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308_29 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | the person is asleep when they experience it. If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred. Secondly, any sensory experience that is perceived while a person is asleep does not qualify as part of a dream. For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut, this sensory experience is not part of the dream. Lastly, the images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of waking sensory experiences.
Practical philosophy
Aristotle's practical philosophy covers areas such as ethics, politics, economics, and rhetoric.
Ethics
Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the Nicomachean Ethics.
Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (ergon) of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and |
308_30 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | that this function must be an activity of the psuchē (soul) in accordance with reason (logos). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity (the virtuous mean, between the accompanying vices of excess or deficiency) of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, eudaimonia, generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well-being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (ēthikē aretē), often translated as moral or ethical virtue or excellence.
Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (phronesis) and their intellect (nous) can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher.
Politics
In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled Politics. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he |
308_31 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part". He famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal" and argued that humanity's defining factor among others in the animal kingdom is its rationality. Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner.
The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (polis) which functions as a political "community" or "partnership" (koinōnia). The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together." This is distinguished from modern |
308_32 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | approaches, beginning with social contract theory, according to which individuals leave the state of nature because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences."
In Protrepticus, the character 'Aristotle' states:
As Plato's disciple Aristotle was rather skeptical concerning democracy and, following Plato's vague ideas, he developed a coherent theory of integrating various forms of power into a so-called mixed state:
To illustrate this approach, Aristotle proposed a first-of-its-kind mathematical model of voting, albeit textually described, where the democratic principle of "one voter–one vote" is combined with the oligarchic "merit-weighted voting"; for relevant quotes and their translation into mathematical formulas see.
Economics
Aristotle made substantial contributions to economic thought, especially to thought in the Middle Ages. In Politics, Aristotle addresses the city, property, and trade. His response to criticisms of private property, in Lionel Robbins's view, anticipated later proponents of private property among philosophers and economists, as it related to the overall utility of social arrangements. Aristotle believed that although communal arrangements may seem beneficial to society, and that although private property is often blamed for social strife, such evils in fact come from human nature. In Politics, Aristotle offers one of the |
308_33 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | earliest accounts of the origin of money. Money came into use because people became dependent on one another, importing what they needed and exporting the surplus. For the sake of convenience, people then agreed to deal in something that is intrinsically useful and easily applicable, such as iron or silver.
Aristotle's discussions on retail and interest was a major influence on economic thought in the Middle Ages. He had a low opinion of retail, believing that contrary to using money to procure things one needs in managing the household, retail trade seeks to make a profit. It thus uses goods as a means to an end, rather than as an end unto itself. He believed that retail trade was in this way unnatural. Similarly, Aristotle considered making a profit through interest unnatural, as it makes a gain out of the money itself, and not from its use.
Aristotle gave a summary of the function of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time. He wrote that because it is impossible to determine the value of every good through a count of the number of other goods it is worth, the necessity arises of a single universal standard of measurement. Money thus allows for the association of different goods and makes them "commensurable". He goes on to state that money is also useful for |
308_34 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | future exchange, making it a sort of security. That is, "if we do not want a thing now, we shall be able to get it when we do want it".
Rhetoric and poetics
Aristotle's Rhetoric proposes that a speaker can use three basic kinds of appeals to persuade his audience: ethos (an appeal to the speaker's character), pathos (an appeal to the audience's emotion), and logos (an appeal to logical reasoning). He also categorizes rhetoric into three genres: epideictic (ceremonial speeches dealing with praise or blame), forensic (judicial speeches over guilt or innocence), and deliberative (speeches calling on an audience to make a decision on an issue). Aristotle also outlines two kinds of rhetorical proofs: enthymeme (proof by syllogism) and paradeigma (proof by example).
Aristotle writes in his Poetics that epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, painting, sculpture, music, and dance are all fundamentally acts of mimesis ("imitation"), each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner. He applies the term mimesis both as a property of a work of art and also as the product of the artist's |
308_35 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | intention and contends that the audience's realisation of the mimesis is vital to understanding the work itself. Aristotle states that mimesis is a natural instinct of humanity that separates humans from animals and that all human artistry "follows the pattern of nature". Because of this, Aristotle believed that each of the mimetic arts possesses what Stephen Halliwell calls "highly structured procedures for the achievement of their purposes." For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.
While it is believed that Aristotle's Poetics originally comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry. The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, |
308_36 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes Poetics with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic. Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and studied the fables of Aesop.
Views on women
Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element. On this ground, proponents of feminist metaphysics have accused Aristotle of misogyny and sexism. However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his Rhetoric that the things that lead to happiness need to be in women as well as men.
Influence
More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one |
308_37 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | of the most influential people who ever lived. He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher Bryan Magee, "it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did". Among countless other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of formal logic, pioneered the study of zoology, and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method. Taneli Kukkonen, writing in The Classical Tradition, observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is unmatched, and his reach in influencing "every branch of intellectual enterprise" including Western ethical and political theory, theology, rhetoric and literary analysis is equally long. As a result, Kukkonen argues, any analysis of reality today "will almost certainly carry Aristotelian overtones ... evidence of an exceptionally forceful mind." Jonathan Barnes wrote that "an account of Aristotle's intellectual afterlife would be little less than a history of European thought".
On his successor, Theophrastus
Aristotle's pupil and successor, Theophrastus, wrote the History of Plants, a pioneering work in botany. Some of his technical terms remain in use, such as carpel |
308_38 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | carpel from carpos, fruit, and pericarp, from pericarpion, seed chamber.
Theophrastus was much less concerned with formal causes than Aristotle was, instead pragmatically describing how plants functioned.
On later Greek philosophers
The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school. Aristotle's notable students included Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"
On |
308_39 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | Hellenistic science
After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly. It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found.
The first medical teacher at Alexandria, Herophilus of Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while the former do not. Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, natural theology) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. Ernst Mayr states that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance."
On Byzantine scholars
Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were Philoponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and Stephen of Alexandria |
308_40 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | in the early seventh century. John Philoponus stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought. Philoponus questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws and introducing the theory of impetus to explain his observations.
After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and Michael of Ephesus reappeared in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by Anna Comnena.
On the medieval Islamic world
Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early Islamic theology. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle, as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists and scholars. Averroes, Avicenna and Alpharabius, who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced Thomas Aquinas and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. Alkindus greatly admired Aristotle's philosophy, and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the "exemplar" for all future philosophers. Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the "First Teacher". The title "teacher" was first given to Aristotle by Muslim scholars, and |
308_41 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of Dante) who were influenced by the tradition of Islamic philosophy.
On medieval Europe
With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early medieval Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the Organon made by Boethius. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by Gerard of Cremona, and from the original Greek, such as those by James of Venice and William of Moerbeke. After the Scholastic Thomas Aquinas wrote his Summa Theologica, working from Moerbeke's translations and calling Aristotle "The Philosopher", the demand for Aristotle's writings grew, and the Greek manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the Renaissance. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Boethius, Peter Abelard, and John Buridan worked on Aristotelian logic.
The medieval English poet Chaucer describes his student as being happy by |
308_42 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | having
A cautionary medieval tale held that Aristotle advised his pupil Alexander to avoid the king's seductive mistress, Phyllis, but was himself captivated by her, and allowed her to ride him. Phyllis had secretly told Alexander what to expect, and he witnessed Phyllis proving that a woman's charms could overcome even the greatest philosopher's male intellect. Artists such as Hans Baldung produced a series of illustrations of the popular theme.
The Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in The Divine Comedy:
Besides Dante's fellow poets, the classical figure that most influenced the Comedy is Aristotle. Dante built up the philosophy of the Comedy with the works of Aristotle as a foundation, just as the scholastics used Aristotle as the basis for their thinking. Dante knew Aristotle directly from Latin translations of his works and indirectly quotations in the works of Albert Magnus. Dante even acknowledges Aristotle's influence explicitly in the poem, specifically when Virgil justifies the Inferno's structure by citing the Nicomachean Ethics.
On medieval Judaism
Moses Maimonides (considered to be the foremost intellectual figure of medieval Judaism) adopted Aristotelianism from the Islamic scholars and based his Guide for the Perplexed on it and that became the basis of Jewish scholastic |
308_43 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | philosophy. Maimonides also considered Aristotle to be the greatest philosopher that ever lived, and styled him as the "chief of the philosophers". Also, in his letter to Samuel ibn Tibbon, Maimonides observes that there is no need for Samuel to study the writings of philosophers who preceded Aristotle because the works of the latter are "sufficient by themselves and [superior] to all that were written before them. His intellect, Aristotle's is the extreme limit of human intellect, apart from him upon whom the divine emanation has flowed forth to such an extent that they reach the level of prophecy, there being no level higher".
On Early Modern scientists
In the Early Modern period, scientists such as William Harvey in England and Galileo Galilei in Italy reacted against the theories of Aristotle and other classical era thinkers like Galen, establishing new theories based to some degree on observation and experiment. Harvey demonstrated the circulation of the blood, establishing that the heart functioned as a pump rather than being the seat of the soul and the controller of the body's heat, as Aristotle thought. Galileo used more doubtful arguments to displace Aristotle's physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever their weight.
On 18th/19th-century thinkers
The |
308_44 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | thinkers
The 19th-century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle. Aristotle rigidly separated action from production, and argued for the deserved subservience of some people ("natural slaves"), and the natural superiority (virtue, arete) of others. It was Martin Heidegger, not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition.
The English mathematician George Boole fully accepted Aristotle's logic, but decided "to go under, over, and beyond" it with his system of algebraic logic in his 1854 book The Laws of Thought. This gives logic a mathematical foundation with equations, enables it to solve equations as well as check validity, and allows it to handle a wider class of problems by expanding propositions of any number of terms, not just two.
Charles Darwin regarded Aristotle as the most important contributor to the subject of biology. In an 1882 letter he wrote that "Linnaeus and Cuvier have been my two gods, though in very different ways, but they were mere schoolboys to old Aristotle". Also, in later editions of the book "On the Origin of Species', Darwin traced evolutionary ideas as |
308_45 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | far back as Aristotle; the text he cites is a summary by Aristotle of the ideas of the earlier Greek philosopher Empedocles.
James Joyce's favoured philosopher was Aristotle, whom he considered to be "the greatest thinker of all times". Samuel Taylor Coleridge said: Everybody is born either a Platonist or an Aristotelian. Ayn Rand acknowledged Aristotle as her greatest influence and remarked that in the history of philosophy she could only recommend "three A's"—Aristotle, Aquinas, and Ayn Rand. She also regarded Aristotle as the greatest of all philosophers.
Karl Marx considered Aristotle to be the "greatest thinker of antiquity", and called him a "giant thinker", a "genius", and "the great scholar".
Modern rejection and rehabilitation
During the 20th century, Aristotle's work was widely criticized. The philosopher Bertrand Russell
argued that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell called Aristotle's ethics "repulsive", and labelled his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell stated that these errors made it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembered what an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.
The |
308_46 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | predecessors.
The Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis wrote that Aristotle and his predecessors showed the difficulty of science by "proceed[ing] so readily to frame a theory of such a general character" on limited evidence from their senses. In 1985, the biologist Peter Medawar could still state in "pure seventeenth century" tones that Aristotle had assembled "a strange and generally speaking rather tiresome farrago of hearsay, imperfect observation, wishful thinking and credulity amounting to downright gullibility". Hobbes rejected one of the most famous theses of Aristotle's politics, namely that human beings are naturally suited to life in a polis and do not fully realize their natures until they exercise the role of citizen.
By the start of the 21st century, however, Aristotle was taken more seriously: Kukkonen noted that "In the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive as a thinker wrestling with the full weight of the Greek philosophical tradition." Alasdair MacIntyre has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans. Kukkonen observed, too, that "that |
308_47 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | "that most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander" remained current, as in the 2004 film Alexander, while the "firm rules" of Aristotle's theory of drama have ensured a role for the Poetics in Hollywood.
Biologists continue to be interested in Aristotle's thinking. Armand Marie Leroi has reconstructed Aristotle's biology, while Niko Tinbergen's four questions, based on Aristotle's four causes, are used to analyse animal behaviour; they examine function, phylogeny, mechanism, and ontogeny.
Surviving works
Corpus Aristotelicum
The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organization of Immanuel Bekker's Royal Prussian Academy edition (Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica, Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works.
Loss and preservation
Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium of that era. His writings are divisible into two groups: |
308_48 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | the "exoteric", intended for the public, and the "esoteric", for use within the Lyceum school. Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterization from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with a view to subsequent publication, the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes not intended for publication. Cicero's description of Aristotle's literary style as "a river of gold" must have applied to the published works, not the surviving notes. A major question in the history of Aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings were all lost, and how the ones now possessed came to be found. The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today.
Legacy
Depictions
Paintings
Aristotle has been depicted by major artists including Lucas Cranach the Elder, Justus van Gent, Raphael, Paolo Veronese, Jusepe de Ribera, Rembrandt, and Francesco Hayez over the centuries. Among the best-known |
308_49 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | best-known depictions is Raphael's fresco The School of Athens, in the Vatican's Apostolic Palace, where the figures of Plato and Aristotle are central to the image, at the architectural vanishing point, reflecting their importance. Rembrandt's Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, too, is a celebrated work, showing the knowing philosopher and the blind Homer from an earlier age: as the art critic Jonathan Jones writes, "this painting will remain one of the greatest and most mysterious in the world, ensnaring us in its musty, glowing, pitch-black, terrible knowledge of time."
Sculptures
Eponyms
The Aristotle Mountains in Antarctica are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture, in his book Meteorology, the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and called it Antarctica. Aristoteles is a crater on the Moon bearing the classical form of Aristotle's name.
See also
Aristotelian Society
Aristotle's Biology
Conimbricenses
Perfectionism
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
Further reading
The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following is only a small selection.
Ackrill, J. L. (1997). Essays on |
308_50 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | Plato and Aristotle, Oxford University Press.
These translations are available in several places online; see External links.
Bakalis, Nikolaos. (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing, .
Bolotin, David (1998). An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing. Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works.
Burnyeat, Myles F. et al. (1979). Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics. Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy.
Code, Alan (1995). Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76.
De Groot, Jean (2014). Aristotle's Empiricism: Experience and Mechanics in the 4th century BC, Parmenides Publishing, .
Frede, Michael (1987). Essays in Ancient Philosophy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Gendlin, Eugene T. (2012). Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima , Volume 1: Books I & II; Volume 2: |
308_51 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | 2: Book III. The Focusing Institute.
Gill, Mary Louise (1989). Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity. Princeton University Press.
Jori, Alberto (2003). Aristotele, Bruno Mondadori (Prize 2003 of the "International Academy of the History of Science"), .
Knight, Kelvin (2007). Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre, Polity Press.
Lewis, Frank A. (1991). Substance and Predication in Aristotle. Cambridge University Press.
Lord, Carnes (1984). Introduction to The Politics, by Aristotle. Chicago University Press.
Loux, Michael J. (1991). Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Maso, Stefano (Ed.), Natali, Carlo (Ed.), Seel, Gerhard (Ed.) (2012) Reading Aristotle: Physics VII. 3: What is Alteration? Proceedings of the International ESAP-HYELE Conference, Parmenides Publishing. .
[Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R.R.K. Sorabji, |
308_52 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | eds.(1975). Articles on Aristotle Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.]
Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics. Hackett.
Scaltsas, T. (1994). Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics. Cornell University Press.
Strauss, Leo (1964). "On Aristotle's Politics", in The City and Man, Rand McNally.
External links
At the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
At the Internet Classics Archive
From the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
Collections of works
At Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Perseus Project at Tufts University
At the University of Adelaide
P. Remacle
The 11-volume 1837 Bekker edition of Aristotle's Works in Greek (PDFDJVU)
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309_0 | An American in Paris | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An%20American%20in%20Paris | An American in Paris
An American in Paris is a jazz-influenced orchestral piece by American composer George Gershwin first performed in 1928. It was inspired by the time that Gershwin had spent in Paris and evokes the sights and energy of the French capital during the Années folles.
Gershwin scored the piece for the standard instruments of the symphony orchestra plus celesta, saxophones, and automobile horns. He brought back four Parisian taxi horns for the New York premiere of the composition, which took place on December 13, 1928, in Carnegie Hall, with Walter Damrosch conducting the New York Philharmonic. It was Damrosch who had commissioned Gershwin to write his Concerto in F following the earlier success of Rhapsody in Blue (1924). He completed the orchestration on November 18, less than four weeks before the work's premiere. He collaborated on the original program notes with critic and composer Deems Taylor.
Background
Although the story is likely apocryphal, Gershwin is said to have been attracted by Maurice Ravel's unusual chords, and Gershwin went on his first trip to Paris in 1926 ready to study with Ravel. |
309_1 | An American in Paris | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An%20American%20in%20Paris | After his initial student audition with Ravel turned into a sharing of musical theories, Ravel said he could not teach him, saying, "Why be a second-rate Ravel when you can be a first-rate Gershwin?"
Gershwin strongly encouraged Ravel to come to the United States for a tour. To this end, upon his return to New York, Gershwin joined the efforts of Ravel's friend Robert Schmitz, a pianist Ravel had met during the war, to urge Ravel to tour the U.S. Schmitz was the head of Pro Musica, promoting Franco-American musical relations, and was able to offer Ravel a $10,000 fee for the tour, an enticement Gershwin knew would be important to Ravel.
Gershwin greeted Ravel in New York in March 1928 during a party held for Ravel's birthday by Éva Gauthier. Ravel's tour reignited Gershwin's desire to return to Paris, which he and his brother Ira did after meeting Ravel. Ravel's high praise of Gershwin in an introductory letter to Nadia Boulanger caused Gershwin to seriously consider taking much more time to study abroad in Paris. Yet |
309_2 | An American in Paris | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An%20American%20in%20Paris | after he played for her, she told him she could not teach him. Boulanger gave Gershwin basically the same advice she gave all her accomplished master students: "What could I give you that you haven't already got?" This did not set Gershwin back, as his real intent abroad was to complete a new work based on Paris and perhaps a second rhapsody for piano and orchestra to follow his Rhapsody in Blue. Paris at this time hosted many expatriate writers, among them Ezra Pound, W. B. Yeats, Ernest Hemingway, and artist Pablo Picasso.
Composition
Gershwin based An American in Paris on a melodic fragment called "Very Parisienne", written in 1926 on his first visit to Paris as a gift to his hosts, Robert and Mabel Schirmer. Gershwin called it "a rhapsodic ballet"; it is written freely and in a much more modern idiom than his prior works.
Gershwin explained in Musical America, "My purpose here is to portray the impressions of an American visitor in Paris as he strolls about the city, listens to the various street noises, and absorbs the French atmosphere."
The piece is structured into five sections, which culminate in a |
309_3 | An American in Paris | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An%20American%20in%20Paris | loose ABA format. Gershwin's first A episode introduces the two main "walking" themes in the "Allegretto grazioso" and develops a third theme in the "Subito con brio". The style of this A section is written in the typical French style of composers Claude Debussy and Les Six. This A section featured duple meter, singsong rhythms, and diatonic melodies with the sounds of oboe, English horn, and taxi horns. The B section's "Andante ma con ritmo deciso" introduces the American Blues and spasms of homesickness. The "Allegro" that follows continues to express homesickness in a faster twelve-bar blues. In the B section, Gershwin uses common time, syncopated rhythms, and bluesy melodies with the sounds of trumpet, saxophone, and snare drum. "Moderato con grazia" is the last A section that returns to the themes set in A. After recapitulating the "walking" themes, Gershwin overlays the slow blues theme from section B in the final "Grandioso".
Response
Gershwin did not particularly like Walter Damrosch's interpretation at the world premiere of An American in Paris. He stated that Damrosch's |
309_4 | An American in Paris | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An%20American%20in%20Paris | Damrosch's sluggish, dragging tempo caused him to walk out of the hall during a matinee performance of this work. The audience, according to Edward Cushing, responded with "a demonstration of enthusiasm impressively genuine in contrast to the conventional applause which new music, good and bad, ordinarily arouses."
Critics believed that An American in Paris was better crafted than Gershwin's Concerto in F. Some did not think it belonged in a program with classical composers César Franck, Richard Wagner, or Guillaume Lekeu on its premiere. Gershwin responded to the critics:
Instrumentation
An American in Paris was originally scored for 3 flutes (3rd doubling on piccolo), 2 oboes, English horn, 2 clarinets in B-flat, bass clarinet in B-flat, 2 bassoons, contrabassoon, 4 horns in F, 3 trumpets in B-flat, 3 trombones, tuba, timpani, snare drum, bass drum, triangle, wood block, ratchet, cymbals, low and high tom-toms, xylophone, glockenspiel, celesta, 4 taxi horns labeled as A, B, C, and |
309_5 | An American in Paris | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An%20American%20in%20Paris | D with circles around them, alto saxophone, tenor saxophone, baritone saxophone (all saxophones doubling soprano saxophones), and strings. Although most modern audiences have heard the taxi horns using the notes A, B, C, and D, it had been Gershwin's intention to use the notes A4, B4, D5, and A4. It is likely that in labeling the taxi horns as A, B, C, and D with circles, he was referring to the four horns, and not the notes that they played.
A major revision of the work by composer and arranger F. Campbell-Watson simplified the instrumentation by reducing the saxophones to only three instruments: alto, tenor and baritone. The soprano saxophone doublings were eliminated to avoid changing instruments, and the contrabassoon was also deleted. This became the standard performing edition until 2000, when Gershwin specialist Jack Gibbons made his own restoration of the original orchestration of An American in Paris, working directly from Gershwin's original manuscript, including the restoration of Gershwin's soprano saxophone parts removed in Campbell-Watson's revision. Gibbons' restored orchestration of An American in |
309_6 | An American in Paris | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An%20American%20in%20Paris | Paris was performed at London's Queen Elizabeth Hall on July 9, 2000, by the City of Oxford Orchestra conducted by Levon Parikian.
William Daly arranged the score for piano solo; this was published by New World Music in 1929.
Preservation status
On September 22, 2013, it was announced that a musicological critical edition of the full orchestral score would be eventually released. The Gershwin family, working in conjunction with the Library of Congress and the University of Michigan, were working to make scores available to the public that represent Gershwin's true intent. It was unknown whether the critical score would include the four minutes of material Gershwin later deleted from the work (such as the restatement of the blues theme after the faster 12 bar blues section), or if the score would document changes in the orchestration during Gershwin's composition process.
The score to An American in Paris was scheduled to be issued first in a series of scores to be released. The entire project was expected to take 30 to 40 years to complete, but An American in Paris was planned to be an early volume in the series.
Two urtext editions of the work were published by the German publisher B-Note Music in |
309_7 | An American in Paris | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An%20American%20in%20Paris | 2015. The changes made by Campbell-Watson were withdrawn in both editions. In the extended urtext, 120 bars of music were re-integrated. Conductor Walter Damrosch had cut them shortly before the first performance.
On September 9, 2017, The Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra gave the world premiere of the long-awaited critical edition of the piece prepared by Mark Clague, director of the Gershwin initiative at the University of Michigan. This performance was of the original 1928 orchestration, an alteration usually attributed to F. Campbell-Watson.
Recordings
An American in Paris has been frequently recorded. The first recording was made for the Victor Talking Machine Company in 1929 with Nathaniel Shilkret conducting the Victor Symphony Orchestra, drawn from members of the Philadelphia Orchestra. Gershwin was on hand to "supervise" the recording; however, Shilkret was reported to be in charge and eventually asked the composer to leave the recording studio. Then, a little later, Shilkret discovered there was no one to play the brief celesta solo during the slow section, so he hastily asked Gershwin if he might play the solo; Gershwin said he could and so he briefly participated in the |
309_8 | An American in Paris | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An%20American%20in%20Paris | actual recording. This recording is believed to use the taxi horns in the way that Gershwin had intended using the notes A-flat, B-flat, a higher D, and a lower A.
The radio broadcast of the September 8, 1937, Hollywood Bowl George Gershwin Memorial Concert, in which An American in Paris, also conducted by Shilkret, was second on the program, was recorded and was released in 1998 in a two-CD set.
Arthur Fiedler and the Boston Pops Orchestra recorded the work for RCA Victor, including one of the first stereo recordings of the music.
In 1945, Arturo Toscanini conducting the NBC Symphony Orchestra recorded the piece for RCA Victor, one of the few commercial recordings Toscanini made of music by an American composer.
The Seattle Symphony also recorded a version in 1990 of Gershwin's original score, before he made numerous edits resulting in the score as we hear it today.
Harry James released a version of the blues section on his 1953 album One Night Stand, recorded live at the Aragon Ballroom in Chicago (Columbia GL 522 and CL 522).
Use in film
In 1951, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer released the musical |
309_9 | An American in Paris | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An%20American%20in%20Paris | and CL 522).
Use in film
In 1951, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer released the musical film, An American in Paris, featuring Gene Kelly and Leslie Caron. Winning the 1951 Best Picture Oscar, and numerous other awards, the film was directed by Vincente Minnelli, featured many tunes of Gershwin, and concluded with an extensive, elaborate dance sequence built around the An American in Paris symphonic poem (arranged for the film by Johnny Green), costing $500,000.
References
Further reading
Rimler, Walter. George Gershwin – An Intimate Portrait. Urbana, University of Illinois Press, 2009. chapter 6: Paris, pp. 28–33.
External links
Scores, marked by Leonard Bernstein, Andre Kostelanetz, Erich Leinsdorf; New York Philharmonic archives
1944 recording by the New York Philharmonic conducted by Artur Rodziński
, New York Philharmonic, Leonard Bernstein, 1959.
1928 compositions
Compositions by George Gershwin
Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients
Music about Paris
Music commissioned by the New York Philharmonic
Symphonic poems |
316_0 | Academy Award for Best Production Design | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Production%20Design | Academy Award for Best Production Design
The Academy Award for Best Production Design recognizes achievement for art direction in film. The category's original name was Best Art Direction, but was changed to its current name in 2012 for the 85th Academy Awards. This change resulted from the Art Director's branch of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) being renamed the Designer's branch. Since 1947, the award is shared with the set decorator(s). It is awarded to the best interior design in a film.
The films below are listed with their production year (for example, the 2000 Academy Award for Best Art Direction is given to a film from 1999). In the lists below, the winner of the award for each year is shown first, followed by the other nominees in alphabetical order.
Superlatives
Winners and nominees
1920s
1930s
1940s
1950s
1960s
1970s
1980s
1990s
2000s
2010s
2020s
See also
BAFTA Award for Best Production Design
Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Production Design
Notes
References
Best Production Design
Awards for best art direction |
324_0 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | Academy Awards
The Academy Awards, popularly known as the Oscars, are awards for artistic and technical merit in the film industry. They are regarded by many as the most prestigious and significant awards in the entertainment industry worldwide. Given annually by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), the awards are an international recognition of excellence in cinematic achievements, as assessed by the Academy's voting membership. The various category winners are awarded a copy of a golden statuette as a trophy, officially called the "Academy Award of Merit", although more commonly referred to by its nickname, the "Oscar". The statuette depicts a knight rendered in the Art Deco style.
The award was originally sculpted by George Stanley from a design sketch by Cedric Gibbons. AMPAS first presented it in 1929 at a private dinner hosted by Douglas Fairbanks in The Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel in what would become known as the 1st Academy Awards. The Academy Awards ceremony was first broadcast by radio in 1930 and was televised for the first time in 1953. It is the oldest worldwide entertainment awards ceremony and is now televised live worldwide. It is also the oldest of the four major annual American entertainment awards; its equivalents – the Emmy Awards |
324_1 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | for television, the Tony Awards for theater, and the Grammy Awards for music – are modeled after the Academy Awards. A total of 3,140 Oscar statuettes have been awarded since its inception in 1929. They are widely cited as the most prestigious and renowned competitive awards in the field of entertainment.
The 93rd Academy Awards ceremony, honoring the best films of 2020 and early 2021, was held on April 25, 2021, after it was postponed from its original February 28, 2021, schedule due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema. As with the two previous ceremonies, there was no host. The ceremony was broadcast on ABC. It took place at the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles, California for the 19th consecutive year, along with satellite location taking place at the Union Station also in Los Angeles.
History
The first Academy Awards presentation was held on May 16, 1929, at a private dinner function at The Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel with an audience of about 270 people.
The post-awards party was held at the Mayfair Hotel. The cost of guest tickets for that night's ceremony was $5 ($ at 2020 prices). Fifteen statuettes |
324_2 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | were awarded, honoring artists, directors and other participants in the film-making industry of the time, for their works during the 1927–28 period. The ceremony ran for 15 minutes.
Winners were announced to the media three months earlier. That was changed for the second ceremony in 1930. Since then, for the rest of the first decade, the results were given to newspapers for publication at 11:00 pm on the night of the awards. This method was used until 1940 when the Los Angeles Times announced the winners before the ceremony began; as a result, the Academy has, since 1941, used a sealed envelope to reveal the names of the winners.
Milestones
The first Best Actor awarded was Emil Jannings, for his performances in The Last Command and The Way of All Flesh. He had to return to Europe before the ceremony, so the Academy agreed to give him the prize earlier; this made him the first Academy Award winner in history. At that time, winners were recognized for the entirety of their work done in a certain category during the qualifying period; for example, Jannings received the award for two movies in which he starred during that period, and Janet Gaynor later won a single Oscar for |
324_3 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | performances in three films. With the fourth ceremony, however, the system changed, and professionals were honored for a specific performance in a single film. For the first six ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned two calendar years.
At the 29th ceremony, held in 1957, the Best Foreign Language Film category, now known as Best International Feature Film, was introduced. Until then, foreign-language films had been honored with the Special Achievement Award.
Perhaps the most widely seen streaker in history was 34-year-old Robert Opel, who streaked across the stage of The Dorothy Chandler Pavilion in Los Angeles flashing a peace sign on national US television at the 46th Academy Awards in 1974. Bemused host David Niven quipped, "Isn't it fascinating to think that probably the only laugh that man will ever get in his life is by stripping off and showing his shortcomings?" Later, evidence arose suggesting that Opel's appearance was facilitated as a publicity stunt by the show's producer Jack Haley Jr. Robert Metzler, the show's business manager, believed that the incident had been planned in some way; during the dress rehearsal Niven had asked Metzler's wife to borrow a pen so he could write down the famous line, which was |
324_4 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | thus not the ad-lib it appeared to be.
The 74th Academy Awards, held in 2002, presented the first Academy Award for Best Animated Feature.
From 1973 to 2020, all Academy Awards ceremonies have ended with the Academy Award for Best Picture. For 2021, this tradition was broken as the ceremony ended with the Academy Award for Best Actor.
Traditionally, the previous year's winner for Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor present the awards for Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress, while the previous year's winner for Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress present the awards for Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor.
Parasite became the first foreign-language film to win Best Picture at the February 9, 2020, award ceremony.
Tom Hanks announced at the 2020 Oscar Ceremony, the opening of the Academy Museum of Motion Pictures on December 14, 2020.<ref>Barnes, Brooks (February 19, 2020). "Motion Picture Academy Museum Will Open in December." The New York Times. Retrieved March 15, 2020.</ref> The museum development started in 2017 under Kerry Brougher, but is now led by Bill Kramer. The industry curated exhibits will be geared toward |
324_5 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | the history of motion picture, the art & science of film making, exhibiting trailblazing directors, actors, film-makers, sound editors and more, and will house famous artifacts from acclaimed movies like Dorothy's Ruby Red Slippers.
Because of COVID-19, Academy president David Rubin and CEO Dawn Hudson announced that for the 2021 Oscar Ceremony, streaming movies not shown in theaters would be eligible, though at some point the requirement that movies be shown in theaters would return.
Oscar statuette
Academy Award of Merit (Oscar statuette)
The best known award is the Academy Award of Merit, more popularly known as the Oscar statuette. Made of gold-plated bronze on a black metal base, it is 13.5 in (34.3 cm) tall, weighs 8.5 lb (3.856 kg), and depicts a knight rendered in Art Deco style holding a sword standing on a reel of film with five spokes. The five spokes represent the original branches of the Academy: Actors, Writers, Directors, Producers, and Technicians.
Sculptor George Stanley (who also did the Muse Fountain at the Hollywood Bowl) sculpted Cedric Gibbons' design. The |
324_6 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | statuettes presented at the initial ceremonies were gold-plated solid bronze. Within a few years, the bronze was abandoned in favor of Britannia metal, a pewter-like alloy which is then plated in copper, nickel silver, and finally, 24-karat gold. Due to a metal shortage during World War II, Oscars were made of painted plaster for three years. Following the war, the Academy invited recipients to redeem the plaster figures for gold-plated metal ones. The only addition to the Oscar since it was created is a minor streamlining of the base. The original Oscar mold was cast in 1928 at the C.W. Shumway & Sons Foundry in Batavia, Illinois, which also contributed to casting the molds for the Vince Lombardi Trophy and Emmy Award's statuettes. From 1983 to 2015, approximately 50 Oscars in a tin alloy with gold plating were made each year in Chicago by Illinois manufacturer R.S. Owens & Company. It would take between three and four weeks to manufacture 50 statuettes. In 2016, the Academy returned to bronze as the core metal of the statuettes, handing manufacturing duties to Walden, New York-based Polich Tallix Fine Art Foundry. While |
324_7 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | based on a digital scan of an original 1929 Oscar, the statuettes retain their modern-era dimensions and black pedestal. Cast in liquid bronze from 3D-printed ceramic molds and polished, they are then electroplated in 24-karat gold by Brooklyn, New York–based Epner Technology. The time required to produce 50 such statuettes is roughly three months. R.S. Owens is expected to continue producing other awards for the Academy and service existing Oscars that need replating.
Naming
The Academy officially adopted the name "Oscar" for the trophies in 1939. However, the origin of the nickname is disputed.
One biography of Bette Davis, who was a president of the Academy in 1941, claims she named the award after her first husband, band leader Harmon Oscar Nelson. A frequently mentioned originator is Margaret Herrick, the Academy executive secretary, who, when she first saw the award in 1931, said the statuette reminded her of "Uncle Oscar", a nickname for her cousin Oscar Pierce.
Columnist Sidney Skolsky, who was present during Herrick's naming in 1931, wrote that "Employees have affectionately dubbed their famous statuette 'Oscar.'" The Academy |
324_8 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | credits Skolsky with "the first confirmed newspaper reference" to Oscar in his column on March 16, 1934, which was written about that year's 6th Academy Awards. The 1934 awards appeared again in another early media mention of Oscar: a Time magazine story. In the ceremonies that year, Walt Disney was the first to thank the Academy for his "Oscar" during his acceptance speech.
Engraving
To prevent information identifying the Oscar winners from leaking ahead of the ceremony, Oscar statuettes presented at the ceremony have blank baseplates. Until 2010, winners returned their statuettes to the Academy and had to wait several weeks to have their names inscribed on their respective Oscars. Since 2010, winners have had the option of having engraved nameplates applied to their statuettes at an inscription-processing station at the Governor's Ball, a party held immediately after the Oscar ceremony. The R.S. Owens company has engraved nameplates made before the ceremony, bearing the name of every potential winner. The nameplates for the non-winning nominees are later recycled.
Ownership of Oscar statuettes
Prior to 1950, Oscar statuettes were (and remain) the property of the recipient. Since then the statuettes |
324_9 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | statuettes have been legally encumbered by the requirement that the statuette be first offered for sale back to the Academy for US$1. If a winner refuses to agree to this stipulation, then the Academy keeps the statuette. Academy Awards predating this agreement have been sold in public auctions and private deals for six-figure sums.
In 1989, Michael Todd's grandson tried to sell Todd's Best Picture Oscar for his 1956 production of Around the World in 80 Days to a movie prop collector. The Academy earned enforcement of its statuette contract by gaining a permanent injunction against the sale.
In 1992, Harold Russell consigned his 1946 Oscar for Best Supporting Actor for The Best Years of Our Lives to auction to raise money for his wife's medical expenses. Though his decision caused controversy, the first-ever Oscar to be sold passed to a private collector on August 6, 1992 for $60,500 ($ today). Russell defended his action, saying, "I don't know why anybody would be critical. My wife's health is much more important than sentimental reasons. The movie will be here, even if Oscar isn't."
In December 2011, Orson Welles' 1941 |
324_10 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | Oscar for Citizen Kane (Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay) was put up for auction, after his heirs won a 2004 court decision contending that Welles did not sign any agreement to return the statue to the Academy. On December 20, 2011, it sold in an online auction for US$861,542 ($ today).
Some buyers have subsequently returned the statuettes to the Academy, which keeps them in its treasury.
Other awards presented by the Academy
In addition to the Academy Award of Merit (Oscar award), there are nine honorary (non-competitive) awards presented by the Academy from time to time (except for the Academy Honorary Award, the Technical Achievement Award, and the Student Academy Awards, which are presented annually):
Governors Awards:
The Academy Honorary Award (annual) (which may or may not be in the form of an Oscar statuette);
The Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award (since 1938) (in the form of a bust of Thalberg);
The Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award (since 1957) (in the form of an Oscar statuette);
The Academy Scientific and Technical Awards:
Academy Award of Merit (non-competitive) |
324_11 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | (in the form of an Oscar statuette);
Scientific and Engineering Award (in the form of a bronze tablet);
Technical Achievement Award (annual) (in the form of a certificate);
The John A. Bonner Medal of Commendation (since 1978) (in the form of a medal);
The Gordon E. Sawyer Award (since 1982); and
The Academy Student Academy Awards (annual).
The Academy also awards Nicholl Fellowships in Screenwriting.
Nomination
Since 2004, Academy Award nomination results have been announced to the public in mid-January. Prior to that, the results were announced in early February. In 2021, the nominees are announced in March.
Voters
The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), a professional honorary organization, maintains a voting membership of over 7,000 .
Academy membership is divided into different branches, with each representing a different discipline in film production. Actors constitute the largest voting bloc, numbering 1,311 members (22 percent) of the Academy's composition. Votes have been certified by the auditing firm PricewaterhouseCoopers (and its predecessor Price Waterhouse) since the 7th Academy Awards in 1935. The firm mails the |
324_12 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | ballots of eligible nominees to members of the Academy in December to reflect the previous eligible year with a due date sometime in January of the next year, then tabulates the votes in a process that takes thousands of hours.
All AMPAS members must be invited to join by the Board of Governors, on behalf of Academy Branch Executive Committees. Membership eligibility may be achieved by a competitive nomination or a member may submit a name based on other significant contributions to the field of motion pictures.
New membership proposals are considered annually. The Academy does not publicly disclose its membership, although as recently as 2007 press releases have announced the names of those who have been invited to join. The 2007 release also stated that it has just under 6,000 voting members. While the membership had been growing, stricter policies have kept its size steady since then.
In 2012, the results of a study conducted by the Los Angeles Times were published describing the demographic breakdown of approximately 88% of AMPAS' voting membership. Of the 5,100+ active voters confirmed, 94% were Caucasian, 77% were male, and 54% were found to be over the age of 60. 33% of voting members are former nominees (14%) and winners (19%).
In |
324_13 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | (19%).
In May 2011, the Academy sent a letter advising its 6,000 or so voting members that an online system for Oscar voting would be implemented in 2013.
Rules
According to Rules 2 and 3 of the official Academy Awards Rules, a film must open in the previous calendar year, from midnight at the start of January 1 to midnight at the end of December 31, in Los Angeles County, California, and play for seven consecutive days, to qualify (except for the Best International Feature Film, Best Documentary Feature, and awards in short film categories). Additionally, the film must be shown at least three times on each day of its qualifying run, with at least one of the daily showings starting between 6 pm and 10 pm local time.
For example, the 2009 Best Picture winner, The Hurt Locker, was originally first released in 2008, but did not qualify for the 2008 awards, as it did not play its Oscar-qualifying run in Los Angeles until mid-2009, thus qualifying for the 2009 awards. Foreign films must include English subtitles, and each country can submit only one film for consideration in the International Feature Film category per year.
Rule 2 states that |
324_14 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | a film must be feature-length, defined as a minimum of 40 minutes, except for short-subject awards, and it must exist either on a 35 mm or 70 mm film print or in 24 frame/s or 48 frame/s progressive scan digital cinema format with a minimum projector resolution of 2048 by 1080 pixels. Since the 90th Academy Awards, presented in 2018, multi-part and limited series have been ineligible for the Best Documentary Feature award. This followed the win of O.J.: Made in America, an eight-hour presentation that was screened in a limited release before being broadcast in five parts on ABC and ESPN, in that category in 2017. The Academy's announcement of the new rule made no direct mention of that film.
The Best International Feature Film award does not require a U.S. release. It requires the film to be submitted as its country's official selection.
The Best Documentary Feature award requires either week-long releases in both Los Angeles County and New York City during the previous calendar year, or a qualifying award at a competitive film festival from the Documentary Feature Qualifying Festival list (regardless of any public exhibition or distribution), or submission in the International Feature Film category as its country's official selection. |
324_15 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | selection. The qualifying theatrical runs must meet the same requirements as those for non-documentary films regarding numbers and times of screenings. Additionally, a film must have been reviewed by a critic from The New York Times, Time Out New York, the Los Angeles Times, or LA Weekly.
Producers must submit an Official Screen Credits online form before the deadline; in case it is not submitted by the defined deadline, the film will be ineligible for Academy Awards in any year. The form includes the production credits for all related categories. Then, each form is checked and put in a Reminder List of Eligible Releases.
Awards in short film categories (Best Documentary Short Subject, Best Animated Short Film, and Best Live Action Short Film) have noticeably different eligibility rules from most other competitive awards. First, the qualifying period for release does not coincide with a calendar year, instead of covering one year starting on October 1 and ending on September 30 of the calendar year before the ceremony. Second, there are multiple methods of qualification. The main method is a week-long theatrical release in either Los Angeles County or New York City during the eligibility period. Films also can qualify by winning specified awards at one of several competitive film festivals designated by the Academy, also without regard to prior public distribution. Finally, |
324_16 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | a film that is selected as a gold, silver, or bronze medal winner in an appropriate category of the immediately previous Student Academy Awards is also eligible (Documentary category for that award, and Animation, Narrative, Alternative, or International for the other awards). The requirements for the qualifying theatrical run are also different from those for other awards. Only one screening per day is required. For the Documentary award, the screening must start between noon and 10 pm local time; for other awards, no specific start time is required, but the film must appear in regular theater listings with dates and screening times.
In late December, ballots, and copies of the Reminder List of Eligible Releases are mailed to around 6,000 active members. For most categories, members from each of the branches vote to determine the nominees only in their respective categories (i.e. only directors vote for directors, writers for writers, actors for actors, etc.). In the special case of Best Picture, all voting members are eligible to select the nominees. In all major categories, a variant of the single transferable vote is used, with each member casting a ballot with up to five nominees (ten for Best Picture) ranked preferentially. In certain categories, including International Feature Film, Documentary and Animated Feature, |
324_17 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | nominees are selected by special screening committees made up of members from all branches.
In most categories, the winner is selected from among the nominees by plurality voting of all members. Since 2009, the Best Picture winner has been chosen by instant runoff voting. Since 2013, re-weighted range voting has been used to select the nominees for the Best Visual Effects.
Film companies will spend as much as several million dollars on marketing to awards voters for a movie in the running for Best Picture, in attempts to improve chances of receiving Oscars and other movie awards conferred in Oscar season. The Academy enforces rules to limit overt campaigning by its members to try to eliminate excesses and prevent the process from becoming undignified. It has an awards czar on staff who advises members on allowed practices and levies penalties on offenders. For example, a producer of the 2009 Best Picture nominee The Hurt Locker was disqualified as a producer in the category when he contacted associates urging them to vote for his film and not another that was seen as the front-runner (The Hurt Locker eventually won).
Academy Screening Room
The Academy Screening Room or Academy Digital Screening Room is a secure streaming platform which allows voting members of the Academy to view all eligible films (except, initially, those in |
324_18 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | the International category) in one place. It was introduced in 2019, for the 2020 Oscars, though DVD screeners and Academy in-person screenings were still provided. For films to be included on the platform, the North American distributor must pay $12,500, including a watermarking fee, and a digital copy of the film to be prepared for streaming by the Academy. The platform can be accessed through an app on Apple TV. The watermarking process involved several video security firms, creating a forensic watermark and restricting the ability to take screenshots or screen recordings.
In 2021, for the 2022 Oscars, the Academy banned all physical screeners and in-person screenings, restricting official membership viewing to the Academy Screening Room. Films eligible in the Documentary and International categories were made available in different sections of the platform. Distributors can also pay an extra fee to add video featurettes to promote their films on the platform. The in-person screenings were said to be cancelled because of the COVID-19 pandemic. Eligible films do not have to be added to the platform, but the Academy advertises them to voting members when they are.
Awards ceremonies
Telecast
The major awards are presented at a live televised ceremony, commonly in late February or early |
324_19 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | March following the relevant calendar year, and six weeks after the announcement of the nominees. It is the culmination of the film awards season, which usually begins during November or December of the previous year. This is an elaborate extravaganza, with the invited guests walking up the red carpet in the creations of the most prominent fashion designers of the day. Black tie dress is the most common outfit for men, although fashion may dictate not wearing a bow-tie, and musical performers sometimes do not adhere to this. (The artists who recorded the nominees for Best Original Song quite often perform those songs live at the awards ceremony, and the fact that they are performing is often used to promote the television broadcast.)
The Academy Awards is the world's longest-running awards show televised live from the U.S. to all-time zones in North America and worldwide, and gathers billions of viewers elsewhere throughout the world. The Oscars were first televised in 1953 by NBC, which continued to broadcast the event until 1960, when ABC took over, televising the festivities (including the first color broadcast of the event in 1966) through 1970. NBC regained the rights for five years then ABC resumed broadcast duties in 1976 and its current contract with the Academy runs through 2028. |
324_20 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | 2028. The Academy has also produced condensed versions of the ceremony for broadcast in international markets (especially those outside of the Americas) in more desirable local timeslots. The ceremony was broadcast live internationally for the first time via satellite since 1970, but only two South American countries, Chile and Brazil, purchased the rights to air the broadcast. By that time, the television rights to the Academy Awards had been sold in 50 countries. A decade later, the rights were already being sold to 60 countries, and by 1984, the TV rights to the Awards were licensed in 76 countries.
The ceremonies were moved up from late March/early April to late February, since 2004, to help disrupt and shorten the intense lobbying and ad campaigns associated with Oscar season in the film industry. Another reason was because of the growing TV ratings success coinciding with the NCAA Basketball Tournament, which would cut into the Academy Awards audience. (In 1976 and 1977, ABC's regained Oscars were moved from Tuesday to Monday and went directly opposite NBC's NCAA title game.) The earlier date is also to the advantage of ABC, as it now usually occurs during the highly profitable and important February sweeps period. Some years, the ceremony is moved into the first Sunday of |
324_21 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | March to avoid a clash with the Winter Olympic Games. Another reason for the move to late February and early March is also to avoid the awards ceremony occurring so close to the religious holidays of Passover and Easter, which for decades had been a grievance from members and the general public. Advertising is somewhat restricted, however, as traditionally no movie studios or competitors of official Academy Award sponsors may advertise during the telecast. The production of the Academy Awards telecast currently holds the distinction of winning the most Emmys in history, with 47 wins and 195 nominations overall since that award's own launch in 1949.
After many years of being held on Mondays at 9:00 pm Eastern/6:00 p.m Pacific, since the 1999 ceremonies, it was moved to Sundays at 8:30 pm ET/5:30 pm PT. The reasons given for the move were that more viewers would tune in on Sundays, that Los Angeles rush-hour traffic jams could be avoided, and an earlier start time would allow viewers on the East Coast to go to bed earlier. For many years the film industry opposed a Sunday broadcast because it would cut into the weekend box office. In 2010, the Academy contemplated moving the ceremony even further back into |
324_22 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | January, citing TV viewers' fatigue with the film industry's long awards season. However, such an accelerated schedule would dramatically decrease the voting period for its members, to the point where some voters would only have time to view the contending films streamed on their computers (as opposed to traditionally receiving the films and ballots in the mail). Furthermore, a January ceremony on Sunday would clash with National Football League playoff games. In 2018, the Academy announced that the ceremony would be moved from late February to mid February beginning with the 92nd Academy Awards in 2020.
Originally scheduled for April 8, 1968, the 40th Academy Awards ceremony was postponed for two days, because of the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. On March 30, 1981, the 53rd Academy Awards was postponed for one day, after the shooting of President Ronald Reagan and others in Washington, D.C.
In 1993, an In Memoriam segment was introduced, honoring those who had made a significant contribution to cinema who had died in the preceding 12 months, a selection compiled by a small committee of Academy members. This segment has drawn criticism over the years for the omission of some names. Criticism was also levied for many years |
324_23 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | regarding another aspect, with the segment having a "popularity contest" feel as the audience varied their applause to those who had died by the subject's cultural impact; the applause has since been muted during the telecast, and the audience is discouraged from clapping during the segment and giving silent reflection instead. This segment was later followed by a commercial break.
In terms of broadcast length, the ceremony generally averages three and a half hours. The first Oscars, in 1929, lasted 15 minutes. At the other end of the spectrum, the 2002 ceremony lasted four hours and twenty-three minutes. In 2010, the organizers of the Academy Awards announced winners' acceptance speeches must not run past 45 seconds. This, according to organizer Bill Mechanic, was to ensure the elimination of what he termed "the single most hated thing on the show" – overly long and embarrassing displays of emotion. In 2016, in a further effort to streamline speeches, winners' dedications were displayed on an on-screen ticker. During the 2018 ceremony, host Jimmy Kimmel acknowledged how long the ceremony had become, by announcing that he would give a brand-new jet ski to whoever gave the shortest speech of the night (a reward won by Mark Bridges |
324_24 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | when accepting his Best Costume Design award for Phantom Thread). The Wall Street Journal analyzed the average minutes spent across the 2014–2018 telecasts as follows: 14 on song performances; 25 on the hosts' speeches; 38 on prerecorded clips; and 78 on the awards themselves, broken into 24 on the introduction and announcement, 24 on winners walking to the stage, and 30 on their acceptance speeches.
Although still dominant in ratings, the viewership of the Academy Awards has steadily dropped; the 88th Academy Awards were the lowest-rated in the past eight years (although with increases in male and 18–49 viewership), while the show itself also faced mixed reception. Following the show, Variety reported that ABC was, in negotiating an extension to its contract to broadcast the Oscars, seeking to have more creative control over the broadcast itself. Currently and nominally, AMPAS is responsible for most aspects of the telecast, including the choice of production staff and hosting, although ABC is allowed to have some input on their decisions. In August 2016, AMPAS extended its contract with ABC through 2028: the contract neither contains any notable changes nor gives ABC any further creative control over the telecast.
TV ratings
Historically, |
324_25 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | ratings
Historically, the telecast's viewership is higher when box-office hits are favored to win the Best Picture award. More than 57.25 million viewers tuned to the telecast for the 70th Academy Awards in 1998, the year of Titanic, which generated a box office haul during its initial 1997–98 run of US$600.8 million in the US, a box office record that would remain unsurpassed for years. The 76th Academy Awards ceremony, in which The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (pre-telecast box office earnings of US$368 million) received 11 Awards including Best Picture, drew 43.56 million viewers. The most watched ceremony based on Nielsen ratings to date, however, was the 42nd Academy Awards (Best Picture Midnight Cowboy) which drew a 43.4% household rating on April 7, 1970.
By contrast, ceremonies honoring films that have not performed well at the box office tend to show weaker ratings, despite how much critical acclaim those films have received. The 78th Academy Awards which awarded low-budget independent film Crash (with a pre-Oscar gross of US$53.4 million) generated an audience of |
324_26 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | 38.64 million with a household rating of 22.91%. In 2008, the 80th Academy Awards telecast was watched by 31.76 million viewers on average with an 18.66% household rating, the lowest-rated and least-watched ceremony at the time, in spite of celebrating 80 years of the Academy Awards. The Best Picture winner of that particular ceremony was another independent film (No Country for Old Men).
Whereas the 92nd Academy Awards drew an average of 23.6 million viewers, the 93rd Academy Awards drew an even lower viewership of 10.4 million. That is the lowest viewership recorded by Nielsen since it started recording audience totals in 1974.
Archive
The Academy Film Archive holds copies of every Academy Awards ceremony since the 1949 Oscars and material on many prior ceremonies, along with ancillary material related to more recent shows. Copies are held in a variety of film, video, and digital formats.
Venues
In 1929, the first Academy Awards were presented at a banquet dinner at The Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel. From 1930 to 1943, the ceremony alternated between two venues: the Ambassador Hotel on Wilshire Boulevard and the |
324_27 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | Biltmore Hotel in downtown Los Angeles.
Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood then hosted the awards from 1944 to 1946, followed by the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles from 1947 to 1948. The 21st Academy Awards in 1949 were held at the Academy Award Theatre at what had been the Academy's headquarters on Melrose Avenue in Hollywood.
From 1950 to 1960, the awards were presented at Hollywood's Pantages Theatre. With the advent of television, the awards from 1953 to 1957 took place simultaneously in Hollywood and New York, first at the NBC International Theatre (1953) and then at the NBC Century Theatre, after which the ceremony took place solely in Los Angeles. The Oscars moved to the Santa Monica Civic Auditorium in Santa Monica, California, in 1961. By 1969, the Academy decided to move the ceremonies back to Downtown Los Angeles, this time to the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion at the Los Angeles County Music Center. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the ceremony returned to the Shrine.
In 2002, Hollywood's Dolby Theatre (previously known as the Kodak Theatre) became the presentation's current venue.
Awards |
324_28 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | venue.
Awards of Merit categories
Current categories
In the first year of the awards, the Best Directing award was split into two categories (Drama and Comedy). At times, the Best Original Score award has also been split into separate categories (Drama and Comedy/Musical). From the 1930s through the 1960s, the Art Direction (now Production Design), Cinematography, and Costume Design awards were likewise split into two categories (black-and-white films and color films). Prior to 2012, the Production Design award was called Art Direction, while the Makeup and Hairstyling award was called Makeup.
In August 2018, the Academy announced that several categories would not be televised live, but rather be recorded during commercial breaks and aired later in the ceremony.
Following dissent from Academy members, they announced that they would indeed air all 24 categories live. This followed several proposals (among them, the introduction of a Popular Film category) that the Academy had announced but did not implement.
Discontinued categories
Proposed categories
The Board of Governors meets each year and considers new award categories. To date, the following categories have been proposed:
Best Casting: rejected in 1999
Best Popular Film: proposed in 2018 for presentation |
324_29 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | at the 2019 ceremony; postponed until the 2020 ceremony at the earliest (yet to be implemented)
Best Stunt Coordination: rejected every year from 1991 to 2012
Best Title Design: rejected in 1999
Special categories
The Special Academy Awards are voted on by special committees, rather than by the Academy membership as a whole. They are not always presented on an annual basis.
Current special categories
Academy Honorary Award: since 1929
Academy Scientific and Technical Award (three different awards): since 1931
Gordon E. Sawyer Award: since 1981
Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award: since 1957
Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award: since 1938
Academy Special Achievement Award: from 1972 to 1995, and again for 2017
Discontinued special categories
Academy Juvenile Award: 1934 to 1960
Criticism
Accusations of commercialism
Due to the positive exposure and prestige of the Academy Awards, many studios spend millions of dollars and hire publicists specifically to promote their films during what is typically called the "Oscar season". This has generated accusations of the Academy Awards being influenced more by marketing than by quality. |
324_30 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | William Friedkin, an Academy Award-winning film director and former producer of the ceremony, expressed this sentiment at a conference in New York in 2009, describing it as "the greatest promotion scheme that any industry ever devised for itself".
Tim Dirks, editor of AMC's filmsite.org, has written of the Academy Awards:
A recent technique that has been claimed to be used during the Oscar season is the whisper campaign. These campaigns are intended to spread negative perceptions of other movies nominated and are believed to be perpetrated by those that were involved in creating the movie. Examples of whisper campaigns include the allegations against Zero Dark Thirty suggesting that it justifies torture and the claim that Lincoln distorts history.
Accusations of bias
Typical criticism of the Academy Awards for Best Picture is that among the winners and nominees there is an over-representation of romantic historical epics, biographical dramas, romantic dramedies and family melodramas, most of which are released in the U.S. in the last three months of the calendar year. The Oscars have been infamously known for selecting specific genres of movies to be awarded. The term "Oscar bait" was coined to describe such movies. This has led, at times, to more specific criticisms that the Academy is disconnected |
324_31 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | from the audience, e.g., by favoring "Oscar bait" over audience favorites or favoring historical melodramas over critically acclaimed movies that depict current life issues.
Allegations of a lack of diversity
The Academy Awards have long received criticism over its lack of diversity among the nominees. This criticism is based on the statistics from every Academy Awards since 1929, which shows us that only 6.4% of academy award nominees have been non-white and since 1991, 11.2% of nominees have been non-white, with the rate of winners being even more polarizing. Due to a variety of reasons, including marketability and historical bans on interracial couples, a number of high-profile Oscars have been given to yellowface portrayals, as well as performances of Asian characters rewritten for white characters. The 88th awards ceremony became the target of a boycott, popularized on social media with the hashtag #OscarsSoWhite, based on activists' perception that its all-white acting nominee list reflected bias. In response, the Academy initiated "historic" changes in membership by the year 2020.
Symbolism or sentimentalization
Acting prizes in certain years have been criticized for not recognizing superior performances so much as being awarded for personal |
324_32 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | popularity, to make up for a "snub" for a work that proved in time to be more popular or renowned than the one awarded, or presented as a "career honor" to recognize a distinguished nominee's entire body of work.
Recognition of streaming media film
Following the 91st Academy Awards in February 2019 in which the Netflix-broadcast film Roma had been nominated for ten awards including the Best Picture category, Steven Spielberg and other members of the Academy discussed changing the requirements through the Board of Governors for films as to exclude those from Netflix and other media streaming services. Spielberg had been concerned that Netflix as a movie production and distribution studio could spend much more than typical Oscar-winning films and have much wider and earlier distribution than other Best Picture-nominated films, while still being able to meet the minimal theatrical-run status to qualify for an Oscar. The United States Department of Justice, having heard of this potential rule change, wrote a letter to the Academy in March 2019, cautioning them that placing additional restrictions on films that originate from streaming media services without proper justification could raise anti-trust concerns against the Academy. Following its April 2019 board meeting, the Academy Board of Governors agreed to retain the current rules that allow for streaming media films to be eligible for |
324_33 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | Oscars as long as they enjoy limited theatrical runs.
Refusals of the award
Some winners critical of the Academy Awards have boycotted the ceremonies and refused to accept their Oscars. The first to do so was screenwriter Dudley Nichols (Best Writing in 1935 for The Informer). Nichols boycotted the 8th Academy Awards ceremony because of conflicts between the Academy and the Writers' Guild. Nichols eventually accepted the 1935 award three years later, at the 1938 ceremony. Nichols was nominated for three further Academy Awards during his career.
George C. Scott became the second person to refuse his award (Best Actor in 1970 for Patton) at the 43rd Academy Awards ceremony. Scott described it as a "meat parade", saying, "I don't want any part of it."
The third person to refuse the award was Marlon Brando, who refused his award (Best Actor for 1972's The Godfather), citing the film industry's discrimination and mistreatment of Native Americans. At the 45th Academy Awards ceremony, Brando asked actress and civil rights activist Sacheen Littlefeather to read a 15-page speech in his place, detailing his criticisms, for which there was booing and cheering by the audience.
Disqualifications
Six |
324_34 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | audience.
Disqualifications
Six films have had nominations revoked before the official award ceremony:
The Circus (1928) – The film was voluntarily removed by the Academy from competitive categories, to award Charlie Chaplin a special award.
Hondo (1953) – Removed from the Best Story ballot after letters from the producer and nominee questioned its inclusion in the category.
High Society (1955) – Withdrawn from screenwriting ballot after being mistaken for the 1956 movie of the same title.
The Godfather (1972) – Initially nominated for eleven awards, its nomination for Best Original Score was revoked after it was discovered that its main theme was very similar to music that the score's composer had written for an earlier film. None of its other nominations were revoked, and it received three Oscars, including Best Picture.
A Place in the World (1992) – Removed from the Best Foreign Language Film ballot after it was discovered that the country which submitted the film exercised insufficient artistic control.
Alone Yet Not Alone (2014) – The film's title song, "Alone Yet Not Alone", was removed from the Best Original Song ballot after Bruce Broughton was found to have improperly contacted other members of the academy's musical branch; this was the first time that a film was |
324_35 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | removed from a ballot for ethical reasons.
One film was disqualified after winning the award, and had the winner return the Oscar:
Young Americans (1969) – Initially won the award for Best Documentary Feature, but was later revoked after it was revealed that it had opened theatrically prior to the eligibility period.
One film had its nomination revoked after the award ceremony when it had not won the Oscar:Tuba Atlantic (2011) – Its nomination for Best Live Action Short Film was revoked when it was discovered that the film had aired on television in 2010, before its theatrical release.
Gender segregation
Some advocates of gender equality and non-binary people have criticized the separation of male and female acting categories in the Academy Awards, Emmy Awards and Tony Awards. Though some commentators worry that gender discrimination would cause men to dominate unsegregated categories, other categories are unsegregated. The Grammy Awards went gender-neutral in 2012, while the Daytime Emmy Awards introduced a single Outstanding Younger Performer in a Drama Series category in 2019 to replace their two gender-specific younger actor and actress categories.
Associated events
The following events are closely associated with the annual Academy Awards:
BAFTA Awards
César Awards
David di Donatello Awards
Nominees luncheon
|
324_36 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | luncheon
Governors Awards
The 25th Independent Spirit Awards (2010), usually held in Santa Monica, California the Saturday before the Oscars, marked the first time it was moved to a Friday and a change of venue to L.A. Live
The annual "Night Before", traditionally held at the Beverly Hills Hotel, begun in 2002 and generally known as the party of the season, benefits the Motion Picture & Television Fund, which operates a retirement home for SAG actors in the San Fernando Valley
Elton John AIDS Foundation Academy Award Party airs the awards live at the nearby Pacific Design Center
The Governors Ball is the Academy's official after-party, including dinner (until 2011), and is adjacent to the awards-presentation venue
The Vanity Fair after-party, historically at the former Morton's restaurant, has been at the Sunset Tower since 2009
Ariel Award in Mexico
Goya Award in Spain
Presenter and performer gifts
It has become a tradition to give out gift bags to the presenters and performers at the Oscars. In recent years, these gifts have also been extended to award nominees and winners. The value of each of these gift bags can reach into the tens of thousands of dollars. In 2014, the value was reported to be |
324_37 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | as high as US$80,000. The value has risen to the point where the U.S. Internal Revenue Service issued a statement regarding the gifts and their taxable status.
Oscar gift bags have included vacation packages to Hawaii and Mexico and Japan, a private dinner party for the recipient and friends at a restaurant, videophones, a four-night stay at a hotel, watches, bracelets, spa treatments, bottles of vodka, maple salad dressing, weight-loss gummie candy and up to $25,000 worth of cosmetic treatments and rejuvenation procedures such as lip fillers and chemical peels from New York City facial plastic surgeon Konstantin Vasyukevich. Some of the gifts have even had a "risque" element to them; in 2014, the adult products retailer Adam & Eve had a "Secret Room Gifting Suite". Celebrities visiting the gifting suite included Judith Hoag, Carolyn Hennesy, Kate Linder, Chris Mulkey, Jim O'Heir, and John Salley.
Television ratings and advertisement prices
From 2006 onwards, results are Live+SD; all previous years are live viewing.
Trademark
The term "Oscar" is a registered trademark of the AMPAS; however, in the |
324_38 | Academy Awards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | are Live+SD; all previous years are live viewing.
Trademark
The term "Oscar" is a registered trademark of the AMPAS; however, in the Italian language, it is used generically to refer to any award or award ceremony, regardless of which field.Court: Oscar may be generic term in Italian | Reuters
See also
List of film awards
List of Academy Award records
List of actors with Academy Award nominations
List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees
Footnotes
References
Further reading
Brokaw, Lauren (2010). "Wanna see an Academy Awards invite? We got it along with all the major annual events surrounding the Oscars". Los Angeles: The Daily Truffle.
Wright, Jon (2007). The Lunacy of Oscar: The Problems with Hollywood's Biggest Night''. Thomas Publishing, Inc.
External links
of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences
Official Academy Awards Database (searchable)
1929 establishments in California
Performing arts trophies
American annual television specials
American film awards
Annual events in Los Angeles County, California
Awards established in 1929
Cinema of Southern California
Events in Los Angeles
Hollywood history and culture
American live television shows |
330_0 | Actrius | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actrius | Actrius
Actresses (Catalan: Actrius) is a 1997 Catalan language Spanish drama film produced and directed by Ventura Pons and based on the award-winning stage play E.R. by Josep Maria Benet i Jornet. The film has no male actors, with all roles played by females. The film was produced in 1996.
Synopsis
In order to prepare herself to play a role commemorating the life of legendary actress Empar Ribera, young actress (Mercè Pons) interviews three established actresses who had been the Ribera's pupils: the international diva Glòria Marc (Núria Espert), the television star Assumpta Roca (Rosa Maria Sardà), and dubbing director Maria Caminal (Anna Lizaran).
Cast
Núria Espert as Glòria Marc
Rosa Maria Sardà as Assumpta Roca
Anna Lizaran as Maria Caminal
Mercè Pons as Estudiant
Recognition
Screenings
Actrius screened in 2001 at the Grauman's Egyptian Theatre in an American Cinematheque retrospective of the works of its director. The film had first screened at the same location in 1998. |
330_1 | Actrius | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actrius | It was also shown at the 1997 Stockholm International Film Festival.
Reception
In Movie - Film - Review, Christopher Tookey wrote that though the actresses were "competent in roles that may have some reference to their own careers", the film "is visually unimaginative, never escapes its stage origins, and is almost totally lacking in revelation or surprising incident". Noting that there were "occasional, refreshing moments of intergenerational bitchiness", they did not "justify comparisons to All About Eve", and were "insufficiently different to deserve critical parallels with Rashomon". He also wrote that The Guardian called the film a "slow, stuffy chamber-piece", and that The Evening Standard stated the film's "best moments exhibit the bitchy tantrums seething beneath the threesome's composed veneers". MRQE wrote "This cinematic adaptation of a theatrical work is true to the original, but does not stray far from a theatrical rendering of the story."
Awards and nominations
1997, won 'Best Catalan Film' at Butaca Awards for Ventura Pons
1997, won 'Best Catalan Film Actress' at Butaca Awards, shared by Núria Espert, Rosa Maria Sardà, Anna Lizaran, and Mercè |
330_2 | Actrius | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actrius | intergenerational bitchiness", they did not "justify comparisons to All About Eve", and were "insufficiently different to deserve critical parallels with Rashomon". He also wrote that The Guardian called the film a "slow, stuffy chamber-piece", and that The Evening Standard stated the film's "best moments exhibit the bitchy tantrums seething beneath the threesome's composed veneers". MRQE wrote "This cinematic adaptation of a theatrical work is true to the original, but does not stray far from a theatrical rendering of the story."
Awards and nominations
1997, won 'Best Catalan Film' at Butaca Awards for Ventura Pons
1997, won 'Best Catalan Film Actress' at Butaca Awards, shared by Núria Espert, Rosa Maria Sardà, Anna Lizaran, and Mercè Pons
1998, nominated for 'Best Screenplay' at Goya Awards, shared by Josep Maria Benet i Jornet and Ventura Pons
References
External links
as archived 17 February 2009 (Spanish)
1997 films
1997 drama films
Spanish films
Catalan-language films
Films set in Barcelona
Films directed by Ventura Pons
Spanish drama films |
332_0 | Animalia (book) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalia%20%28book%29 | Animalia (book)
Animalia is an illustrated children's book by Graeme Base. It was originally published in 1986, followed by a tenth anniversary edition in 1996, and a 25th anniversary edition in 2012. Over four million copies have been sold worldwide. A special numbered and signed anniversary edition was also published in 1996, with an embossed gold jacket.
Synopsis
Animalia is an alliterative alphabet book and contains twenty-six illustrations, one for each letter of the alphabet. Each illustration features an animal from the animal kingdom (A is for alligator and armadillo, B is for butterfly, etc.) along with a short poem utilizing the letter of the page for many of the words. The illustrations contain many other objects beginning with that letter that the reader can try to identify (however, there are not necessarily "a thousand things, or maybe more", as the author states). As an additional challenge, the author has hidden a picture of himself as a child in every picture.
Here are some of the things in each picture that are truly different (the alligator in the A section is wearing an apron featuring the alphabet, which the book is about, and this section also features the author's home country, |
332_1 | Animalia (book) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalia%20%28book%29 | Australia):
Note: This list is incomplete.
A
1. Astronaut
2. Album
3. Admiral
4. Archdiocese
5. Actor
6. Actress
7. Aborigine
8. Athlete
9. Acrobat
10. Apple
11. Acorn
12. Apricot
13. Avocado
14. Adder
15. Albatross
16. Antelope (this is actually a pronghorn, which is not a true antelope, so it belongs in the P section)
17. Anteater
18. Aardvark
19. Anvil
20. Afghan hound
21. Affenpinscher
22. Airedale terrier
23. Aqueduct
24. Ant
25. Abacus
26. Asparagus
27. Artichoke
28. Accordion
29. Anchor
30. Anemone
31. Axe
32. Angel
33. Algebra
34. Atlas
35. Apron
36. Alien
37. Ambulance
38. Antenna
B
36. Bumblebee
37. Bobolink
38. Bear
39. Bonnet
40. Barbed wire
41. |
332_2 | Animalia (book) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalia%20%28book%29 | wire
41. Brambles
42. Bulrushes
43. Baboon
44. Bassoon
45. Brontosaurus
46. Budgerigar
47. Bomb
48. Brain
49. Brick
50. Basket
51. Basketball
52. Basketball hoop
53. Baseball
54. Baseball bat
55. Backgammon
56. Ballpoint pen
57. Bagpipes
58. Bicycle
59. Barrel
60. Bell
61. Boot
62. Button
63. Blueberries
64. Belt
65. Bugle
66. Bull
67. Bucket
68. Bellows
69. Boomerang
70. Bathtub
71. Bone
72. Brush
73. Bottle
74. Banana
75. Brush
76. Binoculars
77. Barracuda
78. Buddha
79. Battery
80. Broom
81. Bat (animal)
82. Boy
83. Bungalow
C
82. Crab
83. Chair
84. Crane
85. Caterpillar
86. Canoe
87. Computer
88. Collar
89. Camera
90. Concertina
91. Cap
92. Cheetah
93. |
332_3 | Animalia (book) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalia%20%28book%29 | Chain
94. Cassette
95. Crocodile
96. Cone
97. Cube
98. Cylinder
99. Cymbal
100. Cucumber
101. Celery
102. Cabbage
103. Cheese
104. Corn
105. Carrot
106. Cards
107. Calculator
108. Candle
109. Cherry
110. Cake
111. Coconut
112. Cup
113. Cocoa
114. Can
115. Calendar
116. Chef
117. Castle
118. Church
119. Cemetery
120. Cross of Christ
121. Caravan
122. Circus
123. Clown
124. Cricket (game)
125. Convict
126. Cannon
127. Cow
128. Chimpanzee
129. Cobra
130. Cage
131. Canary
132. Check
133. Crossword puzzle
134. Crutch
135. Cord
136. Crown
137. Crate
138. Cork
139. Cog
140. Comb
141. Clarinet
142. Clam
143. Chieftain
144. Cactus
145. Cliff
146. Chateau
147. Concorde
148. Chandelier
149. Cottage
150. |
332_4 | Animalia (book) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalia%20%28book%29 | Cottage
150. Cigar
151. Candy cane
152. Cauldron
153. Centipede
D
154. Dustpan
155. Duster
156. Dynamite
157. Drill
158. Drawers
159. Draughts
160. Doughnut
161. Diamond
162. Dice
163. Dutch doll
164. Dentures
165. Date (fruit)
166. Date (time)
167. Doily
168. Dish
169. Dollar
170. Dolphin
171. Decagon
172. Devil
173. Dormouse
174. Diagonal
175. Decade
176. Doctrine
177. Dumbbell
178. Dragonfly
179. Dwarf
180. Dachshund
181. Doberman pinscher
182. Dalmatian
183. Dodo
184. Diplodocus
185. Dimetrodon
186. Dove
187. Desperado
188. Donkey
189. Dam
190. Drain
191. Dinghy
192. Drowning
193. Drawbridge
194. Deer
195. Destroyer
196. Dromedary
197. Double-decker bus
198. Daffodil
199. |
332_5 | Animalia (book) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalia%20%28book%29 | Daffodil
199. Daisy
200. Dirigible
201. Dominos
202. Dagger
203. Dart
204. Duck
205. Dingo
206. Dolly
207. Deputy
208. Dog
E
208. Eclipse
209. Éclair
210. Elderberries
211. Envelope
212. Emu
213. Eleven
214. Edison
215. Einstein
216. Embryo
217. Earwig
218. Echidna
219. Elf
220. Eskimo
221. Eagle
222. Edelweiss
223. Earring
224. Emerald
225. Exclamation point
226. Eyeglasses
F
226. Flounder
227. Film
228. Fly
229. Foxglove
230. Fern
231. Fairy
232. Fire
233. Firewood
234. Frankenstein
235. Fork
236. Forest
237. Falcon
238. Fungus
239. Flier
240. Flute
241. Fan
242. Foghorn
G
243. Graph
244. Glockenspiel
245. Gerbil
246. Geranium
247. Gladiolus
248. Gladiator
249. Gremlin
250. |
332_6 | Animalia (book) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalia%20%28book%29 | Gremlin
250. Golf club
251. Golf ball
252. Gibbon
253. Guitar
254. Galoshes
255. Grail
256. Greyhound
257. Gong
258. Gazelle
259. Griffin
260. Gargoyle
261. Graffiti
262. Grasshopper
263. Globe
264. Galleon
265. Gorgon
266. Gnome
267. Gramophone
268. Goat
269. Goggles
270. Goose
271. Giraffe
272. Gazebo
273. Guard
274. Gift
275. Garage
276. Garbage
277. Garbage can
278. Gallows
279. Guillotine
280. Ghost
281. Giant
282. Goal
283. Glider
284. Gage
285. Garter
H
285. Hexagon
286. Hose
287. Hare
288. Hyena
289. Hawk
290. Hammock
291. Hook
292. Hippo
293. Hunter
294. Hill
295. Hang glider
296. Herald
297. Helicopter
298. Hamburger
299. Hydrant
300. Hourglass
301. |
332_7 | Animalia (book) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalia%20%28book%29 | Hourglass
301. Hamster
302. Hedgehog
303. Horn
304. Heart
305. Hen
306. Hand grenade
307. Humpty-Dumpty
308. Holly
309. Holy Bible
310. Hatch
311. Haddock
312. Hammer
313. Hieroglyphics
314. Handkerchief
315. Handcuffs
316. Hatchet
317. Hornet
318. Halberd
I
318. Island
319. Icicle
320. Ice cream
321. Iron
322. Iceberg
323. Icarus
324. Imprisoned
325. Ingot
326. Ink
J
324. Judge
325. Javelin
326. Jester
327. Jack-in-the-box
328. Jack-in-the-pulpit
329. Japan
330. Jet
331. Jasmine
332. Jaguar
333. Jeans
K
333. Kite
334. Knapsack
335. Knitting
336. Kiwi
337. Kilt
338. Kitten
339. Knight
340. Kipper
341. Knife
342. Keys
343. Keychain
344. Kitchen
345. Kettle
346. |
332_8 | Animalia (book) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalia%20%28book%29 | Kettle
346. Kayak
347. Knocker
348. Ketch
349. Keel
350. Keypad
351. Kerb
L
350. Ladder
351. Lyre
352. Lantern
353. Lobster
354. Llama
355. Lettuce
356. Leprechaun
357. Lockbox
358. Ladle
359. Lemon
360. Lute
361. Lollipop
362. Lamp
363. Lily
364. Lasso
M
365. Map
366. Mammoth
367. Mermaid
368. Moose
369. Magpie
370. Mosque
371. Mandolin
372. Monkey marionette
373. Marble
374. Metronome
375. Moth
376. Million
377. Millimeter
378. Millipede
379. Mushroom
380. Match
381. Matchbox
382. Molecule
383. Mug
384. Milk
385. Medal
386. Monocle
387. Magnet
388. Maggot
389. Mask
390. Microphone
391. Microscope
392. Moon
393. Mole
394. Monster
395. Monitor
396. |
332_9 | Animalia (book) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalia%20%28book%29 | Monitor
396. Moustache
N
394. Noah
395. Narwhal
396. Neptune
397. Newspaper
398. Nightingale
399. Nest
400. Net
401. Nun
402. Nut
403. Nutcracker
404. North
405. Ninety-nine
406. Napkin
407. Nautilus
408. Nurse
409. Nonagon
O
410. Orange
411. Otter
412. Orangutan
413. Observatory
414. Octagon
415. Owl
416. Obelisk
417. Oak
418. Oil drill
419. Organ
420. Oven
421. Orchestra
P
421. Purse
422. Physician
423. Poodle
424. Parasol
425. Pig
426. Perambulator
427. Periwinkle
428. Politician
429. Pin
430. Philosopher
431. Parchment
432. Polka dot
433. Pigtail
434. Pit drum
435. Pharaoh
436. Pied Piper
437. Pyjamas
438. Plume
439. Police
440. Prisoner
441. Pygmy
442. Punch & Judy
443. |
332_10 | Animalia (book) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalia%20%28book%29 | Pope
444. Peace
445. Pirate
446. Patch
447. Peg leg
448. Prince
449. Princess
450. Pendant
451. Palace
452. Pagoda
453. Parachute
454. Pegasus
455. Pisa (Leaning Tower)
456. Parthenon
457. Palm tree
458. Pyramid
459. Paris
460. Peninsula
461. Penguin
462. Pool
463. Pathway
464. Procession
465. Platypus
466. Pan
467. Pumpkin
468. Pheasant
469. Partridge
470. Puffin
471. Pelican
472. Porcupine
473. Panda
474. Parcel
475. Pliers
476. Plow
477. Pitchfork
478. Pick
479. Pine tree
480. Pansy
481. Poison ivy
482. Periscope
483. Porpoise
484. Piano
485. Popeye
486. Phoenix
487. Potato
488. Plum
489. Painter
490. Palette
491. Paint
492. Paintbrush
493. Peach
494. Pear
495. Pomegranate
496. Pineapple
497. |
332_11 | Animalia (book) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalia%20%28book%29 | Pineapple
497. Pussy-willows
498. Pavilion
499. Pulley
500. Pump
501. Plaque
502. Prism
503. Peas
504. Pearl
Q
505. Quartz
506. Quicksand
507. Quarter
508. Quoits
509. Queen
510. Quilt
511. Queensland
512. Queue
R
511. Rust
512. Radar
513. Raspberry
514. Raccoon
515. Rhododendron
516. Roman numerals
517. Ruby
518. Ring
519. Razor
520. Roller skate
521. Reindeer
522. Roulette
523. Rake
524. Rifle
525. Revolver
526. Refrigerator
527. Rabbit
528. Rolling pin
529. Register
530. Rose
531. Raven
532. Ram
533. Rat
534. Rowboat
535. Rooster
536. Rattlesnake
537. Robin
538. Rocking horse
539. Rocking chair
540. Radius
541. Rip
542. Racket
543. Recorder
544. Rocket
S
545. Sapphire
546. Soup
547. Stump
548. |
332_12 | Animalia (book) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalia%20%28book%29 | Stump
548. Scorpion
549. Sieve
550. Sandcastle
551. Sloop
552. Schooner
553. Shark
554. Scarf
555. Spider
556. Spur
557. Sheriff
558. Sling
559. Scab
560. Sickle
561. Scythe
562. Slippers
563. Sandwich
564. Sunflower
565. Snowshoes
566. Skis
567. Stretcher
568. Spy
569. Stitch
570. Screwdriver
571. Screw
572. Shifter (Wrench)
573. Shrug
574. Spade
575. Shovel
576. Sledgehammer
577. Scissors
578. Shears
579. Saw
580. Scalpel
581. Shack
582. Scooter
583. Satchel
584. Sundae
585. Straw
586. Spaghetti
587. Strawberry
588. Spoon
589. Saturn
590. Seesaw
591. Spring
592. Sneeze
593. Shepherd
594. Staff
595. Scarecrow
596. Sloth
597. Stork
598. Spoonbill
599. Safe
600. Shrew
601. |
332_13 | Animalia (book) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalia%20%28book%29 | Shrew
601. Skipping rope
602. Scroll
603. Stamp
604. Soccer
605. Swimmer
606. Snorkel
607. Syringe
608. Siphon
609. Stethoscope
610. Starfish
611. Snail
612. Slug
613. Sphinx
614. Sprocket
615. Spinning wheel
616. Spool
617. Stool
618. Space shuttle
619. Satellite
620. Sombrero
621. Serape
622. Saxophone
623. Synthesizer
624. Superman
625. Shower
626. Suitcase
627. Shuttlecock
628. Skittle (Bowling pin)
629. Stilts
630. Stalactite
631. Stalagmite
632. Steamroller
633. Swings
634. Slide
635. Sword
636. Sheathe
637. Stiletto
638. Scimitar
639. Saber
640. Spear
641. Sleigh
642. Snow
643. Santa Claus
644. Sack
645. Sausage
646. Stick figure
647. Surfboard
648. Surfer
649. Seal
650. Skull
651. |
332_14 | Animalia (book) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalia%20%28book%29 | Skull
651. Spine
652. Shamrock
653. Spectacles
654. Scapula
655. Slingshot
656. Snipe
657. Swallow
658. Sardines
659. Swan
660. Skunk
661. Stepladder
662. Sofa
663. Scarab beetle
664. Stereo
665. Star of David
666. Sparrow
667. Squirrel
668. Sextant
669. Squid
670. Seahorse
671. Salute
672. Sardines
673. Semaphore
T
672. Top hat
673. Tulip
674. Tricycle
675. Toad
676. Thermos
677. Turtle
678. Tear
679. Trombone
680. Trumpet
681. Tuba
682. Tractor
683. Trailer
684. Tunnel
685. Tepee
686. Totem pole
687. Target
688. Tuxedo
689. Tunic
690. Telescope
691. Teapot
692. Television
693. Trophy
694. Tap
695. Teddy bear
696. Tambourine
697. Torch
698. Toy tank
699. Tomato
700. Thermometer
701. |
332_15 | Animalia (book) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalia%20%28book%29 | Thermometer
701. Tweezers
702. Threader
703. Typewriter
704. Turntable
705. Telephone
706. Tapir
U
707. UFO
708. Ursa Major
709. Ursa Minor
710. United Kingdom
711. Uncle Sam
712. Ukulele
713. Underwear
714. Umiak
V
715. Volkswagen
716. Vase
717. Van
718. VCR
719. Violin
720. Vacuum cleaner
721. Voodoo doll
722. Vane
723. Valve
724. Volcano
725. Viaduct
726. Vicar
727. Viking
728. Vampire
729. Valley
730. Vegetables
W
730. Weevil
731. Wristwatch
732. Witch
733. Wave
734. Wizard
735. Wand
736. Wheat
737. Wall
738. Wreck
739. Wharf
740. Whale
741. Walrus
742. Whirlpool
743. Werewolf
744. Wolf
745. Wishbone
746. Well
747. Washerwoman
748. Washhouse
749. Washing machine
750. Wagon
751. |
332_16 | Animalia (book) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalia%20%28book%29 | Whip
752. Windmill
753. Wombat
754. Wallaby
755. Weeping willow
756. Waterfall
757. Weapons
758. Water
X
757. Xylophone
758. Xerophytes
759. Xmas tree
760. X-ray
761. X (sign language)
Y
762. Yoke
763. Yolk
764. Yeti
765. Yeoman
766. Yo-yo
767. Yard
768. Year
Z
769. Zulu
770. Zodiac
771. Zipper
772. Zinnia
773. Zither
774. Zebu
775. Zorro
776. Zero
777. Zebra
Related products
Julia MacRae Books published an Animalia colouring book in 2008. H. N. Abrams also published a wall calendar colouring book version for children the same year.
H. N. Abrams published The Animalia Wall Frieze, a fold-out over 26 feet in length, in which the author created new riddles for each letter.
The Great American Puzzle Factory created a 300-piece jigsaw puzzle based on the book's cover.
Adaptations
A |
332_17 | Animalia (book) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalia%20%28book%29 | for each letter.
The Great American Puzzle Factory created a 300-piece jigsaw puzzle based on the book's cover.
Adaptations
A television series was also created, based on the book, which airs in the United States, Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, Norway and Venezuela. It also airs on Minimax for the Czech Republic and Slovakia. And recently in Greece on the channel ET1. The Australian Children's Television Foundation released a teaching resource DVD-ROM in 2011 to accompany the TV series with teaching aids for classroom use.
In 2010, The Base Factory and AppBooks released Animalia as an application for iPad and iPhone/iPod Touch.
Awards
Animalia won the Young Australian's Best Book Award in 1987 for Best Picture Story Book.
The Children's Book Council of Australia designated Animalia a 1987 Picture Book of the Year: Honour Book.
Kid's Own Australian Literature Awards named Animalia the 1988 Picture Book Winner.
References
External links
Graeme Base's official website
A Learning Time activity guide for Animalia created by The Little Big Book Club
Alphabet books
1986 children's books
Picture books by Graeme Base
Puzzle books
Australian children's books
Puffin Books books |
334_0 | International Atomic Time | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Atomic%20Time | International Atomic Time
International Atomic Time (TAI, from the French name ) is a high-precision atomic coordinate time standard based on the notional passage of proper time on Earth's geoid. It is a continuous scale of time, without leap seconds. It is the principal realisation of Terrestrial Time (with a fixed offset of epoch). It is also the basis for Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), which is used for civil timekeeping all over the Earth's surface. UTC deviates from TAI by a number of whole seconds. , when another leap second was put into effect, UTC is currently exactly 37 seconds behind TAI. The 37 seconds result from the initial difference of 10 seconds at the start of 1972, plus 27 leap seconds in UTC since 1972.
TAI may be reported using traditional means of specifying days, carried over from non-uniform time standards based on the rotation of the Earth. Specifically, both Julian days and the Gregorian calendar are used. TAI in this form was synchronised with Universal Time at the beginning of 1958, and the two have drifted apart ever since, due to the changing motion of the Earth.
Operation
TAI is a weighted average of the time kept by over |
334_1 | International Atomic Time | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Atomic%20Time | 400 atomic clocks in over 50 national laboratories worldwide. The majority of the clocks involved are caesium clocks; the International System of Units (SI) definition of the second is based on caesium. The clocks are compared using GPS signals and two-way satellite time and frequency transfer. Due to the signal averaging TAI is an order of magnitude more stable than its best constituent clock.
The participating institutions each broadcast, in real time, a frequency signal with timecodes, which is their estimate of TAI. Time codes are usually published in the form of UTC, which differs from TAI by a well-known integer number of seconds. These time scales are denoted in the form UTC(NPL) in the UTC form, where NPL identifies the National Physical Laboratory, UK. The TAI form may be denoted TAI(NPL). The latter is not to be confused with TA(NPL), which denotes an independent atomic time scale, not synchronised to TAI or to anything else.
The clocks at different institutions are regularly compared against each other. The International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM, France), combines these measurements to retrospectively calculate the weighted average that forms the most stable time scale possible. This combined time scale |
334_2 | International Atomic Time | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Atomic%20Time | is published monthly in "Circular T", and is the canonical TAI. This time scale is expressed in the form of tables of differences UTC − UTC(k) (equivalent to TAI − TAI(k)) for each participating institution k. The same circular also gives tables of TAI − TA(k), for the various unsynchronised atomic time scales.
Errors in publication may be corrected by issuing a revision of the faulty Circular T or by errata in a subsequent Circular T. Aside from this, once published in Circular T, the TAI scale is not revised. In hindsight, it is possible to discover errors in TAI and to make better estimates of the true proper time scale. Since the published circulars are definitive, better estimates do not create another version of TAI; it is instead considered to be creating a better realisation of Terrestrial Time (TT).
History
Early atomic time scales consisted of quartz clocks with frequencies calibrated by a single atomic clock; the atomic clocks were not operated continuously. Atomic timekeeping services started experimentally in 1955, using the first caesium atomic clock at the National Physical Laboratory, UK (NPL). It was used as a basis for calibrating the quartz clocks at the Royal Greenwich Observatory |