the original and handcrafted from a blackthorn in County Leitrim with gold and jeweled medallions made by Images Jewelers of Elkhart, Indiana. List of NCAA college football rivalry games An episode of American Gladiators featured a competition between star USC players Marcus Allen and Charles White and Notre Dame stars Allen Pinkett and Vagas Ferguson., When Michael Corleone visits Miami in The Godfather Part II, Hyman Roth is listening to the 1958 Notre Dame vs. USC game., The security guard in the movie Die Hard is watching a football game between Notre Dame and USC. However, it took place on Christmas Eve, a day on which the two teams have never met., A 2008 episode of Family Feud featured competition between the two schools., The November 22, 2017 episode of The Price Is Right featured competition between the two schools. Notre Dame Catholic Secondary School is a coeducational Catholic high school in Burlington, Ontario, Canada. It was founded in 1989 by the Halton Catholic District School Board and currently enrolls students from the ninth to twelfth grades. Notre Dame's emblem is a small dueling leprechaun and, accordingly, the school's slogan is "Fightin' Irish". In its first year, Notre Dame began by only enrolling ninth and tenth grade classes. Today it schools the Ontario standard of grades 9 through 12. With grade 13 recently being removed as a requirement for graduation in Ontario, many grade twelve graduates return for an optional extra year. The school enrolled slightly over 1,000 as a large amount has been placed at Corpus Christi. It receives most new students from local elementary schools including St. Gabriel, St. Timothy, St. Mark, and Canadian Martyrs. Notre Dame, like all publicly funded Catholic schools in Ontario, also accepts non- Catholics into the school; however, they are expected to take part in the religious activities and mandatory religious classes. The Catholic school's parishes are St.mark, sacred heart of jesus and St. Gabriel. It belongs to the Diocese of Hamilton, under Bishop Crosby. Notre Dame won seven GHAC (Golden Horseshoe Athletic Conference) championship titles in the 2004-2005 school year, and won 15 Halton Region championships. Over the past several years, a few teams have placed in the top three at OFSAA (Ontario Provincial Championships), including the Senior Girls' field hockey Team, Varsity Girls' ice hockey, Open Girls Swim Team and the Senior Girls' soccer Team. In the season of 2006, the soccer Team won 1st place against Loyola Catholic Secondary School. In the 2007 fall season, the Midget Boys Cross Country Running team placed second in OFSAA and subsequently placed first the following year - the first gold medal for a boys GHAC Cross Country team at OFSAA. The boys varsity baseball team won Prentice Cup (baseball) in 2008, to secure the second OFSAA gold at Notre Dame boys history, and claimed their third in 2015. In 2008 the Notre Dame Senior boys football team came second at OFSAA, but in 2009 and 2010 they won gold at OFSAA and had two undefeated seasons with a record of 26-0. They were named the top team in Canada in 2009. The 2000 Senior Boys Rugby team became the first team to defeat the Oakville Trafalgar High School in 29 years, at the championship level. As of 2011, Notre Dame is still the only other team to win a senior boys rugby title in Halton. The Boy's Varsity lacrosse team earned back to back OFSAA bronze in 2010 & 2011\. In 2015, the Junior Boys Soccer Team went undefeated to claim the Halton Region Championship. The Senior Girls' Soccer team won three consecutive Halton Region Championships in 2013, 2014, and 2015 and went on to win the OFSAA Championship in 2015. Notre Dame Senior Girls' Basketball team is the first girls basketball team in Burlington high school history to win an OFSAA Gold Medal (2016). There is an annual athletic banquet held near the beginning of June which honours the MVPs and best athletes of the year from every sport and grade. Approximately 300 students attend the event, which is well known throughout the school for its comical videos put together by several of the physical education teachers. Notre Dame has a group of male senior students referred to as "The Kilt Krew". They are a group that attends many sporting events that Notre Dame is involved in, to encourage students to cheer on the team. They are led by a student dubbed "Speedo Man" who can often be seen running across the field in a green speedo at half-time or pre-game. A new "Speedo Man" is generally selected every year by the previous years Speedo Man. The Kilt Krew was abolished by Principal Cairine MacDonald during the 2015/16 due to undisclosed reasons. In 2017/18 Principal Anthony Cordeiro brought back Kilt Krew and the tradition started again. the 2019 season for notre dame was very successful with their senior girls coming first at OFSAA along with many track stars going to ofsaa. other sports that made it to ofsaa -swimming -rugby Athletic Teams Co-Curricular Activities / Clubs / Teams Anime Club, Art Club, Arts Night and Buskerfest, Book Club, Breakfast Club, Business Club (Shamrock), Choir, Christmas Assembly, Computer Programming Club, Concert Band, Development & Peace, Drama Club, D.R.E.A.M.S. (Dominican Republic Education and Medical Support), Environmental Club, Fishing Club, H.E.A.T. (Healthy Eating Active Team), Jazz Combo, Le Club Francais, Math Club, Math Contests (CEMC), Mental Health Awareness Action Team, Make It Happen (MIH), Model UN, ND Leads, Peace Train, Peer Tutors, Prefect Program, Pro Life, School REACH Team, Religious Retreats, School Newspaper (InsideND), School Play, Snow Angels, Social Justice Team, Student Athletic Association (SAA), Student Council, Student Senate, Yearbook Team, Yoga Source: Fund raising events Angel Campaign (Christmas Season), Breast Cancer Research Coffee Houses, Annual Coat Drive, Easter Food Drive, International & Local “Movember” Prostate Cancer Research, Thanksgiving Food Drive, UNICEF- Spread the Net, United Way, Annual Pink Day Options may vary depending on available coaching staff, other schools participation, and success of the activity the previous year. Notre Dame has a wide array of courses in many different areas of interest. Students with a 79.5 percent overall average or above are recognized by being placed on the school's Honour Roll. Students with the highest average in a course and students who have the highest overall averages of each grade are also recognized. There are currently over 100 full-time teachers employed at Notre Dame. There is one principal (Anthony Cordeiro), and two vice principals (Joanne DeSantis and Shari Typer). There are several day-time and night-time janitors. The Head Secretary is Anna Butrym. Athletic Director is David Montoya. Peter Visser, Principal, 1987–1997, Art Kelly, Principal, 1997, Paul Thompson, Principal, 1998–2005, Andy Twoclap, Principal 2005–2006, Stanley Gajewski, Principal, 2006–2008, Thomas Dunn, Principal, 2008–2010, Michael Iannetta, Principal 2010-2013, Cairine MacDonald, Principal 2013–2017, Anthony Cordeiro, Principal 2017-present List of high schools in Ontario Notre Dame Catholic Secondary School Website, Halton Catholic District School Board Website

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Uncle Grandpa is an American animated television series created by Peter Browngardt that ran on Cartoon Network from September 2, 2013 to June 30, 2017. It is based on Browngardt's animated short of the same name from The Cartoonstitute. Uncle Grandpa is also a spin-off of Secret Mountain Fort Awesome, which was in turn a spin-off of the Cartoonstitute short. It was produced by Cartoon Network Studios. The show is a surreal action-adventure comedy that relies extensively on visual gags and catchphrases. Creator Pete Browngardt has cited the work of cartoonists Don Martin, Gary Larson and Robert Crumb, as well as Golden Age–era animators such as Tex Avery and Max Fleischer when it came to developing the style of the show. Each 11-minute episode is presented in a unique format, consisting of a main seven- to nine- minute story, some short bumpers typically composed of a quick visual joke, and an original short that focuses on the show's side characters. Cartoon Network renewed the series for the fourth and fifth seasons: first splitting the second season (of 52 episodes) into two halves, which respectively became the second and third season, then also dividing in half the already announced third season into the fourth and fifth season (of 26 and 23 episodes, respectively), which served as the final seasons. The Uncle Grandpa pilot was created by former Chowder storyboard artist Peter Browngardt, who first pitched the idea to Cartoon Network in 2006. Browngardt, who grew up the youngest in a large family of eight children (his eldest brother Tom would go on to work as the show's film editor), based the character upon the various and often eccentric relatives who would often drop by and visit them, as well as aspects of his own personality. The style of the show was inspired by his love of comics and Warner Bros. Cartoons. The pilot was produced in 2008, then aired online in 2009 on Cartoon Network Video as part of The Cartoonstitute. Akin to the Regular Show pilot, the Uncle Grandpa pilot was successful, but it had yet to have been green-lit into its own series. In 2011, the TV series Secret Mountain Fort Awesome (based on the creatures that appear in the original short) aired on Cartoon Network, but was not as well-received as the other Cartoon Network series at the time, and was eventually put on hiatus in February 2012. Despite the failure, Secret Mountain Fort Awesome went on to win several awards, including the coveted Crystal Award for "Best Television Production" at Annecy International Animated Film Festival, the first US-based production to do so. This helped boost Browngardt's profile in getting Uncle Grandpa greenlit as a series. Another factor that contributed to the launch of the show was the redesign of the character by John Kricfalusi, The Ren & Stimpy Shows creator. On July 27 and 28, 2013, Cartoon Network aired a sneak peek of the series as part of Big Fan Weekend, along with Clarence and Steven Universe. Uncle Grandpa, a magical shapeshifting humanoid, stops by children's houses every day to see how they are doing. The children he visits have a problem of their own and Uncle Grandpa tries to help them through a series of chaotic and surreal misadventures. He is a clowny sort of person who sometimes eats inedible objects (paper, and mostly books). He drives/lives in a UG-3000 model robotic RV known as the Perpetual Persistence and is accompanied by a talking red fanny pack named Belly Bag, a green dinosauroid named Mr. Gus, a static photographic cutout of a tiger named Giant Realistic Flying Tiger, and an anthropomorphic pepperoni pizza slice named Pizza Steve. Uncle Grandpa the April Fool (voiced by Peter Browngardt, Pendleton Ward in "For Pete! Love, Pen"). Uncle Larry "Bobo" Claus-Grandpa is a magical shapeshifting humanoid who is the uncle-grandpa of everyone in the world with a large, rectangular head, a brown horseshoe moustache, a pink nose, a propeller hat that talks and an outfit consisting of a white T-shirt, lederhosen with rainbow suspenders, knee high tube socks, and black slippers. His outward appearance is depicted as rather clownish and unsophisticated, but he is well-meaning, fun-loving, supportive, and surprisingly competent when need be. His catchphrase is "Good morning!", Belly Claus-Bag (voiced by Eric Bauza) − Uncle Grandpa's talking red fanny pack nephew and best friend who carries all of his priceless valuables, especially Uncle Grandpa's weapon of choice, which is his UG-series robotic laser hammer daughter named Samantha Grandpa. Belly Bag's insides contain many weird objects and dimensions, including a castle where Frankenstein lives. Despite being practically attached to Uncle Grandpa, he has the ability to walk and can produce multiple hands from inside his body. He even has the ability to see despite having no visible eyes. In the second Uncle Grandpa short "Secret Mountain Uncle Grandpa", he is referred to as Fanny Pack and voiced by Paul Rugg. His catchphrase is "What's cookin', good-lookin'?", Mr. Gus (voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson) − Michael Marshal Breakfast-Gusford, Jr., currently better known as Mr. Mysterious Gus, is usually the voice of reason. He is a large, serious, yet somewhat grouchy green dinosaur (Reptoid) who was Uncle Grandpa's rival in "Leg Wrestler", but eventually became his friend and bodyguard. He is unfazed by most of Uncle Grandpa's eccentricities and seems to have an even temper despite his roommates, but often loses his temper, especially where Pizza Steve's antics are concerned. He's older, and more mature than Uncle Grandpa. One of Mr. Gus' favorite parts of the day is 9:00 PM, which is his designated bathroom time, and during that period he likes to take a bubble bath and read for an hour. His catchphrase is "You're just sayin' that to get under my skin.", Pizza Steve (voiced by Adam DeVine, Pendleton Ward in 'For Pete! Love, Pen') − Pizza James Cheese-Stevens, currently better known as Pizza Steve, is an anthropomorphic pepperoni pizza slice with sunglasses and a member of Uncle Grandpa's crew. He is depicted as extremely vain, troublesome, and often brags about how cool and awesome he is, which annoys his friend Mr. Gus. Despite this, he pretends to be very popular and a hit with women. He is a good friend of Uncle Grandpa. Pizza Steve is featured in his own cartoon shorts entitled "A Slice of Life with Pizza Steve", which usually involve Pizza Steve exaggerating his abilities. In "Tiger Trails", he claims to be a black belt in Italian Karate, but he wears the black belt over his eyes instead of around his waist. He also is meant to cheat, like for instance in “Leg Wrestler”, he trained Uncle Grandpa, and forced Mr. Gus to do his chores, so uncle Grandpa could Cream him. His catchphrase is "I'm like a modern-day Thomas Einstein except a brazillion times better!", Giant Realistic Flying Tiger Claus-Grandpa − A static photographic cutout of a tiger that Uncle Grandpa rides on to get around. Tiger is his pet and other best friend, and while she exhibits normal tiger traits such as only being able to communicate by roaring, she is able to fly and leaves a rainbow trail as she goes. The rainbow trail is also expelled from Tiger's rear end when she passes gas. Her personality is a cross between that of a stereotypical teenage girl, a house cat, and a real-life tiger. In order for Tiger's emotions to be shown, only certain parts of her body (specifically her facial ones) are animated. This is done in a stop-motion style. Michael "Tiny Miracle" Grandpa, Jr. the Robot Boy (voiced by Tom Kenny) – Uncle Grandpa's imaginary UG-series robot grandson that can perform tiny miracles by just a series of unnecessary moves and then technically performing one only to lead up to another tiny miracle. He sounds like a 1980s microphone. According to Uncle Grandpa, he is his trusty robot helper buddy. He can be summoned by a person saying something that includes the words "tiny miracle" in it and then the task he/she is attempting. His catchphrase is "Did somebody say "tiny miracle"?", Beary Nice (voiced by Audie Harrison) and Hot Dog Person (voiced by Eric Bauza) – These two are the stars of their own recurring segment, "New Experiences". Beary is an anthropomorphic teddy bear with a red nose and a bow tie and Hot Dog Person is an anthropomorphic cyborg frankfurter with a face. Beary has a positive outlook on life while Hot Dog Person is more gloomy. Each of their segments consist of the two of them trying something different for the first time (taking a bath, getting a haircut, etc.). Beary is always excited to try whatever they're doing, while Hot Dog Person is more reluctant as it seems every time he tries something new, something bad happens to him. Beary's excitement also leads to him being self-centered, as he is so wrapped up in his own emotions that he pays no attention to Hot Dog Person's plight., Charlie Burgers the Ball-Loving Dog Next Door (voiced by Brian Posehn) – A talking dog that befriends Uncle Grandpa and his friends. He can be well behaved and he enjoys going on adventures with Uncle Grandpa. His catchphrase is "I love my ball!", Brother-Santa Claus Grandpa (voiced by Bob Joles ) is the famous figure for Christmas and is revealed to be Uncle Grandpa's brother in the Christmas special. They have had a troubled relationship since 1983., Baby "Frankie" Frankenstein (voiced by Mark Hamill) – A tag-along with Uncle Grandpa in his adventures. Because of his condition, he is unable to talk, communicating only through groans. He is usually seated next to Uncle Grandpa in his chair., Xarna the She-Warrior of the Apocalypse (voiced by Eric Bauza) − An overly-muscular, masculine cyborg. She is on a mission to get some gas for the Mad Motorcycle. Her catchphrase is "I don't like your mouth." She is a spoof of Xena the Warrior Princess and She-Ra., Evil Wizard (voiced by Rob Schrab) − A wizard that goes around trying to make everyone's day horrible by humiliating them but he actually makes their lives better. His catchphrase is "Behold! I am Evil Wizard!", Little Priscilla-Aunt Jones-Grandma (voiced by Lena Headey) − Uncle Grandpa's nemesis with a British accent and is the main antagonist of the series who wants revenge on him for ruining her science project and rather than help her played hacky sack instead resulting in her getting second place in the science fair. She prefers to solve children's problems using simple practical solutions, the complete opposite of what Uncle Grandpa does. Her catchphrase is "Beautiful Morning!" Belly Kid (voiced by Zachary Gordon) – A kid who has a big belly. He was first ashamed of it, but Uncle Grandpa taught him the best features of having a big belly. He appeared in "Belly Bros"., Caleb (voiced by Jonathan Adams) – A boy that Uncle Grandpa takes out of a math test to go battle Evil Wizard in outer space. He appeared in "Tiger Trails"., Melvin (voiced by Jarid Root) – Melvin is a bratty kid who likes to play Space Emperor, with him being the emperor. When Uncle Grandpa accidentally sent him into another dimension, he was sent to a planet where he's the emperor. He discovered what it's like being a servant, and learns his lesson after Emperor Krell bosses him around. He loves dinner sandwiches, and hates mayonnaise. He appeared in "Space Emperor". His catchphrase is "I decide who does what!", Melvin's Babysitter (voiced by Grey DeLisle-Griffin) – an attractive teenage girl with braces who babysits Melvin in the episode "Space Emperor"., Eric (voiced by Eric Bauza) – Eric is a kid who doesn't have a nickname but Uncle Grandpa helps him. Uncle Grandpa helps him be legendary to get his nickname. In the process of becoming legendary he becomes tall and muscular. In the end he gets the nickname, "Cupcake", because he loves cupcakes. He appears in "Nickname"., Mary (voiced by Pamela Adlon) – Mary is a nervous girl. She takes her driver's test, but fails. Uncle Grandpa takes her on a test and helps her pass. Uncle Grandpa gives her her own "Freedom and Independence USA" truck for passing her test. She appears in "Driver's Test"., Dennis (voiced by Tom Kenny) – Dennis is a kid who wanted to finally pass his teacher's hard class and avoid going to summer school, until Uncle Grandpa comes and eats his homework and putting Dennis in danger of going to summer school. So Dennis and Uncle Grandpa go to Egypt to get a real pyramid to make sure Dennis gets an A+++++-+ on his project. Dennis appears in "Uncle Grandpa Ate My Homework!"., Mrs. Numty (voiced by Grey DeLisle-Griffin) – Dennis' teacher. She appears in "Uncle Grandpa Ate My Homework!" and "1992 Called"'., Guillermo (voiced by Eric Bauza) – Guillermo is a kid who had an awesome new bike until the Perpetual Persistence crushed it. So in Uncle Grandpa and Belly Bag's absence Mr. Gus and Pizza Steve help Guillermo by giving him a trashcan and saying it was a "Magical Uncle Grandpa Bike". Guillermo appears in "Uncle Grandpa for a Day"., Susie (voiced by Grey DeLisle-Griffin) – Susie is a little girl who was afraid of the dark, but learned how to combat her fears by imagining herself as a scary monster. She appears in "Afraid of the Dark"., Adam (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker) – Adam is a kid who couldn't become the master of a very hard video game, until Uncle Grandpa and Pizza Steve shrink to get inside his brain to become better at video games. He would always have his eyes barely open showing that he's been playing videogames too much, and his eyes are sore from playing too much. Adam appears in "Brain Game"., Angry Man Johnson (voiced by Roger Craig Smith) – Angry Man Johnson is a grumpy old man who hates Charlie Burgers. Judging by his name, he is always angry at everyone, including Uncle Grandpa. Angry Man Johnson appears in "Charlie Burgers"., Austin (voiced by Carlos Alazraqui) – Austin is a kid who had a lot of imperfections so he asked Uncle Grandpa to turn him into a robot to become the most perfect kid, and to eliminate all imperfections. Austin appears in "Perfect Kid"., Shaquille O'Neal (voiced by himself) – The former professional basketball player who is an old friend of Uncle Grandpa. In the past, Uncle Grandpa helped Shaq realize his dream of being a stand-up comedian. He appears in "Perfect Kid" after Uncle Grandpa is chased into a comedy club that Shaq was performing at where he helps Uncle Grandpa fight against Austin 2.0, by combining with the audience in a manner similar to a giant robot. Uncle Grandpa finds the jokes Shaq makes to be very funny., Akira (voiced by Laura Bailey) – Akira is a Japanese kid who wanted to make the best action packed monster movie of all time. Akira appears in "Big in Japan"., Riley (voiced by Scott Menville) – Riley is a teenage boy who fails a test, his father grounds him and demands him to fold laundry all weekend instead of going to a party., Josie (voiced by Grey DeLisle-Griffin) – Josie is a girl who was trying to make duck lips for a site called "face hole" and tries to get a lot of followers and likes. Josie appears in "Duck Lips"., Emily (voiced by Kari Wahlgren) - Emily is a girl scout., Isabella (voiced by Nika Futterman) - Isabella is a girl who is an aspiring inventor but her inventions are useless. Isabella appears in "Inventor Mentor". Ham Sandwich Jones (voiced by Steven Blum) – A rotund nerdy teenager who started out hating Uncle Grandpa, but later grew to like him. In the Secret Mountain Fort Awesome episode "5 Disgustoids and a Baby", he appeared as less responsive, and more stingy while intensely playing a portable gaming system. He can be seen in the show's intro and has a very brief role in "Big Trouble for Tiny Miracle"., Little Judy Jones (voiced by Grey DeLisle-Griffin) – Ham Sandwich's fat mother., Remo (voiced by Tom Kenny) – A destructive popular kid, who similarly started off hating Uncle Grandpa, but ends up warming up to his antics. He appears in Secret Mountain Fort Awesome episode "Secret Mountain Uncle Grandpa"., Remo's Friends (voiced by Steve Little and Tom Kenny) – The cool-dude friends of Remo., Kev (voiced by Jon Heder) – Kev is a destructive teenager who thought art was dumb until Uncle Grandpa convinced him that art is pretty fun. Kev appears in "Viewer Special". The character originally appeared in a live-action film starring Browngardt called The Last American., Crazy Driving Man (voiced by Paul Rugg, Kevin Michael Richardson) – A man who wears framed glasses, who is the somewhat "uncool" father of his son Remo. He reappears as a driving instructor in Uncle Grandpas 7th episode, "Driver's Test", and claims to be the father of a crazy driving baby from another universe. The first-season episode "Christmas Special" was aired on December 2014. A double-length Christmas special, it centers on Uncle Grandpa who reluctantly agrees to disguise himself as his brother Santa Claus, after the latter character injures a leg. The episode received mostly praise in international publications, and in the United States it was viewed by 1.5 million. Cartoon Network developed a browser game adaptation named Sneakin' Santa to promote the episode. The episode was well received by the critics during its respective Christmas season. A crossover special between Uncle Grandpa and Steven Universe was aired as an episode of the latter series' second season in April 2015. Conceived of by the creator of the latter series, Rebecca Sugar, the episode has Uncle Grandpa teach Steven how to bear a shield from his gemstone. Nearly two million viewed the episode, which received acclaim from critics. The second-season episode "Guest Directed Shorts" was aired in June 2015 and consists of three animated shorts. The first short, directed by M. Wartella, has Uncle Grandpa using time travel in order to find the best hamburger; the second, by Pendleton Ward, has Pizza Steve beatboxing with Uncle Grandpa in the park; and the third, by Max Winston, has the RV gang getting trapped in Uncle Grandpa's claymation mind after their television set breaks down. Wartella is known for his work on the animated series Superjail! and Mad, while Ward is the creator of Adventure Time; Winston is a professional stop- motion artist. The episode was viewed by 1.3 million. The episode was very well received by the critics, while Winston's short was nominated for best television production at the 2015 edition of the Annecy Film Festival. Uncle Grandpa Babies first appeared as a short in the 2014 episode "Grounded" as a faux Cartoon Network ad that presents a series called "Uncle Grandpa Babies" and claims to be made by the same creators of Adventure Time (Pendleton Ward) and Steven Universe (Rebecca Sugar). One year later, a full episode based on the babies saving America from a foreign country's missile launch aired on August 20, 2015. In light of the special premiering, reruns of Baby Looney Tunes returned to Cartoon Network. In Canada, it premiered on September 2, 2013 on Cartoon Network. It also premiered on Cartoon Network channels in the United Kingdom and Ireland on April 14, 2014 and in Australia on May 5, 2014. In Middle East, it premiered on 2015 on Cartoon Network Arabic, 2017 on Cartoon Network. On April 30, 2014, Kaboom! announced that Uncle Grandpa comics were in the works. Issue 1 was released on October 15, 2014. Secret Mountain Fort Awesome, Grandpa Danger Uncle Grandpa at TV.com, Uncle Grandpa at the Internet Movie Database Brian Edmund Posehn (born July 6, 1966) is an American actor, voice actor, musician, writer, and comedian, known for his roles as Jim Kuback on The WB's Mission Hill and Brian Spukowski on Comedy Central's The Sarah Silverman Program. He also had a recurring role on The Big Bang Theory as geologist Bert Kibbler. Posehn was born and raised in Sacramento, California. He is of German and Irish descent. He graduated from Sonoma Valley High School in 1984. He attended college at California State University, Sacramento. Posehn began with guest appearances and mainly small roles in TV shows. He was on 28 episodes of Mr. Show with Bob and David (1995–1998), a sketch comedy series on HBO. In a 1996 episode of Friends, he delivered the manuscript in which Joey Tribbiani's soap opera character "Dr. Drake Ramoray" is killed off. He appeared as two different characters in NewsRadio: a fan with questions for Jimmy James at a book reading (1997), and a member of Dave's a cappella group "Chock Full o' Notes" (1998). In the Seinfeld episode "The Burning" (1998), he played a patient, when Kramer "was given" gonorrhea. His character was instructed to "act out" to a group of medical students how a surgeon left a sponge in him post surgery. Posehn also wrote the episode "Cahill" (1998) with Ben Karlin. He appeared on 29 episodes of the NBC series Just Shoot Me! (1999–2003). He played the voice of Jim in Mission Hill on the WB (1999–2002), and Del Swanson in 3 South on MTV (2002–2003). On an Adult Swim production, Aqua Teen Hunger Force, he voiced the Wisdom Cube in the 2003 episode "The Cubing". Posehn performed the voice of Gibbons, a tiny man, on several episodes of the Cartoon Network's Tom Goes to the Mayor (2005–2006). He also appeared in the 2005 pilot for The Showbiz Show with David Spade, in a segment called "The Nerd Perspective", in which he gave a scathing criticism of MTV and its declining quality. He also played a mortician in several episodes of Comedy Central's Reno 911!. He was featured on the 2005 documentary series The Comedians of Comedy on Comedy Central and Showtime. He was in a 2007 episode of the improv series Thank God You're Here on NBC and was a celebrity judge on the revived 1970s game show The Gong Show with Dave Attell (2008), on Comedy Central. He co-stars on The Sarah Silverman Program with Steve Agee as a gay couple who is friends with Silverman, and also wrote the season three finale "". He played himself in the episode "Spagett" of Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!, appeared at the Comedy Central Roast of Bob Saget, played the role of a physically disabled man (Scooter Man) in the second season's premiere episode "Slip of the Tongue" of Californication (2008), on Showtime, and played Dethklok's second manager in the Metalocalypse episode "Dethsources", he also wrote the episode "Fatherklok". In 2007 he joined the first season of the MTV sketch comedy series Human Giant, as a writer and performer, and voices Glen Furlblam, the biggest fan of Dr. Two-Brains on the PBS Kids animated series WordGirl. In 2012 he co-wrote the fourth season of Metalocalypse. Since 2013, Posehn has appeared in the recurring role of Bert on The Big Bang Theory. Movie appearances from Posehn include the 2003 comedy film sequel , Grind, the 2005 Rob Zombie horror film The Devil's Rejects, Sleeping Dogs Lie, , and the 2007 animated feature Surf's Up, where he played Glen Maverick. Posehn appeared as himself in the 2007 documentary Super High Me starring 'marijuana comedian' Doug Benson, the 2008 documentary Nerdcore Rising about MC Frontalot and in a supporting role in . Posehn voices the character of Murray, a robot, in Rob Zombie's animated The Haunted World of El Superbeasto. He also voiced the character Hayashi in the English dub of Pom Poko. In 2002, Posehn appeared on Comedy Central Presents, followed by the release of 2005's The Comedians of Comedy, a documentary/live special chronicling a 2004 small-club comedy tour he participated in. The film was followed up by a television series on Comedy Central of the same name. Posehn's debut comedy album was released in 2006. He participated in the Comedy Lineup of the 2008 Bonnaroo Music and Arts Festival, which included Louis C.K., Janeane Garofalo and Zach Galifianakis. Posehn performed as part of the Rock N' Roll Comedy set with Jim Norton and Michelle Buteau. During his 2008 routine on Comedy Central Presents he referred to his Wikipedia article, which he supposedly vandalized. In 2010, Posehn released his second album Fart and Wiener Jokes. In 2011, Posehn agreed to perform at the Gathering of the Juggalos. Some of his fans criticized this decision as being "not metal". Posehn countered that "getting a paycheck is metal", and expressed respect towards the Juggalo fan culture, as well as the independent music success of Insane Clown Posse and Psychopathic Records. In 2013, Posehn released his third comedy album and first DVD, The Fartist. In 2006, Relapse Records released his first album, . It includes "Metal by Numbers", a song mocking the formulaic nature of modern "metal" at the time of its release. The instrumental tracks feature musicians such as guitarist Scott Ian (of Anthrax), bassist Joey Vera (then of Anthrax, but also of Armored Saint and Fates Warning), drummer John Tempesta (of The Cult and White Zombie), and lead guitarist Jonathan Donais (of Shadows Fall). Posehn also appeared in the Anthrax music videos for "What Doesn't Die" and "Blood Eagle Wings". Posehn appeared on a Season 4 episode of the music talk show That Metal Show and Lamb of God's Walk With Me In Hell DVD, and performed "More Metal Then You", a song that was included on his non-musical stand-up comedy album Fart & Weiner Jokes, with "Brian Posehn's All-Star Band" on the 2010 Revolver Golden Gods Awards. Posehn appeared in The Damned Things music video for "We've Got A Situation Here". He provided backing vocals for Evile's album Five Serpent's Teeth. Posehn has provided voice work for video games Brütal Legend as The Hunter and Star Warped as co-narrator Brian. Posehn has also voiced Grunts and various Marines in the 2004 video game Halo 2. Posehn appeared in the commercial "Ink Fairy" for Staples office supply store in its ad campaign featuring the "Easy Button." In 2006, Posehn co-wrote the comic book The Last Christmas with writer Gerry Duggan, published by Image Comics (). In April 2009 Posehn hosted the first American "Golden Gods Awards" for metal music hosted by Revolver Magazine. As part of the Marvel NOW! initiative Posehn and Gerry Duggan co- wrote the Deadpool ongoing comic series which launched in November 2012, lasting 45 issues. His run ended in April 2015. The first six issues were illustrated by Tony Moore. Since 2012, Posehn has hosted a podcast called Nerd Poker, where a group of comedians play Dungeons & Dragons. Co-hosts include comic book writer Gerry Duggan and comedian Blaine Capatch, among others. Posehn has also participated in the Dungeons & Dragons campaign Force Grey: Lost City of Omu, hosted by Matthew Mercer. Posehn married Melanie Truhett in 2004 and has a son with her. While once known for his use of cannabis, Posehn quit smoking marijuana in 2011. (2006), Fart and Wiener Jokes (2010), The Fartist (2013) The Last Christmas (tpb, 176 pages, 2006, ) Deadpool:, Volume 1: Dead Presidents (collects Deadpool (Marvel Now!) vol. 3 #1-6, 154 pages, Marvel Comics, softcover, May 2013), Volume 2: Soul Hunter (collects Deadpool (Marvel Now!) vol. 3 #7-12, 137 pages, Marvel Comics, softcover, August 2013), Volume 3: The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (collects Deadpool (Marvel Now!) vol. 3 #13-19, 160 pages, Marvel Comics, softcover, January 2014), Volume 4: Deadpool vs. S.H.I.E.L.D. (collects Deadpool (Marvel Now!) vol. 3 #20-25, 136 pages, Marvel Comics, softcover, June 2014), Volume 5: The Wedding of Deadpool (collects Deadpool (Marvel Now!) vol. 3 #26-28 and Deadpool Annual #1, 168 pages, Marvel Comics, softcover, August 2014), Volume 6: Original Sin (collects Deadpool (Marvel Now!) vol. 3 #29-34, 144 pages, Marvel Comics, softcover, December 2014), Volume 7: Axis (collects Deadpool (Marvel Now!) vol. 3 #35-40, 136 pages, Marvel Comics, softcover, March 2015), Volume 8: All Good Things (collects Deadpool (Marvel Now!) vol. 3 #41-44, #250, 176 pages, Marvel Comics, softcover, June 2015), Dracula's Gauntlet (collects Deadpool: Dracula's Gauntlet (Marvel Now!) vol. 1 #1-7, 200 pages, Marvel Comics, softcover, November 2014) BrianPosehn.com, Official website, Brian Posehn on MySpace, Brian Posehn at Comedy Central Regular Show (also known as Regular Show in Space during its eighth season) is an American animated television sitcom created by J. G. Quintel for Cartoon Network that aired from September 6, 2010, to January 16, 2017. The series revolves around the lives of two working-class friends, a blue jay named Mordecai and a raccoon named Rigbyboth employed as groundskeepers at a local park. They usually try to solve a simple problem that leads to a surreal, extreme, and often supernatural misadventure. During these misadventures, they interact with the show's other main characters: Benson, Pops, Skips, Muscle Man, and Hi-Five Ghost. Many of Regular Show characters were loosely based on those developed for Quintel's student films at California Institute of the Arts: The Naïve Man from Lolliland and 2 in the AM PM. The former was one of the winners of the 2005 Nicktoons Film Festival and received international attention after being broadcast on Nicktoons Network. Quintel pitched Regular Show for Cartoon Network's Cartoonstitute project, in which the network allowed young artists to create pilots with no notes, which would possibly be optioned as shows. The project was green-lit and it premiered on September 6, 2010. As of May 2013, the program had been watched by approximately 2 to 2.5 million viewers each week. The series has received positive reviews from critics and has developed a following of all ages. Regular Show has been nominated for several awards, including seven Annie Awards, six Primetime Emmy Awards—one of which it won for the episode "Eggscellent" (season 3, episode 18)—and three British Academy Children's Awards. A film based on the series, titled , premiered in 2015. After eight seasons and 261 episodes, the series concluded on January 16, 2017, with the one-hour finale "A Regular Epic Final Battle". The series revolves around the daily lives of two 23-year-old friends, Mordecai (a blue jay), and Rigby (a raccoon). They work as groundskeepers at a park, and spend their days trying to avoid work and entertain themselves by any means. This is much to the chagrin of their manager/boss Benson (a gumball machine) and their coworker Skips (a yeti), but to the delight of their (other) manager/boss Pops (a man with a lollipop-shaped head). Other coworkers include an overweight green male called Muscle Man, and a ghost called Hi-Five Ghost. Regular Show largely grew out of creator J. G. Quintel's life and experiences in college. Quintel attended the California Institute of the Arts, and many of the characters on Regular Show are based on the characters developed for his student films The Naïve Man from Lolliland (2005) and 2 in the AM PM (2006). Both originated as part of a game called "48-hour films", in which students put words into a hat, pulled out one word at midnight and spent a weekend developing ideas for a film. Quintel attended college with Thurop Van Orman and Pendleton Ward, who both went on to work at Cartoon Network Studios with Quintel; Van Orman created The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack and Ward created Adventure Time. Quintel concurrently worked on Camp Lazlo and as creative director on The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack while completing his degree. He was later invited to pitch for Cartoon Network's Cartoonstitute, a project to showcase short films created without the interference of network executives and focus testing, J. G. Quintel returned to the characters from his films, put them together with newer characters and created a pilot. Quintel wanted to present a visual pitch rather than a verbal one, believing the idea would make little sense otherwise. He storyboarded the idea for the pilot, and Craig McCracken and Rob Renzetti liked his presentation. Regular Show was one of two series from the project that were green-lit (the other show being Secret Mountain Fort Awesome, based on the Cartoonstitute short Uncle Grandpa, which in turn became its own series later on). The project was eventually scrapped and never premiered on television. The character of Mordecai embodies Quintel during his college years, specifically at CalArts; Quintel said, "That's that time when you're hanging out with your friends and getting into stupid situations, but you're also taking it seriously enough." The character of Rigby was randomly developed when Quintel drew a raccoon hula-hooping. He liked the design and developed the character of Rigby to be far less responsible than his companion. The show is inspired by some British television series and video games. Episodes are produced using storyboarding and hand-drawn animation, and each episode takes roughly nine months to create. Quintel recruited several independent comic book artists to draw the show's animated elements; their style matched closely Quintel's ideas for the series. The show's soundtrack comprises original music composed by Mark Mothersbaugh and licensed songs. While preparing for the beginning of the show, Quintel looked for young, independent, comic artists to compose the show's storyboard artists; he thought that the style would closely match that of Regular Show. He looked through blogs and convention panels for the "total package", which he said was the ability to write and draw; something that many independent comic book artists possess. In addition, Quintel attended many open shows at CalArtsan eight-hour festival of student animation. The style and sensibility of Regular Show was difficult to work with in the beginning; the artists struggled to create a natural, sitcom-like sound for the series. Regular Show was inspired by The Simpsons and Beavis and Butt-Head, and Quintel credited the stylistic elements of Joe Murray's Rocko's Modern Life and Camp Lazlo as working their way into his style. Video games Street Fighter, Shadowrun and ToeJam & Earl—which Quintel played when he was a child—inspired the series, as did some British television programs. Quintel's interest in British television was influenced by his British roommate at CalArts, who introduced him to The League of Gentlemen, The IT Crowd, Little Britain, The Office and The Mighty Boosh; the latter was very influential to Quintel and would later influence the humor in Regular Show. The process of writing a script for Regular Show begins with the staff writers playing "writers games" for inspiration to find an idea that they find enjoyable. Once an idea is approved, the premise of the episode is written and passed to the storyboard artists, who create the dialogue. The writers try to make the conversations feel natural to the audience, using examples from their own experiences. The script is then shown to the network executives, who give notes on what should be added or changed. The plot generally begins with a basic problem that the characters must overcome. While the protagonists work on their task, a magical, supernatural, or strange element appears and complicates the initially simple problem. The writers decided to follow this narrative structure to take advantage of the animation. The series is rated TV-PG-V. Cartoon Network told Quintel early on that they wanted to "age it up from the TV-Y7 stuff we'd been doing in the past". This direction led the crew to use adult-oriented humor with innuendos and drug and alcohol references because they wanted to cater for both the younger and adult audiences. The writers generally make these jokes subtle. The show also makes use of sub- textual adult humor through music. One of the program's storyboard artists, Calvin Wong, said that he enjoys the limitations set by writing for the show since the adult-oriented jokes that are approved are satisfying. The plots of the episodes are influenced by the writers' and Quintel's personal experiences, such as performing prank telephone calls or accepting an eating challenge from a restaurant. The show often references 1980s culture, using music and electronic devices from that era because many factors from the decade left a positive influence on Quintel. The show also makes references to modern social trends such as viral internet videos. The voice acting of the series is relatively low-key, and the intention was to make most of the characters sound natural and conversational. Quintel wanted to make the show listenable and given contrast to most other cartoons, which often are difficult for adults to listen to. The main cast consists of voice acting veterans Mark Hamill, who portrays Skips and Roger Craig Smith, who plays Thomas. William Salyers plays the voice of Rigby, Janie Haddad portrays Margaret and Quintel's former CalArts classmate Sam Marin voices Benson, Pops, and Muscle Man. Quintel portrays Mordecai and Hi-Five Ghost. Members of the production staff have voiced several characters throughout the series; these include Minty Lewis, Toby Jones, Andress Salaff, and Matt Price. The Regular Show cast record their lines together in group as opposed to individual recording sessions for each actor; this is to help the show's dialogue sound natural. The series regularly uses guest voice actors for recurring characters; these guests include Steven Blum, Courtenay Taylor, David Ogden Stiers, Robin Atkin Downes, Jeff Bennett, Jennifer Hale, David Kaye, Fred Tatasciore, Matthew Yang King, and Julian Holloway. Each episode of Regular Show takes about nine months to complete. Quintel and his 35-member team develop each episode at Cartoon Network Studios in Burbank, California. The script is illustrated in rough hand-drawn images, known as storyboards. The storyboards are then animated and mixed with the corresponding dialogue to create the animatic, which is then sent to be approved by the network. The show's assets (backgrounds, character designs, props) are then assembled to be sent to Saerom Animation in South Korea, where the actual animation production of the episode is performed. When finished, the episode is sent to Sabre Media Studios back in California. Music and sound effects are created and the final episode is mixed and completed. The process allows the production team to work concurrently on dozens of episodes at different stages of production. Although most modern animation has switched to hybrid methods such as the Cintiq, Regular Show has been described as "far more low-fi", and is animated traditionally by hand using paper which is then digitally composited and painted with digital ink and paint. Although Cintiqs were initially optioned to be used for the program, Quintel has stated that he has felt more comfortable working on paper, considering it to be more organic and more representative of each artist's individual style. Board artist Calvin Wong said, "the tools of the trade as being pencils, pens, white out and occasionally light boxes and electric erasers". Regular Show has no regular theme music; instead at the beginning of each episode, a blurred sound (provided by Quintel) followed by a ticking a clock is heard over the title cards. The main composer of the series is Mark Mothersbaugh, one of the founding members of the band Devo. As Quintel was developing the pilot he considered asking Mothersbaugh to create the music for the show. The episode's animatic was sent to Mothersbaugh along with a request for him to join the show's staff and crew. Regular Show will occasionally make use of licensed songsmostly from the 1980s; this began when Quintel and the staff writers started recording the animatics using copyrighted songs for the montage scenes. The network executives watched the animatic and asked the crew if they wanted to use some of the songs for the finished episodes. Quintel said that the songs are chosen for their suitability for the scene, whether they sound good and are affordable. Quintel enjoys using the songs in the episodes because adult viewers might remember them and younger viewers might appreciate older music. Songs have included "You're the Best Around", "Mississippi Queen" and "A Holly Jolly Christmas". The show has also used several songs not from the 80s such as "Pale Blue Eyes" by The Velvet Underground from the movie and "Heroes" by David Bowie from the series finale. Another notable song used in the show is "Here Comes a Regular" by The Replacements, a band often considered as underground. The show also produces original songs which are used on the episodes. These are generally composed by Mothersbaugh and written by one of the staff's storyboard artists. "Summertime Loving, Loving in the Summer (Time)" was written by the staff member Sean Szeles and appeared in the episode "This Is My Jam" (season 2, episode 13). Most episodes of Regular Show last 11 minutes; episodes are usually paired together to fill a half-hour program slot. 261 episodes in eight seasons have been completed and broadcast. The first season began on September 6, 2010, with the episode "The Power" and ended on November 22, 2010, with "Mordecai and the Rigbys". The second season began on November 29, 2010, with "Ello Gov'nor" and ended on August 1, 2011, with "Karaoke Video". The third season premiered on September 19, 2011, with the episode "Stick Hockey" and concluded on September 3, 2012, with "Bad Kiss". The fourth season premiered on October 1, 2012, with the half-hour special "Exit 9B" and concluded on August 12, 2013 with "Steak Me Amadeus". The fifth season premiered on September 2, 2013, with the episodes "Laundry Woes" and "Silver Dude" and concluded on August 14, 2014, with "Real Date". The sixth season premiered on October 9, 2014, with "Maxin' and Relaxin'", and ended on June 25, 2015 with "Dumped at the Altar". The seventh season premiered with "Dumptown U.S.A." on June 26, 2015 and ended with the half-hour "Rigby's Graduation Day Special" on June 30, 2016. The eighth and final season, titled Regular Show in Space, started on September 26, 2016 with "One Space Day at a Time" and ended on January 16, 2017 with "A Regular Epic Final Battle". Mordecai and Rigby had cameo appearances on the Uncle Grandpa episode "Pizza Eve", along with other Cartoon Network characters from currently running and ended cartoons. Mordecai, Rigby and High Five Ghost, make a small cameo in The Amazing World of Gumball episode "The Boredom", along with the titular characters from Uncle Grandpa and Clarence. Mordecai and High Five Ghost appear in the special, "Crossover Nexus", along with many other Cartoon Network shows. Regular Show became an instant hit. Its first and second seasons, broadcast on Monday nights, ranked number one in its time slot among all key boy demos across all of television according to Nielsen Media Research. The pilot's premiere was watched by 2.097 million viewers. For the following episodes of the first season, viewership increased by over 10 percent from the time period of the previous year. For instance, the entry was viewed by 1.339 million children aged 2–11, a 65 percent increase from the previous year. It was also watched by 716,000 children aged 9–14; a 43 percent increase. The second- season premiere, "Ello Gov'nor", marked a decline from the first-season premiere's figures. It gained 2.067 million views, but it marked an increase from the first-season finale, which was watched by 2.028 million viewers. The third-season premiere, "Stick Hockey", saw a bigger decline in viewers, recording 2 million views. As the series continued its ratings grew; the fourth-season premiere, "Exit 9B", was watched by 3.047 million viewersa significant increase from previous seasons. Regular Show received critical acclaim from critics. A reviewer from IGN, R.L. Shaffer, called the show zany, absurd, bizarre, and hilarious. He praised the show's writing, and said that it included "snappy dialogue, odd characters, and clever storieseach more irrelevant than the lastRegular Show never ceases to tickle the funny bone". He finished his review by calling the show "a pretty awesome piece of refreshing off-the-wall comedy" and wrote that it's "humorously animated, brazenly silly and almost always funny". DVD Talk's Neil Lumbrad described the show as "offbeat sense of humor with a lot of randomness that makes its title both peculiar and hilarious" and compared it to the original Looney Tunes shorts and other cartoonsincluding The Powerpuff Girls, Dexter's Laboratory, and Johnny Bravowhich Cartoon Network has produced. He wrote that the network has found "animated gold with Regular Show, which is too offbeat and unique to be called regular" and that it is a "comedic animated gem worthy of being discovered for years to come". Lumbrad ended his review by recommending the show and calling it "one truly awesome cartoon with a lot of good humor to enjoy." The A.V. Club's critic, Alasdair Wilkins, said that compared to Cartoon Network's other animated comedy, Adventure Time, he does not consider the series to be funny, and describing it as "more pleasingly weird". He said that the episodes' plots can occasionally be too complex to explore completely in the show's 11 minutes, and also said that the usual story setup can make some stories feel structurally the same as others. Wilkins said that he considers that the show is at its best when it focuses on the jokes, the character moments and inventive ways to use animation. Kevin McFarland, also of The A.V. Club, said that he considers the series a thrill to watch; he complemented the animation style, the characters, and the use of motifs. In January 2013, Boom! Studios announced that it would develop a comic book series based on the show and that KC Green would be writing the script and Allison Strejlav would be in charge of the illustrations. The first issue officially was released on May 15, 2013. A series of original graphic novels began publication in 2014. The first, titled Hydration, was written by Rachel Connor and illustrated by Tessa Stone. It was followed by Noir Means Noir, Buddy (2015), A Clash of Consoles (2016), Wrasslesplosion (2017), The Meatening (2018), and Comic Conned (2018). On November 9, 2011, a game called "Nightmare-Athon" was released in App Store for iOS. On January 24, 2013, a game called "Ride 'Em Rigby" was released in iOS. On April 8, 2013, J. G. Quintel announced on his Twitter page that an official Regular Show video game was in development at the time, which is titled . It was developed by WayForward Technologies and published by D3 Publisher for Nintendo 3DS. The video game was released on October 29, 2013. Mordecai and Rigby became playable characters in a video game called which was released for the Nintendo 3DS, PlayStation 4, Xbox One on November 8, 2016 and the Nintendo Switch on October 31, 2017. Jazwares has produced an assortment of 2-, 6-, 7-, and 10-inch licensed action figures and plush toys for the series. "Collectable Figures" have also been released along with other themed merchandise, such as "80's Bobbleheads", "Pullback Custom Cruisers" and "Wrestling Buddies". There have been many graphic T-shirts officially licensed through clothing retailers Hot Topic, We Love Fine, and Threadless. Looney Labs also released a Regular Show-themed version of the card game Fluxx on July 25, 2014. At the Cartoon Network 2015/2016 upfront, it was announced they were making Regular Show: The Movie. After accidentally creating a "Timenado," slacker groundskeepers Mordecai and Rigby go back in time and battle an evil volleyball coach in order to save the universe — and their friendship. It first screened at The Downtown Independent in LA on August 14, 2015. It was released to digital download on September 1, 2015, it was also released to DVD by Warner Home Video on October 13, 2015, and had its television premiere on November 2015. The movie also screened at select Alamo Drafthouse Cinemas across the United States and it had a select showtime at the SVA Theatre of New York and at the Cinema Montrereal CANADA during October 2015. Adventure Time, Camp Lazlo, The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack