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Radar cross-section (RCS), denoted σ, also called radar signature, is a measure of how detectable an object is by radar. A larger RCS indicates that an object is more easily detected.
An object reflects a limited amount of radar energy back to the source. The factors that influence this include:
- the material with whi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar_cross_section |
In mathematics, a negative number is the opposite of a positive real number. Equivalently, a negative number is a real number that is less than zero. Negative numbers are often used to represent the magnitude of a loss or deficiency. A debt that is owed may be thought of as a negative asset. If a quantity, such as the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_number |
In electromagnetics, an evanescent field, or evanescent wave, is an oscillating electric and/or magnetic field that does not propagate as an electromagnetic wave but whose energy is spatially concentrated in the vicinity of the source (oscillating charges and currents). Even when there is a propagating electromagnetic... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evanescent_field |
In science, a field is a physical quantity, represented by a scalar, vector, or tensor, that has a value for each point in space and time. An example of a scalar field is a weather map, with the surface temperature described by assigning a number to each point on the map. A surface wind map, assigning an arrow to each ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_%28physics%29 |
In mathematics, a Cartan subalgebra, often abbreviated as CSA, is a nilpotent subalgebra
$$
\mathfrak{h}
$$
of a Lie algebra
$$
\mathfrak{g}
$$
that is self-normalising (if
$$
[X,Y] \in \mathfrak{h}
$$
for all
$$
X \in \mathfrak{h}
$$
, then
$$
Y \in \mathfrak{h}
$$
). They were introduced by Élie Cartan in hi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartan_subalgebra |
Biplots are a type of exploratory graph used in statistics, a generalization of the simple two-variable scatterplot.
A biplot overlays a score plot with a loading plot.
A biplot allows information on both samples and variables of a data matrix to be displayed graphically. Samples are displayed as points while variables... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biplot |
A mainframe computer, informally called a mainframe or big iron, is a computer used primarily by large organizations for critical applications like bulk data processing for tasks such as censuses, industry and consumer statistics, enterprise resource planning, and large-scale transaction processing. A mainframe compute... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainframe_computer |
In group theory, a branch of mathematics, the baby-step giant-step is a meet-in-the-middle algorithm for computing the discrete logarithm or order of an element in a finite abelian group by Daniel Shanks. The discrete log problem is of fundamental importance to the area of public key cryptography.
Many of the most comm... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baby-step_giant-step |
In probability theory and statistics, the logistic distribution is a continuous probability distribution. Its cumulative distribution function is the logistic function, which appears in logistic regression and feedforward neural networks. It resembles the normal distribution in shape but has heavier tails (higher kurto... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logistic_distribution |
An invention is a unique or novel device, method, composition, idea or process. An invention may be an improvement upon a machine, product, or process for increasing efficiency or lowering cost. It may also be an entirely new concept. If an idea is unique enough either as a stand-alone invention or as a significant imp... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invention |
In the mathematical field of differential geometry, the fundamental theorem of surface theory deals with the problem of prescribing the geometric data of a submanifold of Euclidean space. Originally proved by Pierre Ossian Bonnet in 1867, it has since been extended to higher dimensions and non-Euclidean contexts.
## Bo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonnet_theorem |
In mathematics, Burnside's theorem in group theory states that if G is a finite group of order
$$
p^a q^b
$$
where p and q are prime numbers, and a and b are non-negative integers, then G is solvable. Hence each non-Abelian finite simple group has order divisible by at least three distinct primes.
## History
The theo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burnside%27s_theorem |
Accounting software is a computer program that maintains account books on computers, including recording transactions and account balances. It may depend on virtual thinking. Depending on the purpose, the software can manage budgets, perform accounting tasks for multiple currencies, perform payroll and customer relatio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accounting_software |
A linear combination of atomic orbitals or LCAO is a quantum superposition of atomic orbitals and a technique for calculating molecular orbitals in quantum chemistry. In quantum mechanics, electron configurations of atoms are described as wavefunctions. In a mathematical sense, these wave functions are the basis set of... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_combination_of_atomic_orbitals |
Zeller's congruence is an algorithm devised by Christian Zeller in the 19th century to calculate the day of the week for any Julian or Gregorian calendar date. It can be considered to be based on the conversion between Julian day and the calendar date.
## Formula
For the Gregorian calendar, Zeller's congruence is
$$
h ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeller%27s_congruence |
In computing, a script is a relatively short and simple set of instructions that typically automate an otherwise manual process. The act of writing a script is called scripting. A scripting language or script language is a programming language that is used for scripting.
Originally, scripting was limited to automating ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scripting_language |
In computing, a threaded binary tree is a binary tree variant that facilitates traversal in a particular order.
An entire binary search tree can be easily traversed in order of the main key but given only a pointer to a node, finding the node which comes next may be slow or impossible. For example, leaf nodes by defini... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threaded_binary_tree |
Wave power is the capture of energy of wind waves to do useful work – for example, electricity generation, desalination, or pumping water. A machine that exploits wave power is a wave energy converter (WEC).
Waves are generated primarily by wind passing over the sea's surface and also by tidal forces, temperature varia... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_power |
Continuous phase modulation (CPM) is a method for modulation of data commonly used in wireless modems. In contrast to other coherent digital phase modulation techniques where the carrier phase
abruptly resets to zero at the start of every symbol (e.g. M-PSK), with CPM the carrier phase is modulated in a continuous mann... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_phase_modulation |
Elias code or Elias gamma code is a universal code encoding positive integers developed by Peter Elias. It is used most commonly when coding integers whose upper bound cannot be determined beforehand.
## Encoding
To code a number x ≥ 1:
1. Let
$$
N = \lfloor \log_2 x \rfloor
$$
be the highest power of 2 it contains,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elias_gamma_coding |
In topology and related branches of mathematics, a totally disconnected space is a topological space that has only singletons as connected subsets. In every topological space, the singletons (and, when it is considered connected, the empty set) are connected; in a totally disconnected space, these are the only connecte... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totally_disconnected_space |
In discrete geometry,
## Beck's theorem
is any of several different results, two of which are given below. Both appeared, alongside several other important theorems, in a well-known paper by József Beck. The two results described below primarily concern lower bounds on the number of lines determined by a set of point... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beck%27s_theorem_%28geometry%29 |
The doubly connected edge list (DCEL), also known as half-edge data structure, is a data structure to represent an embedding of a planar graph in the plane, and polytopes in 3D. This data structure provides efficient manipulation of the topological information associated with the objects in question (vertices, edges, f... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubly_connected_edge_list |
In computational complexity theory, a branch of computer science, bounded-error probabilistic polynomial time (BPP) is the class of decision problems solvable by a probabilistic Turing machine in polynomial time with an error probability bounded by 1/3 for all instances.
BPP is one of the largest practical classes of p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BPP_%28complexity%29 |
Shuffling is a technique used to randomize a deck of playing cards, introducing an element of chance into card games. Various shuffling methods exist, each with its own characteristics and potential for manipulation.
One of the simplest shuffling techniques is the overhand shuffle, where small packets of cards are tran... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuffling |
In physics, an oscillon is a soliton-like phenomenon that occurs in granular and other dissipative media. Oscillons in granular media result from vertically vibrating a plate with a layer of uniform particles placed freely on top. When the sinusoidal vibrations are of the correct amplitude and frequency and the layer o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscillon |
In computational number theory, the index calculus algorithm is a probabilistic algorithm for computing discrete logarithms.
Dedicated to the discrete logarithm in
$$
(\mathbb{Z}/q\mathbb{Z})^*
$$
where
$$
q
$$
is a prime, index calculus leads to a family of algorithms adapted to finite fields and to some families... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_calculus_algorithm |
In set theory in mathematics and formal logic, two sets are said to be disjoint sets if they have no element in common. Equivalently, two disjoint sets are sets whose intersection is the empty set. For example, {1, 2, 3} and {4, 5, 6} are disjoint sets, while {1, 2, 3} and {3, 4, 5} are not disjoint. A collection of tw... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disjoint_sets |
A Java virtual machine (JVM) is a virtual machine that enables a computer to run Java programs as well as programs written in other languages that are also compiled to Java bytecode. The JVM is detailed by a specification that formally describes what is required in a JVM implementation. Having a specification ensures i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_virtual_machine |
In mathematics, specifically in algebraic geometry and algebraic topology, the Lefschetz hyperplane theorem is a precise statement of certain relations between the shape of an algebraic variety and the shape of its subvarieties. More precisely, the theorem says that for a variety X embedded in projective space and a hy... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lefschetz_hyperplane_theorem |
In mathematics, Robinson arithmetic is a finitely axiomatized fragment of first-order Peano arithmetic (PA), first set out by Raphael M. Robinson in 1950. It is usually denoted Q.
Q is almost PA without the axiom schema of mathematical induction. Q is weaker than PA but it has the same language, and both theories are... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robinson_arithmetic |
In mathematics, especially the usage of linear algebra in mathematical physics and differential geometry, Einstein notation (also known as the Einstein summation convention or Einstein summation notation) is a notational convention that implies summation over a set of indexed terms in a formula, thus achieving brevity... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_notation |
Hydropower (from Ancient Greek -, "water"), also known as water power or water energy, is the use of falling or fast-running water to produce electricity or to power machines. This is achieved by converting the gravitational potential or kinetic energy of a water source to produce power. Hydropower is a method of susta... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydropower |
Observation in the natural sciences is an act or instance of noticing or perceiving and the acquisition of information from a primary source. In living beings, observation employs the senses. In science, observation can also involve the perception and recording of data via the use of scientific instruments. The term ma... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observation |
In mathematics, transversality is a notion that describes how spaces can intersect; transversality can be seen as the "opposite" of tangency, and plays a role in general position. It formalizes the idea of a generic intersection in differential topology. It is defined by considering the linearizations of the intersecti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transversality_%28mathematics%29 |
In mathematics, a combinatorial class is a countable set of mathematical objects, together with a size function mapping each object to a non-negative integer, such that there are finitely many objects of each size..
## Counting sequences and isomorphism
The counting sequence of a combinatorial class is the sequence of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinatorial_class |
In programming languages and type theory, a product of types is another, compounded, type in a structure. The "operands" of the product are types, and the structure of a product type is determined by the fixed order of the operands in the product. An instance of a product type retains the fixed order, but otherwise may... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_type |
Coherence expresses the potential for two waves to interfere. Two monochromatic beams from a single source always interfere. Wave sources are not strictly monochromatic: they may be partly coherent.
When interfering, two waves add together to create a wave of greater amplitude than either one (constructive interferenc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coherence_%28physics%29 |
In computational complexity theory and cryptography, the existence of pseudorandom generators is related to the existence of one-way functions through a number of theorems, collectively referred to as the pseudorandom generator theorem.
## Introduction
### Pseudorandomness
A distribution is considered pseudorandom if n... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudorandom_generator_theorem |
In probability theory, the inverse Gaussian distribution (also known as the Wald distribution) is a two-parameter family of continuous probability distributions with support on (0,∞).
Its probability density function is given by
$$
f(x;\mu,\lambda) = \sqrt\frac{\lambda}{2 \pi x^3} \exp\biggl(-\frac{\lambda (x-\mu)^2}{2... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_Gaussian_distribution |
In fluid dynamics, Airy wave theory (often referred to as linear wave theory) gives a linearised description of the propagation of gravity waves on the surface of a homogeneous fluid layer. The theory assumes that the fluid layer has a uniform mean depth, and that the fluid flow is inviscid, incompressible and irrotati... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airy_wave_theory |
In topology, a branch of mathematics, a subset
$$
E
$$
of a topological space
$$
X
$$
is said to be locally closed if any of the following equivalent conditions are satisfied:
-
$$
E
$$
is the intersection of an open set and a closed set in
$$
X.
$$
- For each point
$$
x\in E,
$$
there is a neighborhood
$$
U
... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locally_closed_subset |
The binary GCD algorithm, also known as Stein's algorithm or the binary Euclidean algorithm, is an algorithm that computes the greatest common divisor (GCD) of two nonnegative integers. Stein's algorithm uses simpler arithmetic operations than the conventional Euclidean algorithm; it replaces division with arithmetic s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_GCD_algorithm |
In probability theory and statistics, the negative binomial distribution is a discrete probability distribution that models the number of failures in a sequence of independent and identically distributed Bernoulli trials before a specified/constant/fixed number of successes
$$
r
$$
occur. For example, we can define r... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_binomial_distribution |
In computability theory and computational complexity theory, a reduction is an algorithm for transforming one problem into another problem. A sufficiently efficient reduction from one problem to another may be used to show that the second problem is at least as difficult as the first.
Intuitively, problem A is reducibl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduction_%28complexity%29 |
Strand sort is a recursive sorting algorithm that sorts items of a list into increasing order. It has worst-case time complexity, which occurs when the input list is reverse sorted. It has a best-case time complexity of , which occurs when the input is already sorted.
The algorithm first moves the first element of a l... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strand_sort |
In probability theory, the craps principle is a theorem about event probabilities under repeated iid trials. Let
$$
E_1
$$
and
$$
E_2
$$
denote two mutually exclusive events which might occur on a given trial. Then the probability that
$$
E_1
$$
occurs before
$$
E_2
$$
equals the conditional probability that
$... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craps_principle |
In agile principles, timeboxing allocates a maximum unit of time to an activity, called a timebox, within which a planned activity takes place. It is used by agile principles-based project management approaches and for personal time management.
## In project management
Timeboxing is used as a project planning techniqu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeboxing |
Tarjan's strongly connected components algorithm is an algorithm in graph theory for finding the strongly connected components (SCCs) of a directed graph. It runs in linear time, matching the time bound for alternative methods including Kosaraju's algorithm and the path-based strong component algorithm. The algorithm i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarjan%27s_strongly_connected_components_algorithm |
In queueing theory, a discipline within the mathematical theory of probability, a Jackson network (sometimes Jacksonian network) is a class of queueing network where the equilibrium distribution is particularly simple to compute as the network has a product-form solution. It was the first significant development in the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackson_network |
In physics and engineering, a free body diagram (FBD; also called a force diagram) is a graphical illustration used to visualize the applied forces, moments, and resulting reactions on a free body in a given condition. It depicts a body or connected bodies with all the applied forces and moments, and reactions, which a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_body_diagram |
In mathematics, the theta divisor Θ is the divisor in the sense of algebraic geometry defined on an abelian variety A over the complex numbers (and principally polarized) by the zero locus of the associated Riemann theta-function. It is therefore an algebraic subvariety of A of dimension dim A − 1.
## Classical theory
... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theta_divisor |
A turbine ( or ) (from the Greek , tyrbē, or Latin turbo, meaning vortex). is a rotary mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts it into useful work. The work produced can be used for generating electrical power when combined with a generator. A turbine is a turbomachine with at least one mo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbine |
In theoretical physics, an invariant is an observable of a physical system which remains unchanged under some transformation. Invariance, as a broader term, also applies to the no change of form of physical laws under a transformation, and is closer in scope to the mathematical definition. Invariants of a system are de... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invariant_%28physics%29 |
A geometric stable distribution or geo-stable distribution is a type of leptokurtic probability distribution. Geometric stable distributions were introduced in Klebanov, L. B., Maniya, G. M., and Melamed, I. A. (1985). A problem of Zolotarev and analogs of infinitely divisible and stable distributions in a scheme for s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_stable_distribution |
In graph theory, a biconnected component or block (sometimes known as a 2-connected component) is a maximal biconnected subgraph. Any connected graph decomposes into a tree of biconnected components called the block-cut tree of the graph. The blocks are attached to each other at shared vertices called cut vertices or ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biconnected_component |
In statistics, the matrix t-distribution (or matrix variate t-distribution) is the generalization of the multivariate t-distribution from vectors to matrices.
The matrix t-distribution shares the same relationship with the multivariate t-distribution that the matrix normal distribution shares with the multivariate nor... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_t-distribution |
Clean-room design (also known as the Chinese wall technique) is the method of copying a design by reverse engineering and then recreating it without infringing any of the copyrights associated with the original design. Clean-room design is useful as a defense against copyright infringement because it relies on independ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean-room_design |
In materials science, fatigue is the initiation and propagation of cracks in a material due to cyclic loading. Once a fatigue crack has initiated, it grows a small amount with each loading cycle, typically producing striations on some parts of the fracture surface. The crack will continue to grow until it reaches a cri... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatigue_%28material%29 |
A real-time operating system (RTOS) is an operating system (OS) for real-time computing applications that processes data and events that have critically defined time constraints. A RTOS is distinct from a time-sharing operating system, such as Unix, which manages the sharing of system resources with a scheduler, data b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_operating_system |
Regulation and licensure in engineering is established by various jurisdictions of the world to encourage life, public welfare, safety, well-being, then environment and other interests of the general public and to define the licensure process through which an engineer becomes licensed to practice engineering and to pro... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation_and_licensure_in_engineering |
A Fresnel zone ( ), named after physicist Augustin-Jean Fresnel, is one of a series of confocal prolate ellipsoidal regions of space between and around a transmitter and a receiver. The size of the calculated Fresnel zone at any particular distance from the transmitter and receiver can help to predict whether obstruct... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresnel_zone |
In materials science and solid mechanics, Poisson's ratio (symbol: (nu)) is a measure of the Poisson effect, the deformation (expansion or contraction) of a material in directions perpendicular to the specific direction of loading. The value of Poisson's ratio is the negative of the ratio of transverse strain to axial... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poisson%27s_ratio |
Medical physics deals with the application of the concepts and methods of physics to the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of human diseases with a specific goal of improving human health and well-being. Since 2008, medical physics has been included as a health profession according to
### International
Standard Cla... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_physics |
In field theory, the primitive element theorem states that every finite separable field extension is simple, i.e. generated by a single element. This theorem implies in particular that all algebraic number fields over the rational numbers, and all extensions in which both fields are finite, are simple.
## Terminology
L... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primitive_element_theorem |
In group theory, a word metric on a discrete group
$$
G
$$
is a way to measure distance between any two elements of
$$
G
$$
. As the name suggests, the word metric is a metric on
$$
G
$$
, assigning to any two elements
$$
g
$$
,
$$
h
$$
of
$$
G
$$
a distance
$$
d(g,h)
$$
that measures how efficiently their d... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_metric |
Extreme value theory or extreme value analysis (EVA) is the study of extremes in statistical distributions.
It is widely used in many disciplines, such as structural engineering, finance, economics, earth sciences, traffic prediction, and geological engineering. For example, EVA might be used in the field of hydrology ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extreme_value_theory |
A gamma wave or gamma rhythm is a pattern of neural oscillation in humans with a frequency between 30 and 100 Hz, the 40 Hz point being of particular interest. Gamma waves with frequencies between 30 and 70 hertz may be classified as low gamma, and those between 70 and 150 hertz as high gamma. Gamma rhythms are correla... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_wave |
In mathematical analysis, Rademacher's theorem, named after Hans Rademacher, states the following: If is an open subset of and is Lipschitz continuous, then is differentiable almost everywhere in ; that is, the points in at which is not differentiable form a set of Lebesgue measure zero. Differentiability here re... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rademacher%27s_theorem |
In mathematicsspecifically, in the theory of stochastic processesDoob's martingale convergence theorems are a collection of results on the limits of supermartingales, named after the American mathematician Joseph L. Doob. Informally, the martingale convergence theorem typically refers to the result that any supermartin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doob%27s_martingale_convergence_theorems |
In Combustion, G equation is a scalar
$$
G(\mathbf{x},t)
$$
field equation which describes the instantaneous flame position, introduced by Forman A. Williams in 1985Kerstein, Alan R., William T. Ashurst, and Forman A. Williams. "Field equation for interface propagation in an unsteady homogeneous flow field." Physical... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G_equation |
The Voigt profile (named after Woldemar Voigt) is a probability distribution given by a convolution of a Cauchy-Lorentz distribution and a Gaussian distribution. It is often used in analyzing data from spectroscopy or diffraction.
## Definition
Without loss of generality, we can consider only centered profiles, which ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voigt_profile |
In mathematics, the lattice of subgroups of a group
$$
G
$$
is the lattice whose elements are the subgroups of
$$
G
$$
, with the partial ordering being set inclusion.
In this lattice, the join of two subgroups is the subgroup generated by their union, and the meet of two subgroups is their intersection.
## Example
... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_of_subgroups |
In combinatorial mathematics, the Prüfer sequence (also Prüfer code or Prüfer numbers) of a labeled tree is a unique sequence associated with the tree. The sequence for a tree on vertices has length , and can be generated by a simple iterative algorithm. Prüfer sequences were first used by Heinz Prüfer to prove
## ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%BCfer_sequence |
In computer science, a ternary tree is a tree data structure in which each node has at most three child nodes, usually distinguished as "left", “mid” and "right". Nodes with children are parent nodes, and child nodes may contain references to their parents. Outside the tree, there is often a reference to the "root" nod... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ternary_tree |
Avionics software is embedded software with legally mandated safety and reliability concerns used in avionics. The main difference between avionic software and conventional embedded software is that the development process is required by law and is optimized for safety.
It is claimed that the process described below ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avionics_software |
A sine wave, sinusoidal wave, or sinusoid (symbol: ∿) is a periodic wave whose waveform (shape) is the trigonometric sine function. In mechanics, as a linear motion over time, this is simple harmonic motion; as rotation, it corresponds to uniform circular motion. Sine waves occur often in physics, including wind waves,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sine_wave |
Microfluidics refers to a system that manipulates a small amount of fluids (10−9 to 10−18 liters) using small channels with sizes of ten to hundreds of micrometres. It is a multidisciplinary field that involves molecular analysis, molecular biology, and microelectronics. It has practical applications in the design of s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microfluidics |
The volt (symbol: V) is the unit of electric potential, electric potential difference (voltage), and electromotive force in the International System of Units (SI).
## Definition
One volt is defined as the electric potential between two points of a conducting wire when an electric current of one ampere dissipates one wa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt |
In computing and mathematics, the modulo operation returns the remainder or signed remainder of a division, after one number is divided by another, the latter being called the modulus of the operation.
Given two positive numbers and , modulo (often abbreviated as ) is the remainder of the Euclidean division of by ,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulo |
In mathematics, more specifically general topology, the divisor topology is a specific topology on the set
$$
X = \{2, 3, 4,...\}
$$
of positive integers greater than or equal to two. The divisor topology is the poset topology for the partial order relation of divisibility of integers on
$$
X
$$
.
## Construction
T... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divisor_topology |
In particle physics, the electroweak interaction or electroweak force is the unified description of two of the fundamental interactions of nature: electromagnetism (electromagnetic interaction) and the weak interaction. Although these two forces appear very different at everyday low energies, the theory models them as ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroweak_interaction |
In electrodynamics, linear polarization or plane polarization of electromagnetic radiation is a confinement of the electric field vector or magnetic field vector to a given plane along the direction of propagation. The term linear polarization (French: polarisation rectiligne) was coined by Augustin-Jean Fresnel in 182... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_polarization |
An interface description language or interface definition language (IDL) is a generic term for a language that lets a program or object written in one language communicate with another program written in an unknown language. IDLs are usually used to describe data types and interfaces in a language-independent way, for ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interface_description_language |
The theorem of the gnomon states that certain parallelograms occurring in a gnomon have areas of equal size.
## Theorem
In a parallelogram
$$
ABCD
$$
with a point
$$
P
$$
on the diagonal
$$
AC
$$
, the parallel to
$$
AD
$$
through
$$
P
$$
intersects the side
$$
CD
$$
in
$$
G
$$
and the side
$$
AB
$$
in
... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorem_of_the_gnomon |
In mathematics and physics, multiple-scale analysis (also called the method of multiple scales) comprises techniques used to construct uniformly valid approximations to the solutions of perturbation problems, both for small as well as large values of the independent variables. This is done by introducing fast-scale and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple-scale_analysis |
The term umbral calculus has two related but distinct meanings.
In mathematics, before the 1970s, umbral calculus referred to the surprising similarity between seemingly unrelated polynomial equations and certain shadowy techniques used to prove them. These techniques were introduced in 1861 by John Blissard and are s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbral_calculus |
In computer science, radix sort is a non-comparative sorting algorithm. It avoids comparison by creating and distributing elements into buckets according to their radix. For elements with more than one significant digit, this bucketing process is repeated for each digit, while preserving the ordering of the prior step,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radix_sort |
In mathematics and computer science, connectivity is one of the basic concepts of graph theory: it asks for the minimum number of elements (nodes or edges) that need to be removed to separate the remaining nodes into two or more isolated subgraphs. It is closely related to the theory of network flow problems. The conne... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectivity_%28graph_theory%29 |
In mathematics, an orientation of a real vector bundle is a generalization of an orientation of a vector space; thus, given a real vector bundle π: E →B, an orientation of E means: for each fiber Ex, there is an orientation of the vector space Ex and one demands that each trivialization map (which is a bundle map)
$$
\... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orientation_of_a_vector_bundle |
In the theory of stochastic processes in discrete time, a part of the mathematical theory of probability, the Doob decomposition theorem gives a unique decomposition of every adapted and integrable stochastic process as the sum of a martingale and a predictable process (or "drift") starting at zero. The theorem was pro... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doob_decomposition_theorem |
Astrobiology (also xenology or exobiology) is a scientific field within the life and environmental sciences that studies the origins, early evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe by investigating its deterministic conditions and contingent events. As a discipline, astrobiology is founded on the pre... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrobiology |
### Algorithms
that construct convex hulls of various objects have a broad range of applications in mathematics and computer science.
In computational geometry, numerous algorithms are proposed for computing the convex hull of a finite set of points, with various computational complexities.
Computing the convex hull m... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convex_hull_algorithms |
Rear-wheel drive (RWD) is a form of engine and transmission layout used in motor vehicles, in which the engine drives the rear wheels only. Until the late 20th century, rear-wheel drive was the most common configuration for cars.
Most rear-wheel drive vehicles feature a longitudinally-mounted engine at the front of th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rear-wheel_drive |
In graph theory and graph algorithms, a feedback arc set or feedback edge set in a directed graph is a subset of the edges of the graph that contains at least one edge out of every cycle in the graph. Removing these edges from the graph breaks all of the cycles, producing an acyclic subgraph of the given graph, often c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feedback_arc_set |
In quantum field theory, a quartic interaction or φ4 theory is a type of self-interaction in a scalar field. Other types of quartic interactions may be found under the topic of four-fermion interactions. A classical free scalar field
$$
\varphi
$$
satisfies the Klein–Gordon equation. If a scalar field is denoted
$$... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartic_interaction |
Astrometry is a branch of astronomy that involves precise measurements of the positions and movements of stars and other celestial bodies. It provides the kinematics and physical origin of the Solar System and this galaxy, the Milky Way.
## History
The history of astrometry is linked to the history of star catalogues, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrometry |
In physics and electrical engineering, a cutoff frequency, corner frequency, or break frequency is a boundary in a system's frequency response at which energy flowing through the system begins to be reduced (attenuated or reflected) rather than passing through.
Typically in electronic systems such as filters and commun... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutoff_frequency |
In linear algebra, the identity matrix of size
$$
n
$$
is the
$$
n\times n
$$
square matrix with ones on the main diagonal and zeros elsewhere. It has unique properties, for example when the identity matrix represents a geometric transformation, the object remains unchanged by the transformation. In other contexts,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_matrix |
In actuarial science and applied probability, ruin theory (sometimes risk theory or collective risk theory) uses mathematical models to describe an insurer's vulnerability to insolvency/ruin. In such models key quantities of interest are the probability of ruin, distribution of surplus immediately prior to ruin and def... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruin_theory |
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