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Category:Environmental law | {{Cat main}}
{{Commons category}}
{{Portal|Environment}}
{{see also|Category:Energy law}}
[[Category:Environmental humanities|Law]]
[[Category:environmental protection]]
[[Category:Environmental social science]]
[[Category:Law by issue]]
[[Category:Occupational safety and health]] |
Rio Declaration on Environment and Development | {{short description|1992 short document}}
The '''Rio Declaration on Environment and Development''', often shortened to '''Rio Declaration''', was a short document produced at the 1992 [[United Nations]] "Conference on Environment and Development" (UNCED), informally known as the [[Earth Summit]]. The Rio Declaration consisted of 27 principles intended to guide countries in future [[sustainable development]]. It was signed by over 175 countries.
==History==
The Rio Conference, which adopted the Declaration, took place from 3 to 14 June 1992. Subsequently, the international community has met twice to assess the progress made in implementing the principles of the document; first in [[New York City]] in 1997 during a General Assembly Session of the UN, and then in [[Johannesburg]] in 2002. While the document helped to raise environmental awareness, evidence from 2007 suggested that little of the document's environmental goals had at that time been achieved.<ref name="Robbins2007">{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Palmer |first1=Robert |last2=Nursey-Bray |first2=Melissa |editor1-last=Robbins |editor1-first=Paul |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Environment and Society |title=Rio Declaration on Environment and Development |volume=4 |date=2007 |publisher=Sage Publications |location=Thousand Oaks |isbn=9781412927611 |pages=1512–1514}}</ref>
== Content ==
Referring to the "integral and interdependent nature of the Earth, "our home", the Rio Declaration proclaims 27 principles. The first principle states that sustainable development primarily concerns [[human beings]], who are entitled to live [[Human health|health]]y and [[Productivity|productive]] lives in harmony with nature.<ref>UN Documentation Centre, [https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/generalassembly/docs/globalcompact/A_CONF.151_26_Vol.I_Declaration.pdf Rio Declaration], Article 1</ref> Article 11 creates an expectation that states will enact [[environmental legislation]]. Further articles include formulations of the [[precautionary principle]], which should be "widely applied by states according to their capabilities" (principle 15), and of the [[polluter pays principle]], which states are encouraged to adopt where it is in the [[public interest]] to do so and it will not distort [[international trade]] and investment (principle 16). The final principle invites fulfillment of the other principles in a spirit of good faith.
The Rio Declaration expresses a positive view of [[traditional ecological knowledge]].<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Taiban |first=Sasala |title=Greening East Asia: The Rise of the Eco-Developmental State |last2=Lin |first2=Hui-Nien |last3=Pei |first3=Kurtis Jia-Chyi |last4=Lu |first4=Dau-Jye |last5=Gau |first5=Hwa-Sheng |date=2020 |publisher=[[University of Washington Press]] |isbn=978-0-295-74791-0 |editor-last=Esarey |editor-first=Ashley |location=Seattle |chapter=Indigenous Conservation in Taiwan |jstor=j.ctv19rs1b2 |editor-last2=Haddad |editor-first2=Mary Alice |editor-last3=Lewis |editor-first3=Joanna I. |editor-last4=Harrell |editor-first4=Stevan}}</ref>{{Rp|page=132}}
==See also==
* [[Three generations of human rights]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
{{Wikisource}}
* [https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/generalassembly/docs/globalcompact/A_CONF.151_26_Vol.I_Declaration.pdf UN Documentation Centre] The full text of the Rio Declaration.
* [http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/dunche/dunche.html Introductory note by Günther Handl, procedural history note and audiovisual material] on the ''Rio Declaration on Environment and Development'' in the [http://legal.un.org/avl/historicarchives.html Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law]
{{Sustainability|state=collapsed}}
{{Portal bar|Politics}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:1992 documents]]
[[Category:1992 in the United Nations]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:International sustainable development]]
[[Category:United Nations Development Programme]] |
Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive | {{EngvarB|date=July 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{update|date=June 2016}}
{{Infobox EU legislation
|type=Directive
|title=Urban Waste Water Directive
|number= 91/271/EEC
|madeby=[[European Council]]
|madeunder=Article 130 S
|OJref= L 135 , 30 May 1991 P. 40 – 52
|OJrefurl=
|made= 21 May 1991
|commenced=
|implementation=
|CommProp=
|ESCOpin=
|ParlOpin=
|Reports=
|replaces=
|amends=
|amendedby=
|replacedby=
|status=Current}}
The '''Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive 1991''' ([https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A01991L0271-20140101 91/271/EEC]) [[European Union directive]] concerning urban waste water "collection, [[Waste water treatment|treatment]] and discharge of urban waste water and the treatment and discharge of waste water from certain industrial sectors". It aims "to protect the environment from adverse effects of waste water discharges from cities and "certain industrial sectors". Council Directive 91/271/EEC on Urban Wastewater Treatment was adopted on 21 May 1991,<ref>{{cite web|title=EUR-Lex – 31991L0271 – EN – EUR-Lex| date=21 May 1991 |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31991L0271:EN:NOT}}</ref> amended by the Commission Directive 98/15/EC.<ref>{{cite web|title=EUR-Lex – 31998L0015 – EN – EUR-Lex| date=27 February 1998 |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31998L0015:EN:NOT}}</ref>
It prescribes the waste water collection and treatment in [[urban agglomeration]]s with a [[population equivalent]] of over 2000, and more advanced treatment in places with a population equivalent greater than 10,000 in "sensitive areas".
==Description==
The Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive (full title "Council Directive 91/271/EEC of 21 May 1991 concerning urban waste-water treatment") is a [[European Union directive]] regarding urban wastewater collection, [[wastewater treatment]] and its discharge, as well as the treatment and discharge of "waste water from certain industrial sectors". It was adopted on 21 May 1991.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CONSLEG:1991L0271:20081211:EN:PDF | title=Council Directive 91/271/EEC of 21 May 1991 concerning urban waste-water treatment (91/271/EEC) | access-date=19 July 2009}}</ref> It aims "to protect the environment from the adverse effects of urban waste water discharges and discharges from certain industrial sectors" by mandating waste water collection and treatment in [[urban agglomeration]]s with a [[population equivalent]] of over 2000, and more advanced treatment in places with a population equivalent above 10,000 in sensitive areas.<ref name="EC_Overview">{{cite web | url = http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-urbanwaste/index_en.html | title = Urban Waste Water Directive Overview | access-date = 19 July 2009 | publisher = [[European Commission]]}}</ref>
Member states in the European Union maintain and operate waste-water treatment plants to conform to the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive which sets standards for both treatment and disposal of sewage for communities of more than 200 person equivalents. Each member state is obliged to enact the requirements of the directive through appropriate local legislation. This directive also links to the Bathing Waters Directive and to the environmental standards set in the [[Water Framework Directive]] which are designed to protect all legitimate end uses of the receiving environment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hansen|first=Wenke|date=2003|title=EU Water Policy and Challenges for Regional and Local Authorities|journal=Ecologic Institute for International and European Environmental Policy, Berlin – Brussels|pages=1–17}}</ref>
Commission Decision 93/481/EEC defines the information that Member States should provide the commission on the state of implementation of the Directive.<ref>{{cite web|title=EUR-Lex – 31993D0481 – EN – EUR-Lex|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31993D0481:EN:NOT}}</ref>
Conventional wastewater treatment plants currently service over 90% of the EU population. Continuing implementation of the Urban Wastewater Treatment Directives plans to lower the EU's contribution to global [[microplastics]] discharge into the oceans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bank |first=European Investment |date=2023-02-27 |title=Microplastics and Micropollutants in Water: Contaminants of Emerging Concern |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/20230042-microplastics-and-micropollutants-in-water |language=EN}}</ref> According to a cost-benefit analysis prepared for the proposed Directive, the investment required to implement quaternary treatment in [[Wastewater treatment|wastewater treatment plants]] with a capacity of at least 10,000 person equivalents in the EU is estimated to be around €2.6 billion per year.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-26 |title=A promising proposal for the new Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive - Water Europe |url=https://watereurope.eu/a-promising-proposal-for-the-new-urban-wastewater-treatment-directive/ |access-date=2023-09-26 |language=en-US}}</ref>
===Sensitive areas===
The directive defines sensitive areas, as "[[freshwater]] bodies, [[Estuary|estuaries]] and coastal waters which are [[Eutrophy|eutrophic]] or which may become eutrophic if protective action is not taken", "surface freshwaters intended for the abstraction of [[drinking water]] which contain or are likely to contain more than 50 mg/L of nitrates", areas where further treatment is necessary to comply with other directives, such as the directives on fish waters, on bathing waters, on shellfish waters, on the conservation of wild birds and natural habitats, etc.<ref name="EC_Report_2004"/>
The directive contains a [[derogation]] for areas designated as "less sensitive"; such derogations were approved for areas in Portugal.<ref name="EC_Report_2004"/>{{page needed|date=June 2016}}
==Implementation==
{{update section|date=June 2016}}
[[Member states of the European Union|Member states]] were required to make waste water treatment facilities available
*By 31 December 1998 for all places with a population equivalent of over 10,000 where the effluent discharged into a sensitive area.<ref name="EC_Report_2004">{{cite web | url = http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:52004DC0248:EN:NOT | title = Implementation of Council Directive 91/271/EEC of 21 May 1991 concerning urban waste water treatment, as amended by Commission Directive 98/15/EC of 27 February 1998 | access-date = 19 July 2009 | date = 23 April 2004 | format = pdf | publisher = [[European Commission]] }}</ref>
*By 31 December 1998 for all places with a population equivalent of over 15,000, which discharged their effluent into so-called "normal areas" and that biodegradable waste water produced by [[Food processing industry|food-processing plants]],which discharged directly into water bodies, fulfilled certain conditions.<ref name="EC_Report_2004"/>
*by 31 December 2005 for all places with a population equivalent between 2000 and 10 000 where effluent is discharged into a sensitive area,
*by 31 December 2005 for all places with a population equivalent between 10,000 and 15,000 where the effluent is not discharged into such a sensitive area
In a 2004 Commission report on implementation by the member states, the Commission noted that some member states, in particular France and Spain, had been tardy in providing the required information, and infringement procedures had been initiated.<ref name="EC_Report_2004"/> The report mentioned Spain's non-provision of any advanced treatment in the [[Drainage basin|catchment areas]] of rivers identified as sensitive in their downstream section, such as the [[Ebro]] and the [[Guadalquivir]]; Italy's implementation in the catchment area of the [[Po River]], the delta and adjacent coastal waters; and the United Kingdom's interpretation and implementation of the directive in regard to the catchment areas of sensitive areas.<ref name="EC_Report_2004"/> Most member states planned to achieve conformity with the Directive by 2005 or 2008 at the latest.<ref name="EC_Report_2004"/>
In 2020 the Commission published its latest implementation report that covers over 23,600 agglomerations where people (and to a limited extent industry) generate wastewater.<ref>Report from the commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, Tenth report on the implementation status and programmes for implementation (as required by Article 17 of Council Directive 91/271/EEC, concerning urban wastewater treatment) (2020)</ref> As the UWWTD will soon be revised in light of meeting the goals of the European Green Deal, this report carries out an evaluation of the directive.<ref>European Commission, ‘Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive – Review’ <https://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-urbanwaste/evaluation/index_en.htm> accessed 20 April 2022.</ref> This was followed by an impact assessment in order to determine policy options for an update, fit for the future UWWTD. Over the last decade, the compliance rates have gone up, with 95% for collection, 88% for secondary (biological) treatment, and 86% for more stringent treatment. There is positive trend in general, but full compliance with the directive is still not achieved. This is necessary, because this would show significant reductions in pollutant loads in the Member States.<ref>Joint Research Center, ‘Water quality in Europe: effects of the Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive’ (2019) Science for Policy Report</ref> In the long term, more investments are needed to reach and maintain compliance with the directive. Several towns and cities are still building or renewing infrastructure for the collection of wastewater. To support the Member States, the commission has set up funding and financial initiatives.
==Political significance==
The Urban Waste Water Directive marked a shift from legislation aimed at end-use standards to stricter legislation aimed at regulating water quality at the source. The directive applied both to domestic waste water and to waste water from industrial sectors, both of which account for much of the pollution. The Directive is an example of the detailed nature of European Union legislation and resulted in "significant costs in many member states".<ref name="Weale">. {{cite book | last = Weale | first = Albert |author2=Geoffrey Pridham |author3=Michelle Cini |author4=Martin Porter | title = Environmental governance in Europe: an ever closer ecological union? | year = 2000 | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-19-829708-6 | page = 363 |doi= 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199257478.001.0001 }}</ref>
Nine years after the directive was adopted, considerable variations remained in the provision of sewage treatment in the different member states.<ref name="Weale"/>
==Planned Revision==
On 13 July 2018, the European Commission published a Consultation on the Evaluation of the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive ahead of a potential revision. Since its adoption in 1991, new technical advances on treatment techniques for waste and emerging pollutants have been identified that might require removal. In addition, the EU has since enlarged from 12 to 28 countries and new different experiences and challenges need to be taken into account.
However, the biggest challenge of the revision will be to exploit the potential the [[wastewater treatment]] sector can contribute to the [[circular economy]] agenda and the fight against [[climate change]]. Globally, the wastewater treatment sector consumes 1% of the global total energy consumption.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20190518194946/https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/WorldEnergyOutlook2016ExcerptWaterEnergyNexus.pdf Water Energy Nexus]</ref> Under a business as usual scenario, this figure is expected to increase by 60% by 2040 compared to 2014. With the introduction of energy efficiency requirements, the energy consumption of the wastewater treatment sector can be reduced by 50% only by using current technologies. On top of that, there are also opportunities to produce enough energy from wastewater to turn the whole water sector energy neutral.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170709215504/https://www.americanbiogascouncil.org/pdf/ENER6C13_factSheet.pdf Energy from Wastewater]</ref> It uses the energy embedded in the [[sludge]] by producing [[biogas]] through [[anaerobic digestion]]. These features have been mainly overlooked due to the over-riding objective for utilities to meet existing and future needs for wastewater treatment.<ref>[http://ec.europa.eu/environment/enveco/resource_efficiency/pdf/final_report.pdf Study on the Energy Saving Potential of Increasing Resource Efficiency]</ref>
In October 2022, the planned revision included stricter goals and policies. These had time frames on either 2030, 2035, or 2040. The revision would have inclusion of areas with smaller populations, stricter limits on [[Nitrogen]] and [[Phosphorus]], reduction of Micropollutants, a goal of [[Carbon neutrality|Energy Neutrality]] for all purification plants with over 10,000 person equivalents by 2040, tracking of diseases, additional sanctions, and other goals. This proposal has currently been read by the European Council.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lindqvist |first1=Advokatfirman Lindahl-Johanna |last2=Gustavsson |first2=Jonathan |last3=Ahl |first3=Philip |date=2023-02-13 |title=The EU Commission is proposing a new Waste Water Directive |url=https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=923108fa-b1d3-410b-a878-689836f5694b |access-date=2023-06-10 |website=Lexology |language=en}}</ref>
==See also==
*[[Water supply and sanitation in the European Union]]
*[[Population equivalent]]
*[[Sustainable Development Goal 6]]
*[[Water, energy and food security nexus]]
*[[Sewage sludge treatment]]
==Notes and references==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
* [http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CONSLEG:1991L0271:20081211:EN:PDF Text of the directive (as amended)]
* [http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31991L0271:EN:NOT Original text of the directive and other legislative information]
{{Waste}}
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:European Union directives]]
[[Category:European Union and the environment]]
[[Category:Sewerage]]
[[Category:1991 in law]]
[[Category:1991 in the European Economic Community]]
[[Category:1991 in the environment]]
[[Category:Waste legislation in the European Union]] |
Coral reef protection | {{Short description|Modifying human activities to reduce impact on coral reefs.}}
[[File:Coral Outcrop Flynn Reef.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A diversity of corals]]
'''Coral reef protection''' is the process of modifying human activities to avoid damage to healthy [[coral reef]]s and to help damaged reefs recover. The key strategies used in reef protection include defining measurable goals and introducing active management and community involvement to reduce stressors that damage reef health. One management technique is to create [[Marine Protected Area]]s (MPAs) that directly limit human activities such as fishing.<ref>{{cite web|title=Coral Reefs|url=http://www.nfwf.org/coralreef/Pages/home.aspx#.VUrJKl5N1ua|website=National Fish and Wildlife Foundation|access-date=2015-05-07|archive-date=2019-12-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222130812/https://www.nfwf.org/coralreef/Pages/home.aspx#.VUrJKl5N1ua|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[Recreational diving|Recreational scuba diving]] can have a [[Environmental impact of recreational diving|measurable adverse impact]] on tropical coral reefs, mostly due to contact damage of brittle and fragile branched [[Scleractinia|stony corals]]. The most common damages of corals while diving occurs due to the fins striking the corals as well as hands, knees, and equipment gauges.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barker |first1=Nola H. L. |last2=Roberts |first2=Callum M. |date=2004-12-01 |title=Scuba diver behaviour and the management of diving impacts on coral reefs |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320704001466 |journal=Biological Conservation |language=en |volume=120 |issue=4 |pages=481–489 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2004.03.021 |bibcode=2004BCons.120..481B |issn=0006-3207}}</ref> [[Low impact diving|This can be reduced]] by improving diver [[Scuba skills#Buoyancy control|buoyancy]] and [[Diver trim|trim]] skills, and by educating divers on the consequences of clumsy behavior on the reef ecosystem.<ref name="Hammerton 2014" >{{cite thesis |publisher=Southern Cross University |date=2014 |title=SCUBA-diver impacts and management strategies for subtropical marine protected areas |first=Zan |last=Hammerton |url=https://epubs.scu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1456&context=theses |access-date=2019-09-17 |archive-date=2020-05-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200526064457/https://epubs.scu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1456&context=theses |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Musa and Dimmock 2013" >{{cite book|title=Scuba Diving Tourism: Contemporary Geographies of Leisure, Tourism and Mobility |last=Johansen |first=Kelsey|editor1-first=Ghazali |editor1-last=Musa |editor2-first=Kay |editor2-last=Dimmock |chapter=Education and training |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=9781136324949}}</ref> Divers given a 45 minute presentation on coral biology and protected areas combined with a brief in water demonstration have been shown to cause less damages to corals during their dive.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Medio |first1=D. |last2=Ormond |first2=R. F. G. |last3=Pearson |first3=M. |date=1997-01-01 |title=Effect of briefings on rates of damage to corals by scuba divers |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320796000742 |journal=Biological Conservation |language=en |volume=79 |issue=1 |pages=91–95 |doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(96)00074-2 |bibcode=1997BCons..79...91M |issn=0006-3207}}</ref>
It takes approximately 10 thousand years for coral polyps to form a reef, and between 100,000 and 30 million years for a fully mature reef to form.<ref name="Stanford : Types of Reefs">{{cite web|title=Stanford : Types of Reefs|url=https://web.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/typesofreefs.html|website=web.stanford.edu|access-date=3 September 2019|archive-date=17 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117235001/https://web.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/typesofreefs.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
== Coral reefs ==
Coral reefs are among the most productive and biologically diverse ecosystems on Earth.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Moberg|first1=Fredrik|last2=Folke|first2=Carl|title=Ecological goods and services of coral reef ecosystems|journal=Ecological Economics|volume=29|issue=2|pages=215–233|doi=10.1016/s0921-8009(99)00009-9|year=1999}}</ref> Differences in exposure to wave patterns create a variety of habitat types.<ref>{{cite web|title=Stanford : Reef Structure|url=https://web.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/reefstructure.html|access-date=2015-05-09|archive-date=2017-09-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170909022634/https://web.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/reefstructure.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The coral need a [[Mutualism (biology)|mutualistic]] [[Symbiosis|symbiotic]] relationship with [[Symbiodinium|zooxanthellae algae]] in order to build a reef. The single celled algae derive their nutrients by using [[photosynthesis]], and the coral provide shelter to the algae in return for some of the nutrients.<ref name="Stanford : Types of Reefs" /> Zooxanthellae populations can die with changing environmental conditions, causing the coral to lose color, known as [[coral bleaching]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://web.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/whatisacoral.html|title=Stanford : Reef Structure|access-date=2015-05-09|archive-date=2017-09-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170909022625/https://web.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/whatisacoral.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Environmental conditions such as a rise in water temperature inflict stress on the corals causing their symbiont [[Zooxanthellae]] to be expelled. The loss of Zooxanthellae causes corals to starve because they have lost the sugar food source Zooxanthellae had provided.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=B. E. |date=1997-06-01 |title=Coral bleaching: causes and consequences |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s003380050249 |journal=Coral Reefs |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=S129–S138 |doi=10.1007/s003380050249 |s2cid=16449216 |issn=1432-0975}}</ref> Corals that require the symbiotic algae receive their vibrant colors from the different species of Zooxanthellae that inhabit them.
== Ecosystem services ==
Corals provide millions of people with [[ecosystem services]] such as fisheries, medicine, tourism and recreation, coastal protection as well as aesthetic and cultural benefits,<ref name=":3" /> yet they constitute a mere 0.2% of the world's marine ecosystems.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Souter|first1=David W|last2=Lindén|first2=Olof|date=January 2000|title=The health and future of coral reef systems|journal=Ocean & Coastal Management|volume=43|issue=8–9|pages=657–688|doi=10.1016/S0964-5691(00)00053-3|bibcode=2000OCM....43..657S }}</ref>
=== Biodiversity ===
Also known as the "rainforests of the sea," coral reefs cover less than 10% of the ocean yet provide a habitat to over 9 million species, approximately one fourth of all marine life, for food, shelter, and even hunting grounds for predators.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/marine-life-education-resources/coral-reef-ecosystems|title=Coral reef ecosystems {{!}} National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|website=www.noaa.gov|access-date=2019-12-02|archive-date=2020-04-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200430200847/https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/marine-life-education-resources/coral-reef-ecosystems|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=https://web.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/species.html |title=Species on Coral Reefs |publisher=Coral Reef Alliance |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212085409/https://web.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/species.html |archive-date=12 February 2020}}</ref> Species found on coral reefs include fish, invertebrates, birds, and megafauna such as sharks, sea turtles, and marine mammals.<ref name=":4" /> Finally, they serve as essential spawning, nursing, and breeding grounds for numerous organisms.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scripps.ucsd.edu/projects/coralreefsystems/about-coral-reefs/value-of-corals/|title=Value of Corals {{!}} Coral Reef Systems|access-date=2019-12-02|archive-date=2019-10-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191011012947/https://scripps.ucsd.edu/projects/coralreefsystems/about-coral-reefs/value-of-corals/|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Coastal Protection ===
Coral reefs provide complex structures that buffer the ocean's waves, protecting coastlines from strong currents and nasty storms. Approximately 500 million people live within 100 km of coral reefs and rely on them for this protection. Not only are they critical in preventing the loss of lives, property damage, and erosion, but they also serve as a barrier for harbors and ports that depend on them economically.<ref name=":4" />
=== Fisheries ===
Over a billion people globally depend on the fish that live among coral reefs as a major food source.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://scripps.ucsd.edu/projects/coralreefsystems/about-coral-reefs/value-of-corals/|title=Value of Corals {{!}} Coral Reef Systems|access-date=2019-12-03|archive-date=2019-10-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191011012947/https://scripps.ucsd.edu/projects/coralreefsystems/about-coral-reefs/value-of-corals/|url-status=live}}</ref> It is estimated that half of all US commercial and recreational fisheries depend on coral reefs to provide them over $100 million annually.<ref name=":4" /> Globally, fisheries account for $5.7 billion of the net income provided by coral reefs.<ref name=":5" />
=== Medicine ===
Species found in coral ecosystems produce chemical compounds that are used to develop new medicines to treat cancer, arthritis, asthma, heart disease, ulcers, bacterial infections, and viruses.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/corals/coral07_importance.html|title=NOAA National Ocean Service Education: Corals|website=oceanservice.noaa.gov|access-date=2019-12-03|archive-date=2019-09-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922034459/https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/corals/coral07_importance.html|url-status=live}}</ref> As early as the 14th century, the medicinal properties of coral reef dwelling species were utilized. Antiviral extracts and tonics continue to be studied and toxic compounds such as [[neurotoxins]] discovered in coral reefs have proven beneficial as painkillers. [[Diterpenes]] isolated from coral have been shown to exhibit anti-inflammatory as well as anti-microbial properties that are useful in medicinal therapies.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1155/2014/184959 |doi-access=free |title=Corals and Their Potential Applications to Integrative Medicine |year=2014 |last1=Cooper |first1=Edwin L. |last2=Hirabayashi |first2=Kyle |last3=Strychar |first3=Kevin B. |last4=Sammarco |first4=Paul W. |journal=Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine |volume=2014 |pages=1–9 |pmid=24757491 |pmc=3976867 }}</ref> The [[limestone]] skeleton of coral has been tested and used for human [[Bone grafting|bone grafts]], due to its porous nature and has a lower rate of rejection than artificial bone graft materials.<ref name="NOAA">{{cite web|title = NOAA|url = http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/values/medicine/#b|access-date = 2015-05-09|archive-date = 2015-04-27|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150427155306/http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/values/medicine/#b|url-status = live}}</ref>
=== Tourism & Recreation ===
Millions of scuba divers and snorkelers visit coral reefs every year to observe their incredible beauty, as well as beachgoers who are protected by the reefs. Local economies rely heavily on coral reefs, receiving about $9.6 billion through diving tours, recreational fishing trips, hotels, and restaurants.<ref name=":5" />
== General interests ==
There are four main categories of interest the public should have for the preservation of coral reefs: the preservation of natural beauty and value, the promotion of the local economy, potential source of new biological products, and preservation of the world ecosystems of which they are a part.
Over one-third of marine species live in coral reef ecosystems. These provide a beautiful underwater experience for snorkelers and divers with a significant tourism value.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Done|first=Terry|year=2004|title=Coral Reef Protection|journal=Issues in Science & Technology|volume=20|issue=3|pages=14–16|via=Academic Search Complete}}</ref><ref name="Musa and Dimmock 2013" /> This great genetic biodiversity has a lot of potential for industries like pharmaceutics, biochemistry, and cosmetics. This biodiversity also boosts the economy through an increase in marine tourism and commercial fisheries. Long-term, coral reefs have been recognized as large contributors to the absorption of carbon dioxide emissions which has been an important part of the mitigation of climate change.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Caillaud|first=Anne|year=2012|title=Preventing Coral Grief: A Comparison Of Australian And French Coral Reef Protection Strategies In A Changing Climate|journal=Sustainable Development Law & Policy|volume=12|issue=2|pages=26–64|via=Academic Search Complete}}</ref>
== Stressors ==
Two types of stressors are associated with [[reef]] systems: natural and human-induced. The effects of these stressors can range from negligible to catastrophic.
[[File:Marine debris on Hawaiian coast.jpg|thumbnail|left|Debris on the coast of Hawaii.]]The warming waters, ocean pH changes and [[sea level rise]] associated with [[climate change]] operate on a global basis.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/OWOW/oceans/coral/|title=Water Resources|date=2016-11-08|access-date=2009-10-20|archive-date=2009-11-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091102084744/http://www.epa.gov/OWOW/oceans/coral/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Wagner | first1 = D. E. | last2 = Kramer | first2 = P. | last3 = Van Woesik | first3 = R. | title = Species composition, habitat, and water quality influence coral bleaching in southern Florida | doi = 10.3354/meps08584 | journal = Marine Ecology Progress Series | volume = 408 | pages = 65–78 | year = 2010 | bibcode = 2010MEPS..408...65W | doi-access = free }}</ref>
Localized examples include residential, developmental, agricultural and industrial runoff, sedimentation from land clearing, human [[sewage]] and [[toxic]] discharges.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://time.com/4080985/sunscreen-coral-reefs/|title=How Sunscreen May Be Destroying Coral Reefs|date=21 October 2015 |access-date=2016-12-05|archive-date=2016-12-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161205163519/http://time.com/4080985/sunscreen-coral-reefs/|url-status=live}}</ref>
Acute stressors can inflict other damage, via unsustainable fishing practices, boat [[anchor]]s or accidental groundings. Some fishing practices are destructive to reef habitats, such as [[bottom trawling]], [[blast fishing|dynamite fishing]] and [[cyanide fishing]]. [[ghost net|Ghost fishing]] (unintended damage from abandoned fishing equipment) harms many coral reefs. Even small-scale fishing can damage reefs if herbivores are removed and thereby not allowed to protect reefs from encroachment by algae.<ref>{{cite web|title=WWF - Fishing problems: Destructive fishing practices|url=http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/blue_planet/problems/problems_fishing/destructive_fishing/|website=WWF Global|access-date=23 April 2015|archive-date=24 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150424230200/http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/blue_planet/problems/problems_fishing/destructive_fishing/|url-status=live}}</ref> Boaters can damage [[coral]] by dropping their anchors on reefs instead of sand.<ref name="Bartels">Bartels, Paul. "Fragile reefs: handle with care." Cruising World 22.n1 (Jan 1996). 15 Oct. 2009 [http://find.galegroup.com/gps/start.do?prodId=IPS] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510172355/http://find.galegroup.com/gps/start.do?prodId=IPS|date=2013-05-10}}.</ref> Accidental boat groundings can obliterate areas of coral reef. Lettuce [[coral]]s and branching corals such as [[Elkhorn coral|elkhorn]] and finger coral are fragile, but even massive boulder corals can be crushed or broken and turned upside down to die by a sailboat keel. Groundings in sand, or even the churning action of [[propellers]], can cause major localized siltation, indirectly killing adjacent corals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://find.galegroup.com/gps/start.do?prodId=IPS|title=Gale - Enter Product Login|access-date=2009-10-20|archive-date=2013-05-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510172355/http://find.galegroup.com/gps/start.do?prodId=IPS|url-status=live}}</ref>
During the 20th century recreational scuba diving was considered to have generally low environmental impact, and was consequently one of the activities permitted in most marine protected areas. Basic diver training has concentrated on an acceptable risk to the diver, and paid less attention to the environment. The increase in the popularity of diving and in tourist access to sensitive ecological systems has led to the recognition that the activity can have significant environmental consequences.<ref name="Hammerton 2014" />
Scuba diving has grown in popularity during the 21st century, as is shown by the number of certifications issued worldwide.<ref name="Lucrezi 2016" >{{cite web |url=http://theconversation.com/how-scuba-diving-is-warding-off-threats-to-its-future-52504 |title=How scuba diving is warding off threats to its future |date=18 January 2016 |last=Lucrezi |first=Serena |website=The Conversation |access-date=5 September 2019 |archive-date=25 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125151346/https://theconversation.com/how-scuba-diving-is-warding-off-threats-to-its-future-52504 |url-status=live }}</ref> Scuba diving tourism is a growth industry, and it is necessary to consider [[environmental sustainability]], as the expanding impact of divers can adversely affect the [[marine environment]] in several ways, and the impact also depends on the specific environment. Tropical coral reefs are more easily damaged by poor diving skills than reefs where the environment is more robust. The same pleasant sea conditions that allow development of relatively delicate and highly diverse ecologies also attract the greatest number of tourists, including divers who dive infrequently, exclusively on vacation and never fully develop the skills to dive in an environmentally friendly way.<ref name="Dimmock et al 2013" >{{cite book |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259489022 |title=Scuba Diving Tourism |chapter=Chapter 10: The business of Scuba diving |pages=161–173 |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |first1=Kay |last1=Dimmock |first2=Terry |last2=Cummins |first3=Ghazali |last3=Musa |editor1-first=Ghazali |editor1-last=Musa |editor2-first=Kay |editor2-last=Dimmock |access-date=2020-04-19 |archive-date=2021-07-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723092824/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259489022_Kay_Dimmock_Terry_Cummins_and_Ghazali_Musa_2013_The_Business_of_SCUBA_Diving_Chapter_10_161-173_in_SCUBA_Diving_Tourism_edited_by_Ghazali_Musa_and_Kay_DimmockRoutledge_London_and_New_York |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Sediment ===
Sediment pollution from land has severe consequences for coral reef ecosystems. However, even along one coastline, separate reefs can experience different water flow conditions that affect sediment distribution. A 2015 study assessed sediment from two streambeds less than a mile apart on the island of [[Lānaʻi]], [[Hawaii]]. One site experienced quick-moving currents that efficiently flushed away sediment, protecting the reef, while the other was subjected to currents and wave conditions that allowed sediment to be continuously re-suspended in the water, starving the reef of light.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title = Study clears the waters on a dirty threat to Hawai'i's reefs –...|url = http://blog.conservation.org/2016/01/study-clears-the-waters-on-a-dirty-threat-to-hawaiis-reefs/|website = Human Nature – Conservation International Blog|access-date = 2016-02-21|date = 2016-01-20|archive-date = 2016-02-25|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160225012517/http://blog.conservation.org/2016/01/study-clears-the-waters-on-a-dirty-threat-to-hawaiis-reefs/|url-status = live}}</ref>
=== Overfishing ===
The vast biodiversity of coral reefs consequently create an abundant fishing area for locals. This leads to [[overfishing]] of reef herbivore organisms which makes the coral reefs more vulnerable and unable to recover from large environmental disturbances.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rasher|first=Douglas|year=2012|title=Effects of Herbivory, Nutrients, And Reef Protection On Algal Proliferation And Coral Growth On A Tropical Reef|journal=Oecologia|volume=169|issue=1|pages=187–198|via=Academic Search Complete|doi=10.1007/s00442-011-2174-y|pmid=22038059|pmc=3377479|bibcode=2012Oecol.169..187R}}</ref> Unfortunately, most marine ecologists expect future oceans to be more overfished than now.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Lowe|first=Phillip|year=2011|title=Empirical Models Of Transitions Between Coral Reef States: Effects of Region, Protection, and Environmental Change|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0026339 |pmid=22073157|pmc=3206808|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=6|issue=11|pages=1–15|bibcode=2011PLoSO...626339L|doi-access=free}}</ref>
=== Other ===
See [[Environmental issues with coral reefs#Issues]]
{{expand section|date=September 2019}}
UV Filters
UV radiation is a threat to public health in terms of sunburn risk, and skin cancer. In turn People use sunscreen that has UV filters in it to absorb excess UV radiation. Protecting the skin, and each UV filter has its own absorption rate based on the SPF amount for skin sensitivity. UV filters in sunscreen can be either organic or inorganic. Inorganic UV filters reflect and absorb UV light. Zinc oxide is widely used inorganic UV filters and are mainly incorporated into sunscreen because the larger, size particles usually leave unpleasant white marks on the skin. Some of the mineral UV filters do get additional coatings such as alumina or incorporated manganese to minimize the formation of free radicals. Exposure to all tested sunscreen and led to the conclusion that UV filters induce a lytic viral cycle that leads to coral bleaching. However, the study is limited by the lack of analytical data as well as flaws in the experimental setup.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moeller |first1=Pawlowski |title=Challenges in Current Coral Reef Protection - Possible Impacts of UV Filters Used in Sunscreens, a Critical Review |year=2021 |journal=Frontiers in Marine Science |volume=8 |doi=10.3389/fmars.2021.665548 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
== Monitoring ==
The continuous assessment of the health state of coral reef is an important task. To perform large-scale studies on the condition and bleaching of shallow-water coral reefs usually satellite or airborne imagery is used.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Normile |first=D. |date=2016 |title=El Niño's warmth devastating reefs worldwide |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/el-ni-o-s-warmth-devastating-reefs-worldwide |journal=Science |volume=352 |issue=6281 |pages=15–16|doi=10.1126/science.352.6281.15 |pmid=27034348 }}</ref> To more accurately document the status of the reef, recently, photogrammetric techniques have been introduced to generate orthophotos of the interested areas either by using consumer drones<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Burns |first1=J. H. R. |last2=Delparte |first2=D. |last3=Gates |first3=R. D. |last4=Takabayashi |first4=M. |date=2015 |title=Integrating structure-from-motion photogrammetry with geospatial software as a novel technique for quantifying 3D ecological characteristics of coral reefs |url=https://peerj.com/articles/1077/ |journal=PeerJ |volume=1077}}</ref> or by capturing photos with scuba divers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nocerino |first1=Erica |last2=Menna |first2=Fabio |last3=Gruen |first3=Armin |last4=Troyer |first4=Matthias |last5=Capra |first5=Alessandro |last6=Castagnetti |first6=Cristina |last7=Rossi |first7=Paolo |last8=Brooks |first8=Andrew J. |last9=Schmitt |first9=Russell J. |last10=Holbrook |first10=Sally J. |date=January 2020 |title=Coral Reef Monitoring by Scuba Divers Using Underwater Photogrammetry and Geodetic Surveying |journal=Remote Sensing |language=en |volume=12 |issue=18 |pages=3036 |doi=10.3390/rs12183036 |issn=2072-4292 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020RemS...12.3036N |hdl=20.500.11850/446222 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> To analyze and annotate the large [[Orthophoto|orthographic images]] generated with these techniques semi-automatic [[Image segmentation|segmentation]] techniques are applied using open source tools like [[TagLab]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pavoni |first1=Gaia |last2=Corsini |first2=Massimiliano |last3=Ponchio |first3=Federico |last4=Muntoni |first4=Alessandro |last5=Edwards |first5=Clinton |last6=Pedersen |first6=Nicole |last7=Sandin |first7=Stuart |last8=Cignoni |first8=Paolo |date=May 2022 |title=TagLab: AI-assisted annotation for the fast and accurate semantic segmentation of coral reef orthoimages |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/rob.22049 |journal=Journal of Field Robotics |language=en |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=246–262 |doi=10.1002/rob.22049 |s2cid=244648241 |issn=1556-4959}}</ref>
== Restoration ==
[[File:ORAcoral1.jpg|thumbnail|Coral growing in an aquaculture tank]]
It is difficult to create a substantial plan for the protection of coral reefs due to their location out in open water; there is no distinct ownership over certain parts of the ocean, which creates difficulty in delegating responsibility.<ref name=":2" /> But private and government groups whose purpose is to help the environment have made steps towards the restoration of coral reefs.
The aim of coral restoration is to help coral adapt to stressors and changing environments. [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA's]] Coral Reef Conservation Program and Damage Assessment, Remediation and Restoration Program approaches restoration by responding to and restoring physically damaged reefs, preventing the loss of habitat, implementing coral conservation projects, focusing on restoring endangered coral species and controlling [[invasive species]].<ref>{{cite web|title=NOAA Habitat Conservation|url=http://www.habitat.noaa.gov/restoration/approaches/corals.html|access-date=2015-05-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150423171112/http://www.habitat.noaa.gov/restoration/approaches/corals.html|archive-date=2015-04-23|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Coral reef organizations|Coral Restoration Foundation]] has restored over 100 genotypes of [[staghorn coral]]s (''Acropora cervicornis'') using coral nurseries, and also has research goals of determining ecological success, ideal restoration locations and how surrounding organisms affect restoration.<ref>{{cite web|title=Coral Restoration Foundation|url=http://www.coralrestoration.org/research/priorities/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518074223/http://www.coralrestoration.org/research/priorities/|archive-date=2015-05-18}}</ref> Laboratories located near reefs, such as Elizabeth Moore International Center for Coral Reef Research & Restoration — which has planted more than 43,000 corals in the Florida Keys — play a crucial role in maintaining these nurseries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mote.org/research/program/coral-reef-restoration|title=Coral Reef Restoration {{!}} Mote Field Stations|website=mote.org|access-date=2019-10-24|archive-date=2019-10-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191024070352/https://mote.org/research/program/coral-reef-restoration|url-status=live}}</ref>
Coral reefs can be grown both asexually or sexually- in land-based or ocean nurseries. One of the first and most crucial steps taken to restore coral reefs is assess the land using acoustic technology. Gathering live coral and coral fragments is essential. Once coral reach a certain size in the nursery, they are out-planted and then transported to coral reefs for the restoration process. Planting nursery-grown corals back onto reefs is a tedious process. However, it is of the utmost importance to make sure the habitat is suitable for natural coral growth. It is best to build coral that is resilient to threats like climate change. Moreover, each coral must be handled manually and transplanted to the reef by hand.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Lippsett|first=Lonny|date=12 Nov 2018|title=How Do Corals Build Their Skeletons?|url=https://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/feature/how-do-corals-build-their-skeletons/#:~:text=Coral%20skeletons%20are%20made%20of,a%20framework%20of%20aragonite%20crystals.&text=They%20pump%20hydrogen%20ions%20(H,CaCO3)%20for%20their%20skeletons.|url-status=live|website=Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution|access-date=23 July 2021|archive-date=15 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415054715/https://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/feature/how-do-corals-build-their-skeletons/#:~:text=Coral%20skeletons%20are%20made%20of,a%20framework%20of%20aragonite%20crystals.&text=They%20pump%20hydrogen%20ions%20(H,CaCO3)%20for%20their%20skeletons.}}</ref> Researchers and marine biologists have used 3D printing to produce coral structures designed to stimulate coral growth and preserve the underwater ecosystem.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Randall|first=Ryan|date=September 13, 2021|title=New Research Examines 3D Coral Printing Possibilities|url=https://phys.org/news/2021-09-3d-coral-possibilities.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913150846/https://phys.org/news/2021-09-3d-coral-possibilities.html |archive-date=2021-09-13 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-09-09|title=7 Projects That Are Restoring Coral Reefs by 3D Printing Them|url=https://3dprint.com/271739/7-projects-that-are-restoring-coral-reefs-by-3d-printing-them/|access-date=2021-09-14|website=3DPrint.com {{!}} The Voice of 3D Printing / Additive Manufacturing|language=en-US}}</ref>
=== Managing stream flow ===
Sediment flux can be reduced in steep watersheds on montane tropical islands in the [[Hawaiian Islands|Hawaiian archipelago]] by restoring vegetation and controlling [[invasive species]]. [[Gabion]]s — check dams — created by planting normally invasive [[Prosopis pallida|kiawe trees]] by a local community group, stopped 77 tons of sediment from flowing into the ocean that would have needed about five weeks of natural water flow to flush from the reef.<ref name=":1" />{{clarify|reason=Gabions are not made of trees, how was 77 tons established?|date=September 2019}}
=== Coral nurseries ===
[[Aquaculture of coral|Coral aquaculture]], the process of using coral nurseries to restore the world's reefs is a project that is capable of improving [[biodiversity]], structural integrity and coral cover.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gateño|first1=D.|title=Aquarium Maintenance of Reef Octocorals Raised from Field Collected Larvae|journal=Aquarium Sciences and Conservation|volume=2|issue=4|pages=227–236|doi=10.1023/A:1009627313037|year=1998|s2cid=82102974}}</ref> Coral nurseries can provide young corals for transplantation to rehabilitate areas of reef decline or physical damaged. Direct transplantation is a common process where corals from coral nurseries or salvaged coral that has been dislodged is transplanted and attached in a new area.<ref>Bayraktarov E, Banaszak AT, Montoya Maya P, Kleypas J, Arias-Gonza´lez JE, Blanco M, et al. (2020) Coral reef restoration efforts in Latin American countries and territories. PLoS ONE 15 (8): e0228477. {{doi|10.1371/journal}}. pone.0228477</ref> In this process, coral [[gamete]]s are harvested from spawning grounds and grown in a laboratory environment, then replanted when they grow larger. This allows the coral to grow safely in controlled amounts under lab conditions.<ref>{{cite news|title=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-23773672|date=2013-08-21|access-date=2018-06-21|archive-date=2018-05-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180521160223/http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-23773672|url-status=live}}</ref> Nurseries can begin as small patches of rescued coral colonies, and may be salvaged and restored before transplantation.<ref>{{cite web|title=Florida Keys NOAA|url=http://floridakeys.noaa.gov/resource_protection/coralnurseries.html|access-date=2015-05-09|archive-date=2015-05-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518104009/http://floridakeys.noaa.gov/resource_protection/coralnurseries.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2009, [[The Nature Conservancy]] began to grow over 30,000 young coral in underwater nurseries in Florida and the Caribbean for transplantation.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Nature Conservancy|url=http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/regions/northamerica/unitedstates/florida/howwework/stimulating-coral-restoration.xml|access-date=2015-05-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518104018/http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/regions/northamerica/unitedstates/florida/howwework/stimulating-coral-restoration.xml|archive-date=2015-05-18|url-status=dead}}</ref>
== Management Strategies of Invasive Species ==
[[Invasive species]] are non-native species that are introduced to an [[ecosystem]] through a variety of pathways such as: intentional introductions, accidental releases, and natural events like tsunamis.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=What are Invasive Species? {{!}} National Invasive Species Information Center |url=https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/what-are-invasive-species |access-date=2022-11-29 |website=www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov}}</ref> The most common pathways are said by researches to be ballast water exchange of ocean going vessels and the marine ornamental trade.<ref name=":6" /> Many species that are introduced into non-native areas either die out because they are not able to adapt to their new environment fast enough or they do survive but don’t alter the ecosystems enough to cause any damage.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Invasive Species |url=https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Threats-to-Wildlife/Invasive-Species |access-date=2022-11-29 |website=National Wildlife Federation |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=MASNA » Release and Invasion |url=https://masna.org/masna-education/release-invasion/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAyMKbBhD1ARIsANs7rEEA1mMEoRtBdY7CrBs9S62juqGA43vJ6HplDeTcqCJNaamLKnNfqM4aAsW_EALw_wcB |access-date=2022-11-29 |website=masna.org |language=en-US}}</ref> However, invasive species are given their name because they are able to adapt and thrive in non-native ecosystems causing significant damage to their new ecosystems, the food-web and the environment itself which why it is necessary to develop these management strategies to control them.<ref name=":7" />
Invasive species affect coral reefs both directly and indirectly, corallivores like the [[Crown-of-thorns starfish|Crown of Thorns Starfish]] directly consume corals while [[Pterois]] pose a threat through their over consumption of native species within [[coral reef]] ecosystems.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Crown of Thorns Starfish {{!}} Reef Resilience |url=https://reefresilience.org/stressors/predator-outbreaks/crown-of-thorns-starfish/ |access-date=2022-11-29 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":7" /> Management strategies may vary depending on the type of invasive species.<ref name=":7" /> Outbreaks of these invasive species have become more frequent over the past century and are adding to the frequency at which coral cover is being lost.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Babcock |first1=Russell C. |last2=Dambacher |first2=Jeffrey M. |last3=Morello |first3=Elisabetta B. |last4=Plagányi |first4=Éva E. |last5=Hayes |first5=Keith R. |last6=Sweatman |first6=Hugh P. A. |last7=Pratchett |first7=Morgan S. |date=2016-12-30 |title=Assessing Different Causes of Crown-of-Thorns Starfish Outbreaks and Appropriate Responses for Management on the Great Barrier Reef |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=11 |issue=12 |pages=e0169048 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0169048 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=5201292 |pmid=28036360|bibcode=2016PLoSO..1169048B |doi-access=free }}</ref>
=== Crown of Thorns Starfish ===
Native to the [[Indo-Pacific|Indo-pacific]] these [[marine invertebrates]] feed on [[coral]] and play a critical role in the coral reef ecosystem, regulating the diversity of corals and maintaining balance within the reefs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Crown of Thorns Starfish {{!}} Reef Resilience |url=https://reefresilience.org/stressors/predator-outbreaks/crown-of-thorns-starfish/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |language=en-US}}</ref> However, the [[Crown-of-thorns starfish|crown of thorns starfish]] (''[[Acanthaster]]'' ''sp''., COTS) is also a natural boom-and-bust species which mean that their population dynamics are characterized by the extreme fluctuations in adult abundance, followed by population collapse as coral food levels decline, leaving a swath of dead coral behind.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Westcott |first=David |date=2020 |title=Relative efficacy of three approaches to mitigate Crown-of-Thorns Starfish outbreaks on Australia's Great Barrier Reef |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343319638 |access-date=2022-11-30 |journal=Scientific Reports|volume=10 |issue=1 |page=12594 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-69466-1 |pmid=32724152 |pmc=7387460 |bibcode=2020NatSR..1012594W }}</ref> COTS outbreaks were first discovered in the 1960’s on the [[Great Barrier Reef|GBR]], occurring under natural conditions as frequently as every 50–80 years. However, unnaturally there has been an increase in the frequency of outbreaks to every 15 years has led to further research that still hasn’t been answered.<ref name=":8" />
'''Manual control'''
Manual control is the process in which experienced COTS control divers remove COTS from reefs either by [[lethal injection]]s or hand collections and disposal on shore.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |date=2022 |title=Crown of thorns starfish life-history traits contribute to outbreaks, a continuing concern for coral reefs |url=https://portlandpress.com/emergtoplifesci/article/6/1/67/230852/Crown-of-thorns-starfish-life-history-traits |journal=Nature}}</ref> This method has been around from the 1960s, since then 17 million starfish have been killed or removed as a collective by 84 manual control programs at an estimated cost of $15–44 million USD.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":9" /> Due to the large cost and limited success in preventing COTS outbreaks and coral loss, scientists doubt the effectivity of this method.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":9" /> Sites are selected by the national governments of individual countries with coasts based on the potential significance in the overall pattern of coral and COTS larval spread for example: economically important for tourism, or located on reefs that oceanographic modeling suggested were highly connected to other reefs.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":12">{{Citation |last1=Matthews |first1=S. A. |title=Chapter Nine - Larval connectivity and water quality explain spatial distribution of crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks across the Great Barrier Reef |date=2020-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0065288120300390 |journal=Advances in Marine Biology |volume=87 |pages=223–258 |editor-last=Riegl |editor-first=Bernhard M. |series=Population Dynamics of the Reef Crisis |publisher=Academic Press |language=en |access-date=2022-11-30 |last2=Mellin |first2=C. |last3=Pratchett |first3=Morgan S.|issue=1 |doi=10.1016/bs.amb.2020.08.007 |pmid=33293012 |s2cid=226407282 }}</ref> Selected sites including permanent survey marked sites are used to precisely relocate RHIS survey sites for continuous measurements of coral cover.<ref name=":8" />
'''Marine Protected Area zoning'''
Marine Protected Area zones are areas created by [[Marine national parks|Marine National Parks]] or other management operators of a country. There are two components to a Marine protected area, zoning and the degree of protection for each zone.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal |last1=Rogers |first1=Jacob G. D. |last2=Plagányi |first2=Éva E. |date=2022-05-09 |title=Culling corallivores improves short-term coral recovery under bleaching scenarios |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=2520 |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-30213-x |pmid=35534497 |pmc=9085818 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13.2520R |issn=2041-1723}}</ref> Marine zoning has in previous studies been highly successful in minimizing outbreaks of COTS when it is paired with manual control.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":11" /> There are three different types of zoning, ‘no-take’, ‘limited-take’ and ‘take’ zones on COTS numbers and coral cover.<ref name=":11" />
'''Water quality management'''
Increasing water quality has the ability to increase or decrease COTS outbreaks.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":12"/> According to earlier studies, controlling the quality of the water can help prevent breakouts to some extent but this is not always tangible.<ref name=":8" /> Exposure to flood plumes variables and the presence of COTS indicated a positive threshold type response at low levels, highlighting the significance of larval nutrition availability for the establishment of COTS populations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Castro-Sanguino |first1=Carolina |last2=Ortiz |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Thompson |first3=Angus |last4=Wolff |first4=Nicholas H. |last5=Ferrari |first5=Renata |last6=Robson |first6=Barbara |last7=Magno-Canto |first7=Marites M. |last8=Puotinen |first8=Marji |last9=Fabricius |first9=Katharina E. |last10=Uthicke |first10=Sven |date=2021-04-01 |title=Reef state and performance as indicators of cumulative impacts on coral reefs |journal=Ecological Indicators |language=en |volume=123 |pages=107335 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolind.2020.107335 |s2cid=233569637 |issn=1470-160X|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":12" /> Excess nutrients run-off from agricultural land uses (grazing, grain, sugar cane, and horticulture) create [[Algal bloom|phytoplankton blooms]] in reef waters that can be carried to COTS populations.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":12" /> Water quality can be managed by controlling how [[Drainage basin|catchments]] discharge water, but this requires intensive land management employing best management practices.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":12"/>
==Marine protected areas==
[[File:NPS channel-islands-marine-reserve-map.jpg|thumb|252x252px|This map shows all the marine reserve areas around the Santa Barbara Channel islands, where fishing is not permitted. Also labeled are marine conservation areas and visitor centers on the mainland.]]
[[Marine protected area]]s (MPAs) have become an increasingly prominent tool for reef management. MPAs promote responsible [[Fisheries management|fishery management]] and [[habitat]] protection. Much like [[national park]]s and [[wildlife refuge]]s, and to varying degrees, MPAs restrict potentially damaging activities. MPAs encompass both social and biological objectives, including reef restoration, aesthetics, biodiversity and economic activity. MPAs have not been universally accepted. Conflicts relate to lack of participation, clashing views, effectiveness and funding.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} Many MPAs offer inadequate protection for coral reefs. Only 27% of coral reefs are in MPAs globally. Only 15% of MPA sites were considered effective, with 38% partially effective and 47% ineffective. This leaves only 6% of coral reefs in effectively managed MPAs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pdf.wri.org/reefs_at_risk_revisited_executive_summary.pdf |title=Reefs at Risk Revisited |publisher=World Resources Institute |date=February 2011 |access-date=March 16, 2012 |archive-date=June 13, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613030504/http://pdf.wri.org/reefs_at_risk_revisited_executive_summary.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In some situations, as in [[Kiribati]]'s [[Phoenix Islands Protected Area]], MPAs provide revenue that is potentially equal to the income they would have generated without controls.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Phoenix Rising
|publisher=National Geographic Magazine
|date=January 2011
|access-date=April 30, 2011
|url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/01/phoenix-islands/stone-text
|archive-date=August 9, 2011
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809040407/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/01/phoenix-islands/stone-text
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>
[[Biosphere reserve]], [[marine park]], [[national monument]] and [[world heritage]] status can protect reefs. For example, Belize's Barrier reef, [[Chagos Archipelago]], [[Sian Ka'an Biosphere Reserve|Sian Ka'an]], the [[Galápagos Islands]], [[Great Barrier Reef]], [[Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)|Henderson Island]], [[Palau]] and [[Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument]] are world heritage sites.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}}
The [[Parcel de Manuel Luís Marine State Park]] protects the largest coral reef in the South Atlantic.<ref>{{citation|title=Decreto nº 11.902 de 11 de Junho de 1991|language=pt|author1=Edison Lobão|author2=Fernando César de Moreira Mesquita|date=11 June 1991|publisher=State of Maranhão|url=https://documentacao.socioambiental.org/ato_normativo/UC/305_20100823_151217.pdf|access-date=2016-08-03|archive-date=2019-10-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191021072153/https://documentacao.socioambiental.org/ato_normativo/UC/305_20100823_151217.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
This became a Ramsar Site in February 2000.<ref>{{citation|date=23 January 2015|title=Parcel de Manuel Luís, sítio Ramsar e parque marinho|author=Marcelo Carota|publisher=MMA: Ministério do Meio Ambiente|language=pt|url=http://mma.gov.br/index.php/comunicacao/agencia-informma?view=blog&id=709|access-date=2016-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150523093132/http://mma.gov.br/index.php/comunicacao/agencia-informma?view=blog&id=709|archive-date=23 May 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
In Australia, the Great Barrier Reef is protected by the [[Great Barrier Reef Marine Park]], and is the subject of much legislation, including a biodiversity action plan.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}}
Inhabitants of Ahus Island, [[Manus Province]], [[Papua New Guinea]], have followed a generations-old practice of restricting fishing in six areas of their reef lagoon. Their cultural traditions allow line fishing, but not net or [[spear fishing]]. The result is both the [[biomass]] and individual fish sizes are significantly larger than in places where fishing is unrestricted.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cinner |first1=Joshua E. |first2=Michael J.|last2= MARNANE |first3=Tim R.|last3= McClanahan |year=2005 |title=Conservation and community benefits from traditional coral reef management at Ahus Island, Papua New Guinea |journal=[[Conservation Biology (journal)|Conservation Biology]] |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=1714–1723 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00209.x-i1 |bibcode=2005ConBi..19.1714C |s2cid=83619557 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=17182 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061001013329/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=17182 | url-status=dead | archive-date=1 October 2006 |title=Coral Reef Management, Papua New Guinea |publisher = [[NASA]] [[Earth Observatory]]|access-date=2 November 2006}}</ref>
==See also==
* [[Environmental issues with coral reefs]]
* [[Coral Reef Alliance]]
* [[Seacology]]
* [[Great Barrier Reef Marine Park]]
* [[Marine cloud brightening#Research|Marine cloud brightening]]
*[[Frozen zoo]]
*[[National Ice Core Laboratory]]
*[[Amphibian Ark]]
*[[Svalbard Global Seed Vault]]
*[[Rosetta Project]]
== References ==
{{Reflist|36em}}
==Further reading==
* {{Cite book|publisher=The National Academies Press, National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine|author=|title=A Research Review of Interventions to Increase the Persistence and Resilience of Coral Reefs|location=Washington, DC|date=2019|doi=10.17226/25279|isbn=978-0-309-48535-7|s2cid=134877358}} {{open access}}
== External links ==
* {{Cite web|url = http://www.mnmrc.com/wp-content/uploads/pdf/Maui_Coral_Reef_Recovery_Plan_MASTER.pdf|title = Maui Coral Reef Recovery Plan|date = 2012|access-date = 2016-02-21|website = mnmrc.org|publisher = Maui Nui Marine Resource Council|last = Maui Coral Reef Recovery Team}}
{{Corals}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Coral reefs|*]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]] |
Category:Environmental protection agencies | {{Commons category|Environmental protection agencies}}
Government bodies and agencies whose role includes the oversight, administration and enforcement of environmental policy.
[[Category:Environmental agencies|Protection agencies]]
[[Category:Environmental protection|Agencies]] |
Low-emission zone | {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{short description|Area established to improve air quality}}
A '''low-emission zone''' ('''LEZ''') is a defined area where access by some polluting vehicles is restricted or deterred with the aim of improving [[air quality]]. This may favour vehicles such as bicycles, [[micromobility]] vehicles, (certain) [[alternative fuel vehicle]]s, [[hybrid electric vehicle]]s, [[plug-in hybrid]]s, and [[zero-emission vehicle]]s such as [[all-electric vehicle]]s.
A '''zero-emission zone''' ('''ZEZ''') is a LEZ where only zero-emissions vehicles (ZEVs) are allowed. In such areas, all [[internal combustion engine]] vehicles are banned; this includes any [[plug-in hybrid vehicle]]s which cannot run zero-emission.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oxford.gov.uk/info/20216/air_quality_management/1306/oxford_zero_emission_zone_zez_frequently_asked_questions|title=Oxford Zero Emission Zone (ZEZ) frequently asked questions|last=Council|first=Oxford City|website=www.oxford.gov.uk|language=en|access-date=6 January 2020}}</ref> Only [[battery electric vehicle]]s and [[hydrogen vehicle]]s are allowed in a ZEZ, along with walking and cycling and fully electric public transport vehicles, e.g. trams, [[electric bus]]es etc.
==Workings==
In many LEZs, vehicles that do not meet the emission standards set by the LEZ are not barred from entry into the LEZ (i.e. using automated [[boom barrier]]s), but rather simply fined if they enter the zone. A fine is not issued if entering the LEZ with a vehicle that does not meet the emission standards, when a fee (LEZ daily charge, ...) has been paid. In some LEZs, such as the one in London, this is done by [[automatic number-plate recognition]] (ANPR) cameras which read the vehicle registration number plate as they enter the LEZ and then compare it against a database of vehicles which:
* either meet the LEZ emissions standards,
* or are either exempt or registered for a 100 percent discount,
* or if the LEZ daily charge has been paid<ref>[https://www.ifsecglobal.com/uncategorized/anpr-cameras-used-for-london-emission-zone/ ANPR cameras used for London emission zone]</ref>
This fee/fine works as a deterrent for those having a vehicle that does not meet the LEZ emission standard for entering the city, and those having such vehicles will hence try to avoid paying this fee/fine (using various means, see "intent and actual impact").
==Intent and actual impact==
The intent of LEZs is generally to improve air quality within cities.<ref>[https://airqualitynews.com/2017/11/30/london-emissions-crackdown/ Views sought on ‘inner London’ ULEZ]</ref> This intent is indeed achieved, with diesel particulates (PM10) dropping in most LEZs,<ref name="Impact of Low Emission Zones">[https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/low-emission-zones-main/impact-of-low-emission-zones Impact of Low Emission Zones]</ref> and health improving.<ref> {{Cite news |last=Fuller |first=Gary |date=2023-06-30 |title=Low emission zones are improving health, studies show |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jun/30/low-emission-zones-lez-improving-health-studies |access-date=2023-07-12 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
Often, this is achieved as people with polluting vehicles replace them with vehicles that attain a higher emission standard,<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S136192091300059X | doi=10.1016/j.trd.2013.03.010 | title=Five years of London's low emission zone: Effects on vehicle fleet composition and air quality | year=2013 | last1=Ellison | first1=Richard B. | last2=Greaves | first2=Stephen P. | last3=Hensher | first3=David A. | journal=Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment | volume=23 | pages=25–33 }}</ref> which may mean buying a new vehicle, or travelling throughout avenues and roads distant from the areas where pollution is concentrated. Some people (such as workers on night shift or carrying heavy tools or cargo) however can't do without a car, but might not be able to afford to purchase unsubsidized cleaner vehicles. Therefore in some places the LEZ is only enforced when public transport is available, or electric taxis<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.bristol.gov.uk/news/subsidies-on-offer-to-taxi-drivers-who-switch-to-electric-vehicles-2|title=Subsidies on offer to taxi drivers who switch to electric vehicles|website=Bristol City Council News|language=english|access-date=6 January 2020}}</ref> or [[cargobike]]s are subsidized.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/carltonreid/2019/04/03/london-wants-vans-replaced-by-cargobikes-introduces-subsidy-and-behavior-change-program/|title=London Wants Vans Replaced By Cargobikes, Introduces Subsidy And Behavior Change Program|last=Reid|first=Carlton|website=Forbes|language=en|access-date=6 January 2020}}</ref>
The [[European Federation for Transport and Environment]] is of the opinion that LEZs should be gradually turned into zero-emission mobility zones and complement policies promoting a switch to [[Alternatives to car use|clean alternatives]], including walking and cycling, among others.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bannon |first=Eoin |title=Low-Emission Zones are a success – but they must now move to zero-emission mobility |url=https://www.transportenvironment.org/publications/low-emission-zones-are-success-%E2%80%93-they-must-now-move-zero-emission-mobility |website=Transport & Environment |access-date=1 April 2021 |date=10 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Sumantran |first1=Venkat |last2=Fine |first2=Charles |last3=Gonsalvez |first3=David |title=Our cities need fewer cars, not cleaner cars |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/oct/16/our-cities-need-fewer-cars-not-cleaner-cars-electric-green-transport |access-date=1 April 2021 |website=The Guardian |date=16 October 2017}}</ref>
Most LEZs which are not also congestion charge zones do not change the number of vehicles entering the zone: but some LEZs (such as the one in Milan) double as congestion charge zones and thus have the potential to reduce the numbers travelling into the city.<ref name="Impact of Low Emission Zones"/>
==Implementation by country==
[[File:Umweltzone rot, gelb, grün frei.svg|thumb|Sign marking a German low-emission zone. Vehicles with red, yellow, and green emissions stickers are permitted in the zone.]]
{{As of|2019}} there are about 250 low-emission zones (LEZ),<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-47816360|title=London's ULEZ: How does it compare?|last=McGrath|first=Matt|date=8 April 2019|access-date=19 June 2019|language=en-GB}}</ref> which help meet EU health-based [[Air pollution#European Union|air quality limit values]]. This means that vehicles may be banned from a LEZ, or in some cases charged if they enter a LEZ when their emissions are over a set level. Although common in Europe the continent's largest cities are lacking: Istanbul has no LEZ and Moscow's is not enforced.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kholod |first1=Nazar |last2=Evans |first2=Meredydd |date=2016-02-01 |title=Reducing black carbon emissions from diesel vehicles in Russia: An assessment and policy recommendations |journal=Environmental Science & Policy |language=en |volume=56 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2015.10.017 |issn=1462-9011|doi-access=free }}</ref>
Different vehicles may be regulated, depending on local conditions. All LEZs apply to heavy vehicles, some to diesel vans, others also to diesel and petrol cars; in Italy, motor cycles and three-wheelers are also liable to control.
A publicly funded website run by a network of cities and ministries operating or preparing LEZs gives up-to-date information on LEZs, such as which cities have LEZs, the vehicle types affected, the required emissions standards and their application dates.<ref name=LEZEurope>{{cite web|url=https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/ |title=Urban Access Regulations in Europe |publisher=Sadler Consultants Ltd. |date= |accessdate=19 June 2019}}</ref>
===Belgium===
* [[Antwerp]]: Since 2017, there has been a LEZ in [[Antwerp]], 24/7. Only diesel vehicles above Euro 3/III norm and petrol vehicles above Euro 1/I norm are allowed to enter the LEZ.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.slimnaarantwerpen.be/en/lez |title=Antwerp LEZ |publisher=Stad Antwerpen |accessdate=8 March 2017}}</ref>
* Brussels: Since 2018, the entire [[Brussels Capital Region]] has been a LEZ.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.brussels.be/lez |title=Low Emission Zone |date=3 October 2017 |publisher=Brussels Capital Region |accessdate=30 June 2021}}</ref> Only diesel vehicles above Euro 4/IV norm are allowed to enter Brussels.<ref>{{Cite web|date=21 December 2021|title=Low Emission Zone: new ban from 2022|url=https://www.brussels.be/low-emission-zone-new-ban-2022|access-date=8 January 2022|website=www.brussels.be|language=en}}</ref> <br/>Since 2019 petrol or gas-powered vehicles need to be Euro 2/II or more.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://lez.brussels/mytax/en/practical?tab=Agenda |title=In practice: Everything you need to know about the LEZ in the Brussels-Capital Region. |publisher=Brussels Capital Region |accessdate=30 June 2021}}</ref>
* [[Ghent]] introduced a LEZ on 1 January 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://stad.gent/natuur-milieu/lage-emissiezone-2020 |title=Lage-Emissiezone 2020 |publisher=Stad Gent |accessdate=11 November 2017}}</ref>
===China===
An LEZ is present in Beijing.<ref>[https://wrirosscities.org/our-work/project-city/beijing-low-emission-zone Beijing Low Emission Zone]</ref><ref>[http://www.sustainabletransport.org/archives/tag/low-emission-zones LEZ examples]</ref>
===Denmark===
Denmark has LEZs that are applicable to vehicles over 3.5 t.<ref name=LEZEurope/>
In Denmark, LEZs exist in Aalborg, Aarhus, Copenhagen, Frederiksberg and Odense.<ref>[https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/countries-mainmenu-147/denmark-mainmenu-221 LEZs Denmark]</ref>
===Finland===
A LEZ is present in Helsinki.<ref>[https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/countries-mainmenu-147/finland LEZs Finland]</ref>
===France===
France has LEZs in Greater Paris, Grenoble, Lyon, Paris and Strasbourg<ref>[https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/countries-mainmenu-147/france LEZs in France]</ref>
===Germany===
In Germany, an LEZ is called an environmental zone (''Umweltzone''). There are currently 47 LEZs in operation or in planning in Germany.<ref name="LEZEurope" /> The cities of [[Berlin]], [[Cologne]], [[Hanover]], [[Mannheim]] and [[Stuttgart]] started LEZs in their respective central city areas in 2008 and more cities followed in the years after.
===Hong Kong===
Since the end of 2015, the Hong Kong Government has designated three major junctions in [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]], [[Causeway Bay]] and [[Mong Kok]] as low emission zone for [[Bus services in Hong Kong|franchised buses]]. For bus routes entering the three zones, franchised bus operators are required to use only buses meeting emission standards of [[European emission standards|Euro IV]] or above except when necessary. The LEZ scheme does not cover vehicles other than franchised buses.<ref>[http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201512/31/P201512310204.htm Government sets up franchised bus low emission zones starting today] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202173836/http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201512/31/P201512310204.htm |date=2 February 2016 }}</ref> As of 31 December 2019, the standard for entry into the LEZ has been increased to Euro V.
=== Indonesia ===
The first LEZ in Indonesia is implemented at the old downtown of [[Jakarta]], the [[Kota Tua Jakarta]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Wibawana |first=Widhia Arum |date=2022-09-11 |title=Low Emission Zone Artinya Apa? LEZ Berlaku di Kota Tua Jakarta |url=https://news.detik.com/berita/d-6285913/low-emission-zone-artinya-apa-lez-berlaku-di-kota-tua-jakarta |access-date=2023-09-05 |website=[[Detik.com|detiknews]] |language=id-ID}}</ref> It was first implemented on 8 February 2021 after having a trial run from 18-23 December 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2020-12-19 |title=Membatasi Kendaraan Bermotor di Kota Tua |url=https://koran.tempo.co/read/metro/460878/membatasi-kendaraan-bermotor-di-kota-tua |access-date=2023-09-05 |website=[[Tempo (Indonesian magazine)|koran.tempo.co]] |language=id}}</ref> The city government chose Kota Tua Jakarta as an LEZ in order to reduce air pollution on the site due to its rich historical value.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Anjani |first=Anatasia |date=2021-11-17 |title=Kota Tua Dijadikan Kawasan Emisi Rendah, Mengapa? |url=https://www.detik.com/edu/detikpedia/d-5814882/kota-tua-dijadikan-kawasan-emisi-rendah-mengapa |access-date=2023-09-05 |website=[[Detik.com|detikedu]] |language=id-ID}}</ref> Air pollution is concerned to damage the structure of old buildings within the site. The LEZ implementation is permanent and only [[TransJakarta]] buses, bicycles, pedestrians, and vehicles with special marker are allowed to enter the streets of the old town.<ref name=":0" />
Beside that, LEZ is also implemented at the surrounding area of [[Tebet Eco Park]] in [[South Jakarta]]. Unlike the previous one in Kota Tua, LEZ in Tebet Eco Park is only implemented on weekends and public holidays.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Budi |first=Mulia |date=2022-08-20 |title=Pro Kontra Opini Pengunjung soal Tebet Eco Park Masuk Zona Emisi Rendah |url=https://news.detik.com/berita/d-6244645/pro-kontra-opini-pengunjung-soal-tebet-eco-park-masuk-zona-emisi-rendah |access-date=2023-09-05 |website=detiknews |language=id-ID}}</ref> Residents or workers in the surrounding area of the park have to place a sticker with [[QR code]] on their vehicle.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-11 |title=Ini 2 Ruas Jalan di Sekitar Tebet Eco Park yang Bakal Dilarang untuk Dilintasi Kendaraan Bermotor |url=https://voi.id/amp/188983/ini-2-ruas-jalan-di-sekitar-tebet-eco-park-yang-bakal-dilarang-untuk-dilintasi-kendaraan-bermotor |access-date=2023-09-05 |website=VOI - Waktunya Merevolusi Pemberitaan |language=id}}</ref>
===Italy===
Italy has LEZs that are applicable to all vehicles.<ref name=LEZEurope/>
There are combined LEZs and urban road tolling schemes in Milan and Palermo as well as low emission zones with differing standards and time periods. The latter are mainly found in north Italy, but also in mid Italy and Sicily.<ref>[https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/countries-mainmenu-147/italy-mainmenu-81 LEZs Italy]</ref> Some [[limited traffic zone]]s are also aimed at limiting pollution levels.
===Japan===
In Tokyo, the municipal government decided to tackle controlling diesel vehicle emissions (particulate matter emissions, ...) far ahead of the national government.<ref>[https://www.japanfs.org/en/news/archives/news_id030817.html Tokyo Metropolitan Government's Efforts to Control Diesel Vehicle Emissions]</ref><ref>[http://www.kankyo.metro.tokyo.jp/en/automobile/diesel.html TMG: Measures against Diesel Emissions]</ref>
===Netherlands===
[[Amsterdam]], [[The Hague]], [[Utrecht]] and [[Arnhem]] have LEZs (''milieuzone'') applying to passenger cars and delivery vans. Only diesel passenger cars and diesel delivery vans meeting the emission standards of Euro 4 and above are allowed to enter the LEZs. Diesel trucks and diesel Buses/coaches have to meet Euro VI (6) or above to enter the LEZs. The LEZ of Arnhem does not apply to buses/coaches.<ref>[https://www.milieuzones.nl/locaties-milieuzones LEZs in the Netherlands]</ref>
The LEZ of Amsterdam covers practically the entire area within the [[A10 motorway (Netherlands)|A10 highway]]. The highway itself is not part of the LEZ.<ref>[https://www.amsterdam.nl/en/traffic-transport/low-emission-zone/ LEZ for diesel vehicles]</ref>
The LEZ of The Hague covers the area enclosed by the Centrumring (S100) and Professor B.M. Teldersweg (S200). These roads themselves, as well as the road from Lijnbaan to the visitors’ car park and the parking garage of the HMC Westeinde hospital, are not part of the LEZ.<ref>[https://www.denhaag.nl/en/in-the-city/getting-there-and-around/low-emission-zone-for-diesel-cars-.htm LEZ for diesel cars]</ref>
[[Rotterdam]] has an LEZ applying to trucks only. Diesel trucks have to meet the Euro VI (6) emission standard or above.<ref>[https://www.rotterdam.nl/wonen-leven/milieuzone/ LEZ Rotterdam]</ref>
===Norway===
Norway has LEZs in Bergen and Oslo.<ref>[https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/countries-mainmenu-147/norway-mainmenu-197 LEZs in Norway]</ref>
===Portugal===
Portugal has an LEZ in Lisbon.<ref>[https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/countries-mainmenu-147/portugal LEZs in Portugal]</ref>
===Spain===
[[Pontevedra]] was the first Spanish city to ban traffic in its core, in 1999.<ref>[https://elpais.com/sociedad/2018/11/30/actualidad/1543595906_838257.html Pontevedra, the city that defeated cars]. [[El País]]</ref> [[Málaga]] and [[Seville]] were the next cities to establish low emission zones, with traffic only allowed for residents, in 2009.<ref>[https://www.20minutos.es/noticia/475742/0/pilonas/centro/malaga/ Málaga: The historic center closes to traffic]. [[20 minutos]]</ref> Seville rolled back its low-emission zone under the mayorship of [[Juan Ignacio Zoido]] in 2011,<ref>[https://www.lainformacion.com/estilo-de-vida-y-tiempo-libre/el-alcalde-deroga-el-plan-que-restringia-los-coches-en-centro-de-sevilla_boVsoW4oQEN35u7MigLE04/ Mayor abolishes plan to restrict cars in Seville center]. La Información</ref> but at date of August 2021 a new system was in the process of implementation.<ref>[https://www.sevilla.org/respira/casco-antiguo-triana Restricted traffic zones]. Seville City Council</ref>
[[Madrid]] established [[Madrid Central|its LEZ]] in 2018 in its [[Centro (Madrid)|city center]], and [[Barcelona]] approved it in 2020.<ref>[https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/countries-mainmenu-147/spain LEZs in Spain]</ref>
===Sweden===
The cities of [[Gothenburg]], [[Lund]], [[Malmö]], Helsingborg, Mölndal, Uppsala, Umeå and [[Stockholm]] have low-emission zones.<ref>{{cite web|title=Urban Access Regulation in Europe|url=http://urbanaccessregulations.eu/countries-mainmenu-147/sweden-mainmenu-248|accessdate=21 December 2016}}</ref> Heavy trucks and buses with compression ignited engines (mainly diesel engines) may not be allowed inside the environmental zones depending on their age and on their emission class.<ref>{{cite web|title=Miljözoner|url=https://www.transportstyrelsen.se/sv/vagtrafik/Miljo/Miljozoner/|accessdate=12 January 2017}}</ref>
===United Kingdom===
{{See also|Clean Air Zone}}
[[File:Sign for London ultra low emission zone (geograph 6183970).jpg|thumb|Sign for the [[Ultra Low Emission Zone]] (ULEZ) in London (left)]]
The [[London low emission zone]] came into effect in 2008 covering almost all of [[Greater London]] – the largest such zone in the world. The [[Low Emission Zone]] targets emissions of these pollutants from older diesel-engined [[lorries]], buses, [[Coach (vehicle)|coaches]], vans, [[minibus]]es and other heavy vehicles that are derived from lorries and vans such as motor caravans and motorised horse boxes. There was a phased introduction of the scheme from 2008 through to 2012. Different vehicles were affected over time and increasingly tougher emissions standards applied.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tfl.gov.uk/roadusers/lez/vehicles/2535.aspx |title=Emissions standards |publisher=Transport for London |accessdate=21 November 2007}}</ref>
The London [[Ultra Low Emission Zone]] started on 8 April 2019 and initially covered [[Central London]], the same area as the existing [[London congestion charge|congestion charge]]. On 25 October 2021, the zone was extended to cover the [[Inner London]] area within the [[North Circular Road|North Circular]] and [[South Circular Road, London|South Circular]] roads.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ft.com/content/167d27aa-d7e1-4b6b-b8d2-b657310efe01|title=Londoners get ready for expansion of low emission zone|date=24 October 2021|website=[[Financial Times]]}}</ref> It was expanded again on 29 August 2023 to coincide with the London low emission zone, covering almost all of [[Greater London]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-63754724 |title=ULEZ: Ultra Low Emissions Zone to cover all of London |date=25 November 2022 |website=[[BBC News]]}}</ref>
[[File:UK traffic sign TA4754.H.svg|thumb|upright|Ultra Low Emission Zone (ULEZ) sign]]
[[Glasgow]] introduced a Low Emission Zone (LEZ) at the end of 2018. Initially, only local buses in the centre of the city are affected. On 1 June 2023 restrictions were extended to all vehicles, including older petrol and diesel cars.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.glasgow.gov.uk/LEZ | title=Glasgow's Low Emission Zone (LEZ) | date=20 July 2018 }}</ref> [[Norwich]], and [[York]] also introduced a LEZ.<ref>[Norwich Low Emission Zone https://laqm.defra.gov.uk/documents/Norwich_lez.pdf]</ref><ref name=UKZEZ/>
Since 2015, more than 60 local authorities have been ordered to tackle illegal levels of air pollution, which is why many of these planning to introduce [[clean air zone]]s. The following cities have plans to introduce LEZs: [[Aberdeen]] (2020), [[Bath, Somerset|Bath]] (2021), [[Birmingham]] (2019), [[Derby]], Dundee (2020), [[Edinburgh]] (2020), [[Manchester]] (2022), [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]] (2021), and [[Sheffield]] (2021).<ref name=UKZEZ/> [[Leeds]] also intended to introduce a LEZ, however increased uptake of cleaner vehicles led to the scheme's cancellation in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://news.leeds.gov.uk/news/leeds-clean-air-zone-has-achieved-its-aims-early-and-is-no-longer-required-joint-review-finds |title=Leeds' Clean Air Zone has achieved its aims early and is no longer required, joint review finds |date=2020-10-13 |access-date=2023-05-31 |author=[[Leeds City Council]] }}</ref>
{{Asof|2020|06}}, [[Oxford]] is claiming to become the first city to implement a Zero Emission Zone (ZEZ) scheme, beginning with a small area to go into effect by mid 2021. It was postponed from a 2020 start due to the economic impacts of the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. However, the proposals can more accurately be described as a Low Emission Zone or Ultra Low Emission Zone as any vehicle can enter on payment of a charge.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.oxford.gov.uk/info/20299/air_quality_projects/1305/oxford_zero_emission_zone_zez | title=Oxford's Zero Emission Zone – 20/03/2020 update | author=Oxford City Council |publisher=[[Oxford City Council]] | date=20 March 2020 | accessdate=18 June 2020}}</ref> The plan is to expand the ZEZ gradually into a much larger zone, until the ZEZ encompasses the majority of the city centre by 2035.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.oxford.gov.uk/info/20299/air_quality_projects/1305/oxford_zero_emission_zone_zez | title=Oxford's Zero Emission Zone – 20/03/2020 update | author=Oxford City Council |publisher=[[Oxford City Council]] | date=20 March 2020 | accessdate=18 June 2020}}</ref><ref name=UKZEZ>{{Cite web|url=https://www.buyacar.co.uk/cars/economical-cars/523/clean-air-zone-charges-where-are-britains-low-emission-zones |first=Dominic |last=Tobin |title=Clean air zone charges: where are Britain's low emission zones?|publisher=buyacar.co.uk |date=12 March 2019|access-date=29 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oxford.gov.uk/info/20216/air_quality_management/208/oxfords_low_emission_zone_lez|title=Oxford's Low Emission Zone (LEZ)}}</ref>
==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
*[[Automatic number-plate recognition]]
*[[Battery electric vehicle]]
*''[[Crit'air]]''
*[[Carfree city]]
*[[Congestion pricing]]
*[[Cyclability]]
*[[Ecopass]]
*[[Electric car]]
*[[Environmental aspects of the electric car]]
*[[Fenceline community]]
*[[List of modern production plug-in electric vehicles]]
*[[Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles]]
*[[Plug-in electric vehicle]]
*[[Plug-in hybrid]]
*[[Road space rationing]]
*[[Sustainable transport]]
*[[Transit mall]]
*[[Zero-emissions vehicle]]
{{div col end}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
*[http://www.lowemissionzones.eu Low-emission zones in Europe]
[[Category:Air pollution]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Traffic calming]]
[[Category:Transportation planning]] |
Three generations of human rights | {{short description|Division of human rights into three chronological categories}}
{{Rights|Human}}
The division of [[human rights]] into '''three generations''' was initially proposed in 1979 by the [[Czech people|Czech]] jurist [[Karel Vasak]] at the [[International Institute of Human Rights]] in [[Strasbourg]]. He used the term at least as early as November 1977.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Vašák|first=Karel|title=A 30-year struggle; the sustained efforts to give force of law to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000048063|access-date=2021-09-20|website=UNESDOC}}</ref> Vasak's theories have primarily taken root in European law.
In a speech two years later, his divisions follow the three watchwords of the [[French Revolution]]: ''[[Liberté, égalité, fraternité|Liberty, Equality, Fraternity]]''.<ref>Etudes et essais sur le droit international humanitaire et sur les principes de la Croix-Rouge en l'honneur de Jean Pictet, red. by Christophe Swinarski, Comité Internat. de la Croix-Rouge ; Nijhoff, 1984</ref> The three generations are reflected in some of the rubrics of the [[Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union]].{{citation needed|date=April 2015}} While the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] lists first- and second-generation rights, the document itself does not specifically order them in accordance with Vasak's framework.
== First-generation human rights ==
First-generation human rights, sometimes called "blue rights", deal essentially with liberty and participation in political life. They are fundamentally [[civil and political rights|civil and political]] in nature: They serve [[negative and positive rights|negatively to protect]] the individual from excesses of the state. First-generation rights include, among other things, the [[right to life]], [[equality before the law]], [[freedom of speech]], [[freedom of religion]], [[property right]]s, the [[right to a fair trial]], and [[voting rights]]. Some of these rights and the right to due process date back to the [[Magna Carta]] of 1215 and the [[Rights of Englishmen]], which were expressed in the [[English Bill of Rights]] in 1689. A more full set of first-generation human rights was pioneered in [[France]] by the [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] in 1789, and by the [[United States Bill of Rights]] in 1791.
They were enshrined at the global level and given status in [[international law]] first by Articles 3 to 21 of the 1948 [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] and later in the 1966 [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]]. In Europe, they were enshrined in the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] in 1953.
== Second-generation human rights ==
Second-generation human rights are related to equality and began to be recognized by governments after [[World War II]]. They are fundamentally [[economic, social and cultural rights|economic, social, and cultural]] in nature. They guarantee different members of the citizenry equal conditions and treatment. Secondary rights would include a [[right to work|right to be employed]] in [[decent work|just and favorable condition]], rights to [[right to food|food]], [[public housing|housing]] and [[universal health care|health care]], as well as [[social security]] and [[unemployment benefit]]s. Like first-generation rights, they were also covered by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and further embodied in Articles 22 to 28 of the Universal Declaration, and the [[International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights]].
In the [[United States of America]], President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] proposed a [[Second Bill of Rights]], covering much the same grounds, during his State of the Union Address on January 11, 1944. Today, many nations, states, or groups of nations have developed legally binding declarations guaranteeing comprehensive sets of human rights, e.g. the [[European Social Charter]].
Some [[U.S. state|U.S. states]] have enacted some of these economic rights; for example, the state of [[New York (state)|New York]] has enshrined the [[Campaign for Fiscal Equity#Campaign for Fiscal Equity.2C Inc. v. State|right to a free education]],<ref>N.Y. Const. ART. XI, § 1, found at [http://public.leginfo.state.ny.us/LAWSSEAF.cgi?QUERYTYPE=LAWS+&QUERYDATA=**CNSA11S1+&LIST=LAW+&BROWSER=EXPLORER+&TOKEN=14425895+&TARGET=VIEW New York State Assembly website]. Retrieved February 23, 2012.</ref><ref>''Campaign for Fiscal Equity, Inc. v. State'', 86 N.Y.2d 307 (1995). Case brief found at [https://www.law.cornell.edu/nyctap/comments/i95_0156.htm] [[Cornell Law School]] website. Retrieved February 23, 2012.</ref> as well as "the right to [[Labor union|organize]] and to [[Collective bargaining|bargain collectively]]",<ref>N.Y. Const. ART. I, § 17, found at [http://public.leginfo.state.ny.us/LAWSSEAF.cgi?QUERYTYPE=LAWS+&QUERYDATA=**CNSA1S17+&LIST=LAW+&BROWSER=EXPLORER+&TOKEN=08222978+&TARGET=VIEW New York State Assembly website]. Retrieved February 23, 2012.</ref> and [[workers' compensation]],<ref>N.Y. Const. ART. I, § 18, found at [http://public.leginfo.state.ny.us/LAWSSEAF.cgi?QUERYTYPE=LAWS+&QUERYDATA=**CNSA1S18+&LIST=LAW+&BROWSER=EXPLORER+&TOKEN=08222978+&TARGET=VIEW New York State Assembly website]. Retrieved February 23, 2012.</ref> in its [[constitutional law]].
These rights are sometimes referred to as "[[Red#Use by political movements|red]]" rights. They impose upon the government the duty to respect and promote and fulfill them, but this depends on the availability of resources. The duty is imposed on the state because it controls its own resources. No one has the direct [[right to housing]] and [[right to education]]. (In [[South Africa]], for instance, the right is not, ''per se'', to housing, but rather "to have access to adequate housing",<ref>[[Constitution of South Africa|Constitution of the Republic of South Africa]], [[1996 in South Africa|1996]], s 26(1).</ref> realised on a progressive basis.<ref>s s 26(2).</ref>)
The duty of government is in the realization of these positive rights.
== Third-generation human rights ==
Third-generation human rights are those rights that go beyond the mere civil and social, as expressed in many progressive documents of [[international law]], including the 1972 [[Stockholm Declaration]] of the [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment]], the 1992 [[Rio Declaration]] on Environment and Development, and other pieces of generally aspirational "[[soft law]]".
Also known as '''Solidarity human rights''', they are rights that try to go beyond the framework of individual rights to focus on collective concepts, such as community or people. However, the term remains largely unofficial,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://derecho.isipedia.com/optativas/derechos-humanos/18-los-derechos-humanos-de-solidaridad |title=Los Derechos Humanos de solidaridad |access-date=May 12, 2020 |work=Isipedia |language=es }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://eacnur.org/blog/derechos-humanos-tercera-generacion-tc_alt45664n_o_pstn_o_pst/ |title=¿Cuáles son los derechos humanos de tercera generación? |access-date=May 12, 2020 |date=April 2017 |publisher=Spanish committee of ACNUR |language=es }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amnistiacatalunya.org/edu/es/historia/dh-futuros.html |title=Los derechos de tercera generación |access-date=May 12, 2020 |publisher=Amnesty International Catalonia |language=es }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalization101.org/es/three-generations-of-rights/ |title=Three Generations of Human Rights |access-date=May 12, 2020 |work=Globalization 101 |publisher=Levin Institute - State University of New York }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.openglobalrights.org/putting-to-rest-the-three-generations-theory-of-human-rights/ |title=Putting to rest the Three Generations Theory of human rights |access-date=May 12, 2020 |last=Jensen |first=Steven |work=Open Global Rights }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Karel Vasak's Generations of Rights and the Contemporary Human Rights Discourse |last1=Domaradzki |first1=Spasimir |last2=Khvostova |first2=Margaryta |last3=Pupovac |first3=David |date=September 6, 2019 |journal=Human Rights Review |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=423–443 |publisher=Springer |doi=10.1007/s12142-019-00565-x |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.law.muni.cz/sborniky/dny_prava_2009/files/prispevky/tvorba_prava/Cornescu_Adrian_Vasile.pdf |title=The generations of human's rights |access-date=May 12, 2020 |last=Cornescu |first=Adrian |date=2009 }}</ref> just as the also-used moniker of "[[Green politics|green]]" rights, and thus houses an extremely broad spectrum of rights, including:
* [[Group rights|Group]] and [[collective rights]]
* Right to [[self-determination]]
* [[right to development|Right to economic and social development]]
* [[Right to a healthy environment]]
* Right to [[natural resources]]
* Right to [[communication|communicate]] and [[Communication Rights|communication rights]]
* Right to participation in [[cultural heritage]]
* Rights to [[intergenerational equity]] and [[sustainability]]
The [[African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights]] ensures many of those: the right to self-determination, right to development, right to natural resources and right to satisfactory environment.<ref>[[African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights]], Article 20, 21, 22 and 24</ref> Some countries also have constitutional mechanisms for safeguarding third-generation rights. For example, the Hungarian [[Parliamentary Commissioner for Future Generations]],<ref>[http://www.pieandcoffee.org/2010/02/26/sandor-fulop/ Notes: Hungarian Parliamentary Commissioner for Future Generations]</ref> the [[Eduskunta|Parliament of Finland]]'s {{ill|Committee for the Future|fi|Tulevaisuusvaliokunta}}, and the erstwhile [[Commission for Future Generations]] in the Israeli [[Knesset]].
Some international organizations have offices for safeguarding such rights. An example is the [[High Commissioner on National Minorities]] of the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]]. The [[Directorate-General for the Environment]] of the European Commission has as its mission "protecting, preserving and improving the environment for present and future generations, and promoting sustainable development".
A few jurisdictions have enacted provisions for [[environmental protection]], e.g. New York's "forever wild" constitutional article,<ref>N.Y. Const. ART XIV, § 1. Found at [http://public.leginfo.state.ny.us/LAWSSEAF.cgi?QUERYTYPE=LAWS+&QUERYDATA=**CNSA14S1+&LIST=LAW+&BROWSER=EXPLORER+&TOKEN=08222978+&TARGET=VIEW New York State Assembly website]. Retrieved February 23, 2012.</ref> which is enforceable by action of the [[New York State Attorney General]] or by any citizen ''[[ex rel.]]'' with the consent of the [[New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division|Appellate Division]].<ref>N.Y. Const. ART XIV, § 5. Found at [http://public.leginfo.state.ny.us/LAWSSEAF.cgi?QUERYTYPE=LAWS+&QUERYDATA=**CNSA14S5+&LIST=LAW+&BROWSER=EXPLORER+&TOKEN=08222978+&TARGET=VIEW New York State Assembly website]. Retrieved February 23, 2012.</ref>
==Fourth generation==
Several analysts claim that a fourth generation of human rights is emerging, which would include rights that cannot be included in the third generation, future claims of first and second generation rights and new rights, especially in relation to technological development and information and communication technologies and cyberspace.<ref name=oei>{{cite web |url=https://www.oei.es/historico/revistactsi/numero1/bustamante.htm |title=Hacia la cuarta generación de Derechos Humanos: repensando la condición humana en la sociedad tecnológica |access-date=May 12, 2020 |last=Bustamante |first=Javier |date=September 2001 |work=Revista Iberoamericana de Ciencia, Tecnología, Sociedad e Innovación |publisher=[[Organization of Ibero-American States]] |location=Madrid |language=es }}</ref>
However, the content of it is not clear, and these analysts do not present a unique proposal. They normally take some rights from the third generation and include them in the fourth, such as the right to a healthy [[natural environment|environment]] or aspects related to [[bioethics]]. Some of those analysts believe that the fourth generation is given by human rights in relation to [[Information and communications technology|new technologies]],<ref name=oei /> while others prefer to talk about digital rights,<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.revistas.una.ac.cr/index.php/derechoshumanos/article/view/6117 |title=La cuarta ola de derechos humanos: los derechos digitales |access-date=May 12, 2020 |last=Riofrío |first=Juan Carlos |date=2014 |journal=Revista Latinoamericana de Derechos Humanos |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=15–45 |language=es }}</ref> where a new range of rights would be found, such as:
* The right to equally access computing and digital
* The right to digital self-determination
* The right to digital security
* The right to access one's own digital data (''[[habeas data]]'')<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.encuentrojuridico.com/2013/01/los-derechos-humanos-de-tercera-y.html |title=Los derechos humanos de tercera y cuarta generación |access-date=May 12, 2020 |date=January 2013 |work=Encuentro Jurídico |language=es }}</ref>
Others point out that the differentiating element would be that, while the first three generations refer to the human being as a member of society, the rights of the fourth would refer to the human being as a species.
== Commentary ==
[[Maurice Cranston]] argued that [[scarcity]] means that supposed second-generation and third-generation rights are not really rights at all.<ref>Cranston, Maurice. "Human Rights: Real and Supposed," in ''Political Theory and the Rights of Man'', edited by D. D. Raphael (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1967), pp. 43-51.</ref> If one person has a right, others have a duty to respect that right, but governments lack the resources necessary to fulfill the duties implied by citizens' supposed second- and third-generation rights.
[[Charles Kesler]], a professor of government at [[Claremont McKenna College]] and senior fellow of the [[Claremont Institute]], has argued that second- and third-generation human rights serve as an attempt to cloak political goals, which the majority may well agree are good things in and of themselves, in the language of rights, and thus grant those political goals inappropriate connotations. In his opinion, calling socio-economic goods "rights" inherently creates a related concept of "[[duties]]", so that other citizens have to be coerced by the government to give things to other people in order to fulfill these new rights. He also has stated that, in the U.S., the new rights create a "nationalization" of political decision-making at the federal level in violation of federalism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hoover.org/multimedia/uk/47825927.html |title=Charles Kesler on the Grand Liberal Project |date=May 28, 2009 |access-date=January 5, 2010 |publisher=[[Uncommon Knowledge]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090715094108/http://www.hoover.org/multimedia/uk/47825927.html |archive-date=July 15, 2009 }}</ref> In his book ''Soft Despotism, Democracy's Drift'', Paul Rahe, professor at [[Hillsdale College]], wrote that focusing on equality-based rights leads to a subordination of the initial civil rights to an ever-expanding government, which would be too incompetent to provide for its citizens correctly and would merely seek to subordinate more rights.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hoover.org/multimedia/uk/72025472.html |title=Soft Despotism with Paul Rahe |date=November 19, 2009 |access-date=January 5, 2010 |publisher=[[Uncommon Knowledge]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104072827/http://www.hoover.org/multimedia/uk/72025472.html |archive-date=January 4, 2010 }}</ref>
19th century philosopher [[Frederic Bastiat]] summarized the conflict between these [[negative and positive rights]] by saying: {{quote|M. de Lamartine wrote me one day: "Your doctrine is only the half of my program; you have stopped at liberty; I go on to fraternity." I answered him: "The second half of your program will destroy the first half." And, in fact, it is quite impossible for me to separate the word "fraternity" from the word "voluntary". It is quite impossible for me to conceive of fraternity as legally enforced, without liberty being legally destroyed, and justice being legally trampled underfoot.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bastiat|first=Frédéric|author-link=Frédéric Bastiat|chapter=The Law|title=Selected Essays on Political Economy|publisher=Irvington-on-Hudson, NY: The Foundation for Economic Education, Inc|date=1850}}</ref>}}
Economist [[Friedrich Hayek]] has argued that the second generation concept of "[[social justice]]" cannot have any practical political meaning: {{quote|No state of affairs as such is just or unjust: it is only when we assume that somebody is responsible for having brought it about ... In the same sense, a [[free market|spontaneously working market]], where prices act as guides to action, cannot take account of what people in any sense need or deserve, because it creates a distribution which nobody has designed, and something which has not been designed, a mere state of affairs as such, cannot be just or unjust. And the idea that things ought to be designed in a "just" manner means, in effect, that we must abandon the market and turn to a [[planned economy]] in which somebody decides how much each ought to have, and that means, of course, that we can only have it at the price of the complete abolition of personal liberty.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://reason.com/archives/1992/07/01/the-road-from-serfdom/4|magazine=[[Reason Magazine|Reason]]|access-date=January 4, 2010|title=The Road from Serfdom: Forseeing the Fall|first=Thomas W.|last=Hazlett|date=July 1992}}</ref>}}
[[New York University School of Law]] professor of law [[Jeremy Waldron]] has written in response to critics of the second-generation rights: {{quote|In any case, the argument from first-generation to second-generation rights was never supposed to be a matter of conceptual analysis. It was rather this: if one is really concerned to secure civil or political liberty for a person, that commitment should be accompanied by a further concern about the conditions of the person's life that make it possible for him to enjoy and exercise that liberty. Why on earth would it be worth fighting for this person's liberty (say, his liberty to choose between A and B) if he were left in a situation in which the choice between A and B meant nothing to him, or in which his choosing one rather than the other would have no impact on his life?"<ref>Jeremy Waldron, 1993. Liberal Rights: Collected Papers, page 7, 1981–91. {{ISBN|0-521-43617-6}}</ref>}}
[[Hungarian people|Hungarian]] [[socialist]] and [[political economist]] [[Karl Polanyi]] made the antithetical argument to Hayek in the book ''[[The Great Transformation (book)|The Great Transformation]]''. Polanyi wrote that an uncontrolled free market would lead to repressive economic concentration and then to a co-opting of democratic governance that degrades civil rights.<ref>{{cite book|author=Karl Polanyi|title=The Great Transformation|publisher=[[Beacon Press]]|year=2001|isbn=978-0-8070-5643-1|author-link=Karl Polanyi|title-link=The Great Transformation (book)}}</ref>
The [[World Conference on Human Rights]] in 1993 opposed the distinction between [[civil and political rights]] (negative rights) and [[economic, social and cultural rights]] (positive rights) that resulted in the [[Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action]] proclaiming that "all human rights are universal, indivisible, interdependent and interrelated".<ref>[[Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action]], Part I para 5</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Human security]]
* "[[Two Concepts of Liberty]]", a lecture by [[Isaiah Berlin]] which distinguished between [[Positive liberty|positive]] and [[negative liberty]]
== Notes ==
{{reflist|2}}
{{Human rights}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Three Generations Of Human Rights}}
[[Category:Human rights concepts]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:1977 introductions]] |
Earth Hour | {{Short description|Annual symbolic environmental event}}
{{distinguish|Earth Day}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2019}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=November 2017}}
{{Infobox holiday
| holiday_name = Earth Hour
| type =
| image = EH Logo stacked RGB.jpg
| imagesize =
| caption =
| official_name =
| nickname =
| observedby = World Wild Fund for Nature (WWF)
| litcolor =
| longtype = International, Movement, World Wildlife Fund (WWF)
| significance = Climate change and to save Earth
| begins = 8:30 pm
| ends = 9:30 pm
| date = Last Saturday of March (or the penultimate Saturday of March if the last Saturday coincides with [[Holy Saturday]])
| scheduling = Different day each year
| duration = 1 hour
| frequency = Annual
| week_ordinal = last
| weekday = Saturday
| month = March
| date2022 = March 26
| date2023 = March 25
| date2024 = March 23
| date2025 = March 29
| date2026 = March 28
| date2027 = March 20
| celebrations = Mass activations to encourage the public to give an hour for the planet; Switching off national and international monuments and landmarks
| observances =
| relatedto = [[Earth Day]]
}}
'''Earth Hour''' is a worldwide movement organized by the [[World Wide Fund for Nature|World Wildlife Fund]] (WWF). The event is held annually, encouraging the individuals, communities, and businesses to give an hour for Earth, and additionally marked by landmarks and businesses switching off non-essential electric lights, for one hour from 8:30 to 9:30 p.m., usually on the last Saturday of March, as a symbol of commitment to the planet.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.earthhour.org/about-us |title=About Us |publisher=Earth Hour |access-date=March 31, 2014}}</ref> It was started as a lights-off event in [[Sydney]], Australia, in 2007.
Occasionally, in years when [[Holy Saturday]] falls on the last Saturday of March (as in 2024), Earth Hour is held a week earlier.
== History of Earth Hour ==
=== Conception and start: 2004–2007 ===
In 2004, confronted with scientific findings, WWF Australia met with advertising agency [[Leo Burnett Worldwide|Leo Burnett Sydney]] to "discuss ideas for engaging Australians on the issue of climate change".<ref name="earthhour1">{{cite web|url=http://www.earthhour.org/page/media-centre/earth-hour-history |title=history |publisher=Earth Hour |access-date=March 31, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120327103047/http://www.earthhour.org/page/media-centre/earth-hour-history |archive-date=March 27, 2012 }}</ref> The idea of a large scale switch off was coined and developed in 2006, originally under the working title "The Big Flick". WWF Australia presented their concept to [[Fairfax Media]] who, along with Sydney Lord Mayor [[Clover Moore]], agreed to back the event.<ref name="earthhour1"/> The 2007 Earth Hour was held on March 31 in Sydney, Australia at 7:30 pm, local time.
In October 2007, [[San Francisco]] ran its own "Lights Out" program inspired by the Sydney Earth Hour.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2007/sep/19/local/me-lightsout19 |title= Hour leg of darkness | newspaper =[[Los Angeles Times]] | date = September 19, 2007| author = John M. Glionna}}</ref> After their successful event in October, the organizers decided to rally behind the Earth Hour being planned for March 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lightsoutsf.org/2007/10/24/moving-forward/ |title=Moving forward | Lights Out San Francisco |publisher=Lightsoutsf.org |date=October 24, 2007 |access-date=September 30, 2013}}</ref>
=== 2008 ===
[[File:Sydney Opera House - After.jpg|thumb|Overview of Sydney during Earth Hour 2008]]
{{Wikinews|Businesses and individuals worldwide turn lights off as part of Earth Hour 2008}}
Earth Hour 2008 was held internationally on March 29, 2008, from 8 p.m. to 9 p.m. local time, marking the first anniversary of the event. 35 countries around the world participated as official flagship cities and over 400 cities also supported. Landmarks around the world turned off their non-essential lighting for Earth Hour. Some websites took part in the event, with [[Google]]'s homepage going "dark" on the day .<ref>{{cite news|title=World Cities Shut Lights for Earth Hour 2008|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/2008/03/29/world-cities-shut-lights-for-earth-hour-2008/|agency=Associated Press|access-date=February 4, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302101303/http://www.foxnews.com/story/2008/03/29/world-cities-shut-lights-for-earth-hour-2008/|archive-date=March 2, 2014|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
According to a [[Zogby International]] online survey, 36 million Americans—approximately 16 percent of the United States adult population—participated in Earth Hour 2008. The survey also showed there was a 4 percentage point increase in the level of interest in environmental issues such as climate change and pollution directly after the event (73 percent pre-event versus 77 percent post-event).<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.reuters.com/article/2008/04/21/idUS134396+21-Apr-2008+BW20080421 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151006004516/http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/04/21/idUS134396+21-Apr-2008+BW20080421 | url-status = dead | archive-date = October 6, 2015 | title = 36 Million Americans Take Part in World Wildlife Fund's Global 'Earth Hour' | publisher = [[Reuters]] | date = April 28, 2008 | access-date = October 5, 2015}}</ref>
[[File:Sydney Harbour Bridge and Opera House Earth Hour.jpg|thumb|[[Sydney Harbour Bridge]] and [[Sydney Opera House]] were darkened during Earth Hour 2007.]]
[[Tel Aviv]] scheduled their Earth Hour for Thursday March 27, 2008 to avoid conflict with [[Shabbat|Sabbath]].<ref>{{Cite news | last = Ross | first = Oakland | title = Tel Aviv rock concert gets power from pedals | newspaper = [[Toronto Star]] | pages = A1, A10 | date = March 28, 2008 | url = https://www.thestar.com/SpecialSections/EarthHour/article/404826 |access-date = March 29, 2008}}</ref> [[Dublin]] moved their Earth Hour to between 9 and 10 p.m. due to their northern geographical location.<ref>{{Cite news | last = Winsa | first = Patty | title = Someone get the lights | newspaper = [[Toronto Star]] | date = March 27, 2008 | url = https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/earthour/2008/03/27/someone_get_the_lights.html | access-date = October 2, 2015 | archive-date = October 4, 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151004042458/http://www.thestar.com/news/canada/earthour/2008/03/27/someone_get_the_lights.html | url-status = dead }}</ref>
[[File:AzrieliCenterEarthHour2010.png|thumb|left|[[Azrieli Center]] in [[Tel Aviv]] darkened for Earth Hour 2010.]]
[[File:Colosseum Earth Hour.jpg|thumb|[[Colosseum]] darkened for Earth Hour 2008]]
According to WWF Thailand, [[Bangkok]] decreased electricity usage by 73.34 [[megawatts]], which, [[megawatt-hour|over one hour]], is equivalent to 41.6 [[tonnes]] of [[carbon dioxide]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/canadians-go-dark-with-world-for-earth-hour-1.749682 |title= Canadians go dark with world for Earth Hour |publisher=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] |date= March 2008 |access-date = March 30, 2008}}</ref> The ''Bangkok Post'' gave different figures of 165 [[megawatt-hours]] and 102 tonnes of carbon dioxide. This was noted to be significantly less than a similar campaign initiated by [[Bangkok]]'s City Hall the previous year in May, when 530 megawatt-hours were saved and 143 tonnes of [[carbon dioxide emission]] were cut.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bangkokpost.com/News/30Mar2008_news03.php|title=Lights out campaign disappointing: Bangkok helps save very little energy |date= March 2008 |access-date = March 30, 2008 |publisher=[[Bangkok Post]]}} {{Dead link|date=March 2010}}</ref>
Philippine Electricity Market Corp. noted that power consumption dropped by about 78.63 megawatts in [[Metro Manila]], and up to 102.2 megawatts on [[Luzon]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://globalnation.inquirer.net/news/breakingnews/view/20080331-127542/Earth-Hour-made-dent-in-power-use |title=Earth Hour made dent in power use |publisher=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |date=March 31, 2008 |access-date=March 29, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080526020555/http://globalnation.inquirer.net/news/breakingnews/view/20080331-127542/Earth-Hour-made-dent-in-power-use |archive-date=May 26, 2008 }}</ref> The maximum demand drop of around 39 MW was experienced at 8:14 p.m. in Metro Manila and of around 116 MW at 8:34 p.m. in the Luzon grid.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.inquirer.net/specialfeatures/theenvironmentreport/view.php?db=1&article=20081211-177480 |title=WWF calls for 'lights out' event in 2009 |publisher=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |date=December 11, 2008 |access-date=March 29, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081212211646/http://www.inquirer.net/specialfeatures/theenvironmentreport/view.php?db=1&article=20081211-177480 |archive-date=December 12, 2008 }}</ref>
[[Ontario]] used approximately 900 megawatt-hours less electrical energy during Earth Hour. At one point, [[Toronto]] saw an 8.7% reduction in consumption as compared to a typical March Saturday night.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thestar.com/SpecialSections/EarthHour/article/407246 |title= Toronto hits energy target |publisher=[[Toronto Star]] |date= March 2008 |access-date = March 30, 2008 | first=Peter | last=Gorrie}}</ref>
Ireland, as a whole, had a reduction in electricity use of about 1.5% for the evening.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.rte.ie/news/2008/0330/environment.html |title= Ireland uses less power for 'Earth Hour' |publisher=[[RTÉ News And Current Affairs|RTÉ News]] |date= March 2008 |access-date = March 30, 2008}}</ref> In the three-hour period between 6:30 p.m. and 9:30 pm, there was a reduction of 50 megawatts, saving 150 megawatt-hours, or approximately 60 tonnes of carbon dioxide.<ref name = "continuation">{{cite news |url=http://www.breakingnews.ie/ireland/mhojojmhcwoj/ |title=Call for continuation of Earth Hour ethos |publisher=Breakingnews.ie |date=March 2008 |access-date=March 31, 2008 |archive-date=June 14, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614041306/http://www.breakingnews.ie/ireland/mhojojmhcwoj/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
In [[Dubai]], where external lighting on several major city landmarks was turned off and street lighting in selected areas was dimmed by 50%, the Electricity and Water Authority reported savings of 100 megawatt-hours of electricity. This represented a 2.4% reduction in demand compared to before the hour began.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.arabianbusiness.com/515051-dubai-slashes-energy-use-for-earth-hour?ln=en |title=Dubai slashes energy use for Earth Hour |publisher=[[Arabian Business]] |date=March 2008 |access-date=April 1, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305053058/http://www.arabianbusiness.com/515051-dubai-slashes-energy-use-for-earth-hour?ln=en |archive-date=March 5, 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
[[File:Earth Hour Sky Tower Auckland.jpg|thumb|The [[Sky Tower (Auckland)|Sky Tower]] in [[Auckland]], New Zealand, switched off its usual floodlighting during the Earth Hour, and re-lit afterwards. (the red lights in the middle image are [[aircraft warning lights]]) ]]
The best result was from [[Christchurch]], New Zealand, with the city reporting a drop of 13% in electricity demand. However, national grid operator [[Transpower New Zealand Limited|Transpower]] reported that New Zealand's power consumption during Earth Hour was 335 megawatts, higher than the 328 megawatt average of the previous two Saturdays.<ref>[http://www.stuff.co.nz/4457620a11.html Lights on, power use up for Earth Hour] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080620172110/http://www.stuff.co.nz/4457620a11.html |date=June 20, 2008 }}. Kelly Andrew. ''[[The Dominion Post (Wellington)|The Dominion Post]]''. Monday, March 31, 2008.</ref> [[Melbourne]], Australia reduced demand by 10.1%. Sydney, being the city that participated in both the 2007 and 2008 Earth Hours, cut electricity consumption by 8.4%. This is less than the previous year's 10.2%; however, Earth Hour executive director Andy Ridley made the claim that after factoring [[margin of error]], the participation in this city was the same.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thestar.com/article/407472 |title= Where do we go from here? |work=[[Toronto Star]] |pages=A1, A17 |date= March 31, 2008 |access-date = March 31, 2008 | first=Peter | last=Gorrie}}</ref>
The worst result was from [[Calgary]], Canada. The city's power consumption actually went up 3.6% at the hour's peak electricity demand.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.canada.com/globaltv/calgary/story.html?id=1b997ecc-3465-499f-ab5c-913213ba229a&k=48356 |title=Calgary's Earth Hour effort uses more power, not less |publisher=[[Global Calgary]] |date=March 30, 2008 |access-date=March 30, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305044146/http://www.canada.com/globaltv/calgary/story.html?id=1b997ecc-3465-499f-ab5c-913213ba229a&k=48356 |archive-date=March 5, 2009 }}</ref> Calgary's weather plays a large role in power consumption, and the city experienced weather 12 °C (around 22 °F) colder than the previous Saturday's recorded temperature in the inaugural year.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.canada.com/edmontonjournal/news/cityplus/story.html?id=5f6ba0de-d209-45e6-b568-d1df7772d4b4&k=44185 |title=Edmontonians cut power consumption by 1.5 per cent during Earth Hour |work=[[Edmonton Journal]] |date=April 1, 2008 |access-date=April 7, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305053537/http://www2.canada.com/edmontonjournal/news/cityplus/story.html?id=5f6ba0de-d209-45e6-b568-d1df7772d4b4&k=44185 |archive-date=March 5, 2009 }}</ref> [[Enmax]], the city's power supplier, has confirmed that in all subsequent years, Calgarians have not supported the Earth Hour initiative, noting that power consumption changed only marginally during the hour in 2010 and 2011 (1% or less) and in 2012 and 2013 showed no appreciable change in power usage at all.<ref>{{cite web |last=Nolais |first=Jeremy |url=http://metronews.ca/news/calgary/27937/earth-hour-sees-little-change-in-calgary-electricity-use |title=Earth Hour sees little change in Calgary electricity use | Metro |publisher=Metronews.ca |access-date=September 30, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219160919/http://metronews.ca/news/calgary/27937/earth-hour-sees-little-change-in-calgary-electricity-use/ |archive-date=February 19, 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/story/2013/03/24/calgary-earth-hour.html |title=CBC News report 24 March 2013 |publisher=Cbc.ca |date=March 24, 2013 |access-date=September 30, 2013}}</ref>
=== 2009 ===
{{Wikinews|Businesses and individuals worldwide to turn lights off as part of Earth Hour 2009}}
Earth Hour 2009 was from 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 p.m. local time, March 28, 2009. The campaign was titled "Vote Earth" and was dubbed "the world's first global vote" with one billion votes was the stated aim for Earth Hour 2009,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.campaignbrief.com/2009/02/vote-earth-worlds-first-global.html |title=Vote Earth – Leo Burnett to Launch the World's First Global Election |work=Campaign Brief Australia |date=February 6, 2009 |access-date=May 31, 2015}}</ref> in the context of the pivotal [[2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference]]. WWF reported that 88 countries and 4,159 cities participated in Earth Hour 2009,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ecology.com/2010/03/11/step-forward-earth-hour-2010/ |title=Step Forward – Earth Hour 2010 |work=Ecology Global Network |access-date=May 31, 2015 |archive-date=November 17, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117030043/http://www.ecology.com/2010/03/11/step-forward-earth-hour-2010/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ten times more cities than Earth Hour 2008 had (2008 saw 400 cities participate).
Among the participants in 2009 was, for the first time, the [[United Nations Headquarters]] in New York City.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=573&ArticleID=6105&l=en |title=Press release March 2009 – UNEP to observe Earth Hour in support of action on climate change – United Nations Environment Programme |publisher=UNEP |access-date=March 25, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20090907221502/http%3A//www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID%3D573%26ArticleID%3D6105%26l%3Den |archive-date=September 7, 2009 }}</ref>
In Egypt, the lights went out on the [[Sphinx]] and the [[Great Pyramids of Giza]] from 8:30 to 9:30 pm.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earthhour.org/news/default:en/article?id=eh6974755038146759259 |title=Great Pyramids of Giza to switch off for Earth Hour |publisher=EarthHour.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327073456/http://www.earthhour.org/news/default%3Aen/article?id=eh6974755038146759259 |archive-date=March 27, 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
The [[Philippines]] saw participation from 647 cities and towns; over 10 million Filipinos were estimated to have joined in the hour-long lights-off.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://globalvoicesonline.org/2010/04/06/philippines-earth-hour-2010/|title=Philippines: Earth Hour 2010 |work=Global Voices|date=April 6, 2010 |access-date=May 31, 2015}}</ref> This was followed by Greece with 484 cities and towns participating, and Australia with 309.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecology.com/2009/03/31/step-forward-earth-wins-in-2009-vote-earth-earth-hour-campaign/|title=Step Forward – Earth Wins in 2009 Vote Earth / Earth Hour Campaign|work=Ecology Global Network|access-date=May 31, 2015|archive-date=November 17, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117014649/http://www.ecology.com/2009/03/31/step-forward-earth-wins-in-2009-vote-earth-earth-hour-campaign/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Despite official organizers WWF stating that the event is not about the reduction in electricity, a number of public institutions reported on electricity savings in their cities to see participation numbers. The [[Canadian province]] of [[Ontario]], excluding the city of [[Toronto]], saw a decrease of 6% in electricity usage while Toronto saw a decrease of 15.1% (nearly doubled from 8.7% the previous year) as many businesses darkened, including the landmark [[CN Tower]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://toronto.ctvnews.ca/earth-hour-prompts-15-per-cent-t-o-power-drop-1.384119 |title=CTV Toronto – Earth Hour prompts 15 per cent T.O. power drop – CTV News |date=March 29, 2009 |publisher=Toronto.ctv.ca |access-date=March 25, 2010}}</ref>
The [[Philippines]] was able to save 611 MWh of electricity during the time period, which is said to be equivalent to shutting down a dozen coal-fired power plants for an hour.<ref>{{cite news |last=Adraneda |first=Katherine |url=http://www.philstar.com/Article.aspx?articleid=454057 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130131113049/http://www.philstar.com/Article.aspx?articleid=454057 |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 31, 2013 |title=RP's Earth Hour savings: 611 megawatt-hours |newspaper=The Philippine Star |date=April 1, 2009 |access-date=January 25, 2011 }}</ref>
Swedish electricity operator [[Svenska Kraftnät]] recorded a 2.1% decrease in power consumption from its projected figure between 8 p.m. and 9 pm. The following hour, the corresponding number was 5%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dn.se/nyheter/sverige/tio-villors-arliga-elforbrukning-1.832821 |title=Tjugofem villors årliga elförbrukning |language=sv |publisher=DN.se |date=March 28, 2009 |access-date=March 25, 2010}}</ref> This is equivalent to the consumption of approximately half a million households out of the total 4.5 million households in Sweden.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.svk.se/Press--info/Nyheter/Nyheter-pressmeddelanden/Nyheter/Sa-paverkade-Earth-Hour-det-svenska-elsystemet/ | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100812001332/http://www.svk.se/Press--info/Nyheter/Nyheter-pressmeddelanden/Nyheter/Sa-paverkade-Earth-Hour-det-svenska-elsystemet/ | archive-date = August 12, 2010 | title=Så påverkade Earth Hour det svenska elsystemet – Svenska Kraftnät |publisher=Svk.se |date=March 28, 2009 }}</ref>
According to the National Power Dispatch Centre, [[Vietnam]]'s electricity demand fell 140 [[MWh]] during Earth Hour.<ref>{{cite web |title=Earth Hour in Vietnam: a perspective from the electricity industry |date = April 21, 2020|url=https://socialsciences.nature.com/posts/66561-earth-hour-in-vietnam-a-perspective-from-the-electricity-industry#:~:text=In%202009%2C%20the%20World%20Wide,Earth%20Hour%20campaign%20in%20Vietnam.&text=This%20year%2C%20the%20National%20Power,one%20hour%20of%20the%20event. |publisher=Nature Research}}</ref>
<!-- mostly uncited
==== Participation ====
96 countries and territories on 6 continents participated in the event in 2009.
==== Participating television and radio stations ====
* The [[National Geographic Channel]] suspended regular programming for an hour and showed how to reduce energy consumption during Earth Hour.
** [[National Geographic Channel (Asia)|National Geographic Channel Asia]] suspended broadcast on March 28, 2009 from 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 p.m.
* [[Cartoon Network (UK & Ireland)|Cartoon Network]] and [[Magic 105.4 FM]] broadcast Earth Hour at 20:30 for the event.
[[Malaysia]]'s [[8TV (Malaysia)|8TV]] halted transmission for one hour starting from 20:30<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.myfew.net/2009/03/06/8tv-to-halt-its-prime-time-programme-transmission-for-earth-hour.html |title= 8TV to Halt Its Prime Time Programme Transmission for Earth Hour |publisher=Myfew.net |date=March 6, 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090313190343/http://www.myfew.net/2009/03/06/8tv-to-halt-its-prime-time-programme-transmission-for-earth-hour.html | archive-date = March 13, 2009}}</ref>
* [[DhiTV]] and [[Villa TV]] halted transmission for one hour in [[Maldives]] from 20:30.
* [[XHGC-TV|Canal 5]] in Mexico halted transmission for one hour in [[Mexico City]] at 20:30.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}}
* [[Philippine]] network [[ABS-CBN]] turned off the lights in their studio from 20:30 to 21:30.
** [[Naga, Camarines Sur|Naga City]] internet radio stations Zone105 and XFM Naga went offline at 20:30.
* [[RTVE|Radiotelevisión Española (RTVE)]] turned off the lights in their newsrooms and their sets.
-->
=== 2010 ===
[[File:Botanical Garden of Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil (Earth Hour 2010).gif|thumb|The metal structure of the [[greenhouse]]s of the [[Botanical Garden of Curitiba|curitiban Botanic Garden]] ([[Curitiba]], Paraná, Southern Brazil), with its lights off on March 27, 2010]]
Earth Hour 2010 was held from 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 p.m. local time on March 27.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.myearthhour.org/about/faq | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100323024425/http://www.myearthhour.org/about/faq | archive-date = March 23, 2010 | title=Frequently Asked Questions – Earth Hour website (2010) |publisher=Earth Hour }}</ref> In Israel, the hour was held on April 22.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3874552,00.html |title=Israel to mark 3rd Earth Hour |newspaper=Ynetnews |publisher=[[Ynet]] News |date=April 16, 2010 |last1=Ben-David |first1=Amir |last2=Ahronoth |first2=Yedioth }}</ref>
126 countries participated in Earth Hour 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wwf.es/que_hacemos/cambio_climatico/la_hora_del_planeta_2010/|language=es|title=La Hora de la Tierra 2010 |work=[[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]] |publisher=WWF Spain|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100329214434/http://www.wwf.es/que_hacemos/cambio_climatico/la_hora_del_planeta_2010 | archive-date = March 29, 2010 }}</ref>
In the United States polling showed that an estimated 90,000,000 Americans participated in Earth Hour as lights were turned off around the country, including landmarks such as [[Mount Rushmore]], the [[Las Vegas Strip]], the [[Empire State Building]] and [[Niagara Falls]].
Some cities and landmarks took the opportunity to make more long-term adjustments to their everyday power consumption. In [[Chicago]], the Building Owners and Managers Association (BOMA) developed lighting guidelines to reduce light pollution and reduce the carbon footprint of downtown buildings. [[Mount Rushmore]] in [[South Dakota]] started powering down each night around 9 p.m. instead of 11 p.m.
In [[Vietnam]], electricity demand fell 500,000 kWh during Earth Hour 2010, which was three times larger than the first time the country joined the event in 2009.<ref>{{cite web |author=[Trở về] |url=http://www.vnexpress.net/GL/Kinh-doanh/2010/03/3BA1A2E1/ |title=Tiết kiệm 450 triệu đồng trong giờ Trái đất |publisher=VnExpress |date=March 28, 2010 |access-date=March 31, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118001037/http://vnexpress.net/gl/kinh-doanh/2010/03/3ba1a2e1/ |archive-date=January 18, 2012 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref>
In the Philippines, 1,067 towns and cities pledged participation in 2010 and over 15 million Filipinos participated in the event.
About 4000 cities participated, including landmarks such as [[Big Ben]], the [[Empire State Building]], the [[Sydney Opera House]], the [[Eiffel Tower]], the [[Parthenon]], the [[Brandenburg Gate]], and the [[Forbidden City]].<ref>Alastair Jamieson (March 27, 2010). [https://web.archive.org/web/20100329190746/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/7531183/Big-Ben-in-darkness-as-4000-cities-switch-off-for-Earth-Hour.html Big Ben in darkness as 4,000 cities switch off for Earth Hour]. ''The Telegraph''. Retrieved April 6, 2009.</ref>
<!-- uncited
==== Participating TV channels and radio stations ====
* [[National Geographic Channel (Asia)|National Geographic Channel Asia]] and [[Cartoon Network]] both suspended broadcasting from 8:30 pm to 9:30 pm
* In the Philippines, [[GMA Network]] turned off lights in their building from 8:30 pm to 9:30 pm, while [[ABS-CBN]] stopped broadcasting and turned off their lights.
* Vietnam's FBNC channel joined hands with Earth Hour Vietnam.
* ''The Agenda with Steve Paikin'' on [[TVOntario]] ran its full program running only on candlelight again.
-->
=== 2011 ===
Earth Hour 2011 was the biggest year in the campaign's five-year history, reaffirming it as the largest ever voluntary action for the environment. In 2011, the tagline "Beyond the Hour" was adopted by organizers as a way to encourage people to take their commitment to the cause beyond the 60-minute event. Together with agency Leo Burnett, Earth Hour unveiled an updated planet themed logo that included a small plus symbol to the right of the signature "60" which was used in previous years. The 60+ symbol continues to be the main logo used by campaign organizers around the world.
Earth Hour 2011 took place in a record 5,251 cities and towns in 135 countries and territories on all seven continents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://earthhour.org/page/about/about-earth-hour |title=about |publisher=Earth Hour |access-date=March 31, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330132314/http://www.earthhour.org/page/about/about-earth-hour |archive-date=March 30, 2012 }}</ref> It had an estimated reach of 1.8 billion people across the globe. In addition to this, the campaign's digital footprint grew to 91 million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://earthhour.org/blog/earthhour-heats-social-media |title=#Earthhour Heats Up on Social Media |publisher=Earth Hour |access-date=October 2, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120628120010/http://earthhour.org/blog/earthhour-heats-social-media |archive-date=June 28, 2012 }}</ref>
In [[India]], Earth Hour 2011 was held on March 26, 2011, from 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 pm. IST, flagged off by the [[Chief Minister of Delhi]] [[Sheila Dikshit]] and Earth Hour 2011 Ambassador and Bollywood actress [[Vidya Balan]] in the presence of Jim Leape, Director General, WWF International.<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.indiaprwire.com/pressrelease/environmental-services/2011032881849.htm|title=India switches off on March 26 from 8.30 p.m. and beyond|publisher=India PRwire|date=March 28, 2011|access-date=October 3, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151005000920/http://www.indiaprwire.com/pressrelease/environmental-services/2011032881849.htm|archive-date=October 5, 2015|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Rosebowl channel suspended broadcasting from 8.30 p.m. to 9.30 p.m. to mark the observance of Earth Hour.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2018-06-06|title=Earth Hour|url=https://www.greenergyexpo.eu/earth-hour/|access-date=2020-11-24|website=greenergyexpo.eu|language=en-US|archive-date=November 23, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201123193644/https://www.greenergyexpo.eu/earth-hour/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
In Azerbaijan, [[Maiden Tower (Baku)|Maiden Tower]] darkened for Earth Hour.<ref>{{cite web|last=Rustamov |first=Elshan |title=Девичья башня на час останется без света ради природы |url=http://www.1news.az/society/20110324035120563.html |publisher=1news.az |access-date=March 26, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110326054316/http://www.1news.az/society/20110324035120563.html |archive-date=March 26, 2011 }}</ref>
The Philippines, which has been an active participant of the Earth Hour, had an early "earth hour" when power was accidentally interrupted,<ref>{{cite web|last=Gatdulla and Villanueva|first=Rodina and Donabelle|title=Earth Hour comes early in Metro|website=[[The Philippine STAR]] |url=http://www.philstar.com/Article.aspx?articleId=670245&publicationSubCategoryId=68&newsalert|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120910094316/http://www.philstar.com/Article.aspx?articleId=670245&publicationSubCategoryId=68&newsalert|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 10, 2012|access-date=March 27, 2011}}</ref> plunging Metro Manila and nearby [[Provinces of the Philippines|provinces]] into darkness. After power was restored, major buildings, commercial centers and residential areas in Metro Manila and most [[Provinces of the Philippines|provinces]] continued to turn off their lights, while participating channels in the Philippines, ABS-CBN, Nickelodeon and Cartoon Network halted their transmissions for an hour.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.premiere.fr/Tele/Earth-Hour-Nickelodeon-et-Nickelodeon-Junior-coupent-leur-antenne-le-26-mars-2011
|title=Earth Hour: Nickelodeon and Nickelodeon Junior cut their antenna on March 26, 2011 |publisher=Presscenter.org.vn |date=March 8, 2011 |access-date=March 8, 2011}}</ref>
30 provinces and cities in Vietnam took part in Earth Hour 2011 with the main event held in [[Nha Trang]]. The nation's electricity demand fell 400,000 kWh, one-fifth less than the previous year's. Vietnam managed to save 500 million [[VND]] (US$23,809) thanks to the saved power.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.presscenter.org.vn/en/content/view/5038/51/ |title=Vietnam Foreign Press Center – Vietnam saves 400,000 kWh of power during Earth Hour |publisher=Presscenter.org.vn |date=March 29, 2011 |access-date=March 31, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322162359/http://www.presscenter.org.vn/en/content/view/5038/51/ |archive-date=March 22, 2012 }}</ref>
YouTube promoted the Earth Hour by changing its logo, and by adding a switch on/off feature near the title of each video, so that users could change the background colour from white to black.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}}
One of the least co-operative areas traditionally has been [[Alberta]]; in 2008, Calgary's power consumption went up during Earth Hour. The trend continued in 2011 when [[Edmonton]]'s power usage also increased. While [[Calgary]]'s power usage went down in 2011 during the event, electricity officials could not distinguish their readings between normal usage and a conscious attempt to participate.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/edmonton/story/2011/03/28/edmonton-earth-hour-failure.html |title=No Energy for Earth Hour |publisher=Cbc.ca |date=March 28, 2011 |access-date=March 31, 2012}}</ref>
=== 2012 ===
Earth Hour Global headquarters was moving from Sydney to Singapore in February 2012. A launch event took place at ION Orchard on February 20, with the move supported by Singapore's [[Economic Development Board]] (EDB) and WWF-Singapore.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asiaone.com/News/Latest%2BNews/Singapore/Story/A1Story20120221-329146.html |title=Earth Hour to move HQ to Singapore |publisher=Asiaone.com |date=February 21, 2012 |access-date=March 31, 2012}}</ref>
Earth Hour 2012 was observed on March 31, 2012, from 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 p.m. (participants' local time).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earthhour.org/ |title=Earth Hour |publisher=Earth Hour |access-date=March 31, 2012}}</ref> It took place in more than 7000 cities and towns across 152 countries and territories, making it the biggest growth year for the campaign since 2009. It was also the first year that Earth Hour was celebrated in space, with Dutch astronaut [[André Kuipers]] tweeting at various moments during the event's trek around the globe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Human_Spaceflight/PromISSe/Andre_Kuipers_takes_Earth_Hour_into_orbit |title=André Kuipers takes Earth Hour into orbit |work=European Space Agency|access-date=May 31, 2015}}</ref>
=== 2013 ===
[[File:Ora della Terra Verona Piazza Bra Arena 2013 WWF Verona Paolo Villa 9954.JPG|thumb|Italy, Verona, Arena with backlight off on square Bra, in the bottom Town Hall during Earth Hour 2013]]
Earth Hour 2013 was held across the world on Saturday, March 23 at 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 p.m. local time<ref>{{cite web |last=Malezer |first=Rosie |url=https://www.facebook.com/earthhour |title= Dare the World to Save the Planet |website=[[Facebook]] |access-date = November 24, 2012}}</ref> to avoid taking place after [[European Summer Time]] began, ensuring a greater impact for the lights-off event. It was also changed to avoid coinciding with the Christian Holy Saturday, which fell on March 30 of that year.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Earth Hour|url=http://www.unishineopto.com/earth-hour.html|access-date=2020-11-26|website=www.unishineopto.com}}</ref>
==== Africa ====
In 2013, the world's first Earth Hour Forest began in Uganda, an ongoing project that aims to restore 2700 hectares of degraded land. Standard Chartered Bank-Uganda pledged to help fill the forest with more than 250,000 trees.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earthhour.org/uganda2013 |title=Uganda Unveils The World's First Earth Hour Forest |publisher=Earth Hour |access-date=September 30, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130915221131/http://earthhour.org/uganda2013 |archive-date=September 15, 2013 }}</ref>
Earth Hour commemorations in Madagascar had as their highlight the distribution of one thousand wood-saving stoves to victims of the cyclone Haruna in the southern town of Toliara, extensively damaged in the February 22 storm. WWF-Madagascar and ADES (Association pour le Développement de l'Energie Solaire) distributed an additional 2,200 wood-saving stoves later that year.
Former President of [[Botswana]], [[Festus Mogae]] promised to plant one million [[Indigenous (ecology)|indigenous trees]] over four years, as part of his "I Will If You Will" challenge for Earth 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earthhour.org/blog/botswana-plant-one-million-trees-restore-forests |title=Botswana To Plant One Million Trees To Restore Forests |publisher=Earth Hour |access-date=September 30, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130919230521/http://earthhour.org/blog/botswana-plant-one-million-trees-restore-forests |archive-date=September 19, 2013 }}</ref>
==== Europe ====
WWF-Russia launched its 2013 campaign aiming to secure more than 100,000 signatures from Russian citizens to petition for amendments to the current forest legislation. The petition reached more than 127,000 signatures before the Earth Hour event, ensuring the legislation was debated in the State Duma by politicians.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?207667/Earth-Hour-Seeks-Law-Reform-For-Protective-Forests-In-Russia |title=WWF – Earth Hour Seeks Law Reform For Protective Forests in Russia |work=panda.org |access-date=May 31, 2015}}</ref>
=== 2014 ===
Earth Hour 2014 took place on Saturday, March 29, during the same 8:30 to 9:30 p.m. local timeslot. Earth Hour Blue was launched as a global crowdfunding and crowdsourcing platform for the planet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.crowdfundinsider.com/2014/03/34849-earth-hour-targets-2014-crowdfunding-center-innovation-creativity-planet/ |title=Earth Hour Targets 2014 to be the Crowdfunding Center For Innovation and Creativity for the Planet |work=crowdfundinsider.com |date=March 30, 2014 |access-date=May 31, 2015}}</ref> "It is all about the collective effort of individuals around the world getting together to help fund or add their voice to support on-the-ground environmental and social projects that deliver real outcomes."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.greenafricadirectory.org/earth-hour-blue-mobilising-crowdfunding-support-conservation-sustainable-development/ |title=Earth Hour Blue: mobilising crowdfunding to support conservation and sustainable development |work=Green Africa Directory |access-date=May 31, 2015 |archive-date=March 29, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329090032/http://www.greenafricadirectory.org/earth-hour-blue-mobilising-crowdfunding-support-conservation-sustainable-development/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
The Earth Hour 2014 Report<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earthhour.org/earth-hour-2014-report|title=2014 Report|work=Earth Hour|access-date=May 31, 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524150131/https://www.earthhour.org/earth-hour-2014-report|archive-date=May 24, 2015}}</ref> highlighted a broad range of environmental outcomes achieved by the movement across 162 countries and territories around the world. More than US$60,000 was raised on the Earth Hour Blue platform for grassroots environmental projects run by WWF. The movement also saw campaigns to help protect Australia's Great Barrier Reef,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our Reef needs more than an hour|url=https://www.wwf.org.au/news/blogs/our-reef-needs-more-than-an-hour#gs.lr8n1g|access-date=24 November 2020|website=World Wide Fund Australia|archive-date=February 21, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210221074418/https://www.wwf.org.au/news/blogs/our-reef-needs-more-than-an-hour#gs.lr8n1g|url-status=dead}}</ref> the launch of a Blue Sky App in China,<ref>{{Cite news|title=Smog Ruining Your Pictures? There's an App For That|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/BL-CJB-21381|access-date=24 November 2020|newspaper=WSJ}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=App can transform gray sky to blue|url=https://www.adobomagazine.com/global-news/wwf-china-and-om-china-launch-blue-sky-app-for-clean-air/|access-date=24 November 2020|website=Adobo Magazine|date=March 26, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=App can transform gray sky to blue|url=http://europe.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2014-03/29/content_17391868.htm|access-date=24 November 2020|website=ChinaDaily Europe}}</ref> and the delivery of thousands of wood efficient stoves to communities in Madagascar.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cook stoves project combating deforestation in Madagascar gets an Earth Hour boost|url=https://wwf.panda.org/?227997/Cook-stoves-project-combating-deforestation-in-Madagascar-gets-an-Earth-Hour-boost|access-date=24 November 2020|website=World Wide Fund}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=WWF China Launch Blue Sky App {{!}} LBBOnline|url=https://www.lbbonline.com/news/wwf-china-launch-blue-sky-app|access-date=2020-11-27|website=www.lbbonline.com|language=en}}</ref>
=== 2015 ===
Earth Hour 2015 took place on Saturday, March 28, again between 8:30 and 9:30 p.m. local time.<ref name="earthhour2">[http://www.earthhour.org/celebrating-earth-hour Celebrating Earth Hour] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219191454/http://earthhour.org/celebrating-earth-hour |date=February 19, 2017 }} Earth Hour/WWF Website</ref> The tagline for the global campaign was "Change Climate Change", returning to the movement's original focus to initiate citizen action on global warming. A day before the event, over 170 countries and territories had confirmed their participation; with more than 1200 landmarks and close to 40 UNESCO world heritage sites set for the switch off.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.skynews.com.au/news/national/2015/03/25/earth-hour-to-illuminate-climate.html |title=Earth Hour to illuminate climate |work=skynews.com.au |date=March 25, 2015 |access-date=May 31, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503055916/http://www.skynews.com.au/news/national/2015/03/25/earth-hour-to-illuminate-climate.html |archive-date=May 3, 2015 }}</ref>
For the second year running, Earth Hour Blue aims to raise funds for WWF organized climate focused projects on a crowdfunding platform.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/earth-hour-2015-why-world-turning-off-its-lights-1493492 |title=Earth Hour 2015: Why is the world turning off its lights? |work=International Business Times UK |date=March 25, 2015 |access-date=May 31, 2015}}</ref> This year, crowdfunding projects include solar light distribution in the Philippines<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/456925/news/nation/palace-encourages-pinoys-to-join-earth-hour-2015-on-march-28|title=Palace encourages Pinoys to join Earth Hour 2015 on March 28|work=GMA News Online|date=March 22, 2015 |access-date=May 31, 2015}}</ref> and India,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report-wwf-india-will-run-earth-hour-campaign-to-help-sundarbans-village-2070290|title=WWF-India will run Earth Hour campaign to help Sundarbans village|work=dna|access-date=May 31, 2015}}</ref> and wildlife based projects from Colombia,<ref>{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nOOD1suB_-8 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211215/nOOD1suB_-8 |archive-date=2021-12-15 |url-status=live|title=Let Sea Turtles Off the Hook – Earth Hour 2015|date=March 7, 2015|work=YouTube|access-date=May 31, 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Uganda and Indonesia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wwf.or.id/?36082/SOSSebangau-Seruan-Aksi-Peduli-Kebakaran-Hutan-Kalimantan|title=#SOSSebangau: Seruan Aksi Peduli Kebakaran Hutan Kalimantan|work=WWF Indonesia|access-date=May 31, 2015|language=id|archive-date=September 26, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926122459/https://www.wwf.or.id/?36082%2FSOSSebangau-Seruan-Aksi-Peduli-Kebakaran-Hutan-Kalimantan|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Uniquely participating in the Earth Hour activity are the inhabitants of an island called [[Sibuyan]] in the Philippines who turned on their lights to elevate the message of using renewable energy. The island's source of electricity is a mini-hydro power plant.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rappler.com/move-ph/88271-philippines-sibuyan-island-lights-earth-hour|title=PH island switches on lights during Earth Hour|work=Rappler|date=March 28, 2015|access-date=March 20, 2016}}</ref>
=== 2016 ===
Earth Hour 2016 was on Saturday, March 19, from 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 p.m. during participants' local time. It was also changed to avoid coinciding with the Christian Holy Saturday, which fell on March 26 of that year.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} It was the 10th anniversary of the campaign's beginnings in Sydney, Australia. Östersund in Sweden cancelled the 2016 event, following a spate of sex attacks, highlighting safety as a subject for discussion when saving resources.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Virtue|first=Rob|date=2016-03-18|title=The terrified town which has even cancelled Earth Hour over migrant sex attack fears|url=https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/653754/Ostersund-cancels-Earth-Hour-festival-over-fears-of-migrant-sex-attacks|access-date=2020-12-29|website=Express.co.uk|language=en}}</ref> Almost all the countries in the world observed Earth Hour.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}}
=== 2017 ===
Earth Hour occurred on Saturday, March 25 from 8:30 pm to 9:30 pm.<ref>{{Cite web|last=International|first=W. W. F.|title=Reports {{!}} Earth Hour 2020|url=https://www.earthhour.org/earth-hour-reports|access-date=2020-11-26|website=www.earthhour.org|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Earth Hour 2017 Date, Time, and Everything Else You Need to Know|url=https://gadgets.ndtv.com/others/features/earth-hour-2017-date-time-and-everything-else-you-need-to-know-1673057|access-date=2020-11-26|website=NDTV Gadgets 360|date=March 24, 2017 |language=en}}</ref>
=== 2018 ===
Earth Hour 2018 took place on March 24, from 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 p.m. in participants' time,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Earth Hour 2018 – A New Generation of Leaders Turn Out to Turn Up Climate Action {{!}} Press Releases {{!}} WWF|url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/press-releases/earth-hour-2018-a-new-generation-of-leaders-turn-out-to-turn-up-climate-action|access-date=2020-11-26|website=World Wildlife Fund|language=en}}</ref> in order to avoid coinciding with Christian Holy Saturday which fell on March 31.<ref>{{Cite web|last=International|first=W. W. F.|title=Join One Of The World's Largest Movements for Nature {{!}} Earth Hour 2020|url=https://www.earthhour.org/|access-date=2020-11-26|website=www.earthhour.org|language=en}}</ref>
=== 2019 ===
Earth Hour 2019 was held on March 30, from 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 pm. A total of 188 countries participated in Earth Hour 2019.<ref name="twitter.com">{{Cite web|url=https://twitter.com/earthhour|title=Earth Hour (@earthhour) {{!}} Twitter|website=twitter.com|language=en|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-lights-out-20190330-story.html|title=Earth Hour: Landmarks in L.A. and around the world are going dark to promote energy conservation|last=Lozano|first=Carlos|date=March 30, 2019|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|access-date=2019-03-30}}</ref> [[Miss Earth 2018]] [[Nguyễn Phương Khánh]] from Vietnam was designated as the Earth Hour Ambassador to implement several environmental protection activities.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lan |first1=Ngọc |title=Miss Earth 2018 Phương Khánh becomes Ambassador of the Earth Hour 2019(Miss Earth 2018 Phương Khánh Tro Thanh Dai Su Gio Trai Dat 2019)|url=https://translate.google.com/translate?sl=auto&tl=en&u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.quochoitv.vn%2Fvan-hoa-giai-tri%2F2019%2F3%2Fmiss-earth-2018-phuong-khanh-tro-thanh-dai-su-gio-trai-dat-2019%2F231198%3Ffbclid%3DIwAR30a_pQco7TJF63XES3girUUfQapbjQYye750Pyddwg8h6TD3LiEEVGeiM |access-date=25 March 2019 |agency=National Assembly Television (QuocHoiTV))|publisher=TRANG TIN ĐIỆN TỬ TRUYỀN HÌNH QUỐC HỘI VIỆT NAM |date=25 March 2019}}</ref> As ambassador, Phuong Khanh urged everyone to voluntarily turn off unnecessary lights and equipment for an hour, contributing to spreading the message "Save Energy, Save Earth – Energy saving, Earth protection".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://laodong.vn/xa-hoi/hoa-hau-trai-dat-phuong-khanh-tham-gia-chien-dich-gio-trai-dat-665929.ldo|title=Hoa hậu Trái đất Phương Khánh tham gia Chiến dịch "Giờ Trái đất"|last=Quan|first=Ky|date=31 March 2019|work=Báo Lao Động|access-date=15 April 2019}}</ref>
=== 2020 ===
Earth Hour 2020 took place on Saturday, 28 March from 8:30 pm to 9:30 pm local time and it went digitally due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. 190 countries and territories came together to support this movement and few of the many public personalities such as UN Secretary General [[António Guterres]], [[Pope Francis]], environmental activist [[Greta Thunberg]], Canadian Prime Minister [[Justin Trudeau]], Indian film star [[Amitabh Bachchan]], UN Environment Goodwill ambassador [[Dia Mirza]], Kenyan singing sensation [[Nikita Kering]], Colombian model [[:es:Claudia Bahamón|Claudia Bahamon]] and British Singer Songwriter, [[Cat Stevens]] also participated in Earth Hour 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://latest.earthhour.org/earth-hour-2020-wrap-up|title = Millions unite online making Earth Hour 2020 one of the largest virtual movements for the environment}}</ref>
=== 2021 ===
Earth Hour 2021 took place on Saturday, 27 March from 8:30 pm to 9:30 pm local time.
=== 2022 ===
Earth Hour 2022 took place on Saturday, 26 March from 8:30 pm to 9:30 pm local time.
=== 2023 ===
Earth Hour 2023 took place on Saturday, 25 March at 8:30 pm to 9:30 pm local time.<ref>{{cite web |title=WWF's Earth Hour Launches 'The Biggest Hour for Earth' |url=https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/press_releases/?7838441/WWFs-Earth-Hour-Launches-The-Biggest-Hour-for-Earth |website=World Wide Fund for Nature |access-date=20 March 2023 |language=en}}</ref> Ahead of the event, Earth Hour was rebranded as the "Biggest Hour for Earth",<ref>{{cite web |title=WWF rebrands its Earth Hour campaign to deliver the Biggest Hour for Earth |url=https://www.marketing-beat.co.uk/2023/03/17/wwf-biggest-hour-for-earth/ |website=Marketing Beat |date=March 17, 2023 |access-date=24 April 2023 |language=en}}</ref> which included a bigger focus on community action and less reliance on the 'switch off'. Over the course of the event Earth Hour measured over 410,000 hours of planet-positive activities pledged<ref>{{cite web |title=Millions celebrate WWF's Earth Hour 2023, creating The Biggest Hour for Earth |url=https://latest.earthhour.org/millions-celebrate-earth-hour-2023-creating-the-biggest-hour-for-earth |website=Earth Hour |access-date=24 April 2023 |language=en}}</ref> as part of the 'Hour Bank' which collated committed actions by the public.<ref>{{cite web |title=Give an Hour for Earth |url=https://www.earthhour.org/take-part/give-an-hour |website=Earth Hour |access-date=24 April 2023 |language=en}}</ref>
=== 2024 ===
Earth Hour 2024 will take place on Saturday, 23 March from 8:30 pm to 9:30 pm local time in order to avoid coinciding with [[Western Christianity|Western Christian]] Holy Saturday which will fall on March 30.<ref>{{cite web |title=Earth Hour |url=https://www.earthhour.org/ |access-date=26 March 2023 |language=en}}</ref>
== Measurement of reduction in electricity use ==
The Earth Hour Global FAQ page states:
{{Blockquote|Earth Hour does not purport to be an energy/[[Carbon neutrality|carbon reduction]] exercise, it is a symbolic action. Therefore, we do not engage in the measurement of energy/carbon reduction levels for the hour itself. Earth Hour is an initiative to encourage individuals, businesses and governments around the world to take accountability for their [[ecological footprint]] and engage in dialogue and resource exchange that provides real solutions to our environmental challenges. Participation in Earth Hour symbolizes a commitment to change beyond the hour.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.earthhour.org/celebrating-earth-hour |title=Celebrating Earth Hour |publisher=Earth Hour |access-date=2014-03-29 |archive-date=February 19, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219191454/http://earthhour.org/celebrating-earth-hour |url-status=dead }}</ref>}}
A 2014 study published in ''Energy Research and Social Science'' compiled 274 measurements of observed changes in electricity demand caused by Earth Hour in 10 countries, spanning 6 years, and found that the events reduced electricity consumption an average of 4%.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The electricity impacts of Earth Hour: An international comparative analysis of energy-saving behavior| doi=10.1016/j.erss.2014.04.014|volume=2|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|pages=159–182|year=2014|last1=Olexsak|first1=Sarah J.|last2=Meier|first2=Alan| s2cid=153963717|url=https://cloudfront.escholarship.org/dist/prd/content/qt4bj0h7bc/qt4bj0h7bc.pdf?t=pd3sl2}}</ref> The study noted the policy challenge of converting Earth Hour's short-term energy saving into longer-term actions, including sustained changes in behaviour and investment.
== Reception ==
{{Undue weight|date=March 2023}}
[[Bjørn Lomborg]], author of ''[[The Skeptical Environmentalist]]'', wrote, "It is vital to make [[solar power|solar]] and [[green energy|other new technology]] cheaper than [[fossil fuels]] quickly so we can turn off carbon energy sources for a lot longer than one hour and keep the planet running... Fossil fuels literally gave us an enlightenment, by lighting our world and giving us protection from the fury of the elements. It is ironic that today's pure symbolism should hark back to a darker age."<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,25247677-7583,00.html | title = Hour of no power increases emissions | publisher = The Australian | date = March 27, 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090329232500/http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,25247677-7583,00.html | archive-date = March 29, 2009 | access-date = March 30, 2009 | url-status = dead | df = mdy-all }}</ref> Lomborg also pointed out the feel-good factor Earth Hour creates, noting that it is an "ineffective feel good event" that makes people feel they are doing something for the environment, while in reality the amount of carbon emissions reduced by the earth hour is negligible.<ref>{{cite news|title=Q&A: Why Bjorn Lomborg won't be turning off the lights during Earth Hour|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/q-a-why-bjorn-lomborg-won-t-be-turning-off-the-lights-during-earth-hour-1.2591072|access-date=June 12, 2014|work=Mark Gollom, CBC News|agency=CBC News|issue=March 29, 2014}}</ref>
Other criticisms of Earth Hour have included the following:
* Some critics point out that the reduction in power consumption during Earth Hour itself is relatively insignificant.<ref name = "rage against dimming">{{cite news | last = Soloman | first = David | url = http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,20867,21694864-7583,00.html | title = Rage, rage against dimming of the light | publisher = The Australian | date = May 9, 2007 | access-date = March 29, 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080602041228/http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,20867,21694864-7583,00.html | archive-date = June 2, 2008 | url-status = dead | df = mdy-all }}</ref> ''[[The Herald Sun]]'' equated the power savings in the Sydney central business district to "taking 48,613 cars off the road for 1 hour".{{citation needed|date=October 2015}} Australian columnist [[Andrew Bolt]] pointed out that "A cut so tiny is trivial – equal to taking six cars off the road for a year".<ref>Bolt, Andrew (March 28, 2008). [http://www.heraldsun.com.au/opinion-old/earth-hour-coverage-should-be-grounded/story-e6frfifx-1111115907103 "Earth Hour coverage should be grounded"], Herald Sun, Retrieved March 20, 2011</ref>
*Other environmentalists have criticized Earth Hour's focus on individual behaviour, when a small number of fossil fuel companies have emitted the vast majority of man-made carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sustainababble.fish/?p=101|title=Sustainababble Podcast – Earth Hour|date=March 29, 2015|access-date=March 25, 2017}}</ref> [[Adam McGibbon]], writing for ''[[The Independent]]'', criticized Earth Hour for releasing fossil fuel companies and politicians from their responsibility to deal with climate change.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/earth-hour-climate-change-environment-fossil-fuels-boycott-make-change-happen-really-care-a7643971.html|title=If you really care about climate change, boycott Earth Hour|date=March 22, 2017|work=The Independent|access-date=March 25, 2017|language=en-GB}}</ref>
* ''[[The Christian Science Monitor]]'' said that most candles are made from [[Paraffin wax|paraffin]], a heavy [[hydrocarbon]] derived from [[crude oil]], a [[fossil fuel]], and that depending on how many candles a person burns (if one uses candles during Earth Hour), whether or not they normally use [[compact fluorescent light]] bulbs, and what source of energy is used to produce their electricity, in some cases, replacing light bulbs with candles will cause an increase, instead of a decrease, in carbon dioxide emissions.<ref>[http://features.csmonitor.com/environment/2009/03/27/does-lighting-candles-for-earth-hour-defeat-the-purpose/ Does lighting candles for Earth Hour defeat the purpose?], ''Christian Science Monitor'', March 27, 2009</ref>
* On March 29, 2009, one day after Earth Hour 2009, ''Dân Trí Daily News'' published an editorial expressing concern that many young people chose to drive around the darkened city of [[Hanoi]] for fun, exhausting petroleum instead of electricity and resulting in long traffic jams.<ref>[http://dantri.com.vn/xa-hoi/cai-nhin-khac-trong-gio-trai-dat-316112.htm "Cái nhìn khác trong Giờ Trái đất"], ''Dân Trí Daily News'', by Cường Cao, date: March 29, 2009. {{in lang|vi}}</ref>
* George Marshall of the Climate Outreach Information Network criticized Earth Hour for "playing into the hands of (the critics of environmentalists)," as darkness is symbolic of fear and decay. "The overwhelming need at the moment is to inspire ordinary people with a vision of a better world, to make them feel that action on climate change is utterly desirable and positive.... the cultural resonance (of Earth Hour) couldn't be any worse."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/cif-green/2009/mar/27/climate-change-carbon-emissions|title=Earth Hour: Turning out the lights plays into the hands of our critics|last=Marshall|first=George|date=March 27, 2009|work=The Guardian|access-date=March 25, 2017|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
* The [[Competitive Enterprise Institute]] has introduced an opposing ''Human Achievement Hour'' in celebration of human progress in various fields of industry, including technology, medicine, energy, and more. During this hour, the Institute suggests that people celebrate by using modern technology such as electricity, telecommunications and indoor plumbing.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cei.org/content/human-achievement-hour-2015|title=Human Achievement Hour 2015|work=cei.org|access-date=May 31, 2015|archive-date=January 20, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160120025719/https://cei.org/content/human-achievement-hour-2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* In 2009, economist [[Ross McKitrick]] criticized the idea, saying, "Abundant, cheap electricity has been the greatest source of human liberation in the 20th century.[...] The whole mentality around Earth Hour demonizes electricity."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.rossmckitrick.com/uploads/4/8/0/8/4808045/earthhour.pdf | title=Earth Hour: A Dissent | last=McKitrick | first=Ross | author-link=Ross McKitrick | year=2009 | access-date=March 31, 2012}}</ref>
* In March 2010, ''The Daily Telegraph'' quoted Ross Hayman, head of media relations at the [[UK National Grid]], as saying "it could therefore result in an increase in carbon emissions" due to complications related to rapidly lowering then raising electricity generation.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/earth/environment/climatechange/7527469/Earth-Hour-will-not-cut-carbon-emissions.html | location=London | work=The Daily Telegraph | title=Earth Hour 'will not cut carbon emissions' | date=March 27, 2010}}</ref>
* In February 2010, Rick Giles, president of [[ACT on Campus]], the youth wing of New Zealand's [[ACT Party]], appeared on the [[morning television]] show ''[[Sunrise (New Zealand TV program)|Sunrise]]'' to denounce Earth Hour and instead suggested the celebration of "Edison Hour". He argued that Earth Hour is an "anti-technology" cause, and that people will simply use candles instead, which is undesirable as they are petroleum-based. He argued that if we are heading for some kind of disaster, it makes sense to use technology to combat this.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2B9MqNzQuuk |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211215/2B9MqNzQuuk |archive-date=2021-12-15 |url-status=live|title=I think my argument is so powerful that it's not necessary to talk about it |publisher=YouTube |date=March 29, 2010 |access-date=March 31, 2012}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Rick said "I think my argument is so powerful that it's not necessary to talk about it".
* The [[Ayn Rand Institute]] wrote, "Participants spend an enjoyable sixty minutes in the dark, safe in the knowledge that the life-saving benefits of industrial civilization are just a light switch away... Forget one measly hour with just the lights off. How about Earth Month... Try spending a month shivering in the dark without heating, electricity, refrigeration; without power plants or generators; without any of the labor-saving, time-saving, and therefore life-saving products that industrial energy makes possible."<ref>[https://ari.aynrand.org/issues/science-and-industrialization/environmental-issues/The-Real-Meaning-of-Earth-Hour The Real Meaning of Earth Hour], by Keith Lockitch, Ayn Rand Institute, March 23, 2009</ref>
* Expressing sarcastic support for Earth Hour, the pro-carbon Carbon Sense Coalition wants Earth Hour to be renamed "Blackout Night", and to be held outside on the shortest and coldest day of the year "...to prepare our population for the dark days ahead".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://carbon-sense.com/|title=The Carbon Sense Coalition|work=carbon-sense.com|access-date=May 31, 2015}}</ref>
* During the 2010 Earth Hour in the city of [[Uusikaupunki]] in Finland, a 17-year-old female motorcyclist hit a 71-year-old man, who was walking on the street instead of the sidewalk for an unknown reason. The man died from his injuries, while the motorcyclist and her passenger were uninjured. At the time of the accident, the street lights had been turned off as part of the Earth Hour. The police stated that the lack of street lighting may have played a part in the accident, while the mayor believed the city's street lights would have been too dim to prevent it even if they had been on.<ref>{{cite web | title=Mies kuoli moottoripyörän alle pimeystempauksen pimentämällä tiellä | work=[[Helsingin Sanomat]] | url=<!-- http://www.hs.fi/kotimaa/artikkeli/Mies+kuoli+moottoripy%C3%B6r%C3%A4n+alle+pimeystempauksen+piment%C3%A4m%C3%A4ll%C3%A4+tiell%C3%A4/1135255005911 -->http://hommaforum.org/index.php?topic=25901.5;imode | date=March 27, 2010 | access-date=March 28, 2010 | language=fi | archive-date=March 29, 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329150314/https://hommaforum.org/index.php?topic=25901.5;imode | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Kaupunki sammutti katuvalot Earth Hourin ajaksi – Mies jäi moottoripyörän alle pimeällä tiellä ja kuoli |work=[[Aamulehti]] |url=http://www.aamulehti.fi/uutiset/kotimaa/174590.shtml |date=March 28, 2010 |access-date=March 28, 2010 |language=fi }}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
* [[Jeremy Clarkson]], ex-host of the [[BBC]] motoring programme ''[[Top Gear (2002 TV series)|Top Gear]]'', claimed switching on all electrical items in his home as a protest against the perceived impact of Earth Hour, claiming the event would have little to no effect on attitudes towards climate change.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/driving/jeremy_clarkson/article1976771.ece |location=London |work=The Times |title=Jeremy Clarkson |url-access=subscription }}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
== See also ==
{{portal|Environment|Energy}}
* [[88888 Lights Out]]
* [[Denmark plants trees]]
* [[Earth Anthem]]
* [[Earth Day]]
* [[Earth Strike]]
* [[Flick Off]]
* [[International Dark Sky Week]]
* [[Light pollution]]
* [[Planet Relief]]
== References ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
== External links ==
{{Wikinews|Businesses and individuals worldwide to turn lights off as part of Earth Hour 2009 | Businesses and individuals worldwide turn lights off as part of Earth Hour 2008}}
* {{Commons category-inline|Earth hour|Earth Hour}}
* [https://www.earthhour.org/ Earth Hour]
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Climate change and society]]
[[Category:Annual events]]
[[Category:Recurring events established in 2007]]
[[Category:World Wide Fund for Nature]]
[[Category:Energy conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:March observances]]
[[Category:Saturday observances]] |
Citizens United to Protect the Maurice River and Its Tributaries, Inc. | {{Short description|U.S. watershed organization}}
{{multiple issues|
{{cleanup-PR|date=January 2016}}
{{overly detailed|date=January 2016}}
}}
'''Citizens United to Protect the Maurice River and Its Tributaries, Inc.''', or "CU", is a [[501(c)(3)]] (nonprofit) regional [[Drainage basin|watershed]] organization. It was founded in 1979 and incorporated in 1986.
CU received Environmental Quality Awards from the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) in 1994 <ref>[http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/016bcfb1deb9fecd85256aca005d74df/ccaf54bc14551e9985257173006765a3!OpenDocument EPA]</ref> and again in 2000 for their efforts to procure the federal [[National Wild and Scenic River|Wild and Scenic]] designation for the [[Maurice River|Maurice]], [[Menantico River|Menantico]], [[Manumuskin River]]s and the [[Muskee Creek]]. In the year 2000 CU was also acknowledged by the EPA for the work on an osprey colony, their annual raptor and waterfowl survey, the film “Down Jersey” and accompanying teachers’ guide, and the [[North American Wetlands Conservation Act]].
In 2002 Citizens United to Protect the Maurice River and Its Tributaries, Inc. took first place in the category of Education and Learning Institute, NJ Department of Environmental Protection, Division of Watershed Management for their PBS film “Down Jersey” and the teachers’ curriculum, “Down Jersey: Celebrating Our Sense of Place.” Over 500 teachers have taken workshops in order to teach the curriculum.
CU also co-produced a documentary with [[New Jersey Network]] for which they received a Mid-Atlantic [[Emmy]] award for Outstanding Arts Program or Special.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20061006232152/http://www.njn.net/about/pressrelease/06archive/06sept-emmywinners.html NJN Media Release: NJN Brings Home 2 Emmys]</ref>
==Mission==
Their mission reads:
:''Citizens United is dedicated to protecting the watershed of the Maurice River and the region known as Down Jersey, thereby enabling current and future generations to enjoy the environmental, recreational, cultural, and scenic resources of this Wild & Scenic global treasure.''
:''CU empowers individuals, organizations, and neighboring communities to promote the region’s enduring well-being and quality of life. CU invites participation and fosters responsible stewardship. CU supports education, awareness, and informed decision-making utilizing field work, research, and advocacy<ref>[http://www.cumauriceriver.org/pages/about.html Citizen's United to Protect the Maurice River and Its Tributaries]</ref>''.
==Work==
CU's work in the [[Maurice River]] watershed typically begins geographically at Willow Grove Lake and continues south; the South Jersey Land and Water Trust begins its work in the vicinity of Willow Grove Lake and extends northward to the headwaters of Scotland Run.
The Maurice River watershed has a drainage of {{convert|386|sqmi|km2}} and runs south through Cumberland County, New Jersey to the Delaware Bay. The major tributaries of the Maurice River include [[Scotland Run]], [[Menantico Creek]], Muskee Creek, [[Muddy Run (Maurice River)|Muddy Run]], and the [[Manumuskin River]].<ref>[http://www.nj.gov/dep/watershedmgt/DOCS/WMAFactsheets/WMA17.pdf NJ DEP Watershed Management Area] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725070608/http://www.nj.gov/dep/watershedmgt/DOCS/WMAFactsheets/WMA17.pdf |date=2008-07-25 }}</ref>
On December 1, 1993, President [[Bill Clinton]] signed a congressional act designating {{convert|10.3|mi|km}} of the Maurice River, {{convert|7.9|mi|km}} of the Menantico Creek, {{convert|14.3|mi|km}} of the Manumuskin River, and {{convert|2.7|mi|km}} of the Muskee Creek as Wild and Scenic.<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/maur/ National Park Service: Maurice River, Wild and Scenic]</ref>
The Delaware Bay estuary is a [[Ramsar convention|Ramsar]] Wetlands of International Importance listed site.<ref>[http://ramsar.org/sitelist.pdf Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance] {{webarchive|url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20060206174606/http%3A//ramsar.org/sitelist.pdf |date=2006-02-06 }}</ref> It has also been named by [[The Nature Conservancy]] as one of the "Last Great Places on Earth".<ref>[http://training.fws.gov/library/pubs5/web_link/text/nj_pine.htm Fish and Wildlife Services: Significant habitats and habitat complexes of the NJ Pinelands]</ref>
=== Ecological significance ===
The Maurice River watershed includes a variety of habitat supporting rare wildlife and plant populations. Its vast wetland and forest complexes host wintering waterfowl and spring migratory shorebirds. A 1992 report by the National Wild and Scenic River Study states that “[t]he study area functions as critical migration-related habitat for shorebirds, songbirds, waterfowl, raptors, rails and fish. The Maurice River and its tributaries drain the Southwest portion of the Pinelands National Reserve, which is also an International Biosphere Reserve under the United Nations Man and Biosphere Program.”
The New Jersey Landscape mapping indicates the Maurice River watershed as habitat for bald eagles, waterfowl, and several other migratory birds.<ref>[http://www.state.nj.us/dep/fgw/ensp/landscape New Jersey's Landscape Project]</ref> In addition, the area contains the world's largest population of ''Aeschynomene virginica'', (sensitive joint vetch). Its NatureServ Conservation Status is G2, globally imperiled.<ref>[http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServe?searchName=Aeschynomene%20virginica NatureServ Plant Profile: Aeschynomene virginica]</ref> The watershed also contains the state's largest expanse of wild rice marsh, within the Glades Refuge,<ref>[http://www.natlands.org/projects/project.asp?fldProjectId=9 Natural Lands Trust Glades Refuge] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013025410/http://www.natlands.org/projects/project.asp?fldProjectId=9 |date=2007-10-13 }}</ref> and an old growth swamp forest, [[Bear Swamp, New Jersey|Bear Swamp]], a NJ state listed Natural Heritage Priority Site.<ref>[http://www.state.nj.us/dep/gis/digidownload/metadata/statewide/prisites.htm NJ Natural Heritage Priority Sites]</ref>
=== Cultural history ===
The Native Americans called the Maurice River “Wahatquenack”. The river's current name is thought to be derived from the Prince Maurice, a 17th-century Dutch ship reputed to have sunk in its waters.
The river's maritime history is intertwined with the oyster harvest, commercial fishing, and shipbuilding.<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/nj2/chap3a.htm National Park Service: Historic Themes and Resources within the New Jersey Coastal Heritage Trail Route]</ref> The [[A. J. Meerwald|AJ Meerwald]], a 1928 oyster schooner that operated on the Maurice and in the Delaware Bay, dubbed “NJ’s Tall Ship” by former [[Christine Todd Whitman|Governor Christie Whitman]], has been restored by the Bayshore Discovery Project for educational purposes.<ref>[http://www.ajmeerwald.org/ Bayshore Discovery Project]</ref>
=== Economic importance and recreational opportunities ===
The Maurice River supports such industries as commercial crabbing, eeling, net fishing, and oystering. Boating, kayaking, canoeing, birding, hiking, fishing, hunting and railbirding are several of the recreational activities pursued on the river. [[Benjamin Harrison|President Benjamin Harrison]] hunted on the Maurice River during his presidential term.<ref>[http://www.cumauriceriver.org/downjersey/maritime/m-lesson3.html Maritime History: Railbird hunting]</ref>
==Approach==
* Education
* Fieldwork
* Research
* Advocacy
=== Education ===
CU created a curriculum called “Down Jersey” which won the 2000 EPA Regional Education Award, and the 2001 NJDEP Statewide Watershed Award for Education. CU also partnered with [[New Jersey Network]] Public Television in 1997 to create a documentary by the same name in conjunction with this curriculum. Additionally, CU and NJN partnered on two other documentaries: “Bayshore Artists: Celebrating Our Sense of Place,” in 2001, and “Glenn Rudderow: Reflections of a Bayshore Painter,” in 2005, the second of which was awarded a Mid-Atlantic Emmy award for Outstanding Arts Program or Special.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20061006232152/http://www.njn.net/about/pressrelease/06archive/06sept-emmywinners.html NJN Media Release: NJN Brings Home 2 Emmys]</ref> The documentary aired nationally in 2006.
CU has also created various educational slideshows such as “Eggs to Flight” which follows the maturation of osprey from hatching to fledging, and “Fish and Chicks” which traces the decline and subsequent restoration efforts involving the osprey on the Maurice River.
Additionally, CU has created a botanical site that focuses on the flora of southern New Jersey and the [[Pine Barrens (New Jersey)|Pine Barrens]] of New Jersey.
CU has documented the local history of a number of [[reach (geography)|reaches]] on the Maurice River as well as securing source material on the Burcham Farm, the last remaining diked farm in southern New Jersey.<ref>[http://www.cumauriceriver.org/pages/burchamfarmthesis2.pdf Burcham Farm Thesis by Patricia Ball Bover]</ref>
Other aspects of CU's educational approach include:
* Participation in various community festivals such as the Cumberland County Winter Eagle Festival and Bay Days;
* “Raptor Discovery Days,” which involve programming for approximately 600 school children preceding the Eagle Festival; and
* Various activities and events for the public including bimonthly meetings with speakers, presentations for local groups, and opportunities such as birding, kayaking, and hiking.
The group also provides a scholarship for art students.<ref>[http://www.cumauriceriver.org/downjersey/maritime/m-cjost-schl.html Connie Jost Scholarship]</ref> The Connie Jost Scholarship was created in 1998 in memory of the late Connie Jost, a local artist, painter, sculptor, and educator who frequently incorporated fish and marine animals into her works.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1999/03/28/nyregion/art-review-fishing-for-meaning-and-for-a-good-time.html NY Times Art Review; Fishing for Meaning And for a Good Time]</ref>
=== Fieldwork ===
CU's fieldwork includes an osprey colony project, purple martin banding, wood ducks, Adopt-a-Swamp pink population, eagle nest monitoring, and international shorebird team assistance.
'''Osprey colony project''': The [[osprey]] (Pandion haliaetus) ) is a bird of prey (raptor) which feeds almost exclusively on fish. Seen in the coastal estuaries of many countries, the osprey is present on every continent with the exception of Antarctica. Its head is white with a black eye stripe. Its wing span is four and half to six feet and it is highly streamlined, making it an extremely maneuverable flier. Its talons are extremely sharp, which helps in piercing through the scales of a fish. Osprey generally mate for life but they will choose a new partner if a mate perishes. They normally lay three eggs; four is rare. On average they raise 2.5 young each season. Under the management of the New Jersey State Division of Fish and Wildlife, the NJ Endangered and Nongame Species Program monitors osprey populations statewide. Historically there were 500 nesting pair of osprey in NJ. In the 1950s and 1960s the use of DDT reduced their numbers to 50 pair. They were not productive, so chicks were brought in from nests in regions that had not been exposed to these chemical contaminants and the young were fostered by NJ's remaining birds. The fledglings imprinted to the area and returned as adults to build their own nests along New Jersey's rivers and bays.
Citizens statewide volunteered to help restore populations by providing nesting platforms for this threatened species. In the mid-1980s Citizens United to Protect the Maurice River and Its Tributaries, Inc. (Citizens United or CU) began an osprey colony. In 2007 the State passed the milestone of 400 nesting pair. Citizens United's volunteers monitor approximately 50 nesting platforms and they have constructed and erected more than 50 platforms for other organizations and corporations, including the NJ Endangered and Nongame Species Program, NJ Department of Protection Bureau of Emergency Response, Community Energy, PSE&G and The Natural Lands Trust.
CU volunteers maintain the 50+ platforms along the Maurice River. Each June and July they band the offspring in these structures. Between 1985 and 2007 more than 150 people participated in this project. When the program was begun in 1985, an average of three chicks fledged each year. Since 2006, nesting pairs have produced in excess of 60 chicks. The platform design developed by Citizens United has become the official design of the State of New Jersey. The platform plans and materials list, available online, have been utilized by people from a number of different geographical regions.<ref>[http://www.cumauriceriver.org/pages/npmats.html Osprey platform plans]</ref>
'''Purple martin banding:''' [[Purple martin]]s (Progne subis) are the largest of the North American swallows and, in the eastern U.S., are entirely dependent upon man for their housing. In conjunction with CU, members and other individuals band the birds for research purposes. In 2008, CU member Allen Jackson and those working with him banded over 8000 purple martins, an increase of 2000 birds from the prior year. CU also donates funds to purchase the bands.
'''Wood ducks:''' CU has put up a number of [[wood duck]] boxes on both the Manumuskin and the Maurice, and has also taught various groups of local high school students to build them, as well as making the plans for the boxes available online.
'''Adopt a swamp pink population:''' [[Swamp pink]] (Helonias bullata) is a federally threatened member of the lily family. Seventy percent of its global population occurs in New Jersey. CU has partnered with the United States Fish and Wildlife Service on a monitoring project, “Adopt-a-Swamp-Pink Population”.<ref>[http://www.fws.gov/northeast/njfieldoffice/Fact%20Sheets%20PDF%20holding/Swamp_Pink_PDF.pdf U.S. Fish Wildlife Service Adopt a swamp pink program]</ref> The survey results are shared with U.S.F.W.S. and NJ Natural Heritage.
'''Assisting NJ Division of Fish and Wildlife, Endangered and Nongame Species Program:''' CU assists in two facets: a number of volunteers monitor eagles’ nests for the State; and their members also provide support to the international Shorebird Team that visits May–June of each year to study the migratory shorebird phenomenon. CU members help with the banding of shorebirds, as well as hosting the scientists during their stay by providing them with meals and local cultural activities.
'''[[World Series of Birding]]:''' CU's team, the “Fish Hawks”, was formed in 2007 and placed second in the category of limited geographical region that year. A portion of the monies raised by the team defray the expenses of hosting the international shorebird scientists.
=== Research ===
CU has funded in part or wholly a number of studies of flora and fauna in the Maurice River watershed including an annual Raptor Waterfowl study carried out since 1988, a number of botanical surveys, and the Parvin-Tarkiln Branch Water Study.
=== Advocacy ===
Citizens United to Protect the Maurice River and Its Tributaries, Inc. has been involved in environmental advocacy since its inception, and has made presentations and given testimony at local, state, and national levels for local land protection efforts.
Some of those include:
* Giving testimony on behalf of the Maurice River Project Area, a cooperative endeavor under the North American Wetlands Conservation Act.<ref>[http://www.acjv.org/Fact_Sheets/NJ08.pdf Atlantic Coast Joint Venture: New Jersey]{{dead link|date=August 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
* Initiating a number of nominations that were submitted to the National Park Service and Congress requesting the dedication of the Maurice River and three of its tributaries: the Manantico, Manumuskin, and Muskee River as Wild and Scenic River by the US Congress
* Serving on the Wild and Scenic Task Force that developed the summary of the resource values and the ultimate management plan for the rivers
* Challenging the placement of structures within the wild and scenic corridor and making suggestions to cell tower companies on locating towers
* Assisting local governments with the design of various city ordinances for tree harvesting, land mining, and communication towers
* Proposing alternatives to the development of environmentally sensitive sites
* Assisting corporations to help them meet project mitigation standards
* Opposing pollution of sites that were later deemed US EPA Superfund Sites
==Partnerships==
Since its inception, CU has partnered with other conservation organizations. Partners have included National Park Service, Natural Lands Trust, The Nature Conservancy, New Jersey Network, New Jersey Audubon Society, NJ Conservation Foundation, Bayshore Discovery Project, NJ Division of Fish and Wildlife, Rutgers Environmental Law Clinic, Columbia Environmental Law Clinic, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. CU also works with corporations on their habitat projects: Community Energy, PSE&G Estuary Enhancement Project, Morie Sand and Gravel and others.
CU is also a member of the South Jersey Bayshore Coalition.<ref>[http://sjbayshore.org/Coalition.htm South Jersey Bayshore Coalition]</ref>
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
== External links ==
*[http://www.cumauriceriver.org Citizens United to Protect the Maurice River and Its Tributaries, Inc.]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060219182724/http://njn.net/television/highlights/05november/bayshore/ New Jersey Network]
*[http://www.nps.gov/maur/ National Park Service]
*[http://www.ramsar.org Ramsar]
*[http://www.rivers.gov National Wild and Scenic Rivers System]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Citizens United To Protect The Maurice River And Its Tributaries, Inc.}}
[[Category:Environmental organizations based in New Jersey]]
[[Category:Cumberland County, New Jersey]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Water organizations in the United States]] |
Metropolitan River Protection Act | '''Metropolitan River Protection Act''' (Georgia Code 12-5-440 et seq.) was enacted in 1973 by the [[Georgia General Assembly]] to establish a 2000-foot Corridor along the banks of the [[Chattahoochee River]] and its impoundments for the 48 miles between [[Buford Dam]] and [[Peachtree Creek]].
==History==
Enacted in 1973, the Metropolitan River Protection Act initially covered a 48-mile corridor between Buford Dam (on the north) and Peachtree Creek, to the south. In 1998, the Act was amended to extend the corridor an additional 36 miles to the downstream limits of [[Fulton County, Georgia|Fulton]] and [[Douglas County, Georgia|Douglas Counties]].
===Atlanta Regional Commission===
The Act requires the [[Atlanta Regional Commission]] (ARC) to adopt a plan to protect the Chattahoochee River corridor and to review development proposals for consistency with the plan. Local governments along the corridor are required to implement the plan by issuing permits based on ARC findings, monitoring land-disturbing activity in the corridor and enforcing the Act and the plan. Under the Act, land-disturbing activity in the corridor must comply with the adopted plan to be legal.
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928094236/http://www.atlantaregional.com/cps/rde/xchg/arc/hs.xsl/278_ENU_HTML.htm Metropolitan River Protection Act & Chattahoochee Corridor Plan]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928094155/http://www.atlantaregional.com/cps/rde/xbcr/arc/CHAT_MRPA.PDF Metropolitan River Protection Act]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928094132/http://www.atlantaregional.com/cps/rde/xchg/arc/hs.xsl/304_ENU_HTML.htm Chattahoochee Corridor Plan Summary]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928094315/http://www.atlantaregional.com/cps/rde/xbcr/arc/CHAT_COR_PLAN.pdf Chattahoochee Corridor Plan (PDF)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928094243/http://www.atlantaregional.com/cps/rde/xchg/arc/hs.xsl/305_ENU_HTML.htm Review Process Overview]
{{portal bar|Georgia (U.S. state)|Environment}}
[[Category:Chattahoochee River]]
[[Category:1973 in American law]]
[[Category:1973 in Georgia (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Georgia (U.S. state) statutes]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
{{GeorgiaUS-stub}} |
American Heritage Rivers Protection Program | The '''American Heritage Rivers Protection Program''' was authorized by [[s:Executive_Order_13061|Executive Order 13061]] during the [[Presidency of Bill Clinton|Clinton Administration]] on September 11, 1997. The initiative was to support existing community-based efforts to preserve, protect, and restore rivers and their communities. It was considered an avenue to deliver federal resources more efficiently and effectively in support of [[Volunteering|voluntary]] community efforts at enhancing and protecting rivers or river segments.
The initial selection criteria were developed under the Chair of the [[Council on Environmental Quality]] to reflect the wide variety of viewpoints concerning riverine and natural resource utilization, including those representing natural, cultural, and historic resources; scenic, environmental, and recreation interests; tourism, transportation, and economic development interests; and industries such as agriculture, hydropower, manufacturing, mining, and forest management.
The designated [[American Heritage Rivers]] were selected based on proposals submitted by local sponsors. The designations are located in or affect pristine lands, [[arable land|agricultural lands]] and urban environments
== References ==
*{{CRS|article = Report for Congress: Agriculture: A Glossary of Terms, Programs, and Laws, 2005 Edition|url = http://ncseonline.org/nle/crsreports/05jun/97-905.pdf|author= Jasper Womach}}
{{US-gov-stub}}
[[Category:Clinton administration initiatives]]
[[Category:Rivers of the United States]]
[[Category:Environment of the United States]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:American Heritage Rivers]] |
International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River | {{Short description|International environmental organisation}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{unreferenced|date=August 2019}}
[[File:International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River.PNG|350px|right|thumb|{{center|Contracting parties of the ICPDR, with the European Union shaded in light green; excludes Montenegro.}}]]
The '''International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River''' ('''ICPDR''') is an international organisation with its permanent secretariat in [[Vienna]]. It was established by the Danube River Protection Convention, signed by the [[Danube]] countries in [[Sofia]], [[Bulgaria]], in 1994.
The TransNational Monitoring Network (TNMN) began in 1996, and the Accident Emergency Warning System (AEWS) first came into operation in 1997 – both continue today as key transnational measures under the ICPDR. Although the ICPDR contracting parties are a mix of EU Member States and Non-Member States, all have committed themselves to meeting the requirements of the EU [[Water Framework Directive]]. This commitment was augmented by the EU Floods Directive in 2007. The ICPDR celebrated 25 years of the Danube River Protection Convention in 2019.
==Legal basis==
The ICPDR’s legal basis is the Convention on Cooperation for the Protection and Sustainable use of the Danube River, generally referred to as the Danube River Protection Convention or DRPC. It commits the contracting parties to join their efforts in sustainable water management, including conservation of surface and [[ground water]], [[pollution]] reduction, and the prevention and control of floods, accidents and ice hazards. The convention was signed in Sofia, Bulgaria, in 1994 and came into force in October 1998.
==Objectives==
The ICPDR was created to implement the Danube River Protection Convention (DRPC). It is both a forum to allow its contracting parties to coordinate the implementation of the convention and a platform to review the progress they make. The key objectives of the ICPDR include the following:
# Ensure sustainable water management
# Control pollution and reduce inputs of nutrients and hazardous substances
# Control floods and ice hazards
The ICPDR facilitates cooperation between the Danube countries and the [[Black Sea]] region in issues requiring coordination. It cooperates with other international organisations where appropriate to address new challenges related to water management as they emerge. As of its adoption in 2000, a commitment to implementing the EU’s [[Water Framework Directive]] (WFD, formally Directive 2000/60/EC) is also central to the activities of all ICPDR members, including non-EU members.
When the Water Framework Directive was adopted in October 2000, all countries cooperating under the DRPC (which includes at present 9 EU and 5 non EU member states) nominated the ICPDR as the platform for the Implementation of all transboundary aspects of the EU Water Framework Directive. They decided to make all efforts to implement the Directive throughout the whole basin. The Non EU Member States also committed themselves to implement the WFD within the frame of the DRPC. In addition, the ICPDR serves as a coordination platform for the basin-wide implementation of the EU [[Floods directive]] (EFD, formally Directive 2007/60/EC).
==Structure and decision making==
The ICPDR is an international organisation. It meets twice a year: The Ordinary Meeting is held in [[Vienna]] in December, another meeting of Heads of Delegations, the Standing Working Group, is held in June in the country of the Presidency. The meetings consist of delegations of contracting parties and observer organisations. Every contracting party has one Head of Delegation representing the country. For all decisions the achievement of consensus is sought. The meetings are chaired by the ICPDR President; ICPDR Presidency is passed on from one country to another in an alphabetical order every year.
Much of the work of the ICPDR is done by Expert Groups (EGs), which are panels of specialists from the ICPDR contracting parties and observers – usually civil servants of the relevant ministries, in some cases employees of NGOs or contracted agencies. There are seven permanent Expert Groups and one ad hoc Expert Group as of 2020:
# Pressures and Measures
# Monitoring and Assessment
# Flood Protection
# River Basin Management
# Information Management and GIS
# Public Participation and Communication
# Accident Prevention and Control
# Strategic Expert Group (ad hoc)
The expert groups all have Terms of Reference and mandates adopted by the Commission. They usually meet twice to three times a year. Time- and target-limited task groups may also be established for specific tasks which not necessarily all countries are represented in. The expert groups discuss issues related to their Terms of Reference and prepare reports and recommendations for coordinated action.
The ICPDR has a Permanent Secretariat to support its work, supervised by an Executive Secretary, as of 2013, [[Ivan Zavadsky]]. The secretariat has its headquarters in Vienna, from where it administers, manages and supports the work of the ICPDR. The total staff of the secretariat is 9 permanent staff members and additional short-term project staff. If all national experts, delegates from observers and consultants are considered, there are more than 300 people working with and for the ICPDR.
==Regular activities==
On 29 June each year, the 14 countries of the Danube River Basin jointly acknowledge [http://www.danubeday.at/ Danube Day], a day celebrating their shared river system with a series of live events at schools and other public buildings. Largely targeting youth and education, the day includes challenges, quizzes, teaching events, folk dancing, traditional music, and similar activities shared throughout the region. The first Danube Day was held on the 10th anniversary of the signing of the Danube River Protection Convention in 2004.
Also held since 2004, the ICPDR also co-runs [http://www.danubeday.org/Danube_Art_Master Danube Art Master] with the Global Water Partnership Central and Eastern Europe (GWP CEE). An art competition involving thousands of school pupils throughout the Danube River Basin, DAM invites pupils to create original artworks, with winners chosen every year by a panel of judges.
==Dispute prevention and resolution==
The ICPDR serves as a platform for cooperation and coordination . The signing of the Convention, however, commits the countries under international law to some specific actions and to uphold certain principles. In some past disputes, the ICPDR was able to contribute towards the harmonisation of efforts by providing a platform for discussion.
The Convention provides a dispute settlement mechanism, but in practice this has not been necessary thus far, as the countries concerned have worked to ensure dialogue and developed consensus on issues of conflict. The work of the ICPDR is less prone to disputes than outsiders might imagine. The atmosphere at meetings is focused on facts and characterised by mutual respect and a common acknowledgement of the ICPDR’s objectives and tasks.
==Members==
[[Image:Danube basin.png|thumb|upright=2.5|right|{{center|The Danube River Basin<br>is the catchment area of the river.}}]]
The ICPDR has fifteen contracting parties:
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* {{AUT}}
* {{BIH}}
* {{BUL}}
* {{HRV}}
* {{CZE}}
* {{DEU}}
* {{HUN}}
* {{MDA}}
* {{MNE}}
* {{ROM}}
* {{SVK}}
* {{SVN}}
* {{SRB}}
* {{UKR}}
* {{EU}}
{{div col end}}
==Observers==
The ICPDR has 24 official observers with rights to attend meetings and participate in decision-making:
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Black Sea#The Commission on the Protection of the Black Sea Against Pollution|Black Sea Commission]]
* [[Carpathian Convention]]
* [[Central Dredging Association]]
* [https://www.eip-water.eu/organisations/def-%E2%80%93-danube-environmental-forum Danube Environmental Forum]
* [[Danube Commission]]
* [https://dcsf.danubestrategy.eu/ Danube Civil Society Forum]
*[https://www.facebook.com/danubecc/ Danube Competence Center]
* [http://www.danubeparks.org/ Danube Parks]
* [http://www.dstf.eu/species/acipenser-sturio/ Danube Sturgeon Task Force] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630163432/http://www.dstf.eu/species/acipenser-sturio/ |date=30 June 2015 }}
* [https://dlap.danubestrategy.eu/organisations/danube-tourist-commission-0 Danube Tourist Commission]
* [https://www.eaa-europe.org/ European Anglers Alliance]
* [http://www.ebu-uenf.org/ European Barge Union]
* [https://www.ewa-online.eu/ European Water Association]
* [[Friends of Nature]] International
* [[Global Water Partnership]]
* [https://www.danube-iad.eu/ International Association for Danube Research]
* [https://www.iawd.at/ International Association of Water Supply Companies in the Danube River Catchment Area]
* [[International Hydrological Programme]]
* [[International Sava River Basin Commission]]
* [[Ramsar Convention]] on Wetlands
* Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern Europe
*
* [[via donau]]
* [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] — Central Eastern Europe
{{div col end}}
==Funding==
The ICPDR budget comes from the contributions of the Contracting Parties. According to the Danube River Protection Convention, the Contracting Parties (except for the EU) shall contribute an equal share, unless unanimously decided otherwise by the ICPDR. Some exceptions are currently applied for a transitional period. The total annual budget of the ICPDR is a little more than one million Euros. Much of the ICPDR's work is done directly by Member Countries. Such contributions in staff and material are therefore also considerable, even though this does not show in the ICPDR budget. Costs of participation in the Commission's and Expert bodies’ work are also covered by the parties themselves.
In some cases, the ICPDR engages in projects that have separate sources of funding. These include projects funded by the European Union, the [[United Nations Development Program]], GEF, and individual countries.
==Danube River variety==
<gallery>
File:Donaueschingen Donauzusammenfluss 20080714.jpg|The place where Breg and Brigach unite to form the Danube in [[Donaueschingen]].
File:Ulm2-midsize.jpg|The Danube in [[Ulm]] as seen from the steeple of [[Ulm Minster]], looking southwest.
File:Passau aerial view 1.jpg|The [[confluence]] of the [[Inn river|Inn]] (left), Danube (center), and [[Ilz]] (right) in Passau.
File:Vereinte_Nationen_in_Wien.jpg|The [[Vienna International Centre]], home of the ICPDR's permanent secretariat
File:DonauknieVisegrad.jpg|The Danube Bend is a curve of the Danube in [[Geography of Hungary|Hungary]], near the city of [[Visegrád]].
File:Parliament Budapest Hungary.jpg|The Danube in [[Budapest]]
File:Pelicani din Delta Dunarii.PNG|[[Pelicans]] in the Danube Delta, Romania
</gallery>
==See also==
*[[Internationalization of the Danube River]], for events from earliest times to the Treaty of Paris in 1856
*[[Commissions of the Danube River]], for the international bodies governing the waterway from 1856 to 1940
*[[Danube River Conference of 1948]]
*[[Danube Commission]], for the international agency charged with transportation oversight of the river
==External links==
* {{Official website|http://www.icpdr.org}}
** [http://www.icpdr.org/icpdr-pages/drpc.htm Danube River Protection Convention]
* [https://www.icpdr.org/main/publications/convention-action-25-years-icpdr From Convention to Action: 25 Years of the ICPDR]
* [http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+TA+P7-TA-2011-0065+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN&language=EN ''Implementation of the EU Strategy for the Danube Region,'' European Union, 17 February 2011]
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Danube]]
[[Category:Environmental agencies]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Intergovernmental organizations established by treaty]]
[[Category:Environmental organizations established in 1994]]
[[Category:1994 establishments in Europe]]
[[Category:1994 establishments in the European Union]]<!--member--> |
American Heritage Rivers | [[Image:AHR-logo.png|245px|right]]
'''American Heritage Rivers''' were designated by the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] in the 1990s to receive special attention (coordinating efforts of multiple governmental entities) to further three objectives: natural resource and environmental protection, economic revitalization, and historic and cultural preservation.
==Establishment==
The [[American Heritage Rivers Protection Program]] was created by an [[Executive order (United States)|Executive Order]], Number [[s:Executive Order 13061|13061]], signed by President [[Bill Clinton]] on September 11, 1997. Selection criteria were developed under the Chair of the [[Council on Environmental Quality]] (CEQ), with wide government and expert involvement, and reflected a wide variety of viewpoints, including those representing natural, cultural, and historic resources; scenic, environmental, and recreation interests; tourism, transportation, and economic development interests; and industries such as agriculture, hydropower, manufacturing, mining, and forest management. The recommended rivers were to represent a variety of stream sizes, diverse geographical locations, and a wide range of settings from urban to rural and ensure that relatively pristine, successful revitalization efforts were considered, as well as degraded rivers in need of restoration.
== Criteria for designation ==
Rivers were selected for designation according to the following criteria:
*The characteristics of the natural, economic, agricultural, scenic, historic, cultural, or recreational resources of the river that render it distinctive or unique;
*The effectiveness with which the community has defined its plan of action and the extent to which the plan addresses, either through planned actions or past accomplishments, all three American Heritage Rivers objectives;
*The strength and diversity of community support for the nomination as evidenced by letters from elected officials; landowners; private citizens; businesses; and especially State, local, and tribal governments. Broad community support is essential to receiving the American Heritage River designation; and
*Willingness and capability of the community to forge partnerships and agreements to implement their plan to meet their goals and objectives.
== Designated rivers ==
[[File:American Heritage Rivers Map.PNG|thumbnail|right|Map of the Rivers|400px]]
President Clinton designated the 14 rivers (or river systems) on July 30, 1998.<ref>U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Washington, DC (1998). [https://web.archive.org/web/20120305233547/http://water.epa.gov/type/watersheds/named/heritage/10-5upda.cfm "American Heritage River News."] Vol. 1, No. 1. 1998-10-05.</ref>
* [[Blackstone River|Blackstone]] and [[Woonasquatucket River|Woonasquatucket]] Rivers (MA, RI)
* [[Connecticut River]] (NH, VT, MA, CT)
* [[Cuyahoga River]] (OH)
* [[Detroit River]] (MI, ON)
* [[Hanalei River]] (HI)
* [[Hudson River]] (NY, NJ)
* Lower [[Mississippi River]] (MS, LA, TN, AR)
** [[Wolf River (Tennessee)|Wolf River]] in metropolitan [[Memphis, Tennessee|Memphis]] is bundled with the Lower Mississippi.
* [[Potomac River]] (DC, MD, VA, WV)
* [[New River (Kanawha River)|New River]] (NC, VA, WV)
* [[Rio Grande]] (CO, NM, TX)
* [[St. Johns River]] (FL)
* Upper [[Mississippi River]] (IA, IL, MN, MO, WI)
* Upper [[Susquehanna River|Susquehanna]] and [[Lackawanna River|Lackawanna]] Rivers (PA)
* [[Willamette River]] (OR)
==See also==
{{portal|Environment}}
* [[Canadian Heritage Rivers System]], Canada's counterpart to the American Heritage Rivers
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{AHR}}
[[Category:American Heritage Rivers| ]]
[[Category:Establishments by United States executive order]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]] |
Clean Ocean Action | {{Primary sources|date=June 2008}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = Clean Ocean Action
| logo = CleanOceanActionLogo.jpg
| type = [[Non-profit organization|Non-profit]], [[Interest group]]
| tax_id = 22-2897204
| headquarters = [[Long Branch, New Jersey]]
| founded = {{start date and age|1984||}}
| leader_title2 = Executive Director
| leader_name2 = Cindy Zipf
| website = https://cleanoceanaction.org/
| fields = Protecting marine waters off the New Jersey/New York coast
| membership = Coalition of 125 businesses, groups and organizations
| leader_title = Trustee President
| leader_name = Tom Fagan
| services = Research, public education, citizen action
}}
'''Clean Ocean Action''' (COA) is a [[nonprofit organization|non-profit organization]] that works to protect the marine water quality in the [[New York Bight]] through extensive scientific analysis, public education, and resident activity endeavors as their core duty.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=nasgawebsite|date=2014-06-03|title=NASGA to donate to local New Jersey environmental non-profit, Clean Ocean Action|url=https://seaglassassociation.org/2014/06/03/nasga-to-donate-to-local-new-jersey-environmental-non-profit-clean-ocean-action/|access-date=2020-10-13|website=North American Sea Glass Association official website|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=Clean Ocean Action Volunteer Opportunities - VolunteerMatch|url=https://www.volunteermatch.org/search/org11265.jsp#more_info_tab|access-date=2020-10-13|website=www.volunteermatch.org}}</ref><ref name=":1">U.S. Congress. “TRIBUTE TO CLEAN OCEAN ACTION. Congressional Record Daily Edition.” 2006.</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Clean Ocean Action: About COA|url=http://www.cleanoceanaction.org/index.php?id=2|access-date=2020-10-13|website=www.cleanoceanaction.org}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite web|date=2019-08-30|title=Brand Profile|url=https://digitalmarketing.temple.edu/cleanoceanaction/brand-profile/|access-date=2020-11-05|website=Clean Ocean Action|language=en-US}}</ref> It was formed in 1984 by a wide coalition of environmentally conscious businesses, groups, and organizations.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":11" />
== History ==
New Jersey's Shore was filled with a large amount of trash that resulted in the closing of their beaches and being known as one of the largest ocean-dumping sites in 1984.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Pallone, Jr.|first=Frank, Representative (6th District, New Jersey)|date=2000|title=Clean Ocean Action's Beach|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/diglib/legacies/loc.afc.afc-legacies.200003323/|access-date=2020-10-13|website=lcweb2.loc.gov}}</ref> After several concerns took place regarding the rise of trash on the site, Clean Action Ocean was established to help educate, advocate, and take action on cleaning along the coast to restore it to its natural state.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5">U.S. Congress. "In Honor of Clean Ocean Action. Congressional Record Daily Edition.” 2009.</ref>
Since then, the Clean Ocean Action has shut down 8 ocean-dumping sites and continued to support the Clean Ocean Zone policy and the [[BEACH Act]].<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":11" /> During Clean Ocean Action's clean-up activities, the organization collects data to understand and identify the cause of harm to the environment by gathering littered trashes.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=September 23, 2020|first=Pat|last=Johnson |title=Register for Clean Ocean Action Beach Sweeps |url=https://www.thesandpaper.net/articles/register-for-clean-ocean-action-beach-sweeps/|access-date=2020-10-13|website=www.thesandpaper.net}}</ref> Their research is displayed to federal and state programs in order to uphold heavier enforcement on protecting the ocean.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":9">{{Cite web|title=A hands-on solution to ocean pollution|url=https://bbt.mediaroom.com/clean-ocean-action|access-date=2020-10-26|website=BB&T|language=en}}</ref>
== Objectives ==
The Clean Ocean Action's objective is to prevent any harm that would potentially damage the debased water nature near the shores of New Jersey.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> The organization advocates for the protection of marine wildlife, clean beaches, and the preservation of all [[natural resource]]s that would harm the environment by establishing several campaigns, programs, interactive events, active rallies, and teachings.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":11" /> The Executive Director, Cindy Zipf, suggests that citizens should practice utilizing reusable items, recycling, avoid littering, and participating in local clean-ups.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":11" /> These actions reduces the amount of pollution in the ocean and reduces the risk of endangering marine wildlife.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":11" /> Clean Ocean Action takes additional action by persuading public authorities to ensure the safety of the beaches and marine wildlife.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":11" /> Clean Ocean Action influences many citizens, from any age and background, to contribute to beach clean-ups and promotes the conservation of [[natural resource]]s.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5" />
== Volunteer ==
Volunteers for Clean Ocean Action clean beaches with the goal of creating a clean environment and saving marine wildlife from danger.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|title=Grants Awarded to Date|url=https://www.impact100jerseycoast.org/2018-finalists/grants-awarded-to-date-2/|access-date=2020-11-05|website=Impact 100 Jersey Coast|language=en-US}}</ref> Volunteers consists of students, families, business, other [[Nonprofit organization|non-profit organizations]], and more.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":11" /> Children under the age of 12 are able to volunteer as long as they are accompanied by an adult.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":7" /> Millions of pieces of harmful debris has been removed from beaches and waterways by the volunteers.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" />
== Programs ==
There are several programs that Clean Ocean Action organizers to educate citizens on the system of the environment and to take action.<ref name=":11" /> This includes the Clean Ocean Action's "Student Environmental Advocates and Leaders" (SEAL) program conducts pieces of training where students will brainstorm on how to create solutions through advocacy and campaigns on environmental studies.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":10">{{Cite web|date=2019-11-26|title=Impact 100 Jersey Coast Awards Four $110,000 Grants|url=https://cfnj.org/impact-100-jersey-coast-awards-four-110000-grants/|access-date=2020-11-05|website=Community Foundation of New Jersey|language=en-US}}</ref> The organizations also organizes annual "beach sweeps" where volunteers gather at [[Raritan Bay]] where they clean the beaches, waterways, and underwater sites as they move along towards the [[Delaware Bay]].<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">{{cite web|title=JCP&L Supports Clean Ocean Action's Annual Fall Beach Sweeps|website=PR Newswire|date=23 October 2019|via=Gale Academic OneFile|url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A603510263/AONE?u=wash_main&sid=AONE&xid=0e68c36b|access-date=12 October 2020}}</ref>
Additionally, Clean Ocean Action's Student Summit program allows middle schoolers to study about marine wildlife and the environment through several hands-on experience activities.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=May 15, 2019|first=Joe |last=Cutter|title=Sandy Hook field trips have been educating kids for 31 years|url=https://nj1015.com/sandy-hook-field-trips-have-been-educating-kids-for-31-years/|access-date=2020-11-05|website=New Jersey 101.5|language=en}}</ref> The Clean Ocean Action Presentations teaches students about the issues of [[marine pollution|ocean pollution]] that arises in the world today.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":11" /> Lastly, the Clean Ocean Action Education Ambassador Program allows individuals with presentation skills to administer topics on ocean pollution for various communities.<ref name=":2" />
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Environmental organizations based in New York (state)]]
[[Category:Environmental organizations based in New Jersey]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]] |
Heritage tree | {{Short description|Individual tree with unique value}}
[[File:Sugar Maple-Acer saccharum-Comfort Maple Conservation Area-Town of Pelham-Ontario-OHAR5725-20221023 (1).jpg|thumb|[[Comfort Maple]], in [[Pelham, Ontario]]]]
A '''heritage tree''' is typically a large, individual tree with unique value, which is considered irreplaceable. The major criteria for heritage tree designation are age, rarity, and size, as well as aesthetic, botanical, ecological, and historical value.<ref name="Coates2006">{{cite book|last=Coates|first=Peter A.|title=American Perceptions of Immigrant And Invasive Species: Strangers on the Land|url=https://archive.org/details/americanpercepti00coat_0|url-access=registration|accessdate=30 June 2012|year=2006|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-24930-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/americanpercepti00coat_0/page/140 140]–}}</ref> Heritage tree ordinances are developed to place limits upon the removal of these trees; the ordinances are oriented towards a specific tree, not a [[woodland]].<ref name="Giusti2005">{{cite book|last=Giusti|first=Gregory A.|title=A Planner's Guide For Oak Woodlands|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T18IDGRSt78C&pg=PA90|accessdate=30 June 2012|year=2005|publisher=ANR Publications|isbn=978-1-879906-75-4|pages=90–91}}</ref> [[Heritage trees in Singapore]] are protected by law under the Heritage Trees Scheme adopted on 17 August 2001. The [[oak]] is depicted as [[England]]'s heritage tree.<ref name="WatertonWatson2010">{{cite book|last1=Waterton|first1=Emma|last2=Watson|first2=Steve|title=Culture, Heritage and Representation: Perspectives on Visuality and the Past|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hfw3uJMT43EC&pg=PA152|accessdate=30 June 2012|date=31 May 2010|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-0-7546-7598-3|pages=152–}}</ref>
In the US, the first state-sponsored heritage tree program began in 1995 in [[Oregon]] with the [[Picea sitchensis|Giant Sitka Spruce]].<ref name="Barnes2004">{{cite book|last=Barnes|first=Christine|title=Only in Oregon: Natural and Manmade Landmarks and Oddities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uPmlju-T3moC&pg=PA10|accessdate=30 June 2012|date=30 May 2004|publisher=Farcountry Press|isbn=978-1-56037-292-9|pages=10–}}</ref> In [[Iowa]], the [[Living Heritage Tree Museum]] contains descendants of famous trees.<ref name="JonesCoffey2009">{{cite book|last1=Jones|first1=Eric|last2=Coffey|first2=Dan|last3=Thorkelson|first3=Berit|title=Iowa Curiosities: Quirky Characters, Roadside Oddities & Other Offbeat Stuff|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bsk0YKq0fmcC&pg=PA195|accessdate=30 June 2012|date=10 November 2009|publisher=Globe Pequot|isbn=978-0-7627-5419-9|pages=195–}}</ref> In the [[Washington (state)|state of Washington]], there are several categories of heritage trees, such as Historical, Specimen, Rare, or Significant Grove.<ref name="Nolon2003">{{cite book|last=Nolon|first=John R.|title=Open Ground: Effective Local Strategies for Protecting Natural Resources|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SYoFGy1C8_sC&pg=PA441|accessdate=30 June 2012|date=1 May 2003|publisher=Environmental Law Institute|isbn=978-1-58576-055-8|pages=441–}}</ref>
The city of [[Portland, Oregon]] maintains a [[database]] of trees designated as heritage trees. <ref>[https://www.portlandoregon.gov/parks/38294 Urban Forestry | The City of Portland, Oregon<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
==References==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Cultural heritage]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Individual trees|*]]
{{cultural-studies-stub}} |
Phytosanitary Certificate Issuance and Tracking System | Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) and Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ) are responsible for safeguarding agriculture and natural resources from the risks associated with the entry, establishment, or spread of animal and plant pests and noxious weeds.
The '''Phytosanitary Certificate Issuance and Tracking''' (PCIT) system tracks the [[phytosanitary inspection|inspection of agricultural products]] and certifies compliance with plant health standards of importing countries. This capability provides APHIS/PPQ better security, reporting functions, and monitoring capabilities for exported commodities.
The PCIT also provides a link to the PExD. PExD is a repository of phytosanitary [[import]] requirements of U.S. origin commodities to foreign countries. PExD enhances Plant Protection and Quarantine’s
(PPQ’s) ability to maintain the export program for United States exporters. PExD will support PPQ’s Phytosanitary Issues Management (PIM) Export Services (ES) with the task of entering export summaries
for foreign countries. PExD provides reusable text to facilitate uniform entry of export summaries. PExD also provides PPQ staff, State and County cooperators, and exporters’ easy access to export summaries
via direct user queries. PExD interfaces with the Phytosanitary Certificate Issuance & Tracking System (PCIT) application processing.
During application processing, users are provided with pertinent [[export]] summaries based on the consignee country, applicable commodities, and other data contained in an application.
[[Phytosanitary Certificate]] - Certificate patterned after the model certificates of the IPPC [FAO, 1990]. In the U.S., this is an official document (PPQ Form 577) that attests to the [[phytosanitation|phytosanitary condition]]
of commodities and is issued by an Authorized Certification Official.
==See also==
* [[Phytosanitary Certification]]
* [[USDA]]
* [[Plant Protection and Quarantine]]
==External links==
* http://www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/plants/plant_exports/pcit.shtml
* https://pcit.aphis.usda.gov/pcit/
[[Category:Environmental law in the United States]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Environmental protection agencies]] |
Rights of nature in Ecuador | {{Short description|none}}
With the adoption of a new constitution in 2008 under president [[Rafael Correa]], [[Ecuador]] became the first country in the world to enshrine a set of codified [[Rights of Nature]] and to inform a more clarified content to those rights. Articles 10 and 71–74 of the Ecuadorian Constitution recognize the inalienable rights of [[ecosystems]] to exist and flourish, give people the authority to petition on the behalf of nature, and requires the government to remedy violations of these rights.
'''''Sumac kawsay''''', in [[Spanish language|Spanish]], meaning "good living", rooted in the cosmovisión (or [[worldview]]) of the [[Quechua people|Quechua]] peoples of the [[Andes]], describes a way of life that is community-centric, [[ecological]]ly-balanced and [[culturally-sensitive]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/blog/buen-vivir-philosophy-south-america-eduardo-gudynas|title=Buen vivir: the social philosophy inspiring movements in South America|last=Balch|first=Oliver|date=2013-02-04|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-03-19|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> The concept is related to tradition of legal and political scholarship advocating legal standing for the natural environment.<ref name="Stone CD 1974 p 8">Stone CD, Should Trees Have Standing? Toward Legal Rights for Natural Objects. Southern California Law Review 1972;45:450; W Kaufmann, Los Altos, 1974 p 8</ref> The rights approach is a break away from traditional environmental regulatory systems, which regard nature as property.<ref name="Celdf">{{Cite web|url=https://celdf.org/|title=CELDF {{!}} Community Rights Pioneers {{!}} Protecting Nature and Communities|website=CELDF|language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-27}}</ref>
Ecuador's Rights of Nature embodies the indigenous ''sumak kawsay'' principles, giving [[Pachamama]] constitutional rights to protect and restore its environment.
==History and context==
{{Further|Plant rights|Environmental movement}}
President [[Rafael Correa]] entered into office in January 2007 with the help of ''La Revolución Ciudadana'' ([[The Citizens' Revolution]]) promising a new anti-neoliberalist Ecuador. A country that would unify and harmonize the broken relationships between the state, the economy, society, and its vital resources.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.institut-gouvernance.org/es/analyse/fiche-analyse-450.html|title=El Contexto Politico de la Asamblea Constituyente en Ecuador|last=Santiago|first=O.C.|date=March 2008|access-date=2019-12-09}}</ref> Being the eighth president in 10 years, Correa called for a Constitutional Assembly to create a new constitution for Ecuador.
Ecuador relies heavily on the income gained from exploiting its natural resources. The country's largest export, crude petroleum, represents 29% of Ecuador's GDP, coming in with a total value of $5.63 billion.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oec.world/en/profile/country/ecu/|title=OEC - Ecuador (ECU) Exports, Imports, and Trade Partners|website=oec.world|language=en|access-date=2019-12-10}}</ref> This has caused the country to suffer from vast deforestation in the Amazon, contaminated water and widespread illness.
Ecuador is also home to at least eight tribes of indigenous peoples, most of which reside in the Amazon, that have suffered from the negative environmental consequences of the extraction of oil. After several years of worsening economic and environmental conditions, uprisings from various indigenous communities, who found themselves receiving less support from the state, while simultaneously their land was being increasingly encroached upon by oil companies, brought attention to their concerns.<ref name="Arsel" /> After historically being excluded from the political process, indigenous groups, especially concerned about the worsening environmental devastation of the extraction business and global [[climate change]], started social movements aimed at creating a new approach to development that would protect the environment and harmonize its relationship with people. [[CONAIE]] (National Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador), the largest federation of indigenous movements focused on social justice began lobbying for a new constitution that incorporated recognition of the nation's indigenous groups, their language, culture, history, and land rights, and inherently their concepts of ''sumak kawsay'' and ''[[Pachamama]]'' (English: "Mother Nature").<ref name="Becker">Becker, Marc. 2011 Correa, Indigenous Movements, and the Writing of a New Constitution in Ecuador. Latin American Perspectives 38(1):47-62.</ref>
The economy, based on the exportation of the country's raw materials, mainly oil, was also wreaking havoc on the nation's environment, an area with valuable biological and cultural diversity.<ref name="Arsel">Arsel, Murat 2012. Between 'Marx and Markets'? The State, The 'Left Turn' And Nature In Ecuador. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie (Journal of Economic & Social Geography) 103(2):150-163.</ref> The global economic crisis of 2008 revealed the vulnerabilities of an extractive economy, and led to a period of political turmoil in the country that made obvious the need for a new more inclusive government that embodied a post-oil, post-neoliberal development paradigm.<ref name="Becker" /><ref name="Acosta">Acosta, Alberto, Eduardo Gudynas[[]], Esperanza Martínez, and Joseph H. Vogel
2009. Leaving the Oil in the Ground: A Political, Economic, and Ecological Initiative in the Ecuadorian Amazon. Americas Program Policy Report.</ref> In late 2006, the election of leftist Rafael Correa, who ran on an anti-neoliberal platform, showed the emergence of a new political era for Ecuador.<ref name="Arsel" />
== Development ==
{{POV section|date=August 2014}}
===''Sumak kawsay'' / ''Buen vivir''===
{{main|Sumak kawsay}}
''Buen vivir'' ("good living") emerged as a response to the traditional strategies for development and their negative environmental, social, or economic effects. ''Sumak kawsay'', meaning a full life and signifies living in harmony with other people and nature. ''Buen Vivir'' has gained new popularity, spreading throughout parts of [[South America]] and evolving as a multicultural concept. The constitution outlines ''Buen Vivir'' as a set of rights, one of which is the rights of nature.<ref name="Gudynas">[[Eduardo Gudynas|Gudynas, Eduardo]]. 2011. Buen Vivir: Today's Tomorrow Development 54(4):441-447.</ref> In line with the assertion of these rights, ''Buen Vivir'' changes the relationship between nature and humans to a more bio-pluralistic view, eliminating the separation between nature and society.<ref name="Gudynas" /><ref name="SENPLADES">SENPLADES. 2009 National Plan for Good Living. Electronic document, http://plan2009.senplades.gob.ec/web/en/presentation, accessed May, 2012.</ref>
In [[Andes|Andean]] communities in [[Latin America]] development is expressed through the notion of ''sumak kawsay'', the [[Quechuan languages|Quechua]] word for "buen vivir", has been proposed as an alternative conception of development and has been incorporated into the constitutions of [[Ecuador]]. It connotes a harmonious collective development that conceives of the individual within the context of the social and cultural communities and his or her natural environment.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/FIELD/Cairo/images/RethinkingEducation.pdf|title=Rethinking Education. Towards a Global Common Good?|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=978-92-3-100088-1|pages=32}}</ref> Rooted in the indigenous belief system of the Quechua, the concept incorporates western critiques of dominant development models to offer an alternative paradigm based on harmony between human beings ''including'' the natural environment.
=== The idea ===
The rights of nature are not a new concept. Christopher Stone is widely credited with creating its first written work. In his famous book, "Should Trees Have Standing?",<ref name="Stone CD 1974 p 8" /> Stone presented the case for conferring legal personality and rights on the environment. As Stone explained, the natural object would “have a legally recognized worth and dignity in its own right, and not merely to serve as a means to benefit ‘us’”.<ref name="Stone CD 1974 p 8" /> He also pointed out that just like "streams and forests" do not have the power to speak for themselves, neither do corporations, or states, infants, municipalities and universities. "Lawyers speak for them, as they customarily do for the ordinary citizen with legal problems."<ref name="Stone CD 1974 p 8" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Kotze|first1=Louis J.|last2=Calzadilla|first2=Paola Villavicencio|date=2017|title=Somewhere between Rhetoric and Reality: Environmental Constitutionalism and the Rights of Nature in Ecuador|journal=Transnational Environmental Law|volume=6|issue=3|pages=401–433|doi=10.1017/S2047102517000061|s2cid=151721103 }}</ref>
Environmental activist and President of the Constitutional Assembly, [[:es:Alberto Acosta Espinosa|Alberto Acosta]] published ''Nature as a Subject of Rights''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://therightsofnature.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/Espanol/Acosta_DDN_2008.pdf|title=Hacia la Declaracion Universal de los Derechos de la Naturaleza|last=Acosta|first=Alberto|website=Global Alliance for the Rights of Nature|access-date=2019-12-10}}</ref> that first brought attention to the idea to the public and the government. Acosta proclaimed the rights of nature as a concept of historical progressivism. He compares it to when women were not thought of as subjects until they in fact became subjects of rights - so nature does not seem palpable in having rights-status until the concept is brought up and realized.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Tanasescu|first=Mihnea|date=2013|title=The Rights of Nature in Ecuador: The Making of an Idea|journal=International Journal of Environmental Studies|volume=70|issue=6|pages=846–61|doi=10.1080/00207233.2013.845715|bibcode=2013IJEnS..70..846T |s2cid=95850405 }}</ref> The subject of rights are altogether inconstruable unless the concept is put into perspective and does in fact become a subject that is arguable, agreeable, or simply just talk-able.
===Drafting===
President [[Rafael Correa]] included calling for a Constitutional Assembly in his 2006 campaign. On April 15, 2007, over 80% of Ecuadorians voted in favor of calling a new assembly, thanks in large part to the support of indigenous communities. Indigenous groups had been pressuring for a new, more inclusive constitution for years, and were therefore actively involved in the drafting process. Alberto Acosta, the elected Assembly President, pledged to make the assembly more inclusive and incorporate the concerns of the indigenous into the constitution. In the end, a few indigenous representatives were elected to the assembly.<ref name="Becker" /> To create a constitution based on the principles of ''Buen Vivir'', the Constitutional Assembly, with the advice of the [[Pachamama]] Alliance, enlisted the help of the Community Environmental Legal Defense Fund (CELDF) to draft language for the new provisions of the constitution detailing the Rights of Nature.<ref name="Celdf" /> Specifically the US lawyers Mari Margil (associate director) and Thomas Linzey (executive director) were asked to use their experience to help the Ecuadorean environmental groups draft the amendments. Indigenous groups also played a role in the drafting process. Fundación Pachamama, in conjunction with leaders in CONAIE, met with members of the assembly to present their ideas for the constitution and gain support. A national media campaign detailing the tenets of the new constitution and the Rights of Nature was also launched to inform and gain support from the public.<ref name="FP">Fundación Pachamama (FP). 2011 [http://www.derechosdelanaturaleza.org/website/files/2011/01/Recogniting-Rights-for-Nature-in-the-Ecuadorian-Constitution-Fundacion-Pachamama1.pdf "Recognizing Rights for Nature in the Ecuadorian Constitution"]</ref>
Multiple roundtables were held in order to discuss the feasibility of adding the Rights of Nature to the constitution. An important argument would be that of ''consent vs consultation.'' The indigenous communities and some members of the Constitutional Assembly advocated for a right to ''consent'', meaning they wanted a clear right to oppose or approve development projects, whereas the government opposed with promoting only ''consultation''. In conclusion, the government stance prevailed and Article 408 confirms that all natural resources are the state's property. The state can decide to exploit any natural resources that it recognizes to be of national importance, solely as long as it consults the affected communities, without having any obligation to an agreement.<ref name=":1" />
Assembly members Guillem Humberto and Ortiz Alfredo contended for the creation of an [[Ombudsman]] for Pachamama. This would replace the Minister of Environment, who was seen as inadequate, and would act as a legal guardian of nature's rights. In the end, Nature's Ombudsman was not added into the new constitution.<ref name=":1" />
In the end there were many reasons for wanting the Rights of Nature. As previously mentioned, indigenous groups, specifically the four members of the Pachakutik within the Constitutional Assembly, advocated for judiciary rights of their communities' way of living. A less sincere take would be that illustrated by Rafael Esteves, a member of the populist right. He said that it was greatly known that they would be the first to give nature its legal rights within their constitution, the mere fact of this is what drove some members into agreement with its passing.
===Adoption===
On April 10, 2008, with 91 votes out of 130, the [[Ecuadorian Constituent Assembly|Constitutional Assembly]] approved Article 10 for inclusion in the new constitution. On June 7, the language of Articles 71 through 74, compiling the Rights of Nature, were presented and debated on, before receiving approval for inclusion in the constitution.<ref name="FP" />
On September 28, 2008, a mandatory [[referendum]] was held to vote on the new constitution, where the adoption of the constitution was approved by 65% of voters.<ref name="Smith">Smith, Gar. 2009, "In Ecuador, Trees Now Have Rights", ''Earth Island Journal'' 23(4):15-15.</ref>
==Articles of the Rights of Nature==
The following articles are found under Title II: Rights in the Constitution of the Republic of Ecuador published in the Official Register on October 20, 2008.
===Chapter One: Principles for the Enforcement of Rights===
'''Article 10.''' Persons, communities, peoples, nations and communities are bearers of rights and shall enjoy the rights guaranteed to them in the Constitution and in international instruments.
Nature shall be the subject of those rights that the Constitution recognizes for it.
===Chapter Seven: Rights of Nature===
'''Article 71.''' Nature, or Pacha Mama, where life is reproduced and occurs, has the right to integral respect for its existence and for the maintenance and regeneration of its life cycles, structure, functions and evolutionary processes.
All persons, communities, peoples and nations can call upon public authorities to enforce the rights of nature. To enforce and interpret these rights, the principles set forth in the Constitution shall be observed, as appropriate.
The State shall give incentives to natural persons and legal entities and to communities to protect nature and to promote respect for all the elements comprising an ecosystem.
'''Article 72.''' Nature has the right to be restored. This restoration shall be apart from the obligation of the State and natural persons or legal entities to compensate individuals and communities that depend on affected natural systems.
In those cases of severe or permanent environmental impact, including those caused by the exploitation of nonrenewable natural resources, the State shall establish the most effective mechanisms to achieve the restoration and shall adopt adequate measures to eliminate or mitigate harmful environmental consequences.
'''Article 73.''' The State shall apply preventive and restrictive measures on activities that might lead to the extinction of species, the destruction of ecosystems and the permanent alteration of natural cycles.
The introduction of organisms and organic and inorganic material that might definitively alter the nation's genetic assets is forbidden.
'''Article 74.''' Persons, communities, peoples, and nations shall have the right to benefit from the environment and the natural wealth enabling them to enjoy the good way of living.
Environmental services shall not be subject to appropriation; their production, delivery, use and development shall be regulated by the State.<ref name="PDBA">[http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/Ecuador/english08.html "2008 Constitution of the Republic of Ecuador. Political Database of the Americas (PDBA)"].</ref>
==Philosophy==
Ecuador's codification of the Rights of Nature is significant as it is the first case where this concept has been evoked at the national level. The articles set out a rights-based system that recognizes Nature, or ''Pachamama'', as a right-bearing entity that holds value in itself, apart from human use. This differs from traditional systems that see nature as property, giving landowners the right to damage or destroy ecosystems that depend on their land. The rights-based approach spelled out in the Rights of Nature expands on previous laws for regulation and conservation by recognizing that nature has fundamental and inalienable rights as a valuable entity in and of itself. The system also assigns liability for damage to the environment and holds the government responsible for the reparation of any damage. Additionally, if an ecosystem's rights are violated, it gives people the authority to petition on behalf of the ecosystem to ensure that its interests are not subverted to the interests of individuals or corporations.<ref name="Celdf" /><ref name="Acosta" />
The inclusion of the Rights of Nature also makes the constitution more democratic and inclusive, as it reflects the indigenes' idea of Nature as a mother that must be respected and celebrated. This is the first constitution that has incorporated indigenous concepts of ''sumak kawsay'' and ''Pachamama'', as well as recognized the [[plurinationality]] of Ecuador. This has broad significance for the recognition of indigenous groups and their right to preserve their land and culture. The combination of human rights with the rights of nature will allow for more effective protection of indigenous communities.<ref name="FP" />
The Rights of Nature are further incorporated in the updated National Plan for Good Living, which states guaranteeing the Rights of Nature and promoting a healthy and sustainable environment as one of its twelve objectives. Policies under the objective include aims to preserve and manage biodiversity, diversify the national energy matrix with renewable sources, prevent, control and mitigate environmental damage, promote adaptation to and [[mitigation of climate change]], and incorporate environmental approach in all public policies.<ref name="SENPLADES" />
=== From anthropocentric to ecocentric ===
The environmental laws that exist in the Anthropocene are geared toward the advantage of the human race. The rules to protect the environment are set for the health and wellness of humanity. Nature is seen as a property to humans.
The Anthropocene is catered to humans of privilege. Throughout history, it is evident that the government and powerful people have specified an ''otherness.'' "Like women, homosexuals and non-whites, nature is 'othered' by people through privileging law and rights that distinguish between subject and object."<ref name=":2" />
Ecuador has taken action towards an ecocentric influenced constitution, giving nature legal, constitutional rights. This means that Ecuador has recognized nature, or Pachamama, as a capable and deserving right-bearing entity that is equal to humans. The Rights of Nature also transforms the relationship between nature and humans by asserting that nature is not just an object.<ref name="Mychalejko">Mychalejko, Cyril. 2008 Ecuador's Constitution Gives Rights to Nature. Philadelphia Independent Media Center.</ref> By putting ecosystems on an equal footing with humans, the conception of humans as masters or as separate from nature is dismissed.<ref name="Gudynas" /> Instead, this system celebrates nature and recognizes that humans are a part of it.<ref name="Arsel" /> Many have thought this to be part of progressivism and related it to other examples of progression such as homosexual rights and the rights of women.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}
== Outcomes and implementation ==
===Legal effects===
The Rights of Nature has been applied to several legal disputes and considered in government development initiatives.
====''Wheeler c. Director de la Procuraduria General Del Estado de Loja''====
''Wheeler c. Director de la Procuraduria General Del Estado de Loja'' was the first case in history to vindicate the Rights of Nature. The lawsuit was filed against the local government near Rio Vilcabamba in March 2011, who were responsible for a road expansion project that dumped debris into the river, narrowing its width and thereby doubling its speed. The project was also done without the completion of an [[environmental impact assessment]] or consent of the local residents. The case was filed by two such residents, citing the violation of the Rights of Nature, rather than property rights, for the damage done to the river. The case was important because the court stated that the rights of nature would prevail over other constitutional rights if they were in conflict with each other, setting an important precedent. The proceedings also confirmed that the burden of proof to show there is no damage lies with the defendant. Though the plaintiffs were granted a victory in court, the enforcement of the ruling has been lacking, as the local government has been slow to comply with the mandated reparations.<ref name="Daly">Daly, Erin. 2012, [http://celdf.live2.radicaldesigns.org/downloads/The_Ecuadorian_Exemplar_The_First_Ever_Vindications_of_Constitutional_Rights_of_Nature.pdf "Ecuadorian Exemplar: The First Ever Vindications of Constitutional Rights"], ''Review of European Community & International Environmental Law'' 21(1): 63-66.</ref>
====República del Ecuador Asamblea Nacional, Comisión de la Biodiversidad y Recursos Naturales====
In March 2011, right after the ruling on the ''Wheeler'' case, the government of Ecuador filed a case against illegal gold mining operations in northern Ecuador, in the remote districts San Lorenzo and Eloy Alfaro. The rights of nature were violated by the mining operations, which were argued to be polluting the nearby rivers. This case is different from the previous in that it was the government addressing the violation of the rights of nature. It was also swiftly enforced, as military operation to destroy the machinery used for [[illegal mining]] was ordered and implemented.<ref name="Daly" />
====Yasuni ITT initiative====
The Yasuni-Ishpingo, Tambococha, and Tiputini (ITT) Initiative, referring to the corridor of oil reserves within the [[Yasuni National Park]], is the first post-oil development initiative that recognizes that the benefits gained from the [[Amazon rainforest|Amazon]] are greater than the economic benefits from oil extraction. The aim of the initiative is therefore to protect the biodiversity of the area, which UNESCO has declared a biodiversity reserve, by keeping the oil reserves in the ground, in return for compensation from the international community for at least half of the projected benefit Ecuador would receive from the oil extraction (approximately $3.5 billion). These funds would be used to fund other economic initiatives to alleviate poverty and develop the renewable energy sector. The importance of keeping the oil in the ITT area in the ground has been argued as of international importance to mitigate the effects of global climate change by preventing CO<sub>2</sub> emissions and the local environmental devastation the extraction would cause. The Rights of Nature and other articles of the new constitution also make the protection of the park a legal imperative, as the extraction would be a violation of nature's rights.<ref name="Acosta" /> Though there originally was some difficulty evoking a sense of international responsibility to fund the initiative, especially with the national constitution requiring this law already, eventually in August 2010 Ecuador came to an arrangement with the UNDP for funding of the initiative through the issue of Yasuní Guarantee Certificates, denoting the amount of CO<sub>2</sub> emissions avoided and their monetary value, which can potentially be used in the [[European Union]] [[European Union Emission Trading Scheme|Emission Trading Scheme]].<ref name="Arsel" />
==== Los Cedros ====
In 2021, in a landmark ruling, the constitutional court of Ecuador decided that mining permits for plans to mine for copper and gold in the protected cloud forest in Los Cedros, would harm the biodiversity and violate the rights of nature, and would be unconstitutional.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Greenfield|first=Patrick|date=2021-12-02|title=Plans to mine Ecuador forest violate rights of nature, court rules|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/dec/02/plan-to-mine-in-ecuador-forest-violate-rights-of-nature-court-rules-aoe|access-date=2021-12-05|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref>
==Reactions==
===Praise===
The adoption of the Rights of Nature by Ecuador has received praise internationally by many countries who see this as a revolutionary way to conceptualize the environment and a way for Ecuador to move beyond the extractive economy of its past.<ref name="Madden">{{Cite web|url=https://www.carnegiecouncil.org/publications/archive/policy_innovations/index|title=Policy Innovations Digital Magazine (2006-2016) {{!}} Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs|website=www.carnegiecouncil.org|language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-27}}</ref> Initiatives to adopt the concept of ecosystem rights have been taken or are being taken in various parts of the world, including Bolivia, Turkey, Nepal, and various municipalities in the United States.<ref name="Celdf" /> In 2010, Bolivia adopted the Law of the Rights of Mother Earth to recognize rights of nature at the national level. The Colombian Constitutional and Supreme Courts recognized rights for the Atrato river and Amazon ecosystem in 2016 and 2018, respectively.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chapron|first1=Guillaume|last2=Epstein|first2=Yaffa|last3=López-Bao|first3=José Vicente|date=2019-03-29|title=A rights revolution for nature|journal=Science|language=en|volume=363|issue=6434|pages=1392–1393|doi=10.1126/science.aav5601|issn=0036-8075|pmid=30872530|bibcode=2019Sci...363.1392C|doi-access=free}}</ref>
===Criticisms===
Criticisms of the Rights of Nature have generally centered on the mechanisms of enforcement of the provision. One criticism is that though the constitution establishes stronger regulations for the environment, it also gives the state the power to relax these regulations if found to be in the national interest.<ref name="Arsel" /> Therefore, much of the enforcement of the ecosystem's rights depends on the will of the government, or an active citizenry.<ref name="Becker" /> Indigenous groups have also expressed dissatisfaction that the constitution does not give local communities veto power over projects affecting their land.<ref name="FP" /> The amendments only call for ''consultation'' of the projects, rather than ''consent'' by the surrounding communities, which can undermine their ability to uphold the rights of nature.<ref name="Mychalejko" /> There are also concerns that the Rights of Nature could negatively affect [[foreign direct investment]] since companies will not want to comply with the more stringent regulations.<ref name="Madden" /> On the other hand, people are skeptical of the Correa administration for still approving projects by foreign extraction companies violating the Rights of Nature.<ref name="Mychalejko" /> This skepticism comes from the history of corruption within the Ecuadorean government. As well as the facts that Correa is shutting down any environmental groups that stand for the Rights of Nature such as the [[Acción Ecológica|Accion Ecologica]] (AE) as well as the Development Council of the Indigenous Nationalities and Peoples of Ecuador (CODENPE).<ref name=":3" />
There is much criticism on the text itself of the Rights of Nature, specifically on their content and structure. Some argue the controversy or clashing of articles and the lack of hierarchy between them. There is no clear understanding whether human's constitutional rights or nature's constitutional rights has more power. Another thing would be the vagueness of the text that leaves a lot of important factors without specific definition. Ecuador does not define "la naturaleza" or "Pachamama," making the extents of the groups involved unclear. It also leaves to question who is given judicial standing to represent nature, and who is going to enforce those rights. Along those same lines, the extent of protection or remediation is unspecified.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Whittemore|first=Mary Elizabeth|date=June 2011|title=The Problem of Enforcing Nature's Rights under Ecuador's Constitution: Why the 2008 Environmental Amendments Have No Bite|journal=Pacific Rim Law & Policy Journal|volume=20|pages=659–691}}</ref>
==Sources==
{{Free-content attribution
| title = Rethinking Education. Towards a Global Common Good?
| author =
| publisher = UNESCO
| page numbers = p32
| source =
| documentURL = http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/FIELD/Cairo/images/RethinkingEducation.pdf
| license statement URL =
| license = CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0
}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
<!--- After listing your sources please cite them using inline citations and place them after the information they cite. Please see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:REFB for instructions on how to add citations. --->
==Further reading==
* Rühs, N.; Jones, A (2016) [http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/8/2/174 The Implementation of Earth Jurisprudence through Substantive Constitutional Rights of Nature] ''Sustainability'', 8, 174.
* Tabios Hillebrecht, A. L.; Berros, M. V. [http://www.environmentandsociety.org/perspectives/2017/6/can-nature-have-rights-legal-and-political-insights ''Can Nature Have Rights? Legal and Political Insights''] ''RCC Perspectives: Transformations in Environment and Society'' 2017, no. 6. doi.org/10.5282/rcc/8164.
{{Rights of nature law}}
[[Category:Environment of Ecuador]]
[[Category:Environmental ethics]]
[[Category:Environmental law in Ecuador]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Rights of nature]]
[[Category:Environmental philosophy]]
[[Category:Free content from UNESCO]]
[[Category:Environmental personhood]] |
Department of Conservation (New Zealand) | {{Short description|New Zealand government agency}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2015}}
{{Use New Zealand English|date=June 2015}}
{{Infobox government agency
| agency_name = Department of Conservation
| native_name = {{lang-mi|Te Papa Atawhai}}
| logo = Department of Conservation New Zealand logo.svg
| logo_width =
| logo_caption =
| formed = {{start date and age|1 April 1987}}
| preceding1 =
| jurisdiction = New Zealand
| headquarters = Conservation House,<br />18–32 Manners Street,<br />[[Wellington]] 6011
| employees = 2,413 [[Full-time equivalent|FTE]] staff<br />(30 June 2020)<ref>{{cite web |title=FTE employees by department |work=Workforce data |publisher=Public Service Commission |date=30 June 2020 |accessdate=9 December 2020 |url=https://www.publicservice.govt.nz/our-work/workforce-data/2020-fact-sheet-summary/ |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120085824/https://www.publicservice.govt.nz/our-work/workforce-data/2020-fact-sheet-summary/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| budget = Total budget for 2019/20<br />{{increase}}$600,588,000<ref>{{cite web| url=https://treasury.govt.nz/publications/summary-tables/summary-tables-estimates-appropriations-2019-20-html#section-9| title=Total Appropriations for Each Vote| work=Budget 2019| date=30 May 2019| publisher=The Treasury}}</ref>
| minister1_name = Hon [[Tama Potaka]]
| minister1_pfo = [[Minister of Conservation (New Zealand)|Minister of Conservation]]
| chief1_name = Penny Nelson
| chief1_position = Director-General
| website = {{Official URL}}
}}
The '''Department of Conservation''' ('''DOC'''; [[Māori language|Māori]]: ''Te Papa Atawhai'') is the public service department of New Zealand charged with the conservation of New Zealand's natural and historical heritage.
An advisory body, the [[New Zealand Conservation Authority|New Zealand Conservation Authority (NZCA)]] is provided to advise DOC and its ministers.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/about-us/statutory-and-advisory-bodies/nz-conservation-authority/| title=New Zealand Conservation Authority - NZCA| publisher=Department of Conservation}}</ref> In addition there are 15 conservation boards for different areas around the country that provide for interaction between DOC and the public.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/about-us/statutory-and-advisory-bodies/conservation-boards/| title=Conservation Boards| publisher=Department of Conservation}}</ref>
==Function==
=== Overview ===
[[File:Fjordland National Park sign.jpg|thumb|DOC signs of this format are commonly seen around New Zealand conservation areas.]]
[[File:DOC Hut On The Rakiura Track Stewart Island.jpg|thumb|DOC operates much of the backcountry tourist infrastructure of the country, such as this overnight hut on the [[Rakiura Track]].]]
The department was formed on 1 April 1987, as one of several reforms of the public service, when the ''[[Conservation Act 1987]]''<ref name="CA">{{cite web| url=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1987/0065/latest/DLM103610.html| title=Conservation Act 1987| publisher=Parliamentary Counsel Office}}</ref> was passed to integrate some functions of the [[Department of Lands and Survey]], the [[New Zealand Forest Service|Forest Service]] and the [[New Zealand Wildlife Service|Wildlife Service]].<ref name='nathan'>{{cite encyclopedia
|first=Simon |last=Nathan
|title= Conservation – a history - Changing organisations and ideas, 1985–2006
|encyclopedia= Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date= 2 March 2009
|url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/conservation-a-history/10
|access-date= 31 May 2012}}</ref> This act also set out the majority of the department's responsibilities and roles.
As a consequence of Conservation Act all [[Crown land]] in New Zealand designated for conservation and protection became managed by the Department of Conservation.<ref name='nathan'/> This is about 30% of New Zealand's land area or about 8 million hectares of native forests, tussocklands, alpine areas, wetlands, dunelands, estuaries, lakes and islands, national forests, maritime parks, marine reserves, nearly 4000 reserves, river margins, some coastline, and many offshore islands. All of the land under its control is protected for either conservation, ecological, scenic, [[scientific]], [[historic]] or [[cultural]] reasons, and for recreation.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | first= Ian |last= Popay
|title= Weeds of agriculture - Weeds in water and in ecosystems
|encyclopedia= Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date= 1 March 2009
|url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/weeds-of-agriculture/3
|access-date= 31 May 2012}}</ref>
Providing for recreation is a major part of its core work, and this covers the management of family picnic sites, as well as maintaining rugged backcountry tracks and over 1000 accompanying [[backcountry hut]]s that are used by hunters and recreational trampers. DOC also administers the [[Nature Heritage Fund]], and is responsible for supporting rural [[fire control]] by acting under the direction of [[Fire and Emergency New Zealand]] when a fire occurs on land it manages.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://blog.doc.govt.nz/2017/09/09/fighting-fires-with-docs-dedicated-staff/ | title=Fighting fires with dedicated DOC staff | Conservation blog | date=8 September 2017 }}</ref> Up until June 2017, DOC was the designated fire authority for all land under its control.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://blog.doc.govt.nz/2017/09/09/fighting-fires-with-docs-dedicated-staff/ | title=Fighting fires with dedicated DOC staff | Conservation blog | date=8 September 2017 }}</ref>
In addition to its work managing land and providing for recreation in New Zealand, DOC works to preserve its [[natural heritage]]. This includes preservation of historic sites on public conservation land, saving native [[threatened species]], managing threats like [[Pest control|pests]] and [[Weed control|weeds]], [[environmental restoration]], caring for [[marine (ocean)|marine]] life, and assisting landowners to effectively preserve natural heritage.
The methods of achieving these goals have resulted in controversy, where some people claim that the Department of Conservation is overly biased towards environmentalists at the expense of New Zealand's economy. This is particularly a concern amongst some farmers and other industries that are major users of neighbouring land, many of whom have been affected by decisions of the department. However, these criticised DOC efforts have also been lauded for achieving some success, for both conservationists and farmers, [[Common Brushtail Possum (New Zealand)#Control|having led to a significant drop in possum populations]] during the last decades.
The DOC was floated as the agency to supervise the construction of the proposed [[National Cycleway Project|New Zealand Cycleway]],<ref name="Stuff.co.nz_1759909">{{cite web |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/archived-stuff-sections/archived-business-sections/business/1759909 | title=Best job ideas in Budget round - English | last = Field | first = Michael |date=2 March 2009 | work = Stuff | publisher = Fairfax | access-date=28 September 2011}}</ref> though this is now being managed primarily by the Ministry of Tourism, in coordination with the DOC where appropriate.
After a number of years of falling budgets, in 2013 the department announced it would be slashing 140 jobs and narrowing its 11-region structure into six.<ref>{{cite news| url= http://www.3news.co.nz/DOC-to-cut-140-jobs/tabid/1160/articleID/291821/Default.aspx|work=3 News NZ |title= DOC to cut 140 jobs| date=26 March 2013}}</ref>
As part of New Zealand's programme of economic recovery post the peak of the Covid-19 pandemic and the following economic downturn DOC is working alongside the Ministry for the Environment, Department of Conservation, Ministry for Primary Industries, Land Information New Zealand and Ministry of Business Innovation and Employment to fund a number of temporary projects with the objective of creating jobs and assisting New Zealand's efforts to further protect the environment.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2023-03-31 |title=Jobs for nature |url=https://environment.govt.nz/what-government-is-doing/areas-of-work/jobs-for-nature/ |access-date=2023-06-22 |website=Ministry for the Environment |language=en-GB}}</ref> As of June 2023 the project, entitled "[https://www.doc.govt.nz/our-work/jobs-for-nature--mahi-mo-te-taiao/ Jobs For Nature]", has employed 4,694 individuals over 193 projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jobs for Nature – Mahi mō te Taiao |url=https://www.doc.govt.nz/our-work/jobs-for-nature--mahi-mo-te-taiao/ |access-date=2023-06-22 |website=www.doc.govt.nz |language=en-nz}}</ref> The programme's investment is estimated to be worth approximately NZ$1.19Billion, with the projects undertaken focused on providing temporary employment as well benefit the environment, people, and regional New Zealand.<ref name=":0" />
===Headquarters===
The Department of Conservation moved into a new headquarters, Conservation House, on Manners Street, [[Wellington]] in 2006. It is the first [[green building]] in New Zealand to be given a 5-star rating, having won numerous environmental awards, including a top 10 placing by [[Grist Magazine]].<ref>{{cite web| url=http://thewellingtoncompany.co.nz/press_grist.html| title=No 9 In the World| publisher=The Wellington Company| date=2012| access-date=5 June 2008| archive-date=13 January 2015| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150113232535/http://thewellingtoncompany.co.nz/press_grist.html| url-status=dead}}</ref> The site was originally a cinema complex operated by the [[Hoyts|Hoyts Group]] from the mid-1980s until the early 2000s, when it closed down in the face of stiff competition.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://thewellingtoncompany.co.nz/conserv_hse.html| title=Conservation House| publisher=The Wellington Company| date=2012| access-date=5 June 2008}}</ref>
== Conservation land ==
New Zealand has [[National parks of New Zealand|13 national parks]], and a wide number of other conservation lands with varying levels of environmental protection, called the "conservation estate" in total.<ref name="GREENZONE"/> About one third of this estate, generally the land considered most valuable, has been protected from mining since 1997 via being listed in Schedule 4 of the [[Crown Minerals Act 1991]] (though recent (2010) moves by the Fifth National Government have proposed exemption some areas from Schedule 4).<ref name="GREENZONE">{{cite news|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/pollution/news/article.cfm?c_id=281&objectid=10630166&pnum=0|title=Miners press to enter the green zone|date=6 March 2010|work=[[The New Zealand Herald]]|access-date=26 March 2010|first=Geoff|last=Cumming}}</ref>
While much of the conservation land not protected as national parks or Schedule 4 land is much more damaged or human-modified than the core conservation areas, these areas serve as boundary and species buffer zones.<ref name="GREENZONE"/>
==Incidents ==
===Cave Creek disaster===
{{main|Cave Creek disaster}}
In 1995, 14 people died when a viewing platform maintained by the Department of Conservation collapsed. Immediately following the tragedy, all of the department's 106 viewing platforms throughout New Zealand were checked. Fifteen platforms were closed for repairs.<ref>[http://library.christchurch.org.nz/Kids/NZDisasters/CaveCreek.asp ''New Zealand disasters - Cave Creek''] Christchurch City Council Library website, viewed 5/9/2007</ref>
A Commission of Inquiry that followed the tragedy revealed that the department had acted illegally and negligently in constructing the viewing platform. The commission also stated that the department was seriously underfunded for the tasks with which it was delegated, resulting in a culture of sub-standard safety procedures having been used for the building and maintenance of some of its facilities.<ref>[http://www.doc.govt.nz/publications/about-doc/news/issues/commission-of-inquiry-cave-creek-report/ Commission of inquiry Cave Creek report] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130218084706/http://www.doc.govt.nz/publications/about-doc/news/issues/commission-of-inquiry-cave-creek-report/ |date=18 February 2013 }}, Review the Commission of Inquiry into the collapse of a viewing platform at Cave Creek near Punakaiki on the West Coast. Judge Noble's report, Published: 1995. DOC website, accessed 17 December 2012.</ref>
Many people in New Zealand criticised the government for the department's situation, and [[Denis Marshall (politician)|Denis Marshall]], the presiding Minister of Conservation at the time, eventually resigned over the incident. Since the inquiry, radical changes have been made to the department's procedures to prioritise safety, including the implementation of a comprehensive asset management system to catalogue, track and trigger regular inspections of all significant structures and facilities managed by the department.
===Raoul Island eruption===
{{Further|Raoul Island}}
In March 2006, a volcanic eruption at the Green Lake of [[Raoul Island]], administered by the Department of Conservation, was believed to have killed DOC worker Mark Kearney. At the exact time of the eruption, Kearney is thought to have been taking temperature measurements of the lake as part of a programme for monitoring volcanic activity. Five other DOC workers, who were also living on the island, were forced to evacuate back to New Zealand shortly after the eruption. Searches for Kearney, which have been inhibited by the island's remote location and the risks of further volcanic activity, have since failed to find any signs of him.
==List of directors-general==
Directors-General of DOC (Chief Executive) are:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! No.
! Name
! Portrait
! colspan=2 |Term of office
|-
| align=center | '''1''' || Ken Piddington || [[File:Ken Piddington, 1977.jpg|60px]] || April 1987 || March 1988
|-
| align=center | - || Peter Bygate<br><small>''acting''</small> || || March 1988 || August 1988
|-
| align=center | '''2''' || David McDowell || || August 1988 || October 1989
|-
| align=center | - || Peter Bygate<br><small>''acting''</small> || || November 1989 || February 1990
|-
| align=center | '''3''' || Bill Mansfield || || February 1990 || May 1997
|-
| align=center | '''4''' || Hugh Logan || || May 1997 || May 2006
|-
| align=center | '''5''' || Al Morrison || [[File:Al Morrison (crop).jpg|60px]] || November 2006 || September 2013<ref>{{cite news |url=http://wellington.scoop.co.nz/?p=54803 |title=Al Morrison leaving Conservation Dept, joining State Services Commission |date=24 April 2013 |work=[[Scoop.co.nz]] |access-date=22 September 2020 }}</ref>
|-
| align=center | '''6''' || [[Lou Sanson]]|| [[File:Lou Sanson (crop).jpg|60px]] || September 2013<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/the-press/news/9012381/DOC-appoints-new-chief-executive |title=DOC appoints new chief executive |date=7 August 2013 |work=[[Stuff.co.nz]] |access-date=22 September 2020 |first=Anna |last=Turner }}</ref> || September 2021
|-
| align=center | - || Bruce Parkes<br><small>''acting''</small> || || September 2021 || November 2021
|-
| align=center | '''7''' || Penny Nelson || || November 2021<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/126240146/penny-nelson-appointed-as-new-directorgeneral-of-department-of-conservation |title=Penny Nelson appointed as new director-general of Department of Conservation |date=1 September 2021 |work=[[Stuff.co.nz]] |access-date=11 September 2021 |first=Kate |last=Green }}</ref> || present
|}
==See also==
*[[Biodiversity of New Zealand]]
*[[Conservation in New Zealand]]
*[[National parks of New Zealand]]
*[[Forest parks of New Zealand]]
*[[New Zealand Great Walks]]
*[[Regional parks of New Zealand]]
*[[Tramping in New Zealand]]
*[[Australasian Fire and Emergency Service Authorities Council]]
*[[1080 usage in New Zealand]], of which DOC is one of the largest users.
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==External links==
{{Commons category|Department of Conservation (New Zealand)}}
* {{Official website}}
** [http://blog.doc.govt.nz/ ''Conservation blog'' The department's blog]
{{NZ Public Service Departments}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:1987 establishments in New Zealand]]
[[Category:New Zealand Public Service departments]]
[[Category:Nature conservation organisations based in New Zealand|Department of Conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Forestry agencies|New Zealand]]
[[Category:Environmental agencies]]
[[Category:Forestry in New Zealand]] |
Southeast Rügen Biosphere Reserve | [[File:Karte Biosphärenreservat Südost-Rügen.png|thumb|300px|Location]]
[[File:Logo Biosphärenreservat Südost-Rügen.svg|thumb|Logo]]
[[File:Mönchgut, westliche Steilküste.jpg|thumb|The ''[[bodden]]'' coast]]
[[File:Hudeeiche.jpg|thumb|Core zone]]
[[File:Vilm Wald am Meer.JPG|thumb|Wood on the cliffed coast at Vilm]]
The '''Southeast Rügen Biosphere Reserve''' ({{lang-de|Biosphärenreservat Südost-Rügen}}) is a [[biosphere reserve]] in the German state of [[Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]], which covers the southeastern part of the island of [[Rügen]] (including [[Granitz]] and [[Mönchgut]]), the lagoon of [[Rügischer Bodden]] between [[Putbus]] and [[Thiessow]], the outer coast between Thiessow and [[Binz]] and the island of [[Vilm]].
In the biosphere reserve all the classic landscape and coastal features of the Mecklenburg-Vorpommern littoral are found within one small area. The land is deeply indented here by the sea. One the one hand, peninsulas and coastal headlands are linked by narrow strips of land, on the other side they are separated by lagoons known as ''[[bodden]]s'' and open bays called ''Wieken'' locally. There are fine-sanded beaches and rugged [[cliffed coast]]lines, at the foot of which are impressive rocky beaches. Broad belts of reed girdle the shores. Beech woods or poor grasslands are found on the sites of [[terminal moraine]]s and meadows and pastures in the depressions formed after the [[Ice age|Ice Ages]].
Cultural features include [[megalithic tomb]]s of the [[New Stone Age]], Bronze Age [[tumuli]], medieval churches and village layouts, and the [[resort architecture]] of the [[Modern Era]].
It was made a biosphere reserve in 1990 as part of the [[GDR]]'s national park programme.
* Area: 235 km<sup>2</sup>
* Its variety of species includes its:
** great importance as a rest and breeding area for migratory birds, mainly various species of goose ([[greylag goose|greylag]], [[bean goose|bean]] and [[greater white-fronted geese]])
** bee species: e. g. [[Anthophora|furry]], apex-furrowed and [[Megachilidae|cone bees]]; [[cuckoo wasp|cuckoo]] and [[social wasp]]s.
** colonies of [[seagrass]], [[red algae|red]] and [[green algae]] in the nearshore areas of the Bay of Greifswald that form [[spawning ground]]s for [[Atlantic herring|Baltic Sea herring]].
The biosphere reserve has several core zones or total reserves. These include the [[Schwarzer See (Granitz)|Schwarzer See]] in the Granitz as well as the islands of [[Vilm]] and parts of the Mönchgut and Zicker peninsulas.
<!--
Von 1995 bis 2009 erhielt das Biosphärenreservat Unterstützung im Rahmen des [[Naturschutzgroßprojekt]]es ''Ostrügensche Boddenlandschaft''<ref>[http://www.bfn.de/0203_ostruegen.html Vorstellung des Naturschutzgroßprojektes ''Ostrügensche Boddenlandschaft''] auf den Seiten des [[Bundesamt für Naturschutz|Bundesamtes für Naturschutz]]</ref>, welches im Mai 2009 abgeschlossen wurde<ref>Artikel vom 13. Mai 2009: [http://www.bfn.de/0401_pressearchiv_2009.html Naturschutzgroßprojekt "Ostrügensche Boddenlandschaft" erfolgreich abgeschlossen]</ref>.
Da ein Biosphärenreservat mindestens 30000 Hektar umfassen muss<ref>[http://www.unesco.de/fileadmin/medien/Dokumente/Bibliothek/BroschKriterienendfass31.10.07.pdf Deutsches MAB-Nationalkomitee (1996):Kriterien für die Anerkennung und Überprüfung von Biosphärenreservaten der UNESCO in Deutschland (PDF)] siehe S.6, Abschnitt Strukturelle Kriterien: Flächengröße und Abgrenzung</ref>, wird, nach Feststellung dieses Mangels durch die UNESCO-Evaluierung 2005, an einer Gebietsvergrößerung rund um den Jasmunder Bodden gearbeitet.<ref>[http://www.biosphaerenreservat-suedostruegen.de/de/willkommen/presse/insula_rugia_e_v_fordert_ruegen_soll_ein_biosphaerenreservat_werden INSULA RUGIA e.V. fordert: Rügen soll ein Biosphärenreservat werden. Zeitungsartikel vom 25. März 2009]</ref><ref>[http://www.biosphaerenreservat-suedostruegen.de/de/willkommen/presse/biosphaerenreservat_will_wachsen Biosphärenreservat will wachsen. Zeitungsartikel vom 20.Oktober 2008]</ref>
Seit 2008 wird ein [[Pflege- und Entwicklungsplan]] erarbeitet.<ref>[http://www.landschaftskommunikation.de/03_referenzen/referenzen.htm Erarbeitung einer Grundsatzplanung – Leitbild und Ziele – für ein erweitertes Biosphärenreservat Südost-Rügen. Büro für Landschaftskommunikation.]</ref>
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== Nature reserves ==
The seven nature reserves cover an area of 4,084 hectares:
* [[Goor-Muglitz Nature Reserve|Goor-Muglitz]] (142 ha)
* [[Granitz Nature Reserve|Granitz]] (1162 ha)
* [[Insel Vilm Nature Reserve|Insel Vilm]] (171 ha)
* [[Mönchgut Nature Reserve|Mönchgut]] (2320 ha)
* [[Neuensiener und Selliner See Nature Reserve|Neuensiener und Selliner See]] (213 ha)
* [[Quellsumpf Ziegensteine bei Groß Stresow Nature Reserve|Quellsumpf Ziegensteine bei Groß Stresow]] (4 ha)
* [[Wreechener See Nature Reserve|Wreechener See]] (72 ha)
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== Entstehung ==
Rügen ist, erdgeschichtlich betrachtet, eine sehr junge Insel, deren Küstenlinie sich auch heute noch ständig verändert. Für die Entstehung von Rügen waren im Wesentlichen die Gletscher der [[Weichsel-Kaltzeit|Weichsel-Eiszeit]] ausschlaggebend, welche von Skandinavien nach Süden vordrangen. Vor etwa 10.000 Jahren, nachdem das letzte Eis der Weichsel-Eiszeit abgeschmolzen war und die Ostsee dadurch einen erheblich höheren Wasserstand aufwies als heute, ragten einzelne Inselgruppen, bestehend aus den Inseln Wittow, Jasmund, Mönchgut und Granitz, aus der Ostsee empor.
Die Halbinsel Mönchgut wurde durch diese Gletschervorstöße und die anschließende Entwicklung der Ostsee mit ihren küstendynamischen Prozessen (Wind und Wasser) geformt. Während im Raum der heutigen Boddengewässer und [[Nehrung]]en noch große [[Toteis]]blöcke lagen, wurden dazwischenliegende Spalten mit Schmelzwassersanden unterschiedlicher Mächtigkeit gefüllt. Nehrungen sind weit geschwungene, schmale, meistens sandige Landstreifen, die einen flacheren Teil des Meeres vom offenen Wasser abtrennen.
„Spaltenfüllungen“ blieben nach dem Abschmelzen des Eises als Vollformen zurück. Im Wesentlichen bestehen diese heutigen, mehr oder weniger langgestreckten Hügelketten aus geschichteten feinkörnigen Sanden. Die Sande sind häufig von einer geringmächtigen [[Moräne]] lückenhaft bedeckt. Geschiebemergel hat sich in unregelmäßigen Abständen in den liegenden Feinsand aufgepresst.
Geschiebemergel ist ein als [[Grundmoräne]] abgelagertes, umgeschichtetes und mit Blöcken und [[Geschiebe]]n versetztes Sediment. Dieser Geschiebemergel ist in der Regel kalkhaltig. Heute ist das Mönchgut durch einen charakteristischen Wechsel von reliefreichen Inselkernen und Nehrungen geprägt.
Beispielsweise ist der „Bakenberg“ mit 66 m die höchste Erhebung des Inselkerns. Mit 43–45m weisen das Nordperd und das Zickersche Höft die höchsten Kliffs des Gebietes auf. Natürliche Fließgewässer fehlen ganz. Kleinflächig finden sich kleine Durchströmungsmoore und auf Groß Zicker auch [[Hangquellmoor]]e.
== Typische Tiere und Pflanzen ==
*Weide-Magerrasen: [[Wiesen-Schlüsselblume]] (''Primula veris''), [[Pechnelke]] (Silene viscaria), [[Schwalbenschwanz (Schmetterling)|Schwalbenschwanz]]
*Steppen-Trockenrasen: [[Berg-Haarstrang]] (''Peucedanum oreoselinum''), [[Pfirsichblättrige Glockenblume]] (''Campanula persicifolia''), [[Heidelerche]]
*Enzian-Schillergrasrasen: [[Zierliches Schillergras]] (''Koeleria macrantha''), [[Steifer Augentrost]] (''Euphrasia stricta''), [[Westliche Beißschrecke]] (''Platycleis albopunctata'')
== Abiotische Umweltfaktoren ==
*Wasser: Das Biosphärenreservat liegt im [[Regenschatten]], deshalb ist das Gebiet das niederschlagsärmste in ganz Deutschland. Dadurch sind die Pflanzen langen Trockenperioden ausgesetzt.
*Licht: Auf der Halbinsel Mönchgut scheint nach Messungen ca. 1900 Stunden im Jahr die Sonne, soviel wie nirgendwo anders in Deutschland. Demzufolge wird der Prozess der [[Photosynthese]] begünstigt.
*Boden: Der Untergrund des Biosphärenreservats besteht aus kalkhaltigem [[Geschiebemergel]]. Deswegen weist der Boden dort einen hohen [[Calciumcarbonat|Kalkgehalt]] auf und ist trocken und nährstoffarm.
-->
== Literature ==
* {{cite web |publisher=Amt für das Biosphärenreservat Südost-Rügen|url= http://www.landschaftskommunikation.de/02_produkte/vomlandleben/bsrruegen_poken_und_kollen_ebook.pdf|title=Land und Leute im Biosphärenreservat Südost-Rügen. |pages=96 |date=2007 |access-date=9 July 2009}}
* http://www.biosphaerenreservat-suedostruegen.de/de/biosphaerenreservat
* Umweltministerium Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (Hrsg.) (2003): Die Naturschutzgebiete Mecklenburg-Vorpommerns, Schwerin, Demmler Verlag
* Autorenkollektiv (1990): Mönchgut - eine Landschaftsstudie, Göhren/Greifswald, Ostseedruck Rostock/Bt Putbus© GeoBasis-DE/M-V 2010
* Frey, Hildegard: Rügen, 2. Auflage, Deutscher Wanderverlag, Stuttgart 1996.
== External links ==
* [http://mv.juris.de/mv/gesamt/SORuegenNatSchGV_MV.htm#SORuegenNatSchGV_MV_rahmen Verordnung über die Festsetzung von Naturschutzgebieten und einem Landschaftsschutzgebiet von zentraler Bedeutung mit der Gesamtbezeichnung Biosphärenreservat Südost-Rügen vom 12. September 1990]
*[http://www.biosphaerenreservat-suedostruegen.de/ Amt für das Biosphärenreservat Südost-Rügen]
{{commons category|Biosphärenreservat Südost-Rügen}}
{{Biosphere Reserves of Germany}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Coord|54|24|9|N|13|33|52|E|type:landmark_region:DE-MV|display=title}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Southeast Rugen Biosphere Reserve}}
[[Category:Biosphere reserves of Germany]]
[[Category:Geography of Rügen]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Protected areas established in 1990]]
[[Category:1990 establishments in East Germany]] |
Chemical Waste Management, Inc. v. United States EPA | {{italic title}}
'''''Creating Chemical Waste Management, Inc. v. United States EPA: No. 88-1490''''' (First Argued March 6, 1989 – Finally Decided September 25, 1992) was a notable [[United States]] [[Environmental Law]] case involving the required reporting of safety breaches in management facilities along with reporting during interim period and reporting of unknown substances. The case began when Chemical Waste Management, Inc appealed its fine from the EPA for environmental health hazards to the US court in 1989 and appealed it twice.<ref name=epa1>{{cite web| title =Chemical Waste Management, Inc. v. EPA| work =Environmental Law Reporter| date =20 October 2011| url =http://elr.info/litigation/%5Bfield_article_volume-raw%5D/20521/chemical-waste-management-inc-v-epa}}</ref><ref name=epa2>{{cite web| title =Chemical Waste Management, Inc. v. EPA: Citation: 19 ELR 20641| work =Environmental Law Reporter| date =21 October 2011| url =http://elr.info/litigation/%5Bfield_article_volume-raw%5D/20641/chemical-waste-management-inc-v-epa}}</ref><ref name=epa3>{{cite web| title =Chemical Waste Management, Inc. v. EPA: Citation: 19 ELR 20868| work =Environmental Law Reporter| date =21 October 2011| url =http://elr.info/litigation/%5Bfield_article_volume-raw%5D/20868/chemical-waste-management-inc-v-epa}}</ref>
==Background==
[[US Congress|Congress]] established the [[RCRA]] in 1976 to form an environmental regulation program that allowed for comprehensive involvement and more fluid adjustments to be made especially during interim periods.<ref name=scholar1>{{cite web| title =CHEMICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT, INC. and Waste Management of North America, Inc., Petitioners,v.U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY and Lee M. Thomas, Administrator, Respondents.| work =United States Court of Appeals, District of Columbia Circuit.| url =https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=17357313564113855781&hl=en&as_sdt=2&as_vis=1&oi=scholarr}}</ref>
Chemical Waste Management, Inc was a waste disposal company that was responsible for the safe and environmental management of hazardous materials. At the time there were several environmental safety standards in place enforced by the [[Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]]. The EPA at the time required organizations and companies to make reports directly to the agency of any malfunctions or deteriorations of facilities. In addition in 1988 it established the requirement that facilities must report any materials that had leakages, even of unconfirmed substances, as hazardous materials until testing could further distinguish, and thus should be treated as such. The EPA also required disclosures of leakages and new hazards during interim periods of facilities' operations.<ref name=epa1/><ref name=epa2/><ref name=epa3/>
Chemical Waste Management, Inc had an on-site well-check system designed to test for any hazardous material leakage. It had a two part system check, although the EPA at the time had raised this requirement to three checks. Chemical Waste Management was in an interim stage where it had not installed the third check yet, but had not reached the required date of installment yet. Inspectors had found that an unidentified substance had been leaking out of a facility that was unreported and unknown to Chemical Waste Management. Chemical Waste Management failed to report these inspection findings of this interim period to the EPA.<ref name=epa1/><ref name=epa3/><ref name=epa2/>
When the EPA eventually found out about these violations, it fined the Chemical Waste Management for improper hazardous waste disposal. The fines were not significantly large, as the supposed violations had only been occurring for a short interim period. However, the EPA could fine firms and organizations up to $25,000 a day for the violation.<ref name=epa1/><ref name=epa2/><ref name=epa3/>
Chemical Waste Management believed that these fines were improper, since: 1. at the time the leakage substance was not considered hazardous, and 2. Chemical Waste Management had been on schedule to update its safety precautions.<ref name=epa3/><ref name=epa1/><ref name=epa2/>
==Case==
In determining this case, the court brought into question if the EPA had correctly applied its regulations correctly to the Chemical Waste Management. The court believed that Chemical Waste Management was surely at fault for failing to report its faulty facilities as noted by inspectors. It was therefore its duty to report its breaches of environmental standards. The EPA at the time had a specific requirement that all notes made by inspectors were required to be reported to the agency itself even if the notes are not specifically linked to a malfunction or deterioration of facilities. It was found that Chemical Waste Management was in a state of non-compliance and violation for under six months.<ref name=epa1/><ref name=epa2/><ref name=epa3/>
The case was first brought to the US District court and ruled in favor of the EPA and was then sent to the Appellate court.<ref name=epa1/><ref name=epa2/><ref name=epa3/>
During the appeals, the court questioned whether the time frame of the petitioner's claim had expired, since it had made the standards change and it was no longer a question of enacting standards, but simply arguing past standards were unfairly put upon the organization. The court did not follow through with this claim, but it did aid in its final decision.<ref name=scholar2>{{cite web| title =Chemical Waste Management, Inc. v. USEPA, 869 F. 2d 1526| work =Court of Appeals, Dist. of Columbia| url =https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=11260199862489876670&hl=en&as_sdt=2&as_vis=1&oi=scholarr}}</ref>
==Decision==
The court held that the EPA was correct in enforcing these regulations upon Chemical Waste Management. It was reasonable to expect the firm to report leakage of a substance, although it was not considered hazardous. It also held that it was reasonable to expect Chemical Waste Management to especially report leakages that had breached the two check system and thus were in violation of the old requirements, regardless of it being in a transitional stage.<ref name=epa1/><ref name=epa2/><ref name=epa3/><ref name=scholar1/>
The court ruled in the EPA's favor, although the fine was significantly lower than before at $40,000, since Chemical Waste Management's violation had been minor, had little effect, and had been dealt with appropriately since the violation.<ref name=epa1/><ref name=epa2/><ref name=epa3/>
Both appeals to higher courts resulted in the same decision by the court, and the decision was made in favor of the EPA, finally resolved in 1992.<ref name=epa2/><ref name=epa3/><ref name=scholar2/>
==Significance==
This case outlined many protocols for environmental safety and health enforcement. It further requires disclosure from organizations as mandatory self-reporting regarding their malfunctions in facilities. Secondly it does not dismiss firms from environmental standards during interim periods of changing regulations. It also further solidifies the notion that unknown substance leakages are to be classified as environmental hazards until they can be accurately identified and controlled.<ref name=epa2/><ref name=epa3/> The question of retroactivity does not strictly constitute retroactive lawmaking, since it was announced beforehand that new regulations would eventually be created and enforced.<ref name=scholar2/>
==References==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:1992 in the environment]]
[[Category:Environment of the United States]]
[[Category:Environmental law in the United States]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:United States waste law]]
[[Category:Waste management in the United States]] |
Dark-sky preserve | {{short description|Area that restricts artificial light pollution}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2024}}
[[File:Rise of the Milky Way.jpg|300px|thumb|A dark-sky preserve status enables high-quality astronomical observation in [[Paranal Observatory]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Rise of the Milky Way|url=http://www.eso.org/public/images/potw1521a/|website=Eso.org|access-date=June 8, 2015}}</ref>]]
A '''dark-sky preserve''' ('''DSP''') is an area, usually surrounding a park or [[observatory]], that restricts artificial [[light pollution]]. The purpose of the [[dark-sky movement]] is generally to promote [[astronomy]]. However, astronomy is not the only objective of conserving a dark sky. A dark night sky is associated with many facets of history, philosophy, religion, societal development, poetry, song, mathematics, and science.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Sovick |first=Joe |date=2001 |title=Toward an Appreciation of the Dark Night Sky |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43597768 |journal=The George Wright Forum |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=15–19 |jstor=43597768 |issn=0732-4715}}</ref> Different terms have been used to describe the areas as national organizations have worked independently to create their programs. The [[International Dark-Sky Association]] (IDA) uses International Dark Sky Reserve (IDSR) and International Dark Sky Park (IDSP). A third designation, International Dark Sky Sanctuary, was introduced in 2015.
==History==
An International Dark-Sky Association (IDA) was founded in 1988 to reserve public or private land for an exquisite outlook of nocturnal territories and starry night skies. These reserves are specifically conserved for its scientific, natural, educational, cultural, heritage and public enjoyment.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=International Dark Sky Reserves |url=https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/reserves/ |access-date=April 18, 2022 |website=International Dark-Sky Association |language=en-US}}</ref>
The [[Mont Mégantic Observatory]] in Quebec is the first such site to be recognized (in 2007) as an International Dark Sky Reserve.<ref>{{cite web| title =First International Dark Sky Reserve Is Announced in Québec!| publisher =International Dark-Sky Association| date =September 21, 2007| url =http://data.nextrionet.com/site/idsa/PR_Mont_Megantic_2007.pdf| access-date =November 26, 2008| url-status =dead| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20081115023048/http://data.nextrionet.com/site/idsa/PR_Mont_Megantic_2007.pdf| archive-date =November 15, 2008}}</ref> IDA recognized [[Natural Bridges National Monument]] in [[Utah]] as the world's first International Dark Sky Park.<ref>{{cite web| title =Utah's Natural Bridges National Monument Becomes First International Dark Sky Park| publisher =International Dark-Sky Association| date =April 19, 2007| url =http://data.nextrionet.com/site/idsa/PR_Natural_Bridges_2007.pdf| access-date =November 26, 2008| url-status =dead| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20081115023700/http://data.nextrionet.com/site/idsa/PR_Natural_Bridges_2007.pdf| archive-date =November 15, 2008}}</ref> In 2015, the IDA introduced the term "Dark Sky Sanctuary" and designated the [[Elqui Valley (wine region)|Elqui Valley]] of northern Chile as the world's first International Dark Sky Sanctuary. The [[Gabriela Mistral]] Dark Sky Sanctuary is named after a Chilean poet.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://darksky.org/chilean-astronomical-site-becomes-worlds-first-international-dark-sky-sanctuary/ |title=Chilean Astronomical Site Becomes World's First International Dark Sky Sanctuary |date=August 9, 2015 |publisher=IDA |language=en-US |access-date=May 31, 2019}}</ref>
It is generally understood that a dark-sky preserve, or dark-sky reserve, should be sufficiently dark to promote astronomy. However, this is not always the case. The lighting protocol for a dark-sky preserve is based on the sensitivity of wildlife to [[artificial light]] at night.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rasc.ca/sites/default/files/RASC%20DSP%20GOL%20-%20Summer%202013_0.pdf |title=Royal Astronomical Society of Canada: Guidelines for Outdoor Lighting in Dark-sky Preserves (RASC-DSP-GOL) |website=rasc.ca |access-date=August 8, 2018}}</ref>
Canada has established an extensive and more stringent standard for dark-sky preserves, that addresses lighting within the DSP and influences from [[skyglow]] from urban areas in the region. This was based on the work of the [[Royal Astronomical Society of Canada]].
==Dark Sky Places==
The [[International Dark-Sky Association|IDA]]'s Dark Sky Places program offers five types of designations:
* '''International Dark Sky Communities''' – Communities are legally organised cities and towns that adopt quality outdoor lighting ordinances and undertake efforts to educate residents about the importance of dark skies.
* '''International Dark Sky Parks''' – Parks are publicly or privately owned spaces protected for natural conservation that implement good outdoor lighting and provide dark sky programs for visitors.
* '''International Dark Sky Reserves''' – Reserves consist of a dark "core" zone surrounded by a populated periphery where policy controls are enacted to protect the darkness of the core.
* '''International Dark Sky Sanctuaries''' – Sanctuaries are the most remote (and often darkest) places in the world whose conservation state is most fragile.
* '''Dark Sky Developments of Distinction''' – Developments of Distinction recognize subdivisions, master planned communities, and unincorporated neighborhoods and townships whose planning actively promotes a more natural night sky but does not qualify them for the International Dark Sky Community designation. (This designation was retired in 2020).
Further designations include "Dark Sky Nation", given to the [[Kaibab Indian Reservation]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://darksky.org/the-worlds-first-ida-dark-sky-nation/ |title=The World's First IDA Dark Sky Nation |first=Tim |last=Hunter |date=August 28, 2015 |publisher=IDA |access-date=September 13, 2016}}</ref> and "Parashant International Night Sky Province-Window to the Cosmos", given to [[Grand Canyon-Parashant National Monument]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nps.gov/para/learn/news/dark-sky-status.htm |title=Parashant Receives International Dark Sky Status |date=February 21, 2014 |access-date=September 13, 2016 |publisher=[[National Park Service]]}}</ref>
==Dark sky preserves, reserves and parks==
{{see also|International Dark-Sky Association#International Dark Sky Places}}
As of January 2023, there were 201 certified Dark Sky Places globally: 38 Communities, 115 Parks, 20 Reserves, 16 Sanctuaries, 6 Developments of Distinction and 6 Urban Night Sky Places.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/|title=International Dark Sky Places|publisher=International Dark-Sky Association|access-date= April 30, 2023}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Country
! Name
! Location
! Area (in ha)
! [[Bortle Dark Sky Scale|Bortle scale]]
! Status
! class="unsortable" |Notes
|-
| {{flag|Australia}}
| The Jump-Up, [[Australian Age of Dinosaurs]]
| [[Winton, Queensland|Winton]], [[Queensland]]
| 1,400
| 1–2
| Dark Sky Sanctuary
| Designated on April 27, 2019
|-
| {{flag|Australia}}
| [[Warrumbungle National Park]]
| [[New South Wales]]
| 23,312
|
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated on July 4, 2016
|-
| {{flag|Australia}}
| [[Swan Reach, South Australia|River Murray DSR]]
| [[South Australia]]
| 320,000
|
| Dark Sky Reserve
| Designated October 2019 (gold tier) <ref name="River Murray Dark Sky Reserve">{{cite web | title=About Us | website=River Murray Dark Sky Reserve | url=https://www.rivermurraydarkskyreserve.org/aboutus.php | access-date=July 1, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=The International Dark-Sky Association (IDA) | website=International Dark-Sky Association | date=November 7, 2019 | url=https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/reserves/river-murray/ | access-date=July 1, 2020}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Beaver Hills (Alberta)|Beaver Hills]]
| [[Alberta]]
| 29,300
| 4.5
| Dark Sky Preserve
| Designated on September 3, 2006
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Cypress Hills (Canada)|Cypress Hills]]
| [[Alberta]] / [[Saskatchewan]]
| 39,600
| 2
|
| Designated on September 28, 2004<ref>{{cite web |title=Cypress Hills Interprovincial Park Designated as a Dark Sky Preserve |publisher=Government of Saskatchewan |date=October 8, 2004 |url=http://www.gov.sk.ca/news?newsId=6c2aabb3-8828-4a5a-9545-df15e33cd77d |access-date=November 17, 2008 |archive-date=June 11, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611012419/http://www.gov.sk.ca/news?newsId=6c2aabb3-8828-4a5a-9545-df15e33cd77d |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Jasper National Park]]
| [[Alberta]]
| 1,122,800
| 1–2
| Dark Sky Preserve
| Designated on March 11, 2011<ref>{{cite web |title=Jasper National Park named world's largest dark sky preserve |publisher=Parks Canada |date=March 11, 2011 |url=http://www.marketwire.com/press-release/Jasper-National-Park-Becomes-Worlds-Largest-Dark-Sky-Preserve-1410194.htm | access-date=March 15, 2011}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Wood Buffalo National Park]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Wood Buffalo National Park |publisher=Parks Canada |date=August 3, 2013 |url=http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/pn-np/nt/woodbuffalo/index.aspx |access-date=August 3, 2013}}</ref>
| [[Alberta]] / [[Northwest Territories|NWT]]
| 4,480,700
| 1–2
| [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage]]<br/>Dark Sky Preserve
| Designated on June 28, 2013<ref>{{cite web |last=Thompson |first=Deborah |title=RASC Designates Wood Buffalo National Park as a New Dark Sky Preserve |work=RASC Announcements |publisher=Royal Astronomical Society of Canada |date=August 2, 2013 |url=http://www.rasc.ca/news/rasc-designates-wood-buffalo-national-park-new-dark-sky-preserve |access-date = August 3, 2013}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Uplands Park|Cattle Point]]
| [[Oak Bay, British Columbia|Oak Bay]], [[British Columbia]]
| 5
|
| Urban Star Park
| Designated March 29, 2013<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bcmeteors.net/index.php/75-news/latest-news/141-cattle-point-park-approved|title=Cattle Point National Urban Star Park Approved, BC Meteor Network news release, March 29, 2013|website=Bcmeteors.net|access-date=August 8, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150414081820/http://www.bcmeteors.net/index.php/75-news/latest-news/141-cattle-point-park-approved|archive-date=April 14, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[McDonald Park]]
| [[British Columbia]]
| 5
| 2–3
| Dark Sky Preserve
| Designated in 2003
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Fundy National Park]]
| [[New Brunswick]]
| 20,700
| 2
| Dark Sky Preserve
| Designated on October 31, 2011<ref>{{cite web |title=Fundy National Park a Dark Sky Preserve |publisher=Parks Canada |date=June 6, 2009 |url=http://www.pc.gc.ca/pn-np/nb/fundy/natcul/ciel-sky.aspx |access-date=January 24, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130209213739/http://www.pc.gc.ca/pn-np/nb/fundy/natcul/ciel-sky.aspx |archive-date=February 9, 2013 }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Irving Nature Park]] Urban Star Park
| [[Saint John, New Brunswick|Saint John]], [[New Brunswick]]
| 243
| ?
| Urban Star Park
| Designated on July 1, 2011; First RASC-designated Urban Star Park
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Kouchibouguac National Park]]
| [[New Brunswick]]
| 23,920
| 2
|
| Designated on June 6, 2009<ref>{{cite web |title=Kouchibouguac National Park a Dark Sky Preserve |publisher=Parks Canada |date=June 6, 2009 |url=http://www.pc.gc.ca/apps/cp-nr/release_e.asp?bgid=1096&andor1=bg |access-date=December 3, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017122035/http://www.pc.gc.ca/apps/cp-nr/release_e.asp?bgid=1096&andor1=bg |archive-date=October 17, 2013 }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Mount Carleton Provincial Park]]
| [[New Brunswick]]
| 17,427
| 2
|
| Designated on July 18, 2009<ref>{{cite web |title=esignation requires limited artificial light to protect night skies from light pollution |website=CanadaEast.com |date=July 18, 2009 |url=http://timestranscript.canadaeast.com/rss/article/732911 |access-date=December 3, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307121332/http://timestranscript.canadaeast.com/rss/article/732911 |archive-date=March 7, 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Kejimkujik National Park]]
| [[Nova Scotia]]
| 40,400
| 2
|
| Designated on August 7, 2010<ref>{{cite web |title=Kejimkujik National Park and National Historic Site a Dark Sky Preserve |publisher=Parks Canada |date=August 7, 2010 |url=http://www.pc.gc.ca/apps/cp-nr/release_e.asp?bgid=1096&andor1=bg |access-date=December 3, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017122035/http://www.pc.gc.ca/apps/cp-nr/release_e.asp?bgid=1096&andor1=bg |archive-date=October 17, 2013 }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| Bluewater Outdoor Education Centre
| [[Ontario]]
| 129
| 2
|
| Designated on November 3, 2012, by the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Bruce Peninsula Fathom Five National Marine Park]]
| [[Ontario]]
| 16,700
| 2–3
|
| Designated on March 29, 2009
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| Gordon's Park
| [[Ontario]]
| 43.7
| 2–3
|
| Designated on August 15, 2009; designation is only for the Park though Manitoulin Island (276,611 ha) follows dark-sky practices<ref>{{cite web |title=Gordon's Park Dark Sky Preserve |publisher=Royal Astronomical Society of Canada |date=November 2008 |url=http://www.rasc.ca/lpa/manitoulin.shtml |access-date=November 18, 2010 |archive-date=November 28, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101128150804/http://rasc.ca/lpa/manitoulin.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Lake Superior Provincial Park]]
| [[Ontario]]
| 155,600
| 1-2
|
| Designated in July 2018 <ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.ontarioparks.com/parksblog/lake-superior-dark-sky-preserve/ |title = The Lake Superior Provincial Park Dark Sky Preserve|date = July 26, 2019}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Killarney Provincial Park]]
| [[Ontario]]
| 64,500
| 1-2
|
| Designated in May 2018 <ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.ontarioparks.com/parksblog/tag/dark-sky-preserve/ |title = Dark sky preserve Archives| date=January 22, 2024 }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[North Frontenac|North Frontenac Township]]
| [[Ontario]]
| 116,000
| 1–2
|
| Designated on August 3, 2013, first Municipality in Canada to achieve Dark Sky Preserve Status.
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Point Pelee National Park]]
| [[Ontario]]
| 2,000
| 3–4
|
| Designated in 2006
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Torrance Barrens]]
| [[Ontario]]
| 1,906
| 3
|
| Designated in 1999; first Canadian dark sky preserve
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Mont Mégantic Observatory]]
| [[Quebec]]
| 527,500
| 2–3
| Dark Sky Reserve
| Designated Sept. 2007; first IDA International Dark-Sky Reserve<ref>{{cite web |title= The Mt. Megantic IDSR |publisher=AstroLab du park national du Mt. Megantic |url=http://www.astrolab-parc-national-mont-megantic.org/en/mt_megantic_international_dark_sky_reserve_idsr.the_mt_megantic_idsr.htm |access-date=October 6, 2011}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| [[Grasslands National Park]]
| [[Saskatchewan]]
| 92,100
| 1
|
| Designated on October 2, 2009<ref>{{cite web |title=Dark Sky Preserve designation for Grasslands National Park |publisher=Parks Canada |date=October 2, 2009 |url=http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/pn-np/sk/grasslands/ne/ne6.aspx |access-date=December 1, 2010}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Chile}}
| Gabriela Mistral
| [[Elqui Valley (wine region)|Elqui Valley]]
| 36,400
|
| Dark Sky Sanctuary
|Designated in 2015<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/sanctuaries/aura/|title=Gabriela Mistral (Chile)|publisher=International Dark-Sky Association|access-date=April 30, 2023}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Czech Republic}}<br/>{{flag|Slovakia}}
| [[Beskydy Protected Landscape Area|Beskydy Dark-Sky Park]]
| [[Moravian-Silesian Region]], [[Czech Republic]] <br /> [[Čadca District]], [[Slovakia]]
| 30,800
| 3–4
|
| Designated on March 4, 2013; The second world's bilateral dark-sky park<ref>{{cite web |title=Beskydy Dark-Sky Park |year=2013 |url=http://www.boto.cz|website=Boto.cz }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Czech Republic}}
| Manětín Dark-Sky Park
| [[Plzeň Region]]
| 34,600
| 3–5
|
|Designated on September 15, 2014<ref>{{cite web |title=Manětín Dark-Sky Park |year=2014 |url=http://manetinskatma.cz/|website=Manetinskatma.cz }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Czech Republic}}<br/>{{flag|Poland}}
| Izera Dark-Sky Park
| [[Liberec Region]], [[Czech Republic]]<br/>[[Lower Silesia]], [[Poland]]
| 7,500
| 3–4
|
| Designated on November 4, 2009; the first European dark-sky park and the first world's bilateral dark-sky park<ref>{{cite web |title=Izera Dark-Sky Park |year=2009 |url=http://www.izera-darksky.eu|website=Izera-darksky.eu }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|France}}
| [[Pic du Midi de Bigorre]]
| [[Hautes-Pyrénées]]
| 311,200
| 2–4
| Dark Sky Reserve
| Designated an IDA International Dark Sky Reserve in December 2013; First IDA International Dark Sky Reserve in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darksky.org/idsp/reserves/|title=International Dark Sky Reserves|date=October 22, 2014|website=Darksky.org|access-date=August 8, 2018}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|France}}
| Alpes Azur Mercantour
| [[Beuil]]
| 225,000
|
| Dark Sky Reserve
| Designated in 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/reserves/alpes-azur-mercantour-france/|title=Alpes Azur Mercantour (France)|publisher=International Dark-Sky Association|access-date=April 30, 2023}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|France}}
| [[Cévennes National Park]]
| [[Cévennes]]
| 360,000
|
| Dark Sky Reserve
| Designated in 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/reserves/cevennes/|title=Cévennes National Park (France)|publisher=International Dark-Sky Association|access-date=April 30, 2023}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|France}}
| Regional Natural Park of Millevaches in Limousin
| [[Millevaches]]
| 335,000
|
| Dark Sky Reserve
| Designated in 2021.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/reserves/millevaches-rice/|title=Regional Natural Park of Millevaches in Limousin (France)|access-date=April 30, 2023|publisher=International Dark-Sky Association}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Germany}}
| [[Rhön Biosphere Reserve]]
| [[Rhön Mountains]]
| 172,000
|
| Dark Sky Reserve
| Designated in 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/reserves/rhon/|title=Rhön (Germany)|access-date=April 30, 2023|publisher=International Dark-Sky Association}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Germany}}
| [[Westhavelland Nature Park]]
| [[Brandenburg]]
| 152,900
|
|
| Designated an IDA International Dark Sky Reserve on February 12, 2014<ref name="Westhavelland">{{cite web|url=http://www.berliner-zeitung.de/brandenburg/sterne-sehen-ohne-lichtverschmutzung-deutschlands-dunkelkammer,10809312,26150668.html|title=Sterne Sehen Ohne Lichtverschmutzung: Deutschlands Dunkelkammer|access-date=March 3, 2014|website=Berliner-zeitung.de|archive-date=June 17, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140617184417/http://www.berliner-zeitung.de/brandenburg/sterne-sehen-ohne-lichtverschmutzung-deutschlands-dunkelkammer,10809312,26150668.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Hungary}}
| [[Hortobágy National Park|Hortobágy Starry Sky Park]]
| Various counties
| 10,000
| 3
|
| Designated on January 31, 2011; IDA's third international dark-sky park (Silver tier)<ref name="docs.darksky.org">{{Cite web |url=http://docs.darksky.org/PR/2011/PRSarkHortobagyFINAL.pdf |title=Sark Island and Hortobágy National Park earn dark sky status from the International Dark-Sky Association|access-date=January 31, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120317142350/http://docs.darksky.org/PR/2011/PRSarkHortobagyFINAL.pdf |archive-date=March 17, 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Hungary}}
| [[Zselic National Landscape Protection Area]]
| [[Somogy County]] / [[Baranya County]]
| 9,042
| 3–4
|
| Designated on November 16, 2009
|-
| {{flag|India}}
| [[Indian Astronomical Observatory]]
| [[Hanle (village)|Hanle]] in [[Ladakh]]
| 70,000
|
|
| Designated in September 2022.<ref name=res1>[https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/all-you-need-to-know-about-india-s-first-dark-sky-reserve-in-ladakh-122090900591_1.html All you need to know about India's first dark sky reserve in Ladakh], Business Standard, Karthik Jerome, September 9, 2022.</ref><ref name=mah1>{{Cite web |url = https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/central-wildlife-panel-approves-to-upgrade-iaf-base-near-lac-in-ladakh-122090900685_1.html |title = Central wildlife panel approves to upgrade IAF base near LAC in Ladakh |website = www.business-standard.com |date = September 9, 2022 |access-date = September 12, 2022 }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Ireland}}
| [[Kerry International Dark-Sky Reserve]]
| [[Iveragh Peninsula]], [[County Kerry]]
| 70,000
| 1–3
| Dark Sky Reserve
| Designated an IDA International Dark Sky Reserve on January 27, 2014<ref name="Kerry">{{cite web|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/environment/southwest-kerry-area-receives-dark-skies-designation-1.1669828|title=Southwest Kerry area receives dark skies designation|access-date=March 3, 2014|website=Irishtimes.com}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Israel}}
| [[Makhtesh Ramon]]
| [[Southern District (Israel)|Southern District]]
| 113.2
| 2–3
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated September 14, 2017<ref name="ida">{{Cite web |url=http://www.darksky.org/ramon-crater-named-first-international-dark-sky-place-in-the-mideast/ |title=Ramon Crater Named First International Dark Sky Place In The Mideast |date=September 14, 2017 |website=Darksky.org}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|South Korea}}
| Yeongyang Firefly Eco Park
| [[North Gyeongsang Province]], [[Yeongyang County]], [[Subimyeon]]
| 390
|
|
| Designated on November 1, 2015
|-
| {{flag|Namibia}}
| [[NamibRand Nature Reserve]]
| [[Hardap Region]]
| 202,200
|
| Dark Sky Reserve
| Designated in 2012.
|-
| {{flag|The Netherlands}}
| Boschplaat
| [[Terschelling]], [[Friesland]]
| 2,400
| 3
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated on October 7, 2016
|-
| {{flag|The Netherlands}}
| [[Lauwersmeer]]
| [[Groningen]], [[Friesland]]
| 5,000
| ?
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated on June 26, 2015
|-
| {{flag|New Zealand}}
| [[Aoraki / Mount Cook National Park]]
| [[Lake Tekapo|Tekapo]]
| 430,000
| 2<ref>{{cite book |url=https://darksky.org/app/uploads/2018/03/Aoraki_Mackenzie_IDSP_Application.pdf |title=An Application to the International Dark-Sky Association for a Starlight Reserve in the Aoraki/Mt Cook National Park and the Mackenzie Basin of the central South Island of New Zealand |date=January 27, 2012 |publisher=Mackenzie District Council, University of Canterbury, Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand, Department of Conservation |page=25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240204040113/https://darksky.org/app/uploads/2018/03/Aoraki_Mackenzie_IDSP_Application.pdf |archive-date=February 4, 2024}}</ref>
| Dark Sky Reserve
| Designated on June 9, 2012<ref>{{cite news |url=http://docs.darksky.org/PR/IDA_Aoraki_Mackenzie_PR.pdf |title=New Zealand's Aoraki Mackenzie Named World's Largest International Dark Sky Reserve |date=June 9, 2012 |publisher=International Dark Sky Association |access-date=June 13, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120710162625/http://docs.darksky.org/PR/IDA_Aoraki_Mackenzie_PR.pdf |archive-date=July 10, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=McCrone |first=John |title=Stars in their eyes |url= http://www.stuff.co.nz/the-press/news/7071118/Stars-in-their-eyes |access-date=March 3, 2013 |work=[[The Press]] |date=June 9, 2012 |pages=C1–C3}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|New Zealand}}
| Aotea / Great Barrier Island
| [[Great Barrier Island]]
| 28,500
|
| Dark Sky Sanctuary
|Designated in 2017<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/sanctuaries/aotea-great-barrier-island/|title=Aotea / Great Barrier Island (New Zealand)|publisher=International Dark-Sky Association|access-date=April 30, 2023}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|New Zealand}}
| Stewart Island/Rakiura
| [[Stewart Island]]
| 174,600
|
| Dark Sky Sanctuary
|Designated in 2019<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/sanctuaries/stewart-island-rakiura/|title=Stewart Island/Rakiura (New Zealand)|publisher=International Dark-Sky Association|access-date=April 30, 2023}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|New Zealand}}
| [[Wairarapa Dark Sky Reserve]]
| [[Wairarapa]]
| 366,500
|
| Dark Sky Reserve
|Designated in 2023<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/reserves/wairarapa-dark-sky-reserve-new-zealand/|title=Wairarapa Dark Sky Reserve (New Zealand)|publisher=International Dark-Sky Association|access-date=April 30, 2023}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Niue}}
| Niue
| [[Niue]]
| 25,900
|
| Dark Sky Sanctuary
|Designated in 2020. First whole country to become an International Dark Sky Place.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.darksky.org/niue-is-worlds-first-country-to-become-a-dark-sky-place/|title=Niue is World's First Country to Become a Dark Sky Place|publisher=International Dark-Sky Association|access-date=April 30, 2023|date=March 7, 2020}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Poland}}
| [[Bieszczady National Park|Bieszczady Starry-Sky Park]]
| [[Polish Subcarpathia|Subcarpathia]]
| 113,846
| 2–3
|
| Designated on March 8, 2013<ref>{{cite web |title=Bieszczady Starry-Sky Park |year=2013 |url=http://www.gwiezdnebieszczady.pl |website=Gwiezdnebieszczady.pl |access-date=July 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212022233/http://www.gwiezdnebieszczady.pl/ |archive-date=February 12, 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Poland}}<br/>{{flag|Slovakia}}<br/>{{flag|Ukraine}}
| East Carpathian Dark-Sky Tripark
| Bieszczady Starry-Sky Park ([[Poland]])<br/>[[Poloniny Dark-Sky Park]] ([[Slovakia]])<br/>Transcarpathian Dark-Sky Park ([[Ukraine]])
| 208,667
| 2–3
|
| Designated on September 9, 2016; first world's trilateral dark-sky park
|-
| {{flag|Slovakia}}
| [[Poloniny Dark-Sky Park]]
| [[Poloniny National Park]]
| 48,519
| 2–3
|
| Designated on December 3, 2010<ref>{{cite web |title=Poloniny Dark-Sky Park |year=2010 |url=http://poloniny.svetelneznecistenie.sk |website=Poloniny.svetelneznecistenie.sk}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Slovakia}}
| Veľká Fatra Dark-Sky Park
| [[Veľká Fatra National Park]] (part of)
| 325
| 3–4
|
|Designated on June 12, 2015<ref>{{Cite web|title = Park tmavej oblohy Kráľova studňa|url = http://www.fatranskatma.sk|website = www.fatranskatma.sk|access-date = September 17, 2015}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|South Africa}}
| !Ae!Hai Kalahari Heritage Park
| [[Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park]]
| 95,000
|
| Dark Sky Sanctuary
|Designated in 2019<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/sanctuaries/aehai-kalahari-heritage-park-south-africa/|title=!Ae!Hai Kalahari Heritage Park (South Africa)|publisher=International Dark-Sky Association|access-date=April 30, 2023}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Ukraine}}
| Transcarpathian Dark-Sky Park
| Uzhansky National Nature Park
| 46,302
| 2
|
| Designated on June 10, 2016
|-
| {{flag|United Kingdom}}
| [[Exmoor National Park]]
| [[Devon]] / [[Somerset]], [[England]]
| 18,100
| 3
| Dark Sky Reserve
| Designated October 10, 2011
|-
| {{flag|United Kingdom}}
| [[Galloway Forest Park]]
| [[Dumfries and Galloway]], [[Scotland]]
| 75,000
| 3
|
| Designated on November 16, 2009<ref>{{cite news |last=Carrell |first=Severin |title=Astronomers name Scottish park one of world's best stargazing sites |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=November 16, 2009 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2009/nov/16/galloway-forest-dark-skies-stargazing |access-date=November 16, 2009
| location=London}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United Kingdom}}
| [[Sark]]
| [[Guernsey]]
| 545
| 3
|
| Designated on January 31, 2011; IDA's first international dark-sky island (Silver tier)<ref name="docs.darksky.org"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2011/02/01/133401367/lights-out-tiny-sark-named-first-dark-sky-island|title=Lights Out: Tiny Sark Named First 'Dark-Sky' Island|website=Npr.org|date=February 2011|access-date=August 8, 2018|last1=Palca|first1=Joe}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United Kingdom}}
| [[Coll|Isle of Coll]]
| [[Inner Hebrides]], [[Scotland]]
| 7,700
| 1
|
| Designated on December 9, 2013<ref name="Coll">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-glasgow-west-25300740|title=Isle of Coll secures 'dark isle' status|work=BBC News|date=December 9, 2013|access-date=December 9, 2013}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United Kingdom}}
| [[Northumberland National Park]]
| [[Northumberland]], [[England]]
| 103,000
| 3
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated on December 9, 2013<ref name="NNP">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-tyne-25260186|title=Dark sky status awarded to Northumberland Park area|work=BBC News|date=December 9, 2013|access-date=December 9, 2013}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United Kingdom}}
| [[Brecon Beacons]]
| [[Wales]]
| 134,700
| 4
| Dark Sky Reserve
| Designated February 19, 2013
|-
| {{flag|United Kingdom}}
| Mata ki te Rangi (Eyes To the Sky)
| [[Pitcairn Islands]]
| 4,325
| 1
| Dark Sky Sanctuary
| Designated March 18, 2019<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.visitpitcairn.pn/dark_sky/index.html|title=Dark Sky Sanctuary|website=VisitPitcairn-DarkSky|access-date=December 1, 2019}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United Kingdom}}
| [[Snowdonia National Park]]
| [[Wales]]
|213,200
|
| Dark Sky Reserve
| Designated 2015<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/reserves/snowdonia/|title=Snowdonia National Park (Wales)|publisher=International Dark-Sky Association|access-date=April 30, 2023}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United Kingdom}}
| [[Bardsey Island]] (Ynys Enlli)
| [[Wales]]
| 179
| 2
| Dark Sky Sanctuary
| Designated February 22, 2023<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.darksky.org/ynys-enlli-named-first-international-dark-sky-sanctuary-in-wales-united-kingdom/|title=Ynys Enlli named first International Dark Sky Sanctuary in Wales, United Kingdom|website=International Dark-Sky Association|access-date=February 23, 2023}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Grand Canyon-Parashant National Monument]]
| [[Arizona (U.S. state)|Arizona]]
| 424,200
|
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated 2014
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Death Valley National Park]]
| [[California(U.S. state)|California]]
| 1,374,300
|
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated 2013
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Joshua Tree National Park]]
| [[California(U.S. state)|California]]
| 319,600
|
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated July 26, 2017<ref>Sahagun, Louis (July 29, 2017). [https://www.latimes.com/local/california/la-me-joshua-tree-stars-20170729-story.html Dark Sky designation puts Joshua Tree National Park in a new light]. Retrieved July 30, 2017.</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Black Canyon of the Gunnison National Park]]
| [[Colorado (U.S. state)|Colorado]]
| 12,440
|
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated 2015
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve]]
| [[Colorado (U.S. state)|Colorado]]
| 60,310
| 2
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated 2019
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Hovenweep National Monument]]
| [[Colorado (U.S. state)|Colorado]] / [[Utah (U.S. state)|Utah]]
| 310
| 2
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated 2014
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Big Cypress National Preserve]]
| [[Florida (U.S. state)|Florida]]
| 290,000
| 3
| Dark Sky Park <ref name="news.wgcu.org">{{Cite web | url=http://news.wgcu.org/post/experience-dark-sky-park-florida |title = Experience A 'Dark Sky Park' in Florida|date = July 13, 2017}}</ref>
| Designated 2016
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Kissimmee Prairie Preserve State Park]]
| [[Florida (U.S. state)|Florida]]
| 21,853<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kissimmee Prairie Preserve State Park|url=https://www.floridastateparks.org/parks-and-trails/kissimmee-prairie-preserve-state-park|access-date=March 15, 2021|website=Florida State Parks|language=en}}</ref>
| 3
| Dark Sky Park<ref name="news.wgcu.org"/>
| Designated 2016
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Stephen C. Foster State Park]]
| [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]
| 32
| 2
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated November 2016<ref name="wabe">{{Cite web |url=http://news.wabe.org/post/south-georgia-park-celebrates-dark-sky-stargazing-status |title=South Georgia Park Celebrates 'Dark Sky' Stargazing Status |last=Samuel |first=Molly |date=December 2, 2016 |website=Wabe.org |access-date=April 12, 2017}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Central Idaho Dark Sky Reserve]]
| [[Idaho (U.S. state)|Idaho]]
| 366,742
| 1
| Dark Sky Reserve
| Designated December 2017<ref name="Central_ID">{{cite web |title=Central Idaho (U.S.) {{!}} International Dark-Sky Association |url=https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/reserves/centralidaho/ |website=International Dark-Sky Association |access-date=July 9, 2020}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Potawatomi Wildlife Park]]
| [[Indiana]]
| 116
| 4.5
|
|Designated in 2003{{cn|date=April 2023}}
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Lake Hudson State Recreation Area]]
| [[Michigan]]
| 890
| 3
| Dark Sky Preserve
| Designated in 1993<ref>{{cite web |title = Lake Hudson Recreation Area |publisher = Michigan Department of Natural Resources |url = http://www.dnr.state.mi.us/parksandtrails/Details.aspx?id=464&type=SPRK |access-date = December 1, 2010}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Negwegon State Park]]
| [[Michigan]]
| 1,513
|
| Dark Sky Preserve
| Designated in 2016<ref>{{cite web |title = Negwegon State Park |publisher = Michigan Department of Natural Resources |url = http://www.michigandnr.com/parksandtrails/Details.aspx?id=476&type=SPRK |access-date = December 18, 2017}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Port Crescent State Park]]
| [[Michigan]]
| 2,400
| 3
| Dark Sky Preserve
| Designated in 2012<ref>{{cite web |title = Port Crescent State Park |publisher = Michigan Department of Natural Resources |url = http://www.michigandnr.com/ParksandTrails/Details.aspx?id=486&type=SPRK |access-date = December 18, 2017}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Rockport State Park (Michigan)|Rockport State Recreation Area]]
| [[Michigan]]
| 4,800
|
| Dark Sky Preserve
| Designated in 2016<ref>{{cite web |title = Rockport Recreation Area |publisher = Michigan Department of Natural Resources |url = http://www.michigandnr.com/ParksandTrails/Details.aspx?id=729&type=SPRK |access-date = December 18, 2017}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Thompson's Harbor State Park]]
| [[Michigan]]
| 2,068
| 2
| Dark Sky Preserve
| Designated in 2016<ref>{{cite web |title = Thompson's Harbor State Park |publisher = Michigan Department of Natural Resources |url = http://www.michigandnr.com/parksandtrails/Details.aspx?id=500&type=SPRK |access-date = December 18, 2017}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Wilderness State Park]]
| [[Michigan]]
| 4,254
| 2
| Dark Sky Preserve
| Designated in 2012<ref>{{cite web |title = Wilderness State Park |publisher = Michigan Department of Natural Resources |url = http://www.michigandnr.com/parksandtrails/Details.aspx?id=509&type=SPRK |access-date = December 18, 2017}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[The Headlands]]
| [[Michigan]]
| 220
| 3–5
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated in 2011<ref>{{cite web |title = The Headlands |publisher = Emmet County |url = http://www.midarkskypark.org/ |access-date = December 18, 2017}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness]]
| [[Minnesota]]
| 440,000
| 1
| Dark Sky Sanctuary
| Designated in 2020<ref>{{cite web |title = Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness (U.S.) |publisher = International Dark-Sky Association |url = https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/sanctuaries/boundary-waters/ |access-date = November 6, 2020}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Great Basin National Park]]
| [[Nevada]]
| 31,230
| 1
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated in 2016<ref>{{cite web |title = Great Basin National Park |publisher = International Dark-Sky Association |url = https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/parks/greatbasin/ |access-date = August 18, 2022}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Chaco Culture National Historical Park]]
| [[New Mexico]]
| 13,759
| 2–3<ref name="bortleccnp">{{cite web |url=http://www.darksky.org/assets/documents/CCNHP_Intl_Dark_Sky_Park_Application.pdf |title=Chaco Culture National Historical Park International Dark Sky Park Application |publisher=National Park Service |date=July 2013 |access-date=January 9, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150131034825/http://darksky.org/assets/documents/CCNHP_Intl_Dark_Sky_Park_Application.pdf |archive-date=January 31, 2015 }}</ref>
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated on August 28, 2013<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.darksky.org/assets/documents/IDAChacoPR.pdf |title=New Mexican Skies Protected with Dark Sky Park Designation (press release) |publisher=International Dark-Sky Association |date=August 28, 2013 |access-date=January 9, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150131035129/http://darksky.org/assets/documents/IDAChacoPR.pdf |archive-date=January 31, 2015 }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Clayton Lake State Park|Clayton Lake]]
| [[New Mexico]]
| 190
|
|
| Designated June 29, 2010<ref name="darksky.org">[http://www.darksky.org/assets/documents/PR/2010/IDSParks2010.pdf International Dark Sky Association Recognizes state parks in New Mexico and Washington for night sky preservation efforts] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130819163727/http://darksky.org/assets/documents/PR/2010/IDSParks2010.pdf |date=August 19, 2013 }}, International Dark-Sky Association news release, June 29, 2010</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Geauga Park District|Observatory Park]]
| [[Ohio]]
| 450
| ?
|
| Designated on August 20, 2011<ref>{{cite web| url = http://docs.darksky.org/PR/ObservatoryParkPR.pdf| title = New Ohio Park Commended for Protecting the Nighttime Environment by International Dark-Sky Association (press release)| publisher = International Dark-Sky Association| date = August 22, 2011| access-date = July 18, 2012| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120619183331/http://docs.darksky.org/PR/ObservatoryParkPR.pdf| archive-date = June 19, 2012| url-status = dead}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Oregon Outback]]
| [[Oregon]]
| 11,400,000
|
| Dark Sky Sanctuary
| Designated on March 11, 2024<ref>{{cite news |last=Hale |first=Jamie |date=March 11, 2024 |title=Oregon Outback is now the largest Dark Sky Sanctuary in the world |url=https://www.oregonlive.com/travel/2024/03/oregon-outback-is-now-the-largest-dark-sky-sanctuary-in-the-world.html |work=[[The Oregonian]] |accessdate=March 14, 2024}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Cherry Springs State Park]]
| [[Pennsylvania]]
| 430
| 2<ref name = "bortle">{{cite web| url = http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/info/wind/documents/cherry-springs-state-park-light-pollution-analysis-05-29-08.pdf| archive-url = https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20080615101407/http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/info/wind/documents/cherry-springs-state-park-light-pollution-analysis-05-29-08.pdf| url-status = dead| archive-date = June 15, 2008| title = Cherry Springs State Park: Light Pollution Analysis and Recommendations| publisher = Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources| date = May 27, 2008| author = Clanton & Associates| access-date = March 21, 2009}}</ref>
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated as a State DSP in 2000 by the [[Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources|Pennsylvania DCNR]];<br/>Designated as an International DSP on June 11, 2007, by the IDA.
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Big Bend National Park]]
| [[Texas]]
| 324,219
|
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated February 11, 2012<ref>[http://earthsky.org/earth/big-bend-national-park-designated-as-an-international-dark-sky-park Big Bend National Park designated as an International Dark Sky Park], Earth Sky, February 11, 2012</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Copper Breaks State Park]]
| [[Texas]]
| 770
|
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated August 6, 2014<ref name="texashighways.com">"[http://www.texashighways.com/blog/item/7543-stars-shine-bright-in-dark-sky-parks Stars Shine Bright in Dark Sky Parks] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109080708/http://www.texashighways.com/blog/item/7543-stars-shine-bright-in-dark-sky-parks |date=2017-11-09 }}". ''Texas Highways'', August 6, 2014.</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Dripping Springs, Texas|Dripping Springs]]
| [[Texas]]
| 30,300
|
| Dark-sky Community
| Designated February 11, 2014<ref>"[http://txhillcountrytrail.com/public/upload/users/u96/March%202014%20Newsletter.pdf Dripping Springs Named The First International Dark Sky Community In Texas]". ''Texas Hill Country Trail newsletter'', March 2014.</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Enchanted Rock]]
| [[Texas]]
| 665
|
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated August 6, 2014<ref name="texashighways.com"/>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| UBarU Camp & Retreat Center
| [[Texas]]
| 57.5
| 2–3
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated in 2015; only DSP in the USA on private land
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Canyonlands National Park]]
| [[Utah (U.S. state)|Utah]]
| 136,500
|
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated 2015
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Capitol Reef National Park]]
| [[Utah (U.S. state)|Utah]]
| 98,000
|
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated 2015
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Natural Bridges National Monument]]
| [[Utah]]
| 3,090
| 2
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated in 2007; first international dark-sky park
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Goldendale Observatory State Park|Goldendale Observatory]]
| [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]]
| 2
|
| Dark Sky Park
| Designated June 29, 2010<ref name="darksky.org"/>
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| [[Newport State Park]]
| [[Wisconsin]]
| 960
|
|
| Designated in 2017<ref>Lee Bergquist. "[http://www.jsonline.com/story/news/local/wisconsin/2017/06/07/newport-state-park-designated-dark-sky-park/375936001 Newport State Park designated as Wisconsin's first 'dark sky' park/]". ''Milwaukee Journal Sentinel'', June 7, 2017.</ref><ref>International Dark Sky Association. [http://www.darksky.org/idsp/parks/newport/ Newport State Park (U.S.)].</ref>
|}
==Protected zones==
===Around observatories===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Name
! Country
! Radius (in km)
|-
| [[Mount John University Observatory]]
| New Zealand
| 37
|-
| [[Kitt Peak]]
| US
| 56
|-
| [[Mont Mégantic Observatory]]
| Canada
| 50
|-
| [[Palomar Observatory]]
| US
| 48
|-
| [[Mount Hopkins (Arizona)|Mount Hopkins]]
| US
| 40
|-
| [[Cima Ekar Observing Station|Monte Ekar Observatory]]
| Italy
| 30
|-
| [[Asiago Astrophysical Observatory]]
| Italy
| 30
|-
| [[Mount Laguna, California|Mount Laguna]]
| US
| 24
|-
| [[Haute-Provence Observatory|Observatoire de Haute-Provence]]
| France
| 15
|-
| [[Ondřejov Observatory]]
| Czech Republic
| 10
|-
| [[Kleť]]
| Czech Republic
| 10
|-
| [[Dominion Astrophysical Observatory]]
| Canada
| 5
|-
| [[McDonald Observatory]]
| US
| 92
|-
| [[Molėtai Astronomical Observatory]]
| Lithuania
| 3.5
|}
===Other===
Some regions, like the following, are protected without any reference to an observatory or a park.
* Regions of [[Coquimbo]], [[Atacama]], and [[Antofagasta]] in northern [[Chile]]
* The island of [[La Palma]] of the [[Canary Islands]]
* The [[Hawaii (island)|Big Island]] of [[Hawaii]]
* [[Florida]] beach communities restrict lighting on beaches, to preserve hatchling [[Sea Turtles]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://myfwc.com/wildlifehabitats/managed/sea-turtles/protection/|title=Marine Turtle Protection|website=Myfwc.com|access-date=August 8, 2018}}</ref>
==By country==
{{globalise|section|date=February 2024}}
===Canada===
In the Canadian program, lighting within the area must be strictly controlled to minimize the impact of artificial lighting on wildlife. These guidelines are more stringent than in other countries that lack the extensive wilderness areas that still exist in Canada. The management of a Canadian DSP extends their outreach programs from the public that visit the site to include the promotion of better lighting policies in surrounding urban areas. Currently, dark-sky preserves have more control over internal and external lighting than other programs.
With the increase in regional [[light pollution]], some observatories have actively worked with cities in their region to establish protection zones where there is controlled light pollution. These areas may not yet have been declared dark-sky preserves.
Although dark-sky preserve designations are generally sought by astronomers, it is clear that preserving natural darkness has positive effects on the health of nocturnal wildlife within the parks. For example, the nocturnal [[black-footed ferret]] was reintroduced to the [[Grasslands National Park]] dark-sky preserve and the success of the reintroduction is enhanced by the pristine natural darkness maintained within the park by the DSP agreement.<ref>{{cite web| title =Government of Canada reintroduces lost species to the prairie wilderness| publisher =Parks Canada| date =October 2, 2009| url =http://www.pc.gc.ca/apps/cp-nr/release_e.asp?id=1443&andor1=nr| access-date =December 1, 2010| url-status =dead| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20131017121008/http://www.pc.gc.ca/apps/cp-nr/release_e.asp?id=1443&andor1=nr| archive-date =October 17, 2013}}</ref>
==See also==
* [[Noctcaelador]]
* [[Scotobiology]]
* [[United States National Radio Quiet Zone]]
==References==
{{Reflist|refs=Sovick, Joe. “Toward an Appreciation of the Dark Night Sky.” The George Wright Forum, vol. 18, no. 4, 2001, pp. 15–19, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43597768. Accessed April 18, 2022.[1]
International Dark Sky Reserves. International Dark-Sky Association. (January 14, 2022). Retrieved April 18, 2022, from https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservation/idsp/reserves/ [2]}}
==External links==
{{wikivoyage|Dark Sky Parks in the United States}}
* [http://www.izera-darksky.eu Izera Dark-Sky Park]
* [http://poloniny.svetelneznecistenie.sk Poloniny Dark-Sky Park]
* [https://www.rasc.ca/torrance-barrens-dark-sky-preserve Torrance Barrens Dark-Sky Preserve] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180717212737/https://www.rasc.ca/torrance-barrens-dark-sky-preserve |date=July 17, 2018 }}. Essay by Michael Silver. Royal Astronomical Society of Canada.
* [http://www.fatranskatma.sk/ Veľká Fatra Dark-Sky Park]
*[https://www.northfrontenac.com/en/open-for-business/dark-sky-preserve.aspx North Frontenac Dark Sky Preserve]
{{Portal bar|Geography|Astronomy|Outer space|Science}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Dark-Sky Preserve}}
[[Category:Dark-sky preserves| ]]
[[Category:Astronomy]]
[[Category:Protected areas]]
[[Category:Darkness]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:1993 introductions]] |
C.I.Agent Solutions | {{use mdy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox company
| name = C.I.Agent Solutions
| logo = CIAgentSolutions.png
| caption =
| type = [[Privately held company|Private]]
| genre =
| fate =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| foundation = [[Louisville, Kentucky]], [[United States|U.S.]] ({{Start date|2000|01|01}})
| founder = Dan Parker
| defunct =
| location_city = [[Louisville, Kentucky]]
| location_country = [[United States|U.S.]]
| location =
| locations = 16 (2010)
| area_served = Worldwide
| key_people = Dan Parker, <small>[[Entrepreneur|Founder]]</small>
| industry = [[Waste Management]], Environmental Services
| products = [[Boom (containment)|Oil Booms]], [[Secondary spill containment|Secondary Containment Systems]], [[Spill containment|Spill Containment Systems]]
| services = Oil spill containment<br />Oil spill cleanup
| revenue = [[United States dollar|US$]] 4.9 million (2009), {{increase}} 88% from 2008<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Reynolds |first=Rachel |title=Business specializes in cleaning up spills, sees potential in serving military bases |journal=Business First of Louisville|date=October 2009 |page=13}}</ref>
| operating_income =
| net_income =
| aum =
| assets =
| equity =
| owner = Dan Parker
| num_employees = 25
| parent = Immediate Response Spill Technologies
| divisions =
| subsid =
| homepage = [http://ciagent.com/ ciagent.com]
| footnotes =
| intl =
}}
'''C.I.Agent Solutions''' is a [[Louisville, Kentucky]]-based company that specializes in environmental protection services. The company develops products to clean up [[hydrocarbon]] (fuel and oil) spills on land and water. Their main product is called C.I.Agent,<ref>{{cite web|author=C.I.Agent Solutions |url=http://www.ciagent.com/ciagent-solidifies-fuel-and-oil-for-spill-control |title=C.I.Agent solidifies fuel and oil for spill control |accessdate=July 21, 2010}}</ref> a proprietary blend of USDA food-grade [[polymers]] that solidifies hydrocarbons.
==History==
C.I.Agent Solutions was founded in 2000 by Dan Parker. He has served as president and a member of the board of directors since its inception.
According to Dan Parker, the company was initially founded to effectively assist businesses to minimize their [[hazardous waste]], reduce their legal liabilities, increase employee productivity and save money at the same time.
[[Image:CIAgentQuart.jpg|thumb|left|C.I.Agent granules]]
[[Image:BarrierWall.jpg|thumb|right|Barrier wall on Dauphin Island, Alabama (May 2010)]]
==Deepwater Horizon oil spill==
C.I.Agent Solutions was approached by [[BP]] (at request of the [[Alabama Department of Emergency Management]]) to aid in shoreline protection efforts during the [[Deepwater Horizon oil spill]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Ben Adkins, Business First of Louisville |url=http://louisville.bizjournals.com/louisville/stories/2010/05/10/story7.html?b=1273464000^3321001 |title=Louisville's C.I. Agent Solutions tapped for oil-spill cleanup in Gulf of Mexico |date= May 7, 2010 |accessdate=July 21, 2010}}</ref> On [[Dauphin Island]], the Alabama [[National Guard of the United States|National Guard]] built a five-mile (eight-kilometer) barricade filled with C.I.Agent that officials called "the longest oil-water separator in the world".<ref>{{Cite news
| last = Duffy
| first = Jack
| title = Oil Leak Inspires Novel Ideas
| newspaper = The New York Times
| date = June 3, 2010
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/04/business/energy-environment/04iht-rbogoil.html
}}</ref>
==United States Senate Committee hearing==
C.I.Agent Solutions founder Dan Parker and business partner Dan Koons appeared before the U.S. Senate Committee on Small Business & Entrepreneurship in Washington on June 17, 2010.<ref>{{cite web|author=U.S. Senate Committee on Small Business & Entrepreneurship |url=http://sbc.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?p=Hearings&ContentRecord_id=ae73761e-92e0-4cbc-a9ba-b703fa2ffbcc&ContentType_id=14f995b9-dfa5-407a-9d35-56cc7152a7ed&Group_id=43eb5e02-e987-4077-b9a7-1e5a9cf28964 |title=Harnessing Small Business Innovation: Navigating the Evaluation Process for Gulf Coast Oil Cleanup Proposals |date= 17 June 2010}}</ref> The hearing, dubbed ''Harnessing Small Business Innovation: Navigating the Evaluation Process for Gulf Coast Oil Cleanup Proposals'', focused on small businesses obtaining contracts from the federal government to support clean up of the Gulf Coast oil spill. Dan Parker and Dan Koons were invited to explain the efforts C.I.Agent Solutions has had to go through to get attention to innovative oil spill cleanup technologies.
==See also==
* [[Oil Spill]]
* [[Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill]]
* [[Hydrocarbon]]
* [[Polymers]]
* [[Hazardous waste]]
* [[BP]]
* [[Environmental Protection Agency]]
* [[Secondary spill containment]]
* [[Boom (containment)]]
* [[National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan]]
==References and notes==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Companies based in Louisville, Kentucky]]
[[Category:Specialty chemical companies]]
[[Category:Waste management companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:American companies established in 2000]]
[[Category:2000 establishments in Kentucky]] |
Poloniny Dark-Sky Park | '''Poloniny Dark-Sky Park''' ({{lang-sk|Park tmavej oblohy Poloniny}}) is the first [[dark sky park]] in [[Slovakia]]. It became the 20th [[dark sky park]] in the world.
Natural total night darkness, which would be unaffected by artificial light, no longer exists in [[Slovakia]] because of [[light pollution]], but there are still places where this influence is minimal. Such a place is the [[Poloniny National Park]], which is in terms of [[light pollution]] the darkest area in Slovakia. Therefore, the Slovak Union of Astronomers started an initiative to establish a dark sky park there.
==Location and area==
Poloniny Dark-Sky Park is located in the northeast of the Slovak Republic on the border with [[Poland]] and [[Ukraine]]. The territory of the park itself is defined by area of the [[Poloniny National Park]] (298.05 km<sup>2</sup>) and a buffer zone (109.73 km<sup>2</sup>) and municipal territories of [[Kolonica]], [[Ladomirov]], [[Kalná Roztoka]], [[Klenová (Snina District)|Klenová]], [[Ruská Volová]] (77.41 km<sup>2</sup>). The total area is 485.19 km<sup>2</sup>. Area of the park is characterized by having an exceptionally small population density (6 inhabitants per km<sup>2</sup>). It is also the least visited national park in [[Slovakia]], so the [[human impact on the environment]] is minimal.
In terms of [[light pollution]], [[Poloniny National Park]] is the darkest area in [[Slovakia]]. Natural night darkness and night biorhythms of all living organisms are disturbed the least there.
==Poloniny National Park==
{{main|Poloniny National Park}}
Poloniny National Park ({{lang-sk|Národný park Poloniny}}) is a [[national park]] in north eastern [[Slovakia]] at the Polish and Ukrainian borders, in the [[Bukovské vrchy]] mountain range, which belongs to the [[Divisions of the Carpathians#Eastern Beskids .28PL.29 .2F .28.3F.29Wooded Carpathians .28SK.29 .2F .28.3F.29Ukrainian Carpathians .28UA.29 .28area.29|Eastern Carpathians]]. It was created on 1 October 1997 with a protected area of 298.05 km<sup>2</sup> and a buffer zone of 109.73 km<sup>2</sup>. Selected areas of the park are included into [[Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians]] UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]].
==Establishment==
Poloniny Dark-Sky Park was officially declared on December 3, 2010, in [[Snina]]. It was established on the occasion of the International Year of Biodiversity 2010 as the first dark sky area in [[Slovakia]]. Poloniny Dark-Sky Park was declared by agreement of six partner organizations.
==Goals==
Poloniny Dark-Sky Park was created to inform the public about the exceptionally preserved night environment in this area, to educate on the issue of protection of the environment against [[light pollution]], to promote and protect the dark night sky, which is the basis of protecting the natural environment from [[light pollution]].
The [[Milky Way]] is perfectly visible, without a telescope nearly 2,000 stars can be seen. Mountains preclude direct visibility of lights from the surrounding towns and villages. There is also a professional astronomical observatory located within the park.
==See also==
*[[Poloniny National Park]]
*[[Dark-sky preserve]]
==External links==
*[http://poloniny.svetelneznecistenie.sk Poloniny Dark-Sky Park]
*[http://www.darksky.org/ International Dark-Sky Association]
{{coord missing|Slovakia}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Dark-Sky Preserve}}
[[Category:Dark-sky preserves]]
[[Category:Astronomy in Slovakia]]
[[Category:Darkness]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Protected areas established in 2010]]
[[Category:Protected areas of Slovakia]] |
Pneumatic non-return valve | {{unreferenced|date=August 2009}}
'''Pneumatic non-return valves''' are used where a normal [[check valve|non-return valve]] would be ineffective. This is for example where there is a risk of [[flood water]] entering a site but an equal risk of pollution or a [[chemical spills]] leaving a site and polluting the environment.
Pneumatic non-return valves are installed below ground and can be used to pneumatically lock the non-return valve closed thus containing a site in the event of a spill.
It is common practice to lock sites using pneumatic non-return valves during the loading or transferring of chemicals or hazardous waste. Pneumatic non-return valves have a longer service life when compared to [[pneumatic bladder]] systems.
[[Category:Valves]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]] |
GreenEvo | '''GreenEvo - Accelerator of Green Technologies''' is a project of the [[Poland]]’s [[Ministry of Environment (Poland)|Ministry of Environment]] aimed at international transfer of [[Environmental technology|environmentally friendly technologies]] developed in Poland.<ref>[http://energetyka.wnp.pl/korolec-zielone-technologie-wspieraja-rozwoj-gospodarczy,209731_1_0_0.html Korolec: zielone technologie wspierają rozwój gospodarczy, wnp.pl]</ref> Within the project, the best Polish [[company|companies]] are selected and awarded with promotional and financial support.<ref>[http://ec.europa.eu/environment/ecoap/about-eco-innovation/policies-matters/poland/exporting-eco-innovation_en.htm European Commission: Exporting eco-innovation]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.paiw.pl/en/news/1/greenevo-green-technology-accelerator-programme |title=US-Poland: Innovation Week: GreenEvo – Green Technology Accelerator Programme |access-date=2015-02-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150210015237/http://www.paiw.pl/en/news/1/greenevo-green-technology-accelerator-programme |archive-date=2015-02-10 |url-status=dead }}</ref> There have already been 62 innovative Polish companies awarded, in such areas of technologies for [[wastewater]] and [[hazardous waste]] treatment and solutions that support the use of [[renewable energy source]]s, for example [[agricultural machinery]] for the manufacture of [[wood briquette]]s and [[solar panel]]s.<ref>[http://www.naukawpolsce.pap.pl/aktualnosci/news,395502,ms-wyloniono-osmiu-laureatow-iv-edycji-programu-greenevo.html MŚ: wyłoniono ośmiu laureatów IV edycji programu GreenEvo], [[Polish Press Agency]]</ref>
GreenEvo - Green Technology Accelerator is organized by the Ministry of the Environment with other partners, namely: [[National Fund for Environmental Protection and Water Management]], [[Ministry of Economy (Poland)|Ministry of Economy]], [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Poland)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]], [[Ministry of Science and Higher Education (Poland)|Ministry of Science and Higher Education]], [[Polish Agency for Enterprise Development]], Polish Confederation of Private Employers ‘Lewiatan’, Faculty of Management, [[University of Warsaw]]. GreenEvo was nominated to the finals of the European Public Sector Award 2013.<ref>[http://www.tvp.info/12572887/informacje/technologie/greenevo-w-finale-unijnego-konkursu/ GreenEvo w finale unijnego konkursu]</ref><ref>[http://epsa2013.eu/en/content/show/&tid=185 EPSA 2013 Nominee Presentations]</ref>
In 2015, the 6th edition of GreenEvo was announced, with main topic to be technologies for [[waste management]], especially supporting local level authorities.<ref>[http://energetyka.wnp.pl/ruszyl-nabor-projektow-do-kolejnej-edycji-greenevo,241649_1_0_0.html Ruszył nabór projektów do kolejnej edycji GreenEvo]</ref><ref>[http://www.wspolnota.org.pl/aktualnosci/aktualnosc/ruszyl-nabor-do-6-edycji-programu-greenevo Ruszył nabór do 6. edycji GreenEvo]</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Ministry of Environment (Poland)|Ministry of Environment]]
* [[Green technology]]
==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
== External links ==
* [http://www.greenevo.gov.pl/ GreenEvo website]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Environmental technology]]
[[Category:Sustainable technologies]]
[[Category:Science and technology in Poland]]
[[Category:Economy of Poland]]
[[Category:Environment of Poland]] |
Protocol on Heavy Metals | The '''Protocol on Heavy Metals''', a protocol to the [[Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution]], was adopted in [[Aarhus]], [[Denmark]], in 1998. As of 2004, it had 36 signatories.{{sfn|Hulme|2004|p=223}} As of 2016, it had 35 signatories and 33 parties, with no country having become a signatory since 1998.<ref>[https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVII-1-f&chapter=27&clang=_en United Nations Treaty Collection, status of Protocol on Heavy Metals.]</ref> The protocol addresses the reduction of [[cadmium]], [[lead]] and [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] emissions in the interests of [[environmental protection]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/hm_h1.html|title=Protocol on Heavy Metals|publisher=UNECE |access-date=10 August 2014}}</ref> Amendments to the Protocol were agreed in 2012<ref>[http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/documents/2012/EB/Decision_2012_5.pdf Decision 2012/5.]</ref> to introduce more stringent emission limits<ref>[http://www.unece.org/index.php?id=31845 UNECE press release, 19 Dec 2012.]</ref> but are not yet in force.
==References==
{{Reflist}}
;Bibliography
*{{cite book|last=Hulme|first=Karen|title=War Torn Environment: Interpreting The Legal Threshold|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hKoXIleS8g4C&pg=PA233|date=January 2004|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|isbn=90-04-13848-X}}
[[Category:Politics in Aarhus]]
[[Category:1998 in law]]
[[Category:1998 in Denmark]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Toxic effects of metals]]
{{Denmark-stub}} |
Environmental stewardship | {{Short description|Core principle of social ecology}}
'''Environmental stewardship''' refers to the responsible use and protection of the [[natural environment]] through active participation in [[Conservation movement|conservation]] efforts and [[Sustainability|sustainable]] practices by individuals, small groups, nonprofit organizations, federal agencies, and other collective networks. [[Aldo Leopold]] (1887–1949) championed environmental stewardship in [[land ethic|land ethics]], exploring the ethical implications of "dealing with man's relation to land and to the animals and plants which grow upon it."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Leopold |first=Aldo |title=A Sand County Almanac: And Sketches Here and There |title-link=A Sand County Almanac |year=1949}}</ref>
==Resilience-based ecosystem stewardship==
Resilience-based ecosystem stewardship emphasizes [[Resilience (ecology)|resilience]] as an integral feature of responding to and interacting with the environment in a constantly changing world. Resilience refers to the ability of a system to recover from [[Disturbance (ecology)|disturbance]] and return to its basic function and structure. For example, [[ecosystems]] do not serve as singular resources but rather are function-dependent in providing an array of [[ecosystem services]]. Additionally, this type of [[stewardship]] recognizes [[Resource management|resource managers]] and management systems as influential and informed participants in the natural systems that are serviced by humans.
==Roles of environmental stewards==
{{tone|Section|date=January 2018}}
Based on pro-organizational [[stewardship theory]] principles, environmental stewards can be categorized into three roles: doers, donors, and practitioners.{{Cn|date=December 2022}}
Doers actively engage in environmental aid, such as volunteering for hands-on work like cleaning up oil spills. Donors support causes financially or through [[gifts in kind]], including fundraising or personal donations. Practitioners work daily in environmental stewardship, acting as advocates in collaboration with various environmental agencies and groups. All three roles contribute to promoting [[Environmental Literacy Plan|environmental literacy]] and encouraging participation in conservation efforts.<ref>[[National Research Council (United States)|National Research Council]]. (2008). ''Increasing Capacity for Stewardship of Oceans and Coasts.'' The National Academic Press, 500 Fifth Street, NW Washington DC 20001.</ref>
From a biocultural conservation perspective, [[Ricardo Rozzi]] and collaborators propose participatory intercultural approaches to earth stewardship.<ref> Ricardo Rozzi, Stuart F. Chapin, J.Baird Callicott, Steward T.A. Pickett, Mary Power Juan J. Armesto, Roy H. May Jr (eds). 2015. ''Earth Stewardship: Linking Ecology and Ethics in Theory and Praxis. Series Ecology and Ethics.'' Springer, Dordrecht: The Netherlands.</ref> This perspective emphasizes the role of long-term [[Socio-ecological system|socio-ecological]] research (LTSER) sites in coordinating local initiatives with global networking and implementing culturally diverse earth stewardship forms.<ref>Ricardo Rozzi and collaborators. 2012. Integrating ecology and environmental ethics: Earth stewardship in the southern end of the Americas. [BioScience 62(3): 226-236 https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/62/3/226/358404]</ref>
== Examples of environmental stewardship ==
Many programs, partnerships, and funding initiatives have tried to implement environmental stewardship into the workings of society. Pesticide Environmental Stewardship Program (PESP),<ref>{{Cite web |last=US EPA |first=OCSPP |date=2015-09-30 |title=Pesticide Environmental Stewardship Program (PESP) |url=https://www.epa.gov/pesp |access-date=2022-05-29 |website=www.epa.gov |language=en}}</ref> a partnership program overseen by the [[US Environmental Protection Agency]], provides pesticide-user consultation to reduce the use of hazardous chemicals and identify the detrimental impact these chemicals can have on social and environmental health.
In 2006, England placed environmental stewardship at the center of an agricultural incentives mechanism, encouraging cattle farmers to better manage their land, crops, animals, and material use.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Environmental Stewardship explained |url=https://www.inbrief.co.uk/agricultural-law/environmental-stewardship/ |access-date=2022-05-30 |website=InBrief.co.uk |language=en-GB}}</ref> The Environmental Stewardship Award was created as part of this initiative to highlight members whose actions exemplify alignment with environmental stewardship.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Environmental Stewardship - About |url=https://www.environmentalstewardship.org/about |access-date=2022-05-29 |website=Environmental Stewardship |language=en}}</ref>
== Social science implications ==
Studies have explored the benefits of environmental stewardship in various contexts such as the evaluation, modeling, and integration into policy, system management, and urban planning. One study examined how social attributes of environmental stewardship can be used to reconfigure local conservation efforts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bennett |first1=Nathan J. |last2=Whitty |first2=Tara S. |last3=Finkbeiner |first3=Elena |last4=Pittman |first4=Jeremy |last5=Bassett |first5=Hannah |last6=Gelcich |first6=Stefan |last7=Allison |first7=Edward H. |date=April 2018 |title=Environmental Stewardship: A Conceptual Review and Analytical Framework |journal=Environmental Management |language=en |volume=61 |issue=4 |pages=597–614 |doi=10.1007/s00267-017-0993-2 |issn=0364-152X |pmc=5849669 |pmid=29387947 |bibcode=2018EnMan..61..597B }}</ref> Social ties to environmental stewardship are emphasized by the [[National Recreation and Park Association]]'s efforts to place environmental stewardship at the forefront of childhood development and youths' consciousness of the outdoors.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cultivating Environmental Stewardship {{!}} National Recreation and Park Association |url=https://www.nrpa.org/publications-research/park-pulse/cultivating-environmental-stewardship/ |access-date=2022-05-29 |website=www.nrpa.org |language=en}}</ref> Practicing environmental stewardship has also been suggested as an effective mental health treatment and natural therapy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alexander |first1=Gina K. |last2=Brooks |first2=Vicki |date=2022-02-01 |title=Nature-based therapeutics: A collaborative research agenda promoting equitable access and environmental stewardship |journal=Collegian |language=en |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=119–124 |doi=10.1016/j.colegn.2021.03.001 |pmid=35125907 |pmc=8797382 |issn=1322-7696|doi-access=free }}</ref>
==See also==
*{{annotated link|Ecotheology}}
*{{annotated link|Eco hotel}}
*{{annotated link|Environmental personhood}}
*{{annotated link|Environmental protection}}
*{{annotated link|Environmental stewardship (England)}}
*{{annotated link|Evangelical environmentalism}}
*{{annotated link|Indigenous Australian traditional custodianship}}
*{{annotated link|Stewardship}}
*{{annotated link|Stewardship (theology)}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Sustainability}}
{{Environmental science}}
{{Environmental social science}}
{{Portal bar|Environment}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental ethics|Stewardship]]
[[Category:Sustainability and environmental management]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Natural resources]] |
International Union of Air Pollution Prevention and Environmental Protection Associations | {{Infobox organization
| name = IUAPPA (International Union of Air Pollution Prevention and Environmental Protection Associations)
| formation = 1964–65, Buenos Aires
| extinction =
| type = [[Non-governmental organization]]
| status =
| purpose = [[Environmentalism]], [[air pollution]], [[sustainable development]]
| headquarters = [[Burgess Hill]], [[West Sussex]], [[United Kingdom]]
| location =
| coords =
| region_served = Worldwide
| membership =
| language =
| general =
| leader_title = [[President (corporate title)|President]]
| leader_name = [[Kil-Choo Moon]]
| leader_title2 = [[Director General]]
| leader_name2 = Richard Mills
| leader_title3 =
| leader_name3 =
| leader_title4 =
| leader_name4 =
| key_people =
| main_organ = International Board
| parent_organization = <!-- if one -->
| affiliations = <!-- if any -->
| website = {{URL|http://www.iuappa.org/}}
}}
The '''International Union of Air Pollution Prevention and Environmental Protection Associations''' ('''IUAPPA''') is an international federation of civil society organisations concerned with [[air pollution]]. IUAPPA, founded 1964 at the urging of the US Air Pollution Control Association,<ref name="Wiley">Joachim Radkau: The Age of Ecology. Wiley, 2014</ref> has 40 national organisations from countries such as the United States ([[Air and Waste Management Association]]), Germany ([[Verein Deutscher Ingenieure]]) and Japan (Japan Environmental Management Association for Industry) and has networks and representatives in most others countries. The Foundation is seen as one milestone in the "Ecological Revolution" in and around 1970.<ref name="Wiley"/>
==Focus==
The focus of IUAPPA is "the development and implementation of more effective policies for the prevention and control of air pollution, the protection of the environment and the adoption of sustainable development".<ref>{{cite web |url= http://iuappa.org/Statutes.html/ |title= Statutes IUAPPA |accessdate= 2015-03-16 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150215155304/http://iuappa.org/Statutes.html |archive-date= 2015-02-15 |url-status= dead }}</ref> IUAPPA wants to achieve the adoption and effective implementation of policies which can secure a clean and healthy atmospheric environment, together with scientists, policy-makers, regulators, business and citizen groups with this same objective.
The Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum was initiated by IUAPPA and the [[Stockholm Environment Institute]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sei-international.org/rapidc/gapforum/html/index.php |title=Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum |publisher=Stockholm Environment Institute|accessdate=2015-03-16}}</ref> [[European Federation of Clean Air and Environmental Protection Associations]] (EFCA) was founded by the core of European members of the International Union of Air Pollution Prevention and Environmental Protection Associations, IUAPPA <ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.efca.net/efca2/index.php?page=about-efca |title= About EFCA |publisher= European Federation of Clean Air and Environmental Protection Associations |date= |accessdate= 2015-03-16 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150107081536/http://www.efca.net/efca2/index.php?page=about-efca |archive-date= 2015-01-07 |url-status= dead }}</ref>
==Governance==
The IUAPPA secretariat is in Burgess Hill, West Sussex, United Kingdom. The president is [[Kil-Choo Moon]] of the [[Korea Institute of Science and Technology]] and the director general is Richard Mills.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hellodd.com/news/article.html?no=43964 |title=New IUAAPA President (korean) |publisher=Hello DD, Koreas Nr. 1 in Science and Media |date=2013-10-03 |accessdate=2015-03-16 |archive-date=2015-05-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150525222544/http://www.hellodd.com/news/article.html?no=43964 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>http://www.jsme-fed.org/events/2011/AJK2011/documents/Biography_Dr.KC.Moon.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref> IUAPPA is governed by an International Board which consists of the President, Vice-Presidents, Immediate Past President and Honorary Treasurer, together with one authorised representative from each Full Member of the Union.
==Partners and Members==
IUAPPA is a partner of [[UNEP]] Climate and Clean Air Coalition<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unep.org/ccac/Partners/Non-StatePartners/IUAPPA/tabid/131860/language/en-US/Default.aspx|title=Clean Climate and Air Colaition |publisher=UNEP |date= |accessdate=2015-03-16}}</ref> and has worked close together over the past decades with UNEP and [[WHO]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://forecast.uoa.gr/awards/iuappa_newletter_nov04.pdf |title= Klaus Töpfer, Executive Director Speech|publisher= IUAPPA Newsletter 2004|date= |accessdate=2015-03-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title= Health program of the 10th World Clean Air Congress |journal = Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health|volume = 21|issue = 6|pages = 527–530|jstor = 40966454|last1 = Salonen|first1 = Raimo O.|year = 1995}}</ref>
'''Selected Members'''
*[[Clean Air Society of Australia and New Zealand]]
*Commission on Air Pollution Prevention of VDI and DIN – KRdL, Kommission Reinhaltung der Luft im VDI und DIN - Normenausschuss KRdL<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.vdi.de/technik/fachthemen/reinhaltung-der-luft/europaeische-und-internationale-normung/ |title= Kommission Reinhaltung der Luft im VDI und DIN - Normenausschuss KRdL |publisher = VDI|date= |accessdate=2015-03-16}}</ref>
*Japanese Union of Air Pollution Prevention Associations (JUAPPA), Nihon Taiki Kougai Boushi Dantai Rengoukai<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.jemai.or.jp/#2/ |title= JAPANESE UNION OF AIR POLLUTION PREVENTION ASSOCIATIONS |publisher= JEMAI|date= |accessdate=2015-03-16}}</ref>
*[[Environmental Protection UK]], formerly National Society for Clean Air and Environmental Protection - NSCA<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.environmental-protection.org.uk | title=Home}}</ref>
*Air & Waste Management Association<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.awma.org/|title=Home|work=Air & Waste Management Association}}</ref>
*Cercl'Air, Switzerland, Service de l'environnement<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cerclair.ch/cmsv2/index.php?news-1 |title=Cercl'Air | News |access-date=2015-05-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140805105211/http://www.cerclair.ch/cmsv2/index.php?news-1 |archive-date=2014-08-05 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*The Swedish Clean Air Society<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.emtf.se/|title=Energi- & Miljötekniska Föreningen}}</ref>
==World Clean Air Congress==
The World Clean Air Congress, first organized by IUAPPA in 1966, is held every two or three years. It is one of the major international gatherings on atmospheric sciences and policy with 1,500 participants. Some of the more recent congresses are:
* the 16th IUAPPA World Clean Air Congress, ''Many Nations – One Atmosphere: Plotting the Path to Sustainability'' was held at the Cape Town, with a call on South African industry to show leadership and comply with emission standards.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iuappa2013.com/|title=IUAPPA 2013 - Home|access-date=2015-05-25|archive-date=2022-12-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201034040/https://www.iuappa2013.com/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Delegates at the 16th congress heard mostly poor South Africans were exposed to pollutants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.enca.com/south-africa/molewa-addresses-air-pollution-conference |title=Poor hurt most by pollution: Molewa |publisher=eNews Channel Africa|accessdate=2015-03-16}}</ref> "The people that are exposed to the smog are almost always the people that cannot afford to pay the doctors' bills for bronchitis, asthma or, worse, lung cancer," Environmental Affairs Minister Edna Molewa said in a speech.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.news24.com/Green/News/Conference-calls-on-SA-to-clean-up-over-air-pollution-20130930|title=Conference calls on SA to clean up over air pollution |publisher=news24.com |date= 2013-09-30|accessdate=2015-03-16}}</ref>
* the 17th IUAPPA World Clean Air Congress, ''Mega Cities Perspective, Healthier and Greener Future'', held in Busan, Korea in 2016<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iuappa2016.org/|title=17th IUAPPA World Clean Air Congress 2016|access-date=2015-05-25|archive-date=2018-10-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181024074914/http://www.iuappa2016.org/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
==Resolutions and declarations==
Ever since it was founded in 1964 the Union has had a long-term interest in the relationship between [[air pollution]] and the Earth's climate. Policy declarations in 1989 were one of the first to focus on [[Climate Change|climate change]]. The focus in 1995 was on the changing [[Arctic]] landscape and pollution. In 2001 it was worldwide action on long-range transport of air pollution. 2010's focus was ''One Atmosphere''.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Press release|title=IUAPPEPA calls for absracts for World Congress|url=http://iuappa-seeks-abstracts-for-2010-world-clean-air-congress-569111|website=news, thomasnet.com|publisher=Thomasnet.com|accessdate=21 March 2015}}{{Dead link|date=May 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
==Awards==
In collaboration with the International Academy of Science, Munich the Union offers the [[Thomas Kuhn]] Award for a new understanding of problems of sustainability or the applied transfer of such new solutions and the [[Yuan T. Lee]] Award for multi-disciplinary or cross-disciplinary work which relates to the natural and psycho-sciences in pursuit of sustainability.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ias-icsd.org/awards.html |title=Hope for the Future for a Sustainable World Award |publisher=International Academy of Science|accessdate=2015-03-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iuappa.org/AwardsHonours.html|title=Awards & Honours|work=IUAPPA}}</ref>
==Publications==
*Ranjeet Sokhi (ED.): World Atlas of Atmospheric Pollution. The World Atlas was developed in conjunction with the International Union of Air Pollution Prevention and Environmental Protection Associations (IUAPPA) and the Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum.
*IUAPPA Three Year Review: 2007 - 2010 ([http://www.iuappa.org/newsletters/Three%20year%20review%202010.pdf PDF])
*Over 1000 IUAPPA related publications ([https://scholar.google.de/scholar?hl=de&q=IUAPPA+&btnG=&lr= Google scholar]).
==References==
{{Reflist}}
<!--- After listing your sources please cite them using inline citations and place them after the information they cite. Please see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:REFB for instructions on how to add citations. --->
==External links==
*[http://www.iuappa.org/ IUAPPA]
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Air pollution]]
[[Category:Climate change policy]]
[[Category:Environmental organisations based in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:International sustainability organizations]]
[[Category:Organisations based in West Sussex]]
[[Category:Science and technology in West Sussex]]
[[Category:Supraorganizations]] |
Industrial stormwater | {{Short description|Runoff from precipitation that lands on industrial sites}}
'''Industrial stormwater''' is [[surface runoff|runoff]] from precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, freezing rain, or hail) that lands on industrial sites (e.g. manufacturing facilities, mines, airports). This runoff is often [[water pollution|polluted]] by materials that are handled or stored on the sites, and the facilities are subject to regulations to control the discharges.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Müller |first1=Alexandra |last2=Österlund |first2=Heléne |last3=Marsalek |first3=Jiri |last4=Viklander |first4=Maria |title=The pollution conveyed by urban runoff: A review of sources |date=2020-03-20 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |publisher=Elsevier |volume=709 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136125|doi-access=free |pmid=31905584 |bibcode=2020ScTEn.709m6125M }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Stormwater Discharges from Industrial Activities |url=https://www.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater-discharges-industrial-activities |date=2022-11-28 |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) |location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref>
==Regulation in the United States==
[[File:A U.S. Army C-37B aircraft transporting Army Chief of Staff Gen. Raymond T. Odierno, gets de-iced before it departs Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson, Alaska.jpg|thumb|[[De-ice|Deicing]] of aircraft. All U.S. airports are required to obtain stormwater permits]]
In the United States, facilities that discharge industrial stormwater to surface waters must obtain a permit under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), pursuant to the [[Clean Water Act]].<ref>United States. Federal Water Pollution Control Amendments of 1972. [http://www.epw.senate.gov/water.pdf Pub.L. 92-500], October 18, 1972; as amended by the Water Quality Act of 1987, Pub.L. 100-4, February 4, 1987. Section 402(p), {{USC|33|1342(p)}}.</ref> Stormwater permit regulations issued by the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) govern the permit process.<ref>EPA. "Storm water discharges." ''EPA Administered Permit Programs: The National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System.'' ''Code of Federal Regulations,'' {{USCFR|40|122.26}}.</ref> EPA published its "Phase I" stormwater rule, which covers industrial dischargers, in 1990.<ref>EPA (1990-11-16). [http://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-10/documents/stormwater_phase1_rule.pdf "National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System Permit Application Regulations for Storm Water Discharges"]. ''Federal Register,'' 44 FR 47990.</ref>
Most stormwater permits in the U.S. are issued by the agencies in 47 states that have been given authority by EPA. EPA regional offices issue the stormwater permits in the remaining parts of the country.<ref name="EPA state program info">{{cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/npdes/npdes-state-program-authority |title=NPDES State Program Authority |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=2023-01-03 |website=National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) |publisher=EPA}}</ref>
===Multi-sector general permit===
EPA published its ''Multi-Sector General Permit'' (MSGP) initially in 1995 to govern how industrial stormwater should be managed, and periodically it has updated and reissued the permit. The 2021 MSGP covers 30 industrial and commercial sectors:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater-discharges-industrial-activities-epas-2021-msgp |title=Stormwater Discharges from Industrial Activities-EPA's 2021 MSGP |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=2022-12-22 |website=NPDES |publisher=EPA}}</ref>
<ol type="A">
<li>[[Forest product|Timber Products]] Facilities (including [[wood preservation]])</li>
<li>[[Paper]] and Allied Products Manufacturing Facilities</li>
<li>[[Chemical plant|Chemical and Allied Products]] Manufacturing and Refining</li>
<li>[[Asphalt concrete|Asphalt]] Paving and [[Asphalt shingle|Roofing Materials]] and Manufacturers and Lubricant Manufacturers</li>
<li>[[Glass]], [[Clay]], [[Cement]], [[Concrete]], and [[Gypsum]] Product Manufacturing Facilities</li>
<li>[[Smelting|Primary Metals]] Facilities</li>
<li>[[Mining|Metal Mining]] (Ore Mining and Dressing) Facilities</li>
<li>[[Coal mining|Coal Mines]] and Coal Mining-Related Facilities</li>
<li>[[Extraction of petroleum|Oil and Gas]]Extraction Facilities</li>
<li>[[Mining|Mineral Mining]] and Processing Facilities</li>
<li>[[Hazardous Waste]] Treatment, Storage, or Disposal Facilities</li>
[[File:Junk yard, Jacksonville, FL.jpg|thumb|[[Wrecking yard|Scrap yards]] must obtain stormwater permits and control [[stormwater runoff]]]]
<li>[[Landfill]]s and Land Application Sites</li>
<li>[[Wrecking yard|Automobile Salvage Yards]]</li>
<li>Scrap [[Recycling]] and Waste Recycling Facilities</li>
<li>[[Fossil fuel power station|Steam Electric Power Generating Facilities]], including Coal Handling Areas</li>
<li>[[Freight terminal|Motor Freight Transportation Facilities]], Passenger Transportation Facilities, Petroleum Bulk Oil Stations and Terminals, Rail Transportation Facilities, and United States Postal Service Transportation Facilities</li>
<li>Water Transportation Facilities with Vehicle Maintenance Shops and/or Equipment Cleaning Operations</li>
<li>Ship and Boat Building or Repair Yards</li>
<li>Vehicle Maintenance Areas, Equipment Cleaning Areas, or Deicing Areas Located at Air Transportation Facilities</li>
<li>[[Sewage treatment]] plants</li>
<li>Food and Kindred Products Facilities</li>
<li>Textile Mills, Apparel, and Other Fabric Products Manufacturing Facilities</li>
<li>Wood and Metal Furniture and Fixture Manufacturing Facilities</li>
<li>Printing and Publishing Facilities</li>
<li>Rubber, Miscellaneous Plastic Products, and Miscellaneous Manufacturing Industries</li>
<li>Leather Tanning and Finishing Facilities</li>
<li>Fabricated Metal Products Manufacturing Facilities</li>
<li>Transportation Equipment, Industrial, or Commercial Machinery Manufacturing Facilities</li>
<li>Electronic and Electrical Equipment and Components, Photographic, and Optical Goods Manufacturing Facilities</li>
<li>Other industrial facilities not in the above categories that are designated by the permit authority as needing a permit</li>
</ol>
The permit is applicable to facilities in [[Massachusetts]], [[New Hampshire]], [[New Mexico]], the [[District of Columbia]] and federal [[insular area]]s (territories). The other states have developed their own state-specific industrial stormwater permits (e.g. California's Industrial General Permit).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.waterboards.ca.gov/water_issues/programs/stormwater/industrial.shtml |title=Industrial Storm Water Program |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=2016-03-22 |website=State Water Resources Control Board |publisher=California Environmental Protection Agency}}</ref> State-issued general permits often include the same requirements as EPA's permit, but some states have additional requirements.<ref name="EPA state program info"/>
[[File:Silt fence illus EPA.jpg|thumb|150px|A [[silt fence]] is a type of [[sediment control]] used on construction sites.]]
===Construction site stormwater===
Under EPA regulations, stormwater runoff from construction sites is also classified as industrial stormwater, however these discharges are covered by a separate set of permits. EPA periodically publishes its ''Construction General Permit'' and the approved state agencies publish similar permits, to regulate discharges from construction sites of 1 acre (4,000 m<sup>2</sup>) or more. (Also covered are sites that are less than one acre in size, that are part of a larger common plan of development that will disturb more than 1 acre.)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater-discharges-construction-activities |title=Stormwater Discharges from Construction Activities |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=2023-02-27 |website=NPDES |publisher=EPA}}</ref> In addition to implementing the NPDES requirements, many states and local governments have enacted their own stormwater management laws and ordinances, and some have published stormwater treatment design manuals.<ref name="Washington Manual">Washington State Department of Ecology (August 2012). Olympia, WA. [https://ecology.wa.gov/Regulations-Permits/Guidance-technical-assistance/Stormwater-permittee-guidance-resources/Stormwater-manuals "Stormwater Management Manual for Western Washington."] Publication No. 12-10-030.</ref><ref>{{cite report |date=2009 |title=Maryland Stormwater Design Manual |url=https://mde.maryland.gov/programs/Water/StormwaterManagementProgram/Pages/stormwater_design.aspx |publisher=Maryland Department of the Environment |location=Baltimore, MD}}</ref> Some of these state and local requirements have expanded coverage beyond the federal requirements. For example, the State of [[Maryland]] requires [[Erosion control|erosion]] and [[sediment control]]s on construction sites of 5,000 sq ft (460 m<sup>2</sup>) or more.<ref>State of Maryland. ''Code of Maryland Regulations (COMAR).'' [http://www.dsd.state.md.us/comar/comarhtml/26/26.17.01.05.htm ''Activities for Which Approved Erosion and Sediment Control Plans are Required.''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227034750/http://www.dsd.state.md.us/comar/comarhtml/26/26.17.01.05.htm |date=2020-02-27 }} Sec. 26.17.01.05.</ref>
==See also==
* [[Industrial wastewater treatment]]
* [[Stormwater]]
* [[United States regulation of point source water pollution]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Stormwater management]]
[[Category:Water pollution in the United States]] |
Secondary spill containment | [[File:Big fuel bladder -- Antarctica -- Byrd Field Camp.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Fuel bladder with secondary spill containment]]
'''Secondary spill containment''' is the containment of [[hazardous liquid]]s in order to prevent [[soil pollution|pollution of soil]] and [[water pollution|water]]. Common techniques include the use of [[Oil spill|spill]] [[berm]]s to contain [[oil]]-filled equipment, [[fuel tank]]s, truck washing decks, or any other places or items that may leak hazardous liquids.
==Definition==
Secondary spill containment involves the sequestration of [[hazardous waste]] to prevent the contamination of local soils and water.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/40/267.195|title=40 CFR 267.195 - What are the secondary containment requirements?|website=LII / Legal Information Institute|language=en|access-date=2018-03-28}}</ref>
==In the electrical utility industry==
[[File:Secondary-Oil-Containment-Installation.jpg|thumb|Adaptable Secondary Oil Containment around a Transformer.[http://ciagent.com/secondary-containment/#Wiki]]]
[[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) Spill Prevention, Control, and Countermeasure (SPCC) guidelines require that facilities that store large quantities of [[petroleum]] ([[petroleum product|products]]) must have a plan in place to contain a spill.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/oil-spills-prevention-and-preparedness-regulations |title=Oil Spills Prevention and Preparedness Regulations |date= March 7, 2017 |publisher=EPA}}</ref> The purpose of the SPCC rule is to establish requirements for facilities to prevent a discharge of oil into navigable waters or adjoining shorelines. Within the [[electric utility industry]], oil-filled [[transformer]]s are often in need of secondary containment.{{cn|date=March 2017}} Outdated secondary containment techniques such as concrete catch-basins are quickly losing ground to solutions that offer more cost-effective cleanup in case of a spill or leak.{{cn|date=March 2017}} One example of a more cost-effective method involves placing a [[geotextile]] boom filled with oil solidifying [[polymers]] around a transformer. These geotextile barriers allow for flow of water, but completely solidify oil in the event of a leak and effectively seal the spill.{{cn|date=March 2017}} Many electrical utility companies are switching to this method because it saves them significant amounts of money when a spill occurs, because there is no need to employ [[vacuum truck|vac-trucks]] afterwards to clean up a spill inside a catch-basin.{{cn|date=March 2017}}
==Portable spill containment==
[[File:Spill Berms AIRE Industrial.jpg|thumb|Portable spill containment around fracking equipment]]
Portable containment berms are essentially a basin that can catch many different types of hazardous liquids and chemicals. They are a form of secondary spill containment useful for containing mobile equipment such as [[drum (container)|oil drums]], trucks, [[tank truck|tankers]] and trailers. Unlike [[geotextile]] berms, portable berms usually do not solidify oil.{{cn|date=March 2017}}
Many companies involved in [[fracking]] use spill containment berms to capture contaminated water that is a by-product of the operation.{{cn|date=March 2017}} Each well site has multiple trucks that transport water used in [[deep well drilling]] procedure.{{cn|date=March 2017}}
==See also==
* [[Bunding]]
==References==
<references/>
==External links==
* [http://www.epa.gov U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) ]
==External links==
*{{commonscat-inline|Secondary spill containment}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Secondary spill containment}}
[[Category:United States Environmental Protection Agency]]
[[Category:Chemical safety]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]] |
Environmental law | {{Short description|Branch of law concerning the natural environment}}
{{For|the journal|Environmental Law (journal){{!}}''Environmental Law'' (journal)}}
{{Lead too short|date=May 2022}}
<noinclude>{{Environmental law}}</noinclude>
'''Environmental laws''' are laws that protect the environment.<ref>Phillipe Sands (2003) Principles of International Environmental Law. 2nd Edition. p. xxi Available at [http://182.160.97.198:8080/xmlui/bitstream/handle/123456789/928/Introductory%20Page.pdf?sequence=1] Accessed 19 February 2020</ref> Environmental law is the collection of laws, [[Regulation|regulations]], agreements and common law that governs how humans interact with their environment.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Environmental Law? {{!}} Becoming an Environmental Lawyer |url=https://legalcareerpath.com/what-is-environmental-law/ |access-date=2023-06-28 |language=en-US}}</ref> This includes '''environmental regulations'''; laws governing management of [[natural resources]], such as [[forest]]s, [[mineral]]s, or fisheries; and related topics such as [[environmental impact assessment|environmental impact assessments]]. Environmental law is seen as the body of laws concerned with the protection of living things (human beings inclusive) from the harm that human activity may immediately or eventually cause to them or their species, either directly or to the media and the habits on which they depend.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NOUN {{!}} National Open University of Nigeria |url=https://nou.edu.ng/ |access-date=2023-06-29 |website=nou.edu.ng}}</ref>
==History==
{{See also|{{CURRENTYEAR}} in the environment and environmental sciences#Environmental policy}}
Early examples of laws designed to preserve the environment for its own sake or for human enjoyment are found throughout history. In the [[common law]], the primary protection was found in the law of [[Nuisance in English law|nuisance]], but this only allowed for private actions for damages or injunctions if there was harm to land. Thus, smells emanating from [[pig sty|pigsties]],<ref>''[[Aldred's Case]]'' (1610) 9 Co Rep 57b; (1610) 77 ER 816</ref> [[strict liability]] against dumping rubbish,<ref>''[[R v Stephens]]'' (1866) LR 1 QB 702</ref> or damage from exploding dams.<ref>''[[Rylands v Fletcher]]'' [1868] UKHL 1</ref> Private enforcement, however, was limited and found to be woefully inadequate to deal with major environmental [[Threat|threats]], particularly threats to common resources. During the "[[Great Stink]]" of 1858, the dumping of sewerage into the [[River Thames]] began to smell so ghastly in the summer heat that Parliament had to be evacuated. Ironically, the [[Metropolitan Commission of Sewers Act 1848]] had allowed the Metropolitan Commission for Sewers to close [[cesspit]]s around the city in an attempt to "clean up" but this simply led people to pollute the river. In 19 days, [[Parliament]] passed a further Act to build the [[London sewerage system]]. London also suffered from terrible [[air pollution]], and this culminated in the "[[Great Smog]]" of 1952, which in turn triggered its own legislative response: the [[Clean Air Act 1956]]. The basic regulatory structure was to set limits on emissions for households and businesses (particularly burning of [[coal]]) while an inspectorate would enforce compliance.
== Pollution control ==
=== Air quality ===
[[File:Alfred Palmer Smokestacks.jpg|thumb|Industrial air pollution now regulated by [[air quality law]]]]
{{excerpt|Air quality law|only=paragraph}}
=== Water quality ===
[[File:Discharge pipe.jpg|thumb|alt=A typical stormwater outfall.|A typical stormwater outfall, subject to [[water quality law]]]]
{{excerpt|Water quality law|only=paragraph}}
=== Waste management ===
[[File:Landfill.jpg|thumb|alt=A landfill.|A municipal landfill, operated pursuant to [[waste management law]]]]
{{excerpt|Waste management law|only=paragraph}}
=== Contaminant cleanup ===
[[File:Rena oil spill cleanup.jpg|thumb|alt=Oil spill cleanup.|Oil spill emergency response, governed by [[environmental cleanup law]]]]
{{excerpt|Environmental cleanup law|only=paragraph}}
=== Chemical safety ===
Chemical safety laws govern the use of [[chemical]]s in human activities, particularly human-made chemicals in modern industrial applications. As contrasted with media-oriented environmental laws (e.g., air or water quality laws), chemical control laws seek to manage the (potential) pollutants themselves. Regulatory efforts include banning specific chemical constituents in consumer products (e.g., [[Bisphenol A controversy|Bisphenol A]] in plastic bottles), and regulating [[pesticides]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Environmental Law - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/environmental-law |access-date=2023-06-29 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref>
== Resource sustainability ==
=== Impact assessment ===
{{excerpt|Environmental impact assessment|only=paragraph}}
=== Water resources ===
[[File:Irrigation ditch.JPG|thumb|An irrigation ditch, operated in accordance with [[water law|water resources law]]]]
{{Main|Water law}}
Water resources laws govern the ownership and use of [[water resources]], including [[surface water]] and [[ground water]]. Regulatory areas may include [[water conservation]], use restrictions, and ownership regimes.
=== Mineral resources ===
{{excerpt|Mining law|only=paragraph}}
=== Forest resources ===
[[File:John Deere 2054 DHSP forestry swing machine, Kaibab National Forest 1.jpg|thumb|alt=A timber operation.|A timber operation, regulated by [[forestry law]]]]
{{Main|Forestry law}}
{{excerpt|Forestry law|only=paragraph|paragraphs=1,2}}
=== Wildlife and plants ===
Wildlife laws govern the potential impact of human activity on wild animals, whether directly on individuals or populations, or indirectly via habitat degradation. Similar laws may operate to protect plant species. Such laws may be enacted entirely to protect [[biodiversity]], or as a means for protecting species deemed important for other reasons. Regulatory efforts may include the creation of special [[conservation status]]es, prohibitions on killing, harming, or disturbing protected species, efforts to induce and support species recovery, establishment of wildlife refuges to support conservation, and prohibitions on trafficking in species or animal parts to combat [[poaching]].
=== Fish and game ===
{{Main|Game law}}
{{Further|Fisheries law}}
Fish and game laws regulate the right to pursue and take or kill certain kinds of [[fish]] and [[wild animal]] ([[game (food)|game]]). Such laws may restrict the days to harvest fish or game, the number of animals caught per person, the species harvested, or the weapons or fishing gear used. Such laws may seek to balance dueling needs for preservation and harvest and to manage both [[Natural environment|environment]] and [[Population biology|populations]] of fish and game. Game laws can provide a legal structure to collect [[license]] fees and other [[Federal Duck Stamp|money]] which is used to fund [[Wildlife conservation|conservation]] efforts as well as to obtain harvest information used in [[wildlife management]] practice.
== Principles ==
Environmental law has developed in response to emerging awareness of and concern over issues impacting the entire world. While laws have developed piecemeal and for a variety of reasons, some effort has gone into identifying key concepts and guiding principles common to environmental law as a whole.<ref>For example, the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP) has identified eleven "emerging principles and concepts" in international environmental law, derived from the [[Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment|1972 Stockholm Conference]], the [[Rio Declaration on Environment and Development|1992 Rio Declaration]], and more recent developments. UNEP, [http://www.unep.org/environmentalgovernance/Portals/8/documents/training_Manual.pdf Training Manual on International Environmental Law] (Chapter 3).</ref> The principles discussed below are not an exhaustive list and are not universally recognized or accepted. Nonetheless, they represent important principles for the understanding of environmental law around the world.
=== Sustainable development ===
{{Main|Sustainable development}}
Defined by the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP) as "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs," [[sustainable development]] may be considered together with the concepts of "integration" (development cannot be considered in isolation from sustainability) and "interdependence" (social and economic development, and environmental protection, are interdependent).<ref>[http://www.unep.org/environmentalgovernance/Portals/8/documents/training_Manual.pdf UNEP Manual], ¶¶ 12-19.</ref> Laws mandating [[environmental impact assessment]] and requiring or encouraging development to minimize environmental impacts may be assessed against this principle.
The modern concept of sustainable development was a topic of discussion at the 1972 [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment]] (Stockholm Conference), and the driving force behind the 1983 [[World Commission on Environment and Development]] (WCED, or Bruntland Commission). In 1992, the first UN [[Earth Summit]] resulted in the [[Rio Declaration]], Principle 3 of which reads: "The right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitably meet developmental and environmental needs of present and future generations." Sustainable development has been a core concept of international environmental discussion ever since, including at the [[Earth Summit 2002|World Summit on Sustainable Development]] (Earth Summit 2002), and the [[United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development]] (Earth Summit 2012, or Rio+20).
=== Equity ===
{{Further|Intergenerational equity}}
Defined by UNEP to include intergenerational equity – "the right of future generations to enjoy a fair level of the common patrimony" – and intragenerational equity – "the right of all people within the current generation to fair access to the current generation's entitlement to the Earth's natural resources" – environmental equity considers the present generation under an obligation to account for long-term impacts of activities, and to act to sustain the global environment and resource base for future generations.<ref>[http://www.unep.org/environmentalgovernance/Portals/8/documents/training_Manual.pdf UNEP Manual], ¶¶ 20-23.</ref> Pollution control and resource management laws may be assessed against this principle.
=== Transboundary responsibility ===
Defined in the international law context as an obligation to protect one's own environment, and to prevent damage to neighboring environments, UNEP considers transboundary responsibility at the international level as a potential limitation on the rights of the [[sovereign state]].<ref>[http://www.unep.org/environmentalgovernance/Portals/8/documents/training_Manual.pdf UNEP Manual], ¶¶ 24-28.</ref> Laws that act to limit [[externalities]] imposed upon human health and the environment may be assessed against this principle.
=== Public participation and transparency ===
Identified as essential conditions for "accountable governments,... industrial concerns," and organizations generally, public participation and transparency are presented by UNEP as requiring "effective protection of the human right to hold and express opinions and to seek, receive and impart ideas,... a right of access to appropriate, comprehensible and timely information held by governments and industrial concerns on economic and social policies regarding the sustainable use of natural resources and the protection of the environment, without imposing undue financial burdens upon the applicants and with adequate protection of privacy and business confidentiality," and "effective judicial and administrative proceedings." These principles are present in [[environmental impact assessment]], laws requiring publication and access to relevant environmental data, and [[administrative procedure]].
=== Precautionary principle ===
{{Main|Precautionary principle}}
One of the most commonly encountered and controversial principles of environmental law, the [[Rio Declaration]] formulated the precautionary principle as follows:<blockquote>In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent [[environmental degradation]].</blockquote>The principle may play a role in any debate over the need for environmental regulation.
=== Prevention ===
:The concept of prevention ... can perhaps better be considered an overarching aim that gives rise to a multitude of legal mechanisms, including prior assessment of environmental harm, licensing or authorization that set out the conditions for operation and the consequences for violation of the conditions, as well as the adoption of strategies and policies. Emission limits and other product or process standards, the use of best available techniques and similar techniques can all be seen as applications of the concept of prevention.<ref>[http://www.unep.org/environmentalgovernance/Portals/8/documents/training_Manual.pdf UNEP Manual], ¶¶ 58.</ref>
=== Polluter pays principle ===
{{Main|Polluter pays principle}}
The polluter pays principle stands for the idea that "the environmental costs of economic activities, including the cost of preventing potential harm, should be internalized rather than imposed upon society at large."<ref>[[Rio Declaration]] Principle 16; [http://www.unep.org/environmentalgovernance/Portals/8/documents/training_Manual.pdf UNEP Manual] ¶ 63.</ref> All issues related to responsibility for cost for [[environmental remediation]] and compliance with pollution control regulations involve this principle.
== Theory ==
Environmental law is a continuing source of controversy. Debates over the necessity, fairness, and cost of environmental regulation are ongoing, as well as regarding the appropriateness of regulations vs. market solutions to achieve even agreed-upon ends.
[[Allegation|Allegations]] of scientific uncertainty fuel the [[Global warming controversy|ongoing debate]] over greenhouse gas regulation, and are a major factor in debates over whether to ban particular pesticides.<ref>See, e.g., [[DDT]].</ref> In cases where the science is well-settled, it is not unusual to find that corporations intentionally hide or distort the facts, or sow confusion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/Books/Book-Reviews/2010/0622/Merchants-of-Doubt|title=Merchants of Doubt|author=The Christian Science Monitor|date=22 June 2010|work=The Christian Science Monitor}}</ref>
It is very common for regulated industry to argue against environmental regulation on the basis of cost.<ref>In the United States, estimates of environmental regulation total costs reach 2% of [[GDP]]. See [http://www.rff.org/Documents/RFF-DP-03-06.pdf Pizer & Kopp, Calculating the Costs of Environmental Regulation, 1 (2003 Resources for the Future)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326170136/http://www.rff.org/Documents/RFF-DP-03-06.pdf |date=2009-03-26 }}.</ref> Difficulties arise in performing [[cost–benefit analysis]] of environmental issues. It is [[ecosystem valuation|difficult to quantify]] the value of an environmental value such as a healthy ecosystem, clean air, or species diversity. Many environmentalists' response to pitting economy vs. ecology is summed up by former Senator and founder of [[Earth Day]] [[Gaylord Nelson]], "The economy is a wholly owned subsidiary of the environment, not the other way around."<ref>{{cite book|title=Beyond Earth Day: Fulfilling the Promise|first=Gaylord|last=Nelson|date=November 2002|publisher=Wisconsin Press|url=https://archive.org/details/beyondearthdayfu00nels_0|isbn=978-0-299-18040-9|access-date=2016-03-14|url-access=registration}}</ref> Furthermore, environmental issues are seen by many as having an [[environmental ethics|ethical or moral]] dimension, which would transcend financial cost. Even so, there are some efforts underway to systemically recognize environmental costs and assets, and account for them properly in economic terms.
While affected industries spark controversy in fighting regulation, there are also many environmentalists and public interest groups who believe that current regulations are inadequate, and advocate for stronger protection.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/can-world-really-set-aside-half-planet-wildlife-180952379/|title=Can the World Really Set Aside Half of the Planet for Wildlife?|magazine=Smithsonian}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.commondreams.org/news/2016/03/09/climate-coalition-vows-peaceful-escalated-actions-until-we-break-free-fossil-fuels|title=Climate Coalition Vows 'Peaceful, Escalated' Actions Until 'We Break Free from Fossil Fuels'|work=Common Dreams}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.motherjones.com/environment/2006/03/guide-environmental-non-profits|title=A Guide to Environmental Non-Profits|work=Mother Jones}}</ref> Environmental law conferences – such as the annual [[University of Oregon School of Law#Public Interest Environmental Law Conference|Public Interest Environmental Law Conference]] in Eugene, Oregon – typically have this focus, also connecting environmental law with class, race, and other issues.
An additional debate is to what extent environmental laws are fair to all regulated parties. For instance, researchers Preston Teeter and Jorgen Sandberg highlight how smaller organizations can often incur disproportionately larger costs as a result of environmental regulations, which can ultimately create an additional barrier to entry for new firms, thus stifling competition and innovation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Teeter|first1=Preston|last2=Sandberg|first2=Jorgen|date=2016|title=Constraining or Enabling Green Capability Development? How Policy Uncertainty Affects Organizational Responses to Flexible Environmental Regulations|journal=British Journal of Management|volume=28|issue=4|pages=649–665|doi=10.1111/1467-8551.12188| s2cid=157986703 |url=http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/93826/1/WRAP-constraining-enabling-green-policy-flexible-Sandberg-2017.pdf}}</ref>
== International environmental law ==
{{See also|List of international environmental agreements}}
{{Further|Environmental protocol}}
Global and regional environmental issues are increasingly the subject of [[international law]]. Debates over environmental concerns implicate core principles of international law and have been the subject of numerous international agreements and declarations.
[[Customary international law]] is an important source of international environmental law. These are the norms and rules that countries follow as a matter of custom and they are so prevalent that they bind all states in the world. When a principle becomes customary law is not clear cut and many arguments are put forward by states not wishing to be bound. Examples of customary international law relevant to the environment include the duty to warn other states promptly about icons of an environmental nature and environmental damages to which another state or states may be exposed, and Principle 21 of the Stockholm Declaration ('good neighborliness' or sic utere).
Given that customary international law is not static but ever evolving and the continued increase of air pollution (carbon dioxide) causing climate changes, has led to discussions on whether basic customary principles of international law, such as the jus cogens (peremptory norms) and erga omnes principles could be applicable for enforcing international environmental law.<ref>Jesper Jarl Fanø (2019). Enforcing International Maritime Legislation on Air Pollution through UNCLOS. Hart Publishing. Part IV (Ch. 16-18)</ref>
Numerous [[List of international environmental agreements|legally binding international agreements]] encompass a wide variety of issue-areas, from terrestrial, marine and atmospheric pollution through to wildlife and biodiversity protection. International environmental agreements are generally [[Multilateral treaty|multilateral]] (or sometimes [[Bilateral treaty|bilateral]]) [[Treaty|treaties]] (a.k.a. convention, agreement, protocol, etc.). [[Treaty#Protocols|Protocols]] are subsidiary agreements built from a primary treaty. They exist in many areas of international law but are especially useful in the environmental field, where they may be used to regularly incorporate recent scientific knowledge. They also permit countries to reach an agreement on a framework that would be contentious if every detail were to be agreed upon in advance. The most widely known protocol in international environmental law is the [[Kyoto Protocol]], which followed from the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]].
While the bodies that proposed, argued, agreed upon, and ultimately adopted existing international agreements vary according to each agreement, certain conferences, including 1972's [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment]], 1983's [[Brundtland Commission|World Commission on Environment and Development]], 1992's [[Earth Summit (1992)|United Nations Conference on Environment and Development]], and 2002's [[Earth Summit 2002|World Summit on Sustainable Development]] have been particularly important. [[Multilateral environmental agreement]]s sometimes create an International Organization, Institution or Body responsible for implementing the agreement. Major examples are the [[Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora]] (CITES) and the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN).
International environmental law also includes the opinions of international courts and tribunals. While there are few and they have limited authority, the decisions carry much weight with legal commentators and are quite influential on the development of international environmental law. One of the biggest challenges in international decisions is to determine an adequate compensation for environmental damages.<ref>Hardman Reis, T., ''Compensation for Environmental Damages Under International Law'', Kluwer Law International, The Hague, 2011, {{ISBN|978-90-411-3437-0}}.</ref> The courts include the [[International Court of Justice]] (ICJ), the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS), the [[European Court of Justice]], [[European Court of Human Rights]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.echr.coe.int/NR/rdonlyres/0C818E19-C40B-412E-9856-44126D49BDE6/0/FICHES_Environment_EN.pdf |title=ECtHR case-law factsheet on environment |access-date=2012-11-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110114815/http://www.echr.coe.int/NR/rdonlyres/0C818E19-C40B-412E-9856-44126D49BDE6/0/FICHES_Environment_EN.pdf |archive-date=2012-11-10 }}</ref> and other regional treaty tribunals.
== Around the world ==
{{See also|List of environmental laws by country|List of international environmental agreements}}
=== Africa ===
According to the [[International Network for Environmental Compliance and Enforcement]] (INECE), the major [[environmental issues in Africa]] are "drought and [[flood]]ing, air pollution, [[deforestation]], [[Biodiversity loss|loss of biodiversity]], freshwater availability, degradation of soil and vegetation, and widespread poverty."<ref name=INECE>{{cite web |title=INECE Regions- Africa |url=http://www.inece.org/region_africa.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020820012452/http://www.inece.org/region_africa.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 August 2002 |access-date=18 October 2012 }}</ref> The [[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) is focused on the "growing urban and industrial pollution, water quality, [[electronic waste]] and indoor air from cookstoves."<ref name=EPA>{{cite web|title=Africa International Programs|url=http://www.epa.gov/international/regions/Africa/|publisher=Environmental Protection Agency|access-date=October 18, 2012}}</ref> They hope to provide enough aid on concerns regarding pollution before their impacts contaminate the African environment as well as the global environment. By doing so, they intend to "protect human health, particularly vulnerable populations such as children and the poor."<ref name="EPA"/> In order to accomplish these goals in Africa, EPA programs are focused on strengthening the ability to enforce environmental laws as well as public compliance to them. Other programs work on developing stronger environmental laws, regulations, and standards.<ref name="EPA"/>
=== Asia ===
The Asian Environmental Compliance and Enforcement Network (AECEN) is an agreement between 16 Asian countries dedicated to improving cooperation with environmental laws in Asia. These countries include Cambodia, China, Indonesia, India, Maldives, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Nepal, Philippines, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, and Lao PDR.<ref>{{Cite web|title = AECEN|url = http://www.aecen.org/|website = www.aecen.org|access-date = 2015-08-27|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150906020258/http://www.aecen.org/|archive-date = 2015-09-06|url-status = dead}}</ref>
=== European Union ===
The [[European Union]] issues secondary legislation on environmental issues that are valid throughout the EU (so called regulations) and many directives that must be implemented into national legislation from the 27 member states (national states). Examples are the Regulation (EC) No. 338/97 on the implementation of CITES; or the Natura 2000 network the centerpiece for nature & biodiversity policy, encompassing the bird Directive (79/409/EEC/ changed to 2009/147/EC)and the habitats directive (92/43/EEC). Which are made up of multiple SACs (Special Areas of Conservation, linked to the habitats directive) & SPAs (Special Protected Areas, linked to the bird directive), throughout Europe.
EU legislation is ruled in Article 249 Treaty for the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). Topics for common EU legislation are:
* [[Climate change]]
* [[Air pollution]]
* [[Water protection]] and management
* [[Waste management]]
* [[Soil protection]]
* [[Protection of nature]], species and [[biodiversity]]
* [[Noise pollution]]
* Cooperation for the environment with third countries (other than EU member states)
* [[Civil protection]]
In February 2024, the European Parliament adopted a law making a big, intentionally caused, environmental damage “comparable to [[ecocide]]” a crime that can be punished by up to 10 years in prison. The members of the Union should enter it to their national law, during 2 years.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mølgaard Henriksen |first1=Mette |title=‘Revolutionary’: EU Parliament votes to criminalise most serious cases of ecosystem destruction |url=https://www.euronews.com/green/2024/02/27/revolutionary-eu-criminalises-the-most-serious-cases-of-ecosystem-destruction |access-date=28 February 2024 |agency=Euronews |date=27 February 2024}}</ref> The Parliament also approved a nature restoration law which obligate members to restore 20% of degraded ecosystems (including 30% of drained peatland) by 2030 and 100% by 2050.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Niranjan |first1=Ajit |title=European parliament votes for watered-down law to restore nature |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2024/feb/27/european-parliament-votes-for-watered-down-law-to-restore-nature-farmers-protests |access-date=28 February 2024 |agency=The Guardian |date=27 February 2024}}</ref>
=== Middle East ===
Environmental law is rapidly growing in the Middle East. The U.S. [[Environmental Protection Agency]] is working with countries in the [[Middle East]] to improve "environmental governance, water pollution and water security, clean fuels and vehicles, public participation, and pollution prevention."<ref name="Middle East">{{cite web|title=EPA Middle East|url=http://www.epa.gov/oia/regions/Mideast/index.html|publisher=Environmental Protection Agency|access-date=23 October 2012}}</ref>
=== Oceania ===
The main concerns about environmental issues in Oceania are "illegal releases of air and water [[pollutant]]s, [[illegal logging]]/timber trade, illegal shipment of [[hazardous waste]]s, including [[e-waste]] and ships slated for destruction, and insufficient institutional structure/lack of enforcement capacity".<ref name="INECE Asia">{{cite web |title=INECE Regions - Asia and the Pacific |url=http://www.inece.org/region_asia.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021217145241/http://inece.org/region_asia.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 17, 2002 |access-date=October 18, 2012 }}</ref> The Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environmental Programme (SPREP)<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.sprep.org/| title = Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environmental Programme (SPREP)}}</ref> is an international organization between Australia, the Cook Islands, FMS, Fiji, France, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, New Zealand, Niue, Palau, PNG, Samoa, Solomon Island, Tonga, Tuvalu, US, and Vanuatu. The SPREP was established in order to provide assistance in improving and protecting the environment as well as assure sustainable development for future generations.<ref name=SPREP>{{cite web|title=Agreement Establishing SPREP|url=http://www.sprep.org/Legal/agreement-establishing-sprep|access-date=October 18, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025050438/http://www.sprep.org/Legal/agreement-establishing-sprep|archive-date=2012-10-25|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Prue|title=Multilateral Environmental Agreement Negotiator's Handbook: Pacific Region 2013|date=2013|publisher=Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme / New Zealand Centre for Environmental Law, University of Auckland|location=Samoa / New Zealand|isbn=978-982-04-0475-5|url=http://www.sprep.org/attachments/Publications/EMG/MEA_Handbook_2013.pdf|author2=Stroud, Lucy |author3=Peteru, Clark }}</ref>
=== Australia ===
''[[Commonwealth v Tasmania]]'' (1983), also known as the "Tasmanian Dam Case", was a highly significant case in Australian environmental law.<ref>[http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1983/21.html Commonwealth v Tasmania] (1983) 158 CLR 1 (1 July 1983)</ref>
The ''[[Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999]]'' is the centerpiece of environmental legislation in Australia. It sets up the "legal framework to protect and manage nationally and internationally important flora, fauna, ecological communities and heritage places" and focuses on protecting world heritage properties, national heritage properties, [[wetlands]] of international importance, nationally threatened species and ecological communities, migratory species, Commonwealth marine areas, [[Great Barrier Reef Marine Park]], and the environment surrounding nuclear activities.<ref name=Australia>{{cite web|title=EPBC Act|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/epbc/index.html|access-date=October 18, 2012}}</ref> However, it has been subject to numerous reviews examining its shortcomings, the latest taking place in mid-2020.<ref name=2020reviewabout>{{cite web | title=About the review | website=Independent review of the EPBC Act | date=23 June 2020 | url=https://epbcactreview.environment.gov.au/about-review | access-date=27 June 2020}}</ref> The interim report of this review concluded that the laws created to protect unique species and habitats are ineffective.<ref name=interim>{{cite web | title=Australia's environment in unsustainable state of decline, major review finds | website=the Guardian|first=Lisa|last=Cox | date=20 July 2020 | url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jul/20/australias-environment-in-unsustainable-state-of-decline-major-review-finds | access-date=27 July 2020}}</ref>
=== Brazil ===
The Brazilian government created the [[Ministry of the Environment (Brazil)|Ministry of Environment]] in 1992 in order to develop better strategies for protecting the environment, using natural resources sustainably, and enforcing public environmental policies. The Ministry of Environment has authority over policies involving environment, water resources, preservation, and environmental programs involving the Amazon.<ref name=Brazil>{{cite web|title=Apresentação|url=http://www.mma.gov.br/o-ministerio/apresentacao|access-date=23 October 2012}}</ref>
=== Canada ===
The [[Department of the Environment Act]] establishes the [[Department of the Environment (Canada)|Department of the Environment]] in the Canadian government as well as the position [[Minister of the Environment (Canada)|Minister of the Environment]]. Their duties include "the preservation and enhancement of the quality of the natural environment, including water, air and [[soil quality]]; renewable resources, including migratory birds and other non-domestic flora and fauna; water; meteorology;"<ref name="Department of the Environment Act">{{cite web|title=Department of the Environment Act|date=31 December 2002|url=http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/E-10/page-1.html|access-date=23 October 2012}}</ref> The [[Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999|Environmental Protection Act]] is the main piece of Canadian environmental legislation that was put into place March 31, 2000. The Act focuses on "respecting pollution prevention and the protection of the environment and human health in order to contribute to sustainable development."<ref name="CEPA Canada">{{cite web|title=Environment Canada|url=http://www.ec.gc.ca/lcpe-cepa/default.asp?lang=En|access-date=23 October 2012|date=2007-01-09}}</ref> Other principle federal statutes include the [[Canadian Environmental Assessment Act]], and the [[Species at Risk Act]]. When provincial and federal legislation are in conflict federal legislation takes precedence, that being said individual provinces can have their own legislation such as Ontario's [[Environmental Bill of Rights]], and [[Clean Water Act (Ontario)|Clean Water Act]].<ref>See [https://slmc.uottawa.ca/?q=laws_canada_legal Canada's Legal System Overview] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170822000216/https://slmc.uottawa.ca/?q=laws_canada_legal |date=2017-08-22 }}.</ref>
=== China ===
{{See also|Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People's Republic of China}}
According to the U.S. [[Environmental Protection Agency]], "China has been working with great determination in recent years to develop, implement, and enforce a solid environmental law framework. Chinese officials face critical challenges in effectively implementing the laws, clarifying the roles of their national and provincial governments, and strengthening the operation of their legal system."<ref>EPA, [http://www.epa.gov/ogc/china/initiative_home.htm China Environmental Law Initiative].</ref> Explosive economic and industrial growth in China has led to [[Environmental issues in China|significant environmental degradation]], and China is currently in the process of developing more stringent legal controls.<ref>Vermont Law School, [http://www.vermontlaw.edu/academics/environmental_law_center/institutes_and_initiatives/us-china_partnership_for_environmental_law/overview.htm China Partnership for Environmental Law] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120720164123/http://www.vermontlaw.edu/academics/environmental_law_center/institutes_and_initiatives/us-china_partnership_for_environmental_law/overview.htm |date=2012-07-20 }}; C. McElwee, [https://www.amazon.com/Environmental-Law-China-Mitigating-Compliance/dp/0195390016 Environmental Law in China: Mitigating Risk and Ensuring Compliance].</ref> The harmonization of Chinese society and the natural environment is billed as a rising policy priority.<ref>NRDC, [http://www.nrdc.org/international/ochinalaw.asp Environmental Law in China].</ref><ref name="Sustainable Legitimacy">{{cite journal |ssrn=2128167 |title=The Search for Sustainable Legitimacy: Environmental Law and Bureaucracy in China |volume=37 |page=365 |journal=[[Harvard Environmental Law Review]] |first=Alex |last=Wang |date=2013}}</ref><ref>Rachel E. Stern, Environmental Litigation in China: A Study in Political Ambivalence (Cambridge University Press 2013)</ref>
Environmental lawsuits have been available in China since the early 2000s.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |title=Greening East Asia: The Rise of the Eco-Developmental State |date=2020 |publisher=[[University of Washington Press]] |isbn=978-0-295-74791-0 |editor-last=Esarey |editor-first=Ashley |location=Seattle |jstor=j.ctv19rs1b2 |editor-last2=Haddad |editor-first2=Mary Alice |editor-last3=Lewis |editor-first3=Joanna I. |editor-last4=Harrell |editor-first4=Stevan}}</ref>{{Rp|page=15}} Public protest, however, plays a greater role in shaping [[Environmental policy in China|China's environmental policy]] than litigation does.<ref name=":9" />{{Rp|page=15}}
=== Congo (RC) ===
In the [[Republic of the Congo|Republic of Congo]], inspired by the African models of the 1990s, the phenomenon of constitutionalization of environmental law appeared in 1992, which completed an historical development of environmental law and policy dating back to the years of independence and even long before the colonization.<ref name="2016_nzaou_kongo">{{cite journal |last1= Nzaou-Kongo |first1=Aubin|title= L'ambivalence du droit de l'environnement en République du Congo. |date=2016|url=https://ssrn.com/abstract=3444682|access-date=15 January 2021}}</ref> It gives a constitutional basis to environmental protection, which traditionally was part of the legal framework.<ref name="2016_nzaou_kongo"/> The two Constitutions of 15 March 1992 and 20 January 2002 concretize this paradigm,<ref name="2016_nzaou_kongo"/> by stating a legal obligation of a clean environment,<ref name="2016_nzaou_kongo"/> by establishing a principle of compensation and a foundation of criminal nature.<ref name="2014_nzaou_kongo">{{cite journal |last1= Nzaou-Kongo |first1=Aubin|title= La constitutionnalisation du droit de l'environnement au Congo-Brazzaville. |date=2014|url=https://ssrn.com/abstract=3444689|access-date=15 January 2021}}</ref> By this [[phenomenon]], Congolese environmental law is situated between non-regression and the search for efficiency."<ref name="2014_nzaou_kongo"/>
=== Ecuador ===
With the enactment of the [[2008 Constitution of Ecuador|2008 Constitution]], [[Ecuador]] became the first country in the world to codify the [[Rights of Nature]]. The Constitution, specifically Articles 10 and 71–74, recognizes the inalienable rights of [[ecosystem]]s to exist and flourish, gives people the authority to petition on the behalf of ecosystems, and requires the government to remedy violations of these rights. The rights approach is a break away from traditional environmental regulatory systems, which regard nature as property and legalize and manage degradation of the environment rather than prevent it.<ref name="Celdf">{{Cite web|url=https://celdf.org/|title=CELDF {{!}} Community Rights Pioneers {{!}} Protecting Nature and Communities|website=CELDF|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-23}}</ref>
The Rights of Nature articles in Ecuador's constitution are part of a reaction to a combination of political, economic, and social phenomena. Ecuador's abusive past with the [[oil industry]], most famously the [[Chevron Corporation#Environmental damage in Ecuador|class-action litigation]] against [[Chevron Corporation|Chevron]], and the failure of an extraction-based economy and [[neoliberal]] reforms to bring economic prosperity to the region has resulted in the election of a New Leftist regime, led by President [[Rafael Correa]], and sparked a demand for new approaches to development. In conjunction with this need, the principle of "Buen Vivir," or good living – focused on social, environmental and spiritual wealth versus material wealth – gained popularity among citizens and was incorporated into the new constitution.<ref name="Gudynas">[[Eduardo Gudynas|Gudynas, Eduardo]]. 2011. Buen Vivir: Today's Tomorrow Development 54(4):441-447.</ref>
The influence of indigenous groups, from whom the concept of "Buen Vivir" originates, in the forming of the constitutional ideals also facilitated the incorporation of the Rights of Nature as a basic tenet of their culture and conceptualization of "Buen Vivir."<ref name="Becker">Becker, Marc. 2011 Correa, Indigenous Movements, and the Writing of a New Constitution in Ecuador. ''Latin American Perspectives'' 38(1):47-62.</ref>
=== Egypt ===
The [[Environmental Protection Law (Egypt)|Environmental Protection Law]] outlines the responsibilities of the Egyptian government to "preparation of draft legislation and decrees pertinent to environmental management, collection of data both nationally and internationally on the state of the environment, preparation of periodical reports and studies on the state of the environment, formulation of the national plan and its projects, preparation of environmental profiles for new and urban areas, and setting of standards to be used in planning for their development, and preparation of an annual report on the state of the environment to be prepared to the President."<ref name=Egypt>{{cite web|title=Law 4|url=http://www.eeaa.gov.eg/English/main/law4.asp|access-date=23 October 2012}}</ref>
=== India ===
{{Main|Indian environmental law}}
In [[India]], Environmental law is governed by the Environment Protection Act, 1986.<ref>{{Cite web|title = THE ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT, 1986|url = http://envfor.nic.in/legis/env/env1.html|website = envfor.nic.in|access-date = 2015-08-27|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20020613044316/http://envfor.nic.in/legis/env/env1.html|archive-date = 2002-06-13|url-status = dead}}</ref> This act is enforced by the Central Pollution Control Board and the numerous State Pollution Control Boards. Apart from this, there are also individual legislation specifically enacted for the protection of Water, Air, Wildlife, etc. Such legislations include :
* The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
* The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977
* The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
* The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
* Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) (Union Territories) Rules, 1983
* The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 and the Wild Life Protection Act, 1972
* Batteries (Management and Handling) Rules, 2001
* Recycled Plastics, Plastics Manufacture and Usage Rules, 1999
* The National Green [[Tribunal]] established under the National Green Tribunal Act of 2010<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/NGT-fin.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2014-05-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130810151851/http://moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/NGT-fin.pdf |archive-date=2013-08-10 |url-status=dead }}</ref> has jurisdiction over all environmental cases dealing with a substantial environmental question and acts covered under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
* Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Rules, 1978
* Ganga Action Plan, 1986
* The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
* Wildlife protection Act, 1972
* The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 and the Biological Diversity Act, 2002. The acts covered under Indian Wild Life Protection Act 1972 do not fall within the jurisdiction of the National Green Tribunal.<ref>{{Cite web|title = THE INDIAN WILDLIFE (PROTECTION) ACT, 1972|url = http://envfor.nic.in/legis/wildlife/wildlife1.html|website = envfor.nic.in|access-date = 2015-08-27}}</ref> Appeals can be filed in the Hon'ble Supreme Court of India.<ref>Rhuks Temitope, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228184440_The_Judicial_Recognition_and_Enforcement_of_the_Right_to_Environment_Differing_Perspectives_from_Nigeria_and_India "THE JUDICIAL RECOGNITION AND ENFORCEMENT OF THE RIGHT TO ENVIRONMENT:DIFFERING PERSPECTIVES FROM NIGERIA AND INDIA"], ''NUJS LAW REVIEW'',March 11, 2020</ref>
* Basel Convention on Control of Transboundary Movements on Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, 1989 and Its Protocols
* [[Hazard|Hazardous]] Wastes (Management and Handling) Amendment Rules, 2003<ref>{{cite book|author1=Surendra Malik, Sudeep Malik|title=Supreme Court on Environment Law| year=2015 |publisher=EBC|location=India|isbn=9789351451914|edition=2015}}</ref>
=== Japan ===
The [[Basic Environmental Law]] is the basic structure of Japan's environmental policies replacing the [[Basic Law for Environmental Pollution Control]] and the [[Nature Conservation Law]]. The updated law aims to address "global environmental problems, urban pollution by everyday life, loss of accessible natural environment in urban areas and degrading environmental protection capacity in forests and farmlands."<ref name=Japan>{{cite web|title=The Basic Environment Law|url=http://www.env.go.jp/en/laws/policy/basic/leaflet2.html|access-date=23 October 2012}}</ref>
The three basic environmental principles that the Basic Environmental Law follows are "the blessings of the environment should be enjoyed by the present generation and succeeded to the future generations, a sustainable society should be created where environmental loads by human activities are minimized, and Japan should contribute actively to global environmental conservation through international cooperation."<ref name="Japan"/>
From these principles, the Japanese government have established policies such as "environmental consideration in policy formulation, establishment of the Basic Environment Plan which describes the directions of long-term environmental policy, environmental impact assessment for development projects, economic measures to encourage activities for reducing environmental load, improvement of social infrastructure such as sewerage system, transport facilities etc., promotion of environmental activities by corporations, citizens and NGOs, environmental education, and provision of information, promotion of science and technology."<ref name="Japan"/>
=== New Zealand ===
{{Main|New Zealand environmental law}}
The [[Ministry for the Environment (New Zealand)|Ministry for the Environment]] and [[Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment|Office of the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment]] were established by the [[Environment Act 1986]]. These positions are responsible for advising the Minister on all areas of environmental legislation. A common theme of [[New Zealand|New Zealand's]] environmental legislation is sustainably managing natural and physical resources, fisheries, and forests. The [[Resource Management Act 1991]] is the main piece of environmental legislation that outlines the government's strategy to managing the "environment, including air, water soil, [[biodiversity]], the coastal environment, noise, subdivision, and land use planning in general."<ref name="New Zealand">{{cite web|title=Ministry for the Environment|url=http://www.mfe.govt.nz/laws/|access-date=23 October 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121130140120/http://www.mfe.govt.nz/laws/|archive-date=30 November 2012}}</ref>
=== Russia ===
The [[Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment]] of the Russian Federation makes regulation regarding "conservation of natural resources, including the subsoil, water bodies, forests located in designated conservation areas, fauna and their habitat, in the field of hunting, [[hydrometeorology]] and related areas, [[environmental monitoring]] and pollution control, including [[radiation monitoring]] and control, and functions of public environmental policy making and implementation and [[Statute|statutory]] regulation."<ref name=Russia>{{cite web|title=Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of the Russian Federation|url=http://www.mnr.gov.ru/english/|access-date=27 June 2015}}</ref>
=== Singapore ===
Singapore is a signatory of the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]]; with most of its CBD obligations being overseen by the National Biodiversity Reference Centre, a division of its National Parks Board ([[NParks]]).<ref>{{Cite web|last=Unit|first=Biosafety|date=2006-06-20|title=Singapore|url=https://www.cbd.int/programmes/outreach/awareness/celebration-singapore.shtml|access-date=2020-10-27|website=www.cbd.int|language=en}}</ref> Singapore is also a signatory of the [[Convention on International Trade in Endangered Animals]], with its obligations under that treaty also being overseen by NParks.<ref>{{Cite web|title=National Parks Board (CITES)|url=https://customs.gov.sg/businesses/national-single-window/tradenet/competent-authorities-requirements/Nparks-Cites|access-date=2020-10-27|website=customs.gov.sg|language=en}}</ref> The [[Parliament of Singapore]] has enacted numerous pieces of legislation to fulfil its obligations under these treaties, such as the Parks and Trees Act,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Parks and Trees Act - Singapore Statutes Online|url=https://sso.agc.gov.sg/Act/PTA2005|access-date=2020-10-27|website=sso.agc.gov.sg|language=en}}</ref> Endangered Species (Import and Export) Act,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Endangered Species (Import and Export) Act - Singapore Statutes Online|url=https://sso.agc.gov.sg/Act/ESIEA2006|access-date=2020-10-27|website=sso.agc.gov.sg|language=en}}</ref> and Wildlife Act.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Wildlife Act - Singapore Statutes Online|url=https://sso.agc.gov.sg/Act/WA1965|access-date=2020-10-27|website=sso.agc.gov.sg|language=en}}</ref> The new Wildlife (Protected Wildlife Species) Rules 2020 marks the first instance in [[Singapore]]'s history that direct legal protection has been offered for specific named species, as listed in Parts 1-5 of the Rules' schedule.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Wildlife (Protected Wildlife Species) Rules 2020 - Singapore Statutes Online|url=https://sso.agc.gov.sg/SL/WA1965-S411-2020?DocDate=20200529|access-date=2020-10-27|website=sso.agc.gov.sg|language=en}}</ref>
=== South Africa ===
{{Main|South African environmental law}}
=== United Kingdom ===
{{Main|UK environmental law}}
=== United States ===
{{Main|United States environmental law}}
=== Vietnam ===
Vietnam is currently working with the U.S. [[Environmental Protection Agency]] on [[dioxin]] remediation and technical assistance in order to lower [[methane emissions]]. In March 2002, the U.S and Vietnam signed the U.S.-Vietnam Memorandum of Understanding on Research on Human Health and the Environmental Effects of Agent Orange/Dioxin.<ref name="EPA Vietnam">{{cite web|title=Vietnam International Programs|url=http://www.epa.gov/international/regions/Asia/vietnammain.html|publisher=Environmental Protection Agency|access-date=October 18, 2012}}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Climate target]]
* [[Environmental health]]
* [[Environmental justice]]
* [[Environmental racism]]
* [[Environmental racism in Europe]]
* [[Indigenous rights]]
* [[International law]]
* [[List of environmental law journals]]
* [[List of international environmental agreements]]
* [[UK enterprise law]]
== Notes ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
== References ==
* [[Aydar Akhatov|Akhatov, Aydar]] (1996). ''Ecology & International Law''. Moscow: АST-PRESS. 512 pp. {{ISBN|5-214-00225-4}} {{in lang|en|ru}}
* Bimal N. Patel, ed. (2015). MCQ on Environmental Law. {{ISBN|9789351452454}}
* Farber & Carlson, eds. (2013). ''Cases and Materials on Environmental Law, 9th''. West Academic Publishing. 1008 pp. {{ISBN|978-0314283986}}.
* Faure, Michael, and Niels Philipsen, eds. (2014). ''Environmental Law & European Law''. The Hague: Eleven International Publishing. 142 pp. {{ISBN|9789462360754}} {{in lang|en}}
* Malik, Surender & Sudeep Malik, eds. (2015). Supreme Court on Environment Law. {{ISBN|9789351451914}}
* Martin, Paul & Amanda Kennedy, eds. (2015). ''Implementing Environmental Law''. Edward Elgar Publishing
== Further reading ==
* [https://theconversation.com/around-the-world-environmental-laws-are-under-attack-in-all-sorts-of-ways-77590 Around the world, environmental laws are under attack in all sorts of ways] (30 May 2017), ''[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]]''
== External links ==
;International
* [https://www.unep.org/ United Nations Environment Programme]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120125134603/http://www.ecolex.org/start.php ECOLEX] (Gateway to Environmental Law)
* [https://www.elaw.org/ Environmental Law Alliance Worldwide (E-LAW)]
* [https://www.ciel.org/ Centre for International Environmental Law]
* [http://www.internationalwildlifelaw.org/ Wildlife Interest Group, American Society of International Law]
* [http://www.earthrights.org/legal/ EarthRights International]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110110013207/http://www.aida-americas.org/front Interamerican Association for Environmental Defense]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140921045423/http://www.ukela.org/ United Kingdom Environmental Law Association]
* [http://www.lexadin.nl/wlg/legis/nofr/legis.php Lexadin global law database]
* [https://www.adb.org/features/12-things-know-2012-green-justice-asia-and-pacific Upholding Environmental Laws in Asia and the Pacific]
;United States
*[https://www.americanbar.org/groups/environment_energy_resources/ American Bar Association Section of Environment, Energy and Resources]
*[https://www.epa.gov/ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]
*[https://www.eli.org/ Environmental Law Institute (ELI)]
*[https://earthjustice.org/ EarthJustice]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060307221833/http://lawlib.wlu.edu/LJ/index.aspx "Law Journals: Submission and Ranking, 2007-2014"], [[Washington and Lee University]], Lexington, Virginia
;Canada
*[https://www.wcel.org/ West Coast Environmental Law] (non-profit law firm)
*[https://ecojustice.ca/ Ecojustice]
*[https://cela.ca/ Canadian Environmental Law Association]
*[https://elc.ab.ca/ Environmental Law Centre (of Alberta)]
;European Union
* [http://europa.eu/youreurope/business/doing-business-responsibly/keeping-to-environmental-rules/index_en.htm Europa: Environmental rules of the European Union]
* [http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/environment/index_en.htm Europa: Summaries of Legislation - Environment]
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Environmental globalization | [[File:Ed20-peace-climb-logo-web.jpg|thumb|150px|The official logo of the [[Mount Everest]] [[Earth Day 20 International Peace Climb]]. Initiatives like [[Earth Day]] promote international cooperation on pro-environmental initiatives, or in other words – promote environmental globalization.]]
'''Environmental globalization''' refers to the internationally coordinated practices and regulations (often in the form of [[international treaties]]) regarding [[environmental protection]].<ref name="Zimmerer2006-1"/><ref name="OosthoekGills2013-54"/> An example of environmental globalization would be the series of International Tropical Timber Agreement treaties ([[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1983|1983]], [[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994|1994]], [[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 2006|2006]]), establishing [[International Tropical Timber Organization]] and promoting [[sustainable management]] of [[Tropical forest|tropical forests]]. Environmental globalization is usually supported by [[non-governmental organization]]s and governments of [[developed countries]], but opposed by governments of [[developing countries]] which see pro-environmental initiatives as hindering their economic development.
==Definitions and characteristics==
[[Karl S. Zimmerer]] defined it as "the increased role in globally organized management institutions, knowledge systems and monitoring, and coordinated strategies aimed at resource, energy, and [[conservation issues]]."<ref name="Zimmerer2006-1">{{cite book|author=Karl S. Zimmerer|title=Globalization & New Geographies of Conservation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UdLK-UGj7YkC&pg=PA1|year=2006|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-98344-8|page=1}}</ref> [[Alan Grainger]] in turn wrote that it can be understood as "an increasing spatial uniformity and contentedness in regular environmental management practices".<ref name="OosthoekGills2013-54">{{cite book|author=Alan Grainger|chapter=Environmental Globalization and Tropical Forests|editor1=Jan Oosthoek|editor2=Barry K. Gills|title=The Globalization of Environmental Crisis|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EULjAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA54|date=31 October 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-96896-2|page=54}}</ref> [[Steven Yearley]] has referred to this concept as "globalization of environmental concern".<ref name="Ritzer2008-246">{{cite book|author=Steve Yearly|chapter=Globalization and the Environment|editor=George Ritzer|title=The Blackwell Companion to Globalization|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XKnmvRATtfAC&pg=PA246|date=15 April 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-76642-2|pages=246}}</ref> Grainger also cited a study by Clark (2000), which he noted was an early treatment of the concept, and distinguished three aspects of environmental globalization: "global flows of energy, materials and organisms; formulation and global acceptance of ideas about global environment; and [[environmental governance]]" (a growing web of institutions concerned with global environment).<ref name=Grainger/>
Environmental globalization is related to [[economic globalization]], as [[economic development]] on a global scale has environmental impacts on such scale, which is of concern to numerous organizations and individuals.<ref name="OosthoekGills2013-54"/><ref name="BenyonDunkerley2014">{{cite book|author1=John Benyon|author2=David Dunkerley|title=Globalization: The Reader|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=doB9AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA54|date=1 May 2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-78240-4|page=54}}</ref> While economic globalization has environmental impacts, those impacts should not be confused with the concept of environmental globalization.<ref name=Grainger>{{Cite book|last=Grainger|first=Alan|date=1 January 2012|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd|isbn=9780470670590|language=en|doi=10.1002/9780470670590.wbeog170|title = The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Globalization|chapter = Environmental Globalization}}</ref> In some regards, environmental globalization is in direct opposition to economic globalization, particularly when the latter is described as encouraging trade, and the former, as promoting pro-environment initiatives that are an impediment to trade.<ref name="Ritzer2008-240"/> For that reason, an environmental activist might be opposed to economic globalization, but advocate environmental globalization.<ref name="DobratzWaldner2015">{{cite book|author1=Betty Dobratz|author2=Lisa K Waldner|author3=Timothy Buzzell|title=Power, Politics, and Society: An Introduction to Political Sociology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RoK9CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA346|date=14 October 2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-34529-9|page=346}}</ref>
==History==
Grainger has discussed that environmental globalization in the context of international agreements on pro-environmental initiatives. According to him, precursors to modern environmental globalization can be found in the [[Early modern period|colonial era]] [[forestry|scientific forestry]] (research into how to create and restore forests).<ref name="OosthoekGills2013-57">{{cite book|author=Alan Grainger|chapter=Environmental Globalization and Tropical Forests|editor1=Jan Oosthoek|editor2=Barry K. Gills|title=The Globalization of Environmental Crisis|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EULjAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA57|date=31 October 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-96896-2|page=57}}</ref> Modern initiatives contributing to environmental globalization include the 1972 [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment]],<ref name="OosthoekGills2013-58">{{cite book|author=Alan Grainger|chapter=Environmental Globalization and Tropical Forests|editor1=Jan Oosthoek|editor2=Barry K. Gills|title=The Globalization of Environmental Crisis|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EULjAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|date=31 October 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-96896-2|page=58}}</ref> came from the [[World Bank]] 1980s requirements that development projects need to protect indigenous peoples and conserve biodiversity.<ref name="OosthoekGills2013-59">{{cite book|author=Alan Grainger|chapter=Environmental Globalization and Tropical Forests|editor1=Jan Oosthoek|editor2=Barry K. Gills|title=The Globalization of Environmental Crisis|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EULjAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA59|date=31 October 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-96896-2|page=59}}</ref> Other examples of such initiative include treaties such as the series of International Tropical Timber Agreement treaties ([[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1983|1983]], [[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994|1994]], [[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 2006|2006]]).<ref name="OosthoekGills2013-58"/><ref name="OosthoekGills2013-61">{{cite book|author=Alan Grainger|chapter=Environmental Globalization and Tropical Forests|editor1=Jan Oosthoek|editor2=Barry K. Gills|title=The Globalization of Environmental Crisis|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EULjAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA61|date=31 October 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-96896-2|page=61}}</ref> Therefore, unlike other main forms of globalization [[economic globalization|economic]], [[political globalization|political]] and [[cultural globalization|cultural]] which were already strong in the 19th century, environmental globalization is a more recent phenomena, one that begun in earnest only in the later half of the 20th century.<ref name="Stearns2009">{{cite book|author=Peter N. Stearns|title=Globalization in World History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iVOOAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA159|date=20 October 2009|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-25993-8|page=159}}</ref> Similarly, Steven Yearley states that it was around that time that the [[environmental movement]] started to organize on the international scale focus on the global dimension of the issues (the first [[Earth Day]] was celebrated on 1970).<ref name="Ritzer2008-240">{{cite book|author=Steve Yearly|chapter=Globalization and the Environment|editor=George Ritzer|title=The Blackwell Companion to Globalization|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XKnmvRATtfAC&pg=PA240|date=15 April 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-76642-2|pages=240}}</ref>
==Supporters and opponents==
According to Grainger, environmental globalization (in the form of pro-environmental international initiatives) is usually supported by various [[non-governmental organization]]s<ref name="OosthoekGills2013-61"/><ref name="OosthoekGills2013-60">{{cite book|author=Alan Grainger|chapter=Environmental Globalization and Tropical Forests|editor1=Jan Oosthoek|editor2=Barry K. Gills|title=The Globalization of Environmental Crisis|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EULjAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA60|date=31 October 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-96896-2|page=60}}</ref> and governments of [[developed countries]], and opposed by governments of [[developing countries]] ([[Group of 77]]), which see pro-environmental initiatives as hindering their economic development.<ref name="OosthoekGills2013-59"/><ref name="OosthoekGills2013-62">{{cite book|author=Alan Grainger|chapter=Environmental Globalization and Tropical Forests|editor1=Jan Oosthoek|editor2=Barry K. Gills|title=The Globalization of Environmental Crisis|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EULjAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA62|date=31 October 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-96896-2|page=62}}</ref><ref name="OosthoekGills2013-63">{{cite book|author=Alan Grainger|chapter=Environmental Globalization and Tropical Forests|editor1=Jan Oosthoek|editor2=Barry K. Gills|title=The Globalization of Environmental Crisis|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EULjAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA62|date=31 October 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-96896-2|page=63}}</ref> Governmental resistance to environmental globalization takes form or policy ambiguity (exemplified by countries which sign international pro-environmental treaties and pass domestic pro-[[environmental law]]s, but then proceed to not enforce them<ref name="OosthoekGills2013-59"/><ref name="OosthoekGills2013-60"/>) and collective resistance in forums such as [[United Nations]] to projects that would introduce stronger regulations or new institutions policing environmental issues worldwide (such as opposition to the [[forest protection]] agreement during the [[Earth Summit]] in 1992, which was eventually downgraded from a binding to a non-binding set of [[Forest Principles]]).<ref name="OosthoekGills2013-62"/><ref name="OosthoekGills2013-63"/>
[[World Trade Organization]] has also [[Criticism of the World Trade Organization|been criticized]] as focused on economic globalization (liberalizing trade) over concerns of environmental protection, which are seen as impeding the trade.<ref name="OosthoekGills2013-61"/><ref name="OosthoekGills2013-62"/><ref name="Ritzer2008-247">{{cite book|author=Steve Yearly|chapter=Globalization and the Environment|editor=George Ritzer|title=The Blackwell Companion to Globalization|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XKnmvRATtfAC&pg=PA247|date=15 April 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-76642-2|pages=247}}</ref><ref name="Ritzer2008-248">{{cite book|author=Steve Yearly|chapter=Globalization and the Environment|editor=George Ritzer|title=The Blackwell Companion to Globalization|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XKnmvRATtfAC&pg=PA248|date=15 April 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-76642-2|pages=248}}</ref> Steven Yearley states that WTO should not be described as "anti-environmental", but its decisions have major impact on environment worldwide, and they are based primarily on economic concerns, with environmental concerns being given secondary weight.<ref name="Ritzer2008-250">{{cite book|author=Steve Yearly|chapter=Globalization and the Environment|editor=George Ritzer|title=The Blackwell Companion to Globalization|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XKnmvRATtfAC&pg=PA250|date=15 April 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-76642-2|pages=250}}</ref>
==See also==
* [[Natural environment]]
* [[United Nations Climate Change conference]]
* [[Biological globalization]]
* [[:Category:International environmental organizations|International environmental organizations (category)]]
==References==
{{reflist|30em}}
{{Globalization}}
[[Category:Globalization]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Global natural environment]]
[[Category:International environmental law|*]]
[[Category:International environmental organizations|*]] |
Category:Protected areas | {{Portal|Ecology|Environment}}
{{Cat main|Protected area}}
{{Commons category|Protected areas}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions]] |
Category:Environmental management schemes | [[Category:Environmental protection|Schemes]]
[[Category:Land management]] |
Corporate environmental responsibility | [[File:CO2_responsibility_1950-2000.svg|thumb|This image is a map of the global [[Greenhouse gas emissions|carbon emissions]] from 1950-2000.]]
'''Corporate environmental responsibility''' ('''CER''') refers to a company's duties to abstain from damaging [[natural environment]]s. The term derives from [[corporate social responsibility]] (CSR).<ref>{{cite web|last1=Mazurkiewicz|first1=Piotr|title=Corporate Environmental Responsibility: Is a common CSR framework possible?|url=https://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTDEVCOMSUSDEVT/Resources/csrframework.pdf|website=siteresources.worldbank.org|accessdate=2016-12-12}}</ref>
==Background==
The environmental aspect of corporate social responsibility has been debated over the past few decades, as stakeholders increasingly require organizations to become more environmentally aware and socially responsible.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:727457/FULLTEXT01.pdf|website=diva-portal.org|title=CORPORATE ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSIBILITIES (CER): A Case of Logistic Companies in Sweden|author1=John Duker |author2= Michael Olugunna }}</ref> In the traditional business model, [[environmental protection]] was considered only in relation to the "[[public interest]]". Hitherto, governments had maintained principal responsibility for ensuring environmental management and conservation.
The [[public sector]] has been focused on the development of regulations and the imposition of sanctions as a means to facilitating environmental protection. Recently, the [[private sector]] has adopted the approach of co-responsibility towards the prevention and alleviation of environmental damage.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTDEVCOMSUSDEVT/Resources/csrframework.pdf|website=siteresources.worldbank.org|title=Corporate environmental responsibility: Is a common CSR framework possible?|author=Piotr Mazurkiewicz }}</ref> The sectors and their roles have been changing, with the private sector becoming more active in the protection of the environment. Many governments, corporations, and big companies are now providing strategies for environmental protection and economic growth.
The [[World Commission on Environment and Development|World Commission on Environment]] published the [[Brundtland Report]] in 1987 to address sustainable development. Since then, managers, [[scholars]], and business owners have tried to determine why and how big corporations should incorporate environmental aspects into their own policies. In recent years, an increasing number of companies have pledged to protect natural environments.
==Relations to corporate social responsibility==
There are different perceptions of corporate social responsibility between government, the private sector, [[non-governmental organization]]s (NGOs) and society in general, and thus, the concept has no single definition.
'''Corporate social responsibility may cover: '''
* A company running its business responsibly in relation to internal [[Stakeholder (corporate)|stakeholder]]s ([[shareholder]]s, [[Employment|employees]], customers and suppliers)
* The role of business in relation to the state (locally and nationally) as well as to inter-state institutions or standards
* Business performance as a responsible member of the society in which it operates and the global community."{{citation needed|date=July 2017}}
The [[European Union]] defines corporate social responsibility as "...the concept that an enterprise is accountable for its impact on all relevant stakeholders. It is the continuing commitment by a business to behave fairly and responsibly and contribute to economic development while
improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as of the local community and society at large."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/soc-dial/csr/greenpaper_en.pdf|website=europa.eu.int|title=Promoting a European framework for Corporate Social Responsibility|type=Green paper|publisher=European Commission |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20030311011327/http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/soc-dial/csr/greenpaper_en.pdf|archivedate=March 11, 2003}}</ref> According to this definition, a CSR strategy is more focused on social aspects, particularly the interests of stakeholders.
Corporate environmental responsibility (CER) is, in many ways, connected to CSR, as both of them influence environmental protection. CER, however, is strictly about the consideration of environmental implications and protection within corporate strategy. The understanding of CER cannot be separated from CSR—both are interconnected and based on environmental protection. There are three major areas related to these two concepts—economic, environmental and social. CER is focused more on economic and environmental while CSR relates to social and environmental aspects. Economy, society, and environment all play significant roles in the development of an efficient and effective company strategy.
==Main elements==
These cover the environmental implications of a company's operations:
* Eliminate waste and emissions
* Maximize the efficient use of resources and productivity
* Minimize activities that might impair the enjoyment of resources by future generations.
==Drivers and challenges==
Among the main drivers for CER are government policies and regulations. Many states provide their own legislation, regulations and policies, which are important in creating a positive environmental attitude within companies. Subsidies, tariffs and taxes play a vital role in the implementation of these policies. Another significant factor is the competitive environment among companies generated by media, public, shareholder and NGO awareness, which are also major drivers of CER. Another significant driver of corporate responsibility is that the private sector is largely responsible for the development of green technology and renewable energy sources meaning they are contributing towards climate change mitigation while still operating as a business.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hormio |first1=Sade |title=Can Corporations have(moral) responsibility regarding climate change mitigation? |date=2017-10-18}}</ref>
Challenges include the cost of regulation and difficulties in predicting economic gains, which could become problematic for a company's management. Additionally, new technologies are frequently too expensive for a lot of companies.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Przychodzen|first1=J.|last2=Przychodzen|first2=W.|title=Corporate sustainability and shareholder wealth. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management|date=2013|pages=474–493}}</ref> Another challenge is the lack of harmonization of regulations among different states—often there is a mosaic of propositions, leading to unclear strategies for environmental behavior, especially in [[multinational corporation]]s. Further challenges of CES are whether corporations have a responsibility to go further than the current governmental legislation and Corporation a firstly responsible to produce profit for shareholders and producing goods for customers. Furthermore Companies work within the framework of the society and country that they operate in meaning that corporations cannot be held solely responsible for lack of legislation on pollution and emissions.
Corporations emissions are also fractured between different sectors such as supply and outsourcing which can make it unclear what emissions the corporation is responsible. Further challenges is the argument of whether corporations should be held responsible for past emissions when the negative impacts were not known.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hormio |first1=Sade |title=Can corporation have(moral) responsibility regarding climate change mitigation? |date=2017-10-18}}</ref>
== Worldwide perspectives on corporate environmental responsibility ==
The majority of international CSR studies focus on business practices and its aspects, such as business economics and the legality of [[environmental law]]. Most companies are noticing the importance of taking into account one of its most important stakeholders: employees and customers and their commitment to sustainability. Studies have demonstrated that once companies place sustainability practices they can be directly linked to financial success and customer satisfaction, which in turn can be used as a marketing tool.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|title=Safety and sustainability nexus: A review and appraisal|journal = Journal of Cleaner Production|volume = 216|pages = 74–87|last=Waqas Nawaz, Patrick Linke, Muammer Koҫ|date=2019|doi = 10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.01.167| s2cid=159054464 }}</ref> Although every country has a different culture, and each country determines their own scale of environmental responsibility, research has shown that there is a standard global human values that drive customer needs and wants. Companies have taken initiatives to take sustainability and align it with each company's economic goals. Managers and other people at the top, play the key role in decision-making and implementing the firm's sustainability practices.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title=The perception of socially and environmentally responsible practices based on values and cultural environment from a customer perspective|last1=González-Rodríguez|first1=M. Rosario|last2=Díaz-Fernández|first2=M. Carmen|last3=Biagio|first3=Simonetti|date=2019|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|volume=216|pages=88–98|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.01.189|s2cid=159362122 }}</ref>
== Benefits of corporate environmental responsibility ==
Corporate social responsibility can prove to be more profitable for companies and to extend it survivability in markets because greater awareness on this topic, in both social and business markets, has been in higher demand. Customers have responded with overall satisfaction and loyalty when companies have a better CSR, especially in countries like Spain and Brazil. Culture has an impact on the CSR ratings and studies, as well as human values across different nations.<ref name=":0" />
This topic can also be found under [[sustainable development]]. This area is concerned with not only protecting the environment but maintaining economical growth. There were several agreements internationally to help adopt new business practices that held these standards, but they were considered individual and there was no law-abiding body to regulate nor implement them.<ref name=":2" />
One of the other factors that is considered an integral part of sustainable development are human beings, and specific groups and their habitat. Counties and companies that more developed would lead, and other small countries and business would slowly make gains. It is important to recognize that just because corporate environmental responsibility is being recognized that consumption is something that is not discouraged.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652619302021|title=Which policy is more effective, carbon reduction in all industries or in high energy-consuming Industries?——From dual perspectives of welfare effects and economic effects|last=Zhang|first=Tongbin|date=2019|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|volume=216 |pages=184–196 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.01.183 |s2cid=159112717 |access-date=2019-04-02}}</ref>
The idea of corporate environmental responsibility is for humans to be more aware of the environmental impact and counteract their pollution/[[carbon footprint]] on the natural resources.<ref name=":0" /> One of the main factors is to reduce carbon footprint and carbon emissions.<ref name=":1" /> Many of the studies focus on trying to find a balance between economic growth and reducing waste and cleaner environments.<ref name=":1" />
Furthermore, many firms are discovering that there is an advantage to advocating for environmental regulations and preparing for them to be implemented before they become law. In a recent study, the researcher found that firms support climate change legislation as a means of gaining power over their competitors. Essentially, even if a new regulation hurts a firm in the short term, the firm may embrace it because they know that it will hurt their competitors even more. This allows them to come out on top in the long run.<ref>Kennard, Amanda. "The Enemy of My Enemy: When Firms Support Climate Change Regulation." International Organization 74.2 (2020): 187-221.</ref>
==Summary==
The environmental aspects of security have increasingly become a major issue being considered by states. The process of [[securitization]] has had a big impact in creating a new understanding of security.
[[Globalization]] also plays a key role in the adoption of new environmental strategies as a multi-faceted process influencing modern societies, and creating interconnected and multidimensional environments.
Corporate environmental responsibility is used by multinational corporations as well as small, local organizations. It is highlighted and more institutionalized because of stakeholders' awareness of the huge impacts of business activities on the environment. To understand CER, its relations with CSR strategies need to be recognized. CER and CSR are the main strategies that help in the creation of efficient and environmentally sustainable businesses.
==See also==
*[[Triple bottom line]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Corporate social responsibility]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]] |
Indian environmental law | {{Short description|Broad information of Indian environmental law}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Multiple issues|{{Lead too short|date=February 2020}}{{More citations needed|date=February 2020}}}}
'''Indian environmental law''' concerns the [[law]] and [[Environmental policy of India|policy]] of [[India]] concerning the protection of the [[Natural environment|environment]], measures taken to reverse [[climate change]] and achieve a [[zero carbon economy]].
Since the sixties concern over the state of environment has grown the world over. There has been substantive decline in environment quality due to increasing pollution, loss of vegetal cover and biological diversity, excessive concentration of harmful chemicals in the ambient atmosphere and in food chains, growing risks of environment accidents and threats to life support systems. The Decision which were taken at united nation conference on the human conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm in June 1972 were based on the world community's resolve to protect and enhance the environmental concerns. Although several measures had been taken for environmental Protection both before and after the Conference it was found necessary to enact a comprehensive law on the subject to implement the decision of the
conference. Accordingly the Environment (Protection) Bill passed was introduced in the Parliament Various different areas of environmental protection have been covered by different laws, drawn up at different times.
Some of the areas covered include :-
* Air pollution
* Water pollution
* Forest and wildlife protection
* Waste management
* Wild Life
As with environmental protection legislation in many countries, the regulations are only effective if they are properly enforced, which hasn't always been the case in India, for a number of reasons, some of which are down to local administrative authorities.
Because of the huge population of India, there have been enormous demands placed on the environment, with the regulations not proving to be entirely satisfactory in dealing with the tremendous pressures.
==History==
{{Main|Bhopal gas disaster}}
==General protection==
The [[Environment Protection Act, 1986]].<ref>{{Cite web|title = THE ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT, 1986|url = http://envfor.nic.in/legis/env/env1.html|website = envfor.nic.in|accessdate = 2015-08-27|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20020613044316/http://envfor.nic.in/legis/env/env1.html|archive-date = 2002-06-13|url-status = dead}}</ref> is enforced by the Central Pollution Control Board and the numerous State Pollution Control Boards.
*The National Green Tribunal established under the National Green Tribunal Act of 2010<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/NGT-fin.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2017-11-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130810151851/http://moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/NGT-fin.pdf |archive-date=2013-08-10 |url-status=dead }}</ref> has jurisdiction over all environmental cases dealing with a substantial environmental question and acts covered under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
*The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991
*[[National Green Tribunal Act]]
#Air pollution
*The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
*Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) (Union Territories) Rules, 1983
==Water==
Legislation to protect water quality include:
*The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
*The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977
*Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Rules, 1978
*Ganga Action Plan, 1986
*[[National Water Policy]]
*[[Coastal Regulation Zone]]
*[[Godavari Water Disputes Tribunal]]
*[[Interstate River Water Disputes Act]]
*[[Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal]]
==Forests and wildlife==
*[[Indian Forest Act, 1927]]
*[[Wildlife Protection Act, 1972|Wild life protection act, 1972]]
*Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
*[[National Forest Policy, 1988]]
*''[[M. C. Mehta v. Kamal Nath]]'' (1997) 1 SCC 388
*[[Biological Diversity Act, 2002]]
*[[Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights Act, 2001]]
*[[Wild Life Protection Act, 1972]], which does not fall within the jurisdiction of the National Green Tribunal.<ref>{{Cite web|title = THE INDIAN WILDLIFE (PROTECTION) ACT, 1972|url = http://envfor.nic.in/legis/wildlife/wildlife1.html|website = envfor.nic.in|accessdate = 2015-08-27}}</ref> Appeals can be filed in the Supreme Court of India.<ref>Rhuks Temitope, [http://nujslawreview.org/pdf/articles/2010_4/rhuks.pdf "THE JUDICIAL RECOGNITION AND ENFORCEMENT OF THE RIGHT TO ENVIRONMENT:DIFFERING PERSPECTIVES FROM NIGERIA AND INDIA"]{{Dead link|date=January 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, ''NUJS LAW REVIEW'', 2 January 2015</ref>
*[[Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act]] 1960
*
*
*[[CAMPA bill]]
==Waste management==
*Batteries (Management and Handling) Rules, 2001
*Recycled Plastics, Plastics Manufacture and Usage Rules, 1999
*Basel Convention on Control of TransboundaryMovements on Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, 1989 and Its Protocols
*Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Amendment Rules, 2003<ref>{{cite book|author1=Surendra Malik, Sudeep Malik|title=Supreme Court on Environment Law|year=2015 |publisher=EBC|location=India|isbn=9789351451914|edition=2015}}</ref>
*Construction and Demolition Waste Management Rules, 2016
*
==See also==
*[[Environmental policy of the European Union]]
*[[Environmental law]]
*[[United Kingdom environmental law]]
*[[United States environmental law]]
*[[Environmental policy in China]]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TD_qTWv8r2k ASME’s 2019 Advanced Clean Energy Summit - Nuclear Power’s Role in Combating Climate Change]
==[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TD_qTWv8r2k Notes]==
{{Empty section|date=February 2022}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Further reading==
* Saravanan, Velayutham. ''Environmental History of Modern India: Land, Population, Technology and Development'' (Bloomsbury Publishing India, 2022) [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=58163 online review][
[[Category:Environmental law]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Environmental law in India]] |
Environmental protection | {{Short description|Practice of protecting the natural environment}}
{{Update|date=April 2022}}
[[File:Zephyr Dredging.jpg|thumb|Wetlands [[environmental remediation|remediation]] at a former oil refinery is just one example of environmental protection]]
[[File:Horská Kvilda Středisko envir. výchovy 03.jpg|thumb]]
'''Environmental protection''' is the practice of protecting the [[natural environment]] by individuals, groups and governments.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.yourdictionary.com/environmental-protection|title=Environmental-protection dictionary definition {{!}} environmental-protection defined|website=yourdictionary.com|access-date=21 November 2018}}</ref> Its objectives are to conserve natural resources and the existing natural environment and, where it is possible, to repair damage and reverse trends.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://thelawdictionary.org/environmental-protection/|title=What is Environmental Protection? definition of Environmental Protection (Black's Law Dictionary)|date=19 October 2012|work=The Law Dictionary|access-date=21 November 2018}}</ref>
Due to the pressures of [[overconsumption]], [[population growth]] and technology, the [[environment (biophysical)|biophysical environment]] is being degraded, sometimes permanently. This has been recognized, and governments have begun placing restraints on activities that cause [[environmental degradation]]. Since the 1960s, [[environmental movement]]s have created more awareness of the multiple [[environmental problem]]s. There is disagreement on the extent of the [[Human impact on the environment|environmental impact of human activity]], so protection measures are occasionally debated.
== Approaches to environmental protection ==
===Voluntary environmental agreements===
In industrial countries, voluntary environmental agreements often provide a platform for companies to be recognized for moving beyond the minimum regulatory standards and thus support the development of the best environmental practice. For instance, in India, Environment Improvement Trust (EIT) has been working for environmental and [[forest protection]] since 1998.<ref>Karamanos, P., Voluntary Environmental Agreements: Evolution and Definition of a New Environmental Policy Approach. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 2001. 44(1): p. 67-67-84.</ref> In developing countries, such as Latin America, these agreements are more commonly used to remedy significant levels of non-compliance with mandatory regulation.
===Ecosystems approach===
An [[ecosystem]]s approach to resource management and environmental protection aims to consider the complex interrelationships of an entire ecosystem in decision-making rather than simply responding to specific issues and challenges. Ideally, the decision-making processes under such an approach would be a collaborative approach to planning and decision-making that involves a broad range of stakeholders across all relevant governmental departments, as well as industry representatives, environmental groups, and community. This approach ideally supports a better exchange of information, development of conflict-resolution strategies and improved regional conservation. Religions also play an important role in the conservation of the environment.<ref>{{cite web|title=An ecosystem approach to natural resource conservation in California|url=http://www.interenvironment.org/cipa/ecosystemapproach.htm|work=CIPA Publication No. 106|publisher=InterEnvironment Institute|access-date=10 July 2012|author=The California Institute of Public Affairs (CIPA)|date=August 2001|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402223955/http://www.interenvironment.org/cipa/ecosystemapproach.htm|archive-date=2 April 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>
===International environmental agreements===
[[File:Kyoto Protocol Commitment map 2010.png|thumb|Kyoto Protocol Commitment map 2010|321x321px]]
Many of the earth's resources are especially vulnerable because they are influenced by human impacts across different countries. As a result of this, many attempts are made by countries to develop agreements that are signed by multiple governments to prevent damage or manage the impacts of human activity on natural resources. This can include agreements that impact factors such as climate, oceans, rivers and [[air pollution]]. These international environmental agreements are sometimes legally binding documents that have legal implications when they are not followed and, at other times, are more agreements in principle or are for use as codes of conduct. These agreements have a long history with some multinational agreements being in place from as early as 1910 in Europe, America and [[Africa]].<ref>Mitchell, R.B., International Environmental Agreements: A Survey of Their Features, Formation, and Effects. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 2003. 28(1543-5938, 1543-5938): p. 429-429-461.</ref>
Many of the international technical agencies formed after 1945 addressed environmental themes. By the late 1960s, a growing environmental movement called for coordinated and institutionalized international cooperation. The landmark [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment]] was held in Stockholm in 1972, establishing the concept of a [[right to a healthy environment]]. It was followed by the creation of the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] later that year.<ref>Iriss Borowy, "Before UNEP: who was in charge of the global environment? The struggle for institutional responsibility 1968–72." ''Journal of Global History'' 14.1 (2019): 87-106.</ref> Some of the most well-known international agreements include the [[Kyoto Protocol]] of 1997 and the [[Paris Agreement]] of 2015.
On 8 October 2021, the [[United Nations Human Rights Council|UN Human Rights Council]] passed a resolution recognizing access to a healthy and sustainable environment as a universal right. In the resolution 48/13, the Council called on States around the world to work together, and with other partners, to implement the newly recognized right.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The right to a clean and healthy environment: 6 things you need to know|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/10/1103082|website=UN News|date=15 October 2021|access-date=15 October 2021}}</ref>
On 28 July 2022, the United Nations General Assembly voted to declare the ability to live in "a clean, healthy and sustainable environment" a universal human right.<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 29, 2022 |title=Bachelet Calls For Urgent Action To Realize Human Right To Healthy Environment Following Recognition By UNGA |url=https://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/WO2207/S00234/bachelet-calls-for-urgent-action-to-realize-human-right-to-healthy-environment-following-recognition-by-unga.htm |access-date=2022-08-11 |website=www.scoop.co.nz}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Bachelet calls for urgent action to realize human right to healthy environment following recognition by UN General Assembly |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/07/bachelet-calls-urgent-action-realize-human-right-healthy-environment |access-date=2022-08-11 |website=OHCHR |language=en |via=Press Release}}</ref>
==Government==
[[File:Top 5 Countries by biological diversity.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Top five countries by biological diversity]]
Discussion concerning environmental protection often focuses on the role of government, legislation, and law enforcement. However, in its broadest sense, environmental protection may be seen to be the responsibility of all the people and not simply that of government. Decisions that impact the environment will ideally involve a broad range of stakeholders including industry, indigenous groups, environmental group and community representatives. Gradually, environmental decision-making processes are evolving to reflect this broad base of stakeholders and are becoming more collaborative in many countries.<ref>Harding, R., Ecologically sustainable development: origins, implementation and challenges. Desalination, 2006. 187(1-3): p. 229-239</ref>
=== Tanzania ===
Many constitutions acknowledge [[Tanzania]] as having some of the greatest biodiversity of any African country. Almost 40% of the land has been established into a network of protected areas, including several national parks.<ref>{{cite web|title=Biodiversity and Protected Areas-- Tanzania|url=http://www.vub.ac.be/klimostoolkit/sites/default/files/documents/tanzania_bd.pdf|work=Earth Trends Country Profiles|publisher=Vrije Universiteit Brussel|access-date=10 July 2012|author=Earth Trends|year=2003|archive-date=3 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503021844/https://www.vub.ac.be/klimostoolkit/sites/default/files/documents/tanzania_bd.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The concerns for the natural environment include damage to ecosystems and loss of habitat resulting from population growth, expansion of [[subsistence agriculture]], [[pollution]], [[timber extraction]] and significant use of timber as fuel.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tanzania – Environmental Policy Brief|url=http://www.tzdpg.or.tz/uploads/media/SIDA_env_pol_brief.pdf|publisher=Development Partners Group Tanzania|access-date=10 July 2012|author=Jessica Andersson|author2=Daniel Slunge|date=16 June 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120710183811/http://www.tzdpg.or.tz/uploads/media/SIDA_env_pol_brief.pdf|archive-date=10 July 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Environmental protection in Tanzania began during the German occupation of East Africa (1884–1919)—colonial conservation laws for the protection of game and forests were enacted, whereby restrictions were placed upon traditional indigenous activities such as hunting, firewood collecting, and cattle grazing.<ref>Goldstein, G., Legal System and Wildlife Conservation: History and the Law's Effect on Indigenous People and Community Conservation in Tanzania, The. Georgetown International Environmental Law Review, 2005. Georgetown University Law Center (Spring).</ref> In 1948, Serengeti has officially established the first national park for wild cats in East Africa. Since 1983, there has been a more broad-reaching effort to manage environmental issues at a national level, through the establishment of the National Environment Management Council (NEMC) and the development of an environmental act.<ref name=TanLaw>Pallangyo, D.M. (2007). "Environmental Law in Tanzania; How Far Have We Gone?".LEAD: Law, Environment & Development Journal 3 (1).</ref>
[[File:Zebras, Serengeti savana plains, Tanzania.jpg|thumb|right|Zebras at the [[Serengeti]] savana plains in northern part of Tanzania]]
Division of the biosphere is the main government body that oversees protection. It does this through the formulation of policy, coordinating and monitoring environmental issues, [[environmental planning]] and policy-oriented environmental research. The National Environment Management Council (NEMC) is an institution that was initiated when the National Environment Management Act was first introduced in year 1983. This council has the role to advise governments and the international community on a range of environmental issues. The NEMC the following purposes: provide technical advice; coordinate technical activities; develop enforcement guidelines and procedures; assess, monitor and evaluate activities that impact the environment; promote and assist environmental information and communication; and seek advancement of scientific knowledge.<ref name=TanGov>Tanzania Government. "Environment Tanzania". Tanzania Government. Retrieved 20 September 2011.</ref>
The National Environment Policy of 1997 acts as a framework for environmental decision making in Tanzania. The policy objectives are to achieve the following:
* Ensure sustainable and equitable use of resources without degrading the environment or risking health or safety.
* Prevent and control degradation of [[land degradation|land]], water, vegetation and air.
* Conserve and enhance natural and man-made heritage, including biological diversity of unique ecosystems.
* Improve condition and productivity of degraded areas.
* Raise awareness and understanding of the link between environment and development.
* Promote individual and community participation.
* Promote international cooperation.<ref name=TanGov />
* Use [[ecofriendly]] resources.
Tanzania is a signatory to a significant number of international conventions including the Rio Declaration on Development and Environment 1992 and the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] 1996. The Environmental Management Act, 2004, is the first comprehensive legal and institutional framework to guide environmental-management decisions. The policy tools that are parts of the act include the use of environmental-impact assessments, strategics environmental assessments, and taxation on pollution for specific industries and products. The effectiveness of shifting of this act will only become clear over time as concerns regarding its implementation become apparent based on the fact that, historically, there has been a lack of capacity to enforce environmental laws and a lack of working tools to bring environmental-protection objectives into practice.
===China===
[[File:Longwanqun national forest park creek 2011 07 25.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Longwanqun National Forest Park]] is a nationally protected nature area in Huinan County, Jilin, China.]]
Formal environmental protection in China House was first stimulated by the 1972 [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment]] held in Stockholm, Sweden. Following this, they began establishing environmental protection agencies and putting controls on some of its industrial waste. China was one of the first developing countries to implement a sustainable development strategy. In 1983 the State Council announced that environmental protection would be one of China's basic national policies and in 1984 the National Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA) was established. Following severe flooding of the Yangtze River basin in 1998, NEPA was upgraded to the State Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA) meaning that environmental protection was now being implemented at a ministerial level. In 2008, SEPA became known by its current name of [[Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People's Republic of China]] (MEP).<ref name=zhang08>{{cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=Kunmin|last2=Wen|first2=Peng|title=Review on environmental policies in China: Evolvement, features, and evaluation|journal=Environ. Sci. Engin. China|year=2008|volume=2|issue=2|pages=129–141|doi=10.1007/s11783-008-0044-6}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Command-and-control !! Economic incentives !! Voluntary instruments !! Public participation
|-
| Concentration-based pollution discharge controls || Pollution levy fee || Environmental labeling system || Clean-up campaign
|-
| Mass-based controls on total provincial discharge || Non-compliance fines || ISO 14000 system || Environmental awareness campaign
|-
| Environmental impact assessments (EIA) || Discharge permit system || Cleaner production || Air pollution index
|-
| Three synchronization program || Sulfur emission fee || NGOs || Water quality disclosure
|-
| Deadline transmission trading|| || Administrative permission hearing
|-
| Centralized pollution control || Subsidies for energy saving products || ||
|-
| Two compliance policy || Regulation on refuse credit to high-polluting firms || ||
|-
| Environmental compensation fee || || ||
|+ Pollution control instruments in China
|}
Environmental [[pollution]] and ecological degradation has resulted in economic losses for China. In 2005, economic losses (mainly from air pollution) were calculated at 7.7% of China's GDP. This grew to 10.3% by 2002 and the economic loss from water pollution (6.1%) began to exceed that caused by air pollution.<ref name=zhangwen08>{{cite journal|last=Zhang|first=Kun-min|author2=Wen, Zong-guo.|title=Review and challenges of policies of environmental protection and sustainable development in China|journal=Journal of Environmental Management|year=2008|volume=88|issue=4|pages=1249–1261|doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2007.06.019|pmid=17767999}}</ref>
China has been one of the top performing countries in terms of GDP growth (9.64% in the past ten years).<ref name="zhangwen08"/> However, the high economic growth has put immense pressure on its environment and the environmental challenges that China faces are greater than most countries. In 2021 it was noted that China was the world’s largest greenhouse gas emitter, while also facing additional environmental challenges which included illegal logging, wildlife trafficking, plastic waste, ocean pollution, environmental-related mismanagement, unregulated fishing, and the consequences associated with being the world’s largest mercury polluter.<ref>{{cite web |title=China's Environmental Abuses - United States Department of State |url=http://2017-2021.state.gov/chinas-environmental-abuses/ |website=U.S. Department of State |access-date=13 October 2023}}</ref> All these factors contribute to climate change and habitat loss. In 2022 China was ranked 160th out of 180 countries on the [[Environmental Performance Index]] due to poor air quality and high GHG emissions.
Ecological and environmental degradation in China have health related impacts; for example, if current pollution levels continue, Chinese citizens will lose 3.6 billion total life years.<ref>{{cite web |title=China |url=http://aqli.epic.uchicago.edu/country-spotlight/china/ |website=AQLI |publisher=Air Quality Life Index |access-date=13 October 2023}}</ref> Another issue is that non-transmittable diseases among Chinese, which cause at least 80% of 10.3 million annual deaths, are worsened by air pollution.<ref>{{cite web |title=Report Recommends Deeper Healthcare Reforms in China |url=http://www.who.int/hongkongchina/news/detail/22-07-2016-report-recommends-deeper-healthcare-reforms-in-china |website=WHO |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=13 October 2023}}</ref>
China has taken initiatives to increase its protection of the environment and combat environmental degradation:
* China's investment in renewable energy grew 18% in 2007 to $15.6 billion, accounting for ~10% of the global investment in this area;<ref name=chunmei10>{{cite journal|last=Chunmei|first=Wang|author2=Zhaolan, Lin.|title=Environmental Policies in China over the Past 10 Years: Progress, Problems and Prospects|journal=Procedia Environmental Sciences|year=2010|volume=2|pages=1701–1712|doi=10.1016/j.proenv.2010.10.181|doi-access=free}}</ref>
* In 2008, spending on the environment was 1.49% of GDP, up 3.4 times from 2000;<ref name=chunmei10 />
* The discharge of CO (carbon monoxide) and SO2 (sulfur dioxide) decreased by 6.61% and 8.95% in 2008 compared with that in 2005;<ref name=chunmei10 />
* China's protected nature reserves have increased substantially. In 1978 there were only 34 compared with 2,538 in 2010. The protected nature reserve system now occupies 15.5% of the country; this is higher than the world average.<ref name=chunmei10 />
Rapid growth in GDP has been China's main goal during the past three decades with a dominant development model of inefficient resource use and high pollution to achieve high GDP. For China to develop sustainably, environmental protection should be treated as an integral part of its economic policies.<ref name=Liu08>{{cite journal|author1-link=Jianguo Liu|author2-link=Jared Diamond|last=Liu|first=Jianguo|author2=Diamond, Jared.|title=Revolutionizing China's Environmental Protection|journal=Science|year=2008|volume=319|issue=5859|doi=10.1126/science.1150416|pages=37–38|pmid=18174421|s2cid=2903206}}</ref>
Quote from Shengxian Zhou, head of MEP (2009): "Good economic policy is good environmental policy and the nature of environmental problem is the economic structure, production form and develop model."<ref name=chunmei10 />
Since around 2010 China appears to be placing a greater emphasis on environmental and ecological protection. For example, former [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|General Secretary]] [[Hu Jintao]]’s report at the 2012 Party Congress added a section focusing on party policy on ecological issues.<ref name="hoover.org">{{cite web |last1=Miller |first1=Alice |title=How to Read Xi Jinping's 19th Party Congress Political Report |url=http://www.hoover.org/research/how-read-xi-jinpings-19th-party-congress-political-report |website=Hoover Institution |access-date=13 October 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Jintao |first1=Hu |title=Full Text of Hu Jintao's Report at 18th Party Congress (2) |url=http://gen.people.cn/102774/8024779.html |website=People’s Daily Online |access-date=13 October 2023}}</ref>
[[Xi Jinping]]’s report at the 19th CPC National Congress in 2017 noted recent progress in ecological and environmental conservation and restoration, the importance of ecologically sustainable development and global ecological security, and the need to provide ecological goods to meet people’s growing demands.<ref name="xinhuanet.com">{{cite web |last1=Jinping |first1=Xi |title=Full Text of Xi Jinping's Report at 19th CPC National Congress |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/special/2017-11/03/c_136725942.htm |website=Xinhua |access-date=13 October 2023}}</ref> Most importantly, Xi Jinping has suggested clearly identifiable methods to meet the ecological demands of the country. Some of the solutions he notes are the need for the development and facilitation of: ecological corridors, biodiversity protection networks, redlines for protecting ecosystems, market-based mechanisms for ecological compensation in addition to afforestation, greater crop rotation, recycling, waste reduction, stricter pollution standards, and greener production and technology.<ref name="xinhuanet.com"/> The report at the 19th CPC National Congress isn’t simply the personal thoughts from Xi Jinping, it’s a product of a long process of compromise and negotiation among competing party officials and leaders.<ref name="hoover.org"/>
Additionally, the Third Plenum of the CCP in 2013 included a manifesto that placed extreme emphasis on reforming management of the environment, promising to create greater transparency of those polluting, and placing environmental criteria above GDP growth for local official evaluations.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rosen |first1=Daniel |title=Executive Summary Avoiding the Blind Alley - Asia Society |url=http://asiasociety.org/files/pdf/AvoidingtheBlindAlley_ES.pdf |website=AsiaSociety |access-date=13 October 2023}}</ref>
Reform hasn’t come cheap for China. In 2016, it was noted that in response to pollution and oversupply, China laid off around six million workers in [[state-owned enterprises]] and spent $23 billion to cover layoffs specifically for coal and steel companies between 2016 and 2019.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lim |first1=Kang |title=Reuters |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-economy-layoffs-exclusive-idUSKCN0W33DS |website=Exclusive: China to Lay off Five to Six Million Workers, Earmarks at Least $23 Billion |access-date=13 October 2023}}</ref> While expensive, other benefits of environmental protection have been noticed beyond impacting citizens’ health. For example, in the long run, environmental protection has been found to generally improve job quality of migrant workers by reducing their work intensity, while increasing social security and job quality.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhi |first1=Huang |title=Environmental Regulation and Rural Migrant Workers' Job Quality: Evidence from China Migrants Dynamic Surveys |journal=Economic Analysis and Policy |date=2023 |volume=78 |pages=845–858|doi=10.1016/j.eap.2023.04.034 |s2cid=258469218 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0313592623000838 |access-date=13 October 2023}}</ref>
Different local governments in China implement different approaches to solving the issue of ecological protection, sometimes with negative consequences for the citizens. For example, a prefecture in the [[Shanxi]] province imposed bans, and potential legal detentions or steep fines for violations, on coal-burning by villagers.<ref name="Beijing’s Green Fist">{{cite web |last1=Wang |first1=Yaqiu |title=Beijing's Green Fist |url=http://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/29/beijings-green-fist |website=Human Rights Watch |date=29 March 2022 |access-date=13 October 2023}}</ref> Although the government provided free gas-heaters often the villagers were unable to afford to run them.<ref name="Beijing’s Green Fist"/> In [[Wuhan]], automated surveillance technology and video is used to catch illegal fishing, and in some cities not recycling results in negative social credit points. It is unclear in some of these instances if citizens have any potential routes for recourse.<ref name="Beijing’s Green Fist"/>
News in 2023 has found that the Chinese Communist Party’s recent war on pollution has already brought substantial and measurable impacts, including China’s particulate pollution levels dropping 42% from 2013 levels and increasing the average lifespan expectancy of citizens by an estimated 2.2 years.<ref>{{cite web |title=Aqli Policy Impacts-China: National Air Quality Action Plan (2014) |url=http://aqli.epic.uchicago.edu/policy-impacts/china-national-air-quality-action-plan-2014/# |website=AQLI |access-date=13 October 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Yeung |first1=Jessie |title=Chinese People Are Living Two Years Longer Thanks to 'war on Pollution,' Report Says |url=http://news.yahoo.com/chinese-people-living-two-years-052416834.html?fr=sycsrp_catchall |website=CNN |date=30 August 2023 |access-date=13 October 2023}}</ref>
===European Union===
Environmental protection has become an important task for the institutions of the [[European Community]] after the [[Maastricht Treaty]] for the [[European Union]] ratification by all of its member states. The EU is active in the field of environmental policy, issuing directives such as those on [[environmental impact assessment]] and on [[access to environmental information]] for citizens in the member states.
====Ireland====
The [[Environmental Protection Agency, Ireland]] (EPA) has a wide range of functions to protect the environment, with its primary responsibilities including:<ref>{{cite web |title=What We Are Responsible For |url=https://www.epa.ie/about/roles/ |website=Environmental Protection Agency |language=en}}</ref>
* Environmental licensing
* Enforcement of environmental law
* Environmental planning, education, and guidance
* Monitoring, analyzing and reporting on the environment
* Regulating Ireland's greenhouse gas emissions
* Environmental research development
* Strategic environmental assessment
* [[Waste management]]
* [[Nuclear waste|Radiological]] protection
===Middle East===
The Middle Eastern countries become part of the joint Islamic environmental action, which was initiated in 2002 in [[Jeddah]]. Under the [[Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization]], the member states join the Islamic Environment Ministers Conference in every two years, focusing on the importance of environment protection and [[sustainable development]]. The Arab countries are also awarded the title of best environment management in the Islamic world.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.isesco.org.ma/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/final-report-7icem.pdf|title=7th Islamic Conference of Environment Ministers|access-date=25 October 2017|publisher=ISESCO|archive-date=28 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190828131348/https://www.isesco.org.ma/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/final-report-7icem.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
In August 2019, the [[Oman|Sultanate of Oman]] won the award for 2018–19 in [[Saudi Arabia]], citing its project "Verifying the Age and Growth of Spotted Small Spots in the Northwest Coast of the Sea of Oman".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://muscatdaily.com/Archive/Oman/Oman-wins-award-for-environment-management-in-Islamic-world-5fgg|title=Oman wins award for environment management in Islamic world|access-date=26 August 2019|newspaper=Muscat Daily|archive-date=14 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190914113543/https://muscatdaily.com/Archive/Oman/Oman-wins-award-for-environment-management-in-Islamic-world-5fgg|url-status=dead}}</ref>
===Russia===
In [[Russia]], environmental protection is considered an integral part of national [[safety]]. The Federal Ministry of Natural Resources and Ecology is the authorized state body tasked with managing environmental protection. However, there are a lot of [[environmental issues in Russia]].
===Latin America===
The [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP) has identified 17 [[megadiverse countries]]. The list includes six Latin American countries: [[Brazil]], [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Mexico]], [[Peru]] and [[Venezuela]]. [[Mexico]] and [[Brazil]] stand out among the rest because they have the largest area, population and number of species. These countries represent a major concern for environmental protection because they have high rates of deforestation, ecosystems loss, pollution, and population growth.
====Brazil====
[[File:Foz de Iguaçu 27 Panorama Nov 2005.jpg|thumb|right|Panorama of the [[Iguazu falls]] in Brazil]]
[[Brazil]] has the largest amount of the world's tropical forests, 4,105,401 km<sup>2</sup> (48.1% of Brazil), concentrated in the Amazon region.<ref>Ministério do Meio Ambiente (MMA) Secretaria de Biodiversidade e Florestas (2002), ' Biodiversidade Brasileira', http://www.biodiversidade.rs.gov.br/arquivos/BiodiversidadeBrasileira_MMA.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150416165953/http://www.biodiversidade.rs.gov.br/arquivos/BiodiversidadeBrasileira_MMA.pdf |date=2015-04-16 }}, retrieved September 2011</ref> Brazil is home to vast biological diversity, first among the [[megadiverse countries]] of the world, having between 15%-20% of the 1.5 million globally described species.<ref>Lewinsohn, T. M.; Prado, P. I. (2004) 'Biodiversidade Brasileira: Síntese do Estado Atual do Conhecimento', Contexto Academico</ref>
The organization in charge of environment protection is the Brazilian Ministry of the Environment (in Portuguese: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, MMA).<ref>{{cite web|title=Ministério do Meio Ambiente|url=http://www.mma.gov.br/sitio/|publisher=Ministério do Meio Ambiente|access-date=10 July 2012|author=Ministério do Meio Ambiente|language=Portuguese|year=2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302154545/http://www.mma.gov.br/sitio/|archive-date=2 March 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> It was first created in the year 1973 with the name Special Secretariat for the Environment (Secretaria Especial de Meio Ambiente), changing names several times, and adopting the final name in the year 1999. The Ministry is responsible for addressing the following issues:
* A national policy for the environment and for water resources;
* A policy for the preservation, conservation and sustainable use of ecosystems, biodiversity, and forests;
* Proposing strategies, mechanisms, economic and social instruments for improving environmental quality, and sustainable use of natural resources;
* Policies for integrating production and the environment;
* Environmental policies and programs for the Legal Amazon;
* Ecological and economic territorial zoning.
In 2011, protected areas of the Amazon covered 2,197,485 km<sup>2</sup> (an area larger than Greenland), with conservation units, like national parks, accounting for just over half (50.6%) and indigenous territories representing the remaining 49.4%.<ref>Veríssimo, A., Rolla, A., Vedoveto, M. & de Furtada, S.M. (2011) Áreas Protegidas na Amazônia Brasileira: avanços e desafios, [[Imazon]]/ISA</ref>
====Mexico====
[[File:Axolote.jpg|thumb|right|The [[axolotl]] is an endemic species from the central part of Mexico.]]
With over 200,000 different species, [[Mexico]] is home to 10–12% of the world's biodiversity, ranking first in [[reptile]] biodiversity and second in [[mammals]]<ref>Mittermeier, R. y C. Goettsch (1992) 'La importancia de la diversidad biológica de México', Conabio, México</ref>—one estimate indicates that over 50% of all animal and plant species live in Mexico.<ref>{{cite web|title=Principal ecosystems in Mexico|url=http://www.vivanatura.org/Maps%20Mexican%20ecosystems.html|work=Viva Natura|access-date=10 July 2012|author=Viva Natura}}</ref>
The history of environmental policy in Mexico started in the 1940s with the enactment of the Law of Conservation of Soil and Water (in Spanish: Ley de Conservación de Suelo y Agua). Three decades later, at the beginning of the 1970s, the Law to Prevent and Control Environmental Pollution was created (Ley para Prevenir y Controlar la Contaminación Ambiental).
In the year 1972 was the first direct response from the federal government to address eminent health effects from environmental issues. It established the administrative organization of the Secretariat for the Improvement of the Environment (Subsecretaría para el Mejoramiento del Ambiente) in the Department of Health and Welfare.
The Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources (Secretaría del Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales, [[SEMARNAT]]<ref>Official site: http://www.semarnat.gob.mx/</ref>) is Mexico's environment ministry. The Ministry is responsible for addressing the following issues:
* Promote the protection, restoration, and conservation of ecosystems, natural resources, goods, and environmental services and facilitate their use and sustainable development.
* Develop and implement a national policy on natural resources
* Promote environmental management within the national territory, in coordination with all levels of government and the private sector.
* Evaluate and provide determination to the [[environmental impact statement]]s for development projects and prevention of ecological damage
* Implement national policies on climate change and protection of the ozone layer.
* Direct work and studies on national meteorological, climatological, hydrological, and geohydrological systems, and participate in international conventions on these subjects.
* Regulate and monitor the conservation of waterways
In November 2000 there were 127 [[protected areas]]; currently there are 174, covering an area of 25,384,818 hectares, increasing federally protected areas from 8.6% to 12.85% of its land area.<ref>Official site: http://www.conanp.gob.mx/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404000441/http://www.conanp.gob.mx/ |date=2015-04-04 }}</ref>
===Oceania===
====Australia====
[[File:GreatBarrierReef-EO.JPG|thumb|right|The [[Great Barrier Reef]] in Australia is the largest barrier reef in the world.]]
In 2008, there was 98,487,116 [[Hectare|ha]] of terrestrial protected area, covering 12.8% of the land area of [[Australia]].<ref name="DB 2008">{{cite web|title=Collaborative Australian Protected Areas Database 2008|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/parks/nrs/science/capad/2008/index.html|publisher=Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities|access-date=21 September 2011}}</ref> The 2002 figures of 10.1% of terrestrial area and 64,615,554 ha of protected marine area<ref name="DB 2002">{{cite web|title=Collaborative Aus tralian Protected Areas Database 2002|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/parks/nrs/science/capad/2002/index.html|publisher=Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities|access-date=21 September 2011}}</ref> were found to poorly represent about half of Australia's 85 bioregions.<ref name="bio asses 2002">{{cite web|title=Australian Terrestrial Biodiversity Assessment 2002|url=http://www.anra.gov.au/topics/vegetation/pubs/biodiversity/bio_assess_contents.html|work=National Land and Water Resources Audit|publisher=Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities|access-date=21 September 2011|author=Paul Sattler and Colin Creighton|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110911163908/http://www.anra.gov.au/topics/vegetation/pubs/biodiversity/bio_assess_contents.html|archive-date=11 September 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Environmental protection in Australia could be seen as starting with the formation of the first national park, [[Royal National Park]], in 1879.<ref name="royal">{{cite web|title=Royal National Park|url=http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/NationalParks/parkHome.aspx?id=N0030|publisher=NSW Office of Environment and Heritage|access-date=21 September 2011}}</ref> More progressive environmental protection had it start in the 1960s and 1970s with major international programs such as the [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment]] in 1972, the Environment Committee of the [[OECD]] in 1970, and the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] of 1972.<ref name="AUS achieve">{{cite book|title=Australian achievements in environment protection and nature conservation 1972-1982|year=1982|publisher=Australian Environment Council and Council of Nature Conservation Ministers|location=Canberra|isbn=0-642-88655-5|pages=1–2}}</ref> These events laid the foundations by increasing public awareness and support for regulation. State environmental legislation was irregular and deficient until the Australian Environment Council (AEC) and Council of Nature Conservation Ministers (CONCOM) were established in 1972 and 1974, creating a forum to assist in coordinating environmental and conservation policies between states and neighbouring countries.<ref name="council BG">{{cite web|title=Background to the Councils|url=http://www.mincos.gov.au/background|publisher=Australian Government Primary Industries Ministerial Council and Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council|access-date=21 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110822171721/http://www.mincos.gov.au/background|archive-date=22 August 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> These councils have since been replaced by the Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (ANZECC) in 1991 and finally the Environment Protection and Heritage Council (EPHC) in 2001.<ref name="EPHC">{{cite web|title=ANZECC|url=http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/81|publisher=Environment Protection and Heritage Council|access-date=21 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927155500/http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/81|archive-date=27 September 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>
At a national level, the ''[[Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999]]'' is the primary environmental protection legislation for the Commonwealth of Australia. It concerns matters of national and international environmental significance regarding flora, fauna, ecological communities and cultural heritage.<ref name="EPBC 1">{{cite web|title=Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/epbc/|publisher=Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities|access-date=21 September 2011}}</ref> It also has jurisdiction over any activity conducted by the Commonwealth, or affecting it, that has significant environmental impact.<ref name="EPBC 2">{{cite web|title=About the EPBC Act
|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/epbc/about/index.html|publisher=Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities|access-date=21 September 2011}}</ref>
The act covers eight main areas:<ref name="EPBC 3">{{cite web|title=Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) fact sheet|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/epbc/publications/epbc-act-fact-sheet.html|publisher=Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities|access-date=21 September 2011}}</ref>
* [[National Heritage Site]]s
* [[World Heritage Site]]s
* [[Ramsar Convention|Ramsar]] [[wetland]]s
* Nationally endangered or [[threatened species]] and ecological communities
* Nuclear activities and actions
* [[Great Barrier Reef Marine Park]]
* Migratory species
* Commonwealth marine areas
There are several Commonwealth protected lands due to partnerships with traditional native owners, such as [[Kakadu National Park]], extraordinary biodiversity such as [[Christmas Island National Park]], or managed cooperatively due to cross-state location, such as the [[Australian Alps National Parks and Reserves]].<ref name="CW parks">{{cite web|title=Protected areas|url=http://australia.gov.au/topics/environment-and-natural-resources/environmental-protection/protected-areas|publisher=Commonwealth of Australia|access-date=21 September 2011|archive-date=27 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227110324/http://australia.gov.au/topics/environment-and-natural-resources/environmental-protection/protected-areas|url-status=dead}}</ref>
At a state level, the bulk of environmental protection issues are left to the responsibility of the state or territory.<ref name="council BG" /><ref name="EPBC 2" /> Each state in Australia has its own environmental protection legislation and corresponding agencies. Their jurisdiction is similar and covers [[point source pollution]], such as from industry or commercial activities, land/water use, and waste management. Most protected lands are managed by states and territories<ref name="CW parks" /> with state legislative acts creating different degrees and definitions of protected areas such as wilderness, national land and marine parks, state forests, and conservation areas. States also create regulation to limit and provide general protection from air, water, and sound pollution.
At a local level, each city or regional council has responsibility over issues not covered by state or national legislation. This includes non-point source, or diffuse pollution, such as sediment pollution from construction sites.
Australia ranks second place on the UN 2010 [[Human Development Index]]<ref name="HDI">{{cite web|title=Human Development Index (HDI) - 2010 Rankings|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/Lets-Talk-HD-HDI_2010.pdf |publisher=Human Development Report Office; United Nations Development Programme|access-date=24 September 2011}}</ref> and one of the lowest debt to [[GDP]] ratios of the developed economies.<ref name="AUS budget">{{cite web|title=Overview of the Australian Government's Balance Sheet|url=http://www.budget.gov.au/2011-12/content/bp1/html/bp1_bst7-01.htm|work=Budget Strategy and Outlook 2011-12|publisher=Commonwealth of Australia|access-date=24 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150406155019/http://budget.gov.au/2011%2D12/content/bp1/html/bp1_bst7-01.htm|archive-date=6 April 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> This could be seen as coming at the cost of the environment, with Australia being the world leader in coal exportation<ref name="AUS coal">{{cite web|title=The Australian Coal Industry - Coal Exports |url=http://www.australiancoal.com.au/the-australian-coal-industry_coal-exports.aspx |publisher=Australian Coal Association |access-date=25 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002194553/http://www.australiancoal.com.au/the-australian-coal-industry_coal-exports.aspx |archivedate=2 October 2011}}</ref> and species extinctions.<ref name="Jour extin">{{cite journal|first1=Jeff |last1=Short |first2=Andrew |last2=Smith|title=Mammal Decline and Recovery in Australia|journal=Journal of Mammalogy|year=1994|volume=75|issue=2|pages=288–297|doi=10.2307/1382547|jstor=1382547}}</ref><ref name="Extinction book">{{cite book|last=Johnson|first=Chris|title=Australia's Mammal Extinctions|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Melbourne|isbn=0-521-84918-7|pages=vii}}</ref> Some have been motivated to proclaim it is Australia's responsibility to set the example of environmental reform for the rest of the world to follow.<ref name="Env lecture">{{cite web|last=Murphy|first=Cameron|title=Australia as International Citizen - From past failure to future Distinction|url=http://lionelmurphy.anu.edu.au/22%20lecture%20by%20Cameron%20Murphy.doc|work=22nd Lionel Murphy Memorial Lecture|publisher=The Lionel Murphy Foundation|access-date=26 September 2011}}</ref><ref name="AUS Greens">{{cite web|title=Climate Change and Energy|url=http://greens.org.au/policies/climate-change-and-energy/climate-change-and-energy|publisher=The Australian Greens|access-date=26 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110916205616/http://greens.org.au/policies/climate-change-and-energy/climate-change-and-energy|archive-date=16 September 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>
====New Zealand====
At a national level, the [[Ministry for the Environment (New Zealand)|Ministry for the Environment]] is responsible for environmental policy and the [[Department of Conservation (New Zealand)|Department of Conservation]] addresses [[conservation ethic|conservation issues]]. At a regional level the [[Regions of New Zealand|regional councils]] administer the legislation and address regional [[environmental issues]].
===Switzerland===
{{excerpt|Environmental protection in Switzerland}}
The environmental protection in Switzerland is mainly based on the measures to be taken against global warming. The pollution in Switzerland is mainly the pollution caused by vehicles and the litteration by tourists.{{Citation needed|date=January 2019}}
===United States===
[[File:YosemitePark2 amk.jpg|thumb|[[Yosemite National Park]] in [[California]], one of the first protected areas in the United States]]
Since 1970, the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) has been working to protect the environment and human health.<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/epahome/aboutepa.htm The United States Environmental Protection Agency.] Retrieved on (23 August 2008). "About Us (section)". U.S. EPA.</ref>
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is an independent executive agency of the United States federal government tasked with environmental protection matters.
All US states have their own state-level departments of environmental protection,<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/epahome/state.htm "State Environmental Agencies"]. [http://www.epa.gov United States Environmental Protection Agency]. Accessed May 2010.</ref> which may issue regulations more stringent than the federal ones.
In January 2010, EPA Administrator [[Lisa P. Jackson]] published via the official EPA blog her "Seven Priorities for EPA's Future", which were (in the order originally listed):<ref name="priorities">[http://blog.epa.gov/administrator/2010/01/12/seven-priorities-for-epas-future/ "Seven Priorities for EPA's Future"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120818135203/http://blog.epa.gov/administrator/2010/01/12/seven-priorities-for-epas-future/ |date=18 August 2012}}. [http://www.epa.gov United States Environmental Protection Agency]. Accessed May 2010.</ref>
* Taking action on [[climate change]]
* Improving [[air quality index|air quality]]
* Assuring the safety of [[chemical]]s
* Cleaning up [US] communities
* Protecting America's waters
* Expanding the conversation on environmentalism and working for [[environmental justice]]
* Building strong state and [[Indian tribe|tribal]] partnerships
{{As of|2019|post=,}} it is unclear whether these still represent the agency's active priorities, as Jackson departed in February 2013, and the page has not been updated in the interim.
===India===
The Constitution of India has a number of provisions demarcating the responsibility of the Central and State governments towards Environmental Protection. The state's responsibility with regard to environmental protection has been laid down under article 48-A of the constitution which stated that "The states shall endeavor to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forest and wildlife of the country".<ref>{{Cite wikisource
| title = Constitution of India/Part IV
| last = '''The Government of India'''
}}</ref>
Environmental protection has been made a fundamental duty of every citizen of India under Article 51-A (g) of the constitution which says "It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures".<ref>{{Cite Wikisource
| title = Constitution of India/Part IVA
| last = The Government of India
}}</ref>
Article 21 of the constitution is a fundamental right, which states that "No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law".<ref>{{Cite wikisource
| title = Constitution of India/Part III
| last = The Government of India
}}</ref>
==In literature==
There are numerous works of literature that contain the themes of environmental protection but some have been fundamental to its evolution. Several pieces such as ''[[A Sand County Almanac]]'' by [[Aldo Leopold]], "[[Tragedy of the commons]]" by [[Garrett Hardin]], and ''[[Silent Spring]]'' by [[Rachel Carson]] have become classics due to their far reaching influences.<ref>{{cite book |title=Environmental Psychology: Principles and Practices |date=4 March 2019 |publisher=Bankston Cotton |isbn=9781839474088 |page=310 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XuTEDwAAQBAJ&q=pieces+such+as+A+Sand+County+Almanac+by+Aldo+Leopold,+%22Tragedy+of+the+commons%22+by+Garrett+Hardin,+and+Silent+Spring+by+Rachel+Carson+have+become+classics+due+to+their+far+reaching+influences&pg=PA310}}</ref> The conservationist and Nobel laureate [[Wangari Maathai|Wangari Muta Maathai]] devoted her 2010 book Replenishing the Earth to the Green Belt Movement and the vital importance of trees in protecting the environment.
The subject of environmental protection is present in fiction as well as non-fictional literature. Books such as ''[[Antarctica (novel)|Antarctica]]'' and ''[[Blockade (novel)|Blockade]]'' have environmental protection as subjects whereas ''[[The Lorax]]'' has become a popular metaphor for environmental protection. "The Limits of Trooghaft"<ref name=troog>{{cite journal|last=Stewart|first=Desmond|title=The Limits of Trooghaft|journal=Encounter|date=February 1972|volume=38|issue=2|pages=3–7|url=http://www.animal-rights-library.com/texts-m/stewart01.htm|access-date=24 September 2011|location=London}}</ref> by Desmond Stewart is a short story that provides insight into human attitudes towards animals. Another book called ''[[The Martian Chronicles]]'' by [[Ray Bradbury]] investigates issues such as bombs, wars, government control, and what effects these can have on the environment.
==See also==
{{Portal|Environment|Ecology|Earth sciences}}
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Anti-consumerism]]
* [[Anti-environmentalism]]
* [[Biodiversity]]
* [[Biocentrism (ethics)]]
* [[Carbon offset]]
* [[Citizen science#Plastics and pollution|Citizen Science]], cleanup projects that people can take part in.
* [[Conservation biology]]
* [[Conservation movement]]
* [[Earth Day]]
* [[Environmentalism]]
* [[Environmental education]]
* [[Environmental globalization]]
* [[Environmental governance]]
* [[Environmental law]]
* [[Environmental movement]]
* [[Environmental organizations]]
* [[Environmental personhood]]
* [[Environmental racism]]
* [[Green politics]]
* [[Green solutions]]
* [[List of environmental organizations]]
* [[List of environmental issues]]
* [[List of environmental topics]]
* [[List of international environmental agreements]]
* [[Natural capital]]
* [[Natural resource management]]
* [[Nature conservation]]
* [[Proforestation]]
* [[Sustainability]]
* [[World Environment Day]]
* [[Climate change mitigation]]
* [[Greening]]{{div col end}}
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline|Environmental protection}}
{{Conservation of species}}{{Environmentalism}}{{Social democracy}}
{{Christian Democracy}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Environmental Protection}}
[[Category:Environmental protection| ]]
[[ltg:Apleicsardzeiba]]
[[hu:Természetvédelem]] |
Action plan | {{Short description|Document describing the strategy, the steps, and the resources necessary to reach a goal}}
An '''action plan''' is a detailed [[plan]] outlining actions needed to reach one or more [[goal]]s.{{citation needed|date=October 2016}} Alternatively, it can be defined as a "sequence of steps that must be taken, or activities that must be performed well, for a [[strategy]] to succeed".<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/action-plan.html
| title = What is action plan? definition and meaning
| year = 2016
| publisher = WebFinance Inc.
| access-date = 2016-10-14
| quote = action plan[:] A sequence of steps that must be taken, or activities that must be performed well, for a strategy to succeed.
| archive-date = 2019-10-03
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191003035423/http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/action-plan.html
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>
== Process ==
=== Origin ===
An action plan is a tool in social planning. It is an organizational strategy to identify necessary steps towards a goal. It considers details, may help limit setting for an organization, and is efficient in that it saves resources over trial and error. A written action plan also serves as a token for an organization's accountability.<ref name=commtool>{{cite book|title=Community Toolbox|year=2013|publisher=University of Kansas|url=http://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of-contents/structure/strategic-planning/develop-action-plans/main|chapter=Chapter 8. Developing a Strategic Plan}}</ref>
=== Setting goals ===
A goal is the primary objective of an action plan. Setting goals gives the possibility of your dreams and prospects being brought to life. It creates motivation and provides you with a certainty that the final outcome will be worthwhile, preventing any wasted time and effort. This is achieved by being fully dedicated to the process and using the structured guide to accomplishing it. Although hard work may be produced, without a successful end goal the ideal result you set to achieve, will not prevail.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Susan B. Wilson|author2=Michael S. Pmp Dobson|title=Goal Setting: How to Create an Action Plan and Achieve Your Goals|date=12 March 2008|pages=3–21|edition=Second}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=1.4 Creating an action plan and setting achievable goals|url=http://pathwaystowork.eu/en/?page_id=208|accessdate=26 October 2014|archive-date=24 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524151916/http://pathwaystowork.eu/en?page_id=208|url-status=dead}}</ref>
=== Creation ===
When creating action plans there are guided steps that need to be followed to ensure success, however the structure can be altered in the process. Firstly, you will need to outline what you want to achieve from the project, by doing this you set yourself targets. After this the specific roles will need to be allocated ensuring sufficient amount of training, resources and issues have been considered to ensure solving any problems that may occur. The next stage allows members of the group to analyse the progress by outlining milestones, solving any issues and making any necessary changes. Lastly once the project has come to an end the final stage can be examined to ensure future success.<ref>{{cite web|title=Guidance to making an action plan|url=http://www.wmc.ac.uk/public/freedom/human_resources/Guidance%20to%20making%20Action%20Plans.doc|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327054108/http://www.wmc.ac.uk/public/freedom/human_resources/Guidance%20to%20making%20Action%20Plans.doc|archivedate=27 March 2014|accessdate=23 October 2014}}</ref>
=== Execution ===
Mike Desjardins has suggested the following<ref>{{cite web|title=How to execute corporate action plans effectively|url=http://www.biv.com/article/20111213/BIV0315/312139955/-1/BIV/how-to-execute-corporate-action-plans-effectively|publisher=Business In Vancouver|accessdate=22 March 2014|author=Mike Desjardins|date=13 December 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140322084046/http://www.biv.com/article/20111213/BIV0315/312139955/-1/BIV/how-to-execute-corporate-action-plans-effectively|archive-date=22 March 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*Ownership: one person must be responsible and accountable for tracing the progress, keeping team informed, ensuring timely action steps are occurring and adjusting the actions.
*Action steps should be clear and actionable versus vague ideas or thoughts.
*Responsibility: each action step needs to have one person responsible.
*Support: For each action step, determine who will support the person responsible. This can be multiple people. The key is that they're not responsible for the action or outcome.
*Informed: keeping the right people in the communication loop for each action is critically important. Key people might need to understand the state of progress around your actions to see how they affect other actions and objectives.
*Metrics and budget: each action step must have a metric that tells us that the action is complete. For example, if you needed to survey your customers and don't have the internal resources to run the survey or want to protect anonymity, using an outside resource will require money that might not be included in your current operating budget
*Completion date
== Context ==
=== Advantages ===
Producing an action plan can be beneficial not only for individual basis but also for businesses. For example, it allows project managers or any member of a group to monitor their progress and take each task step-by-step, therefore allowing them to handle the project efficiently. The advantage of doing this is, it allows you to execute a structured plan for the end goal you intend to achieve. Furthermore, it provides the team with appropriate foundations, therefore prioritising the amount of time you spend on each task. This will then prevent any sidetracking that may occur. Lastly, it creates a bond within a team, as each member is aware of their individual role, as well as providing necessary information to ensure success of the project.<ref>{{cite web|title=diffundo |url=http://www.diffundo.com/instructions/resource18.pdf |accessdate=19 October 2014 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020200347/http://www.diffundo.com/instructions/resource18.pdf |archivedate=20 October 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author1=Smriti Chand|title=What are the Advantages and Potential Disadvantages of Planning under Management?|date=25 June 2013|url=http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/management/what-are-the-advantages-and-potential-disadvantages-of-planning-under-management/3501/|accessdate=23 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author1=Brenda Horton|title=5 Reasons Why Your Business Idea Needs An Action Plan|url=http://www.hware.com/2010/09/5-reasons-why-your-business-idea-needs-an-action-plan/|website=hware|date=24 September 2010|accessdate=27 October 2014}}</ref>
=== Issues ===
When using action plans limitations will need to be considered. Firstly, each member of the team will need to be allocated individual roles and tasks which will require completion by a set date. This can be demanding for some, due to coping with the stress and distractions that may occur.
Another issue is not being guided thoroughly and effectively, leading to the lack of effort and passion a member has for the project. In addition to this, if the communication throughout the team is non-existent, key information will not reach members of the group, causing lack of confidence. Lastly failing to obtain the goal you set to reach can lead to frustration and in turn the planning would have been a waste of time. There can be more addition to this article.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Leigh Ann Morgan|title=Advantages and Disadvantages of Goal Setting|url=http://www.livestrong.com/article/217375-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-goal-setting/-|accessdate=23 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Action Plan|url=http://www.itseducation.asia/action.htm|website=ITS|accessdate=25 October 2014}}</ref>
=== Risk management ===
To benefit from risk management action plans, you need to examine certain possibilities that could affect the process, such as observing any threats and correcting them. For example, key aspects of risk management are to ensure you allocate members specific roles and monitor the risks throughout, to ensure tasks are completed with efficiency. This being a major factor, as evaluating what happens during and after the project, will allow finding the positive and negative elements of each stage in the planning, providing you the ability to develop on the risks further.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Jean Scheid|author2=Marlene Gundlach|title=Why You Need a Risk Management Action Plan|url=http://www.brighthubpm.com/risk-management/31709-why-you-need-a-risk-management-action-plan/|website=Bright Hub PM|date=7 April 2009|accessdate=27 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor1-link=Paul K. Moser|title=Rationality in Action|isbn=0-521-38598-9|pages=11–26|last1=Moser|first1=Paul K.|date=26 October 1990|publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref>
== Examples ==
=== Council of Europe ===
The [[Council of Europe]] has organized some action plans for helping its member states. An example of this is the [[Council of Europe Action Plan for the Republic of Moldova 2021–2024]], created with the purpose of improving [[Moldova]]'s situation on [[democracy]], [[Human rights in Moldova|human rights]] and [[rule of law]] and its state [[institution]]s and [[legislation]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.coe.int/en/web/portal/-/new-council-of-europe-action-plan-for-the-republic-of-moldova-launched-in-strasbourg|title=New Council of Europe Action Plan for the Republic of Moldova launched in Strasbourg|publisher=[[Council of Europe]]|date=19 April 2021}}</ref>
=== European Union ===
Some [[Directive (European Union)|European Union directive]]s describe action plans in order to reach a defined target in [[air quality]] or [[noise reduction]]. If the target cannot be reached by a member state, the member needs to write a report. Sometimes action plans contain deadlines by which the plan must be ready to start the action(s) and the targets are to be reached.
== See also ==
* [[Climate Action Plan]]
* [[Biodiversity action plan]]
==Notes and references==
{{Reflist|30em}}
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Action plans| ]] |
Rama dama | {{short description|Organized public space cleanup in Bavaria}}
'''Rama dama''' or '''ramadama''' ([[Bavarian language|Bavarian]]: "We are cleaning!" from {{lang-de|Räumen tun wir!}}) is a volunteer cleanup movement in [[Bavaria]], collecting waste from urban and natural public spaces. The organization is run by communities, schools, associations and citizens' initiatives.<ref>Abfallwirtschaftsbetrieb München: [https://www.awm-muenchen.de/wir-ueber-uns/engagement/ramadama.html ''Ramadama - Aufräumen für München''].</ref>
[[Thomas Wimmer (politician)|Thomas Wimmer]], the then-Mayor of [[Munich]], called for people to ''"rama dama"'' for the first time on 29 October 1949, addressing the damage done to the city during the [[Second World War]]. More than 7500 volunteers joined the project, with Wimmer working with a shovel. In total, more than 15,000 cubic meters of rubble were collected that day. The term remained as designation for common, honorary tidying up.<ref>Kerstin Lottritz: [https://www.merkur.de/lokales/muenchen/stadt-muenchen/jahren-erste-rama-dama-513397.html ''Vor 60 Jahren: Das erste „Rama Dama“'', 4. November 2009]</ref>
==References==
<references />
[[Category:Volunteering by country]]
[[Category:Culture of Bavaria]]
[[Category:Events in Bavaria]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:German-language idioms]]
[[Category:Cleaning and the environment]] |
Plant for Pakistan | {{short description|Environmental protection project}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{More citations needed|date=April 2022}}
{{Essay-like|date=July 2021}}
}}
{{Imran Khan sidebar}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
'''Plant for Pakistan''' (Plant4Pakistan), also known as '''10 Billion Tree Tsunami''', is a five-year project to plant 10 billion trees across Pakistan from 2018 to 2023.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/pakistan-incoming-government-to-plant-10-billion-trees-/4516212.html|title=Pakistan to Plant '10 Billion Trees'|last=Gul|first=Ayaz|work=VOA|access-date=2018-09-15|language=en}}</ref> Prime Minister [[Imran Khan]] started the drive on 2 September 2018 with approximately 1.5 million trees planted on the first day.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1793014/1-plant-pakistan-drive-kicks-off-tomorrow/|title='Plant for Pakistan' campaign kicks off across the country {{!}} The Express Tribune|date=2018-09-01|work=The Express Tribune|access-date=2018-09-15|language=en-US}}</ref> The campaign was based on the successful [[Billion Tree Tsunami]] campaign of the former [[Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf]] government, also led by Imran Khan, in the province of [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] in 2014.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/07/pakistan-s-billion-tree-tsunami-is-astonishing/|title=Pakistan has planted over a billion trees|website=World Economic Forum|access-date=2018-09-15}}</ref> This different initiative is often confused with the initiative of the Prime Minister Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif who launched a national campaign of Green Pakistan and also allocated budget funding from the PSDP.
In 2020, the program tripled its number of workers to 63,600 after being momentarily halted following the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Pakistan]], aiming to enlist those left unemployed by its economic consequences.<ref>{{cite web|title=Pakistan Hires Thousands of Newly-Unemployed Laborers for Ambitious 10 Billion Tree-Planting Initiative|url=https://www.goodnewsnetwork.org/pakistan-hires-laborers-for-planting-10-billion-tree/|agency=thegoodnewsnetwork|website=Good News Network|language=en|date=30 April 2020|access-date=2 May 2020}}</ref> Most of the work, which pays between 500 and 800 rupees (US$3–5) a day, takes place in rural areas, with people setting up nurseries, planting saplings, and serving as [[forest protection]] guards. The plan was awarded 7.5 billion rupees ($46m) in funding.<ref>{{cite web|title=Pakistan's virus-idled workers hired to plant trees|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/04/pakistan-virus-idled-workers-hired-plant-trees-200429070109237.html|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en|access-date=30 April 2020|publication-date=}}.</ref>
Saplings planted during the initiative included mulberry, acacia, moringa and other indigenous species.
==Planting Billions of Trees==
While Pakistan's [[economy]] is 135th in terms of [[greenhouse gas]] emissions, it is among the top ten countries in the world to be affected by [[global warming]] according to the annual report of [[Climate Change Performance Index|Global Climate Risk Index]] of German Watch, which ranks Pakistan as eighth among the countries most at risk of climate change.<ref>Eckstein, David, et al. [https://www.germanwatch.org/sites/germanwatch.org/files/20-2-01e%20Global%20Climate%20Risk%20Index%202020_16.pdf "Global climate risk index 2020."] (PDF) ''Germanwatch'' (2019).</ref> As of November 2021, Lahore is the number one in the world in terms of [[air pollution]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lahore Air Quality Index (AQI) and Pakistan Air Pollution | AirVisual |url=https://www.iqair.com/pakistan/punjab/lahore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Pakistan: 'Find a solution,' say Lahore residents choking in smog |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/11/17/pakistan-lahore-smog-air-pollution-aqi-health |website=www.aljazeera.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2 November 2021 |title=Hazy Lahore declared most polluted city in the world |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1655402}}</ref> Major cities have experienced major heat waves and high levels of pollution in the 21st century, including [[Karachi]]<ref name="bloomberg">{{cite news |last1=Haider |first1=Kamran |last2=Anis |first2=Khurrum |date=24 June 2015 |title=Heat Wave Death Toll Rises to 2,000 in Pakistan's Financial Hub |publisher=Bloomberg News |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-06-24/heat-wave-death-toll-rises-to-2-000-in-pakistan-s-financial-hub |accessdate=3 August 2015}}</ref> and [[Islamabad]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kamal |first=Shahid |date=2018-04-02 |title=Quality of air in Islamabad declining |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1399014 |access-date=2022-08-02 |website=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]] |language=en}}</ref>
Pakistan has a wide variety of [[ecosystem]]s within its borders, including the [[Arabian Sea|Arabian sea]], several [[List of deserts of Pakistan|deserts]] and major [[List of rivers of Pakistan|rivers]], and more than seven thousand [[List of glaciers of Pakistan|glaciers]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Craig|first=Tim|date=2016-08-12|title=Pakistan has more glaciers than almost anywhere on Earth. But they are at risk.|language=en-US|newspaper=Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/pakistan-has-more-glaciers-than-almost-anywhere-on-earth-but-they-are-at-risk/2016/08/11/7a6b4cd4-4882-11e6-8dac-0c6e4accc5b1_story.html|access-date=2020-09-04|issn=0190-8286|quote=With 7,253 known glaciers, including 543 in the Chitral Valley, there is more glacial ice in Pakistan than anywhere on Earth outside the polar regions, according to various studies.}}</ref> Pakistan is also at the confluence of three great mountain ranges; the [[Hindu Kush]], the [[Himalayas]] and the [[Karakoram]]. Areas such as [[Sindh|Sindh province]] are at increased risk of flooding due to the melting of glaciers and the eruption of glacial lakes, while also being at risk of drought due to an increasingly warm [[dry season]]. Threats such as [[hurricane]]s also pose an increasing threat to open populations.
The PTI-led government, under its political campaign on Green Agenda, have introduced projects like Billion Tree Tsunami and Ten Billion Tree Tsunami to tackle and raise awareness about forestry and afforestation across the country in response.
==International Acceptance==
The Billion Tree Tsunami, or the planting of one billion trees, was started by the [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] government in 2014. One billion trees were planted on 35,000 hectares of forest and barren land.
Regional 'Billion Tree Tsunami' project, which started seven years ago in 2014, started a revolution with great silence. The 'Billion Tree Tsunami' soon reverberated not only across the country but also globally, thanks to its performance in environmental organizations such as the [[Bonn Challenge]], the [[World Bank]] and [[IUCN]]. Foreign diplomats in the diplomatic enclave of Islamabad also turned their attention to it and then the world became aware of their observations and observations. Shortly afterwards, international broadcasters began to take notice, and it was interpreted by a developing country as an important step in the context of climate change. After the successful completion of the Billion Tree Tsunami Project at the provincial level, as soon as the [[Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf]] (PTI) gets the responsibility to take over the central government in 2018 Due to the personal interest of Prime Minister [[Imran Khan]], he initiated a green environmental revolution by rehabilitating, promoting and large-scale afforestation of one million hectares of forests across the country under the mega project of 10 billion tree [[tsunami]] (10 billion tree tsunami). Raised to do. Apparently this is a difficult goal to pursue, but in the last two years, despite all the adversity, the project is moving forward. During this period, not only did the [[United Nations]] and the [[World Economic Forum]] warmly appreciate Pakistan's commitment, but many other countries, including [[South Africa]], [[Bangladesh]] and [[Saudi Arabia]], have launched similar projects in their countries. Announced to start. Two and a half years of the present government have passed and about one billion trees have been planted so far, so the question arises whether it is possible to plant 9 billion trees in the next two and a half years. [[Malik Amin Aslam]], Special Adviser to the Prime Minister on Climate Change, answers this question by saying, "Our goal is to plant three billion trees in the next five years, which we will easily achieve. We hope that the next government will be ours and we will achieve this goal with the prayers of these trees. Environmentalist and botanist [[Rafi-ul-Haq]] says, "This program has gained so much attention and importance at the national and international levels that even if the next PTI does not come to power, the government will be the one to complete the project There will be global pressure and it will not be possible for any government to end or ignore this project in view of climate change.
==The 'Safe Areas' system ==
Apart from tree planting, the government of Pakistan have also taken other eco-friendly measures, including increasing the number of [[Protected areas of Pakistan|protected areas]]; as of December 2022, there are currently 398 wildlife conservation areas in Pakistan. Of these, 31 have [[national park]] status. The total protected land area represents 13% of Pakistan's landmass as of 2020, with the government of Pakistan announcing plans to increase this amount to 15% by 2023.
A [[National Park Academy]] has been planned for [[Ziarat]] and [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan]] national parks, where young people will be given jobs after special training, with plans to give least 5,000 young people employment.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/urdu/pakistan-57340275|title=ماحولیات کا عالمی دن: وزیراعظم عمران خان کا '10 بلین ٹری سونامی منصوبہ، پاکستان کے ماحول دوست اقدامات کا عالمی سطح پر اعتراف|date=3 June 2021|work=[[BBC Urdu (news channel)|BBC Urdu]]}}</ref>
==Other Green Projects==
===Green energy===
The government has immediately abandoned 2600 MW coal burning projects and focused on new 3700 MW [[hydropower]] projects instead and such power projects should be given priority in the country now. There are no [[oil]] or [[coal]] burning in them. "Efforts are being made to generate [[electricity]] using [[Solar power|solar]], [[Water power|water]] and [[wind energy]]. Currently, more than a third of Pakistan's electricity comes from projects where no oil or coal is burned. Efforts are being made to generate two-thirds of the electricity in the same decade without burning oil or coal."
===Electric Vehicles===
{{Main|Electric vehicles in Pakistan}}
Another eco-friendly project of this government is the promotion of [[electric vehicle]]s. [[Smoke]] from vehicles is a major cause of [[urban pollution]]. To address this, the government has announced a new policy to promote the use of electric vehicles. Under this policy, duties and taxes on electric vehicles have been made nominal. Significant progress is being made in this regard. German car company [[BMW]] has set up its charging station at [[Kohsar Market]] in Islamabad. PSO is also going to build another charging station in [[Jinnah Supermarket]]. In Karachi, three charging stations are planned in partnership with [[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]] and [[Karachi Electric]], which will be installed in Defense, Gulshan and Gadap areas.At present, at least half a dozen companies in the country are installing assembly plants for electric vehicles, which will reduce the cost of these vehicles even more than the current petrol-powered vehicles. The government hopes that by the end of this decade, the share of e-vehicles will reach 30% and 90% by 2030 and 2040 respectively. The first locally produced e-bike was launched along with 6 other models on 8 July 2021.
===Green diplomacy===
These trees have opened many closed doors and played the role of green diplomat. "Recently, our relations with [[Saudi Arabia]] have been somewhat strained, but when Saudi Arabia launched the Billion Tree project in their country, they wrote a letter to Prime Minister Imran Khan inviting him to visit and restore relations. Done. ' "The [[United States]] did not invite us to the [[climate summit]]<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/urdu/world-56547975|title=ماحولیاتی سمٹ: امریکی صدر جو بائیڈن کی 40 عالمی رہنماؤں کو شرکت کی دعوت، پاکستان کا نام شامل نہیں|date= 27 March 2021|work=[[BBC Urdu (News channel)|BBC Urdu]]}}</ref> two months ago, but obviously our work could not be ignored, so we had to invite. The word billion tree has become the identity of Pakistan after Saudi Arabia, the [[UK]] and [[New Zealand]] started working on similar projects.
== See also ==
* [[Billion Tree Tsunami]], a [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]], Pakistan reforestation project
* [[Trillion Tree Campaign]], a [[UNEP]] call to plant 1 trillion (1,000,000,000,000 or 10,00,00,00,00,000) trees.
== References ==
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{{Imran Khan}}
[[Category:Imran Khan administration]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Environmentalism in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Reforestation]]
[[Category:Climate change in Pakistan]] |
Commission on Growth, Structural Change and Employment | {{Short description|German Commission}}
{{Expand German|Kommission für Wachstum, Strukturwandel und Beschäftigung|date=January 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2019|cs1-dates=y}}
'''Commission on Growth, Structural Change and Employment''' (German: {{lang|de|Kommission für Wachstum, Strukturwandel und Beschäftigung}} (WSB), originally {{lang|de|Kommission für Wachstum, Strukturwandel und Regionalentwicklung}}, commonly just called ''Kohlekommission'', that is ''coal commission'', in Germany) is a commission created by the [[Federal Republic of Germany|German federal government]] on 6{{nbsp}}June 2018, after the governing coalition of the Christian Democrats ([[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|CDU]]/[[Christian Social Union of Bavaria|CSU]]) with the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democrats]] (SPD) in February 2018.<ref name="R1"/><ref name="R2"/>
The committee was supposed to submit its final report to the federal government on 1 February 2019. Submission of the recommended measures on social and structural development and financing of States, in which [[brown coal]] is extracted, was expected by the end of October 2018. These measures should include [[climate change mitigation]] policy measures, especially a [[fossil fuel phase-out]] plan with a target phase-out date and measures to achieve the [[greenhouse gas emission]] reduction goal by 2020 Germany has committed to.<ref name="R3"/><ref name="R4"/>
The commission's report was published in January 2019 recommending Germany to entirely phase out and shut down the 84 remaining coal-fired plants on its territory by 2038.<ref name="R5"/> While this was applauded as a success by some, others, including scientists and climate experts, argued that this still would not be fast enough, and that to prevent the climate from reaching an irreversible [[tipping point (climate change)|tipping point]], the phase out must have happened by 2030 already.
== See also ==
{{Portal|Germany|Energy|Global warming}}
* [[Hambach Forest]]
* [[Ende Gelände 2018]]
* [[Ende Gelände 2019]]
* {{ill|Rhenish lignite mining area|de|Rheinisches Braunkohlerevier}}
* {{ill|Lusatian lignite mining area|de|Lausitzer Braunkohlerevier}}
* {{ill|Middle German lignite mining area|de|Mitteldeutsches Braunkohlerevier}}
* [[School strike for climate]] / [[Fridays for Future]] (FFF)
* [[September 2019 climate strikes]]
== References ==
{{reflist|refs=
<ref name="R1">{{Cite web |url=https://www.bmu.de/ME7918-1 |title=Commission on Growth, Structural Change and Employment takes up work - BMU-Report |work=Report Climate |publisher=[[Federal Ministry of the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety]] (BMU), [[Federal Republic of Germany]] |date=2018-06-06 |location=Germany |language=en |access-date=2019-01-22}}</ref>
<ref name="R2">{{cite web |language=fr |title=La fin du charbon au menu du gouvernement allemand ? Traduction et décryptage de l'accord de coalition |url=https://theshiftproject.org/article/la-fin-du-charbon-au-menu-de-la-coalition-allemande/ |date=2018-03-06 |access-date=2019-01-21 |publisher=The Shift Project}}</ref>
<ref name="R3">{{cite web |language=de |title=Antwort der Bundesregierung: Zukunft und Begünstigungen der Braunkohlewirtschaft in Deutschland |url=http://dip21.bundestag.de/dip21/btd/19/030/1903074.pdf |website=dip21.de}}</ref>
<ref name="R4">{{cite web |language=de |title=Kohleausstiegskommission: Umweltverbände stellen Bedingungen |url=http://www.zeit.de/news/2018-03/27/kohleausstiegskommission-umweltverbaende-stellen-bedingungen-180327-99-654424 |publisher=[[Die Zeit]] |date=2018-03-27 |access-date=2018-03-28 |archive-date=28 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180328231448/http://www.zeit.de/news/2018-03/27/kohleausstiegskommission-umweltverbaende-stellen-bedingungen-180327-99-654424 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<ref name="R5">{{cite web |url=https://www.latimes.com/world/europe/la-fg-germany-coal-power-20190126-story.html |title=Germany to close all 84 of its coal-fired power plants, will rely primarily on renewable energy |author-last=Kirschbaum |author-first=Erik |date=2019-01-26 |website=[[Los Angeles Times]] |access-date=2019-01-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190130002321/https://www.latimes.com/world/europe/la-fg-germany-coal-power-20190126-story.html |archive-date=2019-01-30 |url-status=live |quote=Germany, one of the world’s biggest consumers of coal, will shut down all 84 of its coal-fired power plants over the next 19 years to meet its international commitments in the fight against climate change, a government commission said Saturday.}}</ref>
}}
== Further reading ==
* https://www.sueddeutsche.de/politik/hambacher-forst-kohleausstieg-rettung-1.4304442
* http://www.taz.de/!5568305/
{{Global warming|state=collapsed}}
[[Category:Energy policy of Germany]]
[[Category:Climate change policy]]
[[Category:Coal phase-out]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]] |
Category:Environmental conservation | {{Portal|Ecology|Environment}}
{{Cat more|Nature conservation}}
[[Category:Nature conservation|.]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
{{CatAutoTOC}}
{{CatTrack}} |
Management of the Rhine Basin | '''International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine''' (ICPR) and its contract shows alignment with the UN Convention on international watercourses and has proven effective in its goals for the [[Rhine]] and the Rhine Basin. It was necessary for a treaty to come through the countries in the Rhine basin as it provides water based on industrial and agricultural needs and provides drinking water to over 20 million people.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Moellenkamp|first=S.|date=2007-06-07|title=The "WFD-effect" on upstream-downstream relations in international river basins – insights from the Rhine and the Elbe basins|url=https://www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci-discuss.net/hessd-2007-0049/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions|language=English|volume=4|issue=3|pages=1407–1428|doi=10.5194/hessd-4-1407-2007|bibcode=2007HESSD...4.1407M|issn=1027-5606 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
==Management of international waters==
Water is a resource that when shared between neighboring nations requires negotiation not to prevent conflict, but in order to help conserve it for future use. Studies have shown that dispute over water use does not historically follow a pattern of conflict as much as a pattern of cooperation when negotiations shift from water rights to water needs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wolf |first=Aaron T. |date=2007 |title=Shared Waters: Conflict and Cooperation |journal=[[Annual Review of Environment and Resources]] |language=en |volume=32|issue=1 |pages=241–269 |doi=10.1146/annurev.energy.32.041006.101434| doi-access=free |issn=1543-5938}}</ref> A major step towards developing standardized rules for managing waters was the [[Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses]], which called for equitable, reasonable, and protective use of waters shared internationally.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/showDetails.aspx?objid=0800000280025697&clang=_en |title=UNTC |website=treaties.un.org|access-date=2019-04-16}}</ref> This requires countries who agreed to these terms to provide a framework for these principles that could be applied to their respective and shared waters.
==Background==
Located west of central Europe, with an area of {{cvt|163609|km2}}, the basin holds nine countries: [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Netherlands]], and [[Switzerland]] (figure 1).<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://twap-rivers.org/indicators/|title=TWAP Rivers Portal - Indicators application|website=twap-rivers.org|access-date=2019-04-16}}</ref> These countries are all involved in the Convention on the Protection of the Rhine (CPR), an agreement that helps to address the issues of the Rhine basin following the UN Convention on watercourses.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=http://gis.nacse.org/tfdd/treaties.php?page=full&origin=river&tn=589|title=Transboundary Freshwater Dispute Database|website=gis.nacse.org|access-date=2019-04-16}}</ref> There have been historical actions that targeted industrial pollution and flooding concerns which the CPR could take on and gain foundation from.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=van der Keur|first1=Peter |last2=Brugnach|first2=M. |last3=Dewulf|first3=A. |last4=Refsgaard|first4=J. C. |last5=Zorilla|first5=P. |last6=Poolman|first6=M. |last7=Isendahl|first7=N. |last8=Raadgever|first8=G. T. |last9=Henriksen|first9=H. J. |date=2010 |title=Identifying Uncertainty Guidelines for Supporting Policy Making in Water Management Illustrated for Upper Guadiana and Rhine Basins |journal=Water Resources Management |language=en |volume=24|issue=14 |pages=3901–3938 |doi=10.1007/s11269-010-9640-x |bibcode=2010WatRM..24.3901V |s2cid=73528411 |issn=0920-4741|url=https://ris.utwente.nl/ws/files/6600536/Keur_10.1007_s11269-010-9640-x.pdf }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Wieriks|first1=Koos |last2=Schulte-Wülwer-Leidig|first2=Anne |date=1997 |title=Integrated water management for the Rhine river basin, from pollution prevention to ecosystem improvement |journal=Natural Resources Forum |language=en |volume=21|issue=2 |pages=147–156 |doi=10.1111/j.1477-8947.1997.tb00686.x |issn=1477-8947}}</ref>
[[File:Map Rhine and catchment area deutsch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|Figure 1: Map of the Rhine basin and major countries that share it]]
The Rhine Basin holds a population of 48,831,090 people that require water for irrigation, livestock, electricity, manufacturing, domestic, and per Capita use.<ref name=":1" /> Total water withdrawals are highest for Germany, Netherlands, and France in that order with 100 percent of their population living in urban city centers. Major hydrological modifications were made to the upper basin to provide flood control, and navigability of the Rhine as well as arable land.<ref name=":3" /> There are major industrial sites at various points along the Rhine that pose hazards to the Rhine basin and the ecosystem it holds (figure 2).<ref name=":3" />
==Agreement on the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine 1963==
The modifications to the basin and the existence of industrial sites discharging pollutants culminated in the degradation of ecological value of the basin itself, making the Rhine basin the most polluted it had ever been in the mid 20th century.<ref name=":2" /> This spurred the Agreement on the International Commission for the protection of the Rhine against pollution of 1963 which set up the ICPR to address the issue of the basin’s deterioration. The cooperation on the main goal of ecological enhancement was very high as the countries, or furthermore riparians, saw that the quality of their resource was at risk of being lost. The pollution levels did reduce as a result of decreases in factory discharges, and implementation of water treatment plants.<ref name=":3" />
A toxic spill, the [[Sandoz chemical spill]] of 1986, upended the work involved to clean the basin and the ICPR were required to integrate more tasks into their plan which provided the framework for the Rhine Action Programme.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Raith |first=Sarah |date=1999 |title=The Rhine Action Program: Restoring Value to the Rhine River |hdl=11299/59277 |publisher=University of Minnesota, Department of Horticultural Science |via=University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy}}</ref> The existing institutional framework of the ICPR allowed for the additional regulations required for the spill to be incorporated. Improving the Rhine ecosystem and drinking water for future use were already in place, the reduction of river sediment pollution, and rehabilitation of efforts—removal of concrete structures and small dams for better fish migration, removal of contaminated sediment—were added.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://library.wur.nl/WebQuery/hydrotheek/1924576|title=Erosion, transport and deposition of sediment : case study Rhine : Jos Brils ... [et al.] {{!}} Hydrotheek|website=library.wur.nl|access-date=2019-04-16}}</ref><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":3" />
[[File:Rhine area analisys.svg|thumb|upright=1.75|Figure 2: inventory of industrial sites in the Rhine circa 1997.]]
Flood reduction plans and strategies were incorporated into further increasing the ICPR role.<ref name=":2" /> This brought into question the ability of the ICPR to address flooding and toxic discharges and upstream and downstream relations all in one. Switzerland and France are the main upstream, Germany is middle, and the Netherlands is the main downstream riparian which proves to be a complex relationship among the countries as to how tasks were to be delegated throughout their own water management infrastructures.<ref name=":0" /> What stands above all these adjustments to the ICPR’s plans was that there was cooperation and relative ease in putting the new additions in.
The UN Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses in 1997 provided additional framework by which the ICPR could fully realize its goals and in 1998 saw the finalized form of what had been formulating since the 70s which was the Convention on the Protection of the Rhine (CPR).<ref name=":5"/> While the restoration projects from 1963 and the Rhine Action Programme were in place, there was already a convention to protect to Rhine that had been revised from initial protection from chemical pollution in the 70s to encompass all that the riparian and those involved in the commission had witnessed throughout the 20th century (e.g. habitat restoration, flood control). Again, the ICPR had historical strategy and cooperation to build off of and finalize the CPR.
==Alignment of the ICPR with the UN Convention on international watercourses==
Any sense of equitable and reasonable utilization is found subtly throughout the CPR as parties involved must follow overarching statements that contract them to “ensure the use of the Rhine water for drinking purposes,” (CPR 1998, Art. 3) and to “...reinforce their co-operation and mutually inform one another of measure carried out on their territories aimed at protecting the Rhine” (CPR 1998, Art. 5).<ref name=":5"/> There is no explicit requiring of equitable and reasonable utilization, but given the past cooperation on the ecological recovery of the Rhine, this goes without explicitly saying. There has been uncertainty with upstream-downstream relations in this regard however. Netherlands' stakeholders in the past have believed that upstream parties must take on more adaptive measures for battling transboundary incidences flowing downstream.<ref name=":2" /> Again, the cooperation of upstream parties seems to answer this as their past agreements including other international relations outside of water resource co-management have made it so they are obliged to work towards a better end.<ref name=":0" />
The CPR is also effective in notification, consultation and negotiation. These actions and certain obligations in the CPR help to address and keep the cooperation seen throughout the Rhine Basin. If there are any chances of accidents or spills in the future, other parties must be informed of it and if discharges are necessary, consent must be allowed (CPR, 1997, Art. 5).<ref name=":5" /> Article 14 requires cooperation with “external” experts and organizations that can provide consulting and information that can help enhance the goals of the CPR. An example of this is the ICPR has created a model with help from local universities that estimates accidental spill outcomes and help them fit the right measure to avert or mitigate them.<ref name=":3" />
The ICPR has proven their ability to cooperation and exchange information from the 60s, to the Rhine Action Programme, and through to the 1998 CPR. Even with higher government (i.e. European Parliament and Council) adopting the 2000 Water framework Directive, a collection of targets and principles that further protect all European river districts bringing them to a good status, the CPR and commission already fit into this (ICPR 2018, European Water Framework Directive, para. 1).<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iksr.org/en/eu-directives/|title=ICPR: EU Directives|website=www.iksr.org|access-date=2019-04-16}}</ref> Further evidence of channeling the UN conventions principle of cooperation is their dispute section. If any disputes arises, the commission can settle among themselves, or if incapable of coming to a solution, they can go to the International Court of Justice and appoint a third party to help in the process (CPR, 1997, Annex, Arbitration).<ref name=":5" />
The uncertainty about the CPR falling short will only unfold with time. Climate change is a concern as increasing risk of flooding during rainy months and issues of allocating water during dry summer months begin to appear more often.<ref name=":2" /> As mentioned before, Netherland is a downstream party and has been vocal about being open any flooding and release of fertilizers from farms along the Rhine rivers, bringing up the upstream-downstream issue.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":0" /> Fortunately, the Rhine sits right next to the Elbe Basin, which makes Germany the downstream party to the Czech Republic.<ref name=":0" /> This relationship provides Germany with experience in dealing with these issues which can be applied to its relationship with Netherland. The International Commission for the Protection of the Elbe is modeled after the ICPR framework, strives for the same goals as the ICPR, and incorporates the 2000 Water Framework Directive that the ICPR took on.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ikse-mkol.org/en/eu-directives/water-framework-directive/|title=Water Framework Directive - IKSE|website=www.ikse-mkol.org|access-date=2019-04-16}}</ref> From this experience, Germany has an understanding of being a downstream party and has been able to provide solutions and consent when Netherland and other riparians needed it.
The ICPR’s ability to adapt to a variety of challenges over the years, to add more to their list of tasks, and make the most reasonable and equitable decisions for the Rhine Basin is most likely why the Rhine Basin has overall low relative risk as reported by the Transboundary Waters Assessment programme.<ref name=":1" /> This has been a build up from the CPRs past cooperation in the mid 20th century, to their ecological efforts to restore the Rhine in the 1980s and 1990s. The Convention on the Protection for the Rhine demonstrates the ability of several countries holding millions of people to align their water needs with the UN Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses and with world goals.
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Rhine]]
[[Category:Rhine basin]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]] |
Beach cleaning | {{short description|Coastline care}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2019}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2019}}
[[File:Opérations nettoyage de plage.jpg|thumb|Two children cleaning beach debris in [[Ivory Coast]]]]
[[File:Mechanical Beach Debris Removal.jpg|thumb|A mechanical beach cleaner with tractor attached removing unwanted beach debris]]
'''Beach cleaning''' or '''clean-up''' is the process of removing solid litter, dense chemicals, and organic debris deposited on a beach or coastline by the tide, local visitors, or tourists. Humans pollute beaches with materials such as [[plastic bottles]] and [[Plastic bag|bags]], [[Drinking straw|plastic straws]], [[Fishing line|fishing gear]], [[cigarette filter]]s, [[six-pack rings]], [[surgical mask]]s and many other items that often lead to [[environmental degradation]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Krelling|first1=Allan Paul|last2=Williams|first2=Allan Thomas |last3=Turra |first3=Alexander|date=2017 |title=Differences in perception and reaction of tourist groups to beach marine debris that can influence a loss of tourism revenue in coastal areas|journal=Marine Policy| volume=85|pages=87–99 |doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2017.08.021}}</ref> Every year hundreds of thousands of [[Volunteering|volunteers]] comb beaches and coastlines around the world to clean this debris. These materials are also called “[[marine debris]]” or "[[marine pollution]]" and their quantity has been increasing due to [[Global warming|anthropocentric activities]].<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last1=Hartley|first1=Bonny L.|last2=Thompson|first2=Richard C.|last3=Pahl|first3=Sabine|date=2015|title=Marine litter education boosts children's understanding and self-reported actions|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=90|issue=1–2|pages=209–217|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.10.049|pmid=25467869|issn=0025-326X|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015MarPB..90..209H }}</ref>
There are some major sources of beach debris such as [[Tourism|beach users]], [[ocean]]s, [[sea]] drifts, and [[river]] flow. Many beach users leave their litter behind on the beaches after activities. Also, marine debris or chemicals such as raw oil drift from oceans or seas and accumulate on beaches. Additionally, many rivers bring some [[Megacity|cities]]' trashes to beaches. These pollutants harm [[marine life]] and [[ecology]], [[Health|human health]], and [[Tourism|coastal tourism]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rayon-Viña|first1=Fernando|last2=Miralles|first2=Laura|last3=Fernandez-Rodríguez|first3=Sara|last4=Dopico|first4=Eduardo|last5=Garcia-Vazquez|first5=Eva|date=2019|title=Marine litter and public involvement in beach cleaning: Disentangling perception and awareness among adults and children, Bay of Biscay, Spain|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=141|pages=112–118|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.02.034|pmid=30955715|bibcode=2019MarPB.141..112R |s2cid=91873980 |issn=0025-326X}}</ref> Hartley et al.’s (2015) study shows that [[environmental education]] is important to eliminate many beach pollutants on beaches and the marine environment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rees|first1=Gareth|last2=Pond|first2=Kathy|date=1995|title=Marine litter monitoring programmes—A review of methods with special reference to national surveys|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=30|issue=2|pages=103–108|doi=10.1016/0025-326x(94)00192-c|bibcode=1995MarPB..30..103R |issn=0025-326X}}</ref>
[[File:Beach cleaning.jpg|thumb|Beach cleaning, Santo António Church in Mozambique Island. 11 August 2009. |224x224px]]
== Marine debris ==
[[File:A walk on a dirty beach.JPG|thumb|A dirty beach in Bombay, India]]
[[File:Various Packaging Waste In Water Systems.jpg|thumb|Plastic food packages in Bangkok, Thailand. 8 May 2010.|224x224px]]
There are two causes of the degradation of marine ecology and marine debris: the direct forces ([[population growth]], [[Technology|technological development]], and [[economic growth]]) and proximity forces [[Land use, land-use change, and forestry|(land transformation]] and [[Industrialisation|industrial processes]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Turner|first1=B. L.|last2=Butzer|first2=Karl W.|date=1992|title=The Columbian Encounter and Land-Use Change|journal=Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development|volume=34|issue=8|pages=16–44|doi=10.1080/00139157.1992.9931469|bibcode=1992ESPSD..34h..16T |issn=0013-9157}}</ref><ref name=":5" /> We can think of the direct forces as underlying causes of why we consume an excessive amount of goods by industry process. The excessive consumption of goods causes marine debris because the goods have been packaged by manufactured cheap non-recycle materials such as [[plastic]].<ref name=":8">{{Citation|last1=Bergmann|first1=M.|title=LITTERBASE: An Online Portal for Marine Litter and Microplastics and Their Implications for Marine Life|date=2017|work=Fate and Impact of Microplastics in Marine Ecosystems|pages=106–107|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-812271-6|last2=Tekman|first2=M.B.|last3=Gutow|first3=L.|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-812271-6.00104-6}}</ref> [[Municipal solid waste|Solid waste]] plastics cannot [[Decomposition|decompose]] easily in nature and their decomposition process takes thousands of years to million years but plastic breaks down into continuously smaller pieces (>5 mm) forming that is called [[Microplastics|micro-plastics]].<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last1=Asensio-Montesinos|first1=F.|last2=Anfuso|first2=G.|last3=Ramírez|first3=M. Oliva|last4=Smolka|first4=R.|last5=Sanabria|first5=J. García|last6=Enríquez|first6=A. Fernández|last7=Arenas|first7=P.|last8=Bedoya|first8=A. Macías|date=2020|title=Beach litter composition and distribution on the Atlantic coast of Cádiz (SW Spain)|journal=Regional Studies in Marine Science|volume=34|pages=101050|doi=10.1016/j.rsma.2020.101050|bibcode=2020RSMS...3401050A |s2cid=212968340 |issn=2352-4855}}</ref><ref name=":29">{{Cite journal|last1=Loizidou|first1=Xenia I.|last2=Loizides|first2=Michael I.|last3=Orthodoxou|first3=Demetra L.|date=2018-06-20|title=Persistent marine litter: small plastics and cigarette butts remain on beaches after organized beach cleanups|journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment|volume=190|issue=7|pages=414|doi=10.1007/s10661-018-6798-9|pmid=29926242|bibcode=2018EMnAs.190..414L |s2cid=49415636|issn=0167-6369}}</ref> Thus, such solid waste products are called marine debris that can be seen all through coastlines and on many beaches through the world.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":27">{{Cite journal|last1=de Scisciolo|first1=Tobia|last2=Mijts|first2=Eric N.|last3=Becker|first3=Tatiana|last4=Eppinga|first4=Maarten B.|date=2016|title=Beach debris on Aruba, Southern Caribbean: Attribution to local land-based and distal marine-based sources|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=106|issue=1–2|pages=49–57|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.03.039|pmid=27039956|bibcode=2016MarPB.106...49D |issn=0025-326X}}</ref> There can be many sources of marine debris such as land-based, marine-based, and other anthropocentric activities.
Million tons of land-based waste products such as plastics, papers, woods, and metals end up in seas, oceans, and beaches through the wind, [[Ocean current|oceans currents]] (five major [[The Gyres|gyres]]), [[sewage]], [[Surface runoff|runoff]], [[Storm drain|storm-water drains]] and rivers.<ref name=":19" /> Massive amount of marine debris has become a severe menace to the marine environment, aquatic life and [[human]]kind.<ref name=":8" /> Most land-based sources are [[illegal dumping]], [[landfill]]s, and [[petrochemical]] and other industry disposals.<ref name=":19" /> Also, other marine-based sources originate from [[Anthropocentrism|anthropocentric]] marine activities that are drifted fishing lines, nets, [[Rope|plastic ropes]] or other petrochemical products from remote islands or lands, [[Freight transport|shipping]] vessels or [[fishing]] boats by wind and oceanic currents.<ref name=":27" /><ref name=":19" /><ref name=":8" /> Marine debris source is also anthropocentric activities of local populations such as beach goers, [[Tourism|tourists]] and city or town sewage.
[[File:Oceanic gyres.png|thumb|Five major ocean-wide gyres. 25 March 2008. |225x225px]]
Montesinos et al., (2020)<ref name=":19" /> study of the total amount of 16,123 beach litter items to determine the source of marine debris at 40 bathing areas along the coast of [[Cádiz|Cádiz, Spain]]. The study displays that the sources of 88.5% of plastics, 67% cigarette butts, and cloth litters are related to the activity of beach-goers and tourists, 5.5% of [[cotton swab]]s, [[wet wipe]]s, [[Sanitary napkin|sanitary towels]], [[tampon]]s, and [[condom]]s are related to wastewater discharges at places close to rivers and tidal creeks mouths.<ref name=":19" /> Besides, the sources of 2.1% fishing lines, nets, and 0.6% [[Foam food container|Styrofoam]] are related to fishing activities and marine sources.<ref name=":19" /> Besides, some marine debris indicates that they are dumped directly by some international ships or by tourists into the sea on the beach from different countries such as hard food container (from [[Portugal]]), a bottle cap ([[Morocco]]), a cleaner bottle ([[Turkey]]), a food wrapper and other items related to navigation ([[Germany]]). Montesinos et al.’s study (2020)<ref name=":19" /> demonstrate that some marine debris can travel hundreds of kilometers and end up very far from its source because of the ocean and [[Ocean current|sea currents]].
Also, [[Island|tropical and subtropical islands]] are marine pollution hot spots as their relatively [[Ecosystem|vulnerable ecosystems]] are being severely affected by both local and foreign marine debris.<ref name=":27" /> de Scisciolo et al. (2016)<ref name=":27" /> study on ten beaches along the leeward and windward coastlines of [[Aruba]] that is one of the [[Lesser Antilles|Lesser Antilles islands]] located in the [[Caribbean Sea|Southern Caribbean Sea]]. They try to determine differences of marine debris in macro (>25 mm), meso-debris (2–25 mm) and micro-debris (<2 mm) densities. The result of their study shows that meso-debris which are rounded plastic products are found on the [[Windward and leeward|windward]] coastlines because the windward coastlines experience higher pressure from distal marine-based debris. [[Nature|Natural]] factors such as wind and oceanic currents cause the accumulation and distribution of plastic meso-debris to windward coastlines. And, macro-debris that contains a larger proportion of originating from eating, drinking and smoking and [[Recreation|recreational activities]] are found [[Windward and leeward|leeward]] sites of the island because the leeward sites experience higher pressures from local land-based debris such as plastic plates, bottles and [[Drinking straw|plastic straws]].<ref name=":27" />
=== Ghost gear ===
Marine debris consists of millions of tons of abandoned plastic fishing gear. Nearly 640,000 tons of plastic gear is dumped or abandoned in the oceans every year.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ecowatch.com/ghost-fishing-gear-greenpeace-report-2641246990.html?rebelltitem=1#rebelltitem1|title=Plastic pollution. Zombie in the water: New Greenpeace Report Warns of Deadly Ghost Fishing Gear|last=Rosane|first=Olivia|date=2019|website=Eco Watch|access-date=23 April 2020}}</ref> According to Unger and Harrison, 6.4 tons of pollutant dumps the oceans every year, and the most of them are consist of by durable synthetic fishing gear, packaging, materials, raw plastic, and convenience items. Such extremely durable plastic gear cannot decompose in the seawater and marine environment and they wash up on beaches driven by inshore currents and wind.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Unger|first1=Antonia|last2=Harrison|first2=Nancy|date=2016|title=Fisheries as a source of marine debris on beaches in the United Kingdom|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=107|issue=1|pages=52–58|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.04.024|pmid=27156038|bibcode=2016MarPB.107...52U |s2cid=12098424 |issn=0025-326X|url=https://arro.anglia.ac.uk/700583/1/Unger_Harrison%202016.pdf}}</ref> Such discarded gear such as plastic fishing lines, nets, and floats are called “ghost gear”. About 46% of the 79 thousand of ghost gear that is the size of many football fields has been found at the [[Great Pacific garbage patch]] constituted in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.seashepherdglobal.org/latest-news/marine-debris-plastic-fishing-gear/|title=The most dangerous single source of ocean plastic no one wants to talk about. Seashepherd online.|last=no name|first=no name|date=2019|website=Sea Shepherd|access-date=22 August 2019}}</ref> The discarded fishing nets and lines kill or inflict myriad marine animals such as fish, sharks, whales, dolphins, sea turtles, seals, and marine birds every year. And about 30% of fishing populations have been declining and %70 other marine animals suffer by abandoned gear each year. Besides, the huge fishing industry is an important driver of declines marine ecology by overfishing activities. Overfishing causes when big fishing vessels catch tons of fish faster than stock refills.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/overfishing|title=Over fishing|last=no name|first=no name|date=2020|website=World Wildlife|access-date=23 April 2020}}</ref> Moreover, overfishing impacts 4.5 billion people who depend on at least 15% of fish for protein, and fishing is the principal livelihood.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Béné|first1=Christophe|last2=Barange|first2=Manuel|last3=Subasinghe|first3=Rohana|last4=Pinstrup-Andersen|first4=Per|last5=Merino|first5=Gorka|last6=Hemre|first6=Gro-Ingunn|last7=Williams|first7=Meryl|date=2015-03-10|title=Feeding 9 billion by 2050 – Putting fish back on the menu|journal=Food Security|volume=7|issue=2|pages=261–274|doi=10.1007/s12571-015-0427-z|issn=1876-4517|doi-access=free}}</ref>
== Benefits ==
=== Public health ===
Clean beaches have many benefits for human health because the polluted beaches imperil human lives by beach [[accident]]s. Many [[Litter|items left on beaches]] such as broken glasses, [[Metal|sharp metals]], or hard [[Plastic pollution|plastics]] may injure beach-goers physically. Also, marine debris such as fishing gear or nets may [[Risk management|risk]] human life on the beaches. Such pollutants may be a trap for beach users and cause very serious injuries or [[drowning]] accidents for [[Tourism|tourists]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Campbell|first1=Marnie L.|last2=Slavin|first2=Chris|last3=Grage|first3=Anna|last4=Kinslow|first4=Amber|date=2016|title=Human health impacts from litter on beaches and associated perceptions: A case study of 'clean' Tasmanian beaches|journal=Ocean & Coastal Management|volume=126|pages=22–30|doi=10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.04.002|bibcode=2016OCM...126...22C |issn=0964-5691}}</ref>
=== Ecology ===
[[File:Surfers Against Sewage Beach Clean Perranporth.jpg|thumb|285x285px|Surfers Against Sewage (SAS) beach clean. 14 November 2014.]]
Researches on marine debris have substantially increased our [[knowledge]] of the amount and composition of marine debris as well as its impacts on the marine environment, [[Aquatic ecosystem|aquatic life]] and people.<ref name=":8" /> Marine debris is very harmful to [[Marine life|marine organisms]] such as plants, [[invertebrate]]s, [[fish]], [[seabird]]s, sea turtles and other [[Whale|large marine mammals]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Vanhooren|first1=Sofie|last2=Maelfait|first2=Hanneore|last3=Belpaeme|first3=Kathy|date=2011|title=Moving Towards an Ecological Management of the Beaches|journal=Journal of Coastal Research|volume=61|pages=81–86|doi=10.2112/SI61-001.70|issn=0749-0208|jstor=41510780|s2cid=130645857}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=Sheavly|first1=S. B.|last2=Register|first2=K. M.|date=2007-10-01|title=Marine Debris & Plastics: Environmental Concerns, Sources, Impacts and Solutions|journal=Journal of Polymers and the Environment|language=en|volume=15|issue=4|pages=301–305|doi=10.1007/s10924-007-0074-3|s2cid=136943560|issn=1572-8900}}</ref> Marine debris contains plastic liters that are composed of industrial chemicals or [[toxin]]s.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.mmc.gov/letters-and-reports/reports/annual-reports/|title=Marine Mammal Commission Annual Report to Congress. Effects of Pollution on Marine Mammals|date=1996|website=mmc.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Derraik|first=José G.B|title=The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|year=2002 |volume=44|issue=9|pages=842–852|doi=10.1016/s0025-326x(02)00220-5|pmid=12405208|issn=0025-326X|doi-access=free|bibcode=2002MarPB..44..842D }}</ref> These chemicals can be destructive to aquatic organisms because toxins accumulate in the tissues of marine organisms and they cause specific effects such as behavioral changes and alterations in [[Metabolism|metabolic]] processes.<ref name=":27" /><ref name=":46">{{Cite journal|last1=Zettler|first1=Erik R.|last2=Mincer|first2=Tracy J.|last3=Amaral-Zettler|first3=Linda A.|date=2013-06-19|title=Life in the "Plastisphere": Microbial Communities on Plastic Marine Debris|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|volume=47|issue=13|pages=7137–7146|doi=10.1021/es401288x|pmid=23745679|bibcode=2013EnST...47.7137Z|s2cid=10002632 |issn=0013-936X}}</ref> Also, a combination of plastic and seawater materials such as [[polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon]]s (PAHs), [[Polychlorinated biphenyl|poly-chlorinated biphenyls]] (PCBs) and [[heavy metals]] can be fatal for marine life.<ref name=":19" /> Moreover, consumption of micro-plastics by larger marine organisms cause obstructions of the [[Gastrointestinal tract|intestinal tract]] that leads to [[starvation]] and death because of reduced energy fitness.<ref name=":29" /> According to the U.S. Marine Mammal Commission, 111 out of the world's 312 species of seabirds, 26 species of marine mammals, and six out of seven of the words species of sea turtles have experienced issues with beach litter ingestion.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bugoni|first1=Leandro|last2=Krause|first2=Lígia|last3=Virgínia Petry|first3=Maria|date=2001|title=Marine Debris and Human Impacts on Sea Turtles in Southern Brazil|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=42|issue=12|pages=1330–1334|doi=10.1016/s0025-326x(01)00147-3|pmid=11827120|bibcode=2001MarPB..42.1330B |issn=0025-326X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bjorndal|first1=Karen A.|last2=Bolten|first2=Alan B.|last3=Lagueux|first3=Cynthia J.|date=1994|title=Ingestion of marine debris by juvenile sea turtles in coastal Florida habitats|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=28|issue=3|pages=154–158|doi=10.1016/0025-326x(94)90391-3|bibcode=1994MarPB..28..154B |issn=0025-326X}}</ref> Studies reveal that micro-plastics negatively impact human health due to consumption of marine organisms by humans.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/06/plastic-planet-waste-pollution-trash-crisis |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516224226/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/06/plastic-planet-waste-pollution-trash-crisis/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 May 2018 |title=We Depend on Plastic. Now We're Drowning in It. |author=Laura Parker |date=June 2018 |website=[[NationalGeographic.com]] |access-date=25 June 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.plastichealthcoalition.org/microplastics/ |title=Potential health effects of microplastics and pathogens |publisher=Plastic Health Coalition |access-date=December 31, 2022}}</ref>
In addition to all these impacts, the marine debris and beach litter pose dangers to [[wildlife]] on the beaches and marine ecology.<ref name=":46" /> Many beach pollutants such as fishing gears and nets or oil spills jeopardize many sea animals including [[sea turtle]]s, [[seabird]]s, and [[dolphin]]s, and can cause serious injuries or [[death]].<ref name=":2" /> Marine animals can become trapped by contaminants such as fishing lines or nets.<ref name=":5" />
The present issue with all of the aforementioned ailments are only made possible from human impacts, and could be ultimately prevented without human and marine interaction. It was reported by the United Nations Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution (GESAMP) that pollution originating from land was said to make up 80% of the world's marine pollution.<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pravdic|first1=V.|last2=Fao|first2=Rome (Italy) eng|last3=Unep|first3=Geneva (Switzerland) eng|date=1981|title=GESAMP (Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution): the first dozen years (1969-1981)|url=http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=XF2016002235}}</ref>
=== Sustainability ===
Clean beaches are indicators of the [[environmental quality]] and [[Sustainable Development Goals|sustainable development]] level of a country. The Beach Cleaning Health Index is a cleaning classification method of [[European Union|European]] countries and their environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Semeoshenkova|first1=Vera|last2=Newton|first2=Alice|last3=Contin|first3=Andrea|last4=Greggio|first4=Nicolas|date=2017|title=Development and application of an Integrated Beach Quality Index (BQI)|journal=Ocean & Coastal Management|volume=143|pages=74–86|doi=10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.08.013|bibcode=2017OCM...143...74S |issn=0964-5691}}</ref> The index determines the level of sustainability and cleanness of the countries and their beaches through classification notes such as A for excellent, B for good, C for regular, and D for bad.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Barbosa de Araújo|first1=Maria Christina|last2=da Costa|first2=Monica Ferreira|date=2008|title=Environmental Quality Indicators for Recreational Beaches Classification|journal=Journal of Coastal Research|volume=246|pages=1439–1449|doi=10.2112/06-0901.1|s2cid=198150463 |issn=0749-0208}}</ref>
There are numerous sustainability indices that have been created in the name of beach health and general appearance. These indexes are dependent on a wide range of variables that are used to assess both the anthropocentric as well as natural changes to beaches.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=Alkalay|first1=Ronen|last2=Pasternak|first2=Galia|last3=Zask|first3=Alon|date=2007-01-01|title=Clean-coast index—A new approach for beach cleanliness assessment|journal=Ocean & Coastal Management|language=en|volume=50|issue=5|pages=352–362|doi=10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2006.10.002|bibcode=2007OCM....50..352A |issn=0964-5691}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last1=Ariza|first1=Eduard|last2=Jimenez|first2=Jose A.|last3=Sarda|first3=Rafael|last4=Villares|first4=Miriam|last5=Pinto|first5=Josep|last6=Fraguell|first6=Rosa|last7=Roca|first7=Elisabet|last8=Marti|first8=Carolina|last9=Valdemoro|first9=Herminia|last10=Ballester|first10=Ramon|last11=Fluvia|first11=Modest|date=2010-05-01|title=Proposal for an Integral Quality Index for Urban and Urbanized Beaches|journal=Environmental Management|language=en|volume=45|issue=5|pages=998–1013|doi=10.1007/s00267-010-9472-8|pmid=20383636|bibcode=2010EnMan..45..998A|s2cid=9163954|issn=1432-1009|citeseerx=10.1.1.457.5250}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last1=Micallef|first1=Anton|last2=Williams|first2=Allan T.|date=2004-01-01|title=Application of a novel approach to beach classification in the Maltese Islands|journal=Ocean & Coastal Management|language=en|volume=47|issue=5|pages=225–242|doi=10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2004.04.004|bibcode=2004OCM....47..225M |issn=0964-5691}}</ref> These indexes’ variables often merge the goals of both environmental preservation and that of the region to which the beach belongs. In addition to the heath index used in many European countries, in 2005 Israel generated its own beach analysis, their clean coast index (CCI).<ref name=":7" /> The goal since the start of this program has been to maintain cleanliness of all Israel's coastline, as well as educate the public on the importance of migrating marine litter.<ref name=":7" /> This is one of the first Indexes to determine more than just the amount of waste removed from a beach, as has been done in the past.<ref>{{Cite book|last=<!-- No Author -->|title=Marine debris: where does it come from? The International Coastal Cleanup|publisher=The Ocean Conservancy|year=2004|pages=2–5}}</ref><ref name=":7" />
The CCI evaluated beach cleanliness every 2 weeks for a period of 7 months.<ref name=":7" /> By using this index on a periodic basis they were able to determine what processes worked well and which one did not. Other countries in the Caribbean are employing a different form of beach health index, called the Beach Quality Index (BQI).<ref name=":12"/> The BQI assesses many aspects of beaches, not just litter or overall cleanliness, but anthropocentric impacts and long term effects to act somewhat as a checklist for environmental quality issues.<ref name=":12"/> The BQI classifies beaches as both urban and urbanized, in the hopes of assessing them to their best ability, and including all factors that may impact varying beaches. The BQI helps by establishing various components and categories to help with this classification, something that not all beach indexes include.<ref name=":13"/>
=== Tourism ===
[[File:Oil-spill.jpg|thumb|Oils spill cleaning. 5 November 2004.|240x240px]]
Beaches are [[Recreation area|recreational areas]] and attract many local and international visitors through [[sunbathing]], [[swimming]], [[walking]] or [[surfing]] activities. This coastal tourism is important for many countries because tourism activities contribute to a large facet of their economy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Loomis|first1=John|last2=Santiago|first2=Luis|date=2013|title=Economic Valuation of Beach Quality Improvements: Comparing Incremental Attribute Values Estimated from Two Stated Preference Valuation Methods|journal=Coastal Management|volume=41|issue=1|pages=75–86|doi=10.1080/08920753.2012.749754|bibcode=2013CoasM..41...75L |s2cid=153807049|issn=0892-0753}}</ref> Therefore, a polluted beach or coastline may substantially impact a country's economy negatively. Contaminated beaches have become a global concern since the beginning of [[Industrialisation|industrialization]].<ref name=":1">{{Citation|last1=Newman|first1=Stephanie|title=The Economics of Marine Litter|date=2015|work=Marine Anthropogenic Litter|pages=367–394|publisher=Springer International Publishing|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-16510-3_14|isbn=978-3-319-16509-7|last2=Watkins|first2=Emma|last3=Farmer|first3=Andrew|last4=Brink|first4=Patrick ten|last5=Schweitzer|first5=Jean-Pierre|doi-access=free}}</ref> Contaminated beaches are unattractive for international and local tourists due to [[Aesthetics|aesthetic value]] or [[Disease|health concerns]]. Hutchings et al.'s (2000) study shows that a clean beach is a very important determinant of many local and international tourists in South Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hutchings|first1=K.|last2=Lamberth|first2=S. J.|last3=Turpie|first3=J. K.|date=2002|title=Socio-economic characteristics of gillnet and beach-seine fishers in the Western Cape, South Africa|journal=South African Journal of Marine Science|volume=24|issue=1|pages=243–262|doi=10.2989/025776102784528646|s2cid=83496345|issn=0257-7615}}</ref> According to the study, local and international tourists choose to visit the country because of the beauty of beaches and the proper climate conditions of the country. If the tourists do not find their expectation met on a beach, they can travel to other beaches to find a better one in the country. So, beach cleanliness is very important for countries and the tourism industry nowadays.
=== Public engagement and awareness, education, and behavior change ===
Participation in beach cleaning is associated with a better understanding of the issue of marine litter and its impacts.<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last1=Hartley|first1=Bonny L.|last2=Thompson|first2=Richard C.|last3=Pahl|first3=Sabine|date=January 2015|title=Marine litter education boosts children's understanding and self-reported actions|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|language=en|volume=90|issue=1–2|pages=209–217|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.10.049|pmid=25467869|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015MarPB..90..209H }}</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last1=Rayon-Viña|first1=Fernando|last2=Miralles|first2=Laura|last3=Fernandez-Rodríguez|first3=Sara|last4=Dopico|first4=Eduardo|last5=Garcia-Vazquez|first5=Eva|date=2019-04-01|title=Marine litter and public involvement in beach cleaning: Disentangling perception and awareness among adults and children, Bay of Biscay, Spain|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|language=en|volume=141|pages=112–118|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.02.034|pmid=30955715|bibcode=2019MarPB.141..112R |s2cid=91873980 |issn=0025-326X}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Owens|first=Katharine A.|date=February 2018|title=Using experiential marine debris education to make an impact: Collecting debris, informing policy makers, and influencing students|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|language=en|volume=127|pages=804–810|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.10.004|pmid=29017724|doi-access=free|bibcode=2018MarPB.127..804O }}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last1=Wyles|first1=Kayleigh J.|last2=Pahl|first2=Sabine|last3=Holland|first3=Matthew|last4=Thompson|first4=Richard C.|date=June 2017|title=Can Beach Cleans Do More Than Clean-Up Litter? Comparing Beach Cleans to Other Coastal Activities|journal=Environment and Behavior|language=en|volume=49|issue=5|pages=509–535|doi=10.1177/0013916516649412|issn=0013-9165|pmc=5431367|pmid=28546642|bibcode=2017EnvBe..49..509W }}</ref><ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last1=Bravo|first1=Macarena|last2=de los Ángeles Gallardo|first2=Mª|last3=Luna-Jorquera|first3=Guillermo|last4=Núñez|first4=Paloma|last5=Vásquez|first5=Nelson|last6=Thiel|first6=Martin|date=November 2009|title=Anthropogenic debris on beaches in the SE Pacific (Chile): Results from a national survey supported by volunteers|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|language=en|volume=58|issue=11|pages=1718–1726|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.06.017|pmid=19665738|bibcode=2009MarPB..58.1718B }}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last1=Hidalgo-Ruz|first1=Valeria|last2=Thiel|first2=Martin|date=June 2013|title=Distribution and abundance of small plastic debris on beaches in the SE Pacific (Chile): A study supported by a citizen science project|journal=Marine Environmental Research|language=en|volume=87-88|pages=12–18|doi=10.1016/j.marenvres.2013.02.015|pmid=23541391|bibcode=2013MarER..87...12H }}</ref> Beach cleaning volunteers demonstrated more accurate knowledge of the amount and type of waste in the local environment, as well as greater awareness of the causes and consequences of marine litter.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /><ref name=":18" /><ref name=":22"/> For example, Hartley et al. (2015) found that students that volunteered to clean a local beach with their school could more accurately identify the primary origins of marine litter and estimate the lifespan of plastic.<ref name=":14" /> By highlighting the connection between human behavior and marine litter, beach cleaning increases the likelihood that participants will habitually remove and appropriately dispose of coastal trash, as well as engage in prevention and mitigation efforts.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /><ref name=":18" /><ref name=":23" /> By comparing beach cleaning to other coastal activities- walking on the beach and rock pooling- Wyles et al. (2017) aimed to identify the benefits unique to beach cleaning. In doing so, Wyles et al. (2017) discovered that individuals that participated in beach cleaning reported a significantly greater increase in their intention to live an environmentally-friendly lifestyle and their awareness of marine issues compared to other test groups after the intervention.<ref name=":17" />
=== Wellbeing ===
Beach cleaning has been shown to cultivate a positive mood and feeling of fulfillment.<ref name=":17" /> Wyles et al. (2017) compared the effect various coastal activities- beach cleaning, rock pooling, and walking on the beach- had on well being. The study found that participants experienced an improvement in mood across all three activities, although individuals who participated in beach cleaning reported a statistically significant difference in the sense of meaning they derived from beach cleaning compared to walking on the beach and rock pooling.<ref name=":17" />
Additional research on the effects of beach cleaning on personal well being has not been conducted. However, the two core components of beach cleaning- spending time by the ocean and volunteering to advance environmental stewardship- have been associated with improved well being, mood, and outlook on life.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ashbullby|first1=Katherine J.|last2=Pahl|first2=Sabine|last3=Webley|first3=Paul|last4=White|first4=Mathew P.|date=September 2013|title=The beach as a setting for families' health promotion: A qualitative study with parents and children living in coastal regions in Southwest England|journal=Health & Place|language=en|volume=23|pages=138–147|doi=10.1016/j.healthplace.2013.06.005|pmid=23906586}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hipp|first1=J. Aaron|last2=Ogunseitan|first2=Oladele A.|author-link2=Dele Ogunseitan|date=December 2011|title=Effect of environmental conditions on perceived psychological restorativeness of coastal parks|url=https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/brown_facpubs/4|journal=Journal of Environmental Psychology|language=en|volume=31|issue=4|pages=421–429|doi=10.1016/j.jenvp.2011.08.008|s2cid=19384291 }}</ref><ref name=":24">{{Cite journal|last1=Bramston|first1=Paul|last2=Pretty|first2=Grace|last3=Zammit|first3=Charlie|date=November 2011|title=Assessing Environmental Stewardship Motivation|journal=Environment and Behavior|language=en|volume=43|issue=6|pages=776–788|doi=10.1177/0013916510382875|bibcode=2011EnvBe..43..776B |s2cid=143693421|issn=0013-9165|url=http://eprints.usq.edu.au/19999/3/Bramston_Pretty_Zammit_EB_v43n6_SV.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=White|first1=Mathew P.|last2=Pahl|first2=Sabine|last3=Ashbullby|first3=Katherine|last4=Herbert|first4=Stephen|last5=Depledge|first5=Michael H.|date=September 2013|title=Feelings of restoration from recent nature visits|journal=Journal of Environmental Psychology|language=en|volume=35|pages=40–51|doi=10.1016/j.jenvp.2013.04.002}}</ref><ref name=":25">{{Cite journal|last1=Evans|first1=Celia|last2=Abrams|first2=Eleanor|last3=Reitsma|first3=Robert|last4=Roux|first4=Karin|last5=Salmonsen|first5=Laura|last6=Marra|first6=Peter P.|date=June 2005|title=The Neighborhood Nestwatch Program: Participant Outcomes of a Citizen-Science Ecological Research Project|journal=Conservation Biology|language=en|volume=19|issue=3|pages=589–594|doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00s01.x|bibcode=2005ConBi..19..589E |s2cid=20055984 |issn=0888-8892}}</ref><ref name=":26">{{Cite journal|last1=Ryan|first1=Robert L.|last2=Kaplan|first2=Rachel|last3=Grese|first3=Robert E.|date=September 2001|title=Predicting Volunteer Commitment in Environmental Stewardship Programmes|journal=Journal of Environmental Planning and Management|language=en|volume=44|issue=5|pages=629–648|doi=10.1080/09640560120079948|bibcode=2001JEPM...44..629R |s2cid=154911545|issn=0964-0568}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last1=Koss|first1=Rebecca Sarah|last2=Kingsley|first2=Jonathon ‘Yotti’|date=August 2010|title=Volunteer health and emotional wellbeing in marine protected areas|journal=Ocean & Coastal Management|language=en|volume=53|issue=8|pages=447–453|doi=10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2010.06.002|bibcode=2010OCM....53..447K }}</ref> For example, Koss and Kingsley (2010) found that individuals who volunteered at protected marine areas in Australia experienced greater mental and emotional well being and enhanced connection with the natural environment.<ref name=":20" />
While beach cleaning can improve well being, Wyles et al. (2017) discovered that participants reported a statistically significant lower level of rejuvenation and relaxation when beach cleaning compared to rock pooling and walking on the beach.<ref name=":17" />
Lastly, the well being benefits associated with beach cleaning are not only limited to the individuals actively removing trash from the coast but can be enjoyed by community members and beach goers as a whole.<ref name=":21">{{Cite journal|last1=Wyles|first1=Kayleigh J.|last2=Pahl|first2=Sabine|last3=Thomas|first3=Katrina|last4=Thompson|first4=Richard C.|date=November 2016|title=Factors That Can Undermine the Psychological Benefits of Coastal Environments: Exploring the Effect of Tidal State, Presence, and Type of Litter|journal=Environment and Behavior|language=en|volume=48|issue=9|pages=1095–1126|doi=10.1177/0013916515592177|issn=0013-9165|pmc=5066481|pmid=27807388}}</ref> Wyles et al. (2016) claims that the presence of litter can diminish the psychological benefits of beaches. Beach goers in Wyles et al. (2016) even described feelings of sadness or anger when confronted with litter, explaining that these emotions emerged because the trash negatively impacts the environment and distracts from the beauty of the landscape.<ref name=":21" />
== Methods ==
[[File:Weston-super-Mare beach cleaning.JPG|thumb|A depiction of both mechanical and manual beach cleaning methods being utilized to clean the Weston-super-Mare beach in Somerset, England.|279x279px]]
The process of beach cleaning requires good management methods, adequate human resources, and funds.<ref name=":0" /> Solid litters cleaning methods are very different than oil spill cleaning methods.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zhu|first1=Ke|last2=Shang|first2=Yuan-Yuan|last3=Sun|first3=Peng-Zhan|last4=Li|first4=Zhen|last5=Li|first5=Xin-Ming|last6=Wei|first6=Jin-Quan|last7=Wang|first7=Kun-Lin|last8=Wu|first8=De-Hai|last9=Cao|first9=An-Yuan|last10=Zhu|first10=Hong-Wei|date=2013-05-06|title=Oil spill cleanup from sea water by carbon nanotube sponges|journal=Frontiers of Materials Science|volume=7|issue=2|pages=170–176|doi=10.1007/s11706-013-0200-1|bibcode=2013FrMS....7..170Z|s2cid=85458873|issn=2095-025X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lin|first1=Jinyou|last2=Shang|first2=Yanwei|last3=Ding|first3=Bin|last4=Yang|first4=Jianmao|last5=Yu|first5=Jianyong|last6=Al-Deyab|first6=Salem S.|date=2012|title=Nanoporous polystyrene fibers for oil spill cleanup|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=64|issue=2|pages=347–352|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.11.002|pmid=22136762|bibcode=2012MarPB..64..347L |issn=0025-326X}}</ref> The beach cleaning process may be done using machinery such as [[sand cleaning machine]]s that rake or sift the sand or/and other chemicals such as [[oil dispersants]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Frampton|first=Alan P. R.|date=2010|title=A Review of Amenity Beach Management|journal=Journal of Coastal Research|volume=26|pages=1112–1122|doi=10.2112/jcoastres-d-09-00008.1|s2cid=140690245|issn=0749-0208}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Fingas|first=Merv|date=2012-12-05|title=The Basics of Oil Spill Cleanup|doi=10.1201/b13686|isbn=9780429108020}}</ref> This beach cleaning may be done by professionals company, civic organizations, the military or volunteers such as the [[Great Canadian Shoreline Cleanup]] and [[Marine Conservation Society]].
=== Mechanical vs. manual cleaning ===
There are two types of beach cleaning- mechanical and manual. These methods are also referred to as mechanical grooming and nonmechanical grooming. Mechanical beach cleaning is defined as litter and/or organic material removal that relies on the work of automatic or push machinery that rakes or sieves the most superficial layer of sand. Manual cleaning involves individuals picking up trash exclusively by hand.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last1=Zielinski|first1=Seweryn|last2=Botero|first2=Camilo M.|last3=Yanes|first3=Andrea|date=February 2019|title=To clean or not to clean? A critical review of beach cleaning methods and impacts|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|language=en|volume=139|pages=390–401|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.12.027|pmid=30686442|bibcode=2019MarPB.139..390Z |hdl=11323/2009|s2cid=59306989 |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":30">{{Cite journal|last1=Griffin|first1=Caroline|last2=Day|first2=Nicola|last3=Rosenquist|first3=Hanna|last4=Wellenreuther|first4=Maren|last5=Bunnefeld|first5=Nils|last6=Gilburn|first6=André S.|date=March 2018|title=Tidal range and recovery from the impacts of mechanical beach grooming|journal=Ocean & Coastal Management|language=en|volume=154|pages=66–71|doi=10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2018.01.004|bibcode=2018OCM...154...66G |hdl=1893/26732|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":31">{{Cite journal|last1=Morton|first1=J. K.|last2=Ward|first2=E. J.|last3=de Berg|first3=K. C.|date=November 2015|title=Potential Small- and Large-Scale Effects of Mechanical Beach Cleaning on Biological Assemblages of Exposed Sandy Beaches Receiving Low Inputs of Beach-Cast Macroalgae|journal=Estuaries and Coasts|language=en|volume=38|issue=6|pages=2083–2100|doi=10.1007/s12237-015-9963-1|bibcode=2015EstCo..38.2083M |s2cid=85019673|issn=1559-2723}}</ref> The suggested beach cleaning approach incorporates manual and mechanical cleaning as this combination is most cost effective and environmentally sound.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":31" /><ref name=":32">{{Cite journal|last1=Stelling-Wood|first1=Talia P.|last2=Clark|first2=Graeme F.|last3=Poore|first3=Alistair G.B.|date=May 2016|title=Responses of ghost crabs to habitat modification of urban sandy beaches|journal=Marine Environmental Research|language=en|volume=116|pages=32–40|doi=10.1016/j.marenvres.2016.02.009|pmid=26970686|bibcode=2016MarER.116...32S }}</ref>
=== Environmental concerns ===
[[File:Cloudy beach with wrack and crashing waves.jpg|thumb|Piles of wrack on a sandy beach. While not visually appealing, these collections of plants and organic material from the sea are central to beach ecosystems and food chains.]]
==== Wrack cover and biodiversity ====
Mechanical cleaning removes organic materials, like seaweed, algae, and plants, alongside anthropogenic waste, such as plastic bottles, cigarette butts, and [[food packaging]], leading to disturbances in the ecosystem and food chain.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":33">{{Cite journal|last1=Del Vecchio|first1=Silvia|last2=Jucker|first2=Tommaso|last3=Carboni|first3=Marta|last4=Acosta|first4=Alicia T.R.|date=January 2017|title=Linking plant communities on land and at sea: The effects of Posidonia oceanica wrack on the structure of dune vegetation|journal=Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science|language=en|volume=184|pages=30–36|doi=10.1016/j.ecss.2016.10.041|bibcode=2017ECSS..184...30D}}</ref><ref name=":34">{{Cite journal|last1=Defeo|first1=Omar|last2=McLachlan|first2=Anton|last3=Schoeman|first3=David S.|last4=Schlacher|first4=Thomas A.|last5=Dugan|first5=Jenifer|last6=Jones|first6=Alan|last7=Lastra|first7=Mariano|last8=Scapini|first8=Felicita|date=January 2009|title=Threats to sandy beach ecosystems: A review|journal=Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science|language=en|volume=81|issue=1|pages=1–12|doi=10.1016/j.ecss.2008.09.022|bibcode=2009ECSS...81....1D}}</ref><ref name=":30" /><ref name=":35">{{Cite journal|last1=Dugan|first1=Jenifer E|last2=Hubbard|first2=David M|last3=McCrary|first3=Michael D|last4=Pierson|first4=Mark O|date=October 2003|title=The response of macrofauna communities and shorebirds to macrophyte wrack subsidies on exposed sandy beaches of southern California|journal=Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science|language=en|volume=58|pages=25–40|doi=10.1016/S0272-7714(03)00045-3|bibcode=2003ECSS...58...25D}}</ref><ref name=":36">{{Cite journal|last1=Malm|first1=Torleif|last2=Råberg|first2=Sonja|last3=Fell|first3=Sabine|last4=Carlsson|first4=Per|date=June 2004|title=Effects of beach cast cleaning on beach quality, microbial food web, and littoral macrofaunal biodiversity|journal=Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science|language=en|volume=60|issue=2|pages=339–347|doi=10.1016/j.ecss.2004.01.008|bibcode=2004ECSS...60..339M}}</ref> Organic materials naturally found on beaches, also known as [[Wrack (seaweed)|wrack]], provide critical nutrients and compose the foundation of the food chain. The elimination of this food source impacts organisms ranging from [[Fauna|meiofauna]] to predator birds, resulting in a [[loss of biodiversity]] and a decrease in [[species abundance]].<ref name=":30" /><ref name=":10" /><ref name=":33" /><ref name=":34" /><ref name=":35" /><ref name=":37">{{Cite journal|last1=Davenport|first1=John|last2=Davenport|first2=Julia L.|date=March 2006|title=The impact of tourism and personal leisure transport on coastal environments: A review|journal=Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science|language=en|volume=67|issue=1–2|pages=280–292|doi=10.1016/j.ecss.2005.11.026|bibcode=2006ECSS...67..280D}}</ref> For example, Dugan et al.<ref name=":35" /> studied the relationship between wrack abundance and the richness, abundance, and biomass of [[Fauna|macrofauna]] of fifteen sandy beaches in Southern California and found that ungroomed beaches with relatively low levels of wrack had a mean abundance of [[Fauna|macrofauna]] that thrive in the presence of wrack that was almost nine times greater than groomed beaches. Additionally, ungroomed beaches with relatively large amounts of wrack supported more than thirteen species of [[Fauna|macrofauna]] that live in and around wrack while groomed beaches supported less than three. Furthermore, the presence of two shorebirds was positively correlated with the presence of wrack-associated [[Fauna|macrofauna]], indicating that beaches with more extensive wrack cover support vertebrates higher in the food chain and create a more rich, biodiverse ecosystem. Overall, the presence of wrack allows for detritivores, like isopods and talitrid amphipod, invertebrates like beetles, foraging birds, and scavenging vertebrates like mice, rats, foxes, and badgers to live and feed in that environment.<ref name=":36" /><ref name=":34" /><ref name=":33" /><ref name=":10" /><ref name=":37" /><ref name=":35" />
==== Wrack removal and public health ====
While removing wrack from beaches can harm the environment,<ref name=":35" /><ref name=":34" /><ref name=":33" /><ref name=":10" /> the presence of excessive wrack can threaten beach goers’ health.<ref name=":38">{{Cite journal|last1=Whitman|first1=Richard L.|last2=Harwood|first2=Valerie J.|last3=Edge|first3=Thomas A.|last4=Nevers|first4=Meredith B.|last5=Byappanahalli|first5=Muruleedhara|last6=Vijayavel|first6=Kannappan|last7=Brandão|first7=João|last8=Sadowsky|first8=Michael J.|last9=Alm|first9=Elizabeth Wheeler|last10=Crowe|first10=Allan|last11=Ferguson|first11=Donna|date=September 2014|title=Microbes in beach sands: integrating environment, ecology and public health|journal=Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology|language=en|volume=13|issue=3|pages=329–368|doi=10.1007/s11157-014-9340-8|issn=1569-1705|pmc=4219924|pmid=25383070|bibcode=2014RESBT..13..329W }}</ref><ref name=":39">{{Cite journal|last1=Alves|first1=Bruna|last2=Benavente|first2=Javier|last3=Ferreira|first3=Óscar|date=2014-04-28|title=Beach users' profile, perceptions and willingness to pay for beach management in Cadiz (SW Spain)|journal=Journal of Coastal Research|language=en|volume=70|pages=521–526|doi=10.2112/SI70-088.1|s2cid=130491861|issn=0749-0208}}</ref><ref name=":37" /><ref name=":40">{{Cite journal|last1=Kinzelman|first1=Julie L.|last2=McLellan|first2=Sandra L.|date=2009-05-27|title=Success of science-based best management practices in reducing swimming bans—a case study from Racine, Wisconsin, USA|journal=Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management|language=en|volume=12|issue=2|pages=187–196|doi=10.1080/14634980902907466|bibcode=2009AqEHM..12..187K |s2cid=85191313|issn=1463-4988}}</ref><ref name=":35" /><ref name=":41">{{Cite journal|last1=Bonilla|first1=Tonya D.|last2=Nowosielski|first2=Kara|last3=Cuvelier|first3=Marie|last4=Hartz|first4=Aaron|last5=Green|first5=Melissa|last6=Esiobu|first6=Nwadiuto|last7=McCorquodale|first7=Donald S.|last8=Fleisher|first8=Jay M.|last9=Rogerson|first9=Andrew|date=September 2007|title=Prevalence and distribution of fecal indicator organisms in South Florida beach sand and preliminary assessment of health effects associated with beach sand exposure|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|language=en|volume=54|issue=9|pages=1472–1482|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.04.016|pmid=17610908|bibcode=2007MarPB..54.1472B }}</ref> Collections of wrack decompose quickly which generates a foul odor.<ref name=":37" /><ref name=":39" /> This environment attracts unpleasant, and even dangerous microbes and animals.<ref name=":41" /><ref name=":40" /><ref name=":39" /><ref name=":35" /><ref name=":37" /><ref name=":42">{{Cite journal|last1=Imamura|first1=Gregory J.|last2=Thompson|first2=Rachelle S.|last3=Boehm|first3=Alexandria B.|last4=Jay|first4=Jennifer A.|date=July 2011|title=Wrack promotes the persistence of fecal indicator bacteria in marine sands and seawater: Beach wrack: FIB reservoir|journal=FEMS Microbiology Ecology|language=en|volume=77|issue=1|pages=40–49|doi=10.1111/j.1574-6941.2011.01082.x|pmid=21385189|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":38" /> Flies and buzzards are drawn to the smell of the decomposing wrack.<ref name=":40" /><ref name=":37" /><ref name=":41" /> While a large bird population increases biodiversity, the birds leave their droppings which also increase the density of potentially harmful microbes in the sand.<ref name=":42" /><ref name=":41" /><ref name=":40" /> Additionally, microbes that thrive in the presence of feces, called fecal indicator organisms, can reproduce in the conditions created by decomposing wrack.<ref name=":38"/><ref name=":41" /><ref name=":42" /> Wrack can sustain potentially harmful bacteria and fecal indicator organisms like Escherichia coli and enterococci, which can cause gastrointestinal illness.<ref name=":42" /><ref name=":41" /><ref name=":38" /> In fact, a positive relation between time spent on wet sandy beaches and the incidence of contracting a gastrointestinal illness has been identified.<ref name=":41" /><ref name=":38" /><ref name=":42" />
==== Topographic and vegetation alterations ====
Groomed beaches are wider, sustain substantially less vegetation, and have fewer and flatter topographic features, like dunes and hummocks, than ungroomed beaches.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dugan|first1=Jenifer E.|last2=Hubbard|first2=David M.|date=January 2010|title=Loss of Coastal Strand Habitat in Southern California: The Role of Beach Grooming|journal=Estuaries and Coasts|language=en|volume=33|issue=1|pages=67–77|doi=10.1007/s12237-009-9239-8|bibcode=2010EstCo..33...67D |s2cid=83502090|issn=1559-2723}}</ref><ref name=":43">{{Cite journal|last1=Nordstrom|first1=Karl F.|last2=Jackson|first2=Nancy L.|last3=Hartman|first3=Jean Marie|last4=Wong|first4=Mark|date=January 2007|title=Aeolian sediment transport on a human-altered foredune|journal=Earth Surface Processes and Landforms|language=en|volume=32|issue=1|pages=102–115|doi=10.1002/esp.1377|bibcode=2007ESPL...32..102N|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":44">{{Cite journal|last=Nordstrom|first=Karl F.|date=2000-01-01|title=Reestablishing Naturally Functioning Dunes on Developed Coasts|journal=Environmental Management|volume=25|issue=1|pages=37–51|doi=10.1007/s002679910004|pmid=10552101|s2cid=24849753|issn=0364-152X}}</ref><ref name=":45">{{Cite journal|last1=Nordstrom|first1=Karl F.|last2=Jackson|first2=Nancy L.|last3=Klein|first3=Antonio H. F.|last4=Sherman|first4=Douglas J.|last5=Hesp|first5=Patrick A.|date=September 2006|title=Offshore Aeolian Transport across a Low Foredune on a Developed Barrier Island|journal=Journal of Coastal Research|language=en|volume=225|pages=1260–1267|doi=10.2112/06A-0008.1|s2cid=130005558|issn=0749-0208}}</ref> Naturally beaches should have a narrow stretch of sand closest to the ocean that is flattened by the tide below the extreme high tide line. Beyond this zone, the land should be composed of vegetated dunes that are infrequently touched by tides. However, mechanical beach cleaning has converted many beaches into much wider expanses of flat sand, most of which remains undisturbed by the tide and void of vegetation.<ref name=":45" /><ref name=":44" /><ref name=":43" /><ref name=":35" /> Mechanical beach cleaning destroys vegetation, hummocks, and newly-formed dunes, leading to an immediate flattening of the landscape.<ref name=":35" /><ref name=":45" /><ref name=":44" /> Mechanical cleaning not only damages existing vegetation but deters the growth of future vegetation.<ref name=":35" /> Dugan and Hubbard found that the groomed portions of a beach experienced significantly lower rates of plant survival and reproduction after germination than the ungroomed sections of the same beach.<ref name=":35" />
As vegetation abundance and the height and presence of dunes and hummocks decrease, sand transport patterns change in a way that furthers the extent of flattened topography.<ref name=":45" /><ref name=":44" /><ref name=":43" /><ref name=":35" /> Hummocks, dunes, and vegetation act as obstacles that slow sand movement triggered by the wind. When these features disappear, the formation of future hummocks and dunes becomes more difficult and unlikely.<ref name=":35" /><ref name=":45" /><ref name=":44" /><ref name=":43" />
As beaches grow flatter and wider, the abundance and diversity of vegetation decreases further because vegetation requires stable sand dunes to take root and grow.<ref name=":45" /><ref name=":44" /><ref name=":43" /><ref name=":35" />
In this way, mechanical beach cleaning triggers a positive feedback loop that exacerbates the flattening and widening of beaches alongside the loss of vegetation abundance and diversity. Halting mechanical beach cleaning stops this cycle and can rebuild the damaged topography and lost vegetation.<ref name=":35" /><ref name=":44" /><ref name=":43" /> For example, Dugan and Hubbard observed that four years after stopping mechanical grooming, the San Buenaventura State Beach recovered 20 to 40 meters of vegetation, formed new hummocks and the beginning stages of sand dunes, improved sand stability, and increased the number of plants that survived beyond germination.<ref name=":35" />
=== Best practices ===
A number of best practices for carrying out beach cleaning have been discussed in the literature.
====Combination of mechanical and manual cleaning methods====
This method allows urban and more intensely used beaches to manage larger quantities of litter while minimizing the environmental impact of mechanical cleaning.<ref name=":31" /><ref name=":10" /> In fact, beaches cleaned less than three times a week sustain a level of biodiversity and [[species abundance]] that is similar or only slightly lower than beaches that are strictly cleaned by hand.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":31" /><ref name=":32" /> For example, Morton et al. (2015) found that mechanical beach cleaning did not affect biodiversity but concede that this likely due to the fact that the beach only underwent mechanical cleaning once to twice a week and had moved wrack from popular sections of the beaches to less commonly visited sites.<ref name=":31" /> Additionally, Stelling-Wood et al. (2016) studied ghost crab populations as an indicator species for overall biodiversity on sandy beaches and discovered that the frequency of mechanical beach cleaning was the most influential factor on population size. Beaches that were mechanically cleaned less than three times a week housed the highest number of ghost crabs.<ref name=":32" />
====Reduction of quantity of beach litter through educational programs====
Educational programs and volunteering effectively catalyze behavior change and awareness around marine pollution, leading to a reduction in marine debris and a willingness to clean that is present on beaches.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":18" /> More information can be found about the benefits of educational and volunteer programs under the Public Engagement and Beach Cleaning header of this page. Decreasing the quantity of marine litter makes manual beach cleaning an easier, more effective option, even for urban, frequently used beaches.
====Relocation of collections of wrack to ungroomed or less popular areas of a beach====
In doing so, the critical nutrient provided by wrack remains in the ecosystem, limiting disruptions to the food chain and ecosystem.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":31" /><ref name=":30" /> Oftentimes, the nutrients from wrack will be redistributed to groomed portions of the beaches through wind and waves.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":31" /> For this reason, it is most important that this suggestion be implemented on beaches with consistently low tides.<ref name=":30" />
== Public engagement and beach cleaning ==
There are three primary ways the public can learn about or participate in beach cleaning: educational programs, awareness campaigns, and volunteering. All modes of public engagement can increase awareness of the issue of marine litter, educate participants about marine litter and ocean conservation, and motivate behavior change.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /><ref name=":18" /><ref name=":22"/><ref name=":23" /><ref name=":4" /> When volunteers participate in beach cleaning, they can use mechanical or manual methods.
=== Educational programs and awareness campaigns ===
Educational and awareness campaigns can be developed by schools<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /><ref name=":18" /> or promoted by government.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vanhooren|first1=Sofie|last2=Maelfait|first2=Hanneore|last3=Belpaeme|first3=Kathy|date=December 2011|title=Moving Towards an Ecological Management of the Beaches|journal=Journal of Coastal Research|language=en|volume=61|pages=81–86|doi=10.2112/SI61-001.70|s2cid=130645857|issn=0749-0208}}</ref> Both have effectively enhanced their target audience's knowledge of marine litter, perception of the extent of the issue, and catalyzed behavior change.
Multiple studies research the impact of [[service learning programs]] on students’ level of knowledge accumulation and awareness of both marine litter and broader marine conservation issues.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /><ref name=":18" /> For example, Owens (2018) studied the self-reported change in student's perception of their knowledge about ocean conservation and environmental behavior. The study compared the responses of two groups: an undergraduate class enrolled in a seminar course supplemented by a [[Service-learning|service learning]] opportunity cleaning beaches and an undergraduate class enrolled in a traditional laboratory-based environmental science course. Students who participated in beach cleaning reported a significantly greater perception of knowledge and environmentally-friendly behavior compared to the students in the laboratory-based class. The students who participated in beach cleaning also saw a significantly greater increase in their scores for perceived knowledge and environmentally-friendly behavior compared to the other cohort.<ref name=":16" />
Educational campaigns can spread knowledge and incite behavior change beyond the target audience. For example, Hartley et al. (2015) explains that students who participated in beach cleaning with their school encouraged their friends and family to join them in adopting mitigation and prevention behaviors.<ref name=":14" />
[[File:Beach Cleaning Volunteers.jpg|thumb|Group of students from University of Vermont volunteering with the North Carolina Beach Buggy Association to clean Cape Hatteras National Seashore in North Carolina|287x287px]]
=== Volunteering ===
Volunteering improves participants’ awareness and knowledge about marine litter and increases the likelihood that individuals will take continued action to address the issue.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /><ref name=":18" /><ref name=":22"/><ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last1=Uneputty|first1=Prulley|last2=Evans|first2=S.M.|last3=Suyoso|first3=Elshinta|date=June 1998|title=The effectiveness of a community education programme in reducing litter pollution on shores of Ambon Bay (eastern Indonesia)|journal=Journal of Biological Education|language=en|volume=32|issue=2|pages=143–147|doi=10.1080/00219266.1998.9655611|issn=0021-9266}}</ref> For example, Hartley et al. (2015) claims that after volunteering to clean a local beach with their school, children reported engaging in mitigation and prevention behavior more frequently, such as purchasing fewer, single-use plastic items, appropriately disposing of their waste, and recycling.<ref name=":14" /> Uneputty et al. (1998) found that individuals who had volunteered to clean beaches continued to remove trash from beaches and not litter months after they had participated in a volunteer program.<ref name=":23" /> Furthermore, surveys and interviews have revealed that once individuals begin volunteering in marine conservation efforts, they want to continue.<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":20" />
Multiple studies have determined that volunteers, whether organized through schools and universities or individual interest, can significantly reduce the quantity of solid waste on beaches.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":18" /><ref name=":23" /><ref name=":4" />
Numerous volunteer beach cleaning programs have been facilitated by schools that promote [[Service-learning|service learning]] opportunities.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":18" /> These studies, in conjunction with research conducted with participants that joined programs entirely voluntarily,<ref name=":22"/><ref name=":15" /><ref name=":23" /> have demonstrated that groups that were and were not previously concerned about marine litter can experience an increase in awareness and knowledge, as well as positive behavior change through the hands on experience and learning involved in volunteering.
Beach cleaning volunteers reap the same, if not more, benefits from their participation as individuals who participate in other coastal activities.<ref name=":17" /> Wyles et al. (2017) studied the impact various coastal activities- beach cleaning, rock pooling, and walking on the beach- had on well being and discovered that all three led to a similar betterment in mood. However, individuals who participated in beach cleaning described a more intense sense of fulfillment when compared to the groups.<ref name=":17" />
While further research has not been completed on the mental and emotional benefits of beach cleaning, volunteers who promote environmental stewardship have reported improvements in their well being.<ref name=":24" /><ref name=":25" /><ref name=":26" /><ref name=":20" />
=== Public engagement and collection methods ===
A study conducted in Catalonia in the late 1990s found that, on the beaches of the [[Llobregat Delta]], engaging with the public through manual methods of beach cleanup improved citizen participation as compared to mechanical methods. Moving towards manual cleaning by citizens can benefit both the environment and aid in the local municipalities work of keeping the beaches clean.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last1=Domínguez|first1=H.|last2=Belpaeme|first2=K.|date=2006|title=Manual beach cleaning in Belgium: an ecological alternative|url=http://www.vliz.be/nl/datasets-belgische-kust-en-zee?module=ref&refid=102723|journal=EuroCoast - Littoral 2006|language=nl}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Dominguez's 2005 study found a correlation between citizens and the use of manual beach cleaning methods.<ref name=":11" /> This study also found that the amount of manual labor as well as employees required to manually clean stretches of beaches to be much less than anticipated.<ref name=":11" />
== Most polluted and cleanest beaches in the world ==
===Most polluted beaches===
Many researchers report that the ocean currents transfer floating litter by the five subtropical gyres.<ref name=":27" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Eriksen|first1=Marcus|last2=Maximenko|first2=Nikolai|last3=Thiel|first3=Martin|last4=Cummins|first4=Anna|last5=Lattin|first5=Gwen|last6=Wilson|first6=Stiv|last7=Hafner|first7=Jan|last8=Zellers|first8=Ann|last9=Rifman|first9=Samuel|date=2013|title=Plastic pollution in the South Pacific subtropical gyre|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=68|issue=1–2|pages=71–76|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2012.12.021|pmid=23324543|bibcode=2013MarPB..68...71E |issn=0025-326X}}</ref> Thus, anthropocentric marine debris is present in all oceans, beaches and at the sea surface, even the Arctic sea ice contains small plastics particles or micro-plastics.<ref name=":8" /> According to Bhatia (2019),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thetravel.com/dirtiest-beaches-in-the-world/|title=10 Dirtiest Beaches In The World|date=2019-08-18|website=TheTravel|language=en-US|access-date=2020-03-27}}</ref> the ten most polluted beaches in the world are:<mapframe latitude="12.554564" longitude="-33.398438" zoom="2" width="306" height="268" align="right">
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# [[Phú Quốc|Phu Quoc]], [[Vietnam]].
# Maya Bay, [[Thailand]].
# Kamilo Beach, [[Hawaii]], [[United States|USA]].
# [[Kuta|Kuta Beach]], [[Indonesia]].
# [[Juhu|Juhu Beach]], [[India]].
# [[Kota Kinabalu]], [[Malaysia]].
# [[Guanabara Bay]], Brazil.
# Serendipity Beach, [[Cambodia]].
# Haina, [[Dominican Republic]].
# [[San Clemente, California|San Clemente Pier]], [[California]], [[United States|USA]].
=== Cleanest beaches ===
According to Nguyen (2019),<ref name=":28">{{Cite web|url=https://ecophiles.com/2019/06/15/cleanest-beaches-in-the-world/|title=The Cleanest Beaches In The World for a Clear Water Dip|last=Nguyen Eileen|date=2019-06-15|website=Ecophiles|language=en|access-date=2020-03-27}}</ref> there are still some clean beaches around the world. To find out if a beach is clean or not is to look for a blue flag.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.blueflag.global/|title=Blue Flag|website=Blue Flag|language=en-US|access-date=2020-03-27}}</ref> [[Blue Flag beach|The Blue Flag]] is the world's most recognized voluntary eco-labels awarded to beaches, marinas, and sustainable boating tourism operators.<ref name=":29" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mir-Gual|first1=M.|last2=Pons|first2=G.X.|last3=Martín-Prieto|first3=J.A.|last4=Rodríguez-Perea|first4=A.|date=2015|title=A critical view of the Blue Flag beaches in Spain using environmental variables|journal=Ocean & Coastal Management|volume=105|pages=106–115|doi=10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2015.01.003|bibcode=2015OCM...105..106M |issn=0964-5691}}</ref> The blue flag shows when a beach has high environmental and quality standards.<ref name=":28" /> The six the cleanest Blue Flag awarded beaches are:<mapframe latitude="4.214943" longitude="-27.421875" zoom="2" width="306" height="247" align="right">
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# Victoria Beach, [[Canada]].
# Santa Maria Beach, Los Cabos.
# Dado Beach, [[Israel]].
# Mellieha Bay, [[Malta]].
# Palmestranden Beach, [[Denmark]].
# Zona Balnear da Lagoa, [[Portugal]].
== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:Tulum beach cleaning.JPG|Beach cleaning vehicles
File:Tenerife beach cleaning C.jpg|Beach cleaning vehicles
File:Tenerife beach cleaning D.jpg|After beach cleaning by a cleaning vehicle
File:OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg|Oil beach cleaning
File:Micro Ocean Plastic.jpg|Micro-plastic
</gallery>
== See also ==
{{Commons category|Beach cleanup|Beach cleaning}}
* [[Global warming]]
* [[Anthropocene]]
* [[Ecology]]
* [[Marine ecosystem]]
* [[Oil spill]]
* [[Earth Day]]
* [[Exploding whale]]
* [[Great Canadian Shoreline Cleanup]]
* [[Marine Conservation Society]]
* [[Ocean Conservancy]]
==References==
{{reflist |refs=
<!--unused<ref name=ECC>{{citation |pages=235–236 |work=Encyclopedia of Coastal Science |title=Cleaning |editor=Maurice Schwartz |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |year=2006 |isbn=9781402038808}}</ref>
<ref name=BM>{{citation |title=Beach Management: Principles and Practice |first1=Allan Thomas |last1=Williams |first2=Anton |last2=Micallef |publisher=Earthscan |year=2009 |isbn=9781849770033 |page=93}}</ref>
<ref name=BPM>{{citation |title=Rehabilitation of metropolitan beaches by local administrations in Catalonia: New trends in sustainable coastal management |journal=Journal of Coastal Conservation |volume=6 |number=1 |pages=97–106 |date=12 January 2000 |doi=10.1007/BF02730473 |last1=Breton |first1=Françoise |last2=Pau |first2=Esteban |last3=Miralles |first3=Eulàlia}}</ref>
<ref name=coastal>{{cite journal |last1=Vanhooren |first1=Sofie|last2=Maelfait|first2=Hanneore|last3=Belpaeme|first3=Kathy |title=Moving Towards an Ecological Management of the Beaches |jstor=41510780|date=2011|pages=81–86 |publisher=Journal of Coastal Research |access-date=12 February 2020}}</ref>-->
}}
{{portalbar|Ecology|Environment}}
[[Category:Beaches|Cleaning]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Marine conservation]] |
Kalee Kreider | {{Infobox person
| name = Kalee Kreider
| native_name = Amy Kalee Kreider
| birth_date = 1971
| education = History
| alma_mater = [[Rollins College]] (BS)
| employer = [[National Geographic Society]] <br> [[Al Gore]]'s Office <br> [[Fenton Communications]]
}}
'''Kalee Kreider''' (born 1971) is an American public affairs and environmental adviser. She is President of Ridgely Walsh, a boutique public affairs agency based in Washington, D.C. She was the Chief of Content at The National Geographic Society. She was the former environmental adviser and spokesperson for [[Al Gore]]. In this role, she helped develop the materials for ''[[An Inconvenient Truth]]''. She is a senior adviser for the [[United Nations Foundation]].
== Education and early career ==
Kreider was born in [[Columbus, Ohio]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://psmag.com/magazine/women-saving-the-planet-kalee-kreider-of-the-united-states|title=Women Saving the Planet: Kalee Kreider of the United States|last=Graves|first=Lucia|website=Pacific Standard|date=23 September 2018 |language=en|access-date=2019-06-04}}</ref> She studied [[history]] at [[Rollins College]], which she graduated in 1992.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.rollins.edu/magazine/archive/spring2009/profiles/kreider.html|title=Kalee Kreider '92 {{!}} Alumni Profile {{!}} Spring 2009 {{!}} Rollins Magazine|website=www.rollins.edu|access-date=2019-06-04}}</ref> She joined [[Rollins College]] because of Pedro Pequeño, an [[anthropologist]].<ref name=":1" /> She began her career as a [[Harry S. Truman Scholarship|Truman Fellow]] in the [[Clinton Administration]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://unfoundation.org/who-we-are/our-people/kalee-kreider/|title=Kalee Kreider|date=2019-04-02|website=unfoundation.org|language=en-US|access-date=2019-06-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://live.worldbank.org/experts/kalee-kreider-moderator|title=Kalee Kreider (Moderator)|date=2015-08-26|website=World Bank Live|language=en|access-date=2019-06-04}}</ref> She was selected as the [[White House]] Scholar-in-Residence, where she worked on the Clinton Crime Bill.<ref name=":1" /> She left the [[White House]] to set up a [[non-governmental organization]] called Ozone Action.<ref name=":1" /> She worked for [[Greenpeace]] and the National Environment Trust (now one of [[The Pew Charitable Trusts]]).<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0105/29/nr.00.html|title=CNN.com - Transcripts|website=www.cnn.com|access-date=2019-06-04}}</ref> During her time at [[Greenpeace]], Kreider negotiated the [[Kyoto Protocol]].<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB877548984232451000|title=Clinton Unveils Plan to Reduce Emissions of Greenhouse Gases|last=Journal|first=John J. Fialka and Jackie CalmesStaff Reporters of The Wall Street|website=WSJ|language=en-US|access-date=2019-06-04}}</ref>
== Career ==
After the [[2000 United States presidential election]], it became obvious that the [[Kyoto Protocol]] was not going to be ratified.<ref name=":1" /> Kreider left climate policy, and started a position at [[Fenton Communications]].<ref name=":1" /> She was recruited to [[Al Gore]]'s team to help write a speech about the [[Iraq War]].<ref name=":1" />
Kreider moved to [[Nashville, Tennessee]], where she moved in 2006 to join the Office for [[Al Gore]].<ref name=":0" /> She served as Gore's environmental adviser.<ref name=":0" /> During this time, she researched and marketed [[Al Gore]]'s best-selling books and the film [[An Inconvenient Truth]].<ref name=":2" /> The work she did with Gore contributed to his [[Nobel Peace Prize]].<ref name=":1" />
In 2013 Kreider established her own consultancy, Kreider Strategies LLC. The consultancy provided information about [[climate change]] and technology. In 2019 she was made Chief of Content at the [[National Geographic Society]], where she will lead corporate communications and public affairs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blog.nationalgeographic.org/2019/06/03/national-geographic-society-names-kalee-kreider-chief-of-content-communications-and-public-affairs/|title=National Geographic Society Names Kalee Kreider Chief of Content, Communications and Public Affairs|date=2019-06-03|website=National Geographic Society Newsroom|language=en-US|access-date=2019-06-04}}</ref>
She is a Senior Adviser for the [[United Nations Foundation]] and [[Vulcan Inc.]]<ref name=":2" /> She has called for more women to be involved with monitoring and mitigating [[climate change]].<ref name=":0" />
=== Personal life ===
Kreider is married to [[Jack Pratt (politician)|Jack Pratt]], a farmer turned politician.<ref name=":1" />
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kreider, Kalee}}
[[Category:People from Columbus, Ohio]]
[[Category:1971 births]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Rollins College alumni]]
[[Category:United Nations Foundation]]
[[Category:Living people]] |
Coral reefs of Jamaica | [[File:DSC00264 - recifes de coral - Naufrágio e recifes de coral no Nilo.jpg|thumb|Healthy coral reefs]]
[[Jamaica]], an island located within the [[Caribbean Sea]], known for being a popular tourist destination because of its pristine white sand beaches, is now faced with the issue of mass coral depletion. Both environmental and human factors contribute to the destruction of these corals, which inevitably affect Jamaica's [[Environmental Sustainability|environmental sustainability]] and [[economy]]. Actions have been put in place to counteract the negative consequences associated with the loss of the corals, which act as a symbol of hope for the revival of Jamaica's environment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/destinations/2019/09/19/jamaicas-coral-reefs-comeback-gardeners-help-fishermen-adapt/2372475001/|title='The coral are coming back': Reviving Jamaica's elegant and essential coral reefs|website=USA TODAY|language=en|access-date=2019-10-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/jamaican-coral-reefs-get-a-helping-hand/a-17864466|title=Jamaican coral reefs get a helping hand {{!}} DW {{!}} 21.08.2014|website=DW.COM|language=en-GB|access-date=2019-10-22}}</ref>
Human behavior has a large impact on Jamaica's 479 square miles of [[coral reef]]s, which hosts 60 different species of coral.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://traveltips.usatoday.com/coral-reefs-jamaica-1380.html|title=Coral Reefs in Jamaica|last=Charpentier|first=Will|work=USA Today|access-date=2017-08-06|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1a">{{Cite journal|last=Hughes|first=Terence P.|date=1994|title=Catastrophes, Phase Shifts, and Large-Scale Degradation of a Caribbean Coral Reef|jstor=2884556|journal=Science|volume=265|issue=5178|pages=1547–1551|doi=10.1126/science.265.5178.1547|pmid=17801530|bibcode=1994Sci...265.1547H|s2cid=43204708 }}</ref> These reefs are a major tourist attraction for the country, accounting for 27 percent of its [[Gross domestic product|GDP]].<ref name=":0a">{{Cite web|url=http://climateandreefs.org/jamaica/|title=Jamaica|website=ClimateandReefs|language=en-US|access-date=2017-08-06}}</ref> Due to Jamaica's economic reliance on its coastal reserves, the degradation of the coral reefs is much higher because of continuous habitat destruction.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Status of coral reefs in the northern Caribbean and Atlantic node of the GCRMN|last=Linton|first=D|publisher=Australian Institute of Marine Science|year=2002|pages=277–302}}</ref>
==Extent==
Along Jamaica's {{cvt|894|km|mi}} of coastline are {{cvt|763|km2|mi2}} of coral reefs as of 2014.<ref>{{cite report|url=https://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/caribbean_coral_reefs___status_report_1970_2012.pdf| page=248| title=Status and Trends of Caribbean Coral Reefs: 1970-2012|editor1-first=Jeremy|editor1-last=Jackson|editor2-first=Mary| editor2-last=Donovan| editor3-first=Katie|editor3-last=Cramer| editor4-first=Vivian|editor4-last=Lam|publisher=Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network|year=2014}}</ref> However, the reefs were once much larger. About 85% of Jamaica's coral reefs were lost between 1980–2000.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/nov/04/restoring-jamaicas-lost-coral-reefs-photo-essay| website=The Guardian| title=Restoring Jamaica's lost coral reefs – photo essay| first=Christina| last=Larson|date=4 November 2019| access-date=4 November 2019}}</ref> Coral reef distribution on the northern coast of Jamaica extends from [[Morant Point]] in the east to [[Negril]] in the west. On the southern coast, the reefs are more restricted, occurring mostly on the eastern part of the continental shelf near [[Old Harbour Bay, Jamaica|Old Harbour]] and [[Port Royal]]. Reefs on the southern coast outside this area are small with a patchy distribution.<ref name="Goreau">{{cite journal|doi=10.2307/1929924|jstor=1929924|title=The Ecology of Jamaican Coral Reefs I. Species Composition and Zonation|journal=Ecology|volume=40|issue=1|pages=67–90|year=1959|last1=Goreau|first1=Thomas F.|bibcode=1959Ecol...40...67G }}</ref>
==Coral diversity==
Various species of [[Scleractinia|hard coral]] are found in Jamaican reefs, including the following families:<ref name="Goreau"/>
{{div col}}
*[[Acroporidae]] (staghorn corals)
*[[Agariciidae]] (cactus and lettuce corals)
*[[Astrocoeniidae]]
*[[Caryophylliidae]]
*[[Dendrophylliidae]]
*[[Meandrinidae]]
*[[Mussidae]]
*[[Oculinidae]]
*[[Pocilloporidae]]
*[[Poritidae]]
*[[Rhizangiidae]]
*[[Siderastreidae]]
{{div col end}}
== Causes of decline ==
The coral reefs are under threat due to environmental issues such as [[overfishing]], pollution, hurricanes, and disease. Since the 1970s, Jamaica's coral reef cover has declined more than 50 percent.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/jul/02/caribbean-coral-reef-lost-fishing-pollution-report|title=Caribbean coral reefs 'will be lost within 20 years' without protection|last=Aldred|first=Jessica|date=2014-07-02|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-08-06|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> In 2005, up to 95 percent of the coral was bleached in some locations.<ref name=":0a" />
=== Coral bleaching ===
[[File:Bleached coral, Acoropora sp.jpg|thumb|Example of coral bleaching phenomenon]]
Rising levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere directly link to increases in [[Sea surface temperature|sea temperatures]], which have been seen to have adverse effects on coral health.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Coastal and Estuarine Studies|last=Phinney|first=Jonathan}}</ref> Climate change is a driver of [[coral bleaching]] which results from sea surface temperatures rising above normal levels, thus forcing coral polyps to discharge the algae they shared an [[endosymbiotic]] relationship with.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/02/190221110425.htm|title=How coral bleaching threatens Caribbean communities: Analysis reveals Caribbean communities that are most at risk from the social and ecological effects of coral bleaching|website=ScienceDaily|language=en|access-date=2019-10-22}}</ref> Tropical corals prefer warmer waters and usually reside close to the surface at their maximum thermal limit, therefore when sea temperatures begin to rise above the normal scale corals become stressed.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Coral Reefs Under Climate Change and Ocean Acidification: Challenges and Opportunities for Management and Policy|last=Anthony|first=Kenneth}}</ref> Once environmental conditions become unfavorable, the corals undergo this process as a short-term solution of survival, but prolonged exposure to said conditions can lead to mass coral deaths. Without their main energy provider, corals will experience starvation and then lose their coloration, resulting in beds of white "bleached" corals.
===Pollution===
Sewage pollution has led to [[eutrophication]] which results in an abundance of nutrients for microalgal populations to bloom.<ref name=":2a">{{Cite journal|last1=Lapointe|first1=B. E.|last2=Thacker|first2=K.|last3=Hanson|first3=C.|last4=Getten|first4=L.|date=2011-07-01|title=Sewage pollution in Negril, Jamaica: effects on nutrition and ecology of coral reef macroalgae|journal=Chinese Journal of Oceanology and Limnology|language=en|volume=29|issue=4|pages=775–789|doi=10.1007/s00343-011-0506-8|bibcode=2011ChJOL..29..775L|s2cid=84875443 |issn=0254-4059}}</ref> The United Nations Environmental Program determined that 85 percent of the sewage entering the Caribbean ocean is untreated.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Wear|first1=Stephanie L.|last2=Thurber|first2=Rebecca Vega|date=2015-10-01|title=Sewage pollution: mitigation is key for coral reef stewardship|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=1355|issue=1|pages=15–30|doi=10.1111/nyas.12785|pmid=25959987|issn=1749-6632|pmc=4690507|bibcode=2015NYASA1355...15W}}</ref> This raw sewage contains dissolved inorganic nutrients, pathogens, heavy metals, and toxins that can cause coral bleaching, disease, increased mortality, and decreased coral growth.<ref name=":3" /> A study concluded that increased nutrients such as, inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus, doubled the probability of coral diseases and tripled the probability of bleaching.<ref name=":3" /> An increase of inorganic nitrogen was also linked to the presence of pathogens which can lead to coral mortality.<ref name=":3" /> The heavy metals prevent respiration and nerve communication within the coral which also leads to coral mortality.<ref name=":3" />
==== Ocean acidification ====
Another consequence of global warming is [[ocean acidification]]. CO<small>2</small> dissolves into the seawater thus changing its chemical composition; this new addition of [[carbonic acid]] shifts the [[pH]] value lower, making it more acidic.<ref name=":0" /> Ocean acidification adversely affects corals by affecting the rate at which they can generate their skeletal structures. The basic constituent in a coral's skeleton structure is [[calcium carbonate]] which breaks down in the presence of acid. The [[carbon cycle]] then becomes disrupted and as a result there is a reduction in the concentration of carbonate ions in the seawater. Marine calcification is now inversely affected which impacts calcifying organisms such as corals as it now becomes harder to build and form their calcium carbonate structures. Without a supportive skeleton, corals will naturally be more frail and easily damaged during [[storm surge]]s, while the rate of growth and recovery are both slowed. The corals also become weaker, and more susceptible to disease which significantly takes a toll on the resilience of the reefs.<ref name=":1" />
=== Hurricanes ===
As sea surface temperatures rise, low pressure systems that pass over areas of warmer water are fueled by the excess heat, forming into [[tropical depressions]] and then further into high intensity [[hurricanes]]. These systems affect wave patterns and seawater movements which can cause severe damage to shallow water corals. Reefs consisting of more fragile coral structures will be more vulnerable to the destructive strengths of currents generated from storm surge swells, and result in mass coral colony wipeouts when high category hurricanes hit the island. During storms, sediments and debris can also gather in areas that could have been perfect for coral settlements, but instead become unsuitable and remain barren.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.coris.noaa.gov/activities/caribbean_rpt/SCRBH2005_03.pdf|title=Hurricanes and their effects on coral reefs|last=Heron}}</ref>
Major hurricane events include Hurricane Allen in 1980, [[Hurricane Gilbert]] in 1988, and Hurricane Ivan in 2004.<ref name=":4a" /> In 2005, there were a record breaking 26 storms recorded that caused 26 events of bleaching in 16 of Jamaica's coral reef sites.<ref name=":4a" /> The hurricanes affected 68 percent of Jamaica's coral reefs and 38 percent of those corals later died.<ref name=":4a" /> In September 2005, up to 95 percent of Jamaica's corals had bleached, but only 50 percent recovered later.<ref name=":4a" /> As a result of the 2005 hurricane, microalgal blooms took over where the corals once were.<ref name=":4a" />
=== Invasive species ===
[[File:Common lionfish at Shaab El Erg reef.JPG|thumb|232x232px|Invasive species of lion-fish threatens coral reefs]]
The [[invasive species]] of [[Pterois|lion-fish]] pose a serious threat to the sustainability of Jamaica's coral reefs as [[marine ecosystem]]s become compromised with their rapid growth in population.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.wri.org/atlantic-and-caribbean-lionfish-invasion-threatens-reefs|title=Atlantic and Caribbean: Lionfish Invasion Threatens Reefs|date=2013-09-23|website=World Resources Institute|language=en|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref><ref name=":3a">{{Cite web|url=https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/impacts-invasive-lionfish|title=Impacts of Invasive Lionfish {{!}} NOAA Fisheries|last=Fisheries|first=NOAA|date=2018-07-30|website=www.fisheries.noaa.gov|language=EN-US|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref> These species of lion-fish, more specifically the [[Red lionfish|Pterois volitans]] and [[Pterois miles]], are not native to the Caribbean sea waters but instead originated in the [[Indo-Pacific]].<ref name=":2" /> The very first reported sightings of the invasion of lion-fish in the Caribbean occurred in the 1980s off the coast of Florida.<ref name=":3a" /> It is speculated that these fish entered Atlantic and Caribbean waterways due to aquarium releases, where people would set the species free in the sea after growing too big for the tank and rapidly multiplying.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.plantingpeace.org/2015/07/lionfish/|title=Lionfish Are Destroying Our Coral Reefs|date=2015-07-24|website=Planting Peace|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref>
Due to the fact that Jamaican reefs aren't the lion-fishes' natural habitat there are no known predators in the area, thereby contributing to their increasing population and inevitably affecting the [[ecosystem]].<ref name=":4" /> The lion-fishes' diet is not limited to any one species of fish and their carnivorous eating habits are detrimental to Jamaica's coral reefs as they feed upon the [[herbivore]]s responsible for keeping [[algae]] growth levels in check.<ref name=":3a" /><ref name=":4" /> Without proper algae regulation there could be a massive overgrowth of algae which blocks out sunlight thus preventing reefs from in turn producing oxygen through photosynthesis. Even the presence of one lone lion-fish was found to cause a 79% reduction in the recruitment of the area's native reef fishes, and its impact is further amplified by the fact that they also breed at a much faster rate than native fish, with females laying up to 2 million eggs per year each.<ref name=":3a" /><ref name=":4" /> In as little as 5 weeks, one lion-fish also has the ability to wipeout 80% of young reef fish, thereby preventing the flourishing of species of fish that are essential to maintaining healthy corals.<ref name=":4" />
=== Aqua tourism ===
[[Tourism]] is an essential aspect of Jamaica's economy, but can also be unintentionally harmful to the environment when tourists aren't taught how to properly care for the island's ecosystems. [[Snorkeling]] and [[recreational diving]] are just some of the few activities tourists normally take part in and sometimes their actions can become detrimental to the corals.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://earthjustice.org/blog/2016-april/coral-reefs-and-the-unintended-impact-of-tourism|title=Coral Reefs and the Unintended Impact of Tourism|date=2016-04-18|website=Earthjustice|language=en|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref> Without knowing any better, people swim up to the corals to touch them or snap off pieces for keep sakes which can lead to coral bleaching, as the corals become stressed and expel their algae.<ref name=":5" /> By swimming too close the reefs, tourists can also stir up sand and sediments with their [[Swimfin|flippers]] thus depositing them on the corals and inevitably hindering the process of [[photosynthesis]].<ref name=":5" />
=== Overfishing ===
[[File:Eilat Scuba Parrotfish.JPG|thumb|Parrotfish eating algae off of coral reef]]
Jamaica's coral reefs house 135 different species of fish.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Klomp|first=Kristi|date=2003|title=Condition of Reef Fish on Jamaica's North Coast Signals Late Stages of Over Exploitation|url=http://aquaticcommons.org/13590/1/gcfi_54-49.pdf|journal=54th Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute|pages=592–606}}</ref> Between 1995 and 1998, fishing licenses increased by 68 percent for the Montego Bay Marine Park where 69 percent of fishers rely on fishing as their full-time income.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bunce|first1=L.|last2=Gustavson|first2=K.|last3=Williams|first3=J.|last4=Miller|first4=M.|date=1999-12-01|title=The human side of reef management: a case study analysis of the socioeconomic framework of Montego Bay Marine Park|journal=Coral Reefs|language=en|volume=18|issue=4|pages=369–380|doi=10.1007/s003380050215|s2cid=25062627 |issn=0722-4028}}</ref> In 1970 on Jamaica's north coast, trap fishermen set 1800 traps which was at least two times above estimated sustainability levels.<ref name=":1a" /> Fish density dwindled to 9.8 fish per 100 m<sup>2</sup> between 2001 and 2006.<ref name=":4a">{{Cite book|title=Status of Caribbean Coral Reefs after Bleaching and Hurricanes in 2005|last=Jones|first=Loureene|publisher=Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network|year=2008|location=Townsville, Australia|pages=73–84}}</ref> Overfishing has reduced the herbivorous fish that keep algae populations in check and it has caused a phase shift from coral reefs to algae reefs.<ref name=":0a" /> Today, algae covers 24 percent of the reefs where corals once stood.<ref name=":0a" /> By 1960, fish biomass was reduced by 80 percent due to overfishing.<ref name=":1a" /> Fish that are vital to coral reef survival, such as the parrot fish, have been driven to near extinction in some regions.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.iucn.org/content/despair-repair-dramatic-decline-caribbean-corals-can-be-reversed|title=From despair to repair: Dramatic decline of Caribbean corals can be reversed|date=2014-06-30|work=IUCN|access-date=2017-08-06|language=en}}</ref> In addition, overfishing has also been linked to the disappearance of the black sea urchin, ''[[Diadema antillarum]],'' which also helped to reduce microalgal presence.<ref>{{Cite magazine|date=September 16, 2009|title=Disaster and Recovery of the Fringing Reefs of North Jamaica|magazine=CO<sub>2</sub> Science|volume=12|issue=37|url=http://co2science.org/articles/V12/N37/C1.php}}</ref>
[[Overfishing]] causes an unacceptable reduction in the population of fish which are essential to the proper maintenance of the reefs, such as grazers.<ref name=":02">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/jul/02/caribbean-coral-reef-lost-fishing-pollution-report|title=Caribbean coral reefs 'will be lost within 20 years' without protection|last=Aldred|first=Jessica|date=2014-07-02|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-10-24|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Fish such as the native [[Parrotfish|parrot fish]] help keep algae levels down so that the corals aren't completely encased in their bloom.<ref name=":02" /> It has been found that there is a direct link between thriving parrotfish populations and thriving coral populations in Caribbean reefs, with islands which have imposed parrotfish fishing bans having the healthiest reefs like Bermuda, and those without which have witnessed major coral declines like Jamaica.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://blog.nationalgeographic.org/2014/07/02/to-save-coral-reefs-start-with-parrotfish/|title=To Save Coral Reefs, Start With Parrotfish|date=2014-07-02|website=National Geographic Society Newsroom|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref> Without these essential species of fish, Jamaica's reefs run the risk of having total coral decimation.<ref name=":02" /> As a result, it is imperative that bans should be put in place to protect the parrotfish, but that's easier said than done when so many local fishermen rely on catching and selling them to make a livelihood.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.caribbeanclimate.bz/parrotfish-ban/|title=Parrotfish ban|date=2014-07-10|website=Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref>
=== Disease ===
The Caribbean's coral reefs have been increasingly becoming diseased by 20 percent.<ref name=":3a" /> Coral diseases can cause tissue damage or it could even destroy the entire colony.<ref name=":3a" /> In 1980, white-band disease killed 95 percent of the ''[[Acroporid palmata]]'' and ''Acroporid cervicornis'' colonies which placed them on the [[Endangered Species Act of 1973|Endangered Species Act]].<ref name=":3" /> A 2010 study concluded that sewage runoff was correlated to the [[white pox coral disease]] that destroyed the ''Acroporid palmata'' species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sutherland|first1=Kathryn Patterson|last2=Porter|first2=James W.|last3=Turner|first3=Jeffrey W.|last4=Thomas|first4=Brian J.|last5=Looney|first5=Erin E.|last6=Luna|first6=Trevor P.|last7=Meyers|first7=Meredith K.|last8=Futch|first8=J. Carrie|last9=Lipp|first9=Erin K.|date=2010-05-01|title=Human sewage identified as likely source of white pox disease of the threatened Caribbean elkhorn coral, Acropora palmata|journal=Environmental Microbiology|language=en|volume=12|issue=5|pages=1122–1131|doi=10.1111/j.1462-2920.2010.02152.x|pmid=20132278|bibcode=2010EnvMi..12.1122S |issn=1462-2920}}</ref>
== Rehabilitation efforts ==
With all of these different factors coming into play, Jamaican (and more generally Caribbean) reefs have been affected substantially. Around 9% of the Earth's total coral population resides in the Caribbean, and it is truly saddening that over 50% of that original coral in the region has been destroyed since the 1970s with [[algal bloom]]s at an all-time high since the 1990s.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":6" /> Jamaica in particular has lost 85% of its coral reefs between 1980 and 1990 mainly due to the chain of unfortunate human and natural disasters that struck the island during that time frame. The state of the corals didn't go unnoticed and spurred locals to take action to reverse the damage caused to the reefs. As a result, many new (grassroots-run) fisheries and coral nurseries have been established across Jamaica since around 2009, in an effort to bring back the island's marine ecosystem.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/destinations/2019/09/19/jamaicas-coral-reefs-comeback-gardeners-help-fishermen-adapt/2372475001/|title='The coral are coming back': Reviving Jamaica's elegant and essential coral reefs|website=USA TODAY|language=en|access-date=2019-10-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/article/20190918/ARTICLE/190919723/1606|title=Jamaica Observer Limited|website=Jamaica Observer|access-date=2019-10-28}}</ref>
In Ocho Rios, Jamaica a group of local divers have teamed up to start this restoration process and rebuild the reefs through coral gardening.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://apnews.com/0d388588dd6b4424b62166b3b31a0524|title=Coral gardeners bring back Jamaica's reefs, piece by piece|date=2019-09-18|website=AP NEWS|access-date=2019-10-25}}</ref> Firstly, corals are broken off into small fragments and then attached to 'underwater clotheslines' where they are left to grow.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /> These simplistic gardening structures allow the corals to regenerate in optimal conditions as their availability to food and sunshine is maximized. During this regrowth period, the corals are frequently cleaned and any creatures that may feed on the immature coral (such as sea snails and fire-worms) are manually removed.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /> Once the coral bit grows to about the size of a human hand, that is a sign that it is ready to my transplanted onto a rocky reef to instigate natural coral reef restoration.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /> This process is extremely labor-intensive and requires patience, but has been seen as effective upon sightings of tropical fish returning to the reefs.<ref name=":8" />
Thanks to this effort, coral populations and fish populations are rising.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" />
== See also ==
* [[Environmental issues with coral reefs]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{corals}}
[[Category:Geography of Jamaica]]
[[Category:Coral reefs]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]] |
Urgenda | {{Short description|Dutch nonprofit environmental foundation}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = urgenda
| full_name = Stichting Urgenda
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| logo = Stichting Urgenda.png
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| predecessor =
| merged =
| successor =
| formation = 2007<!-- use {{start date and age|YYYY|MM|DD}} -->
| founder = Jan Rotmans, [[Marjan Minnesma]]
| founding_location = [[Amsterdam]], [[Netherlands]]
| extinction = <!-- use {{end date and age|YYYY|MM|DD}} -->
| merger =
| type = Stichting ([[Foundation (nonprofit)|Foundation]] under netherlands law)
| tax_id = <!-- or | vat_id = (for European organizations) -->
| registration_id = <!-- for non-profit org -->
| status =
| purpose = [[Climate change mitigation]], environmental protection, sustainability
| focus =
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'''Urgenda''' is a nonprofit foundation ([[stichting]]) in the [[Netherlands]] which aims to help enforce national, [[Europe]]an and international environment treaties. In 2013, Urgenda filed a lawsuit against the state of the Netherlands – respectively also against the government – at the court of [[The Hague]], to force them to make more effective policies that reduce the amount of emissions, with the aim to protect the people of the Netherlands against the effects of climate change and pollution.
==History==
The name ''Urgenda'' is a portmanteau of the words ''[[wikt:nl:urgente|urgente]]'' ([[wikt:urgent|urgent]]) and ''[[wikt:nl:agenda|agenda]]''. It was founded in 2007 by Jan Rotmans (professor at the [[Erasmus University Rotterdam|Erasmus University]] ([[Rotterdam]]) and Marjan Minnesma (lawyer, economic scientist and philosopher).{{citation needed|date=April 2020}}
==Success in court case against the government==
{{excerpt|State of the Netherlands v. Urgenda Foundation}}
==Awards==
* [[Doctor honoris causa]] of [[Saint-Louis University, Brussels]], 2019<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lalibre.be/planete/environnement/marjan-minnesma-a-fait-condamner-le-gouvernement-aux-pays-bas-le-gouvernement-a-le-devoir-de-proteger-ses-citoyens-5d922f6ad8ad584f7c0b0be9|title=Elle fait condamner le gouvernement néerlandais pour sa politique climatique : "Il a le devoir de protéger ses citoyens"|last=Libre.be|first=La|date=2019-10-01|website=www.lalibre.be|language=fr|access-date=2020-01-26}}</ref>
==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:2007 establishments in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 2007]]
[[Category:Climate change organizations]]
[[Category:Organisations based in Amsterdam]]
[[Category:Foundations based in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]] |
Category:Environmental personhood | {{cat main}}
[[Category:Legal entities]]
[[Category:Corporate personhood]]
[[Category:Personhood]]
[[Category:Environmental law]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Environmental ethics]] |
Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive | {{Short description|European Union directive restricting ten hazardous materials}}
{{Redirect|RoHS||ROHS (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{anchor|RoHS 1}}
{{EngvarB|date=July 2018}}
{{More citations needed|date=September 2016}}
{{Infobox EU legislation
|type=Directive
|number=2002/95/EC
|title=Directive on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment
|madeby=[[European Council|Council]] & [[European Parliament|Parliament]]
|madeunder=Art. 95 EC
|OJrefurl=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32002L0095:EN:HTML eur-lex.europa.eu
|OJref=L37, 13 February 2003, pp. 19–23
|made=27 January 2003
|commenced=13 February 2003
|implementation=13 August 2004
|CommProp=C365E, 19 December 2000, p. 195,<br/>C240E, 28 August 2001, p. 303.
|ESCOpin=C116, 20 April 2001, p. 38.
|CROpin=C148, 18 May 2001, p. 1.
|ParlOpin=C34E, 7 February 2002, p. 109.
|Reports=
|replaces=
|amends=
|amendedby={{nobr|Directive 2008/35/EC}}; {{nobr|Decision 2005/618/EC}}, {{nobr|Decision 2005/717/EC}}, {{nobr|Decision 2005/747/EC}}, {{nobr|Decision 2006/310/EC}}, {{nobr|Decision 2006/690/EC}}, {{nobr|Decision 2006/691/EC}}, {{nobr|Decision 2006/692/EC}}, {{nobr|Decision 2008/385/EC}}.
|replacedby=Directive 2011/65/EU, 3 January 2013<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1399998664957&uri=CELEX:02011L0065-20140129 |title=EURLex – 02011L0065-20140129 – EN – EUR-Lex |publisher=Eur-lex.europa.eu |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107005501/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1399998664957&uri=CELEX:02011L0065-20140129 |archive-date=7 January 2016}}</ref>
|status=Recast
}}
The '''Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive''' 2002/95/EC ('''RoHS 1'''), short for '''Directive on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment''', was adopted in February 2003 by the [[European Union]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2003:037:0019:0023:EN:PDF |format=PDF |title=DIRECTIVE 2002/95/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL |publisher=Eur-lex.europa.eu |access-date=3 July 2015}}</ref>
The initiative was to limit the amount of hazardous chemicals in electronics.
The RoHS 1 [[European Union directive|directive]] took effect on 1 July 2006, and is required to be enforced and became a law in each member state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.assentcompliance.com/rohs/ |title=Turnkey RoHS & RoHS II Module |website=assentcompliance.com |access-date=17 May 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528201136/http://www.assentcompliance.com/rohs/ |archive-date=28 May 2016}}</ref> This directive restricts (with [[#Restriction Exemptions|exceptions]]) the use of ten hazardous materials in the manufacture of various types of electronic and electrical equipment. In addition to the exceptions, there are [[#Scope exclusions|exclusions]] for products such as solar panels. It is closely linked with the [[Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive]] (WEEE) 2002/96/EC (now superseded<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/search.html?lang=en&text=2002%2F96%2FEC&qid=1575306757180&type=quick&scope=EURLEX&FM_CODED=DIR|title=Search results - EUR-Lex}}</ref>) which sets collection, recycling and recovery targets for electrical goods and is part of a legislative initiative to solve the problem of huge amounts of toxic [[electronic waste]]. In speech, RoHS is often spelled out, or pronounced{{Citation needed|date=February 2019}} {{IPAc-en|r|ɒ|s}}, {{IPAc-en|r|ɒ|ʃ}}, {{IPAc-en|r|oʊ|z}}, or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|r|oʊ|h|ɒ|z}}, and refers to the EU standard, unless otherwise qualified.
== Details ==
Each European Union member state will adopt its own enforcement and implementation policies using the directive as a guide.
'''RoHS''' is often referred to as the "lead-free directive", but it restricts the use of the following ten substances:
# [[Lead]] (Pb)
# [[Mercury (element)|Mercury]] (Hg)
# [[Cadmium]] (Cd)
# [[Hexavalent chromium]] (Cr<sup>6+</sup>)
# [[Polybrominated biphenyls]] (PBB)
# [[PBDE|Polybrominated diphenyl ether]] (PBDE)
# [[DEHP|Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate]] (DEHP)
# [[Benzyl butyl phthalate|Butyl benzyl phthalate]] (BBP)
# [[Dibutyl phthalate]] (DBP)
# [[Diisobutyl phthalate]] (DIBP)
'''Maximum Permitted Concentration: 0.1%'''<ref name="Eur-lex.europa.eu">{{cite web |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=OJ:JOL_2015_137_R_0003 |title=EURLex – 32015L0863 – EN – EUR-Lex |date=4 June 2015 |publisher=Eur-lex.europa.eu |access-date=1 February 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160209151244/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=OJ:JOL_2015_137_R_0003 |archive-date=9 February 2016}}</ref>
'''Max for Cadmium: 0.01%'''<ref name="Eur-lex.europa.eu"/>
DEHP, BBP, DBP and DIBP were added as part of DIRECTIVE (EU) 2015/863 which was published on 31 March 2015.<ref name="Eur-lex.europa.eu"/>
PBB and PBDE are [[flame retardant]]s used in several plastics. [[Hexavalent chromium]] is used in [[chrome plating]], chromate coatings and [[primer (paint)|primer]]s, and in [[chromic acid]].
The maximum permitted concentrations in non-[[#Restriction Exemptions|exempt products]] are 0.1% or 1000 [[Parts per million|ppm]] (except for [[cadmium]], which is limited to 0.01% or 100 ppm) by weight. The restrictions are on each ''homogeneous material'' in the product, which means that the limits do not apply to the weight of the finished product, or even to a component, but to any single material that could (theoretically) be separated mechanically – for example, the sheath on a cable or the [[tinning]] on a component lead.
As an example, a [[radio]] is composed of a case, [[screws]], [[washer (hardware)|washers]], a circuit board, speakers, etc. The screws, washers, and case may each be made of homogenous materials, but the other components comprise multiple sub-components of many different types of material. For instance, a circuit board is composed of a bare [[printed circuit board]] (PCB), [[integrated circuit]]s (IC), [[resistors]], [[capacitors]], switches, etc. A [[switch]] is composed of a case, a lever, a spring, contacts, pins, etc., each of which may be made of different materials. A contact might be composed of a copper strip with a surface coating. A [[loudspeaker]] is composed of a permanent magnet, copper wire, paper, etc.
Everything that can be identified as a homogeneous material must meet the limit. So if it turns out that the case was made of plastic with 2,300 ppm (0.23%) PBB used as a flame retardant, then the entire radio would fail the requirements of the directive.
In an effort to close RoHS 1 loopholes, in May 2006 the European Commission was asked to review two currently excluded product categories (monitoring and control equipment, and medical devices) for future inclusion in the products that must fall into RoHS compliance.<ref>[http://www.edn.com/article/CA6333546.html?partner=enews] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927174054/http://www.edn.com/article/CA6333546.html?partner=enews|date=27 September 2007}}</ref> In addition the commission entertains requests for deadline extensions or for exclusions by substance categories, substance location or weight.<ref>[http://www.reed-electronics.com/semiconductor/article/CA6333371?spacedesc=news&industryid=3026&nid=2301] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704234124/http://www.reed-electronics.com/semiconductor/article/CA6333371?spacedesc=news&industryid=3026&nid=2301|date=4 July 2015}}</ref> New legislation was published in the official journal in July 2011 which supersedes this exemption.
Note that batteries are not included within the scope of RoHS. However, in Europe, batteries are under the European Commission's 1991 Battery Directive (91/157/EEC<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31991L0157:EN:NOT |title=EURLex – 31991L0157 – EN – EUR-Lex |date=18 March 1991 |publisher=Eur-lex.europa.eu |access-date=3 July 2015}}</ref>), which was recently{{when|date=August 2023}} increased in scope and approved in the form of the new [[battery directive]], version 2003/0282 COD,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32006L0066:EN:NOT |title=EURLex – 32006L0066 – EN – EUR-Lex |publisher=Eur-lex.europa.eu |date=26 September 2006 |access-date=3 July 2015}}</ref> which will be official when submitted to and published in the EU's Official Journal. While the first Battery Directive addressed possible trade barrier issues brought about by disparate European member states' implementation, the new directive more explicitly highlights improving and protecting the environment from the negative effects of the waste contained in batteries. It also contains a programme for more ambitious recycling of industrial, automotive, and consumer batteries, gradually increasing the rate of manufacturer-provided collection sites to 45% by 2016. It also sets limits of 5 ppm mercury and 20 ppm cadmium to batteries except those used in medical, emergency, or portable power-tool devices.<ref>[http://www.conformity.com/artman/publish/printer_25.shtml] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302101640/http://www.conformity.com/artman/publish/printer_25.shtml|date=2 March 2008}}</ref> Though not setting quantitative limits on quantities of lead, lead–acid, nickel, and nickel–cadmium in batteries, it cites a need to restrict these substances and provide for recycling up to 75% of batteries with these substances. There are also provisions for marking the batteries with symbols in regard to metal content and recycling collection information.
The directive applies to equipment as defined by a section of the WEEE directive. The following numeric categories apply:
# Large household appliances
# Small household appliances
# IT & telecommunications equipment (although infrastructure equipment is exempt in some countries)
# Consumer equipment
# Lighting equipment – including light bulbs
# Electronic and electrical tools
# Toys, leisure, and sports equipment
# Medical devices (exemption removed in July 2011)
# Monitoring and control instruments (exemption removed in July 2011)
# Automatic dispensers
#Other EEE not covered by any of the categories above.
It does not apply to fixed industrial plant and tools. Compliance is the responsibility of the company that puts the product on the market, as defined in the Directive; components and sub-assemblies are not responsible for product compliance. Of course, given the fact that the regulation is applied at the homogeneous material level, data on substance concentrations needs to be transferred through the supply chain to the final producer. An IPC standard has recently been developed and published to facilitate this data exchange, IPC-1752.<ref>[http://www.ipc.org/ipc-175x] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315161952/http://www.ipc.org/ipc-175x|date=15 March 2006}}</ref> It is enabled through two PDF forms that are free to use.
RoHS applies to these products in the EU whether made within the EU or imported. Certain exemptions apply, and these are updated on occasion by the EU.
===Examples of product components containing restricted substances===
RoHS restricted substances have been used in a broad array of consumer electronics products. Examples of components that have contained lead include:
* paints and pigments
* PVC (vinyl) cables as a stabiliser (e.g., power cords, USB cables)
* [[solder]]s
* printed circuit board finishes, leads, internal and external interconnects
* glass in television and photographic products (e.g., CRT television screens and camera lenses)
* metal parts
* lamps and bulbs
* batteries
* [[integrated circuits]] or microchips
Cadmium is found in many of the components above; examples include plastic pigmentation, [[nickel–cadmium battery|nickel–cadmium (NiCd) batteries]] and [[cadmium sulfide|CdS]] photocells (used in night lights). Mercury is used in lighting applications and automotive switches; examples include [[fluorescent lamp]]s and [[mercury switch|mercury tilt switches]] (these are rarely used nowadays). Hexavalent chromium is used for metal finishes to prevent corrosion. Polybrominated biphenyls and diphenyl ethers/oxides are used primarily as flame retardants.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://thor.inemi.org/webdownload/newsroom/Presentations/11.pdf |title=Elimination of RoHS Substances in Electronic Products |publisher=Thor.inemi.org |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003535/http://thor.inemi.org/webdownload/newsroom/Presentations/11.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref>
=== Hazardous materials and the high-tech waste problem ===
RoHS and other efforts to reduce hazardous materials in electronics are motivated in part to address the global issue of consumer electronics waste. As newer technology arrives at an ever-increasing rate, consumers are discarding their obsolete products sooner than ever. This waste ends up in landfills and in countries like China to be "recycled".<ref name=es071873x/>
<blockquote>In the fashion-conscious mobile market, 98 million U.S. cell phones took their last call in 2005. All told, the EPA estimates that in the U.S. that year, between 1.5 and 1.9 million tons of computers, TVs, VCRs, monitors, cell phones, and other equipment were discarded. If all sources of electronic waste are tallied, it could total 50 million tons a year worldwide, according to the UN Environment Programme.<ref name="nationalgeographic1">{{cite web |url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/01/high-tech-waste/carroll-text |title=High-Tech Waste – National Geographic Magazine |work=National Geographic |date=2013-04-25 |access-date=2015-07-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180325045021/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/01/high-tech-waste/carroll-text |archive-date=2018-03-25}}</ref></blockquote>
American electronics sent offshore to countries like Ghana in West Africa under the guise of recycling may be doing more harm than good. Not only are adult and child workers in these jobs being poisoned by heavy metals, but these metals are returning to the U.S. "The U.S. right now is shipping large quantities of leaded materials to China, and China is the world's major manufacturing center," [[Jeffrey Weidenhamer|Dr. Jeffrey Weidenhamer]] says, a chemistry professor at Ashland University in Ohio. "It's not all that surprising things are coming full circle and now we're getting contaminated products back."<ref name=es071873x>{{cite journal |doi=10.1021/es071873x |title=Heavy Metals Concentrations of Surface Dust from e-Waste Recycling and Its Human Health Implications in Southeast China |year=2008 |last1=Leung |first1=Anna O. W. |last2=Duzgoren-Aydin |first2=Nurdan S. |last3=Cheung |first3=K. C. |last4=Wong |first4=Ming H. |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=42 |issue=7 |pages=2674–80 |pmid=18505015|bibcode=2008EnST...42.2674L |doi-access=}}
*{{cite news |author=Martin LaMonica |date=15 April 2008 |title=Study: E-waste recycling poisons people with heavy metals |work=CNET News |url=http://news.cnet.com/8301-11128_3-9919304-54.html}}</ref>
=== Changing toxicity perceptions ===
In addition to the high-tech waste problem, RoHS reflects contemporary research over the past 50 years in biological toxicology that acknowledges the long-term effects of low-level chemical exposure on populations. New testing is capable of detecting much smaller concentrations of environmental toxicants. Researchers are associating these exposures with neurological, developmental, and reproductive changes.
RoHS and other environmental laws are in contrast to historical and contemporary law that seek to address only acute toxicology, that is direct exposure to large amounts of toxic substances causing severe injury or death.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rohswell.com/News/Genl037-New-Toxicity.php |title=Archive |publisher=Rohswell.com |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131125233538/http://rohswell.com/News/Genl037-New-Toxicity.php |archive-date=25 November 2013}}</ref>
=== Life-cycle impact assessment of lead-free solder ===
The [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) has published a [[life-cycle assessment]] (LCA) of the environmental impacts of lead-free and tin–lead [[solder]], as used in electronic products.<ref name="EPALifecycle">[http://www.epa.gov/opptintr/dfe/pubs/solder/lca/index.htm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140314205628/http://www.epa.gov/opptintr/dfe/pubs/solder/lca/index.htm|date=14 March 2014}}</ref> For bar solders, when only lead-free solders were considered, the tin/copper alternative had the lowest (best) scores. For paste solders, [[bismuth]]/[[tin]]/silver had the lowest impact scores among the lead-free alternatives in every category except [[non-renewable resource]] consumption. For both paste and bar solders, all of the lead-free solder alternatives had a lower (better) LCA score in toxicity categories than tin/lead solder. This is primarily due to the toxicity of lead, and the amount of lead that leaches from printed wiring board assemblies, as determined by the leachability study conducted by the partnership. The study results are providing the industry with an objective analysis of the life-cycle environmental effects of leading candidate alternative lead-free solders, allowing industry to consider environmental concerns along with the traditionally evaluated parameters of cost and performance. This assessment is also allowing industry to redirect efforts toward products and processes that reduce solders' environmental footprint, including energy consumption, releases of toxic chemicals, and potential risks to human health and the environment. Another life-cycle assessment by IKP, University of Stuttgart, shows similar results to those of the EPA study.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://leadfree.ipc.org/files/RoHS_15.pdf |title=IKP, Department of Life-Cycle Engineering |publisher=Leadfree.ipc.org |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225155540/http://leadfree.ipc.org/files/RoHS_15.pdf |archive-date=25 February 2009}}</ref>
===Life-cycle impact assessment of BFR-free plastics===
The ban on concentrations of [[brominated flame retardant]]s (BFR) above 0.1% in plastics has affected plastics recycling. As more and more products include recycled plastics, it has become critical to know the BFR concentration in these plastics, either by tracing the origins of the recycled plastics to establish the BFR concentrations, or by measuring the BFR concentrations from samples. Plastics with high BFR concentrations are costly to handle or to discard, whereas plastics with levels below 0.1% have value as recyclable materials.
There are a number of analytical techniques for the rapid measurement of BFR concentrations. [[X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy]] can confirm the presence of bromine (Br), but it does not indicate the BFR concentration or specific molecule. [[Ion attachment mass spectrometry]] (IAMS) can be used to measure BFR concentrations in plastics. The BFR ban has significantly affected both upstream (plastic material selection) and downstream (plastic material recycling).{{citation needed|date=March 2014}}
=== {{anchor|RoHS 2}}2011/65/EU (RoHS 2) ===
The RoHS 2 directive (2011/65/EU) is an evolution of the original directive and became law on 21 July 2011 and took effect on 2 January 2013. It addresses the same substances as the original directive while improving regulatory conditions and legal clarity. It requires periodic re-evaluations that facilitate gradual broadening of its requirements to cover additional electronic and electrical equipment, cables and spare parts.<ref name="HP-RoHS2">{{cite web |author=United States |url=http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/globalcitizenship/environment/pdf/RoHS2Addendum.pdf |title=Living Progress | HP® Official Site |publisher=Hp.com |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917032105/http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/globalcitizenship/environment/pdf/RoHS2Addendum.pdf |archive-date=17 September 2012}}</ref> The CE logo now indicates compliance and RoHS 2 declaration of conformity is now detailed (see below).{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}
In 2012, a final report from the [[European Commission]] revealed that some EU Member States considered all toys under the scope of the primary RoHS 1 Directive 2002/95/EC, irrespective of whether their primary or secondary functions were using electric currents or electromagnetic fields. From the implementation of RoHS 2 or RoHS Recast Directive 2011/65/EU on, all the concerned Member States will have to comply with the new regulation.
The key difference in the recast is that it is now necessary to demonstrate conformity in a similar way to the LVD and EMC directives. Not being able to show compliance in sufficiently detailed files, and not ensuring it is implemented in production is now a criminal offence. Like the other CE marking directives it mandates production control and traceability to the technical files. It describes two methods of achieving presumption of conformity (Directive 2011/65/EU Article 16.2), either technical files should include test data for all materials or a standard accepted in the official journal for the directive, is used. Currently the only standard is EN IEC 63000:2018 (based on IEC 63000:2016 superseded EN 50581:2012), a risk based method to reduce the amount of test data required (Harmonised Standards list for RoHS2, OJEU C363/6).
One of the consequences of the requirement to demonstrate conformity is the requirement to know the exemption use of each component, otherwise it is not possible to know compliance when the product is placed on the market, the only point in time the product must be 'compliant'. Many do not understand that 'compliance' varies depending on what exemptions are in force and it is quite possible to make a non-compliant product with 'compliant' components. Compliance must be calculated on the day of placing on the market. In reality this means knowing the exemption status of all components and using up stock of old status parts before the expire date of the exemptions (Directive 2011/65/EU Article 7.b referring to Decision 768/2008/EC Module A Internal production control). Not having a system to manage this could be seen as a lack of diligence and a criminal prosecution could occur (UK Instrument 2012 N. 3032 section 39 Penalties).
RoHS 2 also has a more dynamic approach to exemptions, creating an automatic expiration if exemptions are not renewed by requests from industry. Additionally new substances can be added to the controlled list, with 4 new substances expected to be controlled by 2019. All these mean greater information control and update systems are required. {{citation needed|date=October 2015}}
Other differences include new responsibilities for importers and distributors and markings to improve traceability to the technical files. These are part of the NLF for directives and make the supply chain a more active part of the policing (Directive 2011/65/EU Articles 7, 9, 10).
There has been a recent additional amendment 2017/2102 to 2011/65
=== 2015/863 (RoHS 2 amendment) ===
The RoHS 2 directive (2011/65/EU) contains allowance to add new materials and 4 materials are highlighted for this attention in the original version, the amendment 2015/863 adds four additional substances to Annex II of 2011/65/EU (3/4 of the new restrictions are recommended for investigation in the original directive, ref Para 10 of preamble). This is another reason that simple component RoHS compliance statements are not acceptable as compliance requirements vary depending on the date the product is placed on the market (ref IEC 63000:2016). The additional four substances restriction and evidence requirements shall be applied for products placed on the market on or after 22 July 2019 except where exemptions permit as stated in Annex III.,<ref name="Eur-lex.europa.eu"/> although at the time of writing no exemptions exist or have been applied for, for these materials.
The four additional substances are
# Bis(2-Ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP)
# Benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP)
# Dibutyl phthalate (DBP)
# Diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP)
The maximum permitted concentrations in non-exempt products are 0.1%.
The new substances are also listed under the REACH Candidate list, and DEHP is not authorised for manufacturing (use as a substance) in the EU under Annex XIV of REACH.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://echa.europa.eu/candidate-list-table |title=Candidate List of substances of very high concern for Authorisation – ECHA |publisher=Europa (web portal) |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170712130156/https://echa.europa.eu/candidate-list-table |archive-date=12 July 2017}}</ref>
==Scope exclusions==
With the recast of the original RoHS (I) Directive (2002/95/EC), the scope of the directive was decoupled from the scope of the WEEE Directive and an open scope was introduced. The RoHS (II) Directive (2011/65/EU) was applicable to all electrical and electronic equipment. Scope limitations and exclusions were specifically introduced in Article 2(4) a) – j) of the recast Directive. All other EEE was in scope of the Directive, unless specific exemptions have been granted through Commission delegated acts (see next paragraph).
The scope exclusions are listed below <ref>{{cite web |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2011/65/2014-01-29 |title=Directive 2011/65/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 June 2011 on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment (recast) (Text with EEA relevance)}}</ref>
This Directive does not apply to:
<ol type="a">
<li>equipment which is necessary for the protection of the essential interests of the security of Member States, including arms, munitions and war material intended for specifically military purposes;</li>
<li>equipment designed to be sent into space;</li>
<li>equipment which is specifically designed, and is to be installed, as part of another type of equipment that is excluded or does not fall within the scope of this Directive, which can fulfil its function only if it is part of that equipment, and which can be replaced only by the same specifically designed equipment;</li>
<li>large-scale stationary industrial tools;</li>
<li>large-scale fixed installations;</li>
<li>means of transport for persons or goods, excluding electric two-wheel vehicles which are not type-approved;</li>
<li>non-road mobile machinery made available exclusively for professional use;</li>
<li>active implantable medical devices;</li>
<li>photovoltaic panels intended to be used in a system that is designed, assembled and installed by professionals for permanent use at a defined location to produce energy from solar light for public, commercial, industrial and residential applications;</li>
<li>equipment specifically designed solely for the purposes of research and development only made available on a business-to-business basis.</li>
</ol>
==Restriction exemptions==<!--WARNING: Do not break internal links: Do not rename without renaming internal links to this section as well!-->
{{anchor|Restriction Exemptions}}
There are over 80 exemptions, some of which are quite broad. Exemptions will automatically expire after 5 or 7 years unless renewed.<ref name="HP-RoHS2"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.electronicsweekly.com/directive-decoder/exemptions/2-new-additions-to-the-rohs-ex-2011-09 |title=2 new additions to RoHS exemption list |date=13 September 2011 |publisher=Electronicsweekly.com|access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150705160628/http://www.electronicsweekly.com/directive-decoder/exemptions/2-new-additions-to-the-rohs-ex-2011-09/ |archive-date=5 July 2015}}</ref>
According to [[Hewlett-Packard]]: "The European Union is gradually narrowing the scope of and expiring many of the current RoHS exemptions. In addition, it is likely that new substance restrictions will be introduced in the next several years."<ref name="HP-RoHS2"/>
Some exemptions:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/10/pe00/pe00062.en10.pdf |title=Directive of the European Parliament and of the council on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment (Recast) |publisher=The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union |date=22 March 2011 |access-date=22 May 2013 |page=14 et. seq |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224082534/http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/10/pe00/pe00062.en10.pdf |archive-date=24 December 2012}}</ref>
* Lead as an alloying element in steel containing up to 0.35% lead by weight, aluminium containing up to 0.4% lead by weight, and copper alloy containing up to 4% lead by weight is permitted.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.diecastingdesign.org/rohs |title=RoHS |work=NADCA Design |access-date=8 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309064738/http://www.diecastingdesign.org/rohs |archive-date=9 March 2017}}</ref> (Category 6c)
* Lead in high melting temperature type solders (i.e. lead-based solder alloys containing 85% or more lead by weight). (Category 7a)
* "Lead in solders for servers, storage and storage array systems, network infrastructure equipment for switching, transmission, and network management for telecommunications." (Category 7b)
* Limited amounts of mercury in fluorescent and other [[light bulbs]] where it is essential to their functioning comprise RoHS 2 Categories 1, 2, 3, and 4
Medical devices were exempt in the original directive.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://medtechinsider.com/archives/28384 |title=Blog Archive " Why Medical Device Manufacturers Must Practise Future-Minded Purchasing Today |publisher=medtechinsider |date=16 July 2012 |access-date=22 May 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130821155937/http://medtechinsider.com/archives/28384 |archive-date=21 August 2013}}</ref> RoHS 2 narrowed the exemption's scope to ''active implantable'' medical devices only (Category 4h). In vitro diagnostic devices (IVDD) and other medical devices are now included.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.emdt.co.uk/article/medical-devices-under-recast-rohs-regime |title=Medical Devices under Recast RoHS Regime |publisher=Emdt.co.uk |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150705060811/http://www.emdt.co.uk/article/medical-devices-under-recast-rohs-regime |archive-date=5 July 2015}}</ref>
Automotive vehicles are exempt (Category 4f). Vehicles instead are addressed in the [[End of Life Vehicles Directive]] (Directive 2000/53/EC).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.circuitnet.com/experts/40087.shtml |title=Automotive RoHS Exemptions |publisher=Circuitnet.com |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704174704/http://www.circuitnet.com/experts/40087.shtml |archive-date=4 July 2015}}</ref>
== Labeling and documentation ==
[[Image:Conformité Européenne (logo).svg|thumb|right|50px|The CE logo]]
[[File:Car charger, 2 automobile auxiliary power outlets and 2 USB sockets-9827.jpg|thumb|RoHS and CE mark on a car charger]]
Products within scope of the RoHS 2 directive must display the [[CE mark]], the manufacturers name and address and a serial or batch number. Parties needing to know more detailed compliance information can find this on the EU Declaration of Conformity for the product as created by the manufacturer (Brand owner) responsible for the design or the EU representative. The regulation also requires most actors in the supply chain for the product (importer and distributors) to keep and check this document, as well as ensuring a conformance process has been followed and the correct language translation for instructions are provided. The manufacturer must keep certain documentation to demonstrate conformity, known as a technical file or technical records. The directive requires the manufacturer to demonstrate conformity by the use of test data for all materials or by following a harmonised standard (IEC 63000:2016 is the only standard at the time of writing). Regulators may request this file or, more likely, specific data from it as it will likely be very large.<ref>2011/65/EU Article 16.2</ref>{{citation needed|date=September 2016}}
=== History ===
[[Image:RoHS-2.jpg|thumb|right|50px|A RoHS mark]]
RoHS did not require any specific product labelling, but many manufacturers have adopted their own compliance marks to reduce confusion. Visual indicators have included explicit "RoHS compliant" labels, green leaves, check marks, and "PB-Free" markings. Chinese RoHS labels, a lower case "e" within a circle with arrows, can also imply compliance.
[[Image:WEEE 2.svg|thumb|right|50px|The WEEE directive logo]]
RoHS 2 attempts to address this issue by requiring the aforementioned CE mark whose use is policed by the Trading Standards enforcement agency.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.electronicsweekly.com/Articles/2009/01/08/45225/rohs2-is-coming-will-it-work-better-than-rohs.htm |title=RoHS2 is coming – will it work better than RoHS? |work=Electronics Weekly |date=8 January 2009 |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208235745/http://www.electronicsweekly.com/Articles/2009/01/08/45225/rohs2-is-coming-will-it-work-better-than-rohs.htm |archive-date=8 February 2009}}</ref> It states that the ''only'' permitted indication of RoHS compliance is the CE mark.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/rohs_eee/pdf/faq.pdf |title=Official EU RoHS 2 FAQ |publisher=European Commission |page=24 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130717074237/http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/rohs_eee/pdf/faq.pdf |archive-date=17 July 2013}}</ref>
The closely related WEEE ([[Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive]]), which became law simultaneously with RoHS, depicts a waste-can logo with an "X" through it and often accompanies the CE mark.
==Future possible additions==
New substance restrictions being considered for introduction in the next few years include phthalates, brominated flame retardants (BFRs), chlorinated flame retardants (CFRs), and PVC.<ref name="HP-RoHS2"/>
==Other regions==
===Asia / Pacific===
;China Order No. 39: Final Measures for the ''Administration of the Control and Electronic Information Products'' (often referred to as ''[[China RoHS]]''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kuschnik |first1=Bernhard |title=The European Union's Energy Using Products – EuP – Directive 2005/32 EC: Taking Transnational Eco – Product Design Regulation One Step Further |volume=27 |journal=Temple Journal of Science Technology & Environmental Law |issue=1 |year=2008 |pages=1–33 |url=http://www.temple.edu/law/tjstel/2008/spring/v27no1-Kuschnik.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141127142222/http://www.temple.edu/law/tjstel/2008/spring/v27no1-Kuschnik.pdf |archive-date=27 November 2014}}</ref>) has the stated intent to establish similar restrictions, but in fact takes a very different approach. Unlike EU RoHS, where products in specified categories are included unless specifically excluded, there will be a list of included products, known as the ''catalogue'' – see Article 18 of the regulation – which will be a subset of the total scope of Electronic Information Products, or EIPs, to which the regulations apply. Initially, products that fall under the covered scope must provide markings and disclosure as to the presence of certain substances, while the substances themselves are not (yet) prohibited. There are some products that are EIPs, which are not in scope for EU RoHS, ''e.g.'' radar systems, semiconductor-manufacturing equipment, photomasks, etc. The list of EIPs is available in Chinese and English.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chinarohs.com |title=China ROHS Solutions by Design Chain Associates |publisher=Chinarohs.com |access-date=3 July 2015}}</ref> The marking and disclosure aspects of the regulation were intended to take effect on 1 July 2006, but were postponed twice to 1 March 2007. There is no timeline for the catalogue yet.
;Japan: Japan does not have any direct legislation dealing with the RoHS substances, but its recycling laws have spurred Japanese manufacturers to move to a lead-free process in accordance with RoHS guidelines. A [[Cabinet of Japan#Powers|ministerial ordinance]] ''Japanese industrial standard for Marking of Specific Chemical Substances'' (J-MOSS), effective from 1 July 2006, directs that some electronic products exceeding a specified amount of the nominated toxic substances must carry a warning label.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.meti.go.jp/policy/recycle/main/english/law/promotion.html |title=METI Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry |publisher=Meti.go.jp |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150730183122/http://www.meti.go.jp/policy/recycle/main/english/law/promotion.html |archive-date=30 July 2015}}</ref>
;South Korea: South Korea promulgated the ''Act for Resource Recycling of Electrical and Electronic Equipment and Vehicles'' on 2 April 2007. This regulation has aspects of RoHS, WEEE, and ELV.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.korearohs.com |title=Design Chain Associates, LLC: Environmental and Design/Supply Chain Consulting |publisher=Korearohs.com |date=18 May 2015 |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706011134/http://www.korearohs.com/ |archive-date=6 July 2015}}</ref>
===United States===
The [[Consumer Product Safety Act]] was enacted in 1972 followed by the [[Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act]] in 2008.
California has passed the [[California Electronic Waste Recycling Act|Electronic Waste Recycling Act of 2003]] (EWRA). This law prohibits the sale of electronic devices after 1 January 2007, that are prohibited from being sold under the EU RoHS directive, but across a much narrower scope that includes LCDs, CRTs, and the like and only covers the four heavy metals restricted by RoHS. EWRA also has a restricted material disclosure requirement.
Effective 1 January 2010, the California Lighting Efficiency and Toxics Reduction Act applies RoHS to general purpose lights, i.e. "lamps, bulbs, tubes, or other electric devices that provide functional illumination for indoor residential, indoor commercial, and outdoor use."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hktdc.com/info/mi/a/psls/en/1X066HG5/1/Product-Safety-Laws-and-Standards/California-RoHS-Lighting-Requirements-to-Become-Effective-on-January-1--2010.htm |title=California RoHS Lighting Requirements to Become Effective on January 1, 2010 |publisher=HKTDC |date=27 August 2009 |access-date=3 July 2015}}</ref>
Other US states and cities are debating whether to adopt similar laws, and there are several states that have mercury and PBDE bans already.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}}
=== United Kingdom ===
On January 31, 2020, the United Kingdom completed its withdrawal from the European Union and subsequently entered a transition phase spanning from February 1 to December 31, 2020. This event is commonly referred to as Brexit. During this transitional period, the United Kingdom conducted a comprehensive assessment of various regulations, including RoHS. UK RoHS stays well aligned with EU RoHS, with similar scopes, restricted substances, thresholds, and exemptions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=UK RoHS VS EU RoHS - Comparison - UKCA - Enviropass |url=https://getenviropass.com/uk-rohs/ |access-date=2023-08-23 |website=Enviropass Expertise Inc. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment Regulations 2012 (as amended): Great Britain |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/restriction-of-hazardous-substances-rohs-regulations/restriction-of-the-use-of-certain-hazardous-substances-in-electrical-and-electronic-equipment-regulations-2012-as-amended-great-britain |access-date=2023-08-23 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref>
===Ireland===
Worldwide standards and certification are available under the [[QC 080000]] standard, governed by the [[National Standards Authority of Ireland]], to ensure the control of hazardous substances in industrial applications.
===Sweden===
{{anchor|Compliance}} <!--Previous section name -->
In 2012 Sweden's Chemicals Agency (Kemi) and Electrical Safety Authority tested 63 consumer electronics products and found that 12 were out of compliance. Kemi claims that this is similar to testing results from prior years. "Eleven products contained prohibited levels of lead, and one of polybrominated diphenyl ether flame retardants. Details of seven companies have been passed to Swedish prosecutors. Kemi says that levels of non-compliance with RoHS are similar to previous years, and remain too high."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://chemicalwatch.com/14330/sweden-says-rohs-non-compliance-is-too-high |title=News Item | Sweden says RoHS non-compliance is too high |publisher=Chemicalwatch.com |date=3 April 2013 |access-date=3 July 2015}}</ref>
== Other standards ==
RoHS is not the only environmental standard of which electronic product developers should be aware. Manufacturers will find that it is cheaper to have only a single [[bill of materials]] for a product that is distributed worldwide, instead of customising the product to fit each country's specific environmental laws. Therefore, they develop their own standards, which allow only the strictest of all allowable substances.
For example, [[IBM]] forces each of their suppliers to complete a Product Content Declaration<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ibm.com/ibm/environment/products/ecpquest.shtml |title=IBM and the Environment – Product Content Declaration for IBM Suppliers |publisher=Ibm.com |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704200951/http://www.ibm.com/ibm/environment/products/ecpquest.shtml |archive-date=4 July 2015}}</ref> form to document compliance to their environmental standard 'Baseline Environmental Requirements for Materials, Parts and Products for IBM Logo Hardware Products'.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ibm.com/ibm/environment/products/especs.shtml |title=IBM Engineering Specification 46G3772: Baseline Environmental Requirements for Supplier Deliverables to IBM |publisher=Ibm.com |date=26 May 2015 |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704213955/http://www.ibm.com/ibm/environment/products/especs.shtml |archive-date=4 July 2015}}</ref> Thus, IBM banned [[decabromodiphenyl ether|DecaBDE]], even though there was formerly a RoHS exemption for this material<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2005:271:0048:0050:EN:PDF |journal=Official Journal of the European Union |title=COMMISSION DECISION: 13 October 2005: amending for the purposes of adapting to the technical progress the Annex to Directive 2002/95/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment |access-date=5 March 2017}}</ref> (overturned by the European Court in 2008).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX%3A62006J0014%3AEN%3AHTML|title=Joined Cases C-14/06 and C-295/06 European Parliament and Kingdom of Denmark v Commission of the European Communities|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120709094120/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX%3A62006J0014%3AEN%3AHTML|url-status=dead|date=9 July 2012|archive-date=9 July 2012|website=archive.is}}</ref>
Similarly, here is [[Hewlett-Packard]]'s environmental standard.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/globalcitizenship/environment/supplychain/gen_specifications.html |format=PDF |title=HP's General Specification for the environment (GSE) |publisher=Hp.com |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150814145417/http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/globalcitizenship/environment/supplychain/gen_specifications.html |archive-date=14 August 2015}}</ref>
== Criticism ==
Adverse effects on product quality and reliability, plus high cost of compliance (especially to small business) are cited as criticisms of the directive, as well as early research indicating that the life cycle benefits of lead-free [[solder]] versus traditional solder materials are mixed.<ref name="EPALifecycle"/>
Criticism earlier on came from an industry resistant to change and a misunderstanding of solders and soldering processes. Deliberate misinformation was espoused to resist what was perceived as a "non-tariff barrier created by European bureaucrats." Many believe the industry is stronger now through this experience and has a better understanding of the science and technologies involved.<ref name="Fact and fiction in lead-free soldering">{{cite journal |url=http://www.solderrecovery.com/pdf/Lead%20Free%20Article%202.pdf |title=Fact and fiction in lead-free soldering |first1=Keith |last1=Sweatman |journal=Global SMT & Packaging |date=April 2006 |pages=26–8 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107005500/http://www.solderrecovery.com/pdf/Lead%20Free%20Article%202.pdf |archive-date=7 January 2016}}</ref>
One criticism of RoHS is that the restriction of lead and cadmium does not address some of their most prolific applications, while being costly for the electronics industry to comply with {{citation needed|date=November 2019}}. Specifically, the total lead used in electronics makes up only 2% of world lead consumption, while 90% of lead is used for batteries (covered by the battery directive, as mentioned above, which requires recycling and limits the use of mercury and cadmium, but does not restrict lead). Another criticism is that less than 4% of lead in landfills is due to electronic components or circuit boards, while approximately 36% is due to leaded glass in [[cathode ray tube]] monitors and televisions, which can contain up to 2 kg per screen. This study was done right after the [[tech boom]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.epsma.org/pdf/Report%20on%20Lead%20free%20Electronics_June%2030%202003_summary%20article.pdf |publisher=European Power Supply Manufacturers Association |title=The Status of Lead-Free Electronics and its Impact on Power Electronics Summary |date=26 February 2003 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726033700/http://www.epsma.org/pdf/Report%20on%20Lead%20free%20Electronics_June%2030%202003_summary%20article.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2011}}</ref>
The more common lead-free solder systems have a higher melting point, e.g. a 30 °C typical difference for tin-silver-copper alloys, but wave soldering temperatures are approximately the same at ~255 °C;<ref name="Fact and fiction in lead-free soldering"/> however at this temperature most typical lead-free solders have longer wetting times than [[eutectic]] Pb/Sn 37:63 solder.<ref name="wet1">{{cite journal |url=http://www.solderconnection.co.uk/lead_free_tech_articles/C_A_Lead-Free.pdf |title=Temperature selection for wave soldering with Lead-Free alloys |journal=Circuits Assembly |date=May 2001 |first1=Al |last1=Schneider |first2=Sanju |last2=Arora |first3=Bin |last3=Mo |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=46–51 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110311125906/http://www.solderconnection.co.uk/lead_free_tech_articles/C_A_Lead-Free.pdf |archive-date=11 March 2011}}</ref> Additionally wetting force is typically lower,<ref name="wet1"/> which can be disadvantageous (for hole filling), but advantageous in other situations (closely spaced components).
Care must be taken in selection of RoHS solders as some formulations are harder with less ductility, increasing the likelihood of [[Fracture|cracks]] instead of [[plastic deformation]], which is typical for lead-containing solders.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}} Cracks can occur due to thermal or mechanical forces acting on components or the circuit board, the former being more common during manufacturing and the latter in the field. RoHS solders exhibit advantages and disadvantages in these respects, dependent on packaging and formulation.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.microrel.2006.09.034 |title=Thermal cycling reliability of SnAgCu and SnPb solder joints: A comparison for several IC-packages |year=2007 |last1=Vandevelde |first1=Bart |last2=Gonzalez |first2=Mario |last3=Limaye |first3=Paresh |last4=Ratchev |first4=Petar |last5=Beyne |first5=Eric |journal=Microelectronics Reliability |volume=47 |issue=2–3 |pages=259–65|citeseerx=10.1.1.90.6881 |s2cid=13419537 }}</ref>
The editor of Conformity Magazine wondered in 2005 if the transition to lead-free solder would affect long-term reliability of electronic devices and systems, especially in applications more mission-critical than in consumer products, citing possible breaches due to other environmental factors like oxidation.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.kentec.net/pdf/leadless/conformity.pdf |journal=Conformity Magazine |title=Removal of Lead Shakes Up the Manufacturing Chain |date=August 2005 |pages=28–35 |author=Premier Farnell plc}}</ref> The 2005 Farnell/Newark InOne "''RoHS Legislation and Technical Manual''",<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newark.com/pdfs/RohsTechManual_v2.pdf |title=RoHS Legislation and technical Manual |publisher=Newark.com |year=2005 |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304053749/http://www.newark.com/pdfs/RohsTechManual_v2.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> cites these and other "lead-free" solder issues, such as:
# Warping or delamination of printed circuit boards;
# Damage to through-holes, ICs and components on circuit boards; and,
# Added moisture sensitivity, all of which may compromise quality and reliability.
=== Effect on reliability ===
Potential reliability concerns were addressed in Annex item #7 of the RoHS directive, granting some specific exemptions from regulation until 2010. These issues were raised when the directive was first implemented in 2003 and reliability effects were less known.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32002L0095:EN:NOT |title=Directive 2002/95/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 January 2003 on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment |publisher=Eur-lex.europa.eu |access-date=3 July 2015}}</ref>
Another potential problem that some lead-free, high tin-based solders may face is the growth of [[Whisker (metallurgy)|tin whiskers]]. These thin strands of tin can grow and make contact with an adjacent trace, developing a [[short circuit]]. Lead in the solder suppresses the growth of tin whiskers. Historically tin whiskers have been associated with a handful of failures, including a [[Millstone Nuclear Power Plant#Events|nuclear power plant shutdown]] and [[Artificial cardiac pacemaker|pacemaker]] incident where pure tin plating was used. However, these failures pre-date RoHS. They also do not involve consumer electronics, and therefore may employ RoHS-restricted substances if desired. Manufacturers of electronic equipment for mission-critical aerospace applications have followed a policy of caution and therefore resisted the adoption of lead-free solders.
To help mitigate potential problems, lead-free manufacturers are using a variety of approaches such as tin-zinc formulations that produce non-conducting whiskers or formulations that reduce growth, although they do not halt growth completely in all circumstances.<ref>{{cite journal |title=New Sn-Zn Solder Bonds at Under 200 Celsius |url=http://techon.nikkeibp.co.jp/NEA/archive/200211/214612/ |date=November 2002 |first1=Taiki |last1=Itoh |first2=Yasuo |last2=Tanokura |journal=Nikkei Electronics Asia |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505085142/http://techon.nikkeibp.co.jp/NEA/archive/200211/214612/ |archive-date=5 May 2013}}</ref> Fortunately, experience thus far suggests deployed instances of RoHS compliant products are not failing due to whisker growth. Dr. Ronald Lasky of Dartmouth College reports: "RoHS has been in force for more than 15 months now, and ~$400B RoHS-compliant products have been produced. With all of these products in the field, no significant numbers of tin whisker-related failures have been reported."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frome One Engineer to Another – RoHS|url=http://blogs.indium.com/blog/rohs |publisher=Blogs.indium.com |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110706144229/http://blogs.indium.com/blog/rohs |archive-date=6 July 2011}}</ref> Whisker growth occurs slowly over time, is unpredictable, and not fully understood, so time may be the only true test of these efforts. Whisker growth is even observable for lead-based solders, albeit on a much smaller scale.
Some countries have exempted medical and telecommunication infrastructure products from the legislation.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Digital Control Systems, Inc. meets the European Union's RoHS Directive |publisher=Digital Control Systems |url=http://www.dcs-inc.net/RoHS.htm |access-date=12 March 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121028173729/http://www.dcs-inc.net/RoHS.htm |archive-date=28 October 2012}}</ref> However, this may be a moot point, since as electronic component manufacturers convert their production lines to producing only lead-free parts, conventional parts with [[Eutectic point|eutectic]] tin-lead solder will simply not be available, even for military, aerospace and industrial users. To the extent that only solder is involved, this is at least partially mitigated by many lead-free components' compatibility with lead-containing solder processes. [[Leadframe]]-based components, such as [[Quad Flat Package]]s (QFP), [[Small Outline Integrated Circuit]]s (SOIC), and [[Small outline package]]s (SOP) with [[gull wing lead]]s, are generally compatible since the finish on the part leads contributes a small amount of material to the finished joint. However, components such as [[Ball grid array]]s (BGA) which come with lead-free solder balls and leadless parts are often not compatible with lead-containing processes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.st.com/stonline/products/literature/an/10791.pdf |url-status=unfit |title=Soldering Compatibility |date=2004 |language=en |access-date=24 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110311125906/http://www.st.com/stonline/products/literature/an/10791.pdf |archive-date=Mar 11, 2011}}</ref>
=== Economic effect ===
There are no ''[[de minimis]]'' exemptions, e.g., for micro-businesses. This economic effect was anticipated and at least some attempts at mitigating the effect were made.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://application.doeni.gov.uk/doe_foi/document.asp?doc=6353 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929202448/http://application.doeni.gov.uk/doe_foi/document.asp?doc=6353 |url-status=dead |archive-date=29 September 2007 |title=Part VII – RoHS RIA: July 2004: PARTIAL REGULATORY IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF THE DRAFT STATUTORY INSTRUMENT TO IMPLEMENT THE EUROPEAN DIRECTIVE ON THE RESTRICTION OF THE USE OF CERTAIN HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT |access-date=5 March 2017}}</ref>
Another form of economic effect is the cost of product failures during the switch to RoHS compliance. For example, tin whiskers were responsible for a 5% failure rate in certain components of Swiss Swatch watches in 2006, prior to the July implementation of RoHS, reportedly triggering a US$1 billion recall.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2008/apr/03/research.engineering |title=Within a whisker of failure |work=The Guardian |date=3 April 2008 |first1=Kurt |last1=Jacobsen |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161022130830/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2008/apr/03/research.engineering |archive-date=22 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite conference |url=http://nepp.nasa.gov/whisker/reference/tech_papers/2008-Brusse-Japan-Metal%20Whiskers.pdf |title=Metal Whiskers: Failure Modes and Mitigation Strategies |first1=Jay |last1=Brusse |first2=Henning |last2=Leidecker |first3=Lyudmyla |last3=Panashchenko |date=24 April 2008 |publisher=NASA |conference=2nd International Symposium on Tin Whiskers |page=9 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130218100014/http://nepp.nasa.gov/whisker/reference/tech_papers/2008-Brusse-Japan-Metal%20Whiskers.pdf |archive-date=18 February 2013}}</ref> Swatch responded to this by applying for an exemption to RoHS compliance, but this was denied.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/pdf/rohs_report.pdf |title=Adaptation to scientific and technical progress under Directive 2002/95/EC |date=28 July 2006 |page=83 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221123707/http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/pdf/rohs_report.pdf |archive-date=21 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.orgalime.org/issues/RoHS_EU%20Overview%20Exemption_Jan07.pdf |title=Overview on Exemptions and Pending Requests at EU Level |publisher=Orgalime |date=23 January 2007 |page=8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727152837/http://www.orgalime.org/issues/RoHS_EU%20Overview%20Exemption_Jan07.pdf |archive-date=27 July 2011}}</ref>
== Benefits ==
===Health benefits===
RoHS helps reduce damage to people and the environment in third-world countries where much of today's "high-tech waste" ends up.<ref name="nationalgeographic1"/><ref>{{cite web |last=Greenemeier |first=Larry |url=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=laws-waste-epa-waste&print=true |title=Laws Fail to Keep up with Mounting E-Trash – Scientific American |publisher=Sciam.com |date=29 November 2007 |access-date=3 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usnews.com/articles/news/2007/12/20/technologys-morning-after.html |title=Technology's Morning After |publisher=US News |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090625004234/http://www.usnews.com/articles/news/2007/12/20/technologys-morning-after.html |archive-date=25 June 2009}}</ref>
The use of lead-free solders and components reduces risks to electronics industry workers in prototype and manufacturing operations. Contact with solder paste no longer represents the same health hazard as it used to.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ogunseitan|first1=Oladele A.|author-link=Dele Ogunseitan|year=2007|title=Public health and environmental benefits of adopting lead-free solders|journal=JOM|volume=59|issue=7|page=12|bibcode=2007JOM....59g..12O|doi=10.1007/s11837-007-0082-8|s2cid=111017033}}</ref>
===Reliability concerns unfounded===
Contrary to the predictions of widespread component failure and reduced reliability, RoHS's first anniversary (July 2007) passed with little fanfare.<ref>{{cite web |last=Lasky |first=Ron |url=http://www.ventureoutsource.com/contract-manufacturing/benchmarks-best-practices/rohs-environment/rohs-one-year-later-the-good-news-is-the-bad-news-was-wrong |title=RoHS one year later: The good news is…the bad news was wrong; Contract Electronics Services Directory Listings |publisher=Ventureoutsource.com |access-date=12 January 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180114020233/https://www.ventureoutsource.com/contract-manufacturing/benchmarks-best-practices/rohs-environment/rohs-one-year-later-the-good-news-is-the-bad-news-was-wrong |archive-date=14 January 2018}}</ref> Most contemporary consumer electronics are RoHS compliant. As of 2013, millions of compliant products are in use worldwide.
Many electronics companies keep "RoHS status" pages on their corporate websites. For example, the AMD website states:
<blockquote>Although lead containing solder cannot be completely eliminated from all applications today, AMD engineers have developed effective technical solutions to reduce lead content in microprocessors and chipsets to ensure RoHS compliance while minimizing costs and maintaining product features. There is no change to fit, functional, electrical or performance specifications. Quality and reliability standards for RoHS compliant products are expected to be identical compared to current packages.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amd.com/us-en/0,,3715_13530_4040,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090611053209/http://www.amd.com/us-en/0%2C%2C3715_13530_4040%2C00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2009-06-11 |title=RoHS Compliance |access-date=2017-03-05}}</ref></blockquote>
RoHS printed circuit board finishing technologies are surpassing traditional formulations in fabrication thermal shock, solder paste printability, contact resistance, and aluminium wire bonding performance and nearing their performance in other attributes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sunstone.com/pcb-capabilities/lead-free-rohs/material-comparison.aspx |title=Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive in PCBs | RoHS – Sunstone Circuits |publisher=Sunstone.com |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130830090559/http://www.sunstone.com/pcb-capabilities/lead-free-rohs/material-comparison.aspx |archive-date=30 August 2013}}</ref>
The properties of lead-free solder, such as its high temperature resilience, has been used to prevent failures under harsh field conditions. These conditions include [[operating temperature]]s with test cycles in the range of −40 °C to +150 °C with severe vibration and shock requirements. Automobile manufacturers are turning to RoHS solutions now as electronics move into the engine bay.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/pdf/rohs_report.pdf |title=Adaptation to scientific and technical progress under Directive 2002/95/EC |date=28 July 2006 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221123707/http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/pdf/rohs_report.pdf |archive-date=21 December 2008}}{{Page needed|date=March 2013}}</ref>
===Flow properties and assembly===
One of the major differences between lead-containing and lead-free solder pastes is the "flow" of the solder in its liquid state. Lead-containing solder has a lower surface tension, and tends to move slightly to attach itself to exposed metal surfaces that touch any part of the liquid solder. Lead-free solder conversely tends to stay in place where it is in its liquid state, and attaches itself to exposed metal surfaces only where the liquid solder touches it.
This lack of "flow" – while typically seen as a disadvantage because it can lead to lower quality electrical connections – can be used to place components more tightly than they used to be placed due to the properties of lead-containing solders.
For example, Motorola reports that their new RoHS wireless device assembly techniques are "...enabling a smaller, thinner, lighter unit." Their Motorola Q phone would not have been possible without the new solder. The lead-free solder allows for tighter pad spacing.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blogs.indium.com/blog/an-interview-with-the-professor/motorola-q-not-possible-without-lead-free-assembly |title=Motorola Q: Not Possible without Lead-free Assembly | Indium Corporation Blogs |publisher=Blogs.indium.com |date=24 August 2006 |access-date=3 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20150705034044/http://blogs.indium.com/blog/an-interview-with-the-professor/motorola-q-not-possible-without-lead-free-assembly |archive-date=5 July 2015}}</ref>
===Some exempt products achieve compliance===
Research into new alloys and technologies is allowing companies to release RoHS products that are currently exempt from compliance, ''e.g.'' computer servers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dell.com/content/topics/global.aspx/corp/environment/en/rohs?c=us&l=en&s=corp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080213192430/http://www.dell.com/content/topics/global.aspx/corp/environment/en/rohs?c=us&l=en&s=corp |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 February 2008 |title=Dell RoHS |date=13 February 2008 |access-date=5 March 2017}}</ref> IBM has announced a RoHS solution for high lead solder joints once thought to remain a permanent exemption. The lead-free packaging technology "...offers economical advantages in relation to traditional bumping processes, such as solder waste reduction, use of bulk alloys, quicker time-to-market for products and a much lower chemical usage rate."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.edn.com/article/CA6461863.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012180401/http://www.edn.com/article/CA6461863.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 October 2008 |title=IBM launches production of lead-free packaging technology |access-date=5 March 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indium.com/drlasky/entry.php?id=618|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080424032736/http://www.indium.com/drlasky/entry.php?id=618 |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 April 2008 |title=IBM Announces Shipment of Lead-Free C4 Joints – Dr. Lasky's Blog |date=23 July 2007 |access-date=5 March 2017}}</ref>
Test and measurement vendors, such as [[National Instruments]], have also started to produce RoHS-compliant products, despite devices in this category being exempt from the RoHS directive.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tmworld.com/article/CA6346229.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304025318/http://www.tmworld.com/article/CA6346229.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 March 2009 |title=NI premiers RoHS-compliant products |access-date=5 March 2017}}</ref>
==Practical==
RoHS compliance can be misleading because RoHS3 (EU) allows exemptions, ex. up to 85% lead content for high-temperature soldering alloys.<ref name="Eur-lex.europa.eu"/>
Therefore good companies should clearly define their level of compliance in their product main datasheets (DS); ideally, they should provide a product content sheet (PCS) with full substance declaration by mass. Similarly, good developers (and users) should carefully validate the product info to make sure they get the exact material safety expected.
Industry Examples:
* RoHS3 compliant without exemptions
* RoHS3 compliant with all applicable exemptions
* RoHS3 compliant with exemption 7a
* RoHS3 compliant, lead-free
* RoHS3 compliant, green (where the term green is a company-specific standard, ex. lead-free and halogen-free)
* RoHS3 compliant with exemptions, lead-free finish
Ideal: RoHS3 compliant without exemptions
Good Minimum Standard: RoHS3 compliant with exemption for lead-content on internal-only material (to help prevent lead-exposure on touch, lead-leakage in water)
== See also ==
* [[Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals|REACH]]
* [[Battery Directive]]
* [[Electronic waste]]
* [[Green computing]]
* [[Ion attachment mass spectrometry]] – used to enforce RoHS limits on banned substances
* [[Lead safe work practices]] in the US
* [[List of European Union directives]]
* [[Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Further reading==
* {{cite book |title=Introduction to Implementing Lead-Free Electronics |last=Hwang |first=Jennie S. |year=2004 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional |isbn=978-0-07-144374-6 }}
==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071125193741/http://www.rohs.eu/ RoHS Compliance in the EU – www.rohs.eu]
* [http://www.rohs.gov.uk/ Official United Kingdom site on RoHS]
* [http://willowmedical.files.wordpress.com/2014/09/rohs_enforcement_guidance_document_-_v_1_may_2006.pdf EU RoHS Enforcement Guidance Document, V.1; EU RoHS Enforcement Authorities Informal Network; May 2006 ]
* [http://www.metallurgy.nist.gov/solder/NIST_LeadfreeSolder_v4.pdf Properties of Lead-Free Solders] National Institute of Standards and Technology
* [https://www.nist.gov/mml/csd/inorganic/rohs.cfm Support of Industry Compliance with the EU Directive on Restriction of Certain Hazardous Substances (RoHS)] on nist.gov
* [http://www.bomcheck.net/assets/docs/Carestream%20Health%20achieving%20RoHS2%20compliance%20for%20Medical%20Devices%20with%20EN%2050581%20and%20BOMcheck.pdf Case study on RoHS2 compliance]
{{Portal bar|European Union|Law}}
{{Waste}}
[[Category:European Union directives]]
[[Category:Environmental chemistry]]
[[Category:Regulation of chemicals in the European Union]]
[[Category:Waste legislation in the European Union]]
[[Category:Waste legislation in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:2003 in law]]
[[Category:2003 in the European Union]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Electronic waste in Europe]]
[[Category:2003 in the environment]]
[[Category:Mercury (element)]] |
Forest protection | {{Short description|Branch of forestry}}
{{Expand German|Waldschutz|date=December 2013}}
[[File:Forest protection in LT.JPG|thumb|Forest security in [[Lithuania]]]]
'''Forest protection''' is a branch of forestry which is concerned with the preservation or improvement of a [[forest]] and prevention and control of damage to forest by natural or man made causes like [[forest fire]]s, [[plant pest]]s, and adverse climatic conditions ([[global warming]]).
Forest protection also has a legal status and rather than protection from only people damaging the forests is seen to be broader and include [[forest pathology]] too. Due to the different emphases there exist widely different methods forest protection.
In German-speaking countries, forest protection would focus on the biotic and abiotic factors that are non-crime related. A [[protected forest]] is not the same as a [[protection forest]]. These terms can lead to some confusion in English, although they are clearer in other languages. As a result, reading English literature can be problematic for non-experts due to localization and conflation of meanings.
The types of man-induced abuse that forest protection seeks to prevent include:
* Aggressive or unsustainable [[intensive farming]] and [[logging]]
* [[Soil pollution|Pollution]] of the forest soil
* Expanding city development caused by [[population explosion]] and the resulting [[urban sprawl]]
There is considerable debate over the effectiveness of forest protection methods. Enforcement of laws regarding purchased forest land is weak or non-existent in most parts of the world. In the increasingly dangerous South America, home of major [[rainforest]]s, officials of the [[Brazil]]ian [[IBAMA|National Agency for the Environment]] (IBAMA) have recently been shot during their routine duties.<ref>{{Cite journal| last1 = Schmitt | first1 = C. | last2 = Burgess | first2 = N. | title = Global analysis of the protection status of the world's forests | journal = Biological Conservation | year = 2009 | volume = 142 | issue = 10 | pages = 2122–2130 | doi = 10.1016/j.biocon.2009.04.012 | bibcode = 2009BCons.142.2122S }}</ref>
==Land purchase==
One simple type of forest protection is land acquisition by the state or conservation organisations in order to secure it, or for [[reforestation]] / [[afforestation]]. It can also mean [[forest management]] or the designation of areas such as natural reservoirs which are intended to be left to themselves.<ref name=usn>{{cite book |author=Lund, H. Gyde|title=Definitions of Forest, Deforestation, Afforestation, and Reforestation |year=2006 |publisher=Forest Information Services |location=Gainesville, VA }}</ref> However, merely purchasing a piece of land does not prevent it from being used by others for [[poaching]] and [[illegal logging]].
==On site monitoring==
A better way to protect a forest, particularly [[old growth forest]]s in remote areas, is to obtain a part of it and to live on and monitor the purchased land. Even in the United States, these measures sometimes do not suffice because [[arson]] can burn a forest to the ground, leaving burnt areas free for different use.<ref name=paradox>{{cite journal | title=Forest protection paradox | journal=New Scientist | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=203 | issue=2716 | year=2009 | issn=0262-4079 | doi=10.1016/s0262-4079(09)61802-9 | page=6 | ref={{sfnref | Elsevier BV | 2009}}}}</ref>
Another issue about living on purchased forest-land is that there may not be a suitable site for a standard home without clearing land, which defies the purpose of protection. Alternatives include building a [[tree house|treehouse]] or an [[earthhouse]]. This is being done currently by [[indigenous people]] in South America to protect large [[reservoir (water)|reservoirs]]. In former times, North American [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] used to live in [[tipie]]s or [[earth house|mandan earthhouses]], which also require less land. An undertaking to develop modern treehouses is being taken by a company from Germany called "TrueSchool treehouses".
==Other methods of protection==
A number of less successful methods of forest protection have been tried, such as the trade in [[certified wood]]. Protecting a small section of land in a larger forest may also have limited value. For example, [[tropical rainforest]]s can die if they decrease in size, since they are dependent on the moist [[microclimate]] which they create. There is an excellent article in National Geographic October issue concerning redwood forest in California and their effort to maintain forest and rainforest.<ref>{{Cite journal| last1 = Allen| first1 = CD | last2 = Savage| first2 = M| title = Ecological restoration of southwestern ponderosapine ecosystems: A broad perspective| publisher = Ecological Applications| year = 2002| volume = 12}}</ref>
A compromise is to conduct agriculture and stock farming, or [[Sustainable forestry|sustainable]] [[wood management]]. This ascribes different values to forest land and farmland, for which many areas are clear felled.
==Neighborhood leakage==
Two conflicting studies on the idea that protecting forests only relocates deforestation. This is called 'neighborhood leakage'. According to the paradox of forest protection<ref name=paradox/> protected areas such as rural settlements near protected zones grew at twice the rate of those elsewhere. The [[IUCN]] implements such protocols that protect over 670 eco-regions. 46% of the eco-regions had less than 10% forest protection. Which means that these areas are not being monitored as they should and the protection is not working. Considering forest protection within global priority areas was unsatisfactory. An example given was that the average protection of 8.4% in biodiversity hotspots. Results have policy relevance in terms of the target of the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]], reconfirmed in 2008, to conserve in an effective manner that “at least 10% of each of the world’s forest types”.<ref>{{Cite journal | title = FSM 2000-National forest resourcemanagement | journal = USDA Forest Service | date = October 2008 | url = http://www.fs.fed.us/im/directives/fsm/2000/id 2020-2008-Ldoc}}</ref>
==See also==
{{Portal|Trees|Environment|Ecology}}
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures]]
* [[Conservation biology]]
* [[Conservation ethic]]
* [[Conservation movement]]
* [[Conservation reliant species]]
* [[Deep ecology]]
* [[Ecology]]
* [[Ecology movement]]
* [[Environmentalism]]
* [[Environmental movement]]
* [[Environmental protection]]
* [[Forest conservation]]
* [[Forest Principles]]
* [[Habitat conservation]]
* [[List of environmental organizations]]
* [[Natural environment]]
* [[Natural capital]]
* [[Natural landscape]]
* [[Natural resource]]
* [[Protection forest]]
* [[Renewable resource]]
* [[Sustainable development]]
* [[Sustainability]]
* [[Sustainable agriculture]]
* [[Urban forest]]
* [[Water conservation]]
{{div col end}}
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
==External links==
*[http://www.barrameda.com.ar/ecology/forests-in-danger.htm Forests in danger] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20090228120817/http://www.intactforests.org/publications/publications.htm Roadmap to Recovery: The World's Last Intact Forest Landscapes] *[http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/a0400e/a0400e00.htm Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080124171741/http://www.coolforests.org/ CoolForests.org - Conservation Cools the Planet]
{{Forestry}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Forest Protection}}
[[Category:Forest conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]] |
Green supply chain management | '''Green supply chain management (GSCM)''' is the consideration of environmental issues in [[supply chain management]].
== Definitions and scope ==
GSCM has been defined as the following:
*“GSCM encompasses a set of environmental practices that encourage improvements to the environmental practices of two or more organizations within the same supply chain”<ref name="Vachon">{{cite journal |last1=Vachon |first1=Stephan |last2=Klassen |first2=Robert D. |title=Extending green practices across the supply chain: The impact of upstream and downstream integration |journal=International Journal of Operations & Production Management |date=1 January 2006 |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=795–821 |doi=10.1108/01443570610672248}}</ref>
*“GSCM is the process of incorporating environmental concerns into supply chain management including product design, material sourcing and selection, manufacturing, delivery of final products, and the management of product’s end-of-life”<ref name="Srivastava">{{cite journal |last1=Srivastava |first1=Samir K. |title=Green supply-chain management: A state-of-the-art literature review |journal=International Journal of Management Reviews |date=2007 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=53–80 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2370.2007.00202.x|s2cid=9836531 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
*“GSCM can be achieved by considering environmental issues at the purchasing, product design and development, production, transportation, packaging, storage, disposal, and end of product life cycle management stages.”<ref name="Min">{{cite journal |last1=Min |first1=Hokey |last2=Kim |first2=Ilsuk |title=Green supply chain research: past, present, and future |journal=Logistics Research |date=1 March 2012 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=39–47 |doi=10.1007/s12159-012-0071-3|s2cid=207395773 }}</ref>
*“GSCM is the integration of environmental concerns in the inter-organizational practices of supply chain management”<ref name="Sarkis">{{cite journal |last1=Sarkis |first1=Joseph |last2=Zhu |first2=Qinghua |last3=Lai |first3=Kee-hung |title=An organizational theoretic review of green supply chain management literature |journal=International Journal of Production Economics |date=1 March 2011 |volume=130 |issue=1 |pages=1–15 |doi=10.1016/j.ijpe.2010.11.010|hdl=10397/17229 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
Srivastava (2007) defines GSCM’s scope as ranging "from reactive monitoring of general environmental management programs to more proactive practices implemented through various Rs (Reduce, Re-use, Rework, Refurbish, Reclaim, Recycle, Remanufacture, Reverse logistics, etc.).”<ref name="Srivastava" /> From an entrepreneurial perspective, entrepreneurial GSCM is a new approach to environmental management executed by green entrepreneurs across whole supply chains instead of thinking in terms of individual non-environmental firms. This new holistic view can integrate individuals, companies, and supply-chains of different entrepreneurs from various countries together in an environmental friendly way.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adel |first1=H. M. |title=Mapping and Assessing Green Entrepreneurial Performance: Evidence from a Vertically Integrated Organic Beverages Supply Chain |journal=Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation in Emerging Economies |date=2021 |volume=7 |issue=1 |page=78-98 |doi=10.1177/2393957520983722|doi-access=free }}</ref>
== GSCM criteria ==
A nonexhaustive list of GSCM criteria from D. Kannan et al. (2014) is given below.
; GSCM Criteria 1 : '''“Commitment of senior management to GSCM”<ref name="Kannan">{{cite journal |last1=Kannan |first1=Devika |last2=Jabbour |first2=Ana Beatriz Lopes de Sousa |last3=Jabbour |first3=Charbel José Chiappetta |title=Selecting green suppliers based on GSCM practices: Using fuzzy TOPSIS applied to a Brazilian electronics company |journal=European Journal of Operational Research |date=1 March 2014 |volume=233 |issue=2 |pages=432–447 |doi=10.1016/j.ejor.2013.07.023|url=http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/id/eprint/39758/1/Selecting%20green%20suppliers%20based%20on%20GSCM%20practice.pdf }}</ref>'''
: “The support of senior management is crucial in GSCM adoption, as there will be an eventual need for process adjustments or cultural changes”<ref name="Kannan" />
; GSCM Criteria 2 : '''“Inter-functional cooperation for environmental improvement”<ref name="Kannan" />'''
: “Inter-functional cooperation (e.g., purchases and sustainability, research and development in sustainability, or marketing and stability, etc.) is important in implementing changes in the day-today activities of the functional areas. This type of cooperation can therefore promote environmental requirements externally via upstream suppliers, or internally via consumer demand”<ref name="Kannan" />
; GSCM Criteria 3 : '''“Compliance with legal environmental requirements and auditing programs”<ref name="Kannan" />'''
: “Addressing environmental legal requirements and auditing programs demonstrates that the company is attempting to meet environmental regulation for their sector internally”<ref name="Kannan" />
; GSCM Criteria 4 : '''“ISO 14001 Certification”<ref name="Kannan" />'''
: “The company has an ISO 14001 certified EMS”<ref name="Kannan" />
; GSCM Criteria 5 : '''“Selection of suppliers includes environmental criteria”<ref name="Kannan" />'''
: Explanation – “The selection process for suppliers considers environmental variables (e.g., ISO 14001) in addition to traditional criteria (e.g., cost, quality, reliability, etc.)”<ref name="Kannan" />
; GSCM Criteria 6 : '''“Work with suppliers to meet environmental goals”<ref name="Kannan" />'''
: “Suppliers are asked to support initiatives and measures within their company to improve the environment”<ref name="Kannan" />
; GSCM Criteria 7 : '''“Evaluations of the internal environmental management of suppliers”<ref name="Kannan" />'''
: “Inspections of supplier installations provide a way to check the environmental performance of the supplier and ensure that they comply with environmental management standards”<ref name="Kannan" />
; GSCM Criteria 8 : '''“Evaluation of the environmental management of 2nd-tier suppliers”<ref name="Kannan" />'''
: “Suppliers of basic raw materials are also monitored to extend environmental concern beyond the direct relationship”<ref name="Kannan" />
; GSCM Criteria 9 : '''“Work with clients for eco-design”<ref name="Kannan" />'''
: “Utilizing the close relationships that traditional supply chain management allows, companies seek to develop products together with clients to improve the products’ environmental impact”<ref name="Kannan" />
; GSCM Criteria 10 : '''“Work with clients to make production cleaner”<ref name="Kannan" />'''
: “Utilizing the close relationships that traditional supply chain management allows, companies seek to manufacture more cleanly with cooperation from the client”<ref name="Kannan" />
; GSCM Criteria 11 : '''“Work with clients to use environmentally friendly packaging”<ref name="Kannan" />'''
: “Utilizing the close relationships that traditional supply chain management allows, companies seek to use environmentally friendly packaging with cooperation from clients”<ref name="Kannan" />
; GSCM Criteria 12 : '''“Acquisition of the cleanest technologies by the company”<ref name="Kannan" />'''
: “The company buys equipment that allows it to make products as cleanly as possible”<ref name="Kannan" />
; GSCM Criteria 13 : '''“Product designs that reduce, reuse, recycle, or reclaim materials, components, or energy”<ref name="Kannan" />'''
: “The company observes policies on material reduction, parts reuse, recycling of the product after use, and recuperation of materials, components, or energy throughout the product’s life”<ref name="Kannan" />
; GSCM Criteria 14 : '''“Product designs that avoid or reduce toxic or hazardous material use”<ref name="Kannan" />'''
: “In developing products, the company incorporates ways to avoid or reduce the use of dangerous or toxic products”<ref name="Kannan" />]1
; GSCM Criteria 15 : '''“Sale of excess stock or materials”<ref name="Kannan" />'''
: “The company seeks to sell obsolete stock to recuperate its investment”<ref name="Kannan" />
; GSCM Criteria 16 : '''“Sale of scrap and used materials”<ref name="Kannan" />'''
: “The company seeks to sell waste and used materials (i.e., materials that do not have value in the production line) to recuperate its investment”<ref name="Kannan" />
; GSCM Criteria 17 : '''“Sale of used equipment (after buying new equipment)”<ref name="Kannan" />'''
: “The company sells used equipment to recuperate its investment”<ref name="Kannan" />
=== Relative importance of criteria ===
Instead of concentrating equally on every criterion, more attention should be given to the most important criteria. D. Kannan et al. (2014) calculated the importance of criteria by taking the preferences of 3 decision-makers:<ref name="Kannan" />
{| class="wikitable"
|+
|-
! Criteria !! Decision Maker 1 !! Decision Maker 2 !! Decision Maker 3
|-
| 1 || Very High || Very High || Very High
|-
| 2 || High || High || Very High
|-
| 3 || High || Very High || Very High
|-
| 4 || Very High || High || Medium
|-
| 5 || High || Very High || High
|-
| 6 || High || High || Very High
|-
| 7 || High || High || Medium
|-
| 8 || High || Medium || Medium
|-
| 9 || Very High || High || High
|-
| 10 || High || Medium || Medium
|-
| 11 || High || High || High
|-
| 12 || High || High || Very High
|-
| 13 || Very High || Very High || Very High
|-
| 14 || Very High || High || Very High
|-
| 15 || High || Medium || Medium
|-
| 16 || High || Medium || Low
|-
| 17 || High || Medium || Very Low
|}
In this table, the preferences of criteria are given in terms of linguistic variables. From these linguistic variables, calculations were done to find out the ranking of the importance of criteria.
[[File:Chart of Percentage importance of GSCM criteria.png|thumb|Chart of Percentage importance of GSCM criteria]]
Form the above graph; it is clear that the top 4 most important GSCM criteria are
* GSCM Criteria 1 : “Commitment of senior management to GSCM”<ref name="Kannan" />
* GSCM Criteria 13 : “Product designs that reduce, reuse, recycle, or reclaim materials, components, or energy”<ref name="Kannan" />
* GSCM Criteria 3 : “Compliance with legal environmental requirements and auditing programs”<ref name="Kannan" />
* GSCM Criteria 14 : “Product designs that avoid or reduce toxic or hazardous material use”<ref name="Kannan" />
This result was obtained when the authors considered the GSCM criteria for choosing a supplier for an electronics company in Brazil (a developing country). Depending on the situation, it is possible that other GSCM criteria are deemed to be more important by the decision-makers. (For example, if the same research were done in a developed country instead of a developing country, other criteria might have received a higher ranking).
== Barriers ==
Tumpa et al., 2019<ref name="Tumpa" /> conducted a study to find the hurdles faced while implementing GSCM practices. The study was conducted in the textile industry of Bangladesh (a developing country). Some of the most important hurdles were found out to be
* low demand from customers due to lack of awareness
* financial constraint
* lack of government regulations<ref name="Tumpa">{{cite journal |last1=Tumpa |first1=Tasmia Jannat |last2=Ali |first2=Syed Mithun |last3=Rahman |first3=Md. Hafizur |last4=Paul |first4=Sanjoy Kumar |last5=Chowdhury |first5=Priyabrata |last6=Rehman Khan |first6=Syed Abdul |title=Barriers to green supply chain management: An emerging economy context |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |date=1 November 2019 |volume=236 |pages=117617 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.117617|hdl=10453/134937 |s2cid=199311094 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
Other hurdles may be more important in different situations (Example – if the study were done in a developed country instead of a developing country)
Another considerable hurdle for firms trying to implement GSCM practices is the fact that many suppliers along the complete supply chain reside outside of any direct organizational control from the firm. Supply chains are often built upon a network of individual suppliers and a firm's ability to meet their Corporate Sustainability Standards can be hindered by suppliers with which they do not directly interact. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Grimm |first1=Jörg H. |last2=Hofstetter |first2=Joerg S. |last3=Sarkis |first3=Joseph |date=2016-01-20 |title=Exploring sub-suppliers' compliance with corporate sustainability standards |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652614012165 |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |series=Embedding Sustainability Dynamics in Supply Chain Relationship Management and Governance Structures |language=en |volume=112 |pages=1971–1984 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.11.036 |issn=0959-6526}}</ref>
== Relevance ==
; '''Increase in publications'''
: The number of publications on GSCM has been increasing for the past few years. The figure below shows the number of publications on GSCM from the year 2006 to 2016. By observing the figure, we can find an increasing trend in the number of publications in GSCM. This increase is likely the effect of the rising significance of environmental concerns in the area of supply chain management.
: Figure of Increase in publications is mentioned (data from de Oliveira (2018) et al.)<ref name="de Oliveira" />
[[File:Increase in Publications in gscm.png|thumb|Increase in Publications in gscm]]
: “It is expected to see the GSCM publication increase trend perceivable for the next years.”<ref name="de Oliveira">{{cite journal |last1=de Oliveira |first1=Ualison Rébula |last2=Espindola |first2=Luciano Souza |last3=da Silva |first3=Isabele Rocha |last4=da Silva |first4=Iaslin Nostório |last5=Rocha |first5=Henrique Martins |title=A systematic literature review on green supply chain management: Research implications and future perspectives |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |date=20 June 2018 |volume=187 |pages=537–561 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.03.083|s2cid=158697981 }}</ref>
; '''Both developed and developing countries are doing research on GSCM.'''
: Research on GSCM is being done by both developed and developing countries. The figure below shows the number of publications from the top 10 countries
: Figure of publications from various countries is mentioned (data from de Oliveira (2018) et al.)<ref name="de Oliveira" />
[[File:Chart of Publications in gscm from various countries.png|thumb|Chart of Publications in gscm from various countries]]
: From the figure, it is clear that both developed countries like the U.S.A. and developing countries like India and China are conducting research on GSCM. This is also due to the rising importance of environmental issues in the context of supply chain management.
== References ==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Supply chain management]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]] |
Category:Air pollution organizations | Category for organizations involved with [[air pollution]], and its reduction
{{Seealso|:Category:Air pollution by country}}
[[Category:Air pollution|Org]]
[[Category:Environmental organizations]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]] |
Category:Parks services | [[Category:Government agencies]]
[[Category:Land management]]
[[Category:Environmental policy]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Heritage interpretation organizations]]
[[Category:Parks|*]] |
Sea rewilding | {{Short description|Environmental conservation activity}}
[[File:Sea Otters (Enhydra lutris), from a raft of about 15, (8625968237).jpg|thumb|[[Sea otter]]s are a [[keystone species]] needed to control the population of [[sea urchin]]s which makes their reintroduction to the Pacific coast of Canada a successful case of rewilding.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gregr|first=Edward|date=2021-07-07|title=Sea otters: how welcome should a recovering top predator be?|url=https://www.thesciencebreaker.org/breaks/evolution-behaviour/sea-otters-how-welcome-should-a-recovering-top-predator-be|journal=TheScienceBreaker|volume=07|issue=3|language=en|doi=10.25250/thescbr.brk563|s2cid=237986623|issn=2571-9262|doi-access=free}}</ref>]]
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}
'''Sea rewilding''' (also known as '''marine rewilding''') is an area of [[Environmental protection|environmental conservation]] activity which focuses on [[Rewilding (conservation biology)|rewilding]], restoring ocean life and returning seas to a more natural state. Sea rewilding projects operate around the world, working to repopulate a wide range of organisms, including giant clams, sharks, skates, sea sturgeons, and many other species.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-07-04|title=A drop in the ocean: rewilding the seas|url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/jul/04/rewilding-the-seas-overfishing-oceans|access-date=2022-01-17|website=[[the Guardian]]|language=en}}</ref> Rewilding marine and [[coastal ecosystems]] offer potential ways to [[Climate change mitigation|mitigate]] [[climate change]] and [[Carbon sequestration|sequester carbon]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Reports|url=https://www.bluemarinefoundation.com/about/reports/|access-date=2022-01-20|website=[[Blue Marine Foundation]]|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-11-02|title=COP 26: Ocean action is climate action and the time to act is now!|url=https://seas-at-risk.org/|access-date=2022-01-20|website=Seas at Risk|language=en}}</ref> Sea rewilding projects are currently less common than those focusing on rewilding land, and seas are under increasing stress from the [[blue economy]] – commercial activities which further stress the marine environment.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-12-21|title=Ocean protection and Marine Directive review: past present future. Interview with Monica Verbeek, Executive Director of Seas At Risk|url=https://seas-at-risk.org/|access-date=2022-01-20|website=Seas at Risk|language=en}}</ref> Rewilding projects held near costal communities can economically benefit local businesses as well as individuals and communities a whole.<ref> https://www.mossy.earth/rewilding-knowledge/marine-rewilding</ref>
== Seagrass ==
[[File:Posidonia oceanica (L).jpg|alt=Long wide leaved grass under clear light blue water|thumb|Seagrass at [[La Ciotat]], France]]
[[Seagrass meadow|Seagrass meadows]] store [[Carbon dioxide removal|carbon dioxide]]. More than 90% of the United Kingdom's historic seagrass meadows have been lost.<ref>{{Cite thesis|title=Assessing the impact of environmental pressures on seagrass Blue Carbon stocks in the British Isles|url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10104698/|publisher=UCL (University College London)|date=2020-07-28|degree=Doctoral|first=Alix Evelyn|last=Green}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Advancing the conservation of seagrass through education influence research and action|url=https://www.projectseagrass.org/seagrass-ocean-rescue/|access-date=2022-01-17|website=Project Seagrass|language=en}}</ref> Restoring meadows could [[carbon offset|offset carbon emissions]] and provide habitat for numerous fish and shellfish species.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Dickie|first=Mure|date=2021-09-04|title=Coastal rewilding: restoring Scotland's seagrass meadows|work=[[Financial Times]]|url=https://www.ft.com/content/cab65bda-005b-4186-8bda-1b5173155759|access-date=2022-01-17}}</ref> Research into seagrass, which covers about one percent of the sea floor suggests that it may be delivering 15–18% of carbon storage in the ocean.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Assessment of Blue Carbon Resources in Scotland's Inshore Marine Protected Area Network|url=https://www.nature.scot/doc/naturescot-commissioned-report-957-assessment-blue-carbon-resources-scotlands-inshore-marine|access-date=2022-01-17|website=[[NatureScot]]|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2021-11-05|title=The problem with blue carbon: can seagrass be replanted … by hand?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/05/seagrass-meadows-could-turn-tide-of-climate-crisis-aoe|access-date=2022-01-17|website=[[the Guardian]]|language=en}}</ref> Meadows have been declining since the 1930s and are being lost at an alarming rate.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2020-06-04|title=Out of the Blue: The Value of Seagrasses to the Environment and to People|url=http://www.unep.org/resources/report/out-blue-value-seagrasses-environment-and-people|access-date=2022-01-17|website=[[UN Environment Programme]]|language=en}}</ref> Due to their scarcity they have been designated a UK habitat of principal importance.<ref>{{Cite web|title=LIFE 3.0 – LIFE Project Public Page|url=https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/life/publicWebsite/index.cfm?fuseaction=search.dspPage&n_proj_id=7321|access-date=2022-01-17|website=[[European Commission]] LIFE public database}}</ref> In the United States, a project at [[Chesapeake Bay]] is considered a success.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Unsworth|first1=Richard K. F.|last2=Callaway|first2=Ruth|title=How underwater gardening can rewild the Atlantic Ocean|url=http://theconversation.com/how-underwater-gardening-can-rewild-the-atlantic-ocean-85794|access-date=2022-01-23|website=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]]|language=en}}</ref>
== Native oysters ==
[[File:Green grass marsh with oyster beds.jpg|alt=Green grass marsh with oyster beds and water in the foreground|thumb|Oyster beds]]
[[Oyster|Oysters]] filter water, recycle nutrients and help to protect against [[coastal erosion]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2021-08-05|title=Helping Oyster Growers and Marine Ecosystems in Rhode Island|url=https://www.farmers.gov/blog/helping-oyster-growers-and-marine-ecosystems-in-rhode-island|access-date=2022-02-17|website=Farmers.gov|language=en}}</ref> Oyster stocks have declined by 95 per cent in Europe due to over-harvesting, habitat loss, [[Marine pollution|pollution]] and disease.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Essex Native Oyster Restoration Initiative|url=https://essexnativeoyster.com/|access-date=2022-01-17|website=Essex Native Oysters|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":1" />
In [[Rhode Island]], US, "wild oyster populations are at an all-time low", according to Eric Schneider, the principal marine biologist with the Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management's Division of Marine Fisheries. He also states: "oysters provide a number of essential [[ecosystem services]], from [[Water filter|water filtration]] to fish habitat and shoreline protection. By having oyster reef habitat absent from these systems, those services can be significantly depressed."<ref name=":1" />
It has been demonstrated that restoring historic oyster beds improves water quality.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Restoring oysters on the Humber|url=https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/blog/guest/restoring-oysters-humber|access-date=2022-01-17|website=[[The Wildlife Trusts]]}}</ref>
== Kelp forests ==
[[File:Kelp forest at Taranga pinnacles Hen and Chicken Islands PA232359.JPG|thumb|Kelp forest at the Taranga pinnacles of the [[Hen and Chicken Islands]], New Zealand|alt=Large light green fronds under water]]
[[Kelp forest]]s are important habitats which have been lost over time in coastal waters.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sussex Kelp Restoration Project|url=https://sussexwildlifetrust.org.uk/helpourkelp|access-date=2022-01-17|website=[[Sussex Wildlife Trust]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Paradigm Shift On How To Restore Kelp Forests|url=https://sea-trees.org/blogs/in-the-news/paradigm-shift-on-how-to-restore-kelp-forests|access-date=2022-01-17|website=Sea Trees|language=en}}</ref> Kelp forests provide habitat for fish, protect coastlines from erosion and trap carbon dioxide from the ocean. They grow fast and absorb large amounts of carbon.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-03-17|title=Plantwatch: kelp – forgotten forests that help tackle climate crisis|url=http://www.theguardian.com/science/2020/mar/17/plantwatch-kelp-forgotten-forests-that-help-tackle-climate-crisis|access-date=2022-01-20|website=[[the Guardian]]|language=en}}</ref> Restoring kelp forests is a strategy to [[climate change mitigation|address climate change]] and enrich ocean livestock.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kelp Forest Restoration Project|url=https://www.santamonicabay.org/what-we-do/projects/kelp-forest-restoration-project/|access-date=2022-01-17|website=The Bay Foundation|language=en}}</ref>
== Marine protected areas ==
[[Marine protected area]]s are areas protected from certain activity. They are used to preserve and conserve areas where marine life has been disrupted or disturbed. Such disturbances could be [[overfishing]], [[Marine pollution|ocean pollution]], and other similar disturbances.
In [[Chile]], environmental groups such as Rewilding Chile are campaigning to create new protected areas.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Marine Program|url=https://www.rewildingchile.org/en/projects/marine-program/|access-date=2022-01-23|website=Fundación Rewilding Chile|language=en-US}}</ref>
== Carbon capture ==
Rewilding the sea has been described as "the new way to capture carbon".<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-06-24|title=Rewilding the sea is the new way to capture carbon, says Eustice|url=https://www.bluemarinefoundation.com/2020/06/24/rewilding-the-sea/|access-date=2022-01-23|website=Blue Marine Foundation|language=en-US}}</ref>
== Organisations ==
*Seawilding, a Scottish charity work with communities<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Seawilding – an entity, and an idea that was born out of the hopes, aspirations and motivations of a community association called CROMACH|url=http://www.decadeonrestoration.org/stories/seawilding-entity-and-idea-was-born-out-hopes-aspirations-and-motivations-community|access-date=2022-01-17|website=UN Decade on Restoration|language=en}}</ref>
* [[NatureScot]]
* [[Rewilding Britain]]
<!--
[https://www.arrancoast.com/ COAST]
[https://www.santamonicabay.org/ The Bay Foundation]
[https://www.bluemarinefoundation.com/ Blue Marine Foundation]
[https://seas-at-risk.org/ Seas at Risk]-->
== See also ==
*[[Rewilding (conservation biology)|Rewilding]]
*[[Salmon conservation]]
*[[Blue carbon]]
*[[Reef burials]]
== Further reading ==
*{{Cite book|last=Clover|first=Charles|title=Rewilding the Sea|url=https://www.penguin.co.uk/books/1446596/rewilding-the-sea/9781529144031|date=2022-06-09|publisher=[[Penguin Books]]|language=en}}
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{conservation of species}}
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Marine conservation]]
[[Category:Climate action plans]]
[[Category:Ecological restoration]]
[[Category:Rewilding]]
[[Category:Blue carbon]]
[[Category:Natural resources]]
[[Category:Aquatic ecology]] |
Category:Rights of nature | {{cat main}}
[[Category:Environmental law]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Environmental justice]]
[[Category:Environmental social science concepts]]
[[Category:Environmental philosophy]] |
Pacific Regional Environment Programme | {{Short description|Organization}}
{{Infobox organization
|name = Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme
|image = Secretariat_of_the_Pacific_Regional_Environment_Programme.jpg
|image_border =
|size = <!-- default 200 -->
|alt = <!-- alt text; see [[WP:ALT]] -->
|caption =
|map = <!-- optional -->
|msize = <!-- map size, optional, default 200px -->
|malt = <!-- map alt text -->
|mcaption = <!-- optional -->
|abbreviation = SPREP
|motto =
|formation = 16 June 1993
|extinction = <!-- date of extinction, optional -->
|type = independent inter-governmental organization
|status = Agreement Establishing SPREP
|purpose = promote cooperation in the South Pacific Region and to provide assistance in order to protect and improve the environment and to ensure sustainable development for present and future generations (Art.2).
|headquarters = [[Apia]], [[Samoa]]
|location =
|coords = <!-- Coordinates of location using a coordinates template -->
|region_served = Pacific
|membership =
|language = <!-- official languages -->
|leader_title = Director General
|leader_name = [[Leota Kosi Latu]]
|main_organ = Intergovernmental Meetings (IGM), SPREP Meetings (SM) and Regional Convention COPs
|parent_organization = <!-- if one -->
|affiliations = <!-- if any -->
|num_staff =90+
|num_volunteers =
|budget =
|website = https://www.sprep.org/
|remarks =
}}
The '''Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme''' ('''SPREP''') is an [[intergovernmental organisation]] based in [[Apia]], [[Samoa]] with more than 90 staff members. The organisation is held accountable by the governments and administrations of the Pacific region to ensure the protection and sustainable development of the region's natural resources. The organisation actively promotes the understanding of the connection between Pacific island people and their [[natural environment]] and the impact that these have on their sustenance and livelihoods. The organisation was established in 1982.<ref>{{cite web | title = South Pacific Regional Environment Programme | work = Australian Government. Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade | url = http://dfat.gov.au/geo/pacific/regional_orgs/index.html | accessdate = 2015-01-20}}</ref> Previously '''South Pacific Regional Environment Programme''', the word "South" was replaced with "Secretariat" in 2004, in recognition of the members north of the equator. The French equivalent name is ''Programme régional océanien de l’environnement'' (PROE).<ref>[http://www.sprep.org/attachments/Legal/Files_updated_at_2014/Amendement_SPREP_agreement.pdf SPREP Agreement]</ref>
==Members==
SPREP Members comprise 21 Pacific island countries and territories, and five developed countries* with direct interests in the region:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| {{ASM}} || {{AUS}}* || {{COK}}
|-
| {{FSM}} || {{FJI}} || {{FRA}}*
|-
| {{PYF}} || {{GUM}} || {{KIR}}
|-
| {{MHL}} || {{NRU}} || {{NCL}}
|-
| {{NZL}}* || {{NIU}} || {{MNP}}
|-
| {{PLW}} || {{PNG}} || {{WSM}}
|-
| {{SLB}} || {{TKL}} || {{TON}}
|-
| {{TUV}} || {{GBR}}* || {{USA}}*
|-
| {{VUT}} || {{WLF}} ||
|}
==Conventions==
SPREP oversees the following agreements, conventions and protocols, each of which is enacted by [[International treaty]]:
*''Agreement establishing the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme'' Apia, 1993<ref>[http://www3.austlii.edu.au/au/other/dfat/treaties/1995/24.html "Agreement establishing the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) [as an intergovernmental organisation] ATS 24 of 1995”]. Australasian Legal Information Institute, Australian Treaties Library. Retrieved on 15 April 2017.</ref>
** ''Convention on Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific'' (Apia Convention) 1976<ref>[http://www3.austlii.edu.au/au/other/dfat/treaties/1990/31.html "Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region (SPREP) ATS 31 of 1990”]. Australasian Legal Information Institute, Australian Treaties Library. Retrieved on 15 April 2017.</ref> (Suspended in 2006)<ref>{{cite web|last1=Canessa|first1=Carolin|title=Conventions Secretariat {{!}} Legal|url=http://www.sprep.org/legal/convention-secretariat|website=www.sprep.org|accessdate=18 June 2017|language=en-gb}}</ref>
** ''Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region'' (Noumea Convention) 1986<ref>[http://www3.austlii.edu.au/au/other/dfat/treaties/1990/31.html "Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region (SPREP) ATS 31 of 1990”]. Australasian Legal Information Institute, Australian Treaties Library. Retrieved on 15 April 2017.</ref>
*** ''Protocol for the Prevention of Pollution of the South Pacific Region by Dumping'' (Dumping Protocol of the Noumea Convention) 1986
*** ''Protocol concerning Co-operation in Combating Pollution Emergencies in the South Pacific Region'' (Emergencies Protocol of the Noumea Convention) 1986<ref>[http://www3.austlii.edu.au/au/other/dfat/treaties/1990/32.html "Protocol concerning Co-operation in Combating Pollution Emergencies in the South Pacific Region [under SPREP] ATS 32 of 1990”]. Australasian Legal Information Institute, Australian Treaties Library. Retrieved on 15 April 2017.</ref>
** ''Convention to Ban the Importation into Forum Island Countries of Hazardous and Radioactive Wastes and to Control the Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within the South Pacific Region'' (Waigani Convention) 1995
==Governance==
The SPREP Annual General Meeting is the main governance mechanism of the organisation. SPREP Members meet once every year to discuss the workplan and budget and other matters relating to administration and corporate affairs. The 25th SPREP Meeting was held in the Republic of the Marshall Islands in October 2014.<ref>[http://www.sprep.org/sprep-meeting/25th-sprep-meeting-of-officials SPREP Meeting of Officials]</ref>
SPREP began life in the late 1970s as a joint initiative of SPC, SPEC, ESCAP and UNEP - eventually functioning as a component of UNEP's Regional Seas Programme. The Programme received further impetus as a result of the 1982 Conference on the Human Environment in the South Pacific. Following a period of expansion and long deliberations, SPREP left SPC in Nouméa in 1992 and relocated to Samoa. It achieved autonomy as an independent inter-governmental organisation with the signing of the Agreement Establishing SPREP in Apia on 16 June 1993.
SPREP (the Secretariat) is the region’s key inter-governmental organisation for environment and sustainable development, and is one of several inter-governmental agencies comprising the Council of Regional Organisations in the Pacific (CROP). Under the Agreement Establishing SPREP, the purposes of SPREP are to promote cooperation in the South Pacific Region and to provide assistance in order to protect and improve the environment and to ensure sustainable development for present and future generations (Art.2). SPREP's vision is: the Pacific environment - sustaining our livelihoods and natural heritage in harmony with our cultures. SPREP also functions as the Secretariat of 2 (formerly 3) regional conventions: the Nouméa Convention, the Waigani Convention and the Apia Convention (suspended).
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
* [https://www.sprep.org/ SPREP]
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Intergovernmental environmental organizations]]
[[Category:International organizations based in Oceania]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Apia]]
[[Category:Politics of American Samoa]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Australia]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of the Cook Islands]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of the Federated States of Micronesia]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Fiji]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of France]]
[[Category:Politics of French Polynesia]]
[[Category:Politics of Guam]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Kiribati]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of the Marshall Islands]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Nauru]]
[[Category:Politics of New Caledonia]]
[[Category:New Zealand–Pacific relations]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Niue]]
[[Category:Politics of the Northern Mariana Islands]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Palau]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Papua New Guinea]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Samoa]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of the Solomon Islands]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Tokelau]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Tonga]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Tuvalu]]
[[Category:United Kingdom–Oceanian relations]]
[[Category:United States–Oceanian relations]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Vanuatu]]
[[Category:Politics of Wallis and Futuna]] |
First Nations Australian traditional custodianship | {{Update|date=February 2024|reason=needs broader contextual definitions of "custodian", "Country", "Caring for Country", "native title" and "Acknowledgement of Country"<ref>{{cite web | url=https://narvis.com.au/the-region/aboriginal-custodianship-background-information/ | title=Aboriginal Custodianship – Background Information – NARvis }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.blackpeoplesunion.org/our-demands | title=Our Demands }}</ref>}}
[[File:Rocks at Imaluk Beach.jpg|thumb|Imaluk Beach on [[Darwin Harbour]]. While these lands and seas are widely recognised as [[Larrakia people|Larrakia]] Country, some sources also list the [[Belyuen]] and [[Wadjiginy]] people as traditional custodians.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/33623/1/459535.pdf|chapter=8. ‘No vacancies at the Starlight Motel’: Larrakia identity and the native title claims process|first=Benedict|last=Scambary|date=2007|title=The Social Effects of Native Title: Recognition, Translation, Coexistence|editor-first1=Benjamin R.|editor-last1=Smith|editor-first2=Frances|editor-last2=Morphy|publisher=ANU E Press|pages=154|quote=The area is predominantly occupied by the ‘Belyuen’ who have a custodial relationship with the Larrakia in relation to their residence on Larrakia country}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ian.umces.edu/blog/engaging-with-the-belyuen-people-and-larrakia-people-traditional-owners-of-darwin-harbour-australia/|title=Engaging with the Belyuen people and Larrakia people, Traditional Owners of Darwin Harbour, Australia|first1=Bill|last1=Dennison|first2=Lorraine|last2=Williams|date=10 April 2020|website=University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science Integration and Application Network|quote=Belyuen people live in the Belyuen Community, the are made up of three language groups, Batjamalh, Emmiyangal, Mendheyangal. Their traditional lands are further down south of the west coast, but maintain custodial responsibilities for the area of Belyuen Community on the Cox Peninsula.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.drbilldayanthropologist.com/resources/Larrakia%20Family%20groups.pdf|title=Larrakia Family groups|first=Bill|last=Day|date=2012|website=Dr Bill Day Anthropologist|quote=Larrakia knowledge of country and rituals flourished on the Cox Peninsula, albeit through intermarriage with the Wadjiginy people as custodians.}}</ref>]]
The concept of '''First Nations Australian traditional custodianship''' derives from [[Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander]] peoples' strong traditional connection with the lands and seas they reside on, known collectively as "[[Country (Indigenous Australians)|Country]]".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.qcaa.qld.edu.au/downloads/approach2/indigenous_res005_0803.pdf|title=Relationships to country: Aboriginal people and Torres Strait Islander people|date=March 2008|author=Queensland Studies Authority|website=Queensland Curriculum and Assessment Authority}}</ref><ref name="spirituality"/><ref name="standpoint"/> The term "traditional custodian" is often used interchangeably with "[[traditional owner]]" in the context of [[native title in Australia]], including in [[Acknowledgement of Country|acknowledgements of Country]].<ref name="SOE"/><ref name="moondani"/> The role of a [[wikt:custodian|custodian]], however, implies a responsibility to care for Country, reflecting a worldview that is not necessarily compatible with the Western concepts of [[Property|land ownership]] and the [[right to property]].<ref name="researchers" /><ref name="amnesty"/>
While specific practices and interpretations of custodianship may differ among the hundreds of distinct [[Aboriginal Australian]] and [[Torres Strait Islander]] groups, they all seemingly share a close affiliation with the land and a responsibility to look after it.<ref name="tonkinson"/><ref name="beginning"/><ref name="biocultural"/> Since the 1980s,<ref name="pleshet"/> First Nations and non-First Nations Australian academics have developed an understanding of a deeply rooted custodial obligation, or custodial ethic, that underpins Aboriginal Australian culture, and could offer significant benefits for [[sustainable land management]] and [[reconciliation in Australia]].<ref name="graham"/><ref name="ecological"/><ref name="royal"/>
==Definitions in Australian literature==
Aboriginal Australian academics Joann Schmider ([[Mamu people|Mamu]]), Samantha Cooms ([[Nunukul]]) and Melinda Mann ([[Darumbal]]) offer the following simple definition for traditional custodians: "the direct descendants of the Indigenous people of a particular location prior to [[Colonisation of Australia|colonisation]]". However, they add the caveat that "western worldviews are encapsulated within the English language and using western terminology to illuminate Indigenous ways of knowing, being and doing is inevitability fraught with misinterpretations and imperfect understandings".<ref name="researchers">{{cite journal|url=https://search.informit.org/doi/pdf/10.3316/informit.692954533528776|title=Our Experiences of Researching with our Mob on our Country: Traditional Custodians as Researchers|first1=Joann|last1=Schmider|first2=Samantha|last2=Cooms|first3=Melinda|last3=Mann|date=2022|journal=Journal of Australian Indigenous Issues|volume=25|issue=1–2|pages=38–58}}</ref> As noted by [[Wiradjuri]] scholar Yalmambirra and [[European Australians|European Australian]] archaeologist [[Dirk Spennemann]]: "before the onset of European administration, there was no collective concept for the original custodians of this continent, and each community, culturally divergent from its neighbours, had its own identity".<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.anzrsai.org/assets/Uploads/PublicationChapter/171-YalmambirraandSpennemann.pdf|title=GAWAIMBANNA-GU WIRADJURI NHURRANBAANG (WELCOME TO WIRADJURI COUNTRY)|last1=Yalmambirra|first2=Dirk H.R.|last2=Spennemann|date=2006|journal=Australasian Journal of Regional Studies|volume=12|issue=3|pages=383–393}}</ref>
The English-language term "traditional custodians" is not unique to First Nations Australians,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://toolbox.iccaconsortium.org/meanings-and-more/custodians-stewards-guardians/|chapter=Custodians/Stewards/Guardians|title=Meanings and more… Policy Brief of the ICCA Consortium no. 7|date=25 November 2019|first1=G.|last1=Sajeva|first2=G.|last2=Borrini-Feyerabend|first3=T.|last3=Niederberger|publisher=ICCA Consortium}}</ref> and has been used to refer to local communities' relationships with land and resources in West Africa, Southern Africa, and Canada.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/download/43347245/Langdon_and_Larweh_-AR-2013-PAR_knowledge_democracy-revision-final.pdf|title=Moving with the movement: Collaboratively building a participatory action research study of social movement learning in Ada, Ghana|first1=Jonathan|last1=Langdon|first2=Kofi|last2=Larweh|journal=Action Research|date=2015|volume=13|issue=3|pages=281–297|doi=10.1177/1476750315572447 |s2cid=147965723 |quote=a constant threat from outside forces aiming to seize the resource from the Ada, or “Okor,” people who have been its custodians}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326201607|title=Traditional agriculture in transition: examining the impacts of agricultural modernization on smallholder farming in Ghana under the new Green Revolution|first1=Moses|last1=Kansanga|first2=Peter|last2=Andersen|first3=Daniel|last3=Kpienbaareh|first4=Sarah A.|last4=Mason-Renton|first5=K|last5=Atuoye|first6=Y|last6=Sano|first7=R|last7=Antabe|first8=I|last8=Luginaah|journal=International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology|date=4 July 2018|volume=26|issue=1|pages=11–24|doi=10.1080/13504509.2018.1491429 |s2cid=159024556 |quote=The traditional custodian of the land who in consultation with the gods, ancestors and chief administers customary land and adjudicates land disputes}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/354718664|chapter=Sacred Spaces, Legal Claims: Competing Claims for Legitimate Knowledge and Authority over the Use of Land in Nharira Hills, Zimbabwe|first1=Shannon|last1=Morreira|first2=Fiona|last2=Iliff|title=Challenging Authorities: Ethnographies of Legitimacy and Power in Eastern and Southern Africa|date=September 2021|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|editor-first1=A.S.|editor-last1=Steinforth|editor-first2=S.|editor-last2=Klocke-Daffa|quote=the National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe also formally recognised the Moyo Ziruvi Nyamweda clan as the traditional custodians of the site}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://mspace.lib.umanitoba.ca/bitstreams/5a0698c4-1f29-4a63-9fda-62273d824ce5/download|title=Custodians of the past: archaeology and Indigenous best practices in Canada|first=April|last=Chabot|website=University of Manitoba|date=2017|quote=Another theme that this group seemed to share with some others was a desire to move from a concept of ownership toward a concept of custodianship in an effort to build stronger, positive relationships between archaeologists and Indigenous communities}}</ref> It has been applied in an Australian context since 1972 at the latest, when sections 4 and 9 of the [[Western Australia]]n ''[[Aboriginal Heritage Act 1972]]'' defined them as "a representative body of persons of Aboriginal descent [that] has an interest in a place or object to which this Act applies that is of traditional and current importance to it".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.legislation.wa.gov.au/legislation/prod/filestore.nsf/FileURL/mrdoc_9590.pdf/$FILE/Aboriginal%20Heritage%20Act%201972%20-%20%5B00-00-00%5D.pdf?OpenElement|title=ABORIGINAL HERITAGE|date=1972|website=Western Australian Legislation, Parliamentary Counsel's Office, Department of Justice, Government of Western Australia}}</ref>
Following progress on [[Indigenous land rights in Australia|First Nations land rights]], European Australian understanding of traditional custodianship improved in the 1980s. In 1981, journalist [[Jack Waterford]] wrote of [[Indigenous Australian customary law|Aboriginal law]] as a system of "religious obligations, duties of kinship and relationship, caring for country and the acquisition and passing on of the community's store of knowledge".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/126828210?searchTerm=aboriginal%20%22care%20for%20country%22|title=Aborigines move between different kinds of law|first=Jack|last=Waterford|date=18 March 1981|work=The Canberra Times}}</ref> Geographer Elspeth Young, in 1987, elaborated on the concept of "caring for country" as "a set of practices that articulated primary rights to land, which were based on spiritual custodianship, with secondary land use rights".<ref name="pleshet">{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/download/57269038/ocea.5188.pdf|title=Caring for Country: history and alchemy in the making and management of Indigenous Australian land|first=Noah|last=Pleshet|date=2018|journal=Oceania|volume=88|issue=2|pages=183–201|doi=10.1002/ocea.5188 }}</ref><ref name="yanama">{{cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332620203|title=''Yanama budyari gumada'': reframing the urban to care as Darug Country in western Sydney|first1=Darug|last1=Ngurra|first2=Lexodious|last2=Dadd|first3=Paul|last3=Glass|first4=Rebecca|last4=Scott|first5=Marnie|last5=Graham|first6=Sara|last6=Judge|first7=Paul|last7=Hodge|first8=Sandie|last8=Suchet-Pearson|journal=Australian Geographer|date=22 April 2019|volume=50 |issue=3 |page=279 |doi=10.1080/00049182.2019.1601150 |bibcode=2019AuGeo..50..279N |s2cid=150980191 }}</ref> By 1992, handing down their judgment on the landmark [[Mabo v Queensland (No 2)|''Mabo'' case]], High Court Justices [[William Deane]] and [[Mary Gaudron]] acknowledged that "[u]nder the laws or customs of the relevant locality, particular tribes or clans were, either on their own or with others, custodians of the areas of land from which they derived their sustenance and from which they often took their tribal names. Their laws or customs were elaborate and obligatory."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www8.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/cases/cth/HCA/1992/23.html|title=Mabo v Queensland (No 2) ("Mabo case") [1992] HCA 23; (1992) 175 CLR 1|date=3 June 1992|website=AustLII|first1=William|last1=Deane|first2=Mary|last2=Gaudron}}</ref>
In a 2021 report, the Australian federal [[Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water]] defined traditional custodians as "Indigenous people or nations who have responsibilities in caring for their Country". This contrasted with traditional owners, defined as "an Indigenous owner of their traditional Country, as determined through the purchase of [[Freehold (law)|freehold]], as granted by government or as determined through [[Native title in Australia|the native title process]]".<ref name="SOE">{{cite web|url=https://soe.dcceew.gov.au/about-soe/glossary/T|title=Glossary|website=Australia: State of the Environment 2021|author=Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water|date=2021}}</ref> Since 2022 the [[Australian Public Service]] has advised capitalising the first letters in each word when referring to traditional custodians.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.apsc.gov.au/working-aps/diversity-and-inclusion/diversity-inclusion-news/first-nations-vocabulary-using-culturally-appropriate-language-and-terminology|title=First Nations Vocabulary – using culturally appropriate language and terminology|date=27 July 2022|author=Australian Public Service Commission}}</ref>
==First Nations understandings of custodianship==
[[File:Koomal Dreaming- Cultural Experiences - Josh Whiteland edited 0.webm|thumb|[[Wardandi]] man Josh Whiteland (2015) sharing a traditional [[Dreamtime]] story, offering an explanation for how humans came to bear the custodial responsibility of caring for the natural environment around them]]
First Nations Australians have expressed their interpretations of traditional custodianship through academic writing, political advocacy, traditional stories, poetry and music.
Numerous Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures share an understanding that, contrary to Western views on [[land ownership]], the land "owns us". Elders including [[Quandamooka]] woman [[Oodgeroo Noonuccal]], [[Gai-mariagal]] and [[Wiradjuri]] man Dennis Foley, and [[Yankunytjatjara ]] man [[Bob Randall (Aboriginal Australian elder)|Bob Randall]] discuss this theme at length, often in [[Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology|a spiritual context]], referring to Country as an owner or a maternal figure, and a core component of cultural identity.<ref name="overland">{{cite journal|url=https://overland.org.au/previous-issues/issue-240/feature-oodgeroo-breaking-the-iron-cycle-of-settler-colonialism/|title=Oodgeroo: Breaking the iron cycle of settler colonialism|first=Victoria|last=Grieve-Williams|date=2020|journal=Overland|volume=240}}</ref><ref name="standpoint">{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/download/31450001/Indigenous_Epistemology_and_Indigenous_Standpoint_Theory.pdf|title=Indigenous epistemology and Indigenous standpoint theory|date=2003|first=Dennis|last=Foley|journal=Social Alternatives|volume=22|issue=1|pages=44–52}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.globalonenessproject.org/library/interviews/we-are-caretakers|title=We Are Caretakers|first=Bob|last=Randall|date=27 February 2009|website=Global Oneness Project}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://janemcgeough.wordpress.com/2014/06/02/aboriginal-spirituality-and-the-land/|title=Aboriginal Spirituality and The Land|date=2 June 2014|first=Jane|last=McGeough|website=WordPress.com}}</ref> Noonuccal assigns particular importance to the following maxim: "We cannot own the land for the land owns us".<ref name="overland"/>
Drawing on this important relationship with Country, many First Nations Australians — including [[Aboriginal Australians]] across the continent and [[Torres Strait Islanders]] alike<ref name="tonkinson">{{cite journal|url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/jso_0300-953x_1999_num_109_2_2110|title=The pragmatics and politics of Aboriginal tradition and identity in Australia|first=Robert|last=Tonkinson|journal=Journal de la Société des Océanistes|volume=109|issue=2|date=1999|quote=today many indigenous people invoke values such as 'caring and sharing' as fundamental elements of a pan-Aboriginal identity|pages=133–147|doi=10.3406/jso.1999.2110 |pmid=21970010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.academia.edu/download/55857319/2016-McNamaraWestoby-TorresStrait.pdf|chapter=Intergenerational Sharing of Indigenous Environmental Knowledge in the Torres Strait|first1=Karen Elizabeth|last1=McNamara|first2=Ross|last2=Westoby|title=Geographies of Global Issues: Change and Threat|date=2016|publisher=Springer|quote=For this [Torres Strait Islander] Elder, such environmental knowledge and traditional laws, based around leaving enough for tomorrow, needed to be passed on to the young people so that they too could listen to, and read, their country... reading country is part of “ways of knowing,” which can then be applied to care for and provide custodianship of local environments}}</ref> — identify a sense of responsibility or obligation to care for Country as a central tenet of traditional custodianship. [[Yolŋu]] woman Djuwalpi Marika outlined this sense of responsibility within her community in a 1993 report: "The Yolngu people belong to a number of separate clan groups, each consisting of individual families. Each clan is spiritually connected to their own particular ancestral homeland place (wanga), and being the traditional custodians are responsible for the care and management of their wanga. Living in their own lands make people feel happy and brings the relationship of the land, its people and their ancestors together."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-491293196/view?sectionId=nla.obj-516818586&partId=nla.obj-493484846#page/n502/mode/1up|chapter=COMMUNITY LIVING FOR ABORIGINAL PEOPLE|first=Djuwalpi|last=Marika|date=1993|title=New South Wales Coastal Conference proceedings}}</ref>
[[Aboriginal Tasmanians|Turbuna]] man Jim Everett and [[Barkandji]] woman Zena Cumpston both identify a custodial obligation to care for Country as a shared foundation of First Nations communities across Australia, embedding a sense of deep respect and accountability for the natural world.<ref name="spirituality">{{cite journal|url=https://www.mhyfvic.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Aboriginal_spirituality_Aboriginal_philo.pdf|title=Aboriginal Spirituality: Aboriginal Philosophy, The Basis of Aboriginal Social and Emotional Wellbeing|first=Vicki|last=Grieves|date=2009|journal=Cooperative Research Centre for Aboriginal Health Discussion Paper Series|volume=9}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.adelaidereview.com.au/latest/opinion/2019/12/02/first-nations-knowledge-deeper-conversation/|title=First Nations knowledge is in vogue, but needs to be part of a deeper conversation|first=Zena|last=Cumpston|date=2 December 2019|journal=The Adelaide Review|volume=478}}</ref><ref name="ecological">{{cite web|url=https://theconversation.com/to-address-the-ecological-crisis-aboriginal-peoples-must-be-restored-as-custodians-of-country-108594|title=To address the ecological crisis, Aboriginal peoples must be restored as custodians of Country|date=31 January 2020|first=Zena|last=Cumpston|website=The Conversation}}</ref> According to this view, being on Country is not considered a right, but a privilege;<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nit.com.au/05-05-2023/5860/indigenous-musicians-shine-light-on-caring-for-country|title=Indigenous musicians shine light on caring for country|first=Eelemarni|last=Close-Brown|date=5 May 2023|website=National Indigenous Times}}</ref> as [[Warrwa]]-[[Noongar]] woman Louise O'Reilly explains: "it is not about our right to own land, it is about our right to protect that land. Our right to ensure that land is looked after in a way that will ensure its healthy, sustainable existence. It is a deeply imprinted sense of connection and responsibility that Aboriginal people feel to the land and not about having land as a possession."<ref name="amnesty">{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org.au/three-things-eddie-mabo-taught-me/|title=THREE THINGS EDDIE MABO TAUGHT ME|first=Louise|last=O'Reilly|date=28 June 2018|website=Amnesty International Australia}}</ref>
First Nations poets and musicians often express their affinity with Country and associated custodial responsibility through their works:
{{Quote box
|quote = I am a child of the Dreamtime People<br/>Part of the land, like the gnarled gumtree<br/>I am the river, softly singing<br/>Chanting our songs on my way to the sea...<br/>I am this land<br/>And this land is me
|author = [[Hyllus Maris]]
|source = ''Spiritual Song of the Aborigine'', 1983<ref>{{cite web|url=https://echucahistoricalsociety.org.au/poetry-trail/maris-hyllus/|title=Spiritual Song of the Aborigine: Hyllus Maris|author=Echuca Historical Society|date=2019}}</ref>
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}}
{{Quote box
|quote = We know that the earth is our mother who created us all.<br/>We cannot own her, she owns us.<br/>So we are the custodians of our Earth Mother, whom we must protect and respect at all times.
|author = [[Oodgeroo Noonuccal]]
|source = ''Legends and Landscapes'', 1990<ref>{{cite book|url=https://sites.google.com/site/poetrypoliticsplace/3-making-maps/3-5-1-claiming-the-land|chapter=3.5.1 CLAIMING THE LAND|title=Poetry, politics & place|first=Kelly|last=Gardiner|date=1998}}</ref>
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}}
{{Quote box
|quote = This land is me<br/>Rock, water, animal, tree<br/>They are my song<br/>My being’s here where I belong<br/>This land owns me<br/>From generations past to infinity
|author = [[Kev Carmody]]
|source = ''[[One Night the Moon#One Night the Moon: Original Soundtrack|This Land is Mine]]'', 2001<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.qagoma.qld.gov.au/this-land-is-mine-this-land-is-me-australia/|title=MY COUNTRY: THIS LAND IS MINE / THIS LAND IS ME|first=Bruce|last=McLean|date=3 September 2013|website=Queensland Art Gallery}}</ref>
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Custodians may be referred to by different names in the hundreds of distinct [[Australian Aboriginal languages]]. These include "nguraritja" in [[Pitjantjatjara dialect|Pitjantjatjara]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263389708|title=A BIOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE ANANGU PITJANTJATJARA LANDS SOUTH AUSTRALIA 1991 - 2001|author=Biodiversity Survey and Monitoring Section, Science and Conservation Directorate, Department for Environment and Heritage, South Australia|date=2003}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/33623/1/459535.pdf#page=227|chapter=12. History, oral history, and memoriation in native title|first=James F.|last=Weiner|date=2007|title=The Social Effects of Native Title: Recognition, Translation, Coexistence|editor-first1=Benjamin R.|editor-last1=Smith|editor-first2=Frances|editor-last2=Morphy|publisher=ANU E Press|pages=215–223}}</ref> "kwertengerle" in [[Arrernte language|Arrernte]],<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://scholar.archive.org/work/wudwoxa56rbwrhz2sfnxeiq6ti/access/wayback/http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol18/iss3/art18/ES-2012-5501.pdf|title=Anpernirrentye: a Framework for Enhanced Application of Indigenous Ecological Knowledge in Natural Resource Management|first1=Fiona J.|last1=Walsh|first2=Perrurle V.|last2=Dobson|first3=Josie C.|last3=Douglas|journal=Ecology & Society|volume=18|issue=3|date=2013|doi=10.5751/ES-05501-180318 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327600072|title=Ethnographic sound collections and Australian Aboriginal Heritage: Kaytetye song traditions remembered|first=Jason M.|last=Gibson|date=11 September 2018|journal=International Journal of Heritage Studies}}</ref> "kurdungurlu" in [[Warlpiri language|Warlpiri]],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/bitstream/handle/2123/20390/BarwickTurpin2016_smaller.pdf?sequence=1|chapter=Chapter 5 Central Australian Women’s Traditional Songs Keeping Yawulyu/Awelye Strong|first1=Linda|last1=Barwick|first2=Myfany|last2=Turpin|date=2016|title=Sustainable Futures for Music Cultures|editor-first1=Huib|editor-last1=Schippers|editor-first2=Catherine|editor-last2=Grant|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/202188/1/Nash-1982-kurdungurlu-OCR.pdf|chapter=AN ETYMOLOGICAL NOTE ON WARLPIRI: kurdungurlu|first=David|last=Nash|date=1982|title=Languages of Kinship in Aboriginal Australia|publisher=University of Sydney|editor-first1=Jeffrey|editor-last1=Heath|editor-first2=Francesca|editor-last2=Merlan|editor-first3=Alan|editor-last3=Rumsey}}</ref> and "djungkay" in [[Kuninjku dialect|Kuninjku]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.johnmawurndjul.com/resources/students-and-teachers/djungkay/|title=Learn: Djungkay (cultural manager)|author1=Museum of Contemporary Art Australia|author2=Art Gallery of South Australia|website=JohnMawurndjul.com|date=2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bawinanga.com/what-we-do/bawinanga-rangers/what-we-do/|title=What we do - Bawinanga Rangers – Land and Sea|author=Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation|date=2022}}</ref> – although these words may refer more specifically to familial roles within traditional kinship networks that bestow a particular custodial responsibility. In the [[Dharug language]], the related phrase "yanama budyari gumada" means "walk with good spirit".<ref name="yanama"/>
===Custodianship and ownership===
{{See also|Native title in Australia#Traditional owner}}
The distinction between traditional custodians and traditional owners is made by some, but not all, First Nations Australians.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://content.vic.gov.au/sites/default/files/2019-11/Traditional-owner-voices-improving-government-relationships-and-supporting-strong-foundations.pdf|title=Traditional Owner voices: improving government relationships and supporting strong foundations|author=State Government of Victoria|date=August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/61395/1/61395_Scott_1992_thesis.pdf|title=The state of the art: issues concerning ownership, management and conservation of Australian Aboriginal rock images, with special reference to painted images in the Townsville region, North Queensland|first=Marcelle Marea|last=Scott|date=21 August 1992|website=James Cook University}}</ref> On one hand, [[Yuwibara]] man Philip Kemp states that he would "prefer to be identified as a Traditional Custodian and not a Traditional Owner as I do not own the land but I care for the land."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/spirituality/welcome-to-country-acknowledgement-of-country|title=Welcome to Country & Acknowledgement of Country|first=Jens|last=Korff|date=28 August 2023|website=Creative Spirits}}</ref> [[Wurundjeri]] man Ron Jones shared this sentiment, claiming that the words "traditional owners" are not typically used by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/epdf/10.1021/acssensors.9b00780|title=Editors as Custodians of Your Journal|date=24 May 2019|first=J. Justin|last=Gooding|journal=American Chemical Society Sensors|volume=4|issue=5|page=1118 |doi=10.1021/acssensors.9b00780 |pmid=31122022 }}</ref> In 2017, the [[Referendum Council]] received several submissions expressing a desire to have First Nations Australians [[Constitutional recognition of Indigenous Australians|recognised]] as traditional custodians or guardians in the [[Constitution of Australia#Preamble|preamble of the Constitution of Australia]], although [[Uluru Statement from the Heart|the Council's final report]] recommended prioritising a [[Indigenous Voice to Parliament|Voice to Parliament]] and [[Makarrata Commission]] rather than symbolic recognition of this status.<ref name="uluru">{{cite web|url=https://ulurustatemdev.wpengine.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Referendum_Council_Final_Report.pdf|title=Final Report of the Referendum Council|date=30 June 2017|author=Referendum Council|website=Uluru Statement from the Heart}}</ref>
Conversely, advocates for [[Australian Indigenous sovereignty]] may prefer to emphasise their status as traditional owners rather than solely traditional custodians. Addressing the 2018 [[Barunga Festival]], deputy chair of the [[Northern Land Council]] John Christophersen proclaimed: "We're not custodians, we're not caretakers. We weren't looking after [the land] for somebody else to come and take away. We were the owners. And occupiers. And custodians. And caretakers."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/treaty-yeah-a-renewed-hope-hovers-over-the-barunga-festival-20180629-h121qa.html|title=Treaty yeah? A renewed hope hovers over the Barunga festival|first=Andrew|last=Stafford|date=29 June 2018|website=The Sydney Morning Herald}}</ref> [[Wurundjeri]], [[Yorta Yorta]] and [[Taungurung]] man Andrew Peters expressed the view that "using the phrase ‘traditional owners’ indicates an Indigenous definition of ownership that has never involved monetary payments, title, or exclusive rights, but rather the recognition of thousands of years of respect, rights and responsibilities shared among many."<ref name="moondani">{{cite web|url=https://researchbank.swinburne.edu.au/file/da96e93e-1731-4a09-86e1-4c2cea5cd665/1/Andrew%20John%20Peters%20Thesis%20pdfa.pdf|title=MOONDANI YULENJ: An examination of Aboriginal culture, identity and education|first=Andrew|last=Peters|date=February 2017|website=Swinburne University of Technology}}</ref>
Proposals to amend the constitution to acknowledge Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples as [[First Peoples]], whether framed as owners, custodians, or otherwise, have not been successful. [[1999 Australian republic referendum#Preamble question|The failed 1999 referendum]] would have added a preamble to the Constitution that included "honouring Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders, the nation's first people, for their deep kinship with their lands and for their ancient and continuing cultures which enrich the life of our country";<ref>{{Cite web |last=The Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia |date=1999 |title=Schedule—Preamble to the Constitution |url=https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/download/legislation/bills/r900_first-reps/toc_pdf/99160B01.pdf|website=Parliament of Australia}}</ref> while [[2023 Australian Indigenous Voice referendum|the failed 2023 referendum]] would have established a Voice to Parliament "in recognition of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples as the First Peoples of Australia".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Press Conference – Parliament House |website=Prime Minister of Australia |url=https://www.pm.gov.au/media/press-conference-parliament-house |access-date=2023-03-24 |archive-date=30 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330153146/https://www.pm.gov.au/media/press-conference-parliament-house}}</ref>
==Custodial ethic==
[[File:The Land and its Laws of Obligation.webm|thumb|Adjunct Associate Professor Mary Graham (2021) presenting a [[webinar]] on the laws of obligation to land and her interpretation of the custodial ethic]]
Mary Graham, a [[Kombumerri clan|Kombu-merra]] and [[Wakka Wakka]] woman, developed the philosophical concept of a unique Aboriginal "custodial ethic". Acknowledging that different people and cultures develop different theories on the "[[Meaning of life|question of existence]]", Graham posits that Aboriginal Australians identified land or nature as "the only constant in the lives of human beings", to such an extent that the physical and spiritual worlds were regarded as inherently interconnected. This emphasises the importance of the custodial ethic, effectively an obligatory system for people to play a role in following natural wisdom, looking after the land on which they live, and renewing its [[flora and fauna]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p38881/pdf/book.pdf#page=183|title=Some Thoughts about the Philosophical Underpinnings of Aboriginal Worldviews|first=Mary|last=Graham|journal=Australian Humanities Review|volume=45|date=2008|pages=181–194}}</ref>
Elaborating further, Graham identifies two principles that together comprise the custodial ethic: "1. the ethical principle of maintaining a respectful, nurturing relationship with Land, Place and community, and 2. the organising governance principle based on autonomy and identity of Place". These two principles can complement and balance each other to permit "a non-[[Egoism|ego-based]] society", and a unique mode of thinking expressed in the following four basic assumptions: that we are not alone in the world; that our needs are more than just physical; a deep reflective motive of long-term strategic thought; and a rejection of self-oriented survivalist thinking that ultimately normalises [[competitiveness]].<ref name="graham">{{cite journal|url=https://www.futuredreaming.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/Graham_Mary-law_of_obligation.pdf|title=the law of obligation, aboriginal ethics: australia becoming, australia dreaming|first=Mary|last=Graham|journal=Parrhesia|volume=37|date=2023}}</ref>
Other First Nations authors have adopted the concept of a custodial ethic. [[Wiradjuri]] man Glenn Loughrey suggests that it may offer a more accurate understanding of Aboriginal alternatives to the Western concepts of [[spirituality]], [[justice]] and [[rights]]: "In Aboriginal ways of being [these are] not needed as it is taken for granted we will care for each other, in whatever shape and form the other comes in. It can be described as the custodial ethic and is the reason there are no owners of country, only custodians."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethos.org.au/site/Ethos/filesystem/documents/Loughrey_A_Custodial_Ethic.pdf|title=A Custodial Ethic: an Aboriginal way of wholeness and reciprocity|first=Glenn|last=Loughrey|date=2019|website=Ethos EA Centre for Christianity & Society}}</ref> [[Noonuccal]] woman Samantha Cooms concurs that the custodial ethic is "a profound concept rooted in the belief that all things are considered equal, autonomous, and protected through the wisdom of the collective".<ref>{{cite journal|title=Decolonising disability: weaving a Quandamooka conceptualisation of disability and care|journal=Disability & Society|date=29 November 2023|first=Samantha|last=Cooms|pages=1–24 |doi=10.1080/09687599.2023.2287409 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
The importance of commitment to a custodial ethic has also been acknowledged by some elements of non-First Nations Australian society. The Royal Societies of Australia (a national group representing the scientific academies of [[Royal Society of New South Wales|New South Wales]], [[Royal Society of Victoria|Victoria]], [[Royal Society of Queensland|Queensland]], [[Royal Society of Western Australia|Western Australia]], [[Royal Society of South Australia|South Australia]] and [[Royal Society of Tasmania|Tasmania]]) in 2021 proposed that: "This custodianship approach has to be the foundation of our stewardship of country, with priority for support for country on ethical and pragmatic grounds (it is the right
thing to do; we rely on it for daily living). We must be looking to the long term, thinking strategically. A society with a custodial ethic must do this."<ref name="royal">{{cite journal|url=https://www.publish.csiro.au/rs/pdf/rs21007|title=New stewardship of Country|first=Nelson|last=Quinn|journal=The Royal Society of Victoria|date=2021|volume=133|pages=36–38|doi=10.1071/RS21007 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
==Custodianship of knowledge==
In being responsible for Country, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people's traditional custodians typically serve as custodians of accompanying systems of [[traditional knowledge]]; they bear a "cultural imperative for protecting, maintaining and creating knowledge".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://aiatsis.gov.au/publication/116493|title=Traditional Custodians as researchers: Experiences of researching with our Mob on our Country|date=2 July 2019|first1=Melinda|last1=Mann|first2=Samantha|last2=Cooms|first3=Joann|last3=Schmider|website=The Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies}}</ref> Much, but not all, of this knowledge relates to [[Land management|land]] and [[environmental management]], including [[Fire-stick farming|controlled burning]], [[wildlife observation]], [[pest control]], [[water conservation]], and [[erosion control]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Developing a two-way learning monitoring program for ''Mankarr'' (Greater Bilby) in the Western Desert, Western Australia|date=2022|journal=Ecological Management & Restoration|first1=Anja|last1=Skroblin|first2=Tracy|last2=Carboon|first3=Gladys|last3=Bidu|first4=Muuki|last4=Taylor|first5=Ngamaru|last5=Bidu|first6=Waka|last6=Taylor|first7=Karnu|last7=Taylor|first8=Minyawu|last8=Miller|first9=Leah|last9=Robinson|first10=Carol|last10=Williams|first11=Nganjapayi|last11=Chapman|first12=Mulyatingki|last12=Marney|first13=Carl|last13=Marney|first14=Jakayu|last14=Biljabu|first15=Pamela|last15=Jeffries|first16=Heather|last16=Samson|first17=Phillipa|last17=Charles|first18=Edward T.|last18=Game|first19=Brendan|last19=Wintle|volume=23 |issue=S1 |pages=129–138 |doi=10.1111/emr.12543 |bibcode=2022EcoMR..23S.129S |display-authors=6|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.agriculture.gov.au/sites/default/files/sitecollectiondocuments/natural-resources/landcare/submissions/ilm-report.pdf|title=Indigenous Land Management in Australia: Extent, Scope, Diversity, Barriers and Success Factors|date=May 2013|first1=Rosemary|last1=Hill|first2=Petina L.|last2=Pert|first3=Jocelyn|last3=Davies|first4=Catherine J.|last4=Robinson|first5=Fiona|last5=Walsh|first6=Fay|last6=Falco-Mammone|website=Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry|publisher=CSIRO Ecosystem Sciences}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.strive2thrive.earth/caring-for-country-indigenous-custodians-in-australia/|title=CARING FOR COUNTRY: INDIGENOUS CUSTODIANS IN AUSTRALIA|first=Jasmin|last=Osinsao|date=29 August 2022|website=THRIVE Project}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257836980|title=Aborigines and Fire in the Wet Tropics of Queensland, Australia: Ecosystem Management Across Cultures|first1=Rosemary|last1=Hill|first2=Adelaide|last2=Baird|first3=David|last3=Buchanan|date=1999|journal=Society & Natural Resources|volume=12|issue=3 |pages=205–223|doi=10.1080/089419299279704 |bibcode=1999SNatR..12..205R }}</ref>
European Australian journalist [[Jeff McMullen]] cites [[Gurindji people|Gurindji]] stockman and land rights activist [[Vincent Lingiari]] as an example of a custodian of knowledge: "As a senior lawman, Vincent Lingiari was drawing on his grandfatherʼs knowledge and connection to Gurindji country, reclaiming and asserting the core responsibility of custodianship. Like the very strongest [[Earth science]], this foundational concept of the Aboriginal system of knowledge gives every man, woman and child some responsibility to help maintain the balance of the living system of life, the source of well-being for all creatures now and into the future."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.crikey.com.au/2015/08/07/what-vincent-lingiari-taught-us-about-the-value-of-aboriginal-custodianship/|title=What Vincent Lingiari taught us about the value of Aboriginal custodianship|first=Jeff|last=McMullen|date=7 August 2015|website=Crikey}}</ref>
First Nataions Australians' knowledge of Country, and the practices underpinning traditional custodianship, have been incorporated into some [[Education in Australia|Australian education]] programs.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://search.informit.org/doi/pdf/10.3316/informit.141897355348635|title=It's a hands on, turn on experience|first=David|last=Tribe|journal=The Journal for Education|date=February 1990|volume=9|issue=1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263684182|title=Sea Country: navigating Indigenous and colonial ontologies in Australian environmental education|first1=Hilary|last1=Whitehouse|first2=Felecia Watkin|last2=Lui|first3=Juanita|last3=Sellwood|first4=M.J.|last4=Barrett|first5=Philemon|last5=Chigeza|journal=Environmental Education Research|date=5 February 2014|volume=20|issue=1|pages=56–69|doi=10.1080/13504622.2013.852655 |s2cid=144487444 }}
</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/A9A2FD44E4EDDF23CD9915CD5E3A3A05/S0814062623000289a.pdf/indigenous-philosophy-in-environmental-education.pdf|title=Indigenous philosophy in environmental education|first1=Anne|last1=Poelina|first2=Yin|last2=Paradies|first3=Sandra|last3=Wooltorton|first4=Laurie|last4=Guimond|first5=Libby|last5=Jackson-Barrett|first6=Mindy|last6=Blaise|journal=Australian Journal of Environmental Education|date=22 August 2023|volume=39|issue=3 |pages=269–278|doi=10.1017/aee.2023.28 }}</ref>
==Challenges to custodianship==
Some First Nations groups in Australia have spoken out about their struggles to receive recognition as traditional custodians within Australia's current political and legal frameworks.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Developing an Exploratory Framework Linking Australian Aboriginal Peoples' Connection to Country and Concepts of Wellbeing|date=7 February 2013|first1=Jonathan|last1=Kingsley|first2=Mardie|last2=Townsend|first3=Claire|last3=Henderson-Wilson|first4=Bruce|last4=Bolam|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=10|issue=2|pages=678–698|doi=10.3390/ijerph10020678 |doi-access=free |pmid=23435590 |pmc=3635170 |hdl=10536/DRO/DU:30058738|hdl-access=free}}</ref> [[Traditional knowledge]] had historically been passed down via the [[oral tradition]] through [[Australian Aboriginal kinship|kinship networks]], and despite some progress, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples allege that more work needs to be done to protect their custodial knowledge.<ref name="biocultural">{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/download/39416393/2015_AIBK_Biological_Conservation.pdf|title=Indigenous biocultural knowledge in ecosystem science and management: Review and insight from Australia|date=2015|first1=Emilie J.|last1=Ens|first2=Petina|last2=Pert|first3=Philip A.|last3=Clarke|first4=Marita|last4=Budden|first5=Lilian|last5=Clubb|first6=Bruce|last6=Doran|first7=Cheryl|last7=Douras|first8=J|last8=Gaikwad|first9=B|last9=Gott|first10=S|last10=Leonard|first11=J|last11=Locke|display-authors=6|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=181|pages=133–149|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2014.11.008 |bibcode=2015BCons.181..133E }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/245587717|title=Biological diversity and Indigenous knowledge|first=Michael|last=Davis|date=29 June 1998|publisher=Science, Techology, Environment and Resources Group}}</ref>
According to [[Kamilaroi]] man Marcus Waters, attempts to form a broad pan-Aboriginal political community of scholars in Australian academia, even if well-intentioned, may end up sacrificing the nuance and context of the different custodial governance systems in different First Nations cultures.<ref name="beginning">{{cite journal|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/143874315.pdf|title=Nurturing the "beginning" in protecting our traditional practices from the end: family, kinship and Kamilaroi Aboriginal First Nation knowledge in Australia|first=Marcus|last=Waters|date=2013|journal=The Journal of the European Association for Studies of Australia|volume=4|issue=1}}</ref> There is also some concern that the term "traditional custodianship" lacks specificity. In 2017, the Final Report of the [[Referendum Council]] noted that custodianship is one of several concepts that are currently "legally ambiguous".<ref name="uluru"/>
==See also==
*[[Australian Aboriginal identity]]
*[[Australian Aboriginal sacred site]]
*{{section link|Counter-mapping|Perspectives on the Land (United States)}}
*[[Corporate environmental responsibility]]
*[[Earth jurisprudence]]
*[[Environmental stewardship]]
*[[History of Indigenous Australians]]
*[[Land ethic]]
*[[Tangata whenua]]
*[[Traditional ecological knowledge]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Aboriginal land rights in Australia]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Indigenous Australian culture]]
[[Category:Traditional knowledge]] |
Environment, health and safety | {{Short description|Balance of occupational safety and environmental protection}}
'''Environment, health and safety''' ('''EHS'''; or '''health, safety and environment''' –HSE–, or '''safety, health and environment''' –'''SHE'''–) is an interdisciplinary field focused on the study and implementation of practical aspects environmental protection and safeguard of people's health and safety, especially at company level and in an occupational context. It is what organizations must do to make sure that their activities do not cause harm. Commonly, ''quality'' - [[quality assurance]] and [[quality control]] - is adjoined to form a company division referred to as HSQE or equivalent initialisms.
From a '''safety''' standpoint, EHS involves creating organized efforts and procedures for identifying workplace hazards and reducing accidents and exposure to harmful situations and substances. It also includes training of personnel in accident prevention, accident response, emergency preparedness, and use of protective clothing and equipment.
Better '''health''' at its heart, should have the development of safe, high-quality, and environmentally friendly processes, working practices and systemic activities that prevent or reduce the risk of harm to people in general, operators, or patients.
From an '''environmental''' standpoint, EHS involves creating a systematic approach to complying with environmental regulations, such as managing waste or air emissions all the way to helping site's reduce the company's [[carbon footprint]].
The activities of an EHS working group might focus on:<ref>Compare: {{cite web |last1=TEPPFA |title=Structure of Working Groups and Application Groups |url=http://www.teppfa.eu/structure/ |access-date=2016-07-19 |website=TEPPFA, The European Plastic Pipes and Fittings Association |quote=Concentrates on: [...] exchange of know-how regarding health- safety- and environmental aspects of plastic pipes and fittings; [...] promotion of good working practices, such as post use material collection for recycling. |archive-date=2019-01-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190114210303/https://www.teppfa.eu/structure/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* Exchange of know-how regarding health, safety and environmental aspects of a material
* Promotion of good working practices, such as post-use material collection for recycling
Regulatory requirements play an important role in EHS discipline and EHS managers must identify and understand relevant EHS regulations, the implications of which must be communicated to executive management so the company can implement suitable measures. Organizations based in the United States are subject to EHS regulations in the [[Code of Federal Regulations]], particularly CFR 29, 40, and 49. Still, EHS management is not limited to legal compliance and companies should be encouraged to do more than is required by law, if appropriate.<ref>Kavianian, Hamid R. "Occupational and Environmental Safety Engineering and Management", Van Norstrand Reinhold Company, New York (1990), {{ISBN|0-442-23822-3}}</ref>
== Other names ==
Notwithstanding the individual importance of these attributes, the various institutions and authors have accented the acronyms differently. Successful HSE programs also include measures to address ergonomics, [[air pollution|air quality]], and other aspects of workplace safety that could affect the health and well-being of employees and the overall community. Another researcher transformed it as '''SHE''' in 1996, while exploring the "concept of 'human quality' in terms of living standards that must follow later than the health.....[as per the] paradigm of SHEQ, ....raising up the importance of environment to the 'safety of people as a prime consideration'".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311711328 |title= Editorial in ''J. Adv. Res. Prod. Ind. Eng.'' 2016; 3(2). |date=2016-10-14}}</ref> It is because "Safety First" is called in for the commitment to transform the safety culture of countries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.safetyfirst.co.nz/
|title= Safety First|date=2016-10-14}}</ref> Quality is "fitness for purpose",<ref>Joseph M Juran, Joseph Defeo. ''Juran's Quality Handbook: The Complete Guide to Performance Excellence'', Mcgraw Hill, 2000</ref> and without it, each and every endeavour will be futile.
Abbreviations used include:<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-03-14 |title=HS, OHS, HSE, HSSE, HSSEQ, HSSEQ/CSR … Alphabet Soupization |url=http://www.redlogenv.com/general/alphabet-soupization |access-date=2016-06-08 |website=Redlog Environmental Ltd.}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
!Acronym
!Name
!Group
|-
|OHS
|Occupational health and safety
| rowspan="2" |[[Occupational safety and health]]
|-
|WHS
|Work health and safety<ref>{{cite web |date=2017-11-03 |title=Model WHS Laws |url=https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/law-and-regulation/model-whs-laws |access-date=2018-06-12 |publisher=Safe Work Australia}}</ref>
|-
|HSE
|Health, safety and environment
| rowspan="3" |Health, safety and environment
|-
|EHS
|Environment, health and safety
|-
|SHE
|Safety, health and environment
|-
|QHSE
|Quality, health, safety, and environment
| rowspan="2" |Quality, health, safety, and environment
|-
|HSEQ
|Health, safety, environment and quality
|-
|HSSE
|Health, safety, security and environment
|Health, safety, [[security]] and environment
|-
|QHSSE
|Quality, health, safety, security, and environment
| rowspan="2" |Quality, health, safety, security, and environment
|-
|HSSEQ
|Health, safety, security, environment, and quality
|}
== History ==
The [[chemical industry]] introduced the first formal [https://www.gensuite.com/ EHS management] approach in 1985 as a reaction to several catastrophic accidents (like the [[Seveso disaster]] of July 1976 and the [[Bhopal disaster]] of December 1984). This worldwide voluntary initiative, called "[[Responsible Care]]", started by the Chemistry Industry Association of Canada (formerly the Canadian Chemical Producers' Association - CCPA), operates in about 50 countries, with central coordination provided by the [[International Council of Chemical Associations]] (ICCA). It involves eight fundamental features which ensure plant and product safety, occupational health and environmental protection, but which also try to demonstrate by [[image-building]] campaigns that the chemical industry acts in a responsible manner. Being an initiative of the ICCA, it is restricted to the chemical industry.
Since the 1990s, general approaches to EHS management that may fit any type of organisation have appeared in international standards such as:
The Valdez Principles,<ref>Sanyal, R. N. and J. S. Neves: 1991, 'The Valdez Principles: Implications for Corporate Social Responsibility', Journal of Business Ethics 10, 883- 890.</ref> that have been formulated to guide and evaluate corporate conduct towards the environment.
* The [[Eco-Management and Audit Scheme]] (EMAS), developed by the [[European Commission]] in 1993
* [[ISO 14001]] for environmental management in 1996
* [[ISO 45001]] for occupational health and safety management in 2018, preceded by [[OHSAS 18001]] 1999
In 1998 the [[International Finance Corporation]] established EHS guidelines.
== Topics ==
General topics covered by EHS include:
* Environmental
** [[Air pollution|Air emissions and ambient air quality]]
** [[Energy conservation]]
** [[Wastewater]] and [[Water quality|ambient water quality]]
** [[Water conservation]]
** [[Waste management]]
** [[Noise pollution|Noise]]
** [[Contaminated land]]
* Occupational health and safety
** [[Occupational hazard#Physical hazards|Physical hazards]]
** [[Occupational hazard#Chemical hazards|Chemical hazards]]
** [[Occupational hazard#Biological hazards|Biological hazards]]
** [[Ionizing radiation#Health effects|Radiological hazards]]
** Special hazard environments
** Personal protective equipment (PPE)
** Communication and training
** Monitoring
* Community health and safety
** [[Water quality]] and [[Water resources|availability]]
** [[Structural integrity and failure|Structural safety]] of project infrastructure
** Life and fire safety (LFS)
** [[Road traffic safety|Traffic safety]]
** [[Dangerous goods|Transport of hazardous materials]]
** [[Preventive healthcare|Disease prevention]]
** [[Emergency management|Emergency preparedness and response]]
== Regulatory agencies ==
{{See also|Occupational safety and health#National legislation and public organizations|label 1=Occupational safety and health - National legislation and public organizations}}
=== Canada ===
*[[Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety]] (CCOHS)
=== United Kingdom ===
* The [[Health and Safety Executive]]
* The [[Environment Agency]]
* Local authorities
=== United States ===
{{Main article|List of health and environmental agencies in the United States}}
* Federal / international
** [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] (OSHA)
** [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA)
** [[Nuclear Regulatory Commission]] (NRC)
** [[Mine Safety and Health Administration]] (MSHA)
** [[Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement]] (BSEE)
* State
** [[California Division of Occupational Safety and Health]], [[New York Department of Health]], [[Safety and Health Council of North Carolina]], etc.
* Local
** Municipal fire departments (building code inspections)
=== Zambia ===
* [[Zambia Environmental Management Agency|Environmental Management Agency]] (ZEMA)
* [[Zambia Radiation Protection Authority|Radiation Protection Authority]]
* [[Occupational Health and Safety Institute]]
* [[Mines Safety Department]]
==Publications==
* ''[[EHS Today]]''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ehstoday.com/|title=EHS Today|website=EHS Today|language=en|access-date=2017-04-07}}</ref>
* ''Environmental Leader''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.environmentalleader.com/|title=Environmental Leader Is Your Source For Energy, Environment and Sustainability News|website=Environmental Leader|language=en-US|access-date=2017-04-07}}</ref>
* ''ISHN''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ishn.com/|title=ISHN.com - the magazine for safety and health professionals who direct safety and health programs in high-hazard workplaces.|website=www.ishn.com|language=en|access-date=2017-04-07}}</ref>
* OHS<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ohsonline.com/home.aspx|title=Occupational Health and Safety|website=[[Occupational Health and Safety Online]]|language=en|access-date=2017-04-07}}</ref>
* ''Safety+Health Magazine'' – [[National Safety Council]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=What you need to Know to Prepare Your Organization for Electrical Compliance |url=http://www.safetyandhealthmagazine.com/ |access-date=2017-04-07 |website=Safety+Health Magazine |language=en}}</ref>
==See also==
* [[Environmental security]]
* [[Occupational safety and health]]
* [[National Safety Council]]
* [[Robert W. Campbell Award]], an Award for Business Excellence through EHS Management.
* [[Safety engineering]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
*[http://www.naem.org/?page=What_is_EHS NAEM, the premier Association for EHS Management: What is EHS?]
*[http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/sustainability.nsf/Content/EnvironmentalGuidelines International Finance Corporation: World Bank Group Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines]
*[http://www.inem.org International Network for Environmental Management]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Health]]
[[Category:Safety]] |
Nature conservation | {{Short description|Movement to protect the biosphere}}
{{redirect|Natural conservation|the study of biodiversity management|Conservation biology||Conservation (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2023}}
{{More citations needed|date=April 2009}}
[[File:Bolivia-Deforestation-EO.JPG|thumb|right|Satellite photograph of industrial deforestation in the Tierras Bajas project in eastern Bolivia, using [[skyline logging]] and replacement of forests by agriculture]]
[[File:Hopetoun falls.jpg|thumb|right|Much attention has been given to preserving the natural characteristics of [[Hopetoun Falls]], Australia, while allowing access for visitors]]
'''Nature conservation''' is the moral philosophy and [[conservation movement]] focused on protecting species from [[extinction]], maintaining and restoring [[habitat (ecology)|habitats]], enhancing [[ecosystem services]], and protecting [[biological diversity]]. A range of values underlie conservation, which can be guided by [[Biocentrism (ethics)|biocentrism]], [[anthropocentrism]], [[ecocentrism]], and [[sentientism]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Newman, Varner, Lunquist |title=Defending Biodiversity |date=2018 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781139024105 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/defending-biodiversity/9B7C54CA64EB0F71072AD4C80E505F5A}}</ref> environmental ideologies that inform ecocultural practices and identities.<ref>Milstein, T. & Castro-Sotomayor, J. (2020). Routledge Handbook of Ecocultural Identity. London, UK: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351068840</ref> There has recently been a movement towards [[evidence-based conservation]] which calls for greater use of scientific evidence to improve the effectiveness of conservation efforts. As of 2018 15% of land and 7.3% of the oceans were protected. Many environmentalists set a target of protecting 30% of land and marine territory by 2030.<ref>{{cite web |last1=MARRIS |first1=EMMA |title=To keep the planet flourishing, 30% of Earth needs protection by 2030 |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/conservation-groups-call-for-protecting-30-percent-earth-2030 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303031917/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/conservation-groups-call-for-protecting-30-percent-earth-2030 |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 March 2021 |website=National Geographic |date=31 January 2019 |access-date=18 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=New Australian Marine Parks Protect an Area Twice the Size of the Great Barrier Reef |url=https://www.ecowatch.com/australia-marine-parks-conservation-2652985201.html |access-date=18 May 2021 |agency=Ecowatch |publisher=Mongabay |date=14 May 2021}}</ref> In 2021, 16.64% of land and 7.9% of the oceans were protected.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 May 2021 |title=Governments achieve target of protecting 17% of land globally |url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/may/19/governments-achieve-10-year-target-of-protecting-17-percent-land-aoe |access-date=22 April 2022 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=28 December 2021 |title=2021's top ocean news stories (commentary) |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/12/2021s-top-ocean-news-stories-commentary/ |access-date=22 April 2022 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref> The 2022 IPCC report on climate impacts and adaptation, underlines the need to conserve 30% to 50% of the Earth's land, freshwater and ocean areas – echoing the 30% goal of the [[Convention on Biological Diversity|U.N.'s Convention on Biodiversity]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Januta |first=Andrea |date=1 March 2022 |title=Key takeaways from the IPCC report on climate impacts and adaptation |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/03/key-takeaways-ipcc-report-climate-impacts-adaptation/ |access-date=2 March 2022 |website=World Economic Forum |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=19 December 2022 |title=Negotiators agree to historic biodiversity deal at COP15 |url=https://www.euronews.com/2022/12/19/negotiators-agree-to-historic-biodiversity-deal-at-cop15 |access-date=19 December 2022 |website=euronews |language=en}}</ref> Ultimately, these movements should be further promoted to encourage biodiversity and to conserve a functional [[ecosystem]].
== Introduction ==
Conservation goals include [[habitat conservation|conserving habitat]], preventing [[deforestation]], maintaining [[soil organic matter]], halting species [[extinction]], reducing [[overfishing]], and mitigating [[climate change]]. Different philosophical outlooks guide conservationists towards these different goals.
The principal value underlying many expressions of the conservation ethic is that the natural world has intrinsic and intangible worth along with utilitarian value – a view carried forward by parts of the scientific [[conservation movement]] and some of the older [[Romanticism|Romantic]] schools of the [[ecology movement]]. Philosophers have attached intrinsic value to different aspects of nature, whether this is individual organisms ([[Biocentrism (ethics)|biocentrism]]) or ecological wholes such as species or ecosystems (ecoholism).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gardiner and Thompson |title=The Oxford Handbook of Environmental Ethics |date=2017 |publisher=OUP }}</ref>
More [[Utilitarianism|utilitarian]] schools of conservation have an anthropocentric outlook and seek a proper valuation of [[Human impact on the environment|local and global impacts of human activity]] upon nature in their effect upon human [[measuring well-being|wellbeing]], now and to posterity. How such values are assessed and exchanged among people determines the social, political and personal restraints and imperatives by which conservation is practiced. This is a view common in the modern [[environmental movement]]. There is increasing interest in extending the responsibility for human wellbeing to include the welfare of [[Sentience|sentient]] animals. In 2022 the United Kingdom introduced the [[Animal Welfare (Sentience) Act 2022|Animal Welfare (Sentience) Act]] which lists all vertebrates, decapod crustaceans and cephalopods as sentient beings.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Animals to be formally recognised as sentient beings in domestic law |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/animals-to-be-formally-recognised-as-sentient-beings-in-domestic-law |access-date=1 December 2022 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref> Branches of conservation ethics focusing on sentient individuals include [[ecofeminism]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hawkins|first=Ronnie Zoe|date=1998|title=Ecofeminism and Nonhumans: Continuity, Difference, Dualism, and Domination|journal=Hypatia|volume=13|issue=1|pages=158–197|doi=10.1111/j.1527-2001.1998.tb01356.x|jstor=3810611|s2cid=145174389 |issn=0887-5367}}</ref> and [[compassionate conservation]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wallach|first1=Arian D.|last2=Batavia|first2=Chelsea|last3=Bekoff|first3=Marc|last4=Alexander|first4=Shelley|last5=Baker|first5=Liv|last6=Ben‐Ami|first6=Dror|last7=Boronyak|first7=Louise|last8=Cardilini|first8=Adam P. A.|last9=Carmel|first9=Yohay|last10=Celermajer|first10=Danielle|last11=Coghlan|first11=Simon|title=Recognizing animal personhood in compassionate conservation|journal=Conservation Biology|year=2020|volume=34|issue=5|language=en|pages=1097–1106|doi=10.1111/cobi.13494|pmid=32144823|pmc=7540678|issn=1523-1739|doi-access=free}}</ref>
In the United States of America, the year 1864 saw the publication of two books which laid the foundation for Romantic and Utilitarian conservation traditions in America. The posthumous publication of [[Henry David Thoreau]]'s ''[[Walden]]'' established the grandeur of unspoiled nature as a citadel to nourish the spirit of man. A very different book from [[George Perkins Marsh]], ''[[Man and Nature]]'', later subtitled "The Earth as Modified by Human Action", catalogued his observations of man exhausting and altering the land from which his sustenance derives.
The consumer conservation ethic has been defined as the attitudes and behaviors held and engaged in by individuals and families that ultimately serve to reduce overall societal consumption of energy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=HALDEMAN |first1=VIRGINIA A. |last2=PETERS |first2=JEANNE M. |last3=TRIPPLE |first3=PATRICIA A. |date=1987 |title=Measuring a Consumer Energy Conservation Ethic: An Analysis of Components |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23859354 |journal=The Journal of Consumer Affairs |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=70–85 |doi=10.1111/j.1745-6606.1987.tb00188.x |jstor=23859354 |issn=0022-0078}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Leonard-Barton |first=Dorothy |date=1981 |title=Voluntary Simplicity Lifestyles and Energy Conservation |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2488881 |journal=Journal of Consumer Research |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=243–252 |doi=10.1086/208861 |jstor=2488881 |issn=0093-5301}}</ref> The conservation movement has emerged from the advancements of moral reasoning.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=VERNEY |first=RALPH |title=Towards a Conservation Ethic |date=1984 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41373777 |journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Arts |volume=132 |issue=5336 |pages=501–512 |jstor=41373777 |issn=0035-9114}}</ref> Increasing numbers of philosophers and scientists have made its maturation possible by considering the relationships between human beings and organisms with the same rigor.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2017 |title=BIOPHILIA 2017 |journal=Biophilia |volume=2017 |issue=3 |pages=v |doi=10.14813/ibra.2017.v |issn=2186-8433|doi-access=free }}</ref> This social ethic primarily relates to [[local purchasing]], [[moral purchasing]], the [[sustainability|sustained]], and efficient use of [[renewable resource]]s, the moderation of destructive use of finite resources, and the prevention of harm to common resources such as [[air pollution|air]] and [[water pollution|water]] quality, the natural functions of a living earth, and cultural values in a [[built environment]]. These practices are used to slow down the accelerating rate in which [[extinction]] is occurring at. The origins of this ethic can be traced back to many different philosophical and religious beliefs; that is, these practices has been advocated for centuries. In the past, conservationism has been categorized under a spectrum of views, including [[Anthropocentrism|anthropocentric]], [[Utilitarianism|utilitarian]] conservationism, and radical [[Ecocentrism|eco-centric]] green eco-political views.
More recently, the three major movements has been grouped to become what we now know as conservation ethic. The person credited with formulating the conservation ethic in the United States is former president, [[Theodore Roosevelt]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://alphasteward.com/forests/who-is-credited-for-articulating-the-conservation-ethic-and-for-founding-the-us-forest-service/ |title = The Conservation Ethic & The Founding the US Forest Service |publisher = Alpha Steward |date = 10 April 2020 |access-date = 21 June 2020 }}</ref>
== Terminology ==
{{quote box
|quote=The conservation of natural resources is the fundamental problem. Unless we solve that problem, it will avail us little to solve all others.|source=[[Theodore Roosevelt]]<ref>Theodore Roosevelt, Address to the Deep Waterway Convention
Memphis, TN, October 4, 1907</ref>
|width=25%
|align=right}}
In common usage, the term refers to the activity of systematically protecting natural resources such as forests, including biological diversity. [[Carl F. Jordan]] defines biological conservation as:<ref>{{cite book|last=Jordan|first=Carl|title=Replacing Quantity With Quality As a Goal for Global Management|publisher=Wiley|date=1995|isbn=0-471-59515-2|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/conservationrepl00jord}}</ref>
{{quote|a philosophy of managing the environment in a manner that does not despoil, exhaust or extinguish.}}
While this usage is not new, the idea of biological conservation has been applied to the principles of ecology, [[biogeography]], [[anthropology]], economy, and sociology to maintain [[biodiversity]].
The term "conservation" itself may cover the concepts such as [[cultural diversity]], [[genetic diversity]], and the concept of movements [[Environmental protection|environmental conservation]], [[seedbank]] curation (preservation of seeds), and [[gene bank]] coordination (preservation of animals' genetic material). These are often summarized as the priority to respect diversity.
Much recent movement in conservation can be considered a resistance to [[commercialism]] and [[globalization]]. [[Slow Food]] is a consequence of rejecting these as moral priorities, and embracing a [[voluntary simplicity|slower and more locally focused lifestyle]].
[[Sustainable living]] is a lifestyle that people are beginning to adopt, promoting to make decisions that would help protect [[biodiversity]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cities |first=Sustainable Development Solutions Network Thematic Group on Sustainable |date=2013 |title=Resiliency and Environmental Sustainability |journal=The Urban Opportunity |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep15871.7 |pages=28–34}}</ref> The small lifestyle changes that promote [[sustainability]] will eventually accumulate into the proliferation of biological diversity. Regulating the ecolabeling of products from fisheries, controlling for [[Sustainable food system|sustainable food production]], or keeping the lights off during the day are some examples of sustainable living.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kaiser |first1=Michel J. |last2=Edwards-Jones |first2=Gareth |date=2006 |title=The Role of Ecolabeling in Fisheries Management and Conservation |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3591347 |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=392–398 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00319.x |jstor=3591347 |pmid=16903100 |hdl=1912/843 |s2cid=30842161 |issn=0888-8892|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bale |first1=J.S |last2=van Lenteren |first2=J.C |last3=Bigler |first3=F |date=6 September 2007 |title=Biological control and sustainable food production |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2182 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=363 |issue=1492 |pages=761–776 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2007.2182 |pmid=17827110 |pmc=2610108 |issn=0962-8436}}</ref> However, sustainable living is not a simple and uncomplicated approach. A 1987 Brundtland Report expounds on the notion of sustainability as a process of change that looks different for everyone: "It is not a fixed state of harmony, but rather a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological development, and institutional change are made consistent with future as well as present needs. We do not pretend that the process is easy or straightforward."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Development. |first=World Commission on Environment and |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/732496026 |title=Our common future |date=1991 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-282080-X |oclc=732496026}}</ref> Simply put, sustainable living does make a difference by compiling many individual actions that encourage the protection of [[biological diversity]].
== Practice ==
[[File:Daintree Rainforest.JPG|thumb|[[Daintree Rainforest]] in [[Queensland]], Australia]]
Distinct trends exist regarding conservation development. The need for conserving land has only recently intensified during what some scholars refer to as the [[Capitalocene]] epoch. This era marks the beginning of [[colonialism]], [[globalization]], and the [[industrial revolution]] that has led to global land change as well as [[climate change]].
While many countries' efforts to preserve [[species]] and their [[habitats]] have been government-led, those in the North Western Europe tended to arise out of the middle-class and aristocratic interest in [[natural history]], expressed at the level of the individual and the national, regional or local [[learned society]]. Thus countries like Britain, the Netherlands, Germany, etc. had what would be called [[non-governmental organization]]s – in the shape of the [[Royal Society for the Protection of Birds]], [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]] and County Naturalists' Trusts (dating back to 1889, 1895, and 1912 respectively) Natuurmonumenten, Provincial Conservation Trusts for each Dutch province, Vogelbescherming, etc. – a long time before there were [[national parks]] and [[national nature reserve]]s.<ref name=Webb>{{Citation | author1=Webb, L. J. (Leonard James) | author-link=Leonard Webb (academic) | title=Nature protection in Europe | year=1970 | publication-date=1968 | publisher=Wildlife Preservation Society of Australia | isbn=978-0-909971-01-4}}</ref> This in part reflects the absence of wilderness areas in heavily cultivated Europe, as well as a longstanding interest in [[laissez-faire]] government in some countries, like the UK, leaving it as no coincidence that [[John Muir]], the Scottish-born founder of the National Park movement (and hence of government-sponsored conservation) did his sterling work in the US, where he was the motor force behind the establishment of such national parks as [[Yosemite]] and [[Yellowstone]]. Nowadays, officially more than 10 percent of the world is legally protected in some way or the other, and in practice, private fundraising is insufficient to pay for the effective management of so much land with protective status.
Protected areas in developing countries, where probably as many as 70–80 percent of the species of the world live, still enjoy very little effective management and protection. Some countries, such as Mexico, have non-profit civil organizations and landowners dedicated to protecting vast private property, such is the case of Hacienda Chichen's Maya Jungle Reserve and Bird Refuge in [[Chichen Itza]], [[Yucatán (state)|Yucatán]].<ref>[http://www.haciendachichen.com/eco-design.htm Haciendachichen.com], "The Importance of Eco-Design"</ref> The Adopt A Ranger Foundation has calculated that worldwide about 140,000 rangers are needed for the protected areas in developing and transition countries. There are no data on how many rangers are employed at the moment, but probably less than half the protected areas in developing and transition countries have any rangers at all and those that have them are at least 50% short. This means that there would be a worldwide ranger deficit of 105,000 rangers in the developing and transition countries.{{Cn|date=October 2022}}
The terms ''conservation'' and ''preservation'' are frequently conflated outside the academic, scientific, and professional kinds of literature. The United States' [[National Park Service]] offers the following explanation of the important ways in which these two terms represent very different conceptions of [[environmental protection]] [[Environmental ethics|ethics]]:
{{quote|Conservation and preservation are closely linked and may indeed seem to mean the same thing. Both terms involve a degree of protection, but how that protection is carried out is the key difference. Conservation is generally associated with the protection of natural resources, while preservation is associated with the protection of buildings, objects, and landscapes. Put simply, ''conservation seeks the proper use of nature, while preservation seeks protection of nature from use''.|United States National Park Service<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nps.gov/teachers/classrooms/conservation-preservation-and-the-national-park-service.htm | title=Conservation, Preservation, and the National Park Service - Teachers (U.S. National Park Service) }}</ref>}}
During the [[environmentalism|environmental movement]] of the early 20th century, two opposing factions emerged: conservationists and preservationists. Conservationists sought to regulate human use while preservationists sought to eliminate [[Human impact on the environment|human impact]] altogether."<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/klgo/learn/education/classrooms/conservation-vs-preservation.htm National Park Service: Conservation versus preservation]</ref>
C. Anne Claus presents a distinction for conservation practices.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last1=Claus |first1=C. Anne |title=Drawing the sea near : satoumi and coral reef conservation in Okinawa |date=2020 |location=Minneapolis |isbn=978-1-5179-0662-7}}</ref> Claus divides conservation into conservation-far and conservation-near. Conservation-far is the means of protecting nature by separating it and safeguarding it from humans.<ref name=":0" /> Means of doing this include the creation of preserves or national parks. They are meant to keep the flora and fauna away from human influence and have become a staple method in the west. Conservation-near however is conservation via connection. The method of reconnecting people to nature through traditions and beliefs to foster a desire to protect nature.<ref name=":0" /> The basis is that instead of forcing compliance to separate from nature onto the people, instead conservationists work with locals and their traditions to find conservation efforts that work for all.<ref name=":0" />
===Evidence-based conservation ===
{{Main|Evidence-based conservation}}
Evidence-based conservation is the application of evidence in conservation management actions and policy making. It is defined as systematically assessing scientific information from published, [[peer-review]]ed publications and texts, practitioners' experiences, independent expert assessment, and local and [[indigenous (ecology)|indigenous]] knowledge on a specific conservation topic. This includes assessing the current effectiveness of different management interventions, threats and emerging problems, and economic factors.<ref>{{cite web |title = The Basics|publisher = Conservation Evidence|url=http://www.conservationevidence.com/faq/index |access-date = 7 March 2015}}</ref>
[[Evidence-based]] conservation was organized based on the observations that [[decision making]] in conservation was based on [[:wikt:intuition|intuition]] and/or practitioner experience often disregarding other forms of evidence of successes and failures (e.g. scientific information). This has led to costly and poor outcomes.<ref name=Sutherland>{{cite journal|last1=Sutherland|first1=William J|last2=Pullin|first2=Andrew S.|last3=Dolman|first3=Paul M.|last4=Knight|first4=Teri M.|title=The need for evidence-based conservation|journal=Trends in Ecology and Evolution|date=June 2004|volume=19|issue=6|pages=305–308|doi=10.1016/j.tree.2004.03.018|pmid=16701275}}</ref> Evidence-based conservation provides access to information that will support decision making through an evidence-based framework of "what works" in conservation.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sutherland|first1=William J.|title= Evidence-based Conservation|journal= Conservation in Practice|date=July 2003|volume=4|issue=3|pages=39–42|doi=10.1111/j.1526-4629.2003.tb00068.x}}</ref>
The evidence-based approach to conservation is based on evidence-based practice which started in [[Evidence-based medicine|medicine]] and later spread to [[Evidence Based Nursing|nursing]], [[Evidence based education|education]],<ref>[[David G. Hebert]], (2022), [https://cjee.lakeheadu.ca/article/view/1708/1061 "Nature Conservation and Music Sustainability: Fields with Shared Concerns"], ''Canadian Journal of Environmental Education'', 25, p.175–189.</ref> [[psychology]], and other fields. It is part of the larger movement towards [[evidence-based practices]].
== See also ==
* [[Conservation biology]]
* [[Conservation community]]
* [[Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources]]
* [[Dark green environmentalism]]
* [[Environmental protection]]
* [[Forest conservation]]
* [[Index of environmental articles]]
* [[List of environmental issues]]
* [[List of environmental organizations]]
* [[Natural capital]]
* [[Natural environment]]
* [[Natural resource]]
* [[Relationship between animal ethics and environmental ethics]]
* [[Sustainable agriculture]]
* [[Trail ethics]]
* [[Water conservation]]
* [[Wildlife conservation]]
* [[30 by 30]]
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
==Further reading==
*{{cite book|last1=Frankel |first1=O. H. |last2=Soulé |first2=Michael E.|title=Conservation and evolution |date=1981 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England |isbn=0-521-23275-9}}
* Glacken, C.J. (1967) Traces on the Rhodian Shore. University of California Press. Berkeley
* Grove, R.H. (1992) 'Origins of Western Environmentalism', [[Scientific American]] 267(1): 22–27.
* {{cite book |last1=Grove |first1=Richard |title=Ecology, climate, and empire : colonialism and global environmental history, 1400-1940 |date=1997 |publisher=White Horse Press |location=Cambridge, UK |isbn=9781874267188}}
* Grove, R.H. (1995) ''Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens, and the Origins of Environmentalism, 1600–1860'' New York: [[Cambridge University Press]]
* Leopold, A. (1966) ''A Sand County Almanac'' New York: [[Oxford University Press]]
* Pinchot, G. (1910) ''The Fight for Conservation'' New York: [[Harcourt Brace]].
* ''"Why Care for Earth's Environment?"'' (in the series ''"The Bible's Viewpoint"'') is a two-page article in the December 2007 issue of the magazine [[Awake!]].
* {{cite book
| author= Sutherland, W.
|editor4-first=Rebecca K
|editor4-last=Smith
|editor3-first=Nancy
|editor3-last=Ockendon
|editor2-first=Lynn V
|editor2-last=Dicks
|editor1-first=William J
|editor1-last=Sutherland
|year=2015
|title= What Works in Conservation
|publisher= Open Book Publishers
|doi=10.11647/OBP.0060
|isbn=978-1-78374-157-1
|url=http://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/347/what-works-in-conservation|display-authors=etal
|doi-access=free
}} A '''free''' textbook for download.
== External links ==
{{wikiquote|Conservation}}
{{commons category|Nature conservation}}
* [https://ourworldindata.org/protected-areas-and-conservation Protected Areas and Conservation] at [[Our World in Data]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060909070826/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-59 ''Dictionary of the History of ideas'':] Conservation of Natural Resources
* [http://nfb.ca/film/For_Future_Generations/ ''For Future Generations'', a Canadian documentary on how the conservation ethic influenced national parks]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100612201702/http://religion-online.org/listbycategory.asp?Cat=45 Category List --- Religion-Online.org] "Ecology/Environment"
{{conservation of species}}
{{World topic|prefix=Conservation in|title=Conservation by country|noredlinks=y}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Nature conservation| ]]
[[Category:Natural environment]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:Natural resource management]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Environmental ethics]] |
Category:Nature conservation | {{Commons category|Conservation}}
{{portal|Environment}}
{{cat main|Nature conservation}}
: This category is for articles relating to [[nature conservation]], [[conservation biology]] and the [[conservation movement]].
{{For|non-environmental conservation|Category:Conservation and restoration of cultural heritage}}
{{CatTrack}}
[[Category:Natural environment]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:Natural resource management]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]] |
Blue-listed | '''Blue-listed''' species are species that belong to the '''Blue List''' and includes any indigenous species or subspecies ([[taxa]]) considered to be vulnerable in their locale in order to provide early warning to federal and regional governments'''.''' Vulnerable taxa are of special concern because of characteristics that make them particularly sensitive to human activities or natural events. Blue-listed taxa are at risk, but are not [[local extinction|extirpated]], [[endangered species|endangered]] or [[threatened species|threatened]].
== History ==
The concept of a '''Blue List''' was derived in 1971 by Robert Arbib from the National Audubon Society in his article, "Announcing-- The Blue List: an 'early warning' system for birds". The article stated that the list was made up for species that appear to be locally common in North America, but is undergoing non-cyclic declines.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=October 1910 |title=The A. O. U. Check-List of North American Birds. Third Edition Check-List of North American Birds American Ornithologists' Union Abridged Check-List of North American Birds American Ornithologists' Union |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/4070921 |journal=The Auk |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=466–472 |doi=10.2307/4070921 |jstor=4070921 |issn=0004-8038}}</ref> Starting from 1971, it was utilized to list vulnerable bird species throughout North America. Unlike the US Fish and Wildlife Endangered Species List, the Blue List was made to identify '''patterns''' of population losses for regional bird populations before they could be listed as endangered.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Blue List |url=https://web.stanford.edu/group/stanfordbirds/text/essays/The_Blue_List.html |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=web.stanford.edu}}</ref> Every decade after its release, the list is revisited and revised based on regional editors and species get "nominated" to be added to the list. From then on, species that are part of the Blue List were referred to as '''Blue-listed species.'''
== Status Ranks ==
Initially, in order to identify the types of risks that each Blue-Listed species have, the Blue List has identified various categories for Blue-Listed species based on the following alphabets:<ref>{{Cite journal |last=García |first=Eusebio Alonso |date=2018 |title=JAMES STIRLING Y EL PROYECTO DE LA TATE GALLERY EN ALBERT DOCK, LIVERPOOL, 1982–88 / JAMES STIRLING AND THE TATE GALLERY PROJECT IN ALBERT DOCK, LIVERPOOL, 1982–88 |journal=Proyecto, Progreso, Arquitectura |issue=19 |pages=134–149 |doi=10.12795/ppa.2018.i19.08 |issn=2171-6897|doi-access=free }}</ref>
"A" : the species population is "greatly down in numbers"
"B" : the species population is "down in numbers"
"C" : the species population is experiencing no change
"D" : the species population is "up in numbers"
"E" : the species population is "greatly up in numbers"
Using this metric reginal editors were able to report on the species along with their status ranks in order to identify the patterns of population growth that each species is facing. Later on, the Government of British Columbia has revised the status ranks such that Blue-Listed species are listed based on the following '''modifier codes'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Strategy |first=Ministry of Environment and Climate Change |title=Conservation Status Ranks - Province of British Columbia |url=https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/environment/plants-animals-ecosystems/conservation-data-centre/explore-cdc-data/status-ranks |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=www2.gov.bc.ca}}</ref>''':'''
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Modifier Codes
!Meaning
|-
|1
|The population is greatly at risk of being put at harm
|-
|2
|The population is at risk of being put at harm
|-
|3
|The population is of special concern and is vulnerable to extinction
|-
|4
|The population is apparently safe but some concern is still needed
|-
|5
|The population is completely safe and abundant
|}
==See also==
*[[Biodiversity Action Plan]]
*[[Red-listed]]
== References ==
<references />
==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060428022737/http://wlapwww.gov.bc.ca/sry/fwh/wildlife/blue.htm British Columbia]
{{threatened species by region|state=expanded}}
{{threatened species}}
[[Category:Biota by conservation status]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
{{ecology-stub}} |
Cross-boundary subsidy | [[Image:borealforest.JPG|thumb|240px|right|Alaskan boreal forest in Yukon National Wildlife Refuge]]
'''Cross-boundary subsidies''' are caused by organisms or materials that cross or traverse habitat [[landscape ecology#Patch and mosaic|patch]] boundaries, subsidizing the resident [[populations]]. The transferred organisms and materials may provide additional predators, prey, or nutrients to resident species, which can affect [[community]] and [[food web]] structure. Cross-boundary subsidies of materials and organisms occur in landscapes composed of different habitat patch types, and so depend on characteristics of those patches and on the boundaries in between them. Human alteration of the landscape, primarily through [[Habitat fragmentation|fragmentation]], has the potential to alter important cross-boundary subsidies to increasingly isolated habitat patches. Understanding how processes that occur outside of habitat patches can affect populations within them may be important to habitat management.
==Introduction and development of the concept==
The concept of cross-boundary subsidies developed out of a merging of ideas from the studies of [[landscape ecology]] and [[food web]] ecology. The ideas from landscape ecology allow the study of population, community, and food web dynamics to incorporate spatial relationships between landscape elements into an understanding of such dynamics (Polis et al. 1997).
Janzen (1986) first defined cross-boundary subsidies as a process whereby organisms that disperse from one patch into another impact resident organisms by providing increased food resources or opportunities for reproduction, thus serving as a subsidy to the residents. By this definition, only the cross-boundary movement of organisms is considered, but broader definitions of cross-boundary subsidies can also include materials such as nutrients and [[detritus]] (i.e. Marburg et al. 2006, Facelli and Pickett 1991).
Cross-boundary subsidies are a subset of the more general process of spatial subsidies (see Polis et al. 1997). Cross-boundary subsidies acknowledge the presence and role of the boundary between different habitat patches in mediating flows of organisms and materials. In contrast, spatial subsidies require only that external inputs of materials and organisms originate from outside the patch of interest.
===Conceptual models===
Few attempts have been made to combine landscape and [[food web]] ecology in such a way that explicitly recognizes the importance of cross-boundary subsidies and spatial features of the landscape on food web dynamics. Often, spatial subsidies are treated as subsidies that simply arrive from outside the patch of interest, not addressing the landscape patterns and processes that may affect the movement of these inputs, such as boundary characteristics and patch connectivity. Polis et al. (1997) published a thorough review of spatially subsidized food web dynamics, focusing on the effect of subsidies on population, [[community]], consumer-resource, and food web dynamics. One of the main conclusions was that subsidies of consumer species (organisms that eat other organisms to obtain energy) resulted in declines of food resources in the recipient patch. Callaway and Hastings (2002) built off Polis et al.’s conclusion with a model to show that subsidized consumers may not always drive down the resource in the recipient patch if consumers move between patches frequently. This might occur because consumers often move for reasons other than food resource acquisition.
Cadenasso et al. (2003) developed a framework for studying ecological boundaries, which has implications for understanding the dynamics of specific cross-boundary subsidies. The boundary is defined as the zone of the steepest gradient of change in some characteristic from one patch to another, such as rapidly decreasing light levels as habitat transitions from a field to a forest. In this framework, flows across variable landscapes are characterized by the type of flow (materials, energy, organisms, etc.), patch contrast (architecture, composition, process), and boundary structure (architecture, composition, symbolic and perceptual features). Considering a cross-boundary subsidy in terms of this framework shows how the boundary itself can mediate the subsidy. For example, Cadenasso and Pickett (2001) found that the decreased lateral vegetation at the boundary between a forest and field increased the amount of seeds transferred into the forest interior.
Another conceptual model that specifically considers cross-boundary subsidies is a model developed by Rand et al. (2006) of spillover from agriculture to wildland patches by predatory insects. The edge is permeable to insects that are habitat generalists and therefore capable of easily crossing the boundary between agriculture and wildland patches, whereas it is considered impermeable to insects that specialize on a particular patch type and cannot cross the boundary. In this model, edge permeability (habitat specialists vs. generalists), patch [[productivity]], and complementary resource use (use of resources obtained in both agriculture and wildland patches) determine the expected impact of cross-boundary subsidies by predatory insects (Fig. 1).
[[Image:Rand2006 adapted.JPG|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Conceptual model of cross-boundary subsidies of insect predators from agricultural to adjacent wildland patches. '''a.''' Habitat specialization, the boundary is a hard edge to predators such that they do not disperse to the wildland patch. '''b.''' Differences in [[productivity]], increased productivity in the agricultural patch allows a generalist insect predator to disperse to the lower productivity wildland patch. This is an example of a directional positive edge response. '''c.''' Complementary resource use, insect predator abundance is highest near the edge because they need resources present in both patches. This is an example of a reciprocal positive edge response. Redrawn from Rand et al. 2006.]]
==Relation to selected ecological concepts==
===Landscape ecology===
A spatial subsidy, in the context of landscape ecology, is a doner-mediated resource (nutrient, detritus, prey) which is passed from one habitat to a recipient (consumer) in a second habitat. As a result, the productivity of the recipient is increased (Polis et al., 1997). For example, a bear eats a salmon and acquires the resources that have passed through the marine environment across the habitat boundary and into a terrestrial environment.
===Source sink dynamics===
The idea of a subsidy of materials or organisms across a patch boundary affecting resident populations has clear parallels with [[source-sink dynamics]] (Fagan et al. 1999). In this theory, local populations are connected by dispersal, and the extinction of local populations can be prevented through immigration from neighboring patches (Pulliam 1988). In source-sink dynamics, it is assumed that individuals from more productive patches will move to less productive patches with unsustainable populations (Pulliam 1988). Many examples of cross-boundary subsidies can be thought of as exhibiting source-sink dynamics. Rand et al. (2006) found that insects in a high productivity agricultural patch were able to sustain local populations in a lower productivity wildland patch through continued dispersal from the agricultural patch. The effect of these subsidies to local patches can also impact populations of other species in the recipient [[food web]], because the subsidized population may compete with or prey upon other species more effectively than they would be able to without such an influx (Fagan et al. 1999).
===Biotic interactions and trophic structure===
Cross-boundary subsidies have important impacts on species interactions and food web dynamics. Subsidies of materials and organisms can affect all trophic, or feeding, levels of food webs either directly or indirectly. Inputs of nutrient and [[detritus]] from another patch generally increase the population growth of the resident producers (plants) and [[detritus|detritivores]] (Polis et al. 1997). Increased growth at the producer level can result in a bottom-up trophic effect, in which increases in [[populations]] at lower [[trophic level]]s support a higher population of consumers than would otherwise be possible in a closed system (Polis et al. 1997). [[allochthonous]] detrital inputs can also have strong impacts on food web dynamics over a variety of temporal scales, ranging from seconds to millennia, as in the case of [[fossil fuel]] formation from build-up of detritus over millennia (Moore et al. 2004).
====Coarse woody debris====
Many food webs rely on cross-boundary subsidies of detritus for sources of energy and nutrients (Huxel and McCann 1998). For example, a series of lakes in Wisconsin were examined for the presence of [[Coarse woody debris]] (CWD) and the characteristics of the surrounding landscape that might control its input to lakes. Coarse woody debris in these lakes is important for providing habitat and food resources for a variety of organisms including small fish (Werner and Hall 1988), algae, and detritivores (Bowen et al. 1998). Marburg et al. (2006) compared variation within and among lakes in CWD. They found that subsidies of CWD to lakes were lower when the lakes had human development along the shore. Development along the lakeshore can be thought of as an alteration to the characteristics of the patch boundary between the lake and forest. In this case, development decreased both forest density that is the source of CWD and also the permeability of the boundary to flows of CWD (Marburg et al. 2006).
====Predator-prey====
In addition to bottom-up effects, top-down effects may also occur due to cross-boundary subsidies. In top-down effects, subsidies of consumers at the top level of the food web control populations at lower levels more so than would be expected by only the action of resident consumers (Polis et al. 1997). Consumers that cross boundaries may have a greater effect on the recipient patch population if prey in the recipient patch have a lower population growth rate than prey in the source patch (Fagan et al. 1999, Rand et al. 2006). Thus, cross-boundary subsidies may alter predator-prey/competitive interactions that can result in a disproportionate impact on the communities of the recipient patch.
====Trophic cascade====
In subsidizing top trophic levels, effects may also be felt at all lower trophic levels in a phenomenon known as a [[trophic cascade]]. An example of a trophic cascade that also acted as a cross-boundary subsidy is illustrated in a study by Knight et al. (2005) in which changes in the trophic structure of one ecosystem resulted in an effect that cascaded to the adjacent ecosystem. In ponds containing fish, dragonfly larvae were kept to a minimum by fish predation. The resulting low density of adult dragonfly predators led to a high density of bee pollinators. With fish present in adjacent ponds, bees were able to pollinate more flowers in the adjacent upland ecosystem than they were when fish were absent. The dragonfly population could be thought of as subsidized by the absence of fish predation. That subsidy was then transferred across the pond-upland boundary by adult dragonfly movement to affect the interaction between bee pollinators and plants.
===Subsidy cascade===
Native species that forage on resources that don't originate in their same habitat. This may increase their local abundances thereby affecting other species in the ecosystem. For example, Luskin ''et al.'' (2017) found that native animals living protected primary rainforest in Malaysia found food subsidies in neighboring [[oil palm]] plantations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Luskin |first1=Matthew |title=Cross-boundary subsidy cascades from oil palm degrade distant tropical forests |journal=Nature Communications |date=2017 |volume=8 |issue=9 |page=2231 |doi=10.1038/s41467-017-01920-7 |pmid=29263381 |pmc=5738359 |bibcode=2017NatCo...8.2231L }}</ref> This subsidy allowed native animal populations to increase, which then triggered powerful secondary ‘cascading’ effects on forest tree community. Specifically, crop-raiding wild boar ({{lang|la|[[Sus scrofa]]}}) built thousands of nests from the forest understory vegetation and this caused a 62% decline in forest tree sapling density over a 24-year study period. Such cross-boundary subsidy cascades may be widespread in both terrestrial and marine ecosystems and present significant conservation challenges.
==Human activities affecting cross-boundary subsidies==
===Agriculture ===
Native species that forage in farmland may increase their local abundances thereby affecting adjacent ecosystems within their landscape. For example, Luskin et al (2017) used two decades of ecological data from a protected primary rainforest in Malaysia to illustrate how subsidies from neighboring oil palm plantations triggered powerful secondary ‘cascading’ effects on natural habitats located >1.3 km away.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Luskin |first1=Matthew |title=Cross-boundary subsidy cascades from oil palm degrade distant tropical forests |journal=Nature Communications |date=2017 |volume=8 |issue=8 |page=2231 |doi=10.1038/s41467-017-01920-7 |pmid=29263381 |pmc=5738359 |bibcode=2017NatCo...8.2231L }}</ref> They found that (i) oil palm fruit drove 100-fold increases in crop-raiding native wild boar (Sus scrofa), (ii) wild boar used thousands of understory plants to construct birthing nests in the pristine forest interior, and (iii) nest building caused a 62% decline in forest tree sapling density over the 24-year study period. The long-term, landscape-scale indirect effects from agriculture suggest its full ecological footprint may be larger in extent than is currently recognized. Cross-boundary subsidy cascades may be widespread in both terrestrial and marine ecosystems and present significant conservation challenges.
===Fragmentation===
As landscapes become increasingly fragmented due to human activity, the influence of patch boundaries on individual patches becomes relatively more important (Murcia 1995). [[Habitat fragmentation|fragmentation]] can both cut off necessary subsidies to patches and increase the magnitude of subsidies from adjacent patches. For example, in a study of fragmentation of wildlands in an agriculturally dominated landscape, subsidies of habitat specialist insects to wildland patches were prevented by surrounding small, wildland patches with inhospitable agricultural land. This isolation reduced the potential for [[gene flow]] and long-term persistence of the population. Subsidies of other insects that specialized on agricultural crops were increased to wildland [[populations]], increasing their effect on the resident wildland species (Duelli 1990).
===Alteration of patch and boundary characteristics===
Changing the internal structure and composition of a patch may substantially alter cross-boundary subsidies. [[Logging]] may temporarily increase subsidies of nutrients and detritus to adjacent streams (Likens et al. 1970). [[Invasive species]] introduced to agricultural patches may act as a subsidy to adjacent wildland invasive populations, preventing native species establishment, even within the protected area (Janzen 1983).
====Marine systems====
Human alterations of patch characteristics may also curtail cross-boundary subsidies such as [[overfishing]] in marine systems, which may drastically reduce potentially crucial marine subsidies of organisms to freshwater and riparian systems (Zhang et al. 2003). For example, Helfield and Naiman (2002) found that riparian trees in [[Alaska]] obtain 24–26% of their nitrogen from marine sources, transferred from migrating [[salmon]]. In this system, [[salmon]] that feed in the ocean, incorporating marine nitrogen into their biomass, later return to their natal small streams where they spawn and die. [[Salmon]] carcasses transferred across the stream-riparian zone boundary by terrestrial predators or flooding events subsidized growth of terrestrial plants. Thus, marine overfishing may affect the productivity of Alaskan forests that depend on subsidies of marine-derived nitrogen.
As discussed above, cross-boundary subsidies depend on the characteristics of the patch boundary. Human-induced changes in these characteristics can affect boundary permeability to certain organisms or materials. For example, a cross-boundary subsidy of leaf litter from forest to an adjacent open field may be attenuated at the boundary if a road is present, making the boundary less permeable to flows of leaf litter (Facelli and Pickett 1991).
==Implications for management and future research needs==
Habitat management might benefit from recognizing the effect that humans may have on both individual patches and on the dynamics between patches. In such cases, managers may need to focus on patterns and processes that occur outside of their patch of interest, as these factors may also be important to internal [[population dynamics]]. An understanding of boundary features that influence the various flows of interest is necessary in managing for those flows.
=== Invasive species ===
The implications of [[invasive species]] and the use of [[biological control]] agents may also be closely related to the idea of cross-boundary subsidies. Introducing species into one patch for [[biocontrol]] may have [[unforeseen consequence]]s on dynamics within adjacent patches.
Other fields, such as public policy, can also benefit from considering cross-boundary subsidies. For example, governments often provide [[subsidy|financial subsidies]] to [[fisheries]], which have a negative effect on those ecosystems by encouraging overfishing (Munro and Sumaila 2002). Understanding what processes affect how those financial resources flow across that particular government-industry boundary is important to the maintenance of marine [[food web]]s. Considering cross-boundary effects will be essential to a complete understanding of potential consequences of human action on the landscape.
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{refbegin|2}}
* Aizen, M. A. and P. Feinsinger. 1994. Forest fragmentation, pollination, and plant reproduction in a Chaco Dry Forest, Argentina. Ecology 75: 330-351.
* Belisle, M., A. Descrochers, and M. Fortin. 2001. Influence of forest cover on movements of forest birds: A homing experiment. Ecology 82: 1893-1904.
* Ben-David, H., T. A. Hanley, D. M. Schell. 1998. Fertilization of terrestrial vegetation by spawning Pacific salmon: the role of flooding and predator activity. Oikos 83: 47-55.
* Bowen, K. L., N. K. Kaushik, A. M. Gordon. 1998. Macroinvertebrate communities and biofilm chlorophyll on woody debris in two Canadian oligotrophic lakes. Archiv für Hydrobiologie 141: 257-281.
* Cadenasso, M. L. and S. T. A. Pickett. 2001. Effects of edge structure on flux of species into forest interiors. Conservation Biology 15: 91-97.
* Cadenasso, M. L., S. T. A. Pickett, K. C. Weathers, and C. G. Jones. 2003. A framework for a theory of ecological boundaries. BioScience 53: 750-758.
* Callaway, D. S. and A. Hastings. 2002. Consumer movement through differentially subsidized habitats creates a spatial food web with unexpected results. Ecology Letters 5: 329-332.
* Duelli, P. 1990. Population movements of arthropods between natural and cultivated areas. Biological Conservation 54: 193-207.
* Facelli, J. M. and S. T. A. Pickett. 1991. Plant litter: its dynamics and effects on plant community structure. The Botanical Review 57: 1-32.
* Fagan, W.F., R. S. Cantrell, and C. Cosner. 1999. How habitat edges change species interactions. The American Naturalist 153: 165-182.
* Freeland, J. A., J. L. Richardson, and L. A. Foss. 1999. Soil indicators of agricultural impacts on northern prairie wetlands: Cottonwood Lake Research Area, North Dakota, USA. Wetlands 19: 56-64.
* Helfield, J. A. and R. J. Naiman. 2001. Effects of salmon-derived nitrogen on riparian forest growth and implications for stream productivity. Ecology 82: 2403-2409.
* Helfield, J. M. and R. J. Naiman. 2002. Salmon and alder as nitrogen sources to riparian forest in a boreal Alaskan watershed. [[Oecologia]] 133: 573-582.
* Huxel, G. R. and K. S. McCann. 1998. Food web stability: the influence of trophic flows across habitats. The American Midland Naturalist 152: 460-469.
* Janzen, D. H. 1983. No park is an island: increased interference from outside as park size decreases. Oikos 41: 402-410.
* Janzen, D. H. 1986. The eternal external threat. Pages 286-303 in M. E. Soule, editor. Conservation Biology: the science of scarcity and diversity. Sinauer, Sunderland, MA.
* Knight, T. M., M. W. McCoy, J. M. Chase, K. A. McCoy, R. D. Holt. 2005. Trophic cascades across ecosystems. Nature 437: 880-883.
* Likens, G. E., F. H. Bormann, N. M. Johnson, D. W. Fisher, R. S. Pierce. 1970. Effects of forest cutting and herbicide treatment on nutrient budgets in the Hubbard Brook Watershed-Ecosystem. Ecological Monographs 40: 23-47.
* Marburg, A. E., M. G. Turner, and T. K. Kratz. 2006. Natural and anthropogenic variation in coarse wood among and within lakes. Journal of Ecology 94: 558-568.
* Moore, J. C., E. L. Berlow, D. C. Coleman, P. C. de Ruiter, Q. Dong, A. Hastings, N. C. Johnson, K. S. McCann, K. Melville, P. J. Morin, K. Nadelhoffer, A. D. Rosemond, D. M. Post, J. L. Sabo, [[Kate Scow|K. M. Scow]], M. J. Vanni, D. H. Wall. 2004. Detritus, trophic dynamics, and biodiversity. Ecology Letters 7: 584-600.
* Munro, G. and U. R. Sumaila. 2002. The impact of subsidies upon fisheries management and sustainability: The case of the North Atlantic. Fish and Fisheries 3: 233-250.
* Murcia, C. 1995. Edge effects in fragmented forests: implications for conservation. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 10: 58-62.
* Polis, G. A. and S. D. Hurd. 1996. Linking marine and terrestrial food webs: allochthonous inputs from the ocean supports high secondary productivity on small islands and coastal land communities. American Naturalist 147: 396-423.
* Polis, G. A., W. B. Anderson, and R. D. Holt. 1997. Toward an integration of landscape ecology and food web ecology: the dynamics of spatially subsidized food webs. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 28: 289-316.
* Pulliam, H. R. 1988. Sources, sinks, and population regulation. The American Naturalist 132: 652-661.
* Rand, T. A., J. M. Tylianakis, T. Tscharntke. 2006. Spillover edge effects: the dispersal of agriculturally subsidized insect natural enemies into adjacent natural habitats. Ecology Letters 9: 603-614.
* Turner, M. G. 2005. Landscape ecology: what is the state of the science? Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 36: 319-344.
* Werner, E. E. and D. J. Hall. 1988. Ontogenic habitat shifts in bluegill: the foraging rate – predation risk trade-off. Ecology 69: 1352-1366.
* Zhang, Y., J. N. Negishi, J. S. Richardson, and R. Kolodziejczyk. 2003. Impacts of marine-derived nutrients on stream ecosystem functioning. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 270: 2117-2123.
{{refend}}
{{modelling ecosystems|expanded=other}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Cross-Boundary Subsidy}}
[[Category:Landscape ecology]]
[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category:Systems ecology]]
[[Category:Habitat management equipment and methods]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Ecological restoration]] |
Global 200 | {{Short description|none}}
{{For|the record chart|Billboard Global 200}}
The '''Global 200''' is the list of [[ecoregion]]s identified by the World Wide Fund for Nature ([[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]]), the global conservation organization, as priorities for conservation. According to WWF, an ecoregion is defined as a "relatively large unit of land or water containing a characteristic set of natural communities that share a large majority of their species dynamics, and environmental conditions".<ref>Olson, D. M. & E. Dinerstein. 1998. The Global 200: A representation approach to conserving the Earth's most biologically valuable ecoregions. ''Conservation Biol.'' 12:502–515.[http://planet.uwc.ac.za/nisl/Biodiversity/pdf/OlsonDinerstein1998.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007001330/http://planet.uwc.ac.za/nisl/Biodiversity/pdf/OlsonDinerstein1998.pdf|date=2016-10-07}}.</ref><ref>Olson, D. M., Dinerstein, E. 2002. The Global 200: Priority ecoregions for global conservation. ''Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden'' 89(2):199-224, [http://coastalforests.tfcg.org/pubs/Global%20200%20ecoregion.pdf].</ref><ref>The Nature Conservancy. 1997. ''Designing a geography of hope: guidelines for ecoregion-based conservation in The Nature Conservancy''. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia</ref> For example, based on their levels of [[endemism]], Madagascar gets multiple listings, ancient [[Lake Baikal]] gets one, and the [[North American Great Lakes]] get none.
The WWF assigns a conservation status to each ecoregion in the Global 200: '''critical or endangered'''; '''vulnerable'''; and '''relatively stable or intact'''. Over half of the ecoregions in the Global 200 are rated endangered.
{{TOC limit|3}}
==Background==
The WWF has identified 867 [[terrestrial ecoregion]]s across the Earth's land surface, as well as [[freshwater ecoregion|freshwater]] and [[marine ecoregion]]s. The goal of this classification system is to ensure that the full range of [[ecosystem]]s will be represented in regional conservation and development strategies. Of these ecoregions, the WWF selected the Global 200 as the ecoregions most crucial to the [[Conservation ethic|conservation]] of global [[biodiversity]]. The Global 200 list actually contains 238 ecoregions, made up of 142 terrestrial, 53 freshwater, and 43 marine ecoregions.
[[conservation movement|Conservationist]]s interested in preserving biodiversity have generally focused on the preservation of [[tropical moist broadleaf forests]] (commonly known as tropical rainforests) because it is estimated that they harbor one half of Earth's species. On the other hand, the WWF determined that a more comprehensive strategy for conserving global biodiversity should also consider the other half of species, as well as the [[ecosystem]]s that support them.
Several habitats, such as [[Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub]] [[biome]], were determined to be more threatened than tropical rain forests, and therefore require concerted conservation action. WWF maintains that "although conservation action typically takes place at the country level, patterns of biodiversity and ecological processes (e.g., migration) do not conform to political boundaries", which is why ecoregion-based conservation strategies are deemed essential.
===Classification===
Historically, zoologists and botanists have developed various classification systems that take into account the world's plant and animal communities. Two of the worldwide classification systems most commonly used today were summarized by [[Miklos Udvardy]] in 1975.
The Earth's land surface can be divided into eight [[biogeographic realm]]s (formerly called kingdoms, and which the BBC calls ecozones) that represent the major terrestrial communities of animals and plants, and are a synthesis of previous systems of [[floristic province]]s and faunal regions. The biome system classifies the world into ecosystem types (i.e. forests, grasslands, etc.) based on climate and vegetation. Each biogeographical realm contains multiple biomes, and biomes occur across several biogeographical realms. A system of [[biogeographical provinces]] was developed to identify specific geographic areas in each biogeographical realm that were of a consistent biome type, and shared distinct plant and animal communities. The WWF system represents a further refinement of the system of biomes (which the WWF calls "major habitat types"), biogeographical realms, and biogeographical provinces (the WWF scheme divides most biogeographical provinces into multiple smaller ecoregions).
===Selection process===
Based on a comprehensive list of [[ecoregion]]s, The Global 200 includes all major habitat types (biomes), all [[ecosystem]] types, and [[species]] from every major habitat type. It focuses on each major habitat type of every continent (such as [[tropical forest]]s or [[coral reef]]s). It uses [[ecoregion]]s as the unit of scale for comparison. WWF say ecoregions could be considered as conservation units at regional scale because they meet similar biological communities.
Some ecoregions were selected over other ecoregions of the same major habitat type (biome) or realm. Selection of the Global 200 relied on extensive studies of 19 terrestrial, freshwater, and marine major habitat types. Selection of the ecoregions was based on analyses of species richness, species [[endemic (ecology)|endemism]], unique higher [[taxon|taxa]], unusual ecological or evolutionary phenomena, and global rarity of major habitat type.
Global 200 ecoregion list is most helpful to conservation efforts at a regional scale: local [[deforestation]], destruction of swamp habitats, degradation of soils, etc. However, certain phenomena, such as bird or whale [[Fish migration|migration]], depend on more complex parameters not used to define the current [[database]], such as atmospheric currents and dynamic [[pelagic]] ecosystems. These would require gathering more information, and co-ordination of efforts between multiple ecoregions. However, the Global 200 ecoregions can help these efforts by identifying habitat sites and resting sites for migratory animals. It may also help identify the origin of [[invasive species]], and offer insights for slowing down or stopping their intrusion.
==Global 200: [[Terrestrial ecoregion|Terrestrial]]==
===[[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests]]===
{{main|Tropical rainforest}}
{{main|Tropical seasonal forest}}
====[[Afrotropical]]====
*[[Guinean moist forests]]
**AT0111 [[Eastern Guinean forests]]
**AT0114 [[Guinean montane forests]]
**AT0130 [[Western Guinean lowland forests]]
*[[Congolian coastal forests]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/congolian_coastal_forests.cfm |title=Congolian Coastal Forests - A Global Ecoregion |access-date=2017-01-10 |archive-date=2017-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170111003509/http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/congolian_coastal_forests.cfm |url-status=dead }}</ref>
**AT0102 [[Atlantic Equatorial coastal forests]]
**AT0107 [[Cross–Sanaga–Bioko coastal forests]]
**AT0127 [[São Tomé, Príncipe, and Annobón forests]]
*[[Cameroon Highlands forests]]
**AT0103 [[Cameroonian Highlands forests]]
**AT0121 [[Mount Cameroon and Bioko montane forests]]
*[[Northeastern Congolian lowland forests]]
**AT0124 [[Northeastern Congolian lowland forests]]
*Central Congo Basin Moist Forests
**AT0104 [[Central Congolian lowland forests]]
**AT0110 [[Eastern Congolian swamp forests]]
*Western Congo Basin Moist Forests
**AT0126 [[Northwestern Congolian lowland forests]]
**AT0129 [[Western Congolian swamp forests]]
*Albertine Rift montane forests
**AT0101 [[Albertine Rift montane forests]]
*[[East African Coastal Forests]]
**AT0125 [[Northern Zanzibar–Inhambane coastal forest mosaic]]
**AT0128 [[Southern Zanzibar–Inhambane coastal forest mosaic]]
*Eastern Arc Montane Forests ([[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]])
**AT0109 [[Eastern Arc forests]]
*Madagascar lowlands and subhumid forests
**AT0117 [[Madagascar lowland forests]]
**AT0118 [[Madagascar subhumid forests]]
*[[Seychelles]] and [[Mascarene Islands]] moist forests
**AT0113 [[Granitic Seychelles forests]]
**AT0120 [[Mascarene forests]]
====[[Australasian realm|Australasia]]====
*[[Sulawesi]] moist forests
**AA0123 [[Sulawesi lowland rain forests]]
**AA0124 [[Sulawesi montane rain forests]]
*[[Maluku Islands|Moluccas]] moist forests ([[Indonesia]])
**AA0106 [[Halmahera rain forests]]
*Southern New Guinea lowland forests
**AA0122 [[Southern New Guinea lowland rain forests]]
*New Guinea montane forests
**AA0116 [[Northern New Guinea montane rain forests]]
*[[Solomons–Vanuatu–Bismarck moist forests]]
**AA0101 [[Admiralty Islands lowland rain forests]]
**AA0111 [[New Britain–New Ireland lowland rain forests]]
**AA0112 [[New Britain–New Ireland montane rain forests]]
**AA0119 [[Solomon Islands rain forests]]
**AA0126 [[Vanuatu rain forests]]
*Queensland tropical rain forests
**AA0117 [[Queensland tropical rain forests]]
*New Caledonia moist forests
**AA0113 [[New Caledonia rain forests]]
*[[Lord Howe Island|Lord Howe]]–[[Norfolk Island]]s forests
**AA0109 [[Lord Howe Island subtropical forests]]
====[[Indomalaya]]====
*South Western Ghats montane rain forests and moist deciduous forests
**IM0150 [[South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests]]
**IM0151 [[South Western Ghats montane rain forests]]
*[[Sri Lanka]] moist forests
**IM0154 [[Sri Lanka lowland rain forests]]
**IM0155 [[Sri Lanka montane rain forests]]
*Northern [[Indochina]] Subtropical moist forests
**IM0137 [[Northern Indochina subtropical forests]]
*Southeast China-Hainan moist forests
**IM0149 [[South China–Vietnam subtropical evergreen forests]]
**IM0169 [[Hainan Island monsoon rain forests]]
*[[Taiwan]] montane forests
**IM0172 [[Taiwan subtropical evergreen forests]]
*[[Annamite Range]] moist forests ([[Cambodia]], [[Laos]], [[Vietnam]])
**IM0136 [[Northern Annamites rain forests]]
**IM0152 [[Southern Annamites montane rain forests]]
*Sumatran Islands lowland and montane forests
**IM0157 [[Sumatran freshwater swamp forests]]
**IM0158 [[Sumatran lowland rain forests]]
**IM0159 [[Sumatran montane rain forests]]
**IM0160 [[Sumatran peat swamp forests]]
*[[Ecoregions of the Philippines|Philippines moist forests]]
**IM0114 [[Greater Negros–Panay rain forests]]
**IM0122 [[Luzon montane rain forests]]
**IM0123 [[Luzon rain forests]]
**IM0128 [[Mindanao montane rain forests]]
**IM0129 [[Mindanao–Eastern Visayas rain forests]]
**IM0130 [[Mindoro rain forests]]
**IM0156 [[Sulu Archipelago rain forests]]
*[[Palawan]] moist forests
**IM0143 [[Palawan rain forests]]
*[[Kayah State|Kayah]]-Karen/[[Tanintharyi Region|Tenasserim]] moist forests
**IM0119 [[Kayah–Karen montane rain forests]]
**IM0163 [[Tenasserim–South Thailand semi-evergreen rain forests]]
*Peninsular Malaysian lowland and montane forests
**IM0144 [[Peninsular Malaysian montane rain forests]]
**IM0145 [[Peninsular Malaysian peat swamp forests]]
**IM0146 [[Peninsular Malaysian rain forests]]
*[[Borneo]] lowland and montane forests
**IM0102 [[Borneo lowland rain forest]]s
**IM0103 [[Borneo montane rain forests]]
**IM0104 [[Borneo peat swamp forests]]
*[[Nansei Shoto Archipelago forests]] (Japan)
**IM0170 [[Nansei Islands subtropical evergreen forests]]
*Eastern [[Deccan Plateau]] moist forests (India)
**IM0111 [[Eastern highlands moist deciduous forests]]
*[[Naga-Manupuri-Chin hills moist forests]] ([[Bangladesh]], India, [[Myanmar]])
**IM0109 [[Chin Hills–Arakan Yoma montane forests]]
**IM0120 [[Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests]]
**IM0131 [[Mizoram–Manipur–Kachin rain forests]]
*Cardamom Mountains moist forests
**IM0106 [[Cardamom Mountains rain forests]]
*Western Java montane forests
**IM0167 [[Western Java montane rain forests]]
*Maldives–Lakshadweep–Chagos Archipelago tropical moist forests
**IM0125 [[Maldives–Lakshadweep–Chagos Archipelago tropical moist forests]]
====[[Neotropic]]====
*[[Greater Antilles|Greater Antillean]] moist forests
**NT0120 [[Cuban moist forests]]
**NT0127 [[Hispaniolan moist forests]]
**NT0131 [[Jamaican moist forests]]
**NT0155 [[Puerto Rican moist forests]]
*Talamancan-Isthmian Pacific forests
**NT0167 [[Talamancan montane forests]]
*Choco–Darien moist forests
**NT0115 [[Chocó–Darién moist forests]]
*Northern Andean montane forests
**NT0145 [[Northwestern Andean montane forests]]
*Coastal [[Venezuela]] montane forests
**NT0147 [[Orinoco Delta swamp forests]]
**NT0169 [[Tepuis]]
**NT0171 [[Trinidad and Tobago moist forests]]
*Guianan moist forests
**NT0125 [[Guianan moist forests]]
*Napo moist forests
**NT0142 [[Napo moist forests]]
*Rio Negro - Juruá moist forests
**NT0132 [[Japurá–Solimões–Negro moist forests]]
**NT0133 [[Juruá–Purus moist forests]]
**NT0158 [[Rio Negro campinarana]]
*[[The Guyanas|Guayana]] Highlands moist forests
**NT0124 [[Guayanan Highlands moist forests]]
*Central Andean [[yungas]]
**NT0105 [[Bolivian Yungas]]
**NT0153 [[Peruvian Yungas]]
*Southwestern Amazonian moist forests
**NT0166 [[Southwest Amazon moist forests]]
*[[Atlantic forests]]
**NT0103 [[Bahia coastal forests]]
**NT0151 [[Pernambuco coastal forests]]
**NT0160 [[Serra do Mar coastal forests]]
====[[Oceanian realm|Oceania]]====
*South Pacific Islands forests ([[American Samoa]] - United States, [[Cook Islands]] - New Zealand, [[Fiji]], [[French Polynesia]] - France, [[Niue]] - New Zealand, [[Samoa]], [[Tonga]], [[Wallis and Futuna Islands]] - France)
**OC0102 [[Central Polynesian tropical moist forests]]
**OC0103 [[Cook Islands tropical moist forests]]
**OC0104 [[Eastern Micronesia tropical moist forests]]
**OC0105 [[Fiji tropical moist forests]]
**OC0112 [[Samoan tropical moist forests]]
**OC0114 [[Tongan tropical moist forests]]
**OC0117 [[Western Polynesian tropical moist forests]]
*[[Hawaii]] moist forests
**OC0106 [[Hawaiian tropical rainforests]]
===[[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests]]===
====Afrotropic====
*[[Madagascar]] dry deciduous forests
**AT0202 [[Madagascar dry deciduous forests]]
====Australasia====
*[[Lesser Sunda Islands|Nusa Tenggara]] Dry Forests ([[Indonesia]])
**AA0201 [[Lesser Sundas deciduous forests]]
**AA0203 [[Sumba deciduous forests]]
**AA0204 [[Timor and Wetar deciduous forests]]
*[[New Caledonia]] dry forests
**AA0202 [[New Caledonia dry forests]]
====Indomalaya====
*[[Indochina]] dry forests
**IM0202 [[Central Indochina dry forests]]
*Chhota - Nagpur dry forests
**IM0203 [[Chota Nagpur dry deciduous forests]]
====Neotropic====
*[[Mexican dry forests]]
**NT0204 [[Bajio dry forests]]
**NT0205 [[Balsas dry forests]]
**NT0227 [[Sierra de la Laguna dry forests]]
*Tumbesian - Andean valleys dry forests ([[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Peru]])
**NT0201 [[Apure–Villavicencio dry forests]]
**NT0214 [[Ecuadorian dry forests]]
**NT0221 [[Magdalena Valley dry forests]]
**NT0223 [[Marañón dry forests]]
**NT0232 [[Tumbes–Piura dry forests]]
*Chiquitano dry forests
**NT0212 [[Chiquitano dry forests]]
*Atlantic dry forests
**NT0202 [[Atlantic dry forests]]
====Oceania====
*[[Hawaii]] dry forests
**OC0202 [[Hawaiian tropical dry forests]]
===[[Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests]]===
====[[Nearctic]]====
*Sierra Madre Oriental and Occidental pine-oak forests
**NA0302 [[Sierra Madre Occidental pine–oak forests]]
**NA0303 [[Sierra Madre Oriental pine–oak forests]]
====Neotropic====
*Greater Antillean pine forests
**NT0304 [[Cuban pine forests]]
**NT0305 [[Hispaniolan pine forests]]
*[[Mesoamerican pine–oak forests]] ([[El Salvador]], [[Guatemala]], [[Honduras]], [[Mexico]], [[Nicaragua]])
**NT0308 [[Sierra Madre de Oaxaca pine–oak forests]]
**NT0309 [[Sierra Madre del Sur pine–oak forests]]
**NT0310 [[Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt pine–oak forests]]
===[[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests]]===
====Australasia====
*Eastern Australia temperate forests
**AA0402 [[Eastern Australian temperate forests]]
*Tasmanian temperate rain forests
**AA0413 [[Tasmanian temperate rain forests]]
*New Zealand temperate forests
**AA0403 [[Fiordland temperate forests]]
**AA0404 [[Nelson Coast temperate forests]]
**AA0405 [[Northland temperate forests]]
**AA0406 [[Northland temperate kauri forests]]
**AA0407 [[Rakiura Island temperate forests]]
**AA0410 [[Southland temperate forests]]
**AA0414 [[Westland temperate forests]]
====Indomalaya====
*Eastern Himalayan broadleaf and conifer forests
**IM0401 [[Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests]]
*Western Himalayan temperate forests
**IM0403 [[Western Himalayan broadleaf forests]]
====Nearctic====
*Appalachian and mixed mesophytic forests
**NA0402 [[Appalachian mixed mesophytic forests]]
====Neotropic====
*[[Valdivian temperate rain forests]] - [[Juan Fernández Islands]]
**NT0401 [[Juan Fernández Islands temperate forests]]
**NT0404 [[Valdivian temperate forests]]
====[[Palearctic]]====
*Southwest China temperate forests
**PA0417 [[Daba Mountains evergreen forests]]
**PA0434 [[Qin Ling Mountains deciduous forests]]
**PA0437 [[Sichuan Basin evergreen broadleaf forests]]
*Russian Far East temperate forests
**PA0426 [[Manchurian mixed forests]]
**PA0443 [[Ussuri broadleaf and mixed forests]]
===[[Temperate coniferous forests]]===
====Nearctic====
*[[Pacific temperate rain forests]]
**NA0510 [[Central Pacific coastal forests]]
**NA0512 [[Eastern Cascades forests]]
**NA0520 [[Northern Pacific coastal forests]]
*Klamath - Siskiyou forests
**NA0516 [[Klamath-Siskiyou forests]]
*Sierra Nevada forests
**NA0527 [[Sierra Nevada forests]]
*Southeastern coniferous and broadleaf forests
**NA0529 [[Southeastern conifer forests]]
====Palearctic====
*[[European-Mediterranean montane mixed forest|European - Mediterranean montane mixed forests]]
**PA0501 [[Alps conifer and mixed forests]]
**PA0513 [[Mediterranean conifer and mixed forests]]
*[[Caucasus-Anatolian-Hyrcanian temperate forest]] ([[Armenia]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Iran]], [[Russia]], [[Turkey]], [[Turkmenistan]])
**PA0407 [[Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests]]
**PA0408 [[Caucasus mixed forests]]
**PA0507 [[Elburz Range forest steppe]]
**PA0515 [[Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests]]
*Altai - Sayan montane forests
**PA0502 [[Altai montane forest and forest steppe]]
**PA0519 [[Sayan montane conifer forests]]
*Hengduan Shan coniferous forests
**PA0509 [[Hengduan Mountains subalpine conifer forests]]
===[[Boreal forests/taiga]]===
====Nearctic====
*Muskwa / Slave Lake boreal forests
**NA0610 [[Muskwa–Slave Lake forests]]
*Canadian Boreal Forests
**NA0606 [[Eastern Canadian Shield taiga]]
====Palearctic====
*Ural Mountains taiga
**PA0610 [[Urals montane tundra and taiga]]
*East Siberian taiga
**PA0601 [[East Siberian taiga]]
*[[Kamchatka]] taiga and grasslands
**PA0603 [[Kamchatka–Kurile meadows and sparse forests]]
**PA0604 [[Kamchatka–Kurile taiga]]
===[[Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands]]===
====Afrotropic====
*[[Horn of Africa]] acacia savannas
**AT0715 [[Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]]
*East African acacia savannas
**AT0711 [[Northern Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]]
*Central and Eastern miombo woodlands
**AT0704 [[Central Zambezian miombo woodlands]]
**AT0706 [[Eastern miombo woodlands]]
*[[Sudanian savannas]]
**AT0705 [[East Sudanian savanna]]
**AT0722 [[West Sudanian savanna]]
====Australasia====
*Northern Australia and Trans-Fly savannas
**AA0701 [[Arnhem Land tropical savanna]]
**AA0702 [[Brigalow tropical savanna]]
**AA0703 [[Cape York tropical savanna]]
**AA0704 [[Carpentaria tropical savanna]]
**AA0705 [[Einasleigh upland savanna]]
**AA0706 [[Kimberley tropical savanna]]
**AA0708 [[Trans-Fly savanna and grasslands]]
====Indomalaya====
*Terai-Duar savannas and grasslands
**IM0701 [[Terai–Duar savanna and grasslands]]
====Neotropic====
*Llanos savannas
**NT0709 [[Llanos]]
*Cerrado woodlands and savannas
**NT0704 [[Cerrado]]
===[[Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands]]===
====Nearctic====
*Northern [[prairie]]
**NA0810 [[Northern mixed grasslands]]
**NA0811 [[Northern short grasslands]]
**NA0812 [[Northern tall grasslands]]
====Neotropic====
*Patagonian steppe
**NT0805 [[Patagonian steppe]]
====Palearctic====
*Daurian steppe
**PA0804 [[Daurian forest steppe]]
===[[Flooded grasslands and savannas]]===
====Afrotropic====
*[[Sudd]] - Sahelian flooded grasslands and savannas ([[Cameroon]], [[Chad]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Mali]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], [[Sudan]], [[Uganda]])
**AT0903 [[Inner Niger Delta flooded savanna]]
**AT0904 [[Lake Chad flooded savanna]]
**AT0905 [[Saharan flooded grasslands]]
*Zambezian flooded savannas
**AT0907 [[Zambezian flooded grasslands]]
====Indomalaya====
*[[Rann of Kutch]] flooded grasslands
**IM0901 [[Rann of Kutch seasonal salt marsh]]
====Neotropic====
*[[Everglades]] flooded grasslands
**NT0904 [[Everglades]]
*[[Pantanal]] flooded savannas
**NT0907 [[Pantanal]]
===[[Montane grasslands and shrublands]]===
====Afrotropic====
*Ethiopian Highlands
**AT1007 [[Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]]
**AT1008 [[Ethiopian montane moorlands]]
*Southern Rift montane woodlands
**AT1015 [[Southern Rift montane forest–grassland mosaic]]
*East African moorlands
**AT1005 [[East African montane moorlands]]
*[[Drakensberg]] montane shrublands and woodlands
**AT1003 [[Drakensberg alti-montane grasslands and woodlands]]
**AT1004 [[Drakensberg montane grasslands, woodlands and forests]]
====Australasian====
* New Guinea Central Range subalpine grasslands
** AA 1002 [[Central Range subalpine grasslands]]
====Indomalaya====
*Kinabalu montane shrublands
**IM1001 [[Kinabalu montane alpine meadows]]
====Neotropic====
*Northern Andean [[páramo]]
**NT1006 [[Northern Andean páramo]]
*Central Andean dry [[puna grassland|puna]]
**NT1001 [[Central Andean dry puna]]
====Palearctic====
*Tibetan Plateau steppe
**PA1020 [[Tibetan Plateau alpine shrublands and meadows]]
*Middle Asian montane steppe and woodlands ([[Afghanistan]], China, [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Uzbekistan]])
**PA1011 [[North Tibetan Plateau–Kunlun Mountains alpine desert]]
**PA1015 [[Qilian Mountains subalpine meadows]]
**PA1013 [[Ordos Plateau steppe]]
*Eastern Himalayan alpine meadows
**PA1003 [[Eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows]]
===[[Tundra]]===
====[[Nearctic]]====
*Alaskan North Slope coastal tundra (Canada, United States)
**NA1103 [[Arctic coastal tundra]]
**NA1104 [[Arctic foothills tundra]]
**NA1108 [[Brooks–British Range tundra]]
*Canadian low arctic tundra (Canada)
**NA1114 [[Low Arctic tundra]]
**NA1116 [[Ogilvie–MacKenzie alpine tundra]]
**NA1118 [[Torngat Mountain tundra]]
====[[Palearctic]]====
*Fenno - Scandia alpine tundra and taiga (Finland, Norway, Russia, Sweden)
**PA1106 [[Kola Peninsula tundra]]
**PA1110 [[Scandinavian montane birch forest and grasslands]]
*Taimyr and Siberian coastal tundra
**PA1107 [[Northeast Siberian coastal tundra]]
**PA1111 [[Taimyr–Central Siberian tundra]]
*Chukote coastal tundra (Russia)
**PA1104 [[Chukchi Peninsula tundra]]
===[[Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub]]===
====Afrotropic====
*[[Fynbos]]
**AT1202 [[Lowland fynbos and renosterveld]]
**AT1203 [[Montane fynbos and renosterveld]]
====Australasia====
*[[Southwestern Australia]] forests and scrub
**AA1201 [[Coolgardie woodlands]]
**AA1202 [[Esperance mallee]]
**AA1209 [[Southwest Australia savanna]]
**AA1210 [[Southwest Australia woodlands]]
*Southern Australia mallee and woodlands
**AA1203 [[Eyre and York mallee]]
**AA1206 [[Mount Lofty woodlands]]
**AA1208 [[Naracoorte woodlands]]
====Nearctic====
*[[California chaparral and woodlands]]
**NA1201 [[California coastal sage and chaparral]]
**NA1202 [[California interior chaparral and woodlands]]
**NA1203 [[California montane chaparral and woodlands]]
====Neotropic====
*Chilean Matorral
**NT1201 [[Chilean Matorral]]
====Palearctic====
*[[Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub]]
**PA1214 [[Mediterranean woodlands and forests]]
===[[Deserts and xeric shrublands]]===
====Afrotropic====
*Namib - Karoo - Kaokoveld deserts ([[Angola]], [[Namibia]], [[South Africa]])
**AT1310 [[Kaokoveld desert]]
**AT1314 [[Nama Karoo]]
**AT1315 [[Namib desert]]
**AT1322 [[Succulent Karoo]]
*Madagascar spiny thicket
**AT1311 [[Madagascar spiny thickets]]
*[[Socotra Island]] desert ([[Yemen]])
**AT1318 [[Socotra Island xeric shrublands]]
*Arabian Highland woodlands and shrublands ([[Oman]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Yemen]])
**AT1320 [[Southwestern Arabian foothills savanna]]
**AT1321 [[Southwestern Arabian montane woodlands]]
====Australasia====
*Carnavon xeric scrub
**AA1301 [[Carnarvon xeric shrublands]]
*Great Sandy - Tanami deserts
**AA1304 [[Great Sandy-Tanami desert]]
====Nearctic====
*Sonoran - Baja deserts
**NA1301 [[Baja California desert]]
**NA1310 [[Sonoran Desert]]
*Chihuahuan - Tehuacan deserts
**NA1303 [[Chihuahuan Desert]]
====Neotropic====
*[[Galápagos Islands]] scrub
**NT1307 [[Galápagos Islands xeric scrub]]
*Atacama - Sechura deserts
**NT1303 [[Atacama Desert]]
**NT1315 [[Sechura Desert]]
*Brazilian Atlantic Dry Forests
**NT1304 [[Caatinga]]
====Palearctic====
*Central Asian deserts ([[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Turkmenistan]])
**PA1310 [[Central Asian northern desert]]
**PA1312 [[Central Asian southern desert]]
===[[Mangroves]]===
====Afrotropic====
*East African mangroves
**AT1402 [[East African mangroves]]
*Gulf of Guinea mangroves
**AT1403 [[Guinean mangroves]]
*Madagascar mangroves
**AT1404 [[Madagascar mangroves]]
====Australasia====
*New Guinea mangroves
**AA1401 [[New Guinea mangroves]]
====Indomalaya====
*Greater Sundas mangroves
**IM1405 [[Sunda Shelf mangroves]]
*Sundarbans mangroves
**IM1406 [[Sundarbans mangroves]]
====Nearctic====
*Northwest Mexican coast mangroves
**NA1401 [[Northwest Mexican coast mangroves]]
====Neotropic====
*Guianan - Amazon mangroves
**NT1401 [[Alvarado mangroves]]
**NT1402 [[Amapá mangroves]]
**NT1406 [[Belizean reef mangroves]]
**NT1411 [[Guianan mangroves]]
**NT1427 [[Pará mangroves]]
*[[Panama Bight mangroves]]
**NT1414 [[Gulf of Panama mangroves]]
**NT1409 [[Esmeraldas–Pacific Colombia mangroves]]
**NT1418 [[Manabí mangroves]]
**NT1413 [[Gulf of Guayaquil–Tumbes mangroves]]
==Global 200: [[Freshwater ecoregion]]s==
===Large rivers===
====Afrotropic====
*[[Congo River]] and flooded forests ([[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], [[Republic of Congo]])
====Indomalaya====
*[[Mekong River]] (Cambodia, China, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam)
====Nearctic====
*[[Colorado River (U.S.)|Colorado River]] (Mexico, United States)
*Lower [[Mississippi River]] (United States)
====Neotropic====
*[[Amazon River]] and flooded forests (Brazil, Colombia, Peru)
*[[Orinoco River]] and flooded forests (Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela)
====Palearctic====
*[[Yangtze River]] and lakes (China)
===Large river headwaters===
====Afrotropic====
*[[Congo River|Congo]] basin piedmont rivers and streams (Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Republic of Congo, Sudan)
====Nearctic====
*[[Mississippi River|Mississippi]] [[Piedmont (United States)|piedmont]] rivers and streams (United States)
====Neotropic====
*Upper [[Amazon River|Amazon]] rivers and streams (Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana (France), Guyana, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela)
*Upper [[Paraná River|Paraná]] rivers and streams (Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay)
*Brazilian Shield [[Amazon River|Amazonian]] rivers and streams (Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay)
===Large [[river delta]]s===
====Afrotropic====
*[[Niger River delta]] ([[Nigeria]])
====Indomalaya====
*[[Indus River Delta]] (India, Pakistan)
====Palearctic====
*[[Volga Delta|Volga River Delta]] (Kazakhstan, Russia)
*[[Tigris-Euphrates alluvial salt marsh|Mesopotamian delta and marshes]] (Iran, Iraq, Kuwait)
*[[Danube Delta|Danube River delta]] (Bulgaria, Moldova, Romania, Ukraine, Yugoslavia)
*[[Lena River]] delta (Russia)
===Small rivers===
====Afrotropic====
*Upper Guinea rivers and streams (Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone)
*Madagascar freshwater ([[Madagascar]])
*[[Gulf of Guinea]] rivers and streams (Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Nigeria, Republic of Congo)
*Cape rivers and streams ([[South Africa]])
====Australasia====
*[[New Guinea rivers and streams]] ([[Indonesia]], [[Papua New Guinea]])
*[[New Caledonia rivers and streams]] ([[New Caledonia]])
*Kimberley rivers and streams (Australia)
*[[Southwest Australia]] rivers and streams (Australia)
*Eastern Australia rivers and streams (Australia)
====Indomalaya====
*Xi Jiang rivers and streams (China, Vietnam)
*[[Western Ghats]] Rivers and Streams (India)
*[[Southwestern Sri Lanka rivers and streams]] ([[Sri Lanka]])
*[[Salween River]] (China, Myanmar, Thailand)
*[[Sundaland]] rivers and swamps (Brunei, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore)
====Nearctic====
*Southeastern rivers and streams (United States)
*[[Pacific Northwest]] coastal rivers and streams (United States)
*[[Gulf of Alaska]] coastal rivers and streams (Canada, United States)
====Neotropic====
*Guianan freshwater (Brazil, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela)
*Greater Antillean freshwater (Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Puerto Rico)
====Palearctic====
*Balkan rivers and streams (Albania, Bosnia and Herzogovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Macedonia, Turkey, Yugoslavia)
*Russian Far East rivers and wetlands (China, Mongolia, Russia)
===Large lakes===
====Afrotropic====
*[[Rift Valley lakes]] (Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia)
====Neotropic====
*High Andean lakes (Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Peru)
====Palearctic====
*[[Lake Baikal]] (Russia)
*[[Lake Biwa]] (Japan)
===Small lakes===
====Afrotropic====
*Cameroon crater lakes (Cameroon)
====Australasia====
*Lakes [[Lake Kutubu|Kutubu]] and Sentani (Indonesia, Papua New Guinea)
*Central [[Sulawesi]] lakes (Indonesia)
====Indomalaya====
*Philippines freshwater (Philippines)
*[[Inle Lake]] (Myanmar)
*[[Yunnan]] lakes and streams (China)
====Neotropic====
*Mexican highland lakes (Mexico)
===Xeric basins===
====Australasia====
*Central Australian freshwater (Australia)
====Nearctic====
*[[Chihuahuan Desert|Chihuahuan]] freshwater (Mexico, United States)
====Palearctic====
*Anatolian freshwater (Syria, Turkey)
==Global 200 Marine ecoregions==
===Polar===
====[[Antarctic Ocean]]====
*[[Antarctic Peninsula & Weddell Sea]]
====[[Arctic Ocean]]====
*[[Bering Sea]] (Canada, Russia, United States)
*[[Barents-Kara Sea]] (Norway, Russia)
===Temperate shelves and seas===
====[[Mediterranean Sea]]====
*Mediterranean (Albania, Algeria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Monaco, Morocco, Serbia & Montenegro, Slovenia, Spain, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey)
====[[Temperate Northern Atlantic]]====
*[[Northeast Atlantic Shelf Marine]] (Belgium, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Russia, Sweden, United Kingdom)
*[[Grand Banks]] (Canada, St. Pierre and Miquelon (France), United States)
*[[Chesapeake Bay]] (United States)
====[[Temperate Northern Pacific]]====
*[[Yellow Sea]] (China, North Korea, South Korea)
*[[Sea of Okhotsk]] (Japan, Russia)
====[[Southern Ocean]]====
*[[Patagonian Southwest Atlantic]] (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay)
*[[Southern Australian Marine]] (Australia)
*[[New Zealand Marine]] (New Zealand)
===[[upwelling|Temperate upwelling]]===
====North Temperate Indo-Pacific====
*[[California Current]] (Canada, Mexico, United States)
====South Temperate Atlantic====
*[[Benguela Current]] (Namibia, South Africa)
====South Temperate Indo-Pacific====
*[[Humboldt Current]] (Chile, Ecuador, Peru)
*[[Agulhas Current]] (Mozambique, South Africa)
===[[Upwelling|Tropical upwelling]]===
====Central Indo-Pacific====
*[[Western Australian Marine]] (Australia)
====Eastern Indo-Pacific====
*[[Panama Bight]] (Colombia, Ecuador, Panama)
*[[Gulf of California]] (Mexico)
*[[Galápagos Marine]] (Ecuador)
====Eastern Tropical Atlantic====
*[[Canary Current]] (Canary Islands, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Mauritania, Morocco, Senegal, Western Sahara)
===[[Coral reef|Tropical coral]]===
====Central Indo-Pacific====
*[[Nansei Shoto]] (Ryukyu Islands) (Japan)
*[[Sulu-Sulawesi Seas]] (Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines)
*[[Bismarck-Solomon Seas]] (Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands)
*[[Banda-Flores Sea]] (Indonesia)
*[[New Caledonia Barrier Reef]] (New Caledonia)
*[[Great Barrier Reef]] (Australia)
*[[Lord Howe-Norfolk Islands Marine]] (Australia)
*[[Palau Marine]] (Palau)
*[[Andaman Sea]] (Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India), Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand)
====Eastern Indo-Pacific====
*[[Tahitian Marine]] (Cook Islands, French Polynesia)
*[[Hawaiian Marine]] (Hawaii)
*[[Rapa Nui]] (Easter Island)
*[[Fiji Barrier Reef]] (Fiji)
====Western Indo-Pacific====
*[[Maldives]], [[Chagos Archipelago|Chagos]], and [[Lakshadweep]] atolls (Chagos Archipelago (United Kingdom), India, Maldives, Sri Lanka)
*[[Red Sea]] (Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Israel, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Yemen)
*[[Arabian Sea]] (Djibouti, Iran, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, United Arab Emirates, Yemen)
*[[East African Marine]] (Kenya, Mozambique, Somalia, Tanzania)
*[[West Madagascar Marine]] (Comoros, Madagascar, Mayotte and Iles Glorieuses (France), Seychelles)
====Western Tropical Atlantic====
*[[Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System]] (Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico)
*[[Greater Antillean Marine]] (Bahamas, Cayman Islands, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Turks and Caicos Islands, United States)
*[[Southern Caribbean Sea]] (Aruba, Colombia, Netherlands Antilles, Panama, Trinidad and Tobago, Venezuela)
*[[Northeast Brazil Shelf Marine]] (Brazil)
== Global Priority Places ==
WWF has identified 35 global priority places around the world (terrestrial, freshwater and marine) as either being home to irreplaceable and threatened biodiversity, or representing an opportunity to conserve the largest and most intact representative of their ecosystem.<ref>[http://d2ouvy59p0dg6k.cloudfront.net/downloads/roadmap_sign_off_fin.pdf WWF's Strategic Plan for Conservation]</ref>
# African Rift Lakes Region - Include the 3 largest lakes in Africa: Victoria, Tanganyika and Malawi, as well as lakes Turkana, Albert, Edward, Kivu and others.
# [[Altai-Sayan region|Altai-Sayan Montane Forests]] - One of the last remaining untouched areas of the world
# Amazon Guianas - World's largest tropical rain forest and river basin with a mosaic of mountains, coniferous forests, steppe and alpine meadows.
# Amur-Heilong - Refuge for Amur leopard and tiger.
# Arctic Seas & Associated Boreal/Tundra - Protecting Arctic Environments
# [[Atlantic Forests]] - Forest stretches from the Atlantic coast of Brazil, south along the Brazilian Atlantic coastline and inland into northeast Argentina and eastern Paraguay.
# Borneo and Sumatra - Priceless forests harbor untold species
# [[Cerrado]]-[[Pantanal]]
# [[Chihuahuan Desert]] - Protecting the balance of a desert
# [[Chocó–Darién]]
# Coastal East Africa - Improving livelihoods by conserving nature
# Congo Basin - Protecting Africa's tropical forests
# [[Coral Triangle]] - Home to the world's most abundant variety of corals and sea life
# Eastern Himalayas - Empowering communities to protect sacred lands
# [[Fynbos]]
# The Galápagos - The world's most treasured islands
# Greater Black Sea Basin
# Lake Baikal
# [[Madagascar]] - Safeguarding one of Earth's most captivating islands
# [[Mediterranean Sea]]
# Mekong Complex - Protecting the river of life from source to sea
# [[Miombo woodland]]s
# Namib-Karoo-Kaokoveld
# New Guinea & Offshore Islands
# Northern Great Plains
# Orinoco River & Flooded Forests
# Southeastern Rivers and Streams
# Southern Chile - A land of ancient forests and abundant oceans
# [[Southern Ocean]]
# [[Southwest Australia]]
# Southwest Pacific
# Sumatra
# West Africa Marine
# [[Western Ghats]]
# Yangtze Basin - Sustaining a valley of life
== Gallery ==
<gallery>
Image:Ecoregions.png|WWF Global 200 ecoregions.
Image:Wwfeco.png|WWF terrestrial ecoregions.
Image:Ucayalirivermap.png|Map of the Amazon Basin. Urubamba - Ucayali River.
Image:Lijiang_Lage.jpg|Lijiang City, Yunnan, China.
Image:Indiahills.png|Hills of India.
Image:Ocean drainage.png|Major endorheic basins of the world. Basins are shown in dark gray; major endorheic lakes are shown in black.
Image:Vegetation-no-legend.PNG|Terrestrial biomes classified by vegetation.
</gallery>
== See also ==
*[[Biodiversity hotspots]]
*[[Megadiverse countries]]
*[[Arid Forest Research Institute]] (AFRI)
==References==
{{Reflist}}
== External links ==
**[http://www.biodiversitya-z.org/areas/14/ A-Z of Areas of Biodiversity Importance: Global 200 Ecoregions]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20020108162653/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/wildworld/global.html?detail=undefined&size=undefined&id=0&cMinx=-180&cMaxx=180&cMiny=-90&cMaxy=90 Map of the Global 200]
*[http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/ecoregions/maps/index.cfm Conservation status map of the global 200]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060712165839/http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/ecoregions/ecoregion_list/index.cfm List of the Global 200]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20010123214200/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/wildworld/terrestrial.html Map of Ecoregions]
*[http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/ Global Priority Places]
{{WWFN}}
{{Biomes}}
{{Use British English Oxford spelling|date=November 2017}}
[[Category:WWF ecoregions]]
[[Category:Ecology lists]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Lists of places]]
[[Category:Top lists]] |
Natural heritage | {{short description|Elements of biodiversity, including flora and fauna, ecosystems and geological structures}}
'''Natural heritage''' refers to the sum total of the elements of biodiversity, including flora and fauna, ecosystems and geological structures. It forms part of our [[natural resources]].
== Definition ==
Definitions:
* Natural heritage refers to natural features, geological and physiographical formations and delineated areas that constitute the habitat of threatened species of animals and plants and natural sites of value from the point of view of science, conservation or natural beauty.
* Heritage is that which is ''inherited'' from past generations, maintained in the present, and bestowed to [[future generations]].<ref> Ann Marie Sullivan, Cultural Heritage & New Media: A Future for the Past, 15 J. MARSHALL REV. INTELL. PROP. L. 604 (2016) https://repository.jmls.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1392&context=ripl</ref> The term "natural heritage", derived from "natural inheritance", pre-dates the term "[[biodiversity]]". It is a less scientific term and more easily comprehended in some ways by the wider audience interested in [[Conservation (ethic)|conservation]].
The term was used in this context in the United States when [[Jimmy Carter]] set up the Georgia Heritage Trust <ref>http://maps.csc.noaa.gov/RoisDatabaseEntry/lawDetails.jsp?lawID=107{{dead link|date=February 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} The creation of the Heritage Trust Commission, Georgia Heritage Trust Act, Official Code of Georgia (O.C.G.A.) Section 12-3-70</ref> while he was governor of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]];<ref>[http://www.legis.state.ga.us/legis/2005_06/house/kids/famous/jimmycarter.htm President Jimmy Carter<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030215101/http://www.legis.state.ga.us/legis/2005_06/house/kids/famous/jimmycarter.htm |date=2007-10-30 }}</ref> Carter's trust dealt with both natural and cultural heritage.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://alumnus.tennessee.edu/issues/contents/spring-2007/ |title=Tennessee Alumnus Magazine - Spring 2007 |access-date=2008-06-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080807165140/http://alumnus.tennessee.edu/issues/contents/spring-2007/ |archive-date=2008-08-07 }} Paul Pritchard, founder and president of the National Park Trust</ref><ref>p. 311, The Governors of Georgia, 1754-2004
By James F. Cook, {{ISBN|0-86554-954-0}}, 2005 Mercer University Press</ref> It would appear that Carter picked the term up from [[Lyndon Johnson]],<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2007-07-11-lady-bird-obit_N.htm | work=USA Today | title=Lady Bird Johnson dies at 94 | first=Kathy | last=Kiely | date=2009-01-22 | access-date=2010-05-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110127160848/https://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2007-07-11-lady-bird-obit_N.htm |archive-date= Jan 27, 2011 }}</ref> who used it in a 1966 Message to [[United States Congress|Congress]]. (He may have gotten the term from his wife [[Lady Bird Johnson]] who was personally interested in conservation.) President Johnson signed the [[Wilderness Act|Wilderness Act of 1964]].
The term "Natural Heritage" was picked up by the Science Division of [[The Nature Conservancy]] (TNC) when, under Robert E. Jenkins, Jr., it launched in 1974 what ultimately became the network of state natural heritage programs—one in each state, all using the same [[methodology]] and all supported permanently by state governments because they scientifically document conservation priorities and facilitate science-based environmental reviews.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Adams |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/58563371|title=The Future of the Wild: Radical Conservation for a Crowded World |date=2006|publisher=Beacon Press|isbn=0-8070-8510-3|location=Boston|oclc=58563371}}</ref> When this network was extended outside the United States, the term "Conservation Data Center (or Centre)" was suggested by Guillermo Mann and came to be preferred for programs outside the US{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}}. Despite the name difference, these programs, too, use the same core methodology as the 50 state natural heritage programs. In 1994 The network of natural heritage programs formed a membership association to work together on projects of common interest: the Association for Biodiversity Information (ABI). In 1999, Through an agreement with The Nature Conservancy, ABI expanded and assumed responsibility for the scientific databases, information, and tools developed by TNC in support of the network of natural heritage programs. In 2001, ABI changed its name to [[NatureServe]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our History |url=http://www.natureserve.org/about-us/our-history |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210730043152/http://www.natureserve.org/about-us/our-history |archive-date=Jul 30, 2021 |website=NatureServe}}</ref> NatureServe continues to serve as the hub of the NatureServe Network, a collaboration of 86 governmental and non-governmental programs including natural heritage programs and conservation data centers located in the United States, Canada, and Latin America.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NatureServe Network |url=http://www.natureserve.org/natureserve-network |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022035939/https://www.natureserve.org/natureserve-network |archive-date=Oct 22, 2023 |website=NatureServe}}</ref>
==Legal status==
An important site of natural heritage or [[cultural heritage]] can be listed as a [[World Heritage Site]] by the [[World Heritage Committee]] of [[UNESCO]]. The UNESCO programme, catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common heritage of humanity. As of July 2023, there are 257 natural World Heritage sites (including 39 mixed sites) in 111 countries. This represents a total of more than 3.5 million km2 of protected areas, 60% of which are marine.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Natural World Heritage |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/natural-world-heritage/ |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}</ref>
The 1972 UNESCO World Heritage Convention established that biological resources, such as plants, were the [[common heritage of mankind]] or as was expressed in the preamble: "need to be preserved as part of the world heritage of mankind as a whole". These rules probably inspired the creation of great public banks of [[genetic resources]], located outside the source-countries.
New global agreements (e.g., the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]]), national rights over biological resources (not property). The idea of static conservation of biodiversity is disappearing and being replaced by the idea of dynamic conservation, through the notion of resource and innovation.
The new agreements commit countries to conserve biodiversity, develop resources for sustainability and share the benefits resulting from their use. Under new rules, it is expected that [[bioprospecting]] or collection of natural products has to be allowed by the biodiversity-rich country, in exchange for a share of the benefits.
In 2005, the [[World Heritage Marine Programme]] was established to protect marine areas with Outstanding Universal Values.
== See also ==
*[[Geoheritage]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{Navboxes
|list =
{{Lists of World Heritage Sites}}
}}
{{Natural resources}}
[[Category:Natural resources]]
[[Category:Cultural heritage]]
[[Category:Biodiversity]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental science]]
[[Category:Environmental education]] |
Population fragmentation | {{Short description|Form of population segregation}}
[[File:2010 New York City Central Park aerial.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Central Park in New York City]]
'''Population fragmentation''' is a form of population segregation.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Proctor |first1=Michael F. |last2=McLellan |first2=Bruce N. |name-list-style=amp |last3=Strobeck |first3=Curtis |year=2002 |title=Population Fragmentation of Grizzly Bears in Southeastern British Columbia, Canada |journal=Ursus |volume=8 |pages=153–160 |jstor=3873196 }}.</ref> It is often caused by [[habitat fragmentation]].
==Causes of Fragmentation==
Fragmentation can be the cause of natural forces or human actions, although in modern times, human activity is the most common cause.<ref>Disrupting evolutionary processes: The effect of habitat fragmentation on collared lizards in the Missouri Ozarks Alan R. Templeton, Robert J. Robertson, Jennifer Brisson, Jared Strasburg Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences May 2001, 98 (10) 5426-5432; {{doi|10.1073/pnas.091093098}}</ref> Some general causes of fragmentation are:
* the development of land around a protected area, even through the addition of a single road lane or fence line,
* the captivity, capture or killing of species in an area that links populations,
* the movement of a population away from other individuals of that species, such as the natural introduction of [[wolves and moose on Isle Royale]],
* geologic processes, such as landslides or volcanoes, dividing a habitat
* [[sea level rise|rising sea levels]] separating islands from what was once a common landmass,
* global warming, especially when coupled with mountains, reducing movement from one habitat to another.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hermes|first1=Claudia|last2=Keller|first2=Klaus|last3=Nicholas|first3=Robert E.|last4=Segelbacher|first4=Gernot|last5=Schaefer|first5=H. Martin|date=2018-01-24|title=Projected impacts of climate change on habitat availability for an endangered parakeet|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=13|issue=1|pages=e0191773|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0191773|pmid=29364949|issn=1932-6203|pmc=5783391|bibcode=2018PLoSO..1391773H|doi-access=free}}</ref>
==Genetic effects==
Population fragmentation causes [[inbreeding depression]], which leads to a decrease in genetic variability in the species involved.<ref name="ProctorMcLellan">{{Citation |last1=Proctor |first1=M. F. |last2=McLellan |first2=B. N. |last3=Strobeck |first3=C. |name-list-style=amp |last4=Barclay |first4=R. M. R. |year=2005 |title=Genetic analysis reveals demographic fragmentation of grizzly bears yielding vulnerably small populations |journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society B]] |volume=272 |issue=1579 |pages=2409–2416 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2005.3246 |pmid=16243699 |pmc=1559960 }}.</ref> This decreases the fitness of the population for several reasons. First, inbreeding forces competition with relatives, which decreases the [[evolutionary fitness]] of the species.<ref name="ProctorMcLellan"/> Secondly, the decrease in genetic variability causes an increased possibility a lethal homozygous recessive trait may be expressed; this decreases the average litter size reproduced, indirectly decreasing the population.<ref name="KrebsCJ">{{Citation |last=Krebs |first=C. J. |year=2009 |title=Ecology: The Experimental Analysis of Distribution and Abundance |edition=6th |publisher=Benjamin Cummings |location=San Francisco |isbn=978-0-321-50743-3 }}.</ref> When a population is small, the influence of [[genetic drift]] increases, which leads to less and/or random fixation of alleles. In turn, this leads to increased homozygosity, negatively affecting individual fitness. The performance of plants may be compromised by less effective selection which causes an accumulation of deleterious mutations in small populations. Since individuals in small populations are more likely to be related, they are more likely to inbreed. A reduction in fitness may occur in small plant populations because of mutation accumulation, reduced genetic diversity, and increased inbreeding.<ref>Young, A., Boyle, T., & Brown, T. (1996). The population genetic consequences of habitat fragmentation for plants. ''Trends in Ecology & Evolution,'' ''11''(10), 413-418. {{doi|10.1016/0169-5347(96)10045-8}}</ref> Over time, the evolutionary potential and a species's ability to adapt to a changing environment, such as climate change, is decreased.<ref>Leimu, R., Vergeer, P., Angeloni, F., & Ouborg, N. J. 2010. Habitat fragmentation, climate change, and inbreeding in plants. The Year in Ecology and Conservation Biology 1195:84-98.</ref>
==See also==
* [[Metapopulation]]
* [[Wildlife corridor]]
==References==
<references/>
<br />
[[Category:Ecological connectivity| Fragmentation]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
{{habitat-stub}} |
Threatened species | {{Short description|IUCN conservation category}}
{{Redirect|Threatened|the Michael Jackson song|Invincible (Michael Jackson album)}}
{{More citations needed|date=December 2008}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Conservation status}}
'''Threatened species''' are any [[species]] (including [[animal]]s, [[plant]]s and [[fungus|fungi]]) which are vulnerable to [[extinction]] in the near future. Species that are threatened are sometimes characterised by the [[population dynamics]] measure of ''[[critical depensation]]'', a mathematical measure of [[biomass]] related to [[population growth rate]]. This quantitative metric is one method of evaluating the degree of endangerment without direct reference to human activity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Liermann|first=Martin|year=2001|title=Depensation: evidence, models and implications|url=http://www.seaturtle.org/PDF/LiermannM_2001_FishFish.pdf|journal=Fish and Fisheries|volume=2|issue=1 |pages=33–58|doi=10.1046/j.1467-2979.2001.00029.x|bibcode=2001AqFF....2...33L }}</ref>
==IUCN definition==
The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) is the foremost authority on threatened species, and treats threatened species not as a single category, but as a group of three categories, depending on the degree to which they are threatened:<ref>{{cite web|title=Guidelines for Using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria, version 15.1|date=July 2022|author=IUCN Standards and Petitions Committee|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/documents/RedListGuidelines.pdf|publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature|access-date=2 January 2023}}</ref>{{rp|8–11}}
*[[Vulnerable species]]
*[[Endangered species]]
*[[Critically endangered species]]
Less-than-threatened categories are [[near threatened]], [[least concern]], and the no longer assigned category of [[conservation dependent]]. Species that have not been evaluated (NE), or do not have sufficient data ([[data deficient]]) also are not considered "threatened" by the IUCN.
[[File:Status iucn3.1 threatened.svg|thumb|left|The three categories of the threatened species on [[IUCN Red List]].]]
Although ''threatened'' and ''vulnerable'' may be used interchangeably when discussing IUCN categories, the term ''threatened'' is generally used to refer to the three categories (critically endangered, endangered, and vulnerable), while ''vulnerable'' is used to refer to the least at risk of those three categories. They may be used interchangeably in most contexts however, as all vulnerable species are threatened species (''vulnerable'' is a category of ''threatened species''); and, as the more at-risk categories of threatened species (namely ''endangered'' and ''critically endangered'') must, by definition, also qualify as vulnerable species, all threatened species may also be considered vulnerable.
Threatened species are also referred to as a [[red-listed]] species, as they are listed in the [[IUCN Red List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]].
[[Subspecies]], populations and stocks may also be classified as threatened.
==By country==
===Australia===
{{see also|Threatened fauna of Australia|List of threatened flora of Australia}}
====Federal====
The [[Commonwealth of Australia]] (federal government) has legislation for categorising and protecting endangered species, namely the ''[[Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999]]'', which is known in short as the ''EPBC Act''. This Act has six categories: extinct, extinct in the wild, critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable, and conservation dependent, as defined in Section 179 of the Act.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/species.html#categories |title=Threatened species under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999|publisher=Australian Government. Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221072705/http://environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/species.html |archive-date=21 February 2009 }}</ref> These could be summarised as:<ref name=epbc>{{cite web | title=Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 | website=Federal Register of Legislation|publisher=Australian Government | date=18 September 2019 | url=https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2019C00275 | access-date=22 April 2020}}</ref>
*"Extinct" – "no reasonable doubt that the last member of the species has died";
*"Extinct in the wild" – "known only to survive in cultivation" and "despite exhaustive surveys" has not been seen in the wild;
*"Critically endangered" – "extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future";
*"Endangered" – "very high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future";
*"Vulnerable" – "high risk of extinction in the wild in medium-term future"; and
*"Conservation dependent" – "focus of a specific conservation program" without which the species would enter one of the above categories.
The ''EPBC Act'' also recognises and protects threatened ecosystems such as plant communities, and [[Ramsar Convention]] wetlands used by [[migratory bird]]s.<ref name=epbc/>
Lists of threatened species are drawn up under the Act and these lists are the primary reference to threatened species in Australia. The ''Species Profile and Threats Database'' (SPRAT) is a searchable [[online database]] about species and ecological communities listed under the ''EPBC Act''. It provides information on what the species looks like, its population and distribution, habitat, movements, feeding, reproduction and taxonomic comments.<ref>{{cite web | title=Species Profiles (SPRAT) | website=Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment, Australian Government | url=https://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/sprat.pl | access-date=27 June 2020}} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under an [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/au/ Attribution 3.0 Australia (CC BY 3.0 AU)] licence.</ref>
A ''Threatened Mammal Index'', publicly launched on 22 April 2020 and combined {{as of|lc=yes|June 2020}} with the ''Threatened Bird Index'' (created 2018<ref name=tmiabc/>) as the ''Threatened Species Index'', is a research collaboration of the National Environmental Science Program's Threatened Species Recovery Hub, the [[University of Queensland]] and [[BirdLife Australia]]. It does not show detailed data of individual species, but shows overall trends, and the data can be downloaded via a [[web-app]] "to allow trends for different taxonomic groups or regions to be explored and compared".<ref name=tsxabout>{{cite web | title=About – TSX | website=TSX – A threatened species index for Australia | date=20 May 2020 | url=https://tsx.org.au/about/ | access-date=28 June 2020}}</ref> The Index uses [[data visualisation]] tools to show data clearly in graphic form, including a graph from 1985 to present of the main index, geographical representation, monitoring consistency and time series and species accumulation.<ref name=tsx>{{cite web | title=Australian Threatened Species Index | website=Threatened Species Recovery Hub | url=https://tsx.org.au/tsx/#/ | access-date=28 June 2020}}</ref> In April 2020 the Mammal Index reported that there had been a decline of more than a third of threatened mammal numbers in the 20 years between 1995 and 2016, but the data also show that targeted conservation efforts are working. The ''Threatened Mammal Index'' "is compiled from more than 400,000 individual surveys, and contains population trends for 57 of Australia's threatened or near-threatened terrestrial and marine mammal species".<ref name=tmiabc>{{cite web | last=Kilvert | first=Nick | title=Australia's threatened mammals decline by more than a third since 1990s, but there's a silver lining | website=ABC News|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation | date=22 April 2020 | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2020-04-22/native-mammals-decline-over-one-third/12163838 | access-date=23 April 2020}}</ref>
====States and territories====
{{further|Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999#State acts}}
Individual [[states and territories of Australia]] are bound under the EPBC Act, but may also have legislation which gives further protection to certain species, for example [[Western Australia]]'s ''[[Wildlife Conservation Act 1950]]''. Some species, such as [[Lewin's rail]] (''Lewinia pectoralis''), are not listed as threatened species under the EPBC Act, but they may be recognised as threatened by individual states or territories.
Pests and weeds, climate change and habitat loss are some of the key threatening processes faced by native plants and animals listed by the [[Department of Planning, Industry and Environment]] of [[New South Wales]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Key threatening processes | website=NSW Government. Department of Planning, Industry and Environment | url=http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/topics/animals-and-plants/threatened-species/about-threatened-species/key-threatening-processes | access-date=22 April 2020}}</ref>
=== Germany ===
[[File:BFN Kategorien Rote Liste.svg|thumb|300px|Red-List-Categories of the Federal Agency for Nature Conservation of Germany.<ref>{{citation|surname1=Gerhard Ludwig, Heiko Haupt, Horst Gruttke und Margret Binot-Hafke|editor-surname1= [[Bundesamt für Naturschutz]]|periodical=Naturschutz und Biologische Vielfalt|title=Methodik der Gefährdungsanalyse für Rote Listen|location=Münster|date=2009|language=de|url=https://www.bfn.de/fileadmin/MDB/documents/themen/roteliste/Methodik_2009.pdf
}}</ref>]]
The [[Germany|German]] [[Federal Agency for Nature Conservation]] ({{lang-de|Bundesamt für Naturschutz}}, BfN) publishes a regional Red List for Germany of at least 48000 animals and 24000 plants and fungi. The scheme for categorization is similar to that of the IUCN, but adds a "warning list", includes species endangered to an unknown extend, and rare species that are not endangered, but are highly at risk of extinction due to the small population.<ref>{{cite web|title=BfN: Rote Liste (Verzeichnis)|periodical=BFN.de|url=https://www.bfn.de/themen/rote-liste.html|access-date=27 December 2019|language=de}}</ref>
===Philippines===
{{main|List of threatened species of the Philippines}}
===United States===
[[File:Status ESA LT.svg|left|thumb|"Threatened" in relation to "endangered" under the [[Endangered Species Act|ESA]].]]
====Federal====
Under the [[Endangered Species Act]] in the United States, "threatened" is defined as "any species which is likely to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its range".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fws.gov/endangered/laws-policies/section-3.html|title=Endangered Species Program – Laws & Policies – Endangered Species Act – Section 3 Definitions|first=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service/Endangered Species|last=Program|website=www.fws.gov|access-date=8 May 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170429155642/https://www.fws.gov/endangered/laws-policies/section-3.html|archive-date=29 April 2017}}</ref> It is the less protected of the two protected categories. The [[Bay checkerspot butterfly]] (''Euphydryas editha bayensis'') is an example of a threatened subspecies protected under the [[Endangered Species Act]].
====States====
Within the U.S., state wildlife agencies have the authority under the ESA to manage species which are considered endangered or threatened within their state but not within all states, and which therefore are not included on the national list of endangered and threatened species. For example, the [[trumpeter swan]] (''Cygnus buccinator'') is threatened in the state of [[Minnesota]], while large populations still remain in [[Canada]] and [[Alaska]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://files.dnr.state.mn.us/natural_resources/ets/endlist.pdf|title=Minnesota Endangered & Threatened Species List|website=state.mn.us|access-date=8 May 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519114000/http://files.dnr.state.mn.us/natural_resources/ets/endlist.pdf|archive-date=19 May 2017}}</ref>
==See also==
*[[Biodiversity Action Plan]]
*[[IUCN Red List]]
*[[Illegal logging]]
*[[Rare species]]
*[[Red-listed|Red]] and [[blue-listed]]
*[[Slash-and-burn]]
*[[Threatened fauna of Australia]]
==Notes and references==
{{reflist|2}}
==Further reading==
*{{cite web|author=Sharrock, S. & Jones, M.|date=2009|url=http://www.bgci.org/files/Worldwide/Publications/euro_report.pdf|title=Conserving Europe's threatened plants|publisher=Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI)}}
{{Threatened species|state=expanded}}
{{Threatened species by region|state=collapsed}}
{{Conservation of species}}
{{Portal bar|Environment|Ecology|Biology}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Biota by conservation status]]
[[Category:International Union for Conservation of Nature]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Ecological restoration]]
[[Category:Population dynamics]] |
Threats to sea turtles | [[File:logger ted 01.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A loggerhead sea turtle escapes a circular fisherman's net via a TED.|Loggerhead sea turtle escapes from fishing net through a [[turtle excluder device]] (TED)]]
'''Threats to sea turtles''' are numerous and have caused many [[sea turtle]] species to be endangered. Of the seven extant species of sea turtles, six in the family Cheloniidae and one in the family Dermochelyidae, all are listed on the [[IUCN Red List of Endangered Species]]. The list classifies six species of sea turtle as "threatened", two of them as "critically endangered", one as "endangered" and three as "vulnerable". The [[flatback sea turtle]] is classified as "data deficient" which means that there is insufficient information available for a proper assessment of conservation status.<ref>IUCN 2018. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 3.1. <http://www.iucnredlist.org>. 11 August 2018</ref> Although sea turtles usually lay around one hundred eggs at a time, on average only one of the eggs from the nest will survive to adulthood.<ref>Wright, Sara. "Hilton Head Island sees record sea turtle nesting season." Bluffton Today (2010): n. pag. Web. 8 Dec 2010. <http://www.blufftontoday.com/news/2010-08-06/hilton-head-island-sees-record-sea-turtle-nesting-season>.</ref> While many of the things that endanger these hatchlings are natural, such as predators including sharks, raccoons, foxes, and seagulls,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bolton|first=Naomi|date=|title=What Animals Eat Turtles?|url=https://sciencing.com/animals-eat-turtles-8478734.html|access-date=2021-02-06|website=Sciencing|language=en}}</ref> many new threats to the sea turtle species are anthropogenic.<ref>Heithaus, Michael, Aaron Wirsing, Jordan Thomson, and Derek Burkholder. "A review of lethal and non-lethal effects of predators on adult marine turtles." ''Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology'' 356.1-2 (2008): 43-51. Web. 15 Dec 2010.</ref>
==Artificial lighting==
[[Lighting|Artificial lighting]] is a threat to adult and hatchling sea turtles. Sea turtles use the brightest horizon as a guide to the ocean. This was created by celestial lights reflecting off the ocean’s surface. With human development along the coast, artificial light sources are growing in abundance. Unfortunately, these human-made lights are brighter than celestial lights, causing sea turtles to move toward them. A sea turtle not going in the direction of the ocean is referred to as a disorientation event. Disorientations lead to an increased risk of predation, exhaustion, dehydration, and/or injury. These events are often fatal. Disorientations can be caused by any light source that is directly or indirectly seen from the beach. Also, heavily lit beaches may cause an adult to have a false crawl. This is when the female decides the beach is not suitable for her nest and goes back to the water. False crawls cause exhaustion for the adult and may lead to her releasing her eggs in the ocean. This would be fatal to all the eggs.
As awareness of the negative impact artificial lighting has on sea turtles has grown, there have been several large-scale conservation efforts by Marine Life programs and conservation groups to educate the public on turtle conservation. Communities situated on or near a beach have been warned of the effects excessive lighting has on sea turtles and there have been substantial attempts to darken beaches and replace harmful artificial lighting with turtle-safe lights. Coastal communities have also been creating and updating their lighting ordinances with the common goal to help save sea turtles. Lighting ordinances allow local governments to enforce safer lighting for sea turtles.
==Magnetic interference==
Ferrous metal wire mesh screens are commonly used to protect sea turtle nests from predators' excavating and devouring the eggs and hatchlings. A new concern is that nestlings' delicate magnetic sense may not develop normally in the presence of the magnetic field interference from these steel mesh cages. The effects of the use of steel mesh as a cage material may not be known for many years until assessments can be made of the success rate of the first adult populations that developed within such cages begin attempting landfall for nest-making. Gravid turtles or their hatchlings may also be affected by the presence of magnetic fields arising from power cables, iron debris, steel seawalls or other human activities that locally modify [[Earth's magnetic field]].<ref name="Lohmann, Catherine 2006">Lohmann, Catherine, and Kenneth Lohmann. "Sea turtles ." ''Current Biology'' 16.18 (2006): R784-R786. Web. 15 Dec 2010.</ref>
==Oil spills and marine pollution==
[[File:Turtle Rescue and Rehabilitation.jpg|thumb|An oiled Kemp's ridley sea turtle]]
[[Marine pollution]] is both directly harmful to sea turtles as well as indirectly, through the deterioration of their natural habitats. Some of the most dangerous ocean pollutants include [[toxic metal]]s, [[Polychlorinated biphenyl|PCB]]s, [[fertilizer]]s, untreated waste, [[chemical substance|chemicals]], and a variety of [[petroleum]] products. [[Oil spill]]s are particularly dangerous to sea turtles.<ref name="conserveturtles">"Sea Turtle Threats: Oil Spills." ''Sea Turtle Conservancy'' (2010): n. pag. Web. 8 Dec 2010. <http://www.conserveturtles.org/seaturtleinformation.php?page=oilspills {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101121040209/http://conserveturtles.org/seaturtleinformation.php?page=oilspills |date=2010-11-21 }}>.</ref> Although oil does not tend to stick to them as it does to other marine life, sea turtles are still at risk when they surface for air, where oil can get in their eyes, skin, and lungs, which can lead to significant health problems. Even if they are not directly in contact with marine pollution, sea turtles can still ingest harmful chemicals through the food they eat. Oil is also a cause for the death of [[seagrass]], which is a staple in the diet of the green turtle. The diets of the [[hawksbill sea turtle]], [[loggerhead sea turtle]], and [[Kemp's ridley sea turtle]] species have also been affected by the oil's role in the reduction of certain [[sponges]] and [[invertebrates]]. Extended exposure has been found to deteriorate the health of a sea turtle in general, making it more weak and vulnerable to a variety of other threats.<ref name="Milton, Sarah 2010">Milton, Sarah, and Peter Lutz. United States. ''Oil and Sea Turtles Biology, Planning, and Response''. 2010. Web. 8 Dec 2010.</ref>
According to the [[Sea Turtle Conservancy]], formerly known as the Caribbean Conservation Program, the [[animal migration|migration]] habits of sea turtles increase their exposure to marine pollution at each of the stages of their lives including eggs, hatchlings, juveniles, sub adults, or nesting adults. In a 1994 study off of Florida's Atlantic coast, 63% of hatchlings surveyed were found to have ingested tar. Loggerheads in particular have been shown to have the most problems with [[tarball (oil)|tarball]] ingestion, leading to [[esophagus|esophageal]] swelling that can dislocate the intestines and liver leading to serious [[buoyancy]] issues as well as excessive swelling.<ref name="conserveturtles" /> Many regions heavily associated with oil, either exploration, transportation, or processing, are also significant sea turtle environments, including the [[Gulf of Mexico]] and the [[Caribbean]], and particularly the coasts of Texas and Florida.<ref name="Milton, Sarah 2010" /> Sea turtles existing in the exact areas where oil spills occur are not the only ones at risk due to the strong and far reaching ocean currents which can move pollution to great distances from its derivation.<ref>Witherington, B.E. "Ecology of neonate loggerhead turtles inhabiting lines of downwelling near a Gulf Stream front." ''Sea Turtle Conservancy '' (2002): n. pag. Web. 8 Dec 2010.</ref>
Breeding season is in particular a dangerous time for sea turtles due to the pollution of beach nesting sites.<ref>Antworth, Rebecca, David Pike, and John Stiner. "Nesting ecology, current status, and conservation of sea turtles on an uninhabited beach in Florida, USA." ''Biological Conservation'' 130.1 (2006): 10-15. Web. 15 Dec 2010.</ref> Contamination of their diet can lead to disruption of digestion as well as physical injury to the sea turtles' digestive tracts. The nesting of female sea turtles is often deterred due to the potential of oily effluence.<ref name="conserveturtles" /> If the female does lay eggs, the development of the eggs is at risk due to either oil in the sand or contamination from the mother turtle that was oiled while nesting. If the eggs in the nest have contact with oil while in the last half of their [[egg incubation|incubation phase]], the rate of hatchling survival sharply decreases and those that do survive have a greater chance of physical deformities.<ref>United States. ''Impacts of Oil on Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles'', 2010. Web. 8 Dec 2010.</ref>
==Ocean plastic==
Eight million tons of plastic make their way to the ocean every year.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2017/04/plastic-straws-ocean-trash-environment/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804034722/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2017/04/plastic-straws-ocean-trash-environment/|url-status=dead|archive-date=August 4, 2019|title=Straw Wars: The Fight to Rid the Oceans of Discarded Plastic|date=2018-02-23|website=National Geographic News|language=en|access-date=2019-11-16}}</ref> For many marine species, including sea turtles, plastics in our oceans can lead to threats of entanglement, habitat degradation, and ingestion.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bjorndal |first1=Karen A. |last2=Bolten |first2=Alan B. |last3=Lagueux |first3=Cynthia J. |date=1994-03-01 |title=Ingestion of marine debris by juvenile sea turtles in coastal Florida habitats |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0025-326X%2894%2990391-3 |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |language=en |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=154–158 |doi=10.1016/0025-326X(94)90391-3 |bibcode=1994MarPB..28..154B |issn=0025-326X}}</ref> Discarded plastic bags floating in the ocean resemble jellyfish, a common food of sea turtles. If a turtle eats a plastic bag, it tends to clog the turtle's digestive system and result in the animal dying. There have been many cases of dissection showing plastic and other debris inside turtles' stomachs and intestines.<ref>
[http://www.seaturtle.org/imagelib/?cat=663&thumb=1 Pictures of plastic items eaten by turtles]</ref> Marine debris has caused mortality in all species of sea turtles.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Franzen-Klein |first1=Dana |last2=Burkhalter |first2=Brooke |last3=Sommer |first3=Rachel |last4=Weber |first4=Marika |last5=Zirkelbach |first5=Bette |last6=Norton |first6=Terry |date=2020-06-11 |title=Diagnosis and Management of Marine Debris Ingestion and Entanglement by Using Advanced Imaging and Endoscopy in Sea Turtles |url=https://bioone.org/journals/journal-of-herpetological-medicine-and-surgery/volume-30/issue-2/17-09-126/Diagnosis-and-Management-of-Marine-Debris-Ingestion-and-Entanglement-by/10.5818/17-09-126.full |journal=Journal of Herpetological Medicine and Surgery |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=74 |doi=10.5818/17-09-126 |s2cid=225754213 |issn=1529-9651}}</ref> There have also been cases where sea turtles have been found with plastic straws in their noses, plastic bags or toothbrushes in their stomachs, or fish hooks stuck on their flippers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com.au/animals/how-did-sea-turtle-get-a-straw-up-its-nose.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180619063810/http://www.nationalgeographic.com.au/animals/how-did-sea-turtle-get-a-straw-up-its-nose.aspx|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 19, 2018|title=How Did Sea Turtle Get a Straw Up Its Nose?|website=www.nationalgeographic.com.au|access-date=2019-11-16}}</ref> Plastic straws can be dangerous to sea turtles, too, because they are often mistaken for food.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|url=https://www.greenmatters.com/p/how-plastic-straws-affect-ocean-turtles|title=How Plastic Straws Affect the Ocean and Sea Turtles|website=Green Matters|date=14 August 2019 |language=en|access-date=2019-11-16}}</ref> This can cause the sea turtle to choke or die of starvation because they feel full and do not eat, when they are actually full of plastic.<ref name=":02" /> Despite being small, plastic straws are among the top items that pollute the ocean.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.strawlessocean.org/faq|title=Why This Matters|website=For A Strawless Ocean|language=en-US|access-date=2019-11-16}}</ref> As previously mentioned, ingestion is also more likely to occur if the plastic resembles their typical food. Studies have found that turtles had a 50% chance of dying if they ingested more than fourteen pieces of plastic<ref>{{Cite journal| title= A Quantitative Analysis Linking Sea Turtle Mortality and Plastic Debris Ingestion| journal= Scientific Reports| year= 2018| doi= 10.1038/s41598-018-30038-z| last1= Wilcox| first1= Chris| last2= Puckridge| first2= Melody| last3= Schuyler| first3= Qamar A.| last4= Townsend| first4= Kathy| last5= Hardesty| first5= Britta Denise| volume= 8| issue= 1| page= 12536| pmid= 30213956| pmc= 6137038| bibcode= 2018NatSR...812536W| s2cid= 52273648| doi-access= free}}</ref>
==Tourism==
Owing to the popularity of numerous sea turtle species, people often travel to areas where the turtles nest, live to observe and photograph them.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gunawardana|first=Maleesha|date=|title=Sea turtle conservation: Is it up to the hatcheries? {{!}} Daily FT|url=http://www.ft.lk/columns/Sea-turtle-conservation--Is-it-up-to-the-hatcheries-/4-684619|access-date=2020-08-22|website=www.ft.lk|language=en}}</ref> This has resulted in numerous deaths of the turtles through boat collisions, tourists attempting to catch or steal individuals, and other incidents. In [[Costa Rica]], tourists have recently been criticised for interfering with the nesting habits of the resident [[olive ridley sea turtle]]s, disrupting and confusing the animals by attempting to take [[selfie]]s with them.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/trending/selfie-taking-tourists-threaten-sea-turtle-population-in-costa-rica-1.3237329 |title=Selfie-taking tourists threaten sea turtle population in Costa Rica - CBC News|website=cbc.ca |access-date=22 September 2018}}</ref>
== Boats ==
[[File:Manatee_bearing_scars_on_back_from_boat_propeller.jpg|thumb|Image of a manatee with boat strike injuries. Similar injuries occur on turtle with parallel cuts (as shown in the image) or by blunt force trauma.]]
There are numerous threats to sea turtles associated with boats, including [[oil spill]]s, [[habitat degradation]], and vessel collisions.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Biology of Sea Turtles|last=Lutcavage|first=ME|publisher=CRC Press|year=2003|pages=388–404}}</ref> Boat strike injuries result in two types of injuries: blunt force trauma and [[propeller]] slices in the [[carapace]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Heinrich|first=George|date=2012|title=Boat strikes: A threat to the Suwannee Cooter (Pseudemys concinna suwanniensis)|journal=Herpetological Conservation and Biology|volume=7|pages=349–357}}</ref> Blunt force trauma is from the hull of the boat hitting the turtle and results in a cracking, less obvious, injury on the turtle's carapace. Propeller strikes form clear cut, parallel lines on the carapace of the turtle. The propeller wounds can cut into the spinal cord or lungs if deep enough, as these are located dorsally on the animal attached to the underside of the carapace.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Anatomy of Sea Turtle|last=Wyneken|first=J|publisher=U.S. Departments of Commerce NOAA Technnical Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-470|year=2001}}</ref> Sea turtle stranding data is the primary method of quantifying boat strike injuries, which has increased by 20% in [[Florida]] between 1985 and 2005.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Singel|first=K|date=2007|title=Navigating Florida's waterways: boat related strandings of marine turtles in Florida|journal=Proceeding of the 27th Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation.}}</ref> In general, sea turtles are not able to avoid boat collisions when boats are travelling too quickly.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hazel|first=Julia|date=2007|title=Vessel speed increases collision risk for the green turtle Chelonia mydas|journal=Endangered Species Research|volume=3|pages=105–113|doi=10.3354/esr003105|doi-access=free}}</ref> Also, the faster a boat is travelling the more damage is done to the turtle, making incidents more lethal.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Work|first1=Paul A.|last2=Sapp|first2=Adam L.|last3=Scott|first3=David W.|last4=Dodd|first4=Mark G.|date=2010|title=Influence of small vessel operation and propulsion system on loggerhead sea turtle injuries|journal=Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology|volume=393|issue=1–2|pages=168–175|doi=10.1016/j.jembe.2010.07.019|issn=0022-0981}}</ref> When sea turtles surface to breathe they continue swimming in the water column just below the surface; this allows them to get a few breaths in at a time, and then dive into deeper water to hunt or [[forage]]. This depth is the ideal depth for the propeller of the boat to hit the turtle, it also makes it even more difficult for boaters to try to avoid the turtles, since they cannot be seen.
There are ways to mitigate the problem. Speed reduction zones have been beneficial for species such as the [[Florida manatee]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Laist|first1=David W.|last2=Shaw|first2=Cameron|date=2006 |title=Preliminary Evidence That Boat Speed Restrictions Reduce Deaths of Florida Manatees|journal=Marine Mammal Science |language=en|volume=22|issue=2|pages=472–479|doi=10.1111/j.1748-7692.2006.00027.x|bibcode=2006MMamS..22..472L |issn=0824-0469}}</ref> These zones would be especially important implemented in shallow, [[coast]]al regions near popular nesting beaches during nesting season. Vessel modification are another way that boaters can reduce their influence on marine life. Jet board motors have an impeller that eliminates the threat of propeller damage to marine turtles. The motor rests only a few inches from the [[Hull (watercraft)|hull]] of the boat, meaning it is less likely to hit turtles that are not surfacing to breathe. Propeller guards are slightly helpful at idle speeds, but once a boat begins to reach higher planning speeds they are ineffective in protecting the turtle from the propeller.<ref name=":0" />
Sea turtles that strand alive with boat injuries can be treated at rehabilitation facilities. Treatment is not always successful, but there are turtles that do survive boat strike injuries.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Brulliard|first=Karin|date=|title=For injured turtles, a return to the sea|work=|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2020/06/30/wayward-turtles-return-sea/|access-date=}}</ref>
==Fishing==
According to a study published in ''[[Conservation Letters]]'', over 8 million sea turtles died between 1990 and 2010 due to injuries caused by being accidentally caught by fishing boats.<ref name="news.sciencemag.org">Stokstad, Erik. "Sea Turtles Suffer Collateral Damage From Fishing." ''Science AAAS'' 07 Apr 2010: n. pag. Web. 8 Dec 2010.{{cite web |url=http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2010/04/sea-turtles-suffer-collateral-da.html |title=Sea Turtles Suffer Collateral Damage from Fishing - ScienceNOW |access-date=2012-05-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310111027/http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2010/04/sea-turtles-suffer-collateral-da.html |archive-date=2012-03-10 }}</ref> [[Fisheries]] often use large-scale nets and hook systems that are indiscriminate and catch whatever comes along, be it sea turtle, dolphin, or even shark. What is known as "[[bycatch]]" is a large contributor to sea turtle deaths, as seen in [[Baja California]].<ref name="news.sciencemag.org"/> [[longline fishing|Longline]], [[trawling|trawl]],<ref>Sasso, Christopher, and Sheryan Epperly. "Seasonal sea turtle mortality risk from forced submergence in bottom trawls." ''Fisheries Research'' 81.1 (2006): 86-88. Web. 15 Dec 2010.</ref> and [[gillnet]] fishing are three types of fishing with the most sea turtle accidents. Deaths occur often because of drowning, where the sea turtle was ensnared and could not come up for air.<ref>Haas, Heather, Erin LaCasella, Robin LeRoux, Henry Miliken, and Brett Hayward. "Characteristics of sea turtles incidentally captured in the U.S. Atlantic sea scallop dredge fishery." ''Fisheries Research'' 93.3 (2008): 289-295. Web. 15 Dec 2010.</ref> Another dangerous aspect of fishing that is common is when sea turtles inadvertently swallow sharp hooks, which can get stuck within the soft tissue of the throat and stomach, or damage vital organs and intestines.<ref>Viegas, Jennifer. "Millions of Sea Turtles Captured, Killed by Fisheries." ''Discovery News'' (2010): n. pag. Web. 8 Dec 2010.[http://news.discovery.com/animals/turtles-bycatch-fishing.html]</ref>
==Poaching==
[[File:Animal Cruelty Sea Turtle.jpg|thumb|Captured sea turtle waiting to be slaughtered for meat at the Jamestown Fishing Harbor, [[Accra]], [[Ghana]]|alt=]]
In many countries sea turtles are captured, killed, and traded for their meat, shells and leather flippers. Eggs are also at risk of [[poaching]] for consumption, and are considered a delicacy in certain cultures. Other cultures believe sea turtle eggs to be [[aphrodisiac]]s, while others claim that eating them yields longevity.<ref>Butler, Rhett. "Sex sells sea turtle conservation in Mexico." Environmental News August 19, 2005: n. pag. Web. 9 Dec 2010. <http://news.mongabay.com/2005/0819-turtles.html>.</ref> In some islands, parts of the sea turtle are used in ceremonies and are considered sacred. Other times, the carcasses harvested are made into jewelry, instruments, souvenirs, sunglasses, or wall decorations, especially hawksbill sea turtles, which are desired for the striking details of the shell.<ref>Le Guern Lytle, Claire. "Sea Turtle Egg Poaching Legalized in Costa Rica: The Debate ." Coastal Care. N.p., n.d. Web. 9 Dec 2010. <http://coastalcare.org/2011/07/legalized-poaching-turtles-eggs-and-playa-ostional-costa-rica/>.</ref>
==Global warming==
[[File:Climate March 0841 (34210334302).jpg|thumb|Placard "I speak for the sea turtles", at the [[People's Climate March (2017)]]]]
[[Global warming]] is estimated to have serious effects on wildlife over the next few decades. There is evidence that sea turtles have already been affected. With the increase of temperature, [[polar ice cap|polar ice]] has melted and has led to the rise of sea levels. This rise in sea levels has been a factor in the loss of beach, which for sea turtles means less nesting area. Global warming has been associated with severe weather, which could mean harsh and numerous storms that [[coastal erosion|erode beaches]] and flood nests.<ref>"Global Warming." SEE Turtles. N.p., 2007. Web. 9 Dec 2010. <http://www.seeturtles.org/1380/global-warming.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224021856/http://www.seeturtles.org/1380/global-warming.html |date=2010-12-24 }}>.</ref> As the overall temperature of the Earth rises, so does the temperature of the sand, which diminishes the rate of hatchling survival. The temperature of the sand also affects gender, as higher temperatures have been shown to yield more female hatchlings. Changes in climate also influence currents and change the number and location of prey species. Water that is too warm can also cause [[coral bleaching]], which is detrimental to [[reefs]] that are essential to certain species, such as the hawksbill sea turtle.<ref>Markey, Sean. "Global Warming Has Devastating Effect on Coral Reefs, Study Shows." National Geographic News 28 Oct 2010: n. pag. Web. 9 Dec 2010. <[https://web.archive.org/web/20060614171831/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/05/warming-coral.html]>.</ref>
==Disease==
[[File:Turtlewithfptumors0149026.jpg|thumb|right|A sea turtle with [[Turtle fibropapillomatosis|fibropapillomatosis]]]]
A disease known as [[Turtle fibropapillomatosis|fibropapillomatosis]] manifests itself in turtles through external [[tumor]]s. These tumors often grow to be so large that they hinder a sea turtle's ability to see, eat, and swim, therefore rendering the sea turtle unable to survive. Inexplicably, the majority of the cases of fibropapillomatosis have been diagnosed in the [[green sea turtle]] (''Chelonia mydas'') while none have been in the [[leatherback sea turtle]] (''Dermochelys coriacea''). Cases of this disease have been found in all major oceans. Although the causes of this disease are not clear, many believe the source to be [[virus|viral]]. These tumors are either smooth or contain pointed projections and they are red, pink, grey, black, or purple in color. These tumors are usually located anywhere on the soft skin tissue of the sea turtle, either the neck, eyes, or bottom of the flippers and range in size anywhere from a pea to a grapefruit.<ref>Florida. ''Fibropapillomatosis and its effect on green turtles'', 2010. Web. 8 Dec 2010.
</ref>
==Conservation efforts and rehabilitation centers==
A study by Discovery News targets the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], the Eastern [[Pacific]], the Southwest [[Atlantic]], and the Northwest Atlantic as the regions in the direst need of preservation endeavors. In 1963, the Marine Turtle Group was created by the chairman of the Survival Service Commission of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources as the first international forum for sea turtle research and conservation.<ref>Davis, Frederick. "Saving sea turtles: the evolution of the IUCN Marine Turtle Group." ''Endeavour'' 29.3 (2005): 114-118. Web. 15 Dec 2010.</ref> In the United States in 1973, the [[Endangered Species Act of 1973]] was passed, providing protection for all sea turtle species, and in 1977, a Memorandum of Understanding was signed between the [[NOAA|NOAA Fisheries]] and the [[U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]] (USFWS) to enforce the ESA with regards to sea turtles. USFWS is responsible for all sea turtle conservation on nesting beaches and NOAA Fisheries are responsible for the marine conservation of sea turtles. The conservation of sea turtles on an international scale has been led by two major environmental agreements: the [[Indian Ocean]] – South-East Asian Marine Turtle Memorandum of Understanding and the Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles.<ref name="nmfs.noaa">"Marine Turtles." Office of Protected Resources. NOAA Fisheries, 11 Nov 2010. Web. 8 Dec 2010. <http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/turtles/>.</ref> In an attempt to lessen the number of turtles killed by fishing incidents, several new types of turtle-safe fishing equipment have been introduced such as the [[circle hook]]s,<ref>Read, Andrew. "Do circle hooks reduce the mortality of sea turtles in pelagic longlines? A review of recent experiments." ''Biological Conservation'' 135.2 (2007): 155-169. Web. 15 Dec 2010.</ref> [[fish bait]], and [[turtle excluder device]]s.<ref>"Bycatch - So what's the answer?." WWF Global. N.p., 2009. Web. 9 Dec 2010. <http://www.smartgear.org/smartgear_bycatch/bycatch_{{Dead link|date=June 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=no }}</ref> [[Poaching]] has been outlawed in most countries and turtle conservation education has been growing in both in size and efficiency.
Rehabilitation centers have been established as well, such as the Marine Life Center in [[Juno Beach, Florida]],<ref>"Our Mission." ''Loggerhead Marinelife Center''. N.p., 2010. Web. 9 Dec 2010. <http://www.marinelife.org/mission>.</ref> and the Karen Beasley Sea Turtle Rescue and Rehabilitation Center located on [[Topsail Island, North Carolina]].<ref>"The Karen Beasley Sea Turtle Rescue and Rehabilitation Center Mission Statement." ''Topsail Turtle Project''. N.p., 2011. Web. 4 Oct 2011. <http://seaturtlehospital.org/whoweare.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111020162655/http://www.seaturtlehospital.org/whoweare.htm |date=2011-10-20 }}>.</ref> The purpose of these centers is to help protect the local and [[endangered sea turtles|endangered sea turtle]] population by: a) rescuing sick or injured turtles and taking them to the treatment facility, b) rehabilitating these turtles through various types of treatment and/or surgery, and c) releasing turtles back into the ocean once they have been successfully nursed back to health. Although some sea turtles' injuries are so severe that they can never become healed to the extent of being able to survive on their own outside of the facilities, hundreds of the patients from both the Gordon and Patricia Gray Veterinary Hospital in Juno Beach and the Sea Turtle Hospital in Topsail Island have been successfully rehabilitated and released in the last couple of decades.
Evaluating the progress of conservation programs is difficult, because many sea turtle populations have not been assessed adequately.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Bjorndal |first1= Karen |last2= Bowen |first2= Brian |year= 2011 |title= Better Science Needed for Restoration in the Gulf of Mexico |journal= Science |volume= 331 |pages= 537–538 |doi= 10.1126/science.1199935 |issue=6017 |pmid=21292956 |last3= Chaloupka |first3= M. |last4=Crowder |first4= L. B. |last5= Heppell |first5= S. S. |last6= Jones |first6= C. M. |last7= Lutcavage |first7= M. E. |last8= Policansky |first8= D. |last9= Solow |first9= A. R.|last10= Witherington |first10= B. E. |display-authors= 8|bibcode= 2011Sci...331..537B |s2cid= 33994573 }}</ref> Most information on sea turtle populations comes from counting nests on beaches, but this does not provide an accurate picture of the whole sea turtle population.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Witherington |first1=B.E. |last2=Kubilis |first2=Anne |last3=Brost |first3=Beth |last4=Meylan |year=2009 |title=Decreasing annual nest counts in a globally important loggerhead sea turtle population |journal=Ecological Applications |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=30–54 |doi=10.1890/08-0434.1 |pmid=19323172 |first4=Anne|bibcode=2009EcoAp..19...30W }}</ref> A 2010 United States National Research Council report concluded that more detailed information on sea turtles' life cycles, such as birth rates and mortality, is needed.<ref>{{ Cite journal
| last1=The National Research Council
| title=Assessment of Sea Turtle Status and Trends: Integrating Demography and Abundance
| publisher=National Academies Press
| place=Washington, DC
| year=2010
| url=http://dels.nas.edu/Report/Assessment-Turtle-Status/12889
}}</ref>
==See also==
* [[Memorandum of Understanding concerning Conservation Measures for Marine Turtles of the Atlantic Coast of Africa]]
* [[Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation and Management of Marine Turtles and their Habitats of the Indian Ocean and South-East Asia]]
==References==
{{reflist|30em}}
{{Testudines}}
[[Category:Sea turtles]]
[[Category:Turtle conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]] |
Category:Biota by conservation status | {{Commons category|Species by IUCN Red List category}}
* '''Biota''' classified by '''[[conservation status]]''' — in the [[IUCN Red List]] and/or [[NatureServe conservation status]] systems.
{{clear}}
{|
|{{IUCN_3.1_navmap/full}}
{{C|IUCN Red List|All IUCN Red List categories}}
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|}
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[[Category:Organisms| ]]
[[Category:Biodiversity]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Conservation biology]]
[[Category:Environmental issues]] |
Category:Conservation biology | {{Commons cat|Conservation biology}}
{{Cat main|Conservation biology}}
{{-}}
[[Category:Branches of biology]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
{{CatAutoTOC}} |
Category:Ecological restoration | {{Cat main|Restoration ecology}}
{{Commons category}}
[[Category:Ecology|Restor]]
[[Category:Subfields of ecology|Restor]]
[[Category:Systems ecology]]
[[Category:Conservation biology]]
[[Category:Environmental design]]
[[Category:Environmental engineering]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Landscape architecture]] |
Category:Invasive species | {{Commons cat|Invasive species}}
{{Invasive species category}}
[[Category:Biological globalization]]
[[Category:Biological invasions]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Forest pathology]]
[[Category:Global environmental issues]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:Introduced species]]
[[Category:Pest control]]
[[Category:Pests (organism)]] |
Environmentally Endangered Lands Programs | {{Short description|Bond funded wildland conservation efforts in Florida}}
'''Environmentally Endangered Lands Programs''' are bond funded wildland conservation efforts in Florida, USA.
The programs in more than 27 Florida counties include:
*[[Environmental Lands Acquisition and Protection Program]] (ELAPP), Hillsborough County
*[[Environmentally Endangered Lands]] protection program, Brevard County
*[[Environmentally Sensitive Lands Protection Program]] (ESLPP), Sarasota County
* Environmentally Endangered Lands (EEL) [[Miami-Dade County]]
*[[Environmentally Sensitive Lands]], [[Hernando County]]'s program
*Land Preservation Bond Program, [[Broward County]]
*Palm Beach County land acquisition program
==History==
Miami-Dade County voters approved a tax for Environmentally Endangered Lands in 1990 and $40 million more $40 million in 2004 through the Building Better Communities Bond.<ref name=counties/>
[[Broward County]] approved its Land Preservation Bond Program in 2000 and purchased 83 sites for a totalof 850 acres as of 2007, using $152 million of its $200 million.<ref name=counties/>
Palm Beach County started its land acquisition program in 1991 with a $100 million bond. Through 2006 the country had protected 35,063 acres. A volunteer program helps with restoration and maintenance.<ref name=counties>[https://archive.today/20130128134901/http://www.miamiherald.com/2007/06/17/140849/counties-spend-millions-on-acquiring.html%23storylink=cpy Counties spend millions on acquiring land] June 17, 2007Miami Herald</ref>
In 1987, voters in Hillsborough County, Florida, overwhelmingly chose to increase taxes and create the Environmental Lands Acquisition and Protection Program (ELAPP).<ref>[https://usflibrary.maps.arcgis.com/apps/Cascade/index.html?appid=f620c1b74f624fa982414db2391b290a ELAPP History Project]</ref> Through this program, environmentally sensitive areas were preserved and/or restored. Again in 1990 and 2008, voters opted to increase taxes in order to expand ELAPP.
On November 6, 2008 Florida voted for an amendment to the [[Florida Constitution]] requiring the state legislature to exempt land permanently set aside for conservation from all property taxes beginning in 2010.<ref>[http://www.nbcwashington.com/news/green/Florida_Voters_Lift_Property_Taxes_for_Conservation_Lands.html Florida Voters Lift Property Taxes for Conservation Lands] Janaryu 7, 2010 NBC4</ref>
==Evergreen forest==
Twenty-seven endangered and threatened plants live in the evergreen forests called hammocks. Several species originated in the [[West Indies]] including ''[[Ficus]]'', [[gumbo-limbo]], [[Nectandra coriacea|lancewood]] and [[paradise-tree]]s. Temperate [[live oak]] grows in the forests. [[Hattie Bauer Hammock]] is one preserve with this type of habitat and was acquired in 1996. Vines are a problem outcompeting the native [[goatsfoot]] (''[[Passiflora sexflora]]''). The threatened broad [[halberd fern]] (''[[Tectaria heracleifolia]]'') and [[maidenhair ferns]]. [[Cuban nakedwood]], ''[[Colubrina cubensis]]'' var. ''floridana'' is highly endangered. ''[[Colubrina]]''. It is also known as [[Cuban snakebark]].<ref name=endangered/>
==Southern glade==
Plants protected in Southern glades include wildflowers like ''[[Samolus parviflorus]]'' (water pimpernel), [[yellowtop]], [[lavender thistle]], [[marsh pink]]s, and [[Calopogon tuberosus|grass pink]] orchids (''[[Calapogon tuberosus]]''). Bird inhabitants include [[double-crested cormorant]]s, [[great blue heron]], [[little blue heron]], [[tricolored heron]], [[snowy egret]], [[osprey]], [[kingfisher]] and [[grebe]]. Native [[poisonwood]] grows in these areas. Other species include [[white-crowned pigeon]], [[Spike rush]], [[Cladium|sawgrass]], [[crayfish]], [[marsh rabbit]], [[deer]] and [[Florida panther]]; as well as colicroot (''[[Aletris bracteata]]''), the lavender ground orchid ''[[Bletia purpurea]]'' and ''[[Pinguicula pumila]]'', a dwarf [[butterwort]].<ref name=endangered/>
==Scrub==
Florida's oldest ecosystem is scrub. One area is of it protected in a fenced 15-acre plot called [[County Line Scrub]] on the [[Miami-Dade County, Florida|Dade County]]/ [[Broward County]] border boundary and at the four acre [[Dolphin Center Park]] Addition. Inhabitants include [[live oak]], [[Chapman's oak]], [[myrtle oak]] and a natural [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]] known as [[Rolf's oak]]. [[Winged sumac]], which provides red fruit for small [[warbler]]s and other wildlife in the fall, pawpaws (''[[Asimina]]''), [[Saw palmetto]]s, [[cocoplum]], [[wax myrtle]], [[tarflower]] (''[[Befaria racemosa]]'') as well as the endangered [[quailberry]] (''[[Crossopetalum ilicifolium]]''). [[Blueberry]] and [[rusty lyonia]]. Animals such as [[gopher tortoise]], [[scrub lizard]], [[burrowing owl]] and [[indigo snake]]. Even smaller parcels can host [[coontie]], [[sabal palm]], [[partridge pea]] and a native cactus: ''[[Opuntia humifusa]]''.
These can be seen at [[Arch Creek, Florida|Arch Creek]] or [[Greynolds Park]].<ref name=endangered/>
==Pine Rockland==
Pine rockland is a rare ecosystem, with only about 4,000 acres of the original 185,000 acres, remaining. This type of habitat developed around limestone and fire. [[Swallow-tailed kite]], [[osprey]]. [[Rockdale Pineland]] is one preserve, home to endangered [[Redland sandmat]] (deltoid spurge). The land conservation programs have protected an additional 850 acres. [[locustberry]] [[saw palmetto]], [[coontie]], a native [[cycad]] used by pioneers to make starch, [[wild poinsettia]] and [[lantana]]. [[Opuntia humifusa|Prickly pear]] (''[[Opuntia humifusa]]'').<ref name=endangered>GEORGIA TASKER [http://www.miamiherald.com/2007/06/17/v-fullstory/140835/exploring-south-floridas-endangered.html Exploring South Florida's endangered natural areas] June 17, Miami Herald</ref>
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
*[http://digital.lib.usf.edu/?E22 University of South Florida Libraries: Environmental Lands Acquisition Protection Program Collection]
*[http://digital.lib.usf.edu/?E21 University of South Florida Libraries: Environmental Lands Acquisition and Protection Program Oral History Project]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]] |
Environmental Lands Acquisition and Protection Program | '''Environmental Lands Acquisition and Protection Program''' abbreviated as '''ELAPP''' is a taxpayer funded land acquisition and conservation strategy in [[Hillsborough County, Florida|Hillsborough County]], [[Florida]]. The program began in January 1987 when the Hillsborough County [[Commissioner]]s approved ordinance with $21 million in acquisition funding over four years. In 1990 voters approved a 20-year bond issuance for additional land purchases. Again in November 2008 another bond program was approved by voters for up to $200 million.<ref>[http://www.hillsboroughcounty.org/parks/resources/publications/elapp.pdf ELAPP] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111116020115/http://hillsboroughcounty.org/parks/resources/publications/elapp.pdf |date=2011-11-16 }} Resources publications Hillsborough County</ref> In the 20 years up to 2008, more than 50 land purchases had been made including several in the [[Hillsborough River (Florida)|Hillsborough River]] [[drainage basin|watershed]]. Approximately $200 million had been spent with an estimated 38 percent coming from outside sources.<ref>[http://www.theplanningcommission.org/newsletter/year/issues-in-2008/fall-2008-partners-in-planning/elapp-plays-key-role-in-protecting-natural-resources-in-hillsborough-county.html ELAPP plays key role in protecting natural resources in Hillsborough County] issues in 2008 Hillsborough Planning Commission</ref>
==Land acquisitions==
*[[Cypress Creek Preserve]], 2,547 acres (in Pasco County)
*[[Temple Terrace Riverfront Park]], 118-acre
==See also==
*[[Environmentally Endangered Lands Programs]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Protected areas of Hillsborough County, Florida]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environment of Florida]]
[[Category:1987 establishments in Florida]]
==External links==
*[https://usflibrary.maps.arcgis.com/apps/Cascade/index.html?appid=f620c1b74f624fa982414db2391b290a ELAPP History Project]
*[http://digital.lib.usf.edu/?E22 University of South Florida Libraries: Environmental Lands Acquisition Protection Program Collection] Images documenting ELAPP's work in protecting over 61,000 acres of rare and important habitat in Hillsborough County, Florida.
*[http://digital.lib.usf.edu/?E21 University of South Florida Libraries: Environmental Lands Acquisition and Protection Program Oral History Project] Oral histories from people who were directly involved in ELAPP's beginnings and successful growth. |
Category:Urban forestry | {{Commons category|Urban forestry}}
This category includes articles related to '''[[urban forest]]s''', '''[[urban forestry|forestry]]''', '''[[Urban reforestation|reforestation]]''', and related topics.
[[Category:Forestry]]
[[Category:Urban planning]]
[[Category:Environmental design]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Forestry and the environment]]
[[Category:Urban agriculture]] |
Elephant hunting in Chad | {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2013}}
[[File:Cd-map.png|thumb|200px|Map of Chad]]
'''Elephant hunting''' or '''elephant [[poaching]]''' and exploitation of the [[ivory trade]] are illegal in [[Chad]] and pose a major threat to elephant populations. The profitable [[ivory]] industry is also a threat to the lives of rangers, even in the national parks, such as [[Zakouma National Park]], the worst-affected area.
==History==
Chad's elephant population was reduced to around 20,000 in the mid-1980s and was roughly 3,000 as of 2010, according to Stephanie Vergniault, head of SOS Elephants in Chad.<ref>[https://news.mongabay.com/2010/05/a-nation-of-tragedies-the-unseen-elephant-wars-of-chad/ "A Nation of Tragedies"], news.mongabay.com. Accessed 12 January 2024.</ref> The animals were subject to massacre by herds in and around the parks by organized poachers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.co.uk/news/2006/08/060830-elephants-chad.html|title=African Elephants Slaughtered in Herds Near Chad Wildlife Park|first=Brian|last=Handwerk|work=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]|date=30 August 2006|accessdate=17 October 2013|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017173341/http://news.nationalgeographic.co.uk/news/2006/08/060830-elephants-chad.html|archivedate=17 October 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The problem is worsened by the fact that the parks are understaffed and that a number of wardens have been murdered by poachers.<ref name="NYT">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/01/world/africa/central-africas-wildlife-rangers-face-deadly-risks.html?adxnnl=1&adxnnlx=1382003098-yauBx4MSdHcb4DxeUgSrUw|title=Rangers in Isolated Central Africa Uncover Grim Cost of Protecting Wildlife|first=Jeffrey|last=Gettleman|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=31 December 2012|accessdate=17 October 2013}}</ref> Consequently, since the mid-1980s the elephant population has declined in the 20th century from 150,000 to a reported low of just 2,000 in the Chad-[[Cameroon]] region according to ''The Guardian''.<Ref name=Guard>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/mar/19/86-elephants-chad-poaching-massacre|title= 86 elephants killed in Chad poaching massacre|first=Celeste|last=Hicks|date=19 March 2013|accessdate=18 October 2013|work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> and 500 in Chad alone in 2013 according to the [[Born Free Foundation]]<ref name = IvoryCurse>Vera, Varun and Ewing, Thomas (April 2014) [http://www.bornfreeusa.org/downloads/pdf/Ivorys-Curse-2014.pdf Ivory's Curse], BornFreeUSA.org. Retrieved 16 May 2014.</ref> due to intense poaching. American journalist [[Lisa Ling]] has visited Chad to explore the country's elephant poaching problem and spoke at the [[University of Missouri–St. Louis]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://nocostl.com/2012/03/journalist-lisa-ling-speaking-the-touhill/ |title=Renowned journalist Lisa Ling speaking at University of Missouri–St. Louis |first=Shannon |last=Howard |date=March 3, 2012 |publisher=NOCO ~ The online magazine of North St. Louis County |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029194325/https://nocostl.com/2012/03/journalist-lisa-ling-speaking-the-touhill/ |archivedate=October 29, 2013 }}</ref>
In a July 2012 attack by mounted poachers near the SOS Elephants camp in the [[Chari-Baguirmi Region]], 28 elephants were slaughtered and most of their tusks were removed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.enn.com/wildlife/article/44721/print|title=Dozens of elephants massacred in Chad|first=Laurel|last=Neme|publisher=Environmental News Network|date=27 July 2012|accessdate=17 October 2013|archive-date=28 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628144411/http://www.enn.com/wildlife/article/44721/print|url-status=dead}}</ref> In another attack in September 2012, about {{convert|50|mi}} from the boundaries of the Zakouma National Park, five rangers were killed; one is still missing and presumed dead. The [[Sudanese Armed Forces|Sudanese military]] have been blamed for the attacks and the slaughtering of elephants not only in Zakouma and elsewhere in Chad, but also in other African nations, including Cameroon.<ref name="NYT"/> As of 2012, a small team was responsible for battling to protect the remaining 450 elephants in Zakouma. One of the worst massacres took place in 14–15 March 2013 when 89 elephants, including 33 pregnant females and 15 calves, were slaughtered by poachers near the town of [[Gamba, Chad|Gamba]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://worldwildlife.org/press-releases/poachers-kill-at-least-89-elephants-in-chad|title=Poachers Kill at Least 89 Elephants in Chad|publisher=[[World Wildlife Fund]]|date=19 March 2013|accessdate=17 October 2013|archive-date=18 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200718000548/https://www.worldwildlife.org/press-releases/poachers-kill-at-least-89-elephants-in-chad|url-status=dead}}</ref>
==Conservation efforts==
Stephanie Vergniault, a French lawyer, screenwriter, and conservationist who has been working in Chad since 2009, founded the SOS Elephants organization to protect the elephant population. In an interview in 2010, Vergniault stated that the population of elephants in Chad had declined by 85 percent in the previous three decades, and that if the same rate of poaching continues, "not a single elephant" would be alive in Chad within three years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://news.mongabay.com/2010/0512-hance_chad.html#Ll676J36vAfPYtVV.99|title=A nation of tragedies: the unseen elephant wars of Chad |first=Jeremy |last=Hance|date=12 May 2010|accessdate=18 October 2013|publisher= Mongabay.com}}</ref>
==See also==
*[[Elephant hunting in Kenya]]
*[[Hunting license]]
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
{{Africa topic|Elephant hunting in}|countries_only=yes}}
[[Category:Environmental issues in Chad]]
[[Category:Economy of Chad]]
[[Category:Elephant hunting]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Hunting by country]] |
Cobthorn Trust | {{One source|date=November 2019}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = Cobthorn Trust
| logo =
| type =
| founded_date = 1986
| founder = Andrew J. Sheppy FLS FSB
| location = [[Congresbury]], [[North Somerset]], England
| origins =
| key_people =
| area_served = International
| product =
| focus = Rare breeds and conservation
| method =
| revenue =
| endowment =
| num_volunteers =
| num_employees =
| num_members =
| owner =
| Non-profit_slogan =
| homepage = http://www.cobthorn.org/
| dissolved =
| footnotes =
}}
The '''Cobthorn Trust''' is a private non-profit trust in the United Kingdom that is dedicated to furthering conservation and preserving rare domestic animal breeds.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cobthorn.org/about-cobthorn.html|publisher=Cobthorn Trust|title=Cobthorn|accessdate=December 2, 2013}}</ref>
The Trust was formed in 1986 by its former Director, Andrew Sheppy. Until his death in 2017, the Trust was involved in the conservation of several rare breeds, initiation of the National Poultry Collection, genetic research on [[Dexter cattle]], and the development of [[conservation grazing]].
==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Animal breeding]]
[[Category:Breeder organizations]]
[[Category:Nature conservation organisations based in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Conservation biology]]
[[Category:Conservation Priority Breeds of the Livestock Conservancy]]
[[Category:Endangered animals]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Rare breed conservation]]
[[Category:Charities based in Somerset]] |
Category:Agroecology | {{cat main|Agroecology}}
{{Commons category|Agroecology}}
[[Category:Sustainable agriculture]]
[[Category:Agricultural science]]
[[Category:Subfields of ecology]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]] |
Agroecology | {{short description|Study of ecological processes in agriculture}}
'''Agroecology''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/ˌæ.ɡroʊ.i.ˈkɑː.lə.dʒi/}}) is an [[academic discipline]] that studies [[Applied ecology|ecological processes]] applied to [[agriculture|agricultural]] production systems. Bringing [[ecology#Fundamental principles of ecology|ecological principles]] to bear can suggest new management approaches in [[agroecosystem]]s. The term can refer to a science, a movement, or an agricultural practice.<ref name=Wezel2009>Wezel, A., Bellon, S., Doré, T., Francis, C., Vallod, D., David, C. (2009). [https://www.socla.co/wp-content/uploads/2014/wezel-agroecology.pdf Agroecology as a science, a movement or a practice] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191030002645/https://www.socla.co/wp-content/uploads/2014/wezel-agroecology.pdf |date=2019-10-30 }}. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development</ref> Agroecologists study a variety of agroecosystems. The field of agroecology is not associated with any one particular method of [[farming]], whether it be [[Organic farming|organic]], [[regenerative farming|regenerative]], [[Integrated farming|integrated]], or [[Industrial agriculture|industrial]], [[Intensive farming|intensive]] or [[Extensive farming|extensive]], although some use the name specifically for alternative agriculture.
==Definition==
Agroecology is defined by the [[OECD]] as "the study of the relation of agricultural crops and environment."<ref>{{cite web|url = http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=81 |title = Agro-ecology|website = Glossary of Statistical Terms|publisher = OECD|date = February 22, 2003}}</ref> Dalgaard ''et al''. refer to agroecology as the study of the interactions between plants, animals, humans and the environment within agricultural systems.<ref name=dalgaard>Dalgaard, Tommy, and Nicholas Hutchings, John Porter. "[https://www.academia.edu/12996644 Agroecology, Scaling and Interdisciplinarity]." Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment 100(2003): 39-51.</ref> Francis ''et al''. also use the definition in the same way, but thought it should be restricted to growing food.<ref name=francis>{{cite journal |last=Francis |date=2003 |title=Agroecology: the ecology of food systems |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233138094 |journal=Journal of Sustainable Agriculture |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=99–118 |doi=10.1300/J064v22n03_10|s2cid=4138242 |display-authors=etal}}</ref>
Agroecology is a holistic approach that seeks to reconcile agriculture and local communities with natural processes for the common benefit of nature and livelihoods.
Agroecology is inherently multidisciplinary, including sciences such as [[agronomy]], [[ecology]], [[environmental science]], [[sociology]], [[economics]], [[history]] and others.<ref name="dalgaard" /> Agroecology uses different sciences to understand elements of ecosystems such as soil properties and plant-insect interactions, as well as using social sciences to understand the effects of farming practices on rural communities, economic constraints to developing new production methods, or cultural factors determining farming practices.{{Citation needed|date=October 2019}} The system properties of agroecosystems studied may include: [[Crop yield|productivity]], [[Ecological stability|stability]], [[sustainability]] and [[equitability]].<ref>Conway, Gordon R. 1985. Agroecosystem analysis. Agricultural Administration, 20, 31-55.</ref> Agroecology is not limited to any one scale; it can range from an individual gene to an entire population, or from a single field in a given farm to global systems.<ref name="dalgaard" />
Wojtkowski differentiates the ecology of natural ecosystems from agroecology inasmuch as in natural ecosystems there is no role for economics, whereas in agroecology, focusing as it does on organisms within planned and managed environments, it is human activities, and hence economics, that are the primary governing forces that ultimately control the field.<ref name=Wojtkowski2002>Wojtkowski, Paul A. (2002) Agroecological Perspectives in Agronomy, Forestry and Agroforestry. Science Publishers Inc., Enfield, New Hampshire, 356p.</ref><ref>Wojtkowski, Paul A. (2006) Introduction to Agroecology: Principles and Practices. Haworth Press, Binghamton, NY, 404p.</ref> Wojtkowski discusses the application of agroecology in [[agriculture]], [[forestry]] and [[agroforestry]] in his 2002 book.<ref name=Wojtkowski2002/>
===Varieties===
Buttel identifies four varieties of agroecology in a 2003 conference paper. The main varieties he calls ''ecosystem agroecology'' which he claims derives from the [[ecosystem ecology]] of [[Howard T. Odum]] and focuses less on the rural sociology, and ''agronomic agroecology'' which he identifies as being oriented towards developing knowledge and practices to agriculture more sustainable. The third long-standing variety Buttel calls ''ecological political economy'' which he defines as critiquing the politics and economy of agriculture and weighted to radical politics. The smallest and newest variety Buttel coins ''agro-population ecology'', which he says is very similar to the first, but is derived from the science of ecology primarily based on the more modern theories of [[population ecology]] such as [[population dynamics]] of constituent species, and their relationships to [[climate]] and [[biogeochemistry]], and the role of [[genetics]].<ref name=buttel>{{cite conference |url=https://www.dphu.org/uploads/attachements/books/books_2044_0.pdf |title=Envisioning the Future Development of Farming in the USA: Agroecology between Extinction and Multifunctionality? |last=Buttel |first=Frederick H. |date=2003 |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison |book-title=New Directions in Agroecology Research and Education |pages=1–14 }}</ref>
Dalgaard ''et al''. identify different points of view: what they call early "integrative" agroecology, such as the investigations of [[Henry Gleason]] or [[Frederic Clements]]. The second version they cite Hecht (1995) as coining "hard" agroecology which they identify as more reactive to environmental politics but rooted in measurable units and technology. They themselves name "soft" agroecology which they define as trying to measure agroecology in terms of "soft capital" such as culture or experience.<ref name=dalgaard/>
The term agroecology may used by people for a science, movement or practice.<ref name=Wezel2009/><ref name=wezel>Wezel, A., Soldat, V. (2009). [https://wp.ufpel.edu.br/consagro/files/2010/09/WEZEL-Historical-analysis-Scientific-Agroecology.pdf A quantitative and qualitative historical analysis of the scientific discipline agroecology]. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability 7 (1): 3-18. |doi=10.3763/ijas.2009.040</ref> Using the name as a movement became more common in the 1990s, especially in the Americas.<ref name=wezel/><ref>Wibblemann et al. (2013) Mainstreaming Agroecology: Implications for Global Food and Farming Systems. {{cite web |url=http://futureoffood.org/pdfs/Coventry_University_2013_Maintstreaming_Agroecology.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2015-05-19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522154628/http://futureoffood.org/pdfs/Coventry_University_2013_Maintstreaming_Agroecology.pdf |archive-date=2016-05-22}}</ref><ref>Vandermeer, J. 1995. The ecological basis of alternative agriculture. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 26: 201-224</ref> [[Miguel Altieri]], whom Buttel groups with the "political" agroecologists,<ref name=buttel/> has published prolifically in this sense.<ref name=wezel/> He has applied agroecology to [[sustainable agriculture]],<ref>[http://www.agroecology.org Agroecology.org] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060422150352/http://www.agroecology.org/ |date=2006-04-22 }}</ref> [[alternative agriculture]]<ref>Altieri, M.A. 1987. Agroecology: the scientific basis of alternative agriculture. Boulder: Westview Press</ref><ref>Altieri, M.A. 1992. Agroecological foundations of alternative agriculture in California. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 39: 23-53</ref> and [[traditional knowledge]].<ref>Miguel Altieri [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226799563 Applying Agroecology to Enhance the Productivity of Peasant Farming Systems in Latin America]</ref>
==History==
=== Overview ===
The history of agroecology depends on whether you are referring to it as a body of thought or a method of practice, as many indigenous cultures around the world historically used and currently use practices we would now consider utilizing knowledge of agroecology. Examples include [[Māori people|Maori]], [[Nahuatl]], and many other indigenous peoples.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.maramatanga.ac.nz/project/indigenous-agroecology|title = Indigenous Agroecology|website = Maramatanga}}</ref>
The [[Mexica]] people that inhabited [[Tenochtitlan]] pre-colonization of the Americas used a process called [[chinampas]] that in many ways mirrors the use of composting in sustainable agriculture today.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.fao.org/3/I9159EN/i9159en.pdf |title = Chinampa Agricultural System of Mexico City|date = July 7, 2017|publisher = FAO.org}}</ref> The use of agroecological practices such as nutrient cycling and intercropping occurs across hundreds of years and many different cultures.<ref name = gari2001>{{cite journal|last = Garí|first= Josep|date= 2001|title = Biodiversity and Indigenous Agroecology in Amazonia: The Indigenous Peoples of Pastaza|journal = Etnoecologica|volume= 5|pages= 21–37|url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284034435}}</ref> Indigenous peoples also currently make up a large proportion of people using agroecological practices, and those involved in the movement to move more farming into an agroecological paradigm.<ref>Suárez-Torres, J., Suárez-López, J. R., López-Paredes, D., Morocho, H., Cachiguango-Cachiguango, L. E., & Dellai, W. (2017, June 1). Agroecology and Health: Lessons from Indigenous Populations. Current Environmental Health Reports. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-017-0146-z</ref>
===Pre-WWII academic thought===
According to Gliessman and Francis ''et al''., agronomy and ecology were first linked with the study of crop ecology by Klages in 1928. This work is a study of where crops can best be grown.<ref name=francis/><ref name=gliess>Gliessman, Stephen. R Agroecology: Ecological Processes in Sustainable Agriculture. Ann Arbor: Sleeping Bear Press, 1998.</ref><ref>Klages, K.H.W. 1928. [https://pubag.nal.usda.gov/?page=123914&search_field=all_fields Crop ecology and ecological crop geography in the agronomic curriculum]. J. Amer. Soc. Agron. 20:336-353.</ref>
Wezel ''et al''. say the first mention of the term agroecology was in 1928, with the publication of the term by Basil Bensin.<ref name=wezel/> Dalgaard ''et al''. claim the German zoologist Friederichs was the first to use the name in 1930 in his book on the [[zoology]] of agriculture and forestry,<ref name=dalgaard/><ref>Friederichs, K. (1930) Die Grundfragen und Gesetzmäßigkeiten der land- und forstwirtschaftlichen Zoologie. Vol. 1: Ökologischer Teil, Vol. 2: Wirtschaftlicher Teil. Verlagsbuchhandlung Paul Parey, Berlin, Germany, 417 and 443 pp.</ref> followed by American crop physiologist Hansen in 1939, both using the word for the application of ecology within agriculture.<ref name=dalgaard/>
===Post-WWII academic thought===
Tischler's 1965 book ''Agrarökologie'' may be the first to be titled 'agroecology'. He analyzed the different components (plants, animals, soils and climate) and their interactions within an agroecosystem as well as the impact of human [[agricultural management]] on these components.<ref>Tischler, W. (1965). Agrarökologie. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, Germany, 499 pp.</ref>
Gliessman describes that post-WWII ecologists gave more focus to experiments in the natural environment, while [[agronomist]]s dedicated their attention to the cultivated systems in agriculture, but in the 1970s agronomists saw the value of ecology, and ecologists began to use the agricultural systems as study plots, studies in agroecology grew more rapidly.<ref name=gliess/> More books and articles using the concept of agroecosystems and the word agroecology started to appear in 1970s.<ref name=wezel/> According to Dalgaard ''et al''., it probably was the concept of "process ecology" such as studied by [[Arthur Tansley]] in the 1930s which inspired Harper's 1974 concept of [[agroecosystem]]s, which they consider the foundation of modern agroecology.<ref name=dalgaard/> Dalgaard ''et al''. claim [[Frederic Clements]]'s investigations on ecology using social sciences, [[community ecology]] and a "landscape perspective" is agroecology, as well as [[Henry Gleason]]'s investigations of the [[population ecology]] of plants using different scientific disciplines.<ref name=dalgaard/> [[Ethnobotanist]] Efraim Hernandez X.'s work on [[traditional knowledge]] in [[Mexico]] in the 1970s led to new education programs in agroecology.<ref name=francis/>
Works such as ''[[Silent Spring]]'' and ''[[The Limits to Growth]]'' caused the public to be aware of the environmental costs of agricultural production, which caused more research in sustainability starting in the 1980s.<ref name=dalgaard/> The view that the socio-economic context are fundamental was used in the 1982 article ''Agroecologia del Tropico Americano'' by Montaldo, who argues that this context cannot be separated from agriculture when designing agricultural practices.<ref name=francis/> In 1985 [[Miguel Altieri]] studied how the consolidation of the farms and cropping systems impact pest populations, and Gliessman how socio-economic, technological, and ecological components gave rise to producer choices of food production systems.<ref name=francis/>
In 1995, Edens ''et al''. in ''Sustainable Agriculture and Integrated Farming Systems'' considered the economics of systems, ecological impacts, and ethics and values in agriculture.<ref name=francis/>
=== Social movements ===
Several social movements have adopted agroecology as part of their larger organizing strategy. Groups like [[Via Campesina|La Via Campesina]] have used agroecology as a method for achieving [[food sovereignty]].<ref name = territory>{{Cite journal|last1=Giraldo|first1=Omar Felipe|last2=Rosset|first2=Peter M.|date=2018-03-19|title=Agroecology as a territory in dispute: between institutionality and social movements|journal=The Journal of Peasant Studies|volume=45|issue=3|pages=545–564|doi=10.1080/03066150.2017.1353496 |s2cid=149061121|issn= 0306-6150}}</ref> Agroecology has also been utilized by farmers to resist global agricultural development patterns associated with the [[Green Revolution|green revolution]].<ref name = territory/>
== By region ==
=== Latin America ===
{{Excerpt|Agroecology in Latin America}}
=== Africa ===
Garí wrote two papers for the FAO in the early 2000s about using an agroecological approach which he called "agrobiodiversity" to empower farmers to cope with the impacts of the AIDS on rural areas in Africa.<ref>Garí, Josep A. (2003). [https://www.popline.org/node/249980 Agrobiodiversity strategies to combat food insecurity and HIV/AIDS impact in rural Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190730213104/https://www.popline.org/node/249980 |date=2019-07-30 }}. FAO / Population and Development Service, Rome.</ref><ref>Garí, Josep A. (2004). Plant diversity, sustainable rural livelihoods and the HIV/AIDS crisis. Bangkok: UNDP & FAO, 2004. Published in English and Chinese. {{ISBN|974-92021-4-7}}.</ref>
In 2011, the first encounter of agroecology trainers took place in Zimbabwe and issued the Shashe Declaration.
===Europe===
The [[European Commission]] supports the use of sustainable practices, such as [[precision agriculture]], [[organic farming]], agroecology, [[agroforestry]] and stricter [[animal welfare]] standards through the [[European Green Deal|Green Deal]] and the [[Farm to Fork]] Strategy.<ref>{{Cite web|title=EUR-Lex - 52019DC0640 - EN - EUR-Lex|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1576150542719&uri=COM:2019:640:FIN|access-date=2020-06-24|website=eur-lex.europa.eu}}</ref>
== Debate ==
Within those academic research areas that focus on topics related to agriculture or ecology such as agronomy, veterinarian science, environmental science, and others, there is much debate regarding what model of agriculture or agroecology should be supported through policy. Agricultural departments of different countries support agroecology to varying degrees, with the UN being perhaps its biggest proponent.
==See also==
{{Portal|Agriculture and agronomy|Ecology}}
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[Agricultural biodiversity]]
* [[Agriculture in Concert with the Environment]]
* [[Agriculture effluent]]
* [[Agroecological restoration]]
* [[Agroecology in Latin America]]
* [[Agroecology in West Africa]]
* [[Agroecosystem]]
* [[Agrophysics]]
* [[Effects of climate change on agriculture]]
* [[Community development]]
* [[Conventional agriculture]]
* [[Climate change adaptation]]
* [[Edaphology]]
* [[Ecological economics]]
* [[Ecosystem services]]
* [[Environmental economics]]
* [[Environmental impact of agriculture]]
* [[Food-feed system]]
* [[Genetic erosion]]
* [[Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture]]
* [[International volunteering]]
* [[Landscape ecology]]
* [[Life cycle analysis]]
* [[Nutrient management]]
* [[Pollinator decline]]
* [[Regenerative agriculture]]
* [[Rural development]]
* [[Soil science]]
* [[Sustainable agriculture]]
* [[Sustainable development]]}}
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
==Further reading==
{{refbegin|2}}
*Buttel, F.H. and M.E. Gertler 1982. Agricultural structure, agricultural policy and environmental quality. Agriculture and Environment 7: 101–119.
*Carrol, C. R., J.H. Vandermeer and P.M. Rosset. 1990. Agroecology. McGraw Hill Publishing Company, New York.
*Paoletti, M.G., B.R. Stinner, and G.G. Lorenzoni, ed. Agricultural Ecology and Environment. New York: Elsevier Science Publisher B.V., 1989.
*Robertson, Philip, and Scott M Swinton. "Reconciling agricultural productivity and environmental integrity: a grand challenge for agriculture." [[Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment]] 3.1 (2005): 38–46.
*Monbiot, George. 2022. "Regenesis: Feeding the World without Devouring the Planet."
'''Advances in Agroecology Book Series'''
*Soil Organic Matter in Sustainable Agriculture (Advances in Agroecology) by Fred Magdoff and Ray R. Weil (Hardcover - May 27, 2004)
*Agroforestry in Sustainable Agricultural Systems (Advances in Agroecology) by Louise E. Buck, James P. Lassoie, and Erick C.M. Fernandes (Hardcover - Oct 1, 1998)
*Agroecosystem Sustainability: Developing Practical Strategies (Advances in Agroecology) by Stephen R. Gliessman (Hardcover - Sep 25, 2000)
*Interactions Between Agroecosystems and Rural Communities (Advances in Agroecology) by Cornelia Flora (Hardcover - Feb 5, 2001)
*Landscape Ecology in Agroecosystems Management (Advances in Agroecology) by Lech Ryszkowski (Hardcover - Dec 27, 2001)
*Integrated Assessment of Health and Sustainability of Agroecosystems (Advances in Agroecology) by Thomas Gitau, Margaret W. Gitau, David Waltner-ToewsClive A. Edwards June 2008 | Hardback: 978-1-4200-7277-8 (CRC Press)
*Multi-Scale Integrated Analysis of Agroecosystems (Advances in Agroecology) by [[Mario Giampietro]] 2003 | Hardback: 978-0-8493-1067-6 (CRC Press)
*Soil Tillage in Agroecosystems (Advances in Agroecology) edited by Adel El Titi 2002 | Hardback: 978-0-8493-1228-1 (CRC Press)
*Tropical Agroecosystems (Advances in Agroecology) edited by John H. Vandermeer 2002 | Hardback: 978-0-8493-1581-7 (CRC Press)
*Structure and Function in Agroecosystem Design and Management (Advances in Agroecology) edited by Masae Shiyomi, Hiroshi Koizumi 2001 | Hardback: 978-0-8493-0904-5 (CRC Press)
*Biodiversity in Agroecosystems (Advances in Agroecology) edited by Wanda W. Collins, Calvin O. Qualset 1998 | Hardback: 978-1-56670-290-4 (CRC Press)
*Sustainable Agroecosystem Management: Integrating Ecology, Economics and Society. (Advances in Agroecology) edited by Patrick J. Bohlen and Gar House 2009 | Hardback: 978-1-4200-5214-5 (CRC Press)
{{refend}}
==External links==
{{div col}}
===Topic===
* [https://agroeco.org/ Agroecology]
* [https://regeneration.org/nexus/agroecology/ Agroecology by Project Regeneration]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170709093605/http://www.iaean.org/ International Agroecology Action Network]
* [http://www.agroecologia.net/ Spain]
*[http://www.fao.org/3/i9037en/i9037en.pdf The 10 elements of Agroecology]
===Organisations===
* [https://www.agroecology-europe.org/ Agroecology Europe - A European association for Agroecology]
* [https://agroecologymap.org/ Agroecology Map]
* [https://onemillionvoices.agroecologymap.org One Million Voices of Agroecology]
===Courses===
* [https://agroecology.wisc.edu/ University of Wisconsin–Madison]
* [http://www.agropolis.org/agronomy/seminar-agroecology.php Montpellier, France] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224144523/http://www.agropolis.org/agronomy/seminar-agroecology.php |date=2021-02-24 }}
* [https://agroecology.nres.illinois.edu/ University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]
* [http://www.agroecos.fr/ European Master Agroecology]
* [https://www.nmbu.no/en/studies/study-options/master/master_of_science_in_agroecology Norwegian University of Life Sciences]
* [https://agroecology.ucsc.edu/index.html UC Santa Cruz Center for Agroecology & Sustainable Food Systems]
{{div col end}}
{{Agriculture footer}}
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[[Category:Habitat management equipment and methods]]
[[Category:Sustainable food system]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]] |
Category:Habitat management equipment and methods | This category groups together articles on equipment and methods of managing '''[[Habitat]]s''' for '''[[Nature conservation]]'''.
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Ecological restoration]]
[[Category:Forestry and the environment]]
[[Category:Gardening tools]]
[[Category:Habitats]]
[[Category:Techniques]] |
Wildlife corridor | {{Short description|Connecting wild territories for animals}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2017}}
[[File:Corredor Florestal - Pontal do Paranapanema.jpg|thumb|right|A wildlife Corridor in [[Brazil]].|alt=A green forest corridor in Brazil]]
A '''wildlife corridor''', '''habitat corridor''', or '''green corridor'''<ref>{{cite web|url-status=dead|url=https://www.planningportal.gov.uk/england/professionals/en/1115310689250.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201180024/https://www.planningportal.gov.uk/england/professionals/en/1115310689250.html|archive-date=1 December 2008|title=Planning Portal - Glossary: G }}</ref> is an area of [[habitat (ecology)|habitat]] connecting [[wildlife]] populations separated by human activities or structures (such as roads, development, or logging). This allows an exchange of individuals between populations, which may help prevent the negative effects of [[inbreeding]] and reduced [[genetic diversity]] (via [[genetic drift]]) that often occur within isolated populations. Corridors may also help facilitate the re-establishment of populations that have been reduced or eliminated due to [[Stochastic process|random events]] (such as fires or disease). This may moderate some of the worst effects of [[habitat fragmentation]],<ref>{{cite web|author=Bond, M.|date=2003|title=Principles of Wildlife Corridor Design. Center for Biological Diversity|url=http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/publications/papers/wild-corridors.pdf|publisher=Biologivaldiversity.org|access-date=2015-08-11|archive-date=6 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220606143617/https://biologicaldiversity.org/publications/papers/wild-corridors.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> whereas [[urbanization]] can split up habitat areas, causing animals to lose both their natural habitat and the ability to move between regions to access resources. Habitat fragmentation due to [[Human development theory|human development]] is an ever-increasing threat to [[biodiversity]],<ref>{{Cite journal|first=Lenore|last=Fahrig|date=2003-11-28|title=Effects of Habitat Fragmentation on Biodiversity|journal=[[Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics]] |volume=34|pages=487–515|language=en|doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132419}}</ref> and habitat corridors serve to manage its effects.
==Purpose==
[[File:GreenCorridorEcologicalDesignLilleLMCU2010.JPG|thumb|An urban green corridor in [[Lille]].]]
Habitat corridors can be considered a management tool in places where the destruction of a natural area has greatly affected [[native species]], whether it's a result of human development or natural disasters. When areas of land are broken up, [[population]]s can become unstable or [[Habitat fragmentation|fragmented]]. Corridors can reconnect fragmented populations and reduce population fluctuations by contributing to three factors that can help to stabilize a population:
* '''[[Colonisation (biology)|Colonization]]'''—animals are able to move and occupy new areas when food sources or other natural resources are lacking in their core habitat.
* '''[[Animal migration|Migration]]'''—species that relocate seasonally can do so more safely and effectively when it does not interfere with human development barriers.
* '''[[Interbreeding]]'''—animals can find new mates in neighboring regions, increasing [[genetic diversity]].
Daniel Rosenberg et al.<ref name="Rosenberg 1995">{{cite journal |last1=Rosenberg |first1=Daniel K. |last2=Noon |first2=Barry R. |last3=Meslow |first3=E. Charles |title=Towards a definition of wildlife corridor |journal=Integrating People and Wildlife for a Sustainable Future |date=1995 |pages=436–9 |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/pubs/3662 |access-date=14 September 2018 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331220816/https://www.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/pubs/3662 |url-status=live }}</ref> were among the first to define what constitutes a wildlife corridor, developing a [[conceptual model]] that emphasized the role of a wildlife corridor as a facilitator of movement that is not restricted by requirements of [[native vegetation]] or intermediate target patches of habitat.<ref>{{cite web|url-status=dead|archive-date=2020-08-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813015552/https://www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/documents/Conceptual%20Background/What%20is%20a%20Landscape/What%20is%20a%20Landscape.htm|url=https://www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/documents/Conceptual%20Background/What%20is%20a%20Landscape/What%20is%20a%20Landscape.htm|title=What is a landscape?}}</ref>
[[File:Camel underpass in Qatar.jpg|thumb|Sign on a highway in Qatar, indicating an underpass that allows [[camel]]s to safely cross.]]
Wildlife corridors also have strong indirect effects on plant populations by increasing pollen and [[seed dispersal]] from animals, facilitating movement of disparate taxa between isolated patches.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal |last1=Tewksbury |first1=Joshua |date=October 1, 2002 |title=Corridors affect plants, animals, and their interactions in fragmented landscapes |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |volume=99 |issue=20 |pages=12923–6 |bibcode=2002PNAS...9912923T |doi=10.1073/pnas.202242699 |pmc=130561 |pmid=12239344 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Corridors must be large enough to support minimum critical populations, reduce migration barriers, and maximize connectivity between populations.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |author1=Allison M. Fleury|author2= Robert D. Brown |year=1997 |title=A framework for the design of wildlife conservation corridors With specific application to southwestern Ontario |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0169204697800023 |journal=[[Landscape and Urban Planning]] |language=en |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |volume=37 |issue=3–4 |pages=163–186 |doi=10.1016/S0169-2046(97)80002-3 |access-date=2022-10-28 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10214/4617 |archive-date=28 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221028095343/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0169204697800023 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Wildlife corridors may also encompass aquatic habitats (often called riparian ribbons<ref>{{Cite web |last=Repayment" |first="Debt |date=2021-08-30 |title=The Riparian Ribbon |url=https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/537a6541676241b1979ad54dfcc65763 |access-date=2023-05-20 |website=ArcGIS StoryMaps |language=en-us |archive-date=20 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230520234641/https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/537a6541676241b1979ad54dfcc65763 |url-status=live }}</ref>) and usually come in the form of rivers and streams. Terrestrial corridors can come in the form of wooded strips connecting woodland areas or an urban hedge.<ref name=":5" />
== Users ==
Most species can be categorized in one of two groups; passage users and corridor dwellers.
Passage users occupy corridors for brief periods of time. These animals use corridors for such events as [[wikt:migration|seasonal migration]], [[Biological dispersal|dispersal]] of juveniles, or moving between parts of a large home range. Animals such as large [[Herbivory|herbivores]], medium to large [[carnivore]]s, and migratory species are passage users.{{r|Beier & Loe 1992}}
Corridor dwellers can occupy the passage anywhere from several days to several years. Species such as [[plants]], [[reptiles]], [[amphibians]], [[birds]], [[insects]], and small [[mammals]] can spend their entire lives in linear habitats. In this case, the corridor must provide sufficient resources to support such species.{{r|Beier & Loe 1992}}
== Types ==
Habitat corridors can be categorized according to their width, with wider corridors generally encouraging more use.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1993 |title=Wildlife, forest, and forestry. Principles of managing forests for biological diversity |journal=[[Biological Conservation]] |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=271 |doi=10.1016/0006-3207(93)90732-g |issn=0006-3207}}</ref> However, overall corridor quality depends more on design when creating an effective corridor.<ref name=":5" /> The following are three divisions in corridor widths:
* '''Regional''' – (>{{convert|500|m}} wide); connect major ecological gradients such as migratory pathways.
* '''Sub-regional''' – (>{{convert|300|m}} wide); connect larger vegetated landscape features such as [[ridge ]]lines and valley floors.
* '''Local''' – (some <{{convert|50|m}}); connect remnant patches of [[Gully|gullies]], [[wetland]]s, ridge lines, etc.
Habitat corridors can also be divided according to their continuity. Continuous corridors are strips that are not broken up, while "stepping stone" corridors are small patches of suitable habitat. However, stepping-stone corridors may be more susceptible to [[edge effects]].
[[File:Wildlife overpass in Singapore.jpeg|thumb|[[Singapore]]|alt=[[Singapore]] highway]]
Corridors can also take the form of [[wildlife crossings]], [[underpass]]es or [[overpass]]es used for crossing man-made feature such as roads, reducing [[Human–wildlife conflict|human-wildlife conflict]] such as roadkill. Observations have shown that underpasses are actually more successful than overpasses because many times animals are too timid to cross over a bridge in front of traffic and would prefer to be more hidden.<ref>{{Cite journal |author1=Sandra J. Ng|author2=Jim W. Dole| author3=Raymond M. Sauvajot |author4=Seth P.D Riley |author5=Thomas J. Valone |date=2004 |title=Use of highway undercrossings by wildlife in southern California |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320703001666 |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=115 |issue=3 |pages=499–507 |doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(03)00166-6 |bibcode=2004BCons.115..499N |access-date=2022-10-31 |archive-date=31 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031100008/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320703001666 |url-status=live }}</ref>
== Monitoring use ==
{{Tone|section|date=March 2008}}
Researchers can use [[Mark and recapture|mark-recapture techniques]] and hair snares in order to evaluate [[Gene flow|genetic flow]] to observe how a corridor is being used.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dixon |first1=Jeremy D. |last2=Oli |first2=Madan K. |last3=Wooten |first3=Michael C. |last4=Eason |first4=Thomas H. |last5=McCown |first5=J. Walter |last6=Paetkau |first6=David |date=2006 |title=Effectiveness of a Regional Corridor in Connecting Two Florida Black Bear Populations |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3591161 |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=155–162 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00292.x |jstor=3591161 |pmid=16909668 |bibcode=2006ConBi..20..155D |s2cid=15106420 |issn=0888-8892 |access-date=19 May 2023 |archive-date=19 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519234334/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3591161 |url-status=live }}</ref> Marking and recapturing animals is more useful when keeping a close eye on individual movement.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Mech |first1=Stephen G. |last2=Hallett |first2=James G. |date=April 2001 |title=Evaluating the Effectiveness of Corridors: a Genetic Approach |url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2001.015002467.x |journal=Conservation Biology |language=en |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=467–474 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.2001.015002467.x |bibcode=2001ConBi..15..467M |s2cid=84520743 |issn=0888-8892 |access-date=4 April 2022 |archive-date=13 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230813182628/https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2001.015002467.x |url-status=live }}</ref> However, tagging does not give any insight into whether the migrating individuals are successfully breeding with other populations.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
Genetic techniques can be more effective when evaluating migration and [[mating]] patterns. By looking at a population's [[gene flow]], researchers can understand the genetic consequences of corridors using information about the migration patterns of a population over time.<ref name=":1" />
==Design==
Wildlife corridors are most effective when they are designed with the ecology of their target species in mind. Other factors like seasonal movement, avoidance behavior, dispersal, and habitat requirements can be considered.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Newmark |first=William D. |date=1993 |title=The Role and Design of Wildlife Corridors with Examples from Tanzania |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4314138 |journal=Ambio |volume=22 |issue=8 |pages=500–504 |jstor=4314138 |issn=0044-7447 |access-date=19 May 2023 |archive-date=19 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519234333/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4314138 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Corridors are best built with a certain degree of randomness or [[asymmetry]] and when oriented perpendicular to habitat patches.<ref>{{cite web |title=Designing wildlife corridors |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/10/081020135221.htm |access-date=4 August 2015 |publisher=Sciencedaily.com |archive-date=2 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102042737/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/10/081020135221.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":5" /> Wildlife corridors are susceptible to [[edge effect]]s; habitat quality along the edge of a habitat fragment is often much lower than in core habitat areas. Habitat corridors are important for large species requiring significant-sized [[range (biology)|range]]s; however, they are also vital as connection corridors for smaller animals and plants, as well as ecological connectors to provide a ‟''[[rescue effect]]’’.<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Julieta Benitez-Malvido| author2=Víctor Arroyo-Rodríguez |date=2008 |title=Habitat fragmentation, edge effects and biological corridors in tropical ecosystems |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242075972 |access-date=2022-11-02}}</ref>'' Wildlife corridors are additionally designed to reduce human-wildlife conflicts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Maulana |first=Rheza |date=2023-04-01 |title=Architecture for Wildlife: The Possible Solution to Human-Wildlife Conflicts in Indonesia |journal=IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science |volume=1169 |issue=1 |pages=012046 |doi=10.1088/1755-1315/1169/1/012046|doi-access=free |bibcode=2023E&ES.1169a2046M }}</ref>
== Examples ==
In [[Alberta|Alberta, Canada]], an overpass was constructed to keep animals off the busy highway, which crosses [[Banff National Park|Banff national park]]. The top of the bridge is planted with trees and native grasses, and fences were put on either side to help guide animals.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dickie |first=Gloria |date=2022-07-22 |title=As Banff’s famed wildlife overpasses turn 20, the world looks to Canada for conservation inspiration |url=https://canadiangeographic.ca/articles/as-banffs-famed-wildlife-overpasses-turn-20-the-world-looks-to-canada-for-conservation-inspiration/ |access-date=2024-02-26 |website=Canadian Geographic |language=en-US}}</ref>
[[File:Bear underpass écoducOurs.jpg|thumb|[[Florida]]|alt=[[Florida]] highway]]
In [[Southern California]], 15 underpasses and drainage [[culvert]]s were observed to see how many animals used them as corridors. They proved to be especially effective on wide-ranging species such as carnivores, [[mule deer]], small mammals, and reptiles, even though the corridors were not intended specifically for animals. Researchers also learned that factors such as surrounding habitat, underpass dimensions, and human activity also played a role in the frequency of usage.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Ng |first=Sandra J |last2=Dole |first2=Jim W |last3=Sauvajot |first3=Raymond M |last4=Riley |first4=Seth P.D |last5=Valone |first5=Thomas J |date=2003-03-20 |title=Use of highway undercrossings by wildlife in southern California |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0006320703001666 |journal=Biological Conservation |language=en |volume=115 |issue=3 |pages=499–507 |doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(03)00166-6}}</ref>
In [[South Carolina]], five remnant areas of land were monitored; one was put in the center and four were surrounding it. Then, a corridor was put between one of the remnants and the center. Butterflies that were placed in the center habitat were two to four times more likely to move to the connected remnant rather than the disconnected ones. Furthermore, male [[holly]] plants were placed in the center region, and female holly plants in the connected region increased by 70 percent in seed production compared to those plants in the disconnected region. Plant [[Seed dispersal|seeds dispersal]] through bird droppings was noted to be the dispersal method with the largest increase within the corridor-connected patch of land.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Susan Milius |date=2002-10-22 |title=Insects, pollen, seeds travel wildlife corridors |url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/insects-pollen-seeds-travel-wildlife-corridors |archive-date=4 November 2022 |website=Science News |access-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104061201/https://www.sciencenews.org/article/insects-pollen-seeds-travel-wildlife-corridors |url-status=live }}</ref>
There have also been positive effects on the rates of transfer and interbreeding in [[vole]] populations. A control population in which voles were confined to their core habitat with no corridor was compared to a treatment population in their core habitat with passages that they could use to move to other regions. Females typically stayed and mated within their [[Founder effect|founder population]], but the rate of transfer through corridors in the males was very high.<ref>{{Cite journal |author1=Jon Aars|author2= Rolf A. Ims |title=The Effect of Habitat Corridors on Rates of Transfer and Interbreeding Between Vole Demes |journal=Ecology |date=1999-07-01 |volume=80 |issue=5 |page=1648 |doi=10.1890/0012-9658(1999)080[1648:TEOHCO]2.0.CO;2 |issn=0012-9658 |url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/0012-9658(1999)080[1648:TEOHCO]2.0.CO;2 |access-date=2022-11-04 |language=en |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104063040/https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/0012-9658(1999)080%5B1648:TEOHCO%5D2.0.CO;2 |url-status=live }}</ref>
In 2001, a [[Gray Wolf|wolf]] corridor was restored through a golf course in [[Jasper National Park]], [[Alberta]], which successfully altered wildlife behavior and showed frequent use by the wolf population.<ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Shepherd, B|author2=J. Whittington |date=2006|title=Response of wolves to corridor restoration and human use management|journal=Ecology and Society |volume=11 |issue=2|doi=10.5751/ES-01813-110201 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=Daniel K. Rosenberg|author2=Barry R. Noon |author3=E. Charles Meslow|title=Biological Corridors: Form, Function, and Efficacy|journal=BioScience|volume=47|issue=10 |date=November 1997|pages=677–687|jstor=1313208|doi=10.2307/1313208|doi-access=free}}</ref>[[File:Elevated stretch of NH 44 through Pench Tiger Reserve.png|thumb|NH 44, [[Pench Tiger Reserve]]]]
===Major wildlife corridors===
* The Paséo Pantera (also known as the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor or [[Paseo del Jaguar|Paséo del Jaguar]])<ref>{{Cite web |title=Paseo Pantera Project |url=http://www.afn.org/~wcsfl/pp.htm |access-date=2022-11-09 |language=en |archive-date=9 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221109084435/http://www.afn.org/~wcsfl/pp.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
* The Eastern [[Himalayas|Himalayan]] Corridor<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wwfeu.awsassets.panda.org/img/original/ecoregion.jpg |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412132445/https://wwfeu.awsassets.panda.org/img/original/ecoregion.jpg |archive-date= 2023-04-12 |title=Map of Nepal}}</ref>
* China-Russia Tiger Corridor<ref>{{Cite web |title=New corridor links Amur tiger habitats in Russia and China |url=https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?206504/New-corridor-links-Amur-tiger-habitats-in-Russia-and-China |access-date=2022-11-09 |website=WWF |language=en |archive-date=9 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221109084430/https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?206504/New-corridor-links-Amur-tiger-habitats-in-Russia-and-China |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Tandai Tiger Corridor<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.panthera.org/programs/tiger/tiger-corridor-initiative|title=Panthera|publisher=Panthera.org|access-date=4 August 2015|archive-date=22 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111122022348/http://www.panthera.org/programs/tiger/tiger-corridor-initiative|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* The [[European Green Belt]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=European Green Belt Initiative |url=https://www.europeangreenbelt.org/ |access-date=2022-11-09 |language=en |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111100540/https://www.europeangreenbelt.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* The Siju-Rewak Corridor, located in the Garo Hills of India, protects an important population of elephants (thought to be approximately 20% of all the elephants that survive in the country). This corridor project links together the [[Siju Wildlife Sanctuary]] and the Rewak Reserve Forest in [[Meghalaya]] State, close to the [[Bangladesh–India border|India-Bangladesh border]]. This area lies within the meeting place of the Himalayan Mountain Range and the [[Indian subcontinent|Indian Peninsula]] and contains at least 139 other species of mammals, including tigers, [[clouded leopard|clouded leopards]] and the [[Himalayan black bear]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-05-02 |title=Siju-Rewak Corridor |url=https://conservationcorridor.org/digests/2012/05/siju-rewak-corridor/ |access-date=2022-11-09 |website=CONSERVATION CORRIDOR |language=en |archive-date=9 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221109084439/https://conservationcorridor.org/digests/2012/05/siju-rewak-corridor/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* The [[Ecologische Hoofdstructuur]] is a network of corridors and habitats created for wildlife in the [[Netherlands]]<ref>[[:nl:Ecologische hoofdstructuur|Ecologische Hoofdstructuur]]</ref>
* The {{convert|16|km}} long Kanha-Pench elevated corridor on [[National Highway 44 (India)|NH 44]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Gandhi|first=Divya|date=2019-09-07|title=A wild, wild road|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/a-wild-wild-road/article29360610.ece|access-date=2020-09-17|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=9 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221109084439/https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/a-wild-wild-road/article29360610.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Two elephant passes and two minor bridges on [[NH 54]] in [[Assam]]’s [[Lumding|Lumding Reserve Forest]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-02-25|title=Why This Elevated Stretch On National Highway 44 Is A Hit With Animals In Pench Tiger Reserve|url=https://indiainfrahub.com/2020/main-featured/why-this-elevated-stretch-on-national-highway-44-is-a-hit-with-animals-in-pench-tiger-reserve/|access-date=2020-09-17|website=India Infra Hub|language=en-US|archive-date=9 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221109084438/https://indiainfrahub.com/2020/main-featured/why-this-elevated-stretch-on-national-highway-44-is-a-hit-with-animals-in-pench-tiger-reserve/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=Singh A.P.|author2=Singh A.K.|author3=Mishra D.K.|author4=Bora P.|author5=Sharma A.|url=http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/ensuring_safe_access_to_wildlife_in_lumding_reserve_forest.pdf|title=Ensuring safe access to wildlife in Lumding Reserve Forest, Assam, India, Mitigating the impacts of up-gradation of Doboka-Silchar National Highway (NH54E)|publisher=WWF-India|year=2010|access-date=17 September 2020|archive-date=15 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211215230504/http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/ensuring_safe_access_to_wildlife_in_lumding_reserve_forest.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Three elephant underpasses, each with {{convert|6|m}} of vertical clearance on [[NH 72]] and NH 58 in [[Uttarakhand]], India.<ref>{{Cite web |author=SHIVANI AZAD |date=2019-01-18 |title=Elephant underpass in Rajaji hanging for 9 yrs, NGT orders NHAI to deposit Rs 2 cr |website=[[The Times of India]] |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/dehradun/elephant-underpass-in-rajaji-hanging-for-9-yrs-ngt-orders-nhai-to-deposit-rs-2-cr/articleshow/67593263.cms |access-date=2022-11-09 |language=en |archive-date=9 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221109095320/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/dehradun/elephant-underpass-in-rajaji-hanging-for-9-yrs-ngt-orders-nhai-to-deposit-rs-2-cr/articleshow/67593263.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Terai Arc Landscape]]s, Lower Himalayan Region.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Chauhan|first=Priya|date=2021-04-01|title=26 Important Wildlife Corridors Providing Safe Passage to Species|language=en-IN|work=Planet Custodian|url=https://www.planetcustodian.com/important-wildlife-corridors-world/12788/|access-date=2021-04-23|archive-date=23 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423070609/https://www.planetcustodian.com/important-wildlife-corridors-world/12788/|url-status=live}}</ref>
== Evaluation ==
Some species are more likely to utilize habitat corridors depending on migration and mating patterns, making it essential that corridor design is targeted towards a specific species.<ref name=":3">{{cite web |author=Fran |title=Elephant corridors in Botswana to protect the herds |url=http://www.yourafricansafari.com/articles/new-way-to-protect-africas-elephant-herds |access-date=4 August 2015 |website=Your African Safari |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104094947/https://www.yourafricansafari.com/articles/new-way-to-protect-africas-elephant-herds/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Green |first1=Siân E. |last2=Davidson |first2=Zeke |last3=Kaaria |first3=Timothy |last4=Doncaster |first4=C. Patrick |date=December 2018 |title=Do wildlife corridors link or extend habitat? Insights from elephant use of a Kenyan wildlife corridor |journal=African Journal of Ecology |language=en |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=860–871 |doi=10.1111/aje.12541 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2018AfJEc..56..860G }}</ref>
Due to space constraints, buffers are not usually added in.<ref name="Rosenberg 1995" /> Without a buffer zone, corridors can become affected by disturbances from human [[land use change]]. There is a possibility that corridors could aid in the spread of invasive species, threatening multiple populations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Beier |first1=Paul |last2=Noss |first2=Reed F. |date=December 1998 |title=Do Habitat Corridors Provide Connectivity? |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1523-1739.1998.98036.x |journal=Conservation Biology |language=en |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=1241–1252 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.1998.98036.x |bibcode=1998ConBi..12.1241B |s2cid=16770640 |access-date=14 May 2022 |archive-date=13 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230813182628/https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1523-1739.1998.98036.x |url-status=live }}</ref>
==See also==
{{Portal|Environment|Ecology|Earth sciences|Biology}}
* [[Aquatic organism passage]]
* [[Biolink zones]]
* [[Emerald network]]
* [[Habitat conservation]]
* [[Habitat destruction]]
* [[Landscape connectivity]]
* [[Marine Protected Area]]
* [[Natura 2000]]
* [[The Pollinator Pathway]]
* [[Roadkill]]
* [[Gary Tabor]], wildlife corridor conservationist
* [[Tugay]]
* [[Wildlife crossing]]
* [[Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative]]
==Further reading ==
*{{Cite journal|last=Beier, P. |first=Noss, R.F. |date=December 1998 |title= Do Habitat Corridors Provide Connectivity? |journal= Conservation Biology |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages= 1241–1252 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.1998.98036.x|bibcode=1998ConBi..12.1241B |s2cid=16770640 }}
*Bennett, A.F. 1999. Linkages in the Landscape: The Role of Corridors and Connectivity in Wildlife Conservation. The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland.
*De Chant, T. 2007. A Future of Conservation. Northfield Habitat Corridors Community Plan, Northfield, Minnesota.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.de-chant.com/tim/nhc/index.html |title=Northfield Habitat Corridors |publisher=De-chant.com |access-date=2015-08-11 |archive-date=3 August 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070803055449/http://www.de-chant.com/tim/nhc/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
*Department of Environment and Conservation (DEC). 2004. Wildlife Corridors. DEC, New South Wales.
*Dole, J.W., Ng, S.J., Sauvajot, R.M. 2003. Use of Highway Undercrossings by Wildlife in Southern California. Biology Conservation, 115 (3):499-507.<ref name=":0" />
*Foreman, Dave. Rewilding North America: a Vision for Conservation in the 21st Century. Washington: Island, 2004.
*{{cite journal | last1 = Fleury | first1 = A.M. | last2 = Brown | first2 = R.D. | year = 1997 | title = A Framework for the Design of Wildlife Conservation Corridors with Specific Application to Southwestern Ontario | journal = Landscape and Urban Planning | volume = 37 | issue = 8| pages = 163–186 | doi = 10.1016/S0169-2046(97)80002-3 | hdl = 10214/4617 | hdl-access = free }}
*M., S. 2002. Ecology: Insects, Pollen, Seeds, Travel Wildlife Corridors. Science News, 162 (10):269.
*{{cite journal | last1 = Mech | first1 = S.G. | last2 = Hallett | first2 = J.G. | year = 2001 | title = Evaluating the Effectiveness of Corridors: a Genetic Approach | journal = Conservation Biology | volume = 15 | issue = 2| pages = 467–474 | doi = 10.1046/j.1523-1739.2001.015002467.x | bibcode = 2001ConBi..15..467M | s2cid = 84520743 }}
*Roach, J. 2006. First Evidence that Wildlife Corridors Boost Biodiversity, Study Says. National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/09/060901-plant-corridors.html |title=First Evidence That Wildlife Corridors Boost Biodiversity, Study Says |publisher=News.nationalgeographic.com |date=2010-10-28 |access-date=2015-08-11 |archive-date=21 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221040127/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/09/060901-plant-corridors.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*{{cite journal | last1 = Rosenberg | first1 = D.K. | last2 = Noon | first2 = B.R. | last3 = Meslow | first3 = E.C. | year = 1997 | title = Biological Corridors: Form, Function, and Efficacy | journal = BioScience | volume = 47 | issue = 10| pages = 667–687 | doi = 10.2307/1313208 | jstor = 1313208 | doi-access = free }}
*{{cite journal | last1 = Simberloff | first1 = D. | last2 = Farr | first2 = J.A. | last3 = Cox | first3 = J. | last4 = Mehlman | first4 = D.W. | year = 1992 | title = Movement Corridors: Conservation Bargains or Poor Investments? | journal = Conservation Biology | volume = 6 | issue = 4| pages = 492–504 | doi = 10.1046/j.1523-1739.1992.06040493.x | bibcode = 1992ConBi...6..493S }}
*{{cite journal | last1 = Sutcliffe | first1 = O.L. | last2 = Thomas | first2 = C.D. | year = 1996 | title = Open Corridors Appear to Facilitate Dispersal by Ringlet Butterflies (Aphantopus hyperantus) between Woodland Clearings | journal = Conservation Biology | volume = 10 | issue = 5| pages = 1359–1365 | doi = 10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10051359.x | bibcode = 1996ConBi..10.1359S }}
*{{cite journal | last1 = Tewksbury | first1 = J.J. | last2 = Levey | first2 = D.J. | last3 = Haddad | first3 = N.M. | last4 = Sargent | first4 = S. | last5 = Orrock | first5 = J.L. | last6 = Weldon | first6 = A. | last7 = Danielson | first7 = B.J. | last8 = Brinkerhoff | first8 = J. | last9 = Damschen | first9 = E.I. | last10 = Townsend | first10 = P. | year = 2002 | title = Corridors Affect Plants, Animals, and Their Interactions in Fragmented Landscapes | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 20| pages = 12923–12926 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.202242699 | pmid = 12239344 | pmc = 130561 | bibcode = 2002PNAS...9912923T | doi-access = free }}
==References ==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="Beier & Loe 1992">{{Cite journal|author1=Beier, P. |author2=Loe, S. |year= 1992 |title= In My Experience: A Checklist for Evaluating Impacts to Wildlife Movement Corridors |journal= Wildlife Society Bulletin |volume=20 |number= 4 |pages= 434–440 }}</ref>
}}
==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[http://www.mma.es/portal/secciones/biodiversidad/desarrollo_rural_paisaje/fragmentacion_rural/pdf/2_Desfragmentacion_Belgica.pdf Defragmentation in Belgium (Flanders) - Connecting nature, connecting people. Accessed: 22 January 2009]
*[https://regeneration.org/nexus/wildlife-corridors Wildlife Corridors] Project Regeneration
*[http://www.mma.es/portal/secciones/biodiversidad/desarrollo_rural_paisaje/fragmentacion_rural/pdf/1_Desfragmentacion_Holanda.pdf Wildlife passages - De-Fragmentation in the Netherlands - How to evaluate their effectiveness? Accessed: 22 January 2009]
*[http://corridordesign.org CorridorDesign.org - GIS tools for designing wildlife corridors Accessed: 9 March 2010]
*[http://www.conservationcorridor.org/ ConservationCorridor.org - information, tools and links to connect the science of landscape corridors to conservation in practice. Accessed: 14 September 2012]
{{Authority control}}
{{Conservation of species}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Wildlife Corridor}}
[[Category:Conservation biology]]
[[Category:Conservation projects]]
[[Category:Ecological connectivity]]
[[Category:Ecological restoration]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:Habitats]]
[[Category:Systems ecology]]
[[Category:Urban studies and planning terminology]]
[[Category:Wildlife conservation]]
[[Category:Animal migration]] |
Biodiversity action plan | {{About|the conservation biology topic|other uses of "BAP"|BAP (disambiguation)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2012}}
[[File:Diademed ready to push off.jpg|thumb|upright=0.95|[[Diademed sifaka]], an [[endangered species|endangered]] [[primate]] of [[Madagascar]]]]
A '''biodiversity action plan''' ('''BAP''') is an internationally recognized program addressing [[threatened species]] and [[habitat]]s and is designed to protect and restore biological systems. The original impetus for these plans derives from the 1992 [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (CBD). As of 2009, 191 countries have ratified the CBD, but only a fraction of these have developed substantive BAP documents.
The principal elements of a BAP typically include:<ref>{{cite book |last=Glowka |first=Lyle |author2=Françoise Burhenne-Guilmin |author3=Hugh Synge |author4=Jeffrey A. McNeely |author5=Lothar Gündling |title=Guide to the Convention on Biodiversity |year=1994 |publisher=IUCN |isbn=2-8317-0222-4 }}</ref> (a) preparing inventories of biological information for selected species or habitats; (b) assessing the [[conservation status]] of species within specified [[ecosystem]]s; (c) creation of targets for [[Conservation biology|conservation]] and [[Restoration ecology|restoration]]; and (d) establishing budgets, timelines and institutional partnerships for implementing the BAP.
==Species plans==
[[File:Lightmatter snowleopard.jpg|thumb|left|[[Snow leopard]], Pakistan, an endangered species]]
A fundamental method of engagement to a BAP is thorough documentation regarding individual species, with emphasis upon the population distribution and [[conservation status]]. This task, while fundamental, is highly daunting, since only an estimated ten percent of the world’s species are believed to have been characterized as of 2006,<ref name="IUCN">[http://www.iucnredlist.org/info/tables/table1 IUCN Red-list statistics (2006)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060630054235/http://www.iucnredlist.org/info/tables/table1 |date=June 30, 2006 }}</ref> most of these unknowns being [[fungi]], [[invertebrate]] animals, micro-organisms and plants. For many bird, mammal and reptile species, information is often available in published literature; however, for fungi, invertebrate animals, micro-organisms and many plants, such information may require considerable local data collection. It is also useful to compile time trends of population estimates in order to understand the dynamics of population variability and vulnerability. In some parts of the world complete species inventories are not realistic; for example, in the [[Madagascar dry deciduous forests]], many species are completely undocumented and much of the region has never even been systematically explored by scientists.
A species plan component of a country’s BAP should ideally entail a thorough description of the range, habitat, behaviour, breeding and interaction with other species. Once a determination has been made of conservation status (e.g. [[rare species|rare]], endangered, threatened, vulnerable), a plan can then be created to conserve and restore the species population to target levels. Examples of programmatic protection elements are: [[habitat restoration]]; protection of habitat from [[urban development]]; establishment of property ownership; limitations on grazing or other agricultural encroachment into habitat; reduction of [[slash-and-burn]] agricultural practises; outlawing killing or collecting the species; restrictions on pesticide use; and control of other environmental pollution. The plan should also articulate which public and private agencies should implement the protection strategy and indicate budgets available to execute this strategy.
== Agricultural Plans ==
Agricultural practices can reduce the [[biodiversity]] of a region significantly.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McLaughlin|first=Alison|last2=Mineau|first2=Pierre|date=1995|title=The impact of agricultural practices on biodiversity.|url=https://www.gwct.org.uk/media/841551/The-impact-of-agricultural-practices-on-biodiversity.pdf|journal=Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment|volume=55|issue=3|pages=201–212|doi=10.1016/0167-8809(95)00609-V|via=Elsevier}}</ref> Biodiversity Action Plans for agricultural production are necessary to ensure a biodiversity friendly production. It has not been common for companies to integrate biodiversity aspects into their [[value chain]], but some companies and organizations have shown overall efforts for implementing better practices.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbd.int/business/gp.shtml|title=The Global Partnership for Business and Biodiversity|website=Convention on Biological Diversity}}</ref>
An existing example for guidelines on biodiversity practices in agriculture is the Biodiversity Action Plan for [[spice]] production in [[India]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.international-climate-initiative.com/fileadmin/Dokumente/2019/20190708_BAP_Chilli.pdf|title=Manual on biodiversity action plan for chili production.|last=Private Business Action for Biodiversity Project|website=International Klimate Initiative|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015142137/https://www.international-climate-initiative.com/fileadmin/Dokumente/2019/20190708_BAP_Chilli.pdf|archive-date=2019-10-15}}</ref> By planning and implementing biodiversity friendly measures, [[Farmer|farmers]] can [[Climate change mitigation|mitigate]] negative impacts and support positive influences.
==Habitat plans==
Where a number of threatened species depend upon a specific habitat, it may be appropriate to prepare a habitat protection element of the Biodiversity Action Plan. Examples of such special habitats are: raised acidic bogs of Scotland; [[Waterberg Biosphere]] [[bushveld]] in South Africa; California’s coastal [[wetland]]s; and Sweden’s [[Stora Alvaret]] on the island of [[Öland]]. In this case also, careful inventories of species and also the geographic extent and quality of the habitat must be documented. Then, as with species plans, a program can be created to protect, enhance and/or restore habitat using similar strategies as discussed above under the species plans.
==Specific countries==
Some examples of individual countries which have produced substantive Biodiversity Action Plans follow. In every example the plans concentrate on plants and vertebrate animals, with very little attention to neglected groups such as fungi, invertebrate animals and micro-organisms, even though these are also part of biodiversity. Preparation of a country BAP may cost up to 100 million pounds sterling, with annual maintenance costs roughly ten percent of the initial cost. If plans took into account neglected groups, the cost would be higher. Obviously costs for countries with small geographical area or simplified ecosystems have a much lesser cost. For example, the St. Lucia BAP has been costed in the area of several million pounds sterling.<ref>{{cite web| year=2001| author=Government of St. Lucia| title=National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan of St. Lucia| url=http://www.slubiodiv.org/The_Project/Information/Printed_Materials/NBSAP/nbsap.html| access-date=2006-08-30 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061105113956/http://www.slubiodiv.org/The_Project/Information/Printed_Materials/NBSAP/nbsap.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 2006-11-05}}</ref>
===Australia===
[[File:Daintree Rainforest.JPG|thumb|left|The [[Daintree Rainforest]] in [[Queensland]], Australia]]
Australia has developed a detailed and rigorous Biodiversity Action Plan.<ref>{{cite web| year=2011| author=Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council| title=Australia's Biodiversity Conservation Strategy 2010-2030| url=http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/au/au-nbsap-v2-en.pdf| access-date=2012-12-07}}</ref> This document estimates that the total number of indigenous species may be 560,000, many of which are endemic. A key element of the BAP is protection of the [[Great Barrier Reef]], which is actually in a much higher state of health than most of the world’s [[reef]]s, Australia having one of the highest percentages of treated [[wastewater]].<ref>{{cite web|date=September 2005| author=Commonwealth of Australia, Department of the Environment and Heritage| title=Great Barrier Reef Water Quality Protection Plan Annual Report 2004-2005| url=http://www.deh.gov.au/coasts/publications/annual-report/04-05/index.html| access-date=2006-08-30 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060822025646/http://www.deh.gov.au/coasts/publications/annual-report/04-05/index.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 2006-08-22}}</ref> There are however serious ongoing concerns, particularly in regards to the ongoing negative impact on water quality from land use practices. Also, climate change impact is feared to be significant.
Considerable analysis has been conducted on the [[sustainable yield]] of firewood production, a major threat to [[deforestation]] in most tropical countries. Biological inventory work; assessment of harvesting practices; and computer modeling of the dynamics of treefall, rot and harvest; have been carried out to adduce data on safe harvesting rates. Extensive research has also been conducted on the relation of brush clearance to [[biodiversity]] decline and impact on [[water table]]s;<ref>Andreas Glanznig, ''Native Vegetation Clearance, Habitat Loss and Biodiversity Decline: an overview of recent native vegetation clearance in Australia and its implications for biodiversity'', Biodiversity Series, Paper No. 6, Biodiversity Unit, June 1995</ref> for example, these effects have been analyzed in the [[Toolibin Lake]] wetlands region.
===New Zealand===
{{See also|Biodiversity of New Zealand}}
New Zealand has ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity and as part of The New Zealand Biodiversity Strategy and Biodiversity Action Plans are implemented on ten separate themes.<ref>{{Cite book | publisher = Dept. of Conservation; Ministry for the Environment| isbn = 978-0-478-21919-7| title = The New Zealand Biodiversity Strategy| location = [Wellington, N.Z.]| date = February 2000}}</ref>
Local government and some companies also have their own Biodiversity Action Plan.
===St. Lucia===
The [[St. Lucia]] BAP recognizes impacts of large numbers of tourists to the marine and coastal diversity of the [[Soufrière, Saint Lucia|Soufrière]] area of the country. The BAP specifically acknowledges that the [[carrying capacity]] for human use and [[water pollution]] discharge of sensitive reef areas was exceeded by the year 1990. The plan also addresses conservation of the historic island fishing industry. In 1992, several institutions in conjunction with native fishermen to produce a sustainable management plan for fishery resources, embodied in the Soufrière Marine Management Area.
The St. Lucia BAP features significant involvement from the [[University of the West Indies]]. Specific detailed attention is given to three species of threatened marine turtles, to a variety of vulnerable birds and a number of [[pelagic fish]]es and [[cetacean]]s. In terms of [[habitat conservation]] the plan focusses attention on the biologically productive [[mangrove]] swamps and notes that virtually all mangrove areas had already come under national protection by 1984.<ref>''St. Lucia National Marine Fisheries Act of 1984, Section 10'', (1984)</ref>
===Tanzania===
The Tanzania national BAP addresses issues related to sustainable use of [[Lake Manyara]], an extensive freshwater lake, whose usage by humans accelerated in the period 1950 to 1990. The designation of the [[Lake Manyara Biosphere Reserve]] under [[UNESCO]]'s [[Man and the Biosphere Programme]] in 1981 combines conservation of the lake and surrounding high value forests with sustainable use of the wetlands area and simple agriculture. This BAP has united principal lake users in establishing management targets. The biosphere reserve has induced sustainable management of the wetlands, including monitoring [[groundwater]] and the chemistry of the [[escarpment]] water source.<ref name="UNESCO">{{cite web|title=Lake Manyara|url=http://www.unesco.org/mabdb/br/brdir/directory/biores.asp?mode=all&code=URT+01|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=16 June 2016}}</ref>
===United Kingdom===
[[File:Fowlsheughclifftonorthsea.JPG|thumb|[[Fowlsheugh]] cliffs, [[Scotland]], a protected [[seabird]] breeding habitat]]
The [[United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan]] covers not only [[Terrestrial ecoregion|terrestrial]] species associated with lands within the UK, but also marine species and [[Bird migration|migratory]] birds, which spend a limited time in the UK or its offshore waters. The UK plan encompasses "391 Species Action Plans, 45 Habitat Action Plans and 162 Local Biodiversity Action Plans with targeted actions".<ref>{{cite web| title=United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan| url=http://www.ukbap.org.uk/| author=Joint Nature Conservation Committee, London| year=2006| access-date=2006-08-31}}</ref> This plan is noteworthy because of its extensive detail, clarity of endangerment mechanisms, specificity of actions, follow up monitoring program and its inclusion of migrating cetaceans and pelagic birds.
On August 28, 2007, the new Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) [launched in 1997] identified 1,149 species and 65 habitats in the UK that needed conservation and greater protection. The updated list included the [[hedgehog]], [[house sparrow]], [[grass snake]] and the [[garden tiger moth]], while [[otter]]s, [[bottlenose dolphin]]s and [[red squirrel]]s remained in need of habitat protection.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6965681.stm BBC NEWS, Hedgehogs join 'protection' list]</ref>
In May 2011, the European Commission adopted a new strategy to halt the [[loss of biodiversity]] and ecosystem services in the EU by 2020, in line with the commitments made at the 10th meeting of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) held in Nagoya, Japan in 2010. In 2012 the UK BAP was succeeded by the 'UK Post-2010 Biodiversity Framework'.
==== UK BAP website ====
To support the work of the UK BAP, the UK BAP website was created by JNCC in 2001. The website contained information on the BAP process, hosted all relevant documents, and provided news and relevant updates. In March 2011, as part of the UK government’s review of websites, the UK BAP site was ‘closed’, and the core content was migrated into the JNCC website.<ref>{{cite web| title=UK Biodiversity Action Plan| url=http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/default.aspx?page=5155| author=Joint Nature Conservation Committee, London| year=2012| access-date=2012-10-28| archive-date=June 22, 2012| archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20120622172050/http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/default.aspx?page=5155| url-status=dead}}</ref> Content from the original UK BAP website has been archived by the [[National Archives (UK)|National Archives]] as snapshots from various dates (for example, UK ''BAP'': copy March 2011;<ref>{{cite web| title=UK Biodiversity Action Plan archive copy| url=http://www.ukbap.org.uk/default.aspx| author=National Archives, London| year=2011| access-date=2012-10-28| url-status=dead| archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110303145238/http://www.ukbap.org.uk/default.aspx| archive-date=March 3, 2011| df=mdy-all}}</ref>
copy 2012<ref>[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20120622172050/http:/jncc.defra.gov.uk/default.aspx?page=5155], JNCC. Accessed via National Archives, London (2012)</ref>).
=== United States ===
Twenty-six years prior to the international biodiversity convention, the United States had launched a national program to protect threatened species in the form of the 1966 [[Endangered Species Act]]. The legislation created broad authority for analyzing and listing species of concern, and mandated that Species [[Endangered Species Recovery Plan|Recovery Plan]]s be created. Thus, while the USA is an unratified signer of the accord, arguably it has the longest track record and most comprehensive program of species protection of any country. There are about 7000 listed species (e.g. endangered or threatened), of which about half have approved Recovery Plans. While this number of species seems high compared to other countries, the value is rather indicative of the total number of species characterized, which is extremely large.
===Uzbekistan===
Five major divisions of habitat have been identified in [[Uzbekistan]]’s BAP: Wetlands (including reed habitat and man-made [[marsh]]); desert ecosystems (including sandy, stony and clay); [[steppes]]; [[riparian]] ecosystems; and mountain ecosystems. Over 27,000 species have been inventoried in the country, with a high rate of [[endemism]] for fishes and reptiles. Principal threats to biodiversity are related to human activities associated with overpopulation and generally related to agricultural intensification.<ref>''Biodiversity Conservation National Strategy and Action Plan of Republic of Uzbekistan'', 1997</ref> Major geographic regions encompassed by the BAP include the [[Aral Sea]] Programme (threatened by long-term drainage and [[salination]], largely for cotton production), the [[Nuratau Mountains#The Nuratau-Kyzylkum Biosphere Reserve|Nuratau Biosphere Reserve]], and the Western [[Tien Shan Mountains]] Programme (in conjunction with [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Kyrgyzstan]]).
==Criticism==
{{Unreferenced section|date=January 2010}}
Some developing countries criticize the emphasis of BAPs, because these plans inherently favour consideration of [[wildlife]] protection above food and industrial production, and in some cases may represent an obstacle to population growth. The plans are costly to produce, a fact which makes it difficult for many smaller countries and poorer countries to comply. In terms of the plans themselves, many countries have adopted pro-forma plans including little research and even less in the way of natural resource management. Almost universally, this has resulted in plans which emphasize plants and vertebrate animals, and which overlook fungi,<ref>{{cite web| title=Micheli Guide to Fungal Conservation| url=http://www.fungal-conservation.org/micheli.htm| author=International Society for Fungal Conservation| year=2012| access-date=2012-12-07}}</ref> invertebrate animals and micro-organisms. With regard to specific world regions, there is a notable lack of substantive participation by most of the Middle Eastern countries and much of Africa, the latter of which may be impeded by economic considerations of plan preparation. Some governments such as the [[European Union]] have diverted the purpose of a biodiversity action plan, and implemented the convention accord by a set of economic development policies with referencing certain ecosystems' protection.
==Biodiversity planning: a new way of thinking==
The definition of biodiversity under the Convention on Biological Diversity now recognises that biodiversity is a combination of ecosystem structure and function, as much as its components e.g. species, habitats and [[genetic resources]]. Article 2 states:
<blockquote>
''in addressing the boundless complexity of biological diversity, it has become conventional to think in hierarchical terms, from the genetic material within individual cells, building up through individual organisms, populations, species and communities of species, to the biosphere overall...At the same time, in seeking to make management intervention as efficient as possible, it is essential to take an holistic view of biodiversity and address the interactions that species have with each other and their non-living environment, i.e. to work from an ecological perspective.''
</blockquote>
The World Summit on Sustainable Development endorsed the objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity to ''“achieve by 2010 a significant reduction of the current rate of [[biodiversity loss]] at the global, regional and national level as a contribution to poverty alleviation and to the benefit of life on Earth”.'' To achieve this outcome, biodiversity management will depend on maintaining structure and function.<ref>Noss, R.F. (1990) Indicators for Monitoring Biodiversity: A Hierarchical Approach. Conservation Biology 4 (4) 355–364.</ref>
Biodiversity is not singularly definable but may be understood via a series of management principles under BAPs, such as:
1. that biodiversity is conserved across all levels and scales – structure, function and composition are conserved at site, regional, state and national scales.
2. that examples of all ecological communities are adequately managed for conservation.
3. ecological communities are managed to support and enhance viable populations of animals, fungi, micro-organisms and plants and ecological functions.
Biodiversity and wildlife are not the same thing. The traditional focus on threatened species in BAPs is at odds with the principles of biodiversity management because, by the time species become threatened, the processes that maintain biodiversity are already compromised. Individual species are also regarded as generally poor indicators of biodiversity when it comes to actual planning.<ref>Lindenmayer, D. B., Manning, A. D., Smith, P. L., Possingham, Hugh P., Fischer, J., Oliver, I., McCarthy, M. A., (2002) The Focal-Species Approach and Landscape Restoration: A Conservation Biology 16(2) 338–345</ref> A species approach to BAPs only serves to identify and at best, apply a patch to existing problems. Increasingly, biodiversity planners are looking through the lens of [[ecosystem services]]. Critics of biodiversity are often confusing the need to protect species (their intrinsic value) with the need to maintain ecosystem processes, which ultimately maintain human society and do not compromise economic development. Hence, a core principle of biodiversity management, that traditional BAPs overlook, is the need to incorporate cultural, social and economic values in the process.
Modern day BAPs use an analysis of [[ecosystem services]], key ecological process drivers, and use species as one of many indicators of change. They would seek to maintain structure and function by addressing habitat connectivity and resilience and may look at communities of species (threatened or otherwise) as one method of monitoring outcomes. Ultimately, species are the litmus test for biodiversity – viable populations of species can only be expected to exist in relatively intact habitats. However, the rationale behind BAPs is to "conserve and restore" biodiversity. One of the fastest developing areas of management is [http://www.bioenergywiki.net/index.php/Biodiversity_Offsets biodiversity offsets]. The principles are in keeping with ecological impact assessment, which in turn depends on good quality BAPs for evaluation. Contemporary principles of biodiversity management, such as those produced by the [http://www.forest-trends.org/biodiversityoffsetprogram/ Business Biodiversity Offsets Program]<ref>{{cite web|url= http://eianzecology.blogspot.com/2009/03/principles-in-biodiversity-offsets.html|title= Principles in Biodiversity Offsets|access-date= April 21, 2009|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090328121752/http://eianzecology.blogspot.com/2009/03/principles-in-biodiversity-offsets.html|archive-date= March 28, 2009|url-status= dead}}</ref> are now integral to any plans to manage biodiversity, including the development of BAPs.
==See also==
* [[2010 Biodiversity Target]]
* [[2010 Biodiversity Indicators Partnership]]
* [[Holocene extinction event]]
* [[Climate Action Plan]]
* [[IUCN Red List]]
* [[Regional Red List]]
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060630054235/http://www.iucnredlist.org/info/tables/table1 IUCN Summary Statistics for Globally Threatened Species]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061106215228/http://www.undp.org/biodiversity/biodiversitycd/practiceMexico.htm Mexico Biodiversity Action Plan]
* [http://www.psdn.org.ph/nbsap/main.html Philippines biodiversity inventory]
* [http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/default.aspx?page=5155 UK Biodiversity Action Plan (home page)] {{Webarchive|url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20120622172050/http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/default.aspx?page=5155 |date=June 22, 2012 }}
* [http://www.fws.gov/endangered/pubs/ESA%20BASICS_050806.pdf USA Endangered Species Act of 1973]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060829232148/http://www.biodiv.org/default.shtml The Convention on Biological Diversity (home page)]
{{threatened species}}
[[Category:Biodiversity]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Action plans]] |
Healthy Meadows | {{short description|American company based in Montana}}
{{See also|Conservation grazing}}
{{Orphan|date=October 2019}}
'''Healthy Meadows''', based in [[Red Lodge, Montana]] near [[Yellowstone National Park]], is a company co-owned by Ivan Thrane and Chia Chen-Speidel that organizes natural weed control through [[conservation grazing]], a technique using animals that is more environmentally friendly than spraying [[pesticide]]s.<ref name=BAM>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.brownalumnimagazine.com/content/view/3251/40/|title=American Pastoral|date=Sep–Oct 2012|magazine=Brown Alumni Monthly}}</ref> The [[Montana]] [[Bureau of Land Management]] is a client.<ref name=CCN/>
Thrane and Chen-Speidel's flock number over 250 goats as of July 2013.<ref name=CCN>{{cite news|url=http://www.carboncountynews.com/content/goats-noxious-weeds-cant-be-bleat|title=Goats for noxious weeds? Can't be bleat!|date=July 18, 2013|newspaper=[[Carbon County News]]|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140322043212/http://www.carboncountynews.com/content/goats-noxious-weeds-cant-be-bleat|archivedate=March 22, 2014}}</ref> On a typical day, the herd covers four to seven miles with an average customer's land takes between one and three days to clear.
Companies using goats to control and eradicate [[leafy spurge]], [[knapweed]], and other toxic weeds have sprouted across the [[American West]]. Montana's ranching industry spends about $100 million a year to control and rid itself of toxic weeds. Clearing dry brush has also proven to be valuable to reducing fire hazards.<ref name=BAM/>
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
* [http://www.creatinghealthymeadows.com Official website]
* [http://www.brownalumnimagazine.com/content/view/3251/40/ Article about Chia Chen-Speidel]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
{{Montana-stub}} |
Environmental issues with coral reefs | {{short description|Factors which adversely affect tropical coral reefs}}
[[File:Mvey0290.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Island with [[fringing reef]] off [[Yap]], [[Micronesia]]. Coral reefs are dying around the world.<ref name="Coral reefs around the world">{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/interactive/2009/sep/02/coral-world-interactive |title=Coral reefs around the world |publisher=[[Guardian.com]] |date= 2 September 2009 |access-date=12 June 2010 }}</ref>]]
Human activities have substantial impact on coral reefs, contributing to their worldwide decline.[1] Damaging activities encompass coral mining, pollution (both organic and non-organic), overfishing, blast fishing, as well as the excavation of canals and access points to islands and bays. Additional threats comprise disease, destructive fishing practices, and the warming of oceans.[2] Furthermore, the ocean's function as a carbon dioxide sink, alterations in the atmosphere, ultraviolet light, ocean acidification, viral infections, the repercussions of dust storms transporting agents to distant reefs, pollutants, and algal blooms represent some of the factors exerting influence on coral reefs. Importantly, the jeopardy faced by coral reefs extends far beyond coastal regions. The ramifications of climate change, notably global warming, induce an elevation in ocean temperatures that triggers coral bleaching—a potentially lethal phenomenon for coral ecosystems.
Scientists estimate that over next 20 years, about 70 to 90% of all coral reefs will disappear. With primary causes being warming ocean waters, ocean acidity, and pollution.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Nace |first1=Trevor |title=Nearly All Coral Reefs Will Disappear Over The Next 20 Years, Scientists Say |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/trevornace/2020/02/24/70-90-percent-of-coral-reefs-will-disappear-over-the-next-20-years-scientists-say/?sh=4b425437d87b |access-date=15 July 2021 |work=Forbes |date=24 February 2020}}</ref> In 2008, a worldwide study estimated that 19% of the existing area of coral reefs had already been lost.<ref name=Wilkinson>Wilkinson, Clive (2008) [http://www.icriforum.org/sites/default/files/Status%20Coral%20%20Reefs%20of%20World%202008%20%20Executive%20Summary_0.pdf Status of Coral Reefs of the World: Executive Summary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219004526/http://www.icriforum.org/sites/default/files/Status%20Coral%20%20Reefs%20of%20World%202008%20%20Executive%20Summary_0.pdf |date=2013-12-19 }}. Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network.</ref> Only 46% of the world's reefs could be currently regarded as in good health<ref name=Wilkinson /> and about 60% of the world's reefs may be at risk due to destructive, human-related activities. The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in [[Southeast Asia]], where 80% of reefs are [[endangered species|endangered]]. By the 2030s, 90% of reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and [[climate change]]; by 2050, it is predicted that all coral reefs will be in danger.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pdf.wri.org/reefs_at_risk_revisited_executive_summary.pdf |title=Reefs at Risk Revisited |publisher=World Resources Institute| date=February 2011| access-date=16 March 2012}}</ref><ref name="Kleypas, J.A. 2006"/>
{{TOC limit|3}}
==Issues==
===Competition===
In the [[Caribbean Sea]] and tropical [[Pacific Ocean]], direct contact between coral and common [[seaweed]]s causes [[coral bleaching|bleaching]] and death of coral tissue via [[allelopathic]] competition. The lipid-soluble extracts of seaweeds that harmed coral tissues, also produced rapid bleaching. At these sites, bleaching and mortality was limited to areas of direct contact with seaweed or their extracts. The seaweed then expanded to occupy the dead coral's habitat.<ref name=RasherHay10>{{cite journal
|title=Chemically rich seaweeds poison corals when not controlled by herbivores
|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
|first1=Douglas B. |last1=Rasher |first2=Mark E. |last2=Hay
|doi=10.1073/pnas.0912095107
|date=May 25, 2010
|volume=107
|issue=21
|pages=9683–9688 |pmid=20457927 |pmc=2906836|bibcode = 2010PNAS..107.9683R |doi-access=free
}}</ref> However, as of 2009, only 4% of coral reefs worldwide had more than 50% algal coverage which means that there are no recent global trend towards algal dominance over coral reefs.<ref name="tough">{{cite web |date=June 3, 2009 |title=In The Turf War Against Seaweed, Coral Reefs More Resilient Than Expected |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/06/090601111932.htm |access-date=1 February 2011 |publisher=Science Daily}}</ref>
Competitive seaweed and other [[algae]] thrive in nutrient-rich waters in the absence of sufficient [[herbivore|herbivorous]] [[predator]]s. Herbivores include fish such as [[parrotfish]], the urchin ''[[Diadema antillarum]]'',<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hvhl.nl/nieuws/items/2019/nieuw-onderzoek-naar-zee-egel-om-koraalriffen-te-beschermen.html|title=Nieuw onderzoek naar zee-egel om koraalriffen te beschermen - hvhl.nl|website=www.hvhl.nl}}</ref> [[Acanthuridae|surgeonfishes, tangs and unicornfishes]].<ref name=RasherHay10/>
===Predation===
{{Main|Overfishing|Environmental effects of fishing}}
[[Overfishing]], particularly selective overfishing, can unbalance coral ecosystems by encouraging the excessive growth of coral predators. Predators that eat living coral, such as the [[crown-of-thorns starfish]], are called ''corallivores''. Coral reefs are built from [[stony coral]], which evolved with large amounts of the [[wax]] [[cetyl palmitate]] in their tissues. Most predators find this wax indigestible.<ref>Benson AA and Muscatine L (1974) [https://www.jstor.org/pss/2834385 Wax in Coral Mucus: Energy Transfer From Corals to Reef Fishes] ''Limnology and Oceanography'', '''19''' (5) 810–814. [http://www.aslo.org/lo/toc/vol_19/issue_5/0810.pdf Download] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720114936/http://www.aslo.org/lo/toc/vol_19/issue_5/0810.pdf |date=2011-07-20 }}</ref> The crown-of-thorns starfish is a large (up to one meter) starfish protected by long, venomous spines. Its [[enzyme]] system dissolves the wax in stony corals, and allows the [[starfish]] to feed on the living animal. Starfish face predators of their own, such as the [[Giant Triton|giant triton]] [[sea snail]]. However, the giant triton is valued for its [[mollusc shell|shell]] and has been over fished. As a result, crown-of-thorns starfish populations can periodically grow unchecked, devastating reefs.<ref name=PBS>[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/survival/coral/predators.html Predators and Prey] ''[[PBS.org]]''. Retrieved 11 December 2009.</ref><ref name="cots 1999–2000">{{cite web|url=http://www.reef.crc.org.au/publications/techreport/techrept32.htm |title=CRC Reef Research Centre Technical Report No. 32 — Crown-of-thorns starfish(Acanthaster planci) in the central Great Barrier Reef region. Results of fine-scale surveys conducted in 1999–2000. |access-date=7 June 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070829092853/http://www.reef.crc.org.au/publications/techreport/techrept32.htm |archive-date=29 August 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=CRC Reef Research Centre |title=Crown-of-thorns starfish on the Great Barrier Reef |url=http://www.reef.crc.org.au/publications/brochures/COTS_web_Nov2003.pdf |access-date=28 August 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060826192429/http://www.reef.crc.org.au//publications/brochures/COTS_web_Nov2003.pdf |archive-date=26 August 2006 }} (PDF)</ref>
<gallery>
File:Charonia tritonis a1.jpg|The overfished [[Giant Triton|giant triton]] eats the [[crown-of-thorns starfish]].
File:Crown of Thorns Starfish.jpg|The crown-of-thorns starfish eats [[coral]].
</gallery>
===Fishing practices===
[[File:Overfishing threats to coral reefs.png|thumb|upright=2| {{center|Overfishing threats to coral reefs – ''[[NOAA]]''<ref>[https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral-overfishing.html How does overfishing threaten coral reefs?] ''NOAA: National Ocean Service''. Retrieved 9 February 2020. Updated: 25 June 2018.</ref>}}]]
Although some [[marine aquarium]] fish species can reproduce in aquaria (such as [[Pomacentridae]]), most (95%) are collected from coral reefs.{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}} Intense harvesting, especially in [[maritime Southeast Asia]] (including [[Indonesia]] and the [[Philippines]]), damages the reefs. This is aggravated by [[destructive fishing practices]], such as [[Cyanide fishing|cyanide]] and [[blast fishing]]. Most (80–90%) aquarium fish from the Philippines are captured with [[sodium cyanide]]. This toxic chemical is dissolved in sea water and released into areas where fish shelter. It narcotizes the fish, which are then easily captured. However, most fish collected with cyanide die a few months later from [[liver]] damage.{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}} Moreover, many non-marketable specimens die in the process.<ref>{{cite journal| title= David LECCHINI, Sandrine POLTI, Yohei NAKAMURA, Pascal MOSCONI, Makoto TSUCHIYA, Georges REMOISSENET, Serge PLANES (2006) "New perspectives on aquarium fish trade" Fisheries Science 72 (1), 40–47 | journal=Fisheries Science | volume=72 | pages=40–47 |doi=10.1111/j.1444-2906.2006.01114.x|year = 2006|last1 = Lecchini|first1 = David| last2=Polti | first2=Sandrine | last3=Nakamura | first3=Yohei | last4=Mosconi | first4=Pascal | last5=Tsuchiya | first5=Makoto | last6=Remoissenet | first6=Georges | last7=Planes | first7=Serge | s2cid=35182758 }}</ref> It is estimated that 4,000 or more Filipino fish collectors have used over {{convert|1000000|kg}} of cyanide on Philippine reefs alone, about 150,000 kg per year.<ref name="McClellan"/> A major catalyst of [[cyanide fishing]] is poverty within fishing communities. In countries like the Philippines that regularly employ cyanide, more than thirty percent of the population lives below the poverty line.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/philippines/ |title=CIA—The World Factbook—Philippines |access-date=1 February 2011 |publisher=[[CIA]] }}</ref>
[[Dynamite]] [[fishing]] is another destructive method for gathering fish. Sticks of dynamite, [[grenade]]s, or homemade explosives are detonated in the water. This method of fishing kills the fish within the main blast area, along with many unwanted reef animals. The blast also kills the corals in the area, eliminating the reef's structure, destroying habitat for the remaining fish and other animals important for reef health.<ref name="McClellan">{{cite web
|last1=McClellan |first1=Kate |last2=Bruno |first2=John |year=2008 |url=http://www.eoearth.org/article/Coral_degradation_through_destructive_fishing_practices
|title=Coral degradation through destructive fishing practices |publisher=Encyclopedia of Earth |access-date= 25 October 2008}}</ref> [[Muro-ami]] is the destructive practice of covering reefs with nets and dropping large stones onto the reef to produce a flight response among the fish. The stones break and kill the coral. Muro-ami was generally outlawed in the 1980s.<ref name="McClellan"/>
Fishing gear damages reefs via direct physical contact with the reef structure and substrate. They are typically made of synthetic materials that do not deteriorate in the ocean, causing a lasting effect on the ecosystem and reefs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gilardi |first1=Kirsten V. K. |last2=Carlson-Bremer |first2=Daphne |last3=June |first3=Jeffrey A. |last4=Antonelis |first4=Kyle |last5=Broadhurst |first5=Ginny |last6=Cowan |first6=Tom |title=Marine species mortality in derelict fishing nets in Puget Sound, WA and the cost/benefits of derelict net removal |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |date=1 March 2010 |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=376–382 |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.10.016 |pmid=20031176 |bibcode=2010MarPB..60..376G }}</ref> Gill nets, fish traps, and anchors break branching coral and cause coral death through entanglement. When fishermen drop lines by coral reefs, the lines entangle the coral. The fisher cuts the line and abandons it, leaving it attached to the reef. The discarded lines abrade coral [[polyp (zoology)|polyp]]s and upper tissue layers. Corals are able to recover from small lesions, but larger and recurrent damage complicates recovery.
Bottom dragging gear such as [[beach seine]]s can damage corals by abrasion and fracturing. A beach seine is a long net about {{convert|150|m|ft|sp=us}} with a mesh size of {{convert|3|cm|in|sp=us}} and a weighted line to hold the net down while it is dragged across the substrate and is one of the most destructive types of fishing gear on Kenya's reefs.<ref name="McClellan"/>
Bottom [[trawling]] in deep oceans destroys cold-water and deep-sea corals. Historically, industrial fishers avoided coral because their nets would get caught on the reefs. In the 1980s, "rock-hopper" trawls attached large tires and rollers to allow the nets to roll over rough surfaces. Fifty-five percent of Alaskan cold-water coral that was damaged by one pass from a bottom trawl had not recovered a year later. Northeast Atlantic reefs bear scars up to {{convert|4|km|mi|sp=us}} long. In Southern Australia, 90 percent of the surfaces on coral [[seamount]]s are now bare rock. Even in the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area, seafloor trawling for prawns and scallops is causing localized extinction of some coral species.<ref name="McClellan"/>
{{blockquote|"With increased human population and improved storage and transport systems, the scale of human impacts on reefs has grown exponentially. For example, markets for fish and other [[natural resource]]s have become global, supplying demand for reef resources."<ref>{{cite journal|author=Hughes|s2cid=1521635 |title=Climate Change, Human Impacts, and the Resilience of Coral Reefs |journal= [[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume= 301 |issue=5635 |pages=929–933 |date=15 August 2003| doi=10.1126/science.1085046 |display-authors=etal|bibcode = 2003Sci...301..929H | pmid=12920289}}</ref>}}
=== Marine pollution ===
{{Main|Marine pollution}}
[[File:Land-based sources of pollution threats to coral reefs.png|thumb|upright=2| {{center|Land-based sources of pollution threats to coral reefs – ''[[NOAA]]''<ref>[https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral-pollution.html How does land-based pollution threaten coral reefs?] ''NOAA: National Ocean Service''. Accessed 9 February 2020. Update 18 April 2019.</ref>}}]]
Reefs in close proximity to human populations are subject to poor water quality from land- and marine-based sources. In 2006 studies suggested that approximately 80 percent of ocean pollution originates from activities on land.<ref name="2006 United Nations Environment Program">{{cite web |url=http://www.unep.org/pdf/annualreport/UNEP_AR_2006_English.pdf |title=UNEP in 2006 |access-date=18 August 2012 |archive-date=14 February 2007 |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20070214054525/http://www.unep.org/pdf/annualreport/UNEP_AR_2006_English.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Pollution arrives from land via [[Surface runoff|runoff]], the wind and "injection" (deliberate introduction, e.g., drainpipes).
Runoff brings with it sediment from [[erosion]] and land-clearing, nutrients and pesticides from agriculture, [[wastewater]], industrial [[effluent]] and miscellaneous material such as petroleum residue and trash that storms wash away. Some pollutants consume [[oxygen]] and lead to [[eutrophication]], killing coral and other reef inhabitants.<ref name="celebrating200years.noaa.gov">{{cite web |url=http://celebrating200years.noaa.gov/visions/coral/side.html |publisher=[[NOAA]] |title=How Pollution Affects Coral Reefs |access-date=18 August 2012}}</ref>
Coral Reefs are being impacted heavily by the excessive amount of pollution that ultimately causes a huge effect on the water quality for these reefs' comfort and living. The practice of disposing of sewage wastes directly into the habitats of coral reefs is the main cause of the significant deficiency and overload that these reefs are currently facing. The only thing that these sewage wastes are doing is disrupting the tropical waters. This is really concerning because sewage can include a wide range of chemicals and wastes. For example, industrial chemicals, oils, heavy metals, fertilizers like phosphates and nitrates, and medical wastes.
An increasing fraction of the global population lives in coastal areas. Without appropriate precautions, development (e.g., buildings and paved roads) increases the fraction of rainfall and other water sources that enter the ocean as runoff by decreasing the land's ability to absorb it.<ref name="celebrating200years.noaa.gov"/>
Pollution can introduce [[pathogen]]s. For example, ''[[Aspergillus]] sydowii'' has been associated with a disease in [[sea fan]]s, and [[Serratia marcescens]], has been linked to the coral disease white pox.<ref name="celebrating200years.noaa.gov"/>
Reefs near human populations can be faced with local stresses, including poor water quality from land-based sources of pollution.<ref name="celebrating200years.noaa.gov"/> Copper, a common industrial pollutant has been shown to interfere with the [[Biological life cycle|life history]] and development of coral polyps.<ref>{{cite web|author=Emma Young|date=February 18, 2003|title=Copper decimates coral reef spawning
|publisher=[[New Scientist]]
|url= https://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn4391|access-date=26 August 2006}}</ref>
[[File:Barbadosdustgraph.gif|thumb|right|250px|Barbados dust graph.]]
In addition to runoff, wind blows material into the ocean. This material may be local or from other regions. For example, dust from the [[Sahara]] moves to the [[Caribbean]] and [[Florida]]. Dust also blows from the [[Gobi Desert|Gobi]] and [[Taklamakan Desert|Taklamakan]] [[desert]]s across [[Korea]], [[Japan]], and the Northern [[Pacific]] to the [[Hawaiian Islands]].<ref>{{cite journal
|last1=Duce |first1=R.A. |last2=Unni |first2=C.K. |last3=Ray |first3=B.J. |last4=Prospero |first4=J.M.|last5=Merrill |first5=J.T. |s2cid=30337924 |year=1980
|title=Long-range atmospheric transport of soil dust from Asia to the tropical North Pacific: Temporal variability
|doi=10.1126/science.209.4464.1522
|journal=Science |volume=209 |issue=4464 |pages=1522–1524
|pmid=17745962
|bibcode = 1980Sci...209.1522D }}</ref> Since 1970, dust deposits have grown due to drought periods in Africa. Dust transport to the Caribbean and Florida varies from year to year<ref>Usinfo.state.gov.[http://www.gcrio.org/OnLnDoc/pdf/african_dust.pdf Study Says African Dust Affects Climate in U.S., Caribbean.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070620013708/http://www.gcrio.org/OnLnDoc/pdf/african_dust.pdf |date=2007-06-20 }} Retrieved on 10 June 2007.</ref> with greater flux during positive phases of the [[North Atlantic Oscillation]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Prospero J.M. |author2=Nees R.T. | year = 1986 | title = Impact of the North African drought and El Niño on mineral dust in the Barbados trade winds | journal = Nature | volume = 320 | issue = 6064| pages = 735–738 | doi = 10.1038/320735a0 |bibcode = 1986Natur.320..735P |s2cid=33094175 }}</ref> The [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]] links dust events to reduced health of coral reefs across the Caribbean and Florida, primarily since the 1970s.<ref>[[United States Geological Survey]]. [http://coastal.er.usgs.gov/african_dust/ Coral Mortality and African Dust.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502091350/http://coastal.er.usgs.gov/african_dust/ |date=2012-05-02 }} Retrieved on 10 June 2007.</ref> Dust from the 1883 eruption of [[Krakatoa]] in [[Indonesia]] appeared in the [[annulus (zoology)|annular]] bands of the reef-building coral ''[[Montastraea annularis]]'' from the [[Florida Reef]]tract.<ref>Merman, E.A. 2001. Atmospheric inputs to the tropical ocean—unlocking the record in annually banded corals. Master's thesis. University of South Florida, St. Petersburg.</ref>
Sediment smothers corals and interferes with their ability to feed and reproduce. Pesticides can interfere with coral reproduction and growth.<ref name="celebrating200years.noaa.gov"/> There are studies that present evidence that chemicals in sunscreens contribute to coral bleaching by lowering the resistance of zooxanthellae to viruses,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Danovaro|first1=Roberto|last2=Bongiorni |first2=Lucia |last3=Corinaldesi|first3=Cinzia|last4=Giovannelli|first4=Donato|last5=Damiani|first5=Elisabetta|last6=Astolfi|first6=Paola|last7=Greci|first7=Lucedio|last8=Pusceddu |first8=Antonio |title=Sunscreens Cause Coral Bleaching by Promoting Viral Infections |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |date=2008 |volume=116 |issue=4 |pages=441–447 |doi=10.1289/ehp.10966 |pmid=18414624|pmc=2291018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Downs | first1 = C. A. | last2 = Kramarsky-Winter | first2 = E. | last3 = Fauth | first3 = J. E. | last4 = Segal | first4 = R. | last5 = Bronstein | first5 = O. | last6 = Jeger | first6 = R. | last7 = Loya | first7 = Y. | year = 2014 | title = Toxicological effects of the sunscreen UV filter, benzophenone-2, on planulae and in vitro cells of the coral, ''Stylophora pistillata'' | journal = Ecotoxicology | volume = 23 | issue = 2| pages = 175–191 | doi = 10.1007/s10646-013-1161-y | pmid=24352829| s2cid = 1505199 }}</ref> though these studies showed significant flaws in methodology and did not attempt to replicate the complex environment found in coral reefs.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ogles |first1=Jacob |title=Scientific consensus mounts in favor of sunscreen |url=https://floridapolitics.com/archives/294229-scientific-consensus-mounts-in-favor-of-sunscreen |website=Florida Politics |date=22 April 2019 |publisher=Peter Schorsch}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=PubPeer: Toxicopathological Effects of the Sunscreen UV Filter, Oxybenzone (Benzophenone-3), on Coral Planulae and Cultured Primary Cells and Its Environmental Contamination in Hawaii and the U.S. Virgin Islands |url=https://pubpeer.com/publications/E3A59C5143AF504D4577F5D710C39A# |website=PubPeer|date=February 2016 |last1=Downs |first1=C. A. |last2=Kramarsky-Winter |first2=Esti |last3=Segal |first3=Roee |last4=Fauth |first4=John |last5=Knutson |first5=Sean |last6=Bronstein |first6=Omri |last7=Ciner |first7=Frederic R. |last8=Jeger |first8=Rina |last9=Lichtenfeld |first9=Yona |last10=Woodley |first10=Cheryl M. |last11=Pennington |first11=Paul |last12=Cadenas |first12=Kelli |last13=Kushmaro |first13=Ariel |last14=Loya |first14=Yossi }}</ref>
==== Nutrient pollution ====
{{main|Nutrient pollution}}
[[File:Runoff from this pipe in the U.S. Virgin Islands spews directly into the ocean only a few hundred yards from reefs.jpg|left|180px|thumb]]
[[File:Cwall99 lg.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This image of an [[algae bloom]] off the southern coast of England, though not in a coral region, shows what a bloom can look like from a satellite [[remote sensing]] system.]]
[[Nutrient pollution]], particularly [[nitrogen]] and [[phosphorus]] can cause [[eutrophication]], upsetting the balance of the reef by enhancing algal growth and crowding out corals. This nutrient–rich water can enable [[algal blooms|blooms]] of fleshy [[algae]] and [[phytoplankton]] to thrive off coasts. These blooms can create [[Hypoxia (environmental)|hypoxic]] conditions by using all available [[oxygen]]. Biologically available nitrogen (nitrate plus [[ammonia]]) needs to be below 1.0 [[micromole]] per liter (less than 0.014 parts per million of nitrogen), and biologically available phosphorus ([[orthophosphate]] plus dissolved organic phosphorus) needs to be below 0.1 micromole per liter (less than 0.003 parts per million of phosphorus). In addition concentrations of chlorophyll (in the microscopic plants called phytoplankton) needs to be below 0.5 parts per billion.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.globalcoral.org/Eutrophication%20and%20Water%20quality.html
|title=Eutrofication and water quality
|publisher=Global Coral Reef Alliance
|access-date=1 February 2011
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101009031955/http://www.globalcoral.org/Eutrophication%20and%20Water%20quality.html
|archive-date=9 October 2010
}}</ref> Both plants also obscure sunlight, killing both fish and coral. High nitrate levels are specifically toxic to corals, while phosphates slow down skeletal growth.
Excess nutrients can intensify existing disease, including potentially doubling the spread of [[Aspergillosis]], a fungal infection that kills soft corals such as sea fans, and increasing yellow band disease, a [[bacteria]]l [[infection]] that kills reef-building hard corals by fifty percent.<ref>{{cite web|author=Rachel Nowak|publisher=New Scientist|date=11 January 2004|title=Sewage nutrients fuel coral disease|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn4539|access-date=10 August 2006}}</ref>
{{clear}}
==== Air pollution ====
{{main|Air pollution}}
A study released in April 2013 has shown that air pollution can also stunt the growth of [[coral reef]]s; researchers from Australia, Panama and the UK used coral records (between 1880 and 2000) from the western Caribbean to show the threat of factors such as coal-burning coal and volcanic eruptions. The researchers state that the study signifies the first time that the relationship between air pollution and coral reefs has been elucidated, while former chair of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority Ian McPhail referred to the report as "fascinating" upon the public release of its findings.<ref>{{cite web|title=Air pollution casts a cloud over coral reef growth|url=http://theconversation.com/air-pollution-casts-a-cloud-over-coral-reef-growth-13319|work=The Conversation|publisher=The Conversation Media Group|access-date=9 April 2013|author=Liz Minchin|date=8 April 2013}}</ref>
===Marine debris===
{{main|Marine debris}}
Marine debris is defined as any persistent solid material that is manufactured or processed and directly or indirectly, intentionally or unintentionally, disposed of or abandoned into the marine environment or the Great Lakes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/marinedebris.html|title=What is marine debris?|first=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|last=US Department of Commerce|website=oceanservice.noaa.gov}}</ref> Debris may arrive directly from a ship or indirectly when washed out to sea via rivers, streams, and storm drains. Human-made items tend to be the most harmful such as [[plastics]] (from [[plastic bag|bags]] to balloons, hard hats to [[fishing line]]), glass, metal, rubber (millions of [[waste tire]]s), and even entire vessels.<ref name="celebrating200years.noaa.gov"/>
[[Plastic debris]] can kill and harm multiple reef species. Corals and coral reefs are at higher risk because they are immobile, meaning that when the water quality or other changes in their habitat occur, corals cannot move
to a different place; they must adapt or they will not survive.<ref>(Richards & Beger, 2011)</ref> There are two different classes of plastics, macro and [[microplastics]] and both types can cause damage in a number of ways. For example, macroplastics such as derelict (abandoned) fishing nets and other gear—often called "[[ghost net]]s" can still catch fish and other marine life and kill those organisms and break or damage reefs. Large items such as abandoned fishing nets are known as macroplastics whereas microplastics are plastic fragments that are typically less than or equal to 5 mm in length and have primarily been found to cause damage to coral reefs though corals ingesting these plastic fragments.[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Orange_Coral_Ingesting_a_Microplastic.jpg Fig. 1. Video frame sequence of capture and ingestion of a microplastic particle by a polyp of Astroides calycularis. Obtained from Savinelli et al. (2020)<nowiki>]]</nowiki>] Some researchers have found that ingestion of microlastics harms coral, and subsequently coral reefs, because ingesting these fragments reduced coral food intake as well as coral fitness since corals waste a lot of time and energy handling the plastic particles.<ref>(Savinelli et al., 2020)</ref> Unfortunately, even remote reef systems suffer the effects of marine debris, especially if it is [[plastic pollution]]. Reefs in the [[Northwestern Hawaiian Islands]] are particularly prone to the accumulation of marine debris because of their central location in the [[North Pacific Gyre]]. Fortunately, there are solutions to protect corals and coral reefs against the harmful effects of plastic pollution. However, since little to no research exists regarding specific medicinal ways to help corals recover from plastic exposure, the best solution is to not let plastics enter the marine environment at all. This can be accomplished through a number of ways, some of which are already being enacted. For example, there are measures to ban microplastics from products like cosmetics and toothpaste <ref>(Prata, 2018, as cited in Pettipas et al., 2016; Rochman et al., 2015; Xanthos and Walker, 2017),</ref> as well as measures that demand for products that contain microplastics to be labeled as such so as to reduce their consumption.<ref>(Prata, 2018, as cited in Chang, 2015)</ref> Additionally, newer and better detection methods are needed for microplastics <ref>(Prata, 2018)</ref> and they must be installed at waste water treatment facilities <ref>(Murphy et al., 2016)</ref> to prevent these particles from entering the marine environment and causing damage to marine life, especially coral reefs. Many people are realizing the problem of plastic pollution and other marine debris though, and have taken steps to mitigate it. For example, from 2000 to 2006, [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]] and partners removed over 500 tons of marine debris from the reefs in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.<ref name="celebrating200years.noaa.gov"/>
Cigarette butts also [[Cigarette#Aquatic life health concerns|damage aquatic life]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/coral-reefs/what-you-can-do-help-protect-coral-reefs|title=What You Can Do to Help Protect Coral Reefs|first=OW|last=US EPA|date=January 30, 2017|website=US EPA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.reefrelief.org/2013/02/the-environmental-impact-of-cigarette-butt-waste-just-the-facts/|title=The Environmental Impact of Cigarette Butt Waste: Just the Facts|date=February 5, 2013}}</ref> In order to avoid cigarette butt litter, some [[Cigarette#Solution and remediation projects|solutions]] have been proposed, including possibly banning [[cigarette filter]]s and implementing a deposit system for [[e-cigarette]] pods.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/08/cigarettes-story-of-plastic/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190810125852/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/08/cigarettes-story-of-plastic/|url-status=dead|archive-date=August 10, 2019|title=Cigarette butts are toxic plastic pollution. Should they be banned?|date=August 9, 2019|website=Environment}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/08/the-worst-contaminants-of-oceans-are-not-plastic-straws-theyre-cigarette-butts/|title=Forget straws, cigarette butts are doing more damage to the oceans|website=World Economic Forum|date=28 August 2018 }}</ref>
{{clear}}
===Dredging===
{{Main|Dredging}}
[[Dredging]] operations are sometimes completed by cutting a path through a coral reef, directly destroying the reef structure and killing any organisms that live on it.<ref name="miamiherald">{{cite web|url=http://www.miamiherald.com/2014/06/06/4162375/scientists-race-to-save-coral.html |title=Scientists race to save coral doomed by Government Cut dredging - Environment - MiamiHerald.com |publisher=miamiherald.com |access-date=21 August 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715171454/http://www.miamiherald.com/2014/06/06/4162375/scientists-race-to-save-coral.html |archive-date=15 July 2014 }}</ref> Operations that directly destroy coral are often intended to deepen or otherwise enlarge [[Channel (geography)|shipping channels]] or [[canals]], due to the fact that in many areas, removal of coral requires a [[License|permit]], making it more cost-effective and simple to avoid coral reefs if possible.
Dredging also releases plumes of suspended sediment, which can settle on coral reefs, damaging them by starving them of food and sunlight. Continued exposure to dredging spoil has been shown to increase rates of diseases such as [[white syndrome]], [[Coral bleaching|bleaching]] and sediment [[necrosis]] among others.<ref name="theguardian">{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/jul/16/coral-reefs-face-heightened-risk-of-fatal-disease-from-dredging-says-research|title=Coral reefs face heightened risk of fatal disease from dredging, says research | Environment | theguardian.com|date=16 July 2014|work=The Guardian|access-date=21 August 2014}}</ref> A study conducted in the [[Montebello Islands|Montebello]] and [[Barrow Island (Western Australia)|Barrow Islands]] showed that the number of coral colonies with signs of poor health more than doubled in [[transects]] with high exposure to dredging sediment plumes.<ref name="plosone">{{cite journal|title=PLOS ONE: Sediment and Turbidity Associated with Offshore Dredging Increase Coral Disease Prevalence on Nearby Reefs|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=9|issue=7|pages=e102498|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0102498|pmid=25029525|year = 2014|last1 = Pollock|first1 = F. Joseph|last2=Lamb|first2=Joleah B.|last3=Field|first3=Stuart N.|last4=Heron|first4=Scott F.|last5=Schaffelke|first5=Britta|last6=Shedrawi|first6=George|last7=Bourne|first7=David G.|last8=Willis|first8=Bette L.|pmc=4100925|doi-access=free}}</ref>
===Sunscreen===
[[File:CoralBleaching.jpg|thumbnail|right|Unbleached and [[coral bleaching|bleached coral]].]]
[[Sunscreen]] can enter the ocean indirectly through wastewater systems when it is washed off and from swimmers and divers or directly if the sunscreen comes off people when in the ocean. Some 14,000 tons of sunscreen ends up in the ocean each year, with 4000 to 6000 tons entering reef areas annually.<ref name="Protect Yourself, Protect the Reef!">{{Cite news|url=https://cdhc.noaa.gov/_docs/Site%20Bulletin_Sunscreen_final.pdf|title=National Park Service - Protect Yourself, Protect the Reef! |access-date=2019-01-15|language=en}}</ref> There is an estimate that 90% of snorkeling and diving tourism is concentrated on 10% of the world's coral reefs, meaning that popular reefs are especially vulnerable to sunscreen exposure.<ref name="Protect Yourself, Protect the Reef!"/> Certain formulations of sunscreen are a serious danger to coral health. The common sunscreen ingredient [[oxybenzone]] causes coral bleaching and has an impact on other marine fauna.<ref name="NPR">{{Cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/10/20/450276158/chemicals-in-sunscreen-are-harming-coral-reefs-says-new-study|title=Chemicals In Sunscreen Are Harming Coral Reefs, Says New Study|last=Wagner|first=Laura|date=October 20, 2015|work=NPR|access-date=2017-04-09|language=en}}</ref> In addition to oxybenzone, there are other sunscreen ingredients, known as chemical UV filters, that can also be harmful to corals and coral reefs and other marine life. They are: Benzophenone-1, Benzophenone-8, OD-PABA, 4-Methylbenzylidene camphor, 3-Benzylidene camphor, nano-Titanium dioxide, nano-Zinc oxide, Octinoxate, and Octocrylene.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/news/sunscreen-corals.html|title=Sunscreen Chemicals and Marine Life|first=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|last=US Department of Commerce|website=oceanservice.noaa.gov}}</ref>
In [[Akumal]], Mexico, visitors are warned not to use sunscreen and are kept out of some areas to prevent damage to the coral. In several other tourist destinations, authorities recommend the use of sunscreens prepared with the naturally occurring chemicals [[titanium dioxide]] or [[zinc oxide]], or suggest the use of clothing rather than chemicals to screen the skin from the sun.<ref name="NPR"/><ref name="Protect Yourself, Protect the Reef!"/> The city of [[Miami Beach, Florida]] rejected calls for a ban on sunscreen in 2019 due to lack of evidence. <ref>{{cite web |last1=Wang |first1=Francis |title=Miami Beach Commissioners Vote Not To Ban Sunscreen Ingredients Experts Say Harm Coral Reefs |url=https://miami.cbslocal.com/2019/03/13/miami-beach-city-commission-meets-to-discuss-ordinance-that-would-ban-chemicals-in-sunscreen/ |website=CBS Miami |date=13 March 2019 |publisher=CBS}}</ref> In 2020, [[Palau]] enacted a ban on sunscreen and skincare products containing 10 chemicals including oxybenzone. The US state of [[Hawaii]] enacted a similar ban which came into effect in 2021.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-50963080|title=Palau is first country to ban 'reef toxic' sun cream |work=BBC News |date=January 2020 |access-date=2020-01-01}}</ref> Care should be taken to protect both the marine environment and your skin, as sun exposure causes 90% of premature aging and could cause skin cancer, and it is possible to do both.<ref name="auto1"/>
===Climate change===
{{Main|Climate change|Coral bleaching}}
[[File:Climate change threats to coral reefs.png|thumb|upright=2| {{center|Climate change threats to coral reefs – ''[[NOAA]]''<ref>[https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coralreef-climate.html How does climate change affect coral reefs?] ''NOAA: National Ocean Service''. Accessed 9 February 2020. Update 13 November 2019.</ref>}}]]
[[Current sea level rise|Rising sea levels due to climate change]] requires coral to grow so the coral can stay close enough to the surface to continue the process of [[photosynthesis]]. Water temperature changes or disease of the coral<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Ocean|publisher=DK|year=2006|pages=263}}</ref> can induce [[coral bleaching]], as happened during the 1998 and 2004 [[El Niño]] years, in which [[sea surface temperature]]s rose well above normal, bleaching and killing many reefs. Bleaching may be caused by different triggers, including high sea surface temperature (SST), pollution, or other diseases.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ocean|publisher=DK|year=2006|pages=152–155}}</ref> SST coupled with high irradiance (light intensity), triggers the loss of [[zooxanthellae]], a [[symbiotic]] single cell algae that gives the coral its color and the coral's [[dinoflagellate]] pigmentation, which turns the coral white when it is expelled, which can kill the coral. Zooxanthellae provide up to 90% of their hosts' energy supply.<ref name=":0" /> Healthy reefs can often recover from bleaching if water temperatures cool. However, recovery may not be possible if {{chem|CO|2}} levels rise to 500 [[Parts per million|ppm]] because concentrations of carbonate ions may then be too low.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=40021 |title=Environment: Between a Reef and a Hard Place |last=Leahy |first=Stephen |year=2007 |publisher=NoticiasFinancieras |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091008064436/http://www.ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=40021 |archive-date=2009-10-08 }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Hoegh-Guldberg|1999}}</ref> In summary, ocean warming is the primary cause of mass coral bleaching and mortality (very high confidence), which, together with ocean acidification, deteriorates the balance between coral reef construction and erosion (high confidence).<ref>{{Cite journal |date=February 28, 2022 |title=IPCC WGII Sixth Assessment Report Chapter 3 |url=https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6wg2/pdf/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FinalDraft_Chapter03.pdf |journal=IPCC Sixth Assessment Report |pages=42}}</ref>
Warming seawater may also welcome the emerging problem of coral disease. Weakened by warm water, coral is much more prone to diseases including [[black band disease]], [[white band disease]] and [[skeletal eroding band]]. If global temperatures increase by 2 °C during the twenty-first century, coral may not be able to adapt quickly enough to survive.<ref>{{cite journal
|doi=10.1007/BF00303779
|first=P.W. |last=Glynn |title=Coral Reef Bleaching: Ecological Perspectives" Earth and Environmental Science |journal=Coral Reefs |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=1–17 |date=March 1993 |bibcode=1993CorRe..12....1G|s2cid=46595398 }}<!--|access-date=1 February 2011 --></ref>
Warming seawater is also expected to cause migrations in fish populations to compensate for the change. This puts coral reefs and their associated species at risk of [[invasive species|invasion]] and may cause their extinction if they are unable to compete with the invading populations.<ref>{{cite journal|first=S. |last=Airamé |title=Climate Change, Coral Reef Ecosystems, and Management Options for Marine Protected Areas. |volume=44 |issue=6 |date=June 2009 |pmc=2791481 |pmid=19636605 |doi=10.1007/s00267-009-9346-0|bibcode = 2009EnMan..44.1069K |journal=Environmental Management |pages=1069–1088}}</ref>
A 2010 report by the [[Institute of Physics]] predicts that unless the national targets set by the [[Copenhagen Accord]] are amended to eliminate loopholes, then by 2100 global temperatures could rise by 4.2 °C and result in an end to coral reefs.<ref>[https://www.iop.org/news/sep10/page_44805.html Climate Accord loopholes could spell 4.2°C rise in temperature and end of coral reefs by 2100] ''[[Institute of Physics]]'', Press release, 29 September 2010.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1-link=Joeri Rogelj |vauthors=Rogelj J, Chen C, Nabel J, Macey K, Hare W, Schaeffer M, Markmann K, Höhne N, Andersen KK |display-authors=etal | year = 2010 | title =Analysis of the Copenhagen Accord pledges and its global climatic impacts—a snapshot of dissonant ambitions | url =https://www.iop.org/news/sep10/page_44805.html | journal = Environmental Research Letters | volume = 5 | issue = 3| page = 3 | doi = 10.1088/1748-9326/5/3/034013 |bibcode = 2010ERL.....5c4013R| doi-access = free | hdl = 11858/00-001M-0000-0028-1370-8 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Even a temperature rise of just 2 °C, currently very likely to happen in the next 50 years (so by 2068 A.D.), there would be a more than 99% chance that tropical corals would be eradicated.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/nov/11/next-generation-may-never-see-coral-reefs|title=Next generation 'may never see the glory of coral reefs'|first=Jonathan|last=Watts|newspaper=The Guardian |date=November 11, 2018|via=www.theguardian.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Oceans and Coastal Ecosystems and their Services |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter03.pdf}}</ref>
Warm-water coral reef ecosystems house one-quarter of the marine biodiversity and provide services in the form of food, income and shoreline protection to coastal communities around the world. These ecosystems are threatened by climate and non-climate drivers, especially ocean warming, MHWs, ocean acidification, SLR, tropical cyclones, fisheries/overharvesting, land-based pollution, disease spread and destructive shoreline practices. Warm-water coral reefs face near-term threats to their survival, but research on observed and projected impacts is very advanced.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=February 28, 2022 |title=IPCC WGII Sixth Assessment Report Chapter 3 |url=https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6wg2/pdf/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FinalDraft_Chapter03.pdf |journal=IPCC Sixth Assessment Report |pages=42}}</ref>
Anthropogenic climate change has exposed ocean and coastal ecosystems to conditions that are unprecedented over millennia (high confidence2 15 ), and this has greatly impacted life in the ocean and 16 along its coasts (very high confidence).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Oceans and Coastal Ecosystems and their Services |url=https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6wg2/pdf/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FinalDraft_Chapter03.pdf}}</ref>
===Ocean acidification===
{{Main|Ocean acidification}}
[[File:Isidella tentaculum - NOAA.jpg|thumb|[[Bamboo coral]] is an early harbinger of ocean acidification]]
[[Ocean acidification]] results from increases in atmospheric [[carbon dioxide]]. Oceans absorb around one–third of the increase.<ref name="Kleypas, J.A. 2006">{{cite web |url=http://www.ucar.edu/communications/Final_acidification.pdf |title=Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Coral Reefs and Other Marine Calcifiers: A Guide for Future Research |access-date=1 February 2011 |date=June 2006 |first1=Joan A. |last1=Kleypas|author-link=Joan Kleypas |first2=Richard A. |last2=Feely |first3=Victoria J. |last3=Fabry |first4=Chris |last4=Langdon |first5=Christopher L. |last5=Sabine |first6=Lisa L. |last6=Robbins |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720101953/http://www.ucar.edu/communications/Final_acidification.pdf |archive-date=20 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The dissolved gas reacts with the water to form [[carbonic acid]], and thus acidifies the ocean. This decreasing [[pH]] is another issue for coral reefs.<ref name="Kleypas, J.A. 2006"/>
Ocean surface pH is estimated to have decreased from about 8.25 to 8.14 since the beginning of the industrial era,<ref name=jacob05>{{cite journal
|last=Jacobson
|first=M. Z.
|url=http://www.stanford.edu/group/efmh/jacobson/OceanEq.pdf
|doi=10.1029/2004JD005220
|title=Studying ocean acidification with conservative, stable numerical schemes for nonequilibrium air-ocean exchange and ocean equilibrium chemistry
|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres
|volume=110
|page=D07302
|year=2005
|access-date=1 February 2011
|bibcode=2005JGRD..11007302J
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628202728/http://www.stanford.edu/group/efmh/jacobson/OceanEq.pdf
|archive-date=28 June 2011
}}</ref> and a further drop of 0.3–0.4 units is expected.<ref name=orr05>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1038/nature04095 |author=Orr, J. C. |year=2005 |title=Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the twenty-first century and its impact on calcifying organisms |url=http://www.ipsl.jussieu.fr/~jomce/acidification/paper/Orr_OnlineNature04095.pdf |journal=Nature |volume=437 |issue=7059 |pages=681–686 |pmid=16193043 |bibcode=2005Natur.437..681O |s2cid=4306199 |display-authors=etal |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625100559/http://www.ipsl.jussieu.fr/~jomce/acidification/paper/Orr_OnlineNature04095.pdf |archive-date=2008-06-25 }}</ref> This drop has made it so the amount of hydrogen ions have increased by 30%.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=GVRL&sw=w&v=2.1&id=GALE%7CCX3233900059&it=r&asid=fcfad6eeb5d5e02417a421935811fc5b.%20Accessed%2030%20Jan.%202017.&authCount=1|title=Coral Reefs and Coral|date=2009|website=Gale Virtual Reference Library|access-date=2017-03-13}}</ref> Before the industrial age the conditions for [[calcium carbonate]] production were typically stable in surface waters since the [[carbonate]] ion is at [[supersaturation|supersaturated]] concentrations. However, as the ionic concentration falls, carbonate becomes under-saturated, making calcium carbonate structures vulnerable to dissolution.<ref name=":1" /> Corals experience reduced calcification or enhanced dissolution when exposed to elevated {{chem|CO|2}}.<ref name=gatt98>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0921-8181(98)00035-6 | author = Gattuso, J.-P. | author2 = Frankignoulle, M. | author3 = Bourge, I. | author4 = Romaine, S. | author5 = Buddemeier, R. W. | name-list-style = amp | year = 1998 | title = Effect of calcium carbonate saturation of seawater on coral calcification | url = http://www.obs-vlfr.fr/~gattuso/jpg_papers_list.php | journal = Glob. Planet. Change | volume = 18 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 37–46 | bibcode = 1998GPC....18...37G | access-date = 2010-06-12 | archive-date = 2019-07-20 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190720181400/http://www.obs-vlfr.fr/~gattuso/jpg_papers_list.php | url-status = dead }}</ref> This causes the skeletons of the corals to weaken, or even not be made at all.<ref name=":1" /> Ocean acidification may also have an effect of 'gender discrimination' as spawning female corals are significantly more susceptible to the negative effects of ocean acidification than spawning male coral <ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Holcomb|first1=M.|last2=Cohen|first2=A. L.|last3=McCorkle|first3=D. C.|date=2011-08-23|title=A gender bias in the calcification response to ocean acidification|url=https://bg.copernicus.org/preprints/8/8485/2011/bgd-8-8485-2011.pdf|doi=10.5194/bgd-8-8485-2011|doi-access=free}}</ref>
[[Bamboo coral]] is a [[deep water coral]] which produces [[growth ring]]s similar to trees. The growth rings illustrate growth rate changes as deep sea conditions change, including changes due to ocean acidification. Specimens as old as 4,000 years have given scientists "4,000 years worth of information about what has been going on in the deep ocean interior".<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2009/20090305_coral.html
|title=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration – New Deep-Sea Coral Discovered on NOAA-Supported Mission
|publisher=www.noaanews.noaa.gov|access-date=11 May 2009}}
</ref>
[[File:Ocellaris clownfish.JPG|thumb|left|Higher levels of carbon dioxide in the water harms the ability of young clown and damsel fishes to smell and hear]]{{Update|part=section|date=May 2021|reason=The following paragraph may need an update, based on the last paragraph in this section}}
Rising carbon dioxide levels could confuse brain signaling in fish. In 2012, researchers reported on their results after studying the behavior of baby [[Clownfish|clown]] and [[damselfish]]es for several years in water with elevated levels of dissolved carbon dioxide, in line with what may exist by the end of the century. They found that the higher carbon dioxide disrupted a key brain [[Receptor (biochemistry)|receptor]] in the fish, interfering with [[neurotransmitter]] functions. The damaged central nervous systems affected fish behavior and diminishing their sensory capacity to a point "likely to impair their chances of survival". The fishes were less able to locate reefs by smell or "detect the warning smell of a predator fish". Nor could they hear the sounds made by other reef fish, compromising their ability to locate safe reefs and avoid dangerous ones. They also lost their usual tendencies to turn to the left or right, damaging their ability to [[Shoaling and schooling|school]] with other fish.<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2012/01/16/3409053.htm Carbon dioxide affecting fish brains: study] ''ABC'', 16 January 2012.</ref><ref>[http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/337677/title/Rising_carbon_dioxide_confuses_brain_signaling_in_fish Rising carbon dioxide confuses brain signaling in fish] ''Science News Online'', 16 January 2012.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Nilsson GE, Dixson DL, Domenici P, McCormick MI, Sørensen C, Watson S, Munday PL | year = 2012 | title = Near-future carbon dioxide levels alter fish behaviour by interfering with neurotransmitter function Letter | journal = Nature Climate Change | volume = 2 | issue = 3| page = 1 | doi = 10.1038/nclimate1352 |bibcode = 2012NatCC...2..201N | s2cid = 67762214 }}</ref>
Although previous experiments found several detrimental effects on coral fish behavior from projected end-of-21st-century ocean acidification, a 2020 replication study found that "end-of-century ocean acidification levels have negligible effects on [three] important behaviors of coral reef fishes" and with "data simulations, [showed] that the large effect sizes and small within-group variances that have been reported in several previous studies are highly improbable".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Clark|first1=Timothy D.|last2=Raby|first2=Graham D.|last3=Roche|first3=Dominique G.|last4=Binning|first4=Sandra A.|last5=Speers-Roesch|first5=Ben|last6=Jutfelt|first6=Fredrik|last7=Sundin|first7=Josefin|date=2020-01-08|title=Ocean acidification does not impair the behaviour of coral reef fishes|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1903-y|journal=Nature|volume=577|issue=7790|pages=370–375|doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1903-y|pmid=31915382|bibcode=2020Natur.577..370C|s2cid=210118722|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Enserink|first=Martin|date=2020-01-08|title=Analysis challenges slew of studies claiming ocean acidification alters fish behavior|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/analysis-challenges-slew-studies-claiming-ocean-acidification-alter-fish-behavior|website=[[Science (journal)|Science]] news}}</ref> In 2021 it emerged that allegations of some of the previous studies being fraudulent have been raised.<ref>{{Cite web|last=EnserinkMay. 6|first=Martin|date=2021-05-06|title=Does ocean acidification alter fish behavior? Fraud allegations create a sea of doubt|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/does-ocean-acidification-alter-fish-behavior-fraud-allegations-create-sea-doubt|website=[[Science (journal)|Science]] news}}</ref> Furthermore, [[effect size]]s of studies assessing ocean acidification effects on fish behavior have declined dramatically over a decade of research on this topic, with effects appearing negligible since 2015.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Clements |first1=Jeff C. |last2=Sundin |first2=Josefin |last3=Clark |first3=Timothy D. |last4=Jutfelt |first4=Fredrik |date=2022-02-03 |title=Meta-analysis reveals an extreme "decline effect" in the impacts of ocean acidification on fish behavior |journal=PLOS Biology |language=en |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=e3001511 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3001511 |issn=1545-7885 |pmc=8812914 |pmid=35113875 |doi-access=free }}</ref>{{clear}}
===Ocean deoxygenation===
[[File:The Brain coral.jpg|thumb|Some coral reefs are experiencing [[Anoxic event|hypoxia]] which can lead to bleaching and mass coral die-offs]]
{{see also|Anoxic event}}
There has been a severe increase in mass mortality events associated with low oxygen causing mass hypoxia with the majority having been in the last 2 decades. The rise in water temperature leads to an increase in oxygen demand and the increase for [[ocean deoxygenation]] which causes these large coral reef [[Dead zone (ecology)|dead zones.]] For many [[coral reef]]s, the response to this hypoxia is very dependent on the magnitude and duration of the deoxygenation. The symptoms can be anywhere from reduced [[photosynthesis]] and [[calcification]] to [[Coral bleaching|bleaching]]. Hypoxia can have indirect effects like the abundance of algae and spread of coral diseases in the [[ecosystem]]s. While coral is unable to handle such low levels of oxygen, algae is quite tolerant. Because of this, in interaction zones between algae and coral, increased hypoxia will cause more coral death and higher spread of algae. The increase mass coral dead zones is reinforced by the spread of coral diseases. Coral diseases can spread easily when there are high concentrations of [[sulfide]] and hypoxic conditions. Due to the loop of hypoxia and coral reef mortality, the fish and other marine life that inhabit the coral reefs have a change in behavioral in response to the hypoxia. Some fish will go upwards to find more oxygenated water, and some enter a phase of metabolic and ventilatory depression. Invertebrates migrate out of their homes to the surface of [[Substrate (marine biology)|substratum]] or move to the tips of arborescent [[coral colonies]].<ref name=Laffoley2019>Laffoley, D. & Baxter, J.M. (eds.) (2019). [https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/08.8%20DEOX.pdf Ocean deoxygenation: Everyone’s problem - Causes, impacts, consequences and solutions]. IUCN, Switzerland.</ref><ref>Vanwonterghem, I. and Webster, N.S. (2020) "Coral reef microorganisms in a changing climate". ''Iscience'', '''23'''(4). {{doi|10.1016/j.isci.2020.100972}}.</ref>
Around 6 million people, the majority who live in developing countries, depend on [[Fishery|coral reef fisheries]]. These mass die-offs due to extreme hypoxic events can have severe impacts on reef fish populations. Coral reef ecosystems offer a variety of essential ecosystem services including shoreline protection, [[nitrogen fixation]], and waste assimilation, and tourism opportunities. The continued decline of oxygen in oceans on coral reefs is concerning because it takes many years (decades) to repair and regrow corals.<ref name=Laffoley2019 />
===Disease===
Disease is a serious threat to many coral species. The diseases of coral may consist of bacterial, viral, fungal, or parasitic infections. Due to stressors like climate change and pollution, coral can become more vulnerable to diseases. Some examples of coral disease are ''Vibrio'', white syndrome, white band, rapid wasting disease, and many more.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.pierce.ctc.edu:2189/ehost/detail/detail?vid=14&sid=f278f495-82f3-4790-a5bf-2bf8783710ca%40sessionmgr4010&hid=4114&bdata=JnNjb3BlPXNpdGU%3d#AN=503444154&db=scf|title=Emerging Infections on the Reefs|last=Bruckner|first=Andrew and Robin|date=1998|website=EBSCO|access-date=2017-03-13}}{{Dead link|date=August 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> These diseases have different effects on the corals, ranging from damaging and killing individual corals to wiping out entire reefs.<ref name=":2" />
In the Caribbean, white band disease is one of the primary causes for the death of over eighty percent of Staghorn and Elkhorn coral (Reef Resilience). It is a disease that can destroy miles of coral reef fast.
A disease such as white plague can spread over a coral colony by a half an inch a day. By the time the disease has fully taken over the colony, it leaves behind a dead skeleton. Dead standing coral structures are what most people see after disease has taken over a reef.
Recently, the Florida Reef Tract in the United States has been plagued by a stony coral tissue loss disease. The disease was first identified in 2014 and as of 2018 has been reported in every part of the reef except the lower Florida Keys and the Dry Tortugas. The cause of the disease is unknown but is thought to be caused by bacteria and be transmitted through direct contact and water circulation. This disease event is unique due to its large geographic range, extended duration, rapid progression, high rates of mortality and the number of species affected.<ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=https://floridakeys.noaa.gov/coral-disease/|title=Florida Reef Tract Coral Disease Outbreak |publisher=NOAA Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary |access-date=2019-01-14}}</ref>
=== Recreational diving ===
{{main|Environmental impact of recreational diving}}
During the 20th century recreational scuba diving was considered to have generally low environmental impact, and was consequently one of the activities permitted in most marine protected areas. Since the 1970s diving has changed from an elite activity to a more accessible recreation, marketed to a very wide demographic. To some extent better equipment has been substituted for more rigorous training, and the reduction in perceived risk has shortened minimum training requirements by several training agencies. Training has concentrated on an acceptable risk to the diver, and paid less attention to the environment. The increase in the popularity of diving and in tourist access to sensitive ecological systems has led to the recognition that the activity can have significant environmental consequences.<ref name="Hammerton 2014" >{{cite thesis |publisher=Southern Cross University |date=2014|title=SCUBA-diver impacts and management strategies for subtropical marine protected areas |first=Zan |last=Hammerton |url=https://epubs.scu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1456&context=theses |url-access=<!--WP:URLACCESS--> }}</ref>
Scuba diving has grown in popularity during the 21st century, as is shown by the number of certifications issued worldwide, which has increased to about 23 million by 2016 at about one million per year.<ref name="Lucrezi 2016" >{{cite web|url=http://theconversation.com/how-scuba-diving-is-warding-off-threats-to-its-future-52504 |title=How scuba diving is warding off threats to its future |date=18 January 2016 |last=Lucrezi |first=Serena |website=The Conversation |access-date=5 September 2019 }}</ref> Scuba diving tourism is a growth industry, and it is necessary to consider [[environmental sustainability]], as the expanding impact of divers can adversely affect the [[marine environment]] in several ways, and the impact also depends on the specific environment. Tropical coral reefs are more easily damaged by poor diving skills than some temperate reefs, where the environment is more robust due to rougher sea conditions and fewer fragile, slow-growing organisms. The same pleasant sea conditions that allow development of relatively delicate and highly diverse ecologies also attract the greatest number of tourists, including divers who dive infrequently, exclusively on vacation and never fully develop the skills to dive in an environmentally friendly way.<ref name="Dimmock et al 2013" >{{cite book |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259489022 |title=Scuba Diving Tourism |chapter=Chapter 10: The business of Scuba diving |pages=161–173|publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |first1=Kay |last1=Dimmock |first2=Terry |last2=Cummins |first3=Ghazali |last3=Musa |editor1-first=Ghazali |editor1-last=Musa |editor2-first=Kay |editor2-last=Dimmock }}</ref> [[Low impact diving]] training has been shown to be effective in reducing diver contact to more sustainable levels.<ref name="Hammerton 2014" /> Experience appears to be the most important factor in explaining divers' underwater behaviour, followed by their attitude towards diving and the environment, and [[personality type]].<ref name="Ong and Musa 2012" >{{cite journal |title=Examining the influences of experience, personality and attitude on SCUBA divers' underwater behaviour: A structural equation model |last1=Ong |first1=Tah Fatt |last2= Musa |first2=Ghazali |journal=Tourism Management |publisher=Elsevier |volume=33 |date=2012 |issue=6 |pages=1521–1534 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2012.02.007 }}</ref>
=== Other issues ===
[[File:CoralSandAruba.jpg|thumb|[[Coral sand]] from a beach on [[Aruba]], [[Caribbean Sea]].]]
Within the last 20 years, once-prolific [[seagrass meadow]]s and [[mangrove forest]]s, which absorb massive amounts of nutrients and [[sediment]], have been destroyed. Both the loss of wetlands, mangrove habitats and seagrass meadows affect the [[water quality]] of inshore reefs.<ref>{{cite web|author=Australian Government Productivity Commission|year=2003|title=Industries, Land Use and Water Quality in the Great Barrier Reef Catchment – Key Points| url= http://www.pc.gov.au/study/gbr/finalreport/keypoints.html|access-date=29 May 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060906134413/http://www.pc.gov.au/study/gbr/finalreport/keypoints.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 6 September 2006}}</ref>
[[Coral sand|Coral mining]] is another threat. Both small scale harvesting by villagers and industrial scale mining by companies are serious threats. Mining is usually done to produce construction material which is valued as much as 50% cheaper than other rocks, such as from [[quarries]].<ref name="The Greenpeace Book of Coral Reefs">The Greenpeace Book of Coral Reefs</ref> The rocks are ground and mixed with other materials, like cement to make concrete. Ancient coral used for construction is known as [[coral rag]]. Building directly on the reef also takes its toll, altering water circulation and the tides which bring the nutrients to the reef. The pressing reason for building on reefs is simply lack of space, and because of this, some of the areas with heavily mined coral reefs have still not been able to recover. Another pressing issue is coral collecting. There are bountiful amounts of coral that are deemed so beautiful that they are often collected. The collected coral are used to make a handful of things, including jewelry and home decorations. The breakage of coral branches is unhealthy for the reefs; therefore, tourists and those who purchase such items contribute greatly to the already devastating coral reefs and climate change.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://coral.org/coral-reefs-101/reef-threats/direct/|title=Direct Threats|website=Coral Reef Alliance}}</ref>
[[File:Coral-reef-bioerosion.jpg|thumbnail|left|Eroded coral<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biology.iastate.edu/intop/1Australia/Australia%20papers/Bioerosion.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030902051522/http://www.biology.iastate.edu/intop/1Australia/Australia%20papers/Bioerosion.htm |archive-date=2 September 2003 |title=Bioerosion: an essential, and often overlooked, aspect of reef ecology |date=17 April 2003 |access-date=2 November 2006 |author=Ryan Holl |publisher=[[Iowa State University]] |url-status=dead }}</ref>]]
Boats and ships require access points into bays and islands to load and unload cargo and people. For this, parts of reefs are often chopped away to clear a path. Negative consequences can include altered water circulation and altered [[tide|tidal]] patterns which can disrupt the reef's nutrient supply; sometimes destroying a great part of the reef. [[Fishing vessel]]s and other large boats occasionally run aground on a reef. Two types of damage can result. Collision damage occurs when a coral reef is crushed and split by a vessel's hull into multiple fragments. Scarring occurs when boat propellers tear off the live coral and expose the skeleton. The physical damage can be noticed as striations. [[Mooring (watercraft)|Mooring]] causes damage which can be reduced by using mooring [[buoy]]s. Buoys can attach to the seafloor using concrete blocks as weights or by penetrating the seafloor, which further reduces damage.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.publicaffairs.noaa.gov/releases2003/jan03/noaa03r402.html|title=Department of Commerce Awards Bronze Medal to Florida Biologist John Halas|access-date=2010-06-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100722063256/http://www.publicaffairs.noaa.gov/releases2003/jan03/noaa03r402.html|archive-date=2010-07-22|url-status=dead}}</ref> Also, [[Tetiaroa#Future of Teti'aroa|reef docks]] can be used to move over goods from large, seagoing vessels to small, flat-bottomed vessels.
Coral in Taiwan is being threatened by the influx of human population growth. Since 2007, several local environmental groups conducted research and found that much of the coral populations are being affected by untreated sewage, an influx of tourists taking corals for souvenirs, without fully understanding the destructive impact on the coral's ecological system. Researchers reported to the Taiwanese government that many coral populations have turned black in the southeast coast of Taiwan. Potentially, this could lead to loss of food supply, medicinal sources and tourism due to the breakdown of the food chain.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2009-02-06 |title=Taiwan coral reefs "turn black" with disease |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-taiwan-coral-idUSTRE5151HL20090206 |access-date=2023-05-11}}</ref>
== Oil ==
'''Causes and Effects of Oil Spills'''
The causes for oils spills can be separated into 2 categories: natural and anthropogenic causes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Oil Spill Causes {{!}} Environmental Pollution Centers |url=https://www.environmentalpollutioncenters.org/oil-spill/causes/ |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=www.environmentalpollutioncenters.org |language=en}}</ref>
Natural causes can be from oil that leaks out from the ocean floor into the water; erosion of the seafloor; or even climate change. The amount that naturally seeps into the ocean is 181 million gallons, which varies yearly.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=GUNDLACH |first1=E. R |last2=HAYES |first2=M. O |date=1978 |title=Vulnerability of coastal environments to oil spill impacts |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/770409334 |language=English |oclc=770409334}}</ref>
[[File:North Sea Oil Rig (7573694644).jpg|thumb|Oil Rig in the North Sea]]
Anthropogenic causes involve human activities and is how most oil enters the ocean. The ways oil spills anthropogenically in the ocean are because of drilling rigs, pipelines, refineries, and wars. Anthropogenic spills are more harmful than naturals spills, as unlike natural spills, they leak about 210 million gallons of petroleum each year. Also, anthropogenic spills cause abrupt changes to ecosystems with long-term effects and even longer remediations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Oil Spills; Causes, Effects, Solutions {{!}} Environment Buddy |url=https://www.environmentbuddy.com/environment/oil-spills-causes-effects-solutions/ |access-date=2022-04-21 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kingston |first=Paul F |date=2002-06-01 |title=Long-term Environmental Impact of Oil Spills |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1353256102000518 |journal=Spill Science & Technology Bulletin |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=53–61 |doi=10.1016/S1353-2561(02)00051-8 |issn=1353-2561}}</ref>
When oil spills occur, the affects can be felt in an area for decades and can cause massive damage to the aquatic life. For aquatic plant life an oil spill could affect how light, and oxygen is available for photosynthesis.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fragoso ados Santos |first1=Henrique |last2=Duarte |first2=Gustavo Adolpho Santos |last3=Rachid |first3=Caio TavoraCoelho da Costa |last4=Chaloub |first4=Ricardo Moreira |last5=Calderon |first5=Emiliano Nicolas |last6=Marangoni |first6=Laura Fernandes de Barros |last7=Bianchini |first7=Adalto |last8=Nudi |first8=Adriana Haddad |last9=do Carmo |first9=Flávia Lima |last10=van Elsas |first10=Jan Dirk |last11=Rosado |first11=Alexandre Soares |date=2015-12-14 |title=Impact of oil spills on coral reefs can be reduced by bioremediation using probiotic microbiota |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=18268 |doi=10.1038/srep18268 |pmid=26658023 |pmc=4677405 |bibcode=2015NatSR...518268F |s2cid=5277926 |issn=2045-2322}}</ref>
[[File:Coral Reef, Belize.jpg|thumb|Coral Reef Community]]
Two other examples of the many ways oil harms wildlife are in the form of [[Effects of oil exposure on wildlife|oil toxicity]] and [[fouling]]. Oil toxicity affects the wildlife when the toxic compounds oil is made up of enters the body doing damage to the internal organs, and eventually causes death. Fouling is when oil harms wildlife via coating itself on an animal or plant physically.<ref>{{Citation |last=Waskey |first=Andrew J. |title=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) |date=2011 |url=https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/disasterrelief/n179.xml |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Disaster Relief |pages=440–442 |place=Thousand Oaks |publisher=SAGE Publications, Inc. |doi=10.4135/9781412994064 |isbn=9781412971010 |access-date=2022-04-21}}</ref>
'''Oil Impacts on Coral Reef Communities'''
Oil pollution is hazardous to living marine habitats due to its toxic constituents. [[Oil spill]]s occur due to natural seepage and during activities such as transportation and handling. These spills harm the marine and coastal wildlife. When the organisms have become exposed to these oil spills, it can lead them to suffer from [[Irritation|skin irritation]], decreased immunity and gastrointestinal damage.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Prasad |first1=S J |last2=Nair |first2=T M Balakrishnan |last3=Joseph |first3=Sudheer |last4=Mohanty |first4=P C |date=2022 |title=Simulating the spatial and temporal distribution of oil spill over the coral reef environs along the southeast coast of Mauritius: A case study on MV Wakashio vessel wreckage, August 2020 |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12040-021-01791-z |journal=Journal of Earth System Science |language=en |volume=131 |issue=1 |pages=42 |doi=10.1007/s12040-021-01791-z |bibcode=2022JESS..131...42P |s2cid=246481260 |issn=2347-4327}}</ref>
When oil floats above the coral reef, it will have no effect on the coral below, it is when the oil starts to sink to the ocean floor when it becomes a problem. The problem is the physical effect from the oil-sediment particle which has been found to be less harmful than if the coral came in contact with the toxic oil.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last1=Loya |first1=Y |last2=Rinkevich |first2=B |date=1980 |title=Effects of Oil Pollution on Coral Reef Communities |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |volume=3 |pages=167–180 |doi=10.3354/meps003167 |bibcode=1980MEPS....3..167L |issn=0171-8630|doi-access=free }}</ref>
When the oil comes into contact with [[coral]]s, not only the reef system will be affected but fish, crabs and many more marine [[Invertebrate|invertebrates.]] Just a few drops of oil can cause coral reef fish to make poor decisions. Oil will impact the thinking of the coral reef fish in a way that could be dangerous to the fish and the coral reef where they choose their home.<ref name=":02" />
It can negatively affect their growth, survival, settlement behaviors, and increases predation. It has been found that larval fish who have been exposed to oil will eventually have heart issues and physical irregularities later in life.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hartmann |first1=AC |last2=Sandin |first2=SA |last3=Chamberland |first3=VF |last4=Marhaver |first4=KL |last5=de Goeij |first5=JM |last6=Vermeij |first6=MJA |date=2015-09-29 |title=Crude oil contamination interrupts settlement of coral larvae after direct exposure ends |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |volume=536 |pages=163–173 |doi=10.3354/meps11437 |bibcode=2015MEPS..536..163H |issn=0171-8630|doi-access=free }}</ref>
=== Oil Impacts on Coral Life and Symbiotic Relationships ===
Evidence for the damaging effects of oil spills on coral reef structures can be seen at a reef site a few kilometers southwest of the Macondo well. Coral at this site, which has been covered in crude oil chemicals and brown flocculent particles, were found dying just seven months after the [[Deepwater Horizon oil spill|Deepwater Horizon eruption]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fisher |first1=Charles R. |last2=Demopoulos |first2=Amanda W. J. |last3=Cordes |first3=Erik E. |last4=Baums |first4=Iliana B. |author-link4=Iliana Baums|last5=White |first5=Helen K. |last6=Bourque |first6=Jill R. |date=2014 |title=Coral Communities as Indicators of Ecosystem-Level Impacts of the Deepwater Horizon Spill |url=http://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/64/9/796/269808/Coral-Communities-as-Indicators-of-EcosystemLevel |journal=BioScience |language=en |volume=64 |issue=9 |pages=796–807 |doi=10.1093/biosci/biu129 |issn=1525-3244|doi-access=free }}</ref>
[[File:Gorgone_de_Mayotte.jpeg|thumb|Gorgonian Coral]]
[[Alcyonacea|Gorgonian octocorals]] (soft coral communities) are highly susceptible to damage from oil spills. This is due to the structure and function of their polyps, which are specialized in filtering tiny particles from the water.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Etnoyer |first1=Peter J. |last2=Wickes |first2=Leslie N. |last3=Silva |first3=Mauricio |last4=Dubick |first4=J. D. |last5=Balthis |first5=Len |last6=Salgado |first6=Enrique |last7=MacDonald |first7=Ian R. |date=2015 |title=Decline in condition of gorgonian octocorals on mesophotic reefs in the northern Gulf of Mexico: before and after the Deepwater Horizon oil spill |journal=Coral Reefs |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=77–90 |doi=10.1007/s00338-015-1363-2 |s2cid=18048850 |issn=0722-4028|doi-access=free }}</ref>
Corals have a complex relationship with many different [[Prokaryote|prokaryotic]] organisms, including probiotic microorganisms that protect the corals from harmful environmental pollutants. However, research has shown that oil spills damage these organisms, and weaken their ability to protect reef structures in the presence of oil pollution.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fragoso ados Santos |first1=Henrique |last2=Duarte |first2=Gustavo Adolpho Santos |last3=Rachid |first3=Caio TavoraCoelho da Costa |last4=Chaloub |first4=Ricardo Moreira |last5=Calderon |first5=Emiliano Nicolas |last6=Marangoni |first6=Laura Fernandes de Barros |last7=Bianchini |first7=Adalto |last8=Nudi |first8=Adriana Haddad |last9=do Carmo |first9=Flávia Lima |last10=van Elsas |first10=Jan Dirk |last11=Rosado |first11=Alexandre Soares |date=2015 |title=Impact of oil spills on coral reefs can be reduced by bioremediation using probiotic microbiota |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=18268 |doi=10.1038/srep18268 |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=4677405 |pmid=26658023|bibcode=2015NatSR...518268F }}</ref>
'''Oil Clean up Methods'''
[[File:Oil Spill Containment Boom.jpg|thumb|Oil Spill Containment Boom]]
Booms are floating barricades that are placed in an oil spreading area that restrict the movement of floating oil. Booms are often utilized alongside skimmers, which are sponges and oil absorbent ropes that collect oil from the water. Moreover, insitu-burning and chemical [[Dispersion (chemistry)|dispersion]] can be utilized during an oil spillage. Insitu-burning refers to burning oil that has been collected to one location with a fire-resistant containment boom, however, the combustion from insitu-burning does not fully remove the oil but instead breaks it down into different chemicals which can negatively affect marine reefs.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pradhan-Das-Pradhan |first=Binapani-Madhumita-Madhumita |date=2021 |title=Marine Oil Spills: Implications on Response Plan |url=http://www.tshe.org/ea/pdf/EA14(3)/EA14(3)_02.pdf |website=Environment Asia}}</ref>
Chemical dispersants consist of [[Emulsion|emulsifiers]] and solvents that break oil into small droplets and are the most common form of oil removal, however, these can reduce corals [[Resilience of coral reefs|resilience]] to environmental [[stressor]]s. Moreover, chemical dispersants can physically harm coral species when exposed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Silva |first1=Denise P. |last2=Villela |first2=Helena D. M. |last3=Santos |first3=Henrique F. |last4=Duarte |first4=Gustavo A. S. |last5=Ribeiro |first5=José Roberto |last6=Ghizelini |first6=Angela M. |last7=Vilela |first7=Caren L. S. |last8=Rosado |first8=Phillipe M. |last9=Fazolato |first9=Carolline S. |last10=Santoro |first10=Erika P. |last11=Carmo |first11=Flavia L. |date=2021 |title=Multi-domain probiotic consortium as an alternative to chemical remediation of oil spills at coral reefs and adjacent sites |journal=Microbiome |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=118 |doi=10.1186/s40168-021-01041-w |issn=2049-2618 |pmc=8138999 |pmid=34020712 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Dispersants have been also utilized to clean oil spills, however, they harm early stages of coral and reduces the settlement on reef systems and have since been banned. However, there is still one formulation of dispersants used, the [[Corexit|Corexit 9427]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dispersants |url=https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/public_lands/energy/dirty_energy_development/oil_and_gas/gulf_oil_spill/dispersants.html |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=www.biologicaldiversity.org}}</ref>
Microbial biosurfactants can be utilized to reduce the damage to reef ecosystems as an eco-friendly method, however, there are limitations to their effect. This method is still being studied and is not a certain method of oil clean up.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Patel |first1=Seema |last2=Homaei |first2=Ahmad |last3=Patil |first3=Sangram |last4=Daverey |first4=Achlesh |date=2018 |title=Microbial biosurfactants for oil spill remediation: pitfalls and potentials |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00253-018-9434-2 |journal=Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology |volume=103 |issue=1 |pages=27–37 |doi=10.1007/s00253-018-9434-2 |pmid=30343430 |s2cid=53042649 |issn=0175-7598}}</ref>
==Threatened species==
The global standard for recording [[threatened species|threatened]] marine species is the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature|IUCN]] Red List of Threatened Species.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/static/introduction|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090706005808/http://www.iucnredlist.org/static/introduction|url-status=dead|title=The 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species|archive-date=July 6, 2009}}</ref> This list is the foundation for marine conservation priorities worldwide. A species is listed in the threatened category if it is considered to be [[Critically endangered species|critically endangered]], [[Endangered species|endangered]], or [[Vulnerable species|vulnerable]]. Other categories are [[near threatened]] and [[data deficient]]. By 2008, the [[IUCN]] had assessed all 845 known reef-building corals species, marking 27% as [[threatened species|Threatened]], 20% as [[near threatened]], and 17% as [[data deficient]].<ref name="IUCN factsheet">[[IUCN]]: [http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/status_of_the_world_s_marine_species.pdf Status of the world's marine species]</ref>
The [[Coral Triangle|coral triangle]] (Indo-Malay-Philippine archipelago) region has the highest number of reef-building coral species in threatened category as well as the highest coral species diversity. The loss of coral reef ecosystems will have devastating effects on many marine species, as well as on people that depend on reef resources for their livelihoods.<ref name="IUCN factsheet"/>
==Issues by region==
[[File:oa-sami.jpg|thumb|right| A [[NOAA]] ([[Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory|AOML]]) ''in situ'' {{chem|pCO|2}} sensor ([http://sunburstsensors.com/ SAMI-CO2]), attached to a Coral Reef Early Warning System station in [[Discovery Bay, Jamaica|Discovery Bay]], Jamaica, utilized in conducting [[ocean acidification]] studies near coral reef areas]]
===Australia===
{{Main|Environmental threats to the Great Barrier Reef}}
The [[Great Barrier Reef]] is the world's largest [[coral reef]] system.<ref name = UNEP>{{cite web|author=UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre |year=1980|title=Protected Areas and World Heritage – Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area|url=http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/gbrmp.html|publisher=[[Department of the Environment and Heritage]]|access-date=10 June 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060115152058/http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/gbrmp.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 15 January 2006}}</ref><ref name = GBRWHV>{{cite web|title=Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Values|url=http://www.deh.gov.au/heritage/worldheritage/sites/gbr/values.html|access-date=10 November 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061006181457/http://www.deh.gov.au/heritage/worldheritage/sites/gbr/values.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 6 October 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Fodor's|title=Great Barrier Reef Travel Guide|url=http://www.fodors.com/miniguides/mgresults.cfm?destination=great_barrier@230&cur_section=ove|access-date=8 August 2006}}</ref><ref name = 1975review>{{cite web|author=Department of the Environment and Heritage|title=Review of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act 1975|url=http://www.deh.gov.au/coasts/publications/gbr-marine-park-act.html|access-date=2 November 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061018005108/http://deh.gov.au/coasts/publications/gbr-marine-park-act.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 18 October 2006}}</ref> The reef is located in the [[Coral Sea]] and a large part of the reef is protected by the [[Great Barrier Reef Marine Park]]. Particular environmental pressures include [[surface runoff]], [[salinity]] fluctuations, [[climate change]], cyclic crown-of-thorns outbreaks, [[overfishing]], and spills or improper ballast discharge. According to the 2014 report of the [[Government of Australia]]'s Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA), climate change is the most significant environmental threat to the Great Barrier Reef.<ref name="Outlook">{{cite web|author1=GBRMPA |title=GBRMPA Outlook Report 2014 |url=http://asp-au.secure-zone.net/v2/index.jsp?id=1342/1518/5784&lng=en |website=Australian Government Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority |publisher=Australian Government |access-date=15 August 2014 |format=PDF |year=2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140813000159/http://asp-au.secure-zone.net/v2/index.jsp?id=1342%2F1518%2F5784&lng=en |archive-date=13 August 2014 }}</ref> {{As of|2018}}, 50% of the coral on the Great Barrier Reef has been lost.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/08/explore-atlas-great-barrier-reef-coral-bleaching-map-climate-change/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180809074121/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/08/explore-atlas-great-barrier-reef-coral-bleaching-map-climate-change/|url-status=dead|archive-date=August 9, 2018|title=Half of the Great Barrier Reef is Dead|last=James|first=Lauren E.|date=August 2018|work=National Geographic|access-date=February 1, 2019}}</ref>
===Southeast Asia===
{{See also|Southeast Asia coral reefs}}
Southeast Asian coral reefs are at risk from damaging [[fishing]] practices (such as [[Cyanide fishing|cyanide]] and [[blast fishing]]), [[overfishing]], sedimentation, pollution and bleaching. Activities including education, regulation and the establishment of [[marine protected area]]s help protect these reefs.
====Indonesia====
[[Indonesia]] is home to one-third of the world's coral reefs, with coral that covers nearly {{convert|85000|km2}} and is home to one-quarter of its fish [[species]]. Indonesia's coral reefs are located in the heart of the [[Coral Triangle]] and have fallen victim to destructive fishing, tourism and bleaching. Data from LIPI in 1998 found that only 7 percent is in excellent condition, 24 percent is in good condition and approximately 69 percent is in poor-to-fair condition. According to one source, Indonesia will lose 70 percent of its coral reef by 2050 if restoration action does not occur.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mengenali Sumberdaya Pesisir dan Laut|url=http://ipmawatisusan.blogspot.com/2010/11/mengenali-sumberdaya-pesisir-dan-laut.html|work=Pelajar Progressif|publisher=Google, Inc.|access-date=22 April 2013|author=Ditulis oleh susan|language=ms|date=30 November 2010}}</ref>
====Philippines====
In 2007, [[Reef Check]], the world's largest reef [[Habitat conservation|conservation]] organization, stated that only 5% of [[Philippines]] {{convert|27,000|km2}} of coral reef are in "''excellent condition''": [[Tubbataha Reef]], [[Marine Park]] in [[Palawan]], [[Apo Island]] in [[Negros Oriental]], [[Apo Reef]] in [[Puerto Galera]], [[Mindoro]], and [[Verde Island]] Passage off [[Batangas]]. [[Philippine]] [[coral reefs]] is [[Asia]]'s second largest.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/storypage.aspx|archive-url=https://archive.today/20070709212017/http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/storypage.aspx?StoryID=93671|url-status=dead|title=ABS-CBN Interactive|archive-date = 2007-07-09}}</ref>
====Taiwan====
Coral reefs in [[Taiwan]] are being threatened by human population growth. Many corals are affected by untreated sewage and souvenir-hunting tourists, not knowing that this practice destroys habitat and causes disease. Many corals have turned black from disease off Taiwan's southeast coast.<ref>{{cite news
|last=Jennings |first=R.
|date=Feb 6, 2009
|title=Taiwan coral reefs "turn black" with disease
|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE5151HL20090206
|work=Reuters}}</ref>
===Caribbean===
Coral disease was first recognized as a threat to Caribbean reefs in 1972 when [[black band disease]] was discovered. Since then diseases have been occurring with higher frequency.<ref>{{cite web|title=Information about Coral Disease |url=https://cdhc.noaa.gov/disease/default.aspx|publisher=NOAA Coral Disease & Health Consortium|access-date=15 January 2019}}</ref>
It has been estimated that 50% of the [[Caribbean sea]] coral cover has disappeared since the 1960s. According to a [[United Nations Environment Program]] report, the [[Caribbean]] coral reefs might face [[Local extinction|extirpation]] in next 20 years due to population expansion along the coast lines, overfishing, the pollution of coastal areas, global warming, and invasive species.<ref>{{cite web|title=Caribbean coral reefs may disappear within 20 years: Report |url=http://news.biharprabha.com/2014/07/caribbean-coral-reefs-may-disappear-within-20-years-report/|work=IANS|publisher=news.biharprabha.com|access-date=3 July 2014}}</ref>
In 2005, the Caribbean lost about 50% of its reef in one year due to coral bleaching. The warm water from [[Puerto Rico]] and the [[Virgin Islands]] travelled south to cause this coral bleaching.<ref>{{cite web |last1=US Department of Commerce |first1=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |title=What is coral bleaching? |url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral_bleach.html |website=oceanservice.noaa.gov |access-date=5 March 2019 |language=EN-US}}</ref>
==== Jamaica ====
{{main|Environmental issues of Jamaica's reefs}}
[[Jamaica]] is the third largest Caribbean island. The Caribbean's coral reefs will cease to exist in 20 years if a conservation effort is not made.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/jul/02/caribbean-coral-reef-lost-fishing-pollution-report|title=Caribbean coral reefs 'will be lost within 20 years' without protection|last=Aldred|first=Jessica|date=2014-07-02|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-08-06|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> In 2005, 34 percent of Jamaica's coral reefs were bleached due to rising sea temperatures.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://traveltips.usatoday.com/coral-reefs-jamaica-1380.html|title=Coral Reefs in Jamaica|access-date=2017-08-06|language=en}}</ref> Jamaica's coral reefs are also threatened by [[overfishing]], pollution, natural disasters, and reef mining.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hughes|first=Terence P.|s2cid=43204708|date=1994|title=Catastrophes, Phase Shifts, and Large-Scale Degradation of a Caribbean Coral Reef|jstor=2884556|journal=Science|volume=265|issue=5178|pages=1547–1551|bibcode=1994Sci...265.1547H|doi=10.1126/science.265.5178.1547|pmid=17801530}}</ref> In 2009, researchers concluded that many of the corals are recovering very slowly.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Crabbe|first=M.J.C.|title=Scleractinian coral population size structures and growth rates indicate coral resilience on the fringing reefs of North Jamaica|journal=Marine Environmental Research|volume=67|issue=4–5|pages=189–198|doi=10.1016/j.marenvres.2009.01.003|pmid=19269026|year=2009|bibcode=2009MarER..67..189C |s2cid=32292527 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00482199/file/PEER_stage2_10.1016%252Fj.marenvres.2009.01.003.pdf}}</ref>
====United States====
Southeastern Florida's reef track is 300 miles long.<ref>{{cite web|title=Florida |url=https://coast.noaa.gov/states/florida.html|publisher=NOAA Office for Coastal Management|access-date=16 January 2019}}</ref> Florida's coral reefs are currently undergoing an unprecedented stony coral tissue loss disease. The disease covers a large geographic range and affects many species of coral.<ref name="auto"/>
In January 2019, science divers confirmed that the outbreak of stony coral tissue that extends south and west of [[Key West]]. In December 2018, Disease was spotted at Maryland Shoals, near the [[Saddlebunch Keys]]. By mid January 5 more sites between American Shoal and [[Eastern Dry Rocks]] were confirmed diseased.<ref>{{cite web |last1=NOAA |title=Florida Reef Tract Coral Disease Outbreak {{!}} Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary |url=https://floridakeys.noaa.gov/coral-disease/ |website=floridakeys.noaa.gov}}</ref>
Puerto Rico is home to over 5,000 square kilometers of shallow coral reef ecosystems. Puerto Rico's coral reefs and associated ecosystems have an average economic value of nearly $1.1 billion per year.<ref>{{cite web|title=Puerto Rico |url=https://coast.noaa.gov/states/puerto-rico.html|publisher=NOAA Office for Coastal Management|access-date=16 January 2019}}</ref>
The U.S. Virgin Islands’ coral reefs and associated ecosystems have an average economic value of $187 million per year.<ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. Virgin Islands |url=https://coast.noaa.gov/states/usvi.html|publisher=NOAA Office for Coastal Management|access-date=16 January 2019}}</ref>
===Pacific===
====United States====
Hawaii's coral reefs (e.g. [[French Frigate Shoals]]) are a major factor in Hawaii's $800 million a year marine tourism and are being affected negatively by coral bleaching and increased sea surface temperatures, which in turn leads to coral reef diseases. The first large-scale coral bleaching occurred in 1996 and in 2004 it was found that the sea surface temperatures had been steadily increasing and if this pattern continues, bleaching events will occur more frequently and severely.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Aeby |first1=Greta |title=Coral Reefs : Climate Change and Marine Disease |url=http://dlnr.hawaii.gov/coralreefs/climate-change-and-marine-disease/ |website=dlnr.hawaii.gov |access-date=5 March 2019 |archive-date=8 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200608181743/https://dlnr.hawaii.gov/coralreefs/climate-change-and-marine-disease/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
==See also==
{{portal|Oceans}}
*[[Marine cloud brightening#Research|Marine cloud brightening]]
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
*{{cite web|title=Reef Resilience: Coral Reef Resilience to Crown of Thorns Starfish and Coral Bleaching |website=livingoceansfoundation.org |publisher=Khaled bin Sultan Living Oceans Foundation |date=16 November 2016 |url=https://www.livingoceansfoundation.org/science/reef-resilience/ }}
==Further reading==
* Barber, Charles V. and Vaughan R. Pratt. 1998. Poison and Profit: Cyanide Fishing in the Indo-Pacific. ''Environment'', [[Heldref Publications]].
* Martin, Glen. 2002. "The depths of destruction Dynamite fishing ravages Philippines' precious coral reefs". ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]'', 30 May 2002
* {{cite journal |last1=Rinkevich |first1=Baruch |title=Rebuilding coral reefs: does active reef restoration lead to sustainable reefs? |journal=Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability |date=1 April 2014 |volume=7 |pages=28–36 |doi=10.1016/j.cosust.2013.11.018 |bibcode=2014COES....7...28R }}
==External links==
*{{cite web|url=http://site.videoproject.com/coralreefs/ |title=Climate Change: Coral Reefs on the Edge |year=1999 |author-link=Ove Hoegh-Guldberg (biologist) |first=Ove |last=Hoegh-Guldberg |publisher=Global Change Institute, [[University of Queensland]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100614033126/http://site.videoproject.com/coralreefs/ |archive-date=2010-06-14 }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100610065226/http://ccma.nos.noaa.gov/ecosystems/coralreef/coral2008/welcome.html NOAA Report: The State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the United States and Pacific Freely Associated States: 2008]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090209180622/http://www.motherjones.com/news/special_reports/coral_reef/ A special report on the plight of the planet's coral reefs—and how you can help—from ''Mother Jones'' magazine]
{{human impact on the environment|state=expanded}}
{{corals}}
[[Category:Coral reefs]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental impact by effect|Coral reefs]]
[[Category:Great Barrier Reef]] |
Geodiversity | [[File:Lake pedder.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Lake Pedder]], south west Tasmania, prior to inundation as part of a hydro-electric development. Submergence of this unique landform assemblage and geoheritage feature beneath 15 m of water was one of many triggers to formulation of geoconservation philosophy.]]
'''Geodiversity''' is the variety of earth materials, forms and processes that constitute and shape the Earth, either the whole or a specific part of it.<ref name=Zwolinski>Zwolinski, Zb. 2004. ''Geodiversity'', in: ''Encyclopedia of Geomorphology'', A.Goudie (ed.), Routledge: pp. 417-418.</ref> Relevant materials include [[mineral]]s, [[Rock (geology)|rocks]], [[sediment]]s, [[fossil]]s, [[soil]]s and [[water]].<ref name=Gray/><ref name=Brilha2014>{{cite journal |last1=Brilha |first1=José |date=2014 |title=Inventory and Quantitative Assessment of Geosites and Geodiversity Sites: a Review |journal=Geoheritage |volume= 8|issue= 2|pages= 119–134|doi=10.1007/s12371-014-0139-3 |hdl=1822/32896 |s2cid=55232122 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Forms may comprise [[fold (geology)|folds]], [[fault (geology)|faults]], [[landform]]s and other expressions of morphology or relations between units of earth material. Any natural process that continues to act upon, maintain or modify either material or form (for example [[tectonics]], [[sediment transport]], [[pedogenesis]]) represents another aspect of geodiversity. However geodiversity is not normally defined to include the likes of landscaping, concrete or other significant human influence.<ref name=Gray>Gray, M. 2004. ''Geodiversity: Valuing and Conserving Abiotic Nature''. John Wiley & Sons Ltd {{ISBN|978-0470848951}}</ref>
== Overview ==
Geodiversity is neither homogeneously distributed nor studied across the planet. The identification of geodiversity hotspots (e.g. the islands of [[Geology of Great Britain|Great Britain]] and [[Geology of Tasmania|Tasmania]]) may be indicative not simply of the distribution of geodiversity but also of the status of [[geoconservation]] initiatives. In this regard it is worth noting that the [[biodiversity]] of an ecosystem stems at least in part from its underlying geology. With the majority of biological species remaining undescribed the classification and quantification of geodiversity is not an abstract exercise in geotaxonomy but a necessary part of mature nature conservation efforts, which also requires a [[Geoethics|geoethical]] approach.<ref>Peppoloni S. and Di Capua G. (2012), "[http://www.annalsofgeophysics.eu/index.php/annals/article/view/6099 Geoethics and geological culture: awareness, responsibility and challenges]". Annals of Geophysics, 55, 3, 335-341. {{doi|10.4401/ag-6099}}.</ref>
According to Ponciano et al<ref>Ponciano L.C.M.O. et al. (2011),"[https://www.academia.edu/1347148/IN_SITU_AND_EX_SITU_GEOLOGICAL-PALEONTOLOGICAL_HERITAGE_DEFINITIONS_ADVANTAGES_DISADVANTAGENS_AND_CONSERVATION_STRATEGIES_PATRIM%C3%94NIO_GEOL%C3%93GICO-PALEONTOL%C3%93GICO_IN_SITU_E_EX_SITU_DEFINI%C3%87%C3%95ES_VANTAGENS_DESVANTAGENS_E_ESTRAT%C3%89GIAS_DE_CONSERVA%C3%87%C3%83O_Ponciano_et_al._2011_ Patrimônio geológico-paleontológico in situ e ex situ: definições, vantagens, desvantagens e estratégias de conservação."] In:CARVALHO IS, SRIVASTAVA NK, STROHSCHOEN JR O, LANA CC (Eds). Paleontologia: Cenários de Vida. Editora Interciência, Rio de Janeiro 4:853-869.</ref> geoheritage may be ''in situ'' (important geosites bearing any exceptional value, such as scientific, cultural, educational, touristic, etc) and ''ex situ'' (minerals, fossils, minerals and rocks that were extracted from their origin site and housed in scientific collections and have notable scientific, cultural, educational, touristic or any other value. These authors also consider any extremely valuable reference to these geodiversity elements as ex situ geoheritage, including therefore field notebooks, papers, photographs, maps, dissertations, books, etc. These references often bear historical and scientific value as, for instance, paleontologist Kenneth Caster's field notebooks which provided informations on unknown fossil localities <ref>Lima J.D.C. and Ponciano L.C.M.O. (2017), Importance of Kenneth Edward Caster (1908–1992) Personal Correspondence and Field Notebooks to the Brazilian Paleontological Heritage." Geoheritage 10:179-190 {{doi|10.1007/s12371-017-0241-4}}.</ref>). Later (2016), José Brilha argues geodiversity may be of scientific value or valued for other aspects.{{citation needed|date=October 2019}} Geodiversity of scientific value can be either geosites or geoheritage elements that are ''[[ex situ]]'' (not encompassing references to these elements such as dissertations, letters and field notebooks as geoheritage). Similarly geodiversity that is of little or no scientific value may be categorized as sites of geodiversity or geodiversity elements that are ''ex situ''.
Geodiversity also constitutes an important part of developing nature-based solutions to global environmental challenges and demands for natural resources. For example, a recent study argued that the acute lack of considering geodiversity in international conventions and monitoring frameworks poses a threat to achieving the UN [[Sustainable Development Goals]].<ref>Schrodt, F. et al. (2019), "[https://www.pnas.org/content/116/33/16155.short To advance sustainable stewardship, we must document not only biodiversity but geodiversity]". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116, 33, 16155-16158. {{doi|10.1073/pnas.1911799116}}.</ref>
==See also==
*[[Landscape diversity]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
== Further reading ==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{Refbegin}}
* Osborne, R.A.L., 2000. Presidential Address for 1999-2000. Geodiversity: "green" geology in action. Proc. Linn. Soc. NSW. 122, pp. 149–173.
{{Refend}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Systems geology]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]] |
Category:Forest conservation | {{Commons category|Forest conservation}}
{{Cat more|Sustainable forest management}}
{{CatRel|Reforestation}}
[[Category:Nature conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Forests|Conservation]]
[[Category:Forestry and the environment|Conservation]]
[[Category:Forest management|Conservation]]
[[Category:Sustainable forest management]] |
Conservation-reliant species | [[File:Conservation reliant species08.jpg|thumb|Percentages of [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service list of endangered species|United States listed species]] which are conservation-reliant]]
'''Conservation-reliant species''' are animal or plant [[species]] that require continuing species-specific [[wildlife management]] intervention such as [[Hunting#Wildlife management|predator control]], [[Habitat conservation|habitat management]] and [[Pest control|parasite control]] to survive, even when a self-sustainable recovery in population is achieved.<ref name="NCSE">{{cite web |url=http://ncseonline.org/Conference/Biodiversity/cms.cfm?id=2396 |title=Endangered Species and Other Conservation Reliant Species |last=J. Michael Scott, US Geological Survey |author2=Dale Goble, University of Idaho Law School |date=December 2008 |work=9th National Conference on Science, Policy, and the Environment (Washington, D.C.) |publisher=NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR SCIENCE AND THE ENVIRONMENT |accessdate=2009-02-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613130509/http://ncseonline.org/Conference/Biodiversity/cms.cfm?id=2396 |archive-date=2010-06-13 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
== History ==
The term "conservation-reliant species" grew out of the [[conservation biology]] undertaken by ''The Endangered Species Act at Thirty Project'' (launched 2001)<ref name="Goble">{{cite book |last=Goble |first=Dale |author2=J. Michael Scott |author3=Frank W. Davis |title=The Endangered Species Act at Thirty: Renewing the Conservation Promise |publisher=Island Press |year=2006 |volume=I |pages=xii, 299 |isbn=978-1-59726-009-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vEh7m1k5WMwC&dq=%22conservation+reliant+species%22&pg=PA299}}</ref> and its popularization by project leader [[J. Michael Scott]].<ref name="Scott">{{cite journal |last=Scott |first=J. Michael |date=Jan 2007 |title=AOU Conservation Award, 2006 |journal=The Auk |publisher=The American Ornithologists' Union |volume=124 |issue=1 |pages=353–355 |issn=0004-8038 |doi=10.1642/0004-8038(2007)124[353:ACA]2.0.CO;2|doi-access= }}</ref> Its first use in a formal publication was in ''Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment'' in 2005.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} Worldwide use of the term has not yet developed and it has not yet appeared in a publication compiled outside North America.<!--?: <ref>Note: See publication information of article references.</ref>-->
Passages of the 1973 [[Endangered Species Act]] (ESA) carried with it the assumption that endangered species would be delisted as their populations recovered. It assumed they would then thrive under existing regulations and the protections afforded under the ESA would no longer be needed. However, eighty percent of [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service list of endangered species|species currently listed]] under the ESA fail to meet that assumption. To survive, they require species-specific conservation interventions (e.g. control of predators, competitors, nest parasites, prescribed burns, altered hydrological processes, etc.) and thus they are conservation-reliant.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://training.fws.gov/EC/WebSeminarSeries/aug08/information_page.html |title=Conservation Reliant Species: Our New Relationship with Nature |access-date=2009-02-22 |archive-date=2016-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304023720/http://training.fws.gov/EC/WebSeminarSeries/aug08/information_page.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
== Criteria ==
The criteria for assessing whether a species is conservation-reliant are:<ref name="Scott1">{{cite web |url=http://training.fws.gov/EC/WebSeminarSeries/aug08/conservation_reliant_species.pdf |title=Conservation Reliant Species:Our New Relationship with Nature? |last=Scott |first=J. Michael Scott |author2=Dale Goble |author3=Aaron Haines |date=August 21, 2008 |work=CSP3900 Conservation Science Web Conference Series |publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service |accessdate=2009-02-21 |archive-date=2017-01-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125201140/https://training.fws.gov/EC/WebSeminarSeries/aug08/conservation_reliant_species.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
# Threats to the species’ continued existence are known and treatable.
# The threats are pervasive and recurrent, for example: nest parasites, non-native [[predator]]s, human disturbance.
# The threats render the species at risk of [[extinction]], absent ongoing conservation management.
# Management actions sufficient to counter threats have been identified and can be implemented, for example: [[controlled burn|prescribed fires]], restrictions on grazing or public access, predator or parasite control.
# National, state or local governments, often in cooperation with private or tribal interests, are capable of carrying out the necessary management actions as long as necessary.
== Management actions ==
There are five major areas of management action for conservation of vulnerable species:
# Control of other species may include: control of [[Introduced species#Introduced animals|exotic fauna]], [[Introduced species#Introduced plants|exotic flora]], other native species and [[parasite]]s and [[disease]].
# Control of direct human impacts may include control of [[Grazing#Disadvantages|grazing]], human access, on and [[off-road vehicle]]s, low impact [[recreation]] and illegal collecting and [[poaching]].
# Pollution control may include control of chemical [[Surface runoff|run-off]], [[siltation]], [[water quality]] and use of [[pesticide]]s and [[herbicide]]s.
# Active [[Habitat conservation|habitat management]] may include [[Wildfire suppression|fire management and control]], control of [[Erosion|soil erosion]] and [[waterbody|waterbodies]], habitat [[Restoration ecology|restoration]] and [[Weed control#Organic methods|mechanical vegetation control]].
# Artificial population recruitment may include captive propagation (forced immigration) or [[captive breeding]].<ref name="Scott1"/>
== Case study ==
[[File:Indian Tiger.jpg|thumb|225px|Bengal tiger at [[Bannerghatta National Park]], Bangalore, India]]
A prominent example is in [[India]], where [[Bengal tiger|tigers]], an [[apex predator]] and the national animal, are considered a conservation-reliant species. This [[keystone species]] can maintain self-sustaining wild populations; however, they require ongoing management actions because threats are pervasive, recurrent and put them at risk of extinction. The origin of these threats are rooted in the changing socio-economic, political and spatial organization of society in India. Tigers have become extinct in some areas because of extrinsic factors such as [[habitat destruction]], poaching, disease, floods, fires and drought, decline of prey species for the same reasons, as well as intrinsic factors such as demographic [[stochastic]]ity and [[genetic deterioration]].
Recognizing the conservation reliance of tigers, [[Project Tiger]] is establishing a national science-based framework for monitoring tiger population trends in order to manage the species more effectively. India now has 28 tiger reserves, located in 17 states. These reserves cover {{convert|37761|km2|sqmi}} including 1.14% of the total land area of the country. These reserves are kept free of biotic disturbances, forestry operations, collection of minor forest products, grazing and human disturbance. The populations of tigers in these reserves now constitute some of the most important tiger source populations in the country.<ref name="Maraj">{{cite web |last=R Maraj, J Seidensticker |title=Assessment of a Framework for Monitoring Tiger Population Trends in India |url=http://projecttiger.nic.in/whtsnew/Assessment%20of%20a%20framework%20for%20monitoring%20tiger%20population%20trends%20in%20India-%202006.pdf |year=2006 |work=A Report to the IUCN: World Conservation Union and India's Project Tiger |publisher=Govt. of India, Project Tiger |pages=7–9 |accessdate=2009-02-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225022627/http://projecttiger.nic.in/whtsnew/Assessment%20of%20a%20framework%20for%20monitoring%20tiger%20population%20trends%20in%20India-%202006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-25 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
== Future ==
The magnitude and pace of human impacts on the environment make it unlikely that substantial progress will be made in delisting many species unless the definition of "recovery" includes some form of active management. Preventing delisted species from again being at risk of extinction may require continuing, species-specific management actions. Viewing "recovery" of "conservation-reliant species" as a continuum of phases rather than a simple "recovered/not recovered" status may enhance the ability to manage such species within the framework of the Endangered Species Act. With ongoing [[loss of habitat]], disruption of natural cycles, increasing impacts of non-native invasive species, it is probable that the number of conservation-reliant species will increase.
It has been proposed that development of "recovery management agreements", with legally and biologically defensible contracts would provide for continuing conservation management following delisting. The use of such formalized agreements will facilitate shared management responsibilities between federal wildlife agencies and other federal agencies, and with state, local, and tribal governments, as well as with private entities that have demonstrated the capability to meet the needs of conservation-reliant species.<ref name="Scott2">{{cite journal |date=September 2005 |title=Recovery of imperiled species under the Endangered Species Act: The need for a new approach |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |volume=3 |issue=7 |pages=383–89 |url=http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=ENV&recid=7326616&q=%22conservation+reliant+species%22&uid=1014961&setcookie=yes |doi=10.1890/1540-9295(2005)003[0383:ROISUT]2.0.CO;2 |last1=Scott |first1=J. Michael |last2=Goble |first2=Dale D. |last3=Wiens |first3=John A. |last4=Wilcove |first4=David S. |last5=Bean |first5=Michael |last6=Male |first6=Timothy |issn=1540-9295 |access-date=2009-02-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120223143128/http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=ENV&recid=7326616&q=%22conservation+reliant+species%22&uid=1014961&setcookie=yes |archive-date=2012-02-23 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
== See also ==
{{Portal|Environment |Ecology |Earth sciences|Biology}}
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|* [[Conservation biology]]
* [[Conservation-dependent species]]
* [[Environmental protection]]
* [[Habitat conservation]]
* [[Natural environment]]
* [[Sustainability]]
}}
== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{Threatened species}}{{Conservation of species}}{{Branches of biology}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Conservation-Reliant Species}}
[[Category:Conservation-reliant species| ]]
[[Category:Biota by conservation status]]
[[Category:Conservation biology]]
[[Category:Ecological restoration]]
[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category:Endangered species]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Habitat]] |
Assisted migration | {{short description|Intentional transport of species to a different habitat}}
{{distinguish|Human-guided migration}}
[[File:Assisted migration 3 types 2022.jpg|thumb|Three types of assisted migration. Source: Climate Hubs, U.S. Department of Agriculture.]]
'''Assisted migration''' is "the intentional establishment of populations or meta-populations beyond the boundary of a species' historic range for the purpose of tracking suitable habitats through a period of changing climate...."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Allaby |first1=Michael |title=A Dictionary of Ecology |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199567669 |page=31 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yBuCBtOMs1kC&q=assisted%20migration |access-date=15 December 2022}}</ref> It is therefore a [[nature conservation]] tactic by which plants or animals are intentionally moved to geographic locations better suited to their present or future habitat needs and climate tolerances — and to which they are unable to migrate or disperse on their own.
In [[conservation biology]], the term first appeared in publications in 2004.<ref name=terminology>{{cite web |last1=Barlow |first1=Connie |title=Assisted Migration or Assisted Colonization: What's In a Name?: Chronological History of the Debate on Terminology |url=http://www.torreyaguardians.org/assistedmigrationdebate.html |website=Torreya Guardians |access-date=15 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Wild Earth Forum: Assisted Migration for an Endangered Tree |journal=Wild Earth |date=Winter 2004 |url=http://www.torreyaguardians.org/forum.pdf |access-date=15 December 2022}}</ref> It signified a type of [[species translocation]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=IUCN |title=Guidelines for Reintroductions and Other Conservation Translocations |date=2013 |isbn= 978-2-8317-1609-1 |url=https://iucn-ctsg.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/new-rsg-reintro-guidelines-2013.pdf}}</ref> intended to reduce biodiversity losses owing to [[climate change]]. In the context of [[endangered species]] management, '''assisted colonization''' (2007)<ref name="Hunter" /> and '''managed relocation''' (2009)<ref name=richardson>{{cite journal |display-authors=etal|last1= Richardson |first1=David M |title=Multidimensional evaluation of managed relocation |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci |date=June 2009 |volume=106 |issue=24 |pages=9721–9724 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0902327106 |pmid=19509337 |pmc=2694035 |doi-access=free }}</ref> were soon offered as [[synonym]]s — the latter in a paper entailing 22 coauthors.<ref name=richardson /><ref name=terminology />
In [[Silviculture|forestry science]] and management, [[Assisted migration of forests in North America|assisted migration]] is discussed in its own journals and from perspectives different from those of conservation biologists. This is, in part, because [[Paleoecology|paleoecologists]] had already concluded that there were significant lags in northward movement of even the dominant [[Canopy (biology)|canopy trees]] in North America during the thousands of years since the final glacial retreat.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal|last1=Davis|first1=Margaret B|date=October 1989|title=Lags in vegetation response to greenhouse warming|url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/BF00138846.pdf|journal=Climatic Change|volume=15|issue=1–2|pages=75–82|doi=10.1007/bf00138846|bibcode=1989ClCh...15...75D|s2cid=154368627}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Margaret B|last2=Shaw|first2=Ruth B|title=Special Reviews: Range shifts and adaptive responses to Quaternary climate change |journal=Science |date=27 April 2001 |volume=292 |issue=5517 |pages=673–679|doi=10.1126/science.292.5517.673 |pmid=11326089|bibcode=2001Sci...292..673D |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.292.5517.673}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Petit |first1=Remy J |title=Review: Ecology and genetics of tree invasions: from recent introductions to Quaternary migrations |journal=Forest Ecology and Management |date=August 2004 |volume=197 |issue=1–3 |pages=113–137 |doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2004.05.009 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112704003202}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Seliger|first1=Benjamin J|last2=McGill|first2=Brian J|last3=Svenning|first3=Jens-Christian|last4=Gill|first4=Jacqueline L|date=November 2020|title=Widespread underfilling of the potential ranges of North American trees|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jbi.14001|journal=Journal of Biogeography|volume=48|issue=2|pages=359–371|doi=10.1111/jbi.14001|s2cid=228929332}}</ref> In the 1990s, forestry researchers had begun applying climate change projections to their own tree [[species distribution modelling]] efforts, and some results on the probable distances of future range shifts prompted attention.<ref name="aitken2008">{{cite journal|last1=Aitken |first1=Sally N |last2=Yeamam |first2=Sam|last3=Holliday |first3=Jason A |last4=Wang |first4=Tongli|last5=Curtis-McLane |first5=Sierra|title=Adaptation, migration or extirpation: Climate change outcomes for tree populations |journal=Evolutionary Applications |date=25 January 2008 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=95–111 |doi=10.1111/j.1752-4571.2007.00013.x |pmid=25567494 |pmc=3352395 }}</ref> As well, translocation terminology<ref name="usfs-2023">{{cite web |last1=Halleaux |first1=Savannah |title=Traveling trees: Assisted migration for climate resilience |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/features/traveling-trees |website=U.S. Forest Service |date=6 April 2023 |access-date=12 April 2023}}</ref> was not controversial among forestry researchers because '''migration''' was the standard term used in [[paleoecology]] for natural movements of tree species recorded in the [[geological record]]. Another key difference between forestry practices and conservation biology is that the former, necessarily, was guided by "seed transfer guidelines" whenever a timber or pulp harvest was followed up by reforestation plantings. The provincial government of [[British Columbia]] in Canada was the first to update their guidelines with, what they call, "climate-based seed transfer."<ref>{{cite web |title=Climate-based seed transfer |url=https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/industry/forestry/managing-our-forest-resources/tree-seed/seed-planning-use/climate-based-seed-transfer |website=Managing our forest resources |publisher=British Columbia government |access-date=19 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=McKenney |first1=Dan|last2=Pedlar|first2=John|last3=O'Neill|first3=Greg|title=Climate change and forest seed zones: Past trends, future prospects and challenges to ponder |journal=The Forestry Chronicle |date=March 2009 |volume=85 |issue=2 |pages=258–266 |doi=10.5558/tfc85258-2 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Overall, debate concerning the [[ethics]] of assisted migration in forestry practice was both short-term and muted<ref name="pedlar2012">{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Pedlar |first1=John H |title=Placing Forestry in the Assisted Migration Debate |journal=BioScience |date=September 2012 |volume=62 |issue=9 |pages=835–842 |doi=10.1525/bio.2012.62.9.10 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="WilliamsandDumroese2013">{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Mary I|last2=Dumroese|first2=R Kasten|title=Preparing for Climate Change: Forestry and Assisted Migration |journal=Journal of Forestry |date=4 July 2013 |volume=111 |issue=4 |pages=287–297 |doi=10.5849/jof.13-016 |doi-access= }}</ref> compared to that which prevailed in conservation biology.<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=etal|last1=Brodie |first1=Jedediah F |title=Policy Forum: Global policy for assisted colonization of species |journal=Science |date=30 April 2021 |volume=372 |issue=6541 |pages=456–458 |doi=10.1126/science.abg0532 |pmid=33926936|s2cid=233448828 }}</ref><ref name="pedlar2012" /><ref name="WilliamsandDumroese2013"/> For this reason, a separate Wikipedia page titled '''[[Assisted migration of forests in North America]]''' was launched in 2021 and made into a useful teaching tool for [[climate adaptation]] education and decision-making in the forestry profession.
The remainder of this page therefore focuses on the topic of '''assisted migration in conservation biology''' and especially its applications for management of endangered species.
== Background ==
[[Climate change]] is expected to drive many species out of parts of their current ranges while creating new suitable habitats elsewhere.<ref name="Heller">{{Cite journal | last1 = Heller | first1 = N. E. |author-link2=Erika Zavaleta| last2 = Zavaleta | first2 = E. S. | doi = 10.1016/j.biocon.2008.10.006 | title = Biodiversity management in the face of climate change: A review of 22 years of recommendations | journal = Biological Conservation | volume = 142 | pages = 14–32 | year = 2009 | s2cid = 3797951 }}</ref><ref name=Thomas>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1038/nature02121 |pmid=14712274 |last1=Thomas |first1=C. D. |last2=Cameron |first2=A. |last3=Green |first3=R. E. |last4=Bakkenes |first4=M. |last5=Beaumont |first5=L. J. |last6=Collingham |first6=Y. C. |last7=Erasmus |first7=B. F. N. |last8=De Siqueira |first8=M. F. D. |last9=Grainger |first9=A. |last10=Hannah |first10=L. |last11=Hughes |first11=L. |last12=Huntley |first12=B. |last13=Van Jaarsveld |first13=A. S. |last14=Midgley |first14=G. F. |last15=Miles |first15=L. |last16=Ortega-Huerta |first16=M. A. |last17=Peterson |first17=A. |last18=Phillips |first18=O. L. |last19=Williams |first19=S. E. |title=Extinction risk from climate change |date=Jan 2004 |journal=Nature |volume=427 |pages=145–148 |url=http://www.geog.umd.edu/resac/outgoing/GEOG442%20Fall%202005/Lecture%20materials/extinctions%20and%20climate%20change.pdf |format=Full free text |issue=6970 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207021758/http://www.geog.umd.edu/resac/outgoing/GEOG442%20Fall%202005/Lecture%20materials/extinctions%20and%20climate%20change.pdf |archive-date=2012-02-07 |bibcode=2004Natur.427..145T |s2cid=969382 }}</ref> In order to avoid population declines and extinction, many species will need to either adapt or colonize newly suitable areas. Using a [[Niche modelling|niche modeling]] approach, scientists have predicted that a failure to migrate or adapt will result in about a quarter of the world's species dying out this century under moderate climate change.<ref name=Thomas/> The natural dispersal rates for many species are far slower than those needed to keep pace with projected habitat shifts in many regions of the world.<ref name="Zhu">{{Cite journal | last1 = Zhu | first1 = K. | last2 = Woodall | first2 = C. W. | last3 = Clark | first3 = J. S. | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02571.x | title = Failure to migrate: Lack of tree range expansion in response to climate change | journal = Global Change Biology | volume = 18 | issue = 3 | pages = 1042 | year = 2012 | bibcode = 2012GCBio..18.1042Z | s2cid = 31248474 }}</ref><ref name=Davis>{{Cite journal | last1 = Davis | first1 = M. B. | last2 = Shaw | first2 = R. G. | s2cid = 20302257 | title = Range Shifts and Adaptive Responses to Quaternary Climate Change | doi = 10.1126/science.292.5517.673 | journal = Science | volume = 292 | issue = 5517 | pages = 673–679 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11326089| bibcode = 2001Sci...292..673D }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Warren | first1 = M. S. | last2 = Hill | first2 = J. K. | last3 = Thomas | first3 = J. A. | last4 = Asher | first4 = J. | last5 = Fox | first5 = R. | last6 = Huntley | first6 = B. | last7 = Roy | first7 = D. B. | last8 = Telfer | first8 = M. G. | last9 = Jeffcoate | first9 = S. | last10 = Harding | first10 = P. | last11 = Jeffcoate | first11 = G. | last12 = Willis | first12 = S. G. | last13 = Greatorex-Davies | first13 = J. N. | last14 = Moss | first14 = D. | last15 = Thomas | first15 = C. D. | title = Rapid responses of British butterflies to opposing forces of climate and habitat change | journal = Nature | volume = 414 | issue = 6859 | pages = 65–69 | doi = 10.1038/35102054 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11689943| bibcode = 2001Natur.414...65W | s2cid = 4426671 | url = http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/119/1/thomascd4.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = McLachlan | first1 = J. S. | last2 = Clark | first2 = J. S. | last3 = Manos | first3 = P. S. | s2cid = 3064162 | doi = 10.1890/04-1036 | title = Molecular Indicators of Tree Migration Capacity Under Rapid Climate Change | journal = Ecology | volume = 86 | issue = 8 | pages = 2088 | year = 2005 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Menendez | first1 = R. | last2 = Megias | first2 = A. G. | last3 = Hill | first3 = J. K. | last4 = Braschler | first4 = B. | last5 = Willis | first5 = S. G. | last6 = Collingham | first6 = Y. | last7 = Fox | first7 = R. | last8 = Roy | first8 = D. B. | last9 = Thomas | first9 = C. D. | doi = 10.1098/rspb.2006.3484 | title = Species richness changes lag behind climate change | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences | volume = 273 | issue = 1593 | pages = 1465–70 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16777739| pmc = 1560312}}</ref>
Prehistoric climatic changes have resulted in massive global extinctions, and the rate of warming projected for the near future is many times faster than changes in the past 10,000 years.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Karl | first1 = T. R. | last2 = Trenberth | first2 = K. E. | title = Modern Global Climate Change | doi = 10.1126/science.1090228 | journal = Science | volume = 302 | issue = 5651 | pages = 1719–1723 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14657489| url = https://zenodo.org/record/1230878 | bibcode = 2003Sci...302.1719K | s2cid = 45484084 }}</ref> Geographic or human-caused barriers to natural dispersal may already be at cause for the listing as "critically endangered" two small-range endemic species for which assisted migration is now underway: Australia's [[Western swamp turtle|western swamp tortoise]]<ref name="tortoise" /> and America's [[Torreya taxifolia|Florida torreya]] tree.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=St George |first1=Zach |title=Last Resort: Moving Endangered Species in Order to Save Them |journal=Yale Environment 360 |date=27 October 2022 |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/assisted-migration-endangered-species-climate-change-united-states}}</ref> The inability of species to migrate in response to human-caused climate change has led to some scientists and land managers to consider exploring assisted migration as a means for preventing extinction of species.<ref name=McLachlanH>{{cite journal |last1=McLachlan |first1=Jason S|last2=Hellmann|first2=Jessica J|last3=Schwartz|first3=Mark W|title=A Framework for Debate of Assisted Migration in an Era of Climate Change |journal=Conservation Biology |date=26 March 2007 |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=297–302|doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00676.x|pmid=17391179|doi-access=free }}</ref> As of 2023, however, there have been few examples of assisted migration projects underway: A review paper concludes, "Assisted migration was most common for plants (particularly trees), followed by birds, and was rarely implemented for other taxa."<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=etal|last1=Twardek |first1=William M |title=Review: The application of assisted migration as a climate change adaptation tactic: An evidence map and synthesis |journal=Biological Conservation |date=February 2023 |volume=280 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2023.109932 |s2cid=257225019 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320723000320}}</ref>
=== Assisted migration v. species introduction ===
Assisted migration is a specific type of species introduction. [[Species introduction]] is any act of establishing a species in a habitat it does not currently occupy. It often refers to a long-distance relocation, such as the accidental introduction of an invasive species from one continent to another, or the intentional relocation of a species in decline to a habitat where it can persist. By contrast, assisted migration acknowledges that the natural dispersal rate of many species may be too low to naturally respond to rapid human-caused climate change and instead focuses on where the species would be able to disperse fast enough via [[natural selection]] to keep pace with the changing environment. Assisted migration practitioners consider helping the species disperse into such sites, which are often immediately adjacent to the species’ historical range.<ref name=Hunter>{{Cite journal | last1 = Hunter | first1 = M. L. | title = Climate Change and Moving Species: Furthering the Debate on Assisted Colonization | doi = 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00780.x | journal = Conservation Biology | volume = 21 | issue = 5 | pages = 1356–1358 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17883502| s2cid = 8050923 }}</ref> In their eyes, assisted migration represents a small artificial boost to an otherwise natural process.<ref name=Mueller>{{Cite journal | last1 = Mueller | first1 = J. M. | last2 = Hellmann | first2 = J. J. | doi = 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00952.x | title = An Assessment of Invasion Risk from Assisted Migration | journal = Conservation Biology | volume = 22 | issue = 3 | pages = 562–567 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18577085| s2cid = 43612242 }}</ref>
=== Alternatives ===
Even under rapid climate change, dispersal into new areas may not be necessary for some species to persist. Instead of tracking climate shifts through space, some species may be able to survive in their present locations by developing tolerance to new conditions through [[acclimatization]] and [[adaptation]].<ref name=Rice>{{cite journal |last1=Rice|first1=Kevin J.|last2=Emery|first2=Nancy C.|year=2003|title=Managing microevolution: Restoration in the face of global change|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|volume=1|issue=9|pages=469–478|doi=10.2307/3868114|jstor=3868114}}</ref><ref name="Skelly">{{Cite journal | last1 = Skelly | first1 = D. K. | last2 = Joseph | first2 = L. N. | last3 = Possingham | first3 = H. P. | last4 = Freidenburg | first4 = L. K. | last5 = Farrugia | first5 = T. J. | last6 = Kinnison | first6 = M. T. | last7 = Hendry | first7 = A. P. | doi = 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00764.x | title = Evolutionary Responses to Climate Change | journal = Conservation Biology | volume = 21 | issue = 5 | pages = 1353–1355 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17883501| s2cid = 11140235 }}</ref> The potential for acclimatization or adaptation to allow persistence in the face of climate change varies by species and is generally poorly understood. One study determined that [[evolution]] of higher temperature tolerances in some species of amphibians and reptiles will likely occur fast enough to allow these species to survive a 3 °C temperature increase over 100 years, consistent with low- to mid-range projections of global warming.<ref name=Skelly/> By contrast, many species, such as most [[temperate]] trees, have longer generation times and therefore may adapt more slowly; they may take thousands of years to evolve a similar increase in temperature tolerance.<ref name=Rice/><ref name=Skelly/> Adaptation this slow would be insufficient for keeping up with expected future global warming if migration of new habitats is not an option. In addition to acclimatization and adaption, [[assisted evolution]] is an alternative to assisted migration that has been growing in popularity recently due to the worldwide coral reef crisis. Assisted evolution is the practice of using human intervention to accelerate the rate of natural evolutionary processes.<ref>{{cite news|title=Assisted Evolution| url=https://www.aims.gov.au/reef-recovery/assisted-evolution|access-date=May 5, 2019|newspaper=”[[Australian Institute of Marine Science]]”}}</ref> There are three main types of assisted evolution.
==== Stress conditioning ====
Stress conditioning consists of exposing organisms to sublethal stress, with the goal of inducing physiological changes that increase tolerance to future stress events. There has been documented evidence that some changes can be passed throughout generations in both plants and animals. Stress conditioning can be artificially induced in a laboratory environment to create desired responses based on their environments. Notable examples include a 1989 experiment which used stress conditioning via heat shock on rat kidneys to extend their safe cold storage time to 48 hours.<ref>{{cite news | last=Perdrizet | first=George | title=Stress conditioning: a novel approach to organ preservation | volume=46 | issue=1 | pages=23–6 | newspaper=”Europe PMC”| pmid=2656107 | year=1989 }}</ref> More recently, stress conditioning is being studied as a potential solution for the preservation of coral reefs as they are continually exposed to [[ocean warming]] and acidification.
==== Assisted gene flow ====
Assisted gene flow (AGF) works to increase the presence of desired naturally-occurring genes in [[offspring]]. AGF relies on pre-existing genes within the species' [[genome]], rather than the artificial creation and insertion of genetic code within the genome of the species. Assisted gene flow can also introduce related species' genomes into the [[gene pool]] to allow for the introduction of previously impossible behaviors into the new species. AGF identifies genes that produce desired behaviors or tolerance to environmental conditions, and works to increase the chance that parental transmission of the gene in question occurs (also known as [[heritability]]). Determining which genes within the genome produce desired behaviors or environmental tolerance consist of experiments which measure the growth, survival, and behavior exhibition of offspring with varying genotypes. AGF is one possible strategy to preserve species that are threatened by climate change,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Aitken|first1=Sally N.|last2=Whitlock|first2=Michael C.|date=2013|title=Assisted Gene Flow to Facilitate Local Adaptation to Climate Change|journal=Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics|volume=44|issue=1|pages=367–388|doi=10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110512-135747}}</ref> and can be applied to both plants (e.g. [[forest restoration]]) or animal populations. Currently, different coral colonies of the [[Great Barrier Reef]] are being interbred to test whether offspring display increased resistance to warmer living conditions. Increased resistance to warmer living conditions allow for the [[Historic preservation|preservation]] of the Great Barrier Reef even as water temperatures continue to rise.
==== Hybridization ====
Hybridization refers to the process where an egg and sperm from two different species can [[fertilize]] and produce young. Hybridization was studied in the 1800s by [[Johann Gregor Mendel]], who posthumously has been credited with the discovery of genes and alleles and their impact on an offspring's genotype. Benefits of hybridization include the increase in genetic diversity and the potential for genetic combinations which are able to adapt to, and reproduce in, increasingly difficult environments. Hybridization of coral reefs during the annual coral spawning is being experimented with to create hybrid offspring that will hopefully have higher survival and growth rates in a variety of climate change related conditions.
In contrast, for [[Neoendemism|neoendemic species]], hybridization could result in a loss of biodiversity because closely related species that are offered a chance to interbreed could result in a single species rather than the original two or more. ''[[Cupressus abramsiana]]'' is such an example. The 2016 federal update of the recovery plan for this threatened cypress tree, endemic to a small geographic region along the California coast, warned of the dangers of hybridization. A section of the plan titled "Genetic introgression" (also known as [[Introgression|introgressive hybridization]]) explains how the integrity of this species is threatened by nearby horticultural plantings of a sister species, [[Monterey cypress]], whose historically native range is nearby: on the opposite side of Monterey Bay. Hybridization is known to occur between the two endemics — as well as with a widely planted sister species native to Arizona: [[Arizona cypress]].<ref name=":recls">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2016. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Reclassifying ''Hesperocyparis abramsiana'' (=''Cupressus abramsiana'') as Threatened. Federal Register Vol. 81. No. 33. https://www.govinfo.gov/link/fr/81/8408?link-type=pdf</ref> Other consequences of hybridization include the accumulation of deleterious genes, outbreeding depression, and genetic swamping. In the case of outbreeding depression which reduces the fitness of the hybrid species, there is a risk of extinction. This occurs when the population growth rate is below the replacement rate, wasting the reproductive potential of two populations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adavoudi |first1=Roya |last2=Pilot |first2=Małgorzata |title=Consequences of Hybridization in Mammals: A Systematic Review |journal=Genes |pages=50 |language=en |doi=10.3390/genes13010050 |date=January 2022 |volume=13 |issue=1 |pmid=35052393 |pmc=8774782 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
==Controversy==
While assisted migration has the potential to allow species that have poor natural dispersal abilities to avoid [[extinction]], it has also sparked debate over the possibility that the migrated species might spread diseases or even become too successful (that is, [[Invasive species|invasive]]) in the recipient ecosystems. Even so, several assisted migration projects or experiments have begun for several [[critically endangered species]].<ref name="dalrymple">{{cite journal |last1=Dalrymple |first1=Sarah |title=Why climate change is forcing conservationists to be more ambitious: by moving threatened species to pastures new |journal=The Conversation |date=16 July 2021 |url=https://theconversation.com/why-climate-change-is-forcing-conservationists-to-be-more-ambitious-by-moving-threatened-species-to-pastures-new-163749 |access-date=26 July 2022}}</ref>
Beginning around 2007,<ref name=McLachlanH/> opposing pro and con positions became apparent in the field of conservation biology, while still relatively unknown to public promoters of conservation and managers of conservation lands. Supporters generally believe that the expected benefits of assisted migration, including saving and strengthening species, outweigh the potential harm of any project. Detractors generally believe that other conservation techniques which do not include the high risk of [[invasive species]] are not only better suited but are also more likely to succeed. This debate continued throughout the literature, generally due to a lack of real-world applications and follow-ups. Though these conservation efforts are becoming increasingly common, few long term looks at their success have been conducted.<ref name=Heller/>
In 2022 a review paper by seven researchers in the United States assessed shifts in what they called "conservation strategies for the climate crisis."<ref name="McLaughlin-2022">{{cite journal | display-authors=etal|last1=McLaughlin |first1=B C |title=Conservation strategies for the climate crisis: An update on three decades of biodiversity management recommendations from science |journal=Biological Conservation |date=2022 |volume=268 |issue=109497 |page=109497 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2022.109497 |s2cid=247417657 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320722000507}}</ref> Among the "novel strategies" surveyed was "climate-adaptive assisted migration." The team found that academic publications became less focused on the pros and cons of the concept through the years. Instead, more attention was given to modeling or mapping where particular species could be moved. While plants had been the focus of most of the early publications, animals took the lead in recent years. Corals, invertebrates, mammals, and birds were the leading types of animals assessed for assisted migration needs and prospects. Even so, "most authors presented assisted species migration as appropriate only for species under exceptionally high threat from climate change."<ref name="McLaughlin-2022" /> By 2023, a news article in the journal ''Nature'' reported, "attitudes towards assisted migration are slowly shifting as conservationists realise just how fast the climate is changing."<ref name="nature-2023">{{cite journal |last1=Watson |first1=Clare |title=These animals are racing towards extinction. A new home might be their last chance |journal=Nature |date=5 September 2023 |volume=621 |pages=22–25 |doi=10.1038/d41586-023-02732-0 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-02732-0|doi-access= }}</ref>
===Invasive species risk===
Perhaps the principal concern scientists have expressed over assisted migration is the potential for relocated species to be invasive in their new habitats, driving out native species.<ref name=Simberloff>{{Cite journal | last1 = Ricciardi | first1 = A. | last2 = Simberloff | first2 = D. | doi = 10.1016/j.tree.2008.12.006 | title = Assisted colonization is not a viable conservation strategy | journal = Trends in Ecology & Evolution | volume = 24 | issue = 5 | pages = 248–53 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19324453}}</ref> The fear that assisted migration will facilitate invasions stems mostly from observations of the vast numbers of species that have become invasive outside their native ranges by (often inadvertent) introduction by humans. Although most agree that assisted migration efforts, unlike accidental introductions, should involve detailed planning and risk assessment, for some, any threat of introducing invasive species, no matter how small, disqualifies assisted migration as a viable management response to climate change.<ref name=Simberloff/>
Those who wish to keep assisted migration on the table often note that the vast majority of historical species invasions have resulted from continent-to-continent or continent-to-island transportation of species and that very few invasions have resulted from the comparatively short-distance, within-continent movement of species proposed for assisted migration.<ref name=Mueller/><ref name=Sax>{{Cite journal | last1 = Sax | first1 = D. F. | last2 = Smith | first2 = K. F. | last3 = Thompson | first3 = A. R. | doi = 10.1016/j.tree.2009.05.004 | title = Managed relocation: A nuanced evaluation is needed | journal = Trends in Ecology & Evolution | volume = 24 | issue = 9 | pages = 472–3; author reply 476–7 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19577321}}</ref><ref name=Hoegh>{{Cite journal | last1 = Hoegh-Guldberg | first1 = O. | last2 = Hughes | first2 = L. | last3 = McIntyre | first3 = S. | last4 = Lindenmayer | first4 = D. B. | last5 = Parmesan | first5 = C. | last6 = Possingham | first6 = H. P. | last7 = Thomas | first7 = C. D. | doi = 10.1126/science.1157897 | title = ECOLOGY: Assisted Colonization and Rapid Climate Change | journal = Science | volume = 321 | issue = 5887 | pages = 345–346 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18635780| s2cid = 206512777 }}</ref> For example, Mueller and Hellman reviewed 468 documented species invasions and found that only 14.7% occurred on the same continent where the species originated.<ref name=Mueller/> Of the 14.7%, the vast majority were fish and crustaceans. Terrestrial species that became invasive on the same continent where they originated were often transported across large biogeographic barriers, such as mountain ranges. These long-distance, within-continent translocations are unlike expected uses of assisted migration, which generally involve helping species colonize habitats immediately adjacent to their current ranges.<ref name="Hunter"/>
===Uncertainty in the planning process===
To identify populations at risk and locate new potential habitats, conservationists often use [[Environmental niche modelling|niche models]]. These models predict the suitability of habitats in the future based on how closely their climates resemble the climate currently inhabited by the species. Though useful for describing broad trends, these models make a number of unrealistic assumptions that restrict the usefulness of their predictions.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Dawson | first1 = T. P. | last2 = Jackson | first2 = S. T. | last3 = House | first3 = J. I. | last4 = Prentice | first4 = I. C. | last5 = Mace | first5 = G. M. | s2cid = 40618973 | title = Beyond Predictions: Biodiversity Conservation in a Changing Climate | doi = 10.1126/science.1200303 | journal = Science | volume = 332 | issue = 6025 | pages = 53–58 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21454781| bibcode = 2011Sci...332...53D }}</ref> For instance, they do not consider the possibility that species may be able to develop tolerance of new climates through acclimatization or adaptation.<ref name="doi10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00792.x">{{Cite journal | last1 = Guisan | first1 = A. | last2 = Thuiller | first2 = W. | doi = 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00792.x | title = Predicting species distribution: Offering more than simple habitat models | journal = Ecology Letters | volume = 8 | issue = 9 | pages = 993–1009 | year = 2005 | pmid = 34517687 | doi-access = }}</ref> Further, they do not account for the fact that a given species may perform better (e.g., become invasive) or worse (e.g., fail to establish) in a new habitat than in its current range if the community of [[competition (biology)|competitor]], predator, and [[mutualism (biology)|mutualist]] species is different there.<ref name="doi10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00792.x"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leathwick|first1=J.R.|last2=Austin|first2=M.P.|year=2001|title=Competitive interactions between tree species in New Zealand's old-growth indigenous forests|journal=Ecology|volume=82|issue=9|pages=2560–2573|doi=10.1890/0012-9658(2001)082[2560:cibtsi]2.0.co;2}}</ref> Additionally, because different climate variables (e.g., minimum January temperature, average annual precipitation) rarely shift in unison, it is possible that few areas will exactly match the historical climates of species threatened by climate change.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Williams | first1 = J. W. | last2 = Jackson | first2 = S. T. | last3 = Kutzbach | first3 = J. E. | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0606292104 | title = Projected distributions of novel and disappearing climates by 2100 AD | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume = 104 | issue = 14 | pages = 5738–42 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17389402| pmc = 1851561| bibcode = 2007PNAS..104.5738W | doi-access = free }}</ref> Such multi-directional climate shifts will make it especially difficult to determine the species that are at greatest risk of habitat loss due to climate change and to predict future suitable habitat. The uncertainties in predictions of future suitable habitat limits confidence in assisted migration decisions and has led some to reject assisted migration entirely.<ref name=Simberloff/>
Despite the uncertainty inherent in predictions of future suitable habitat, some studies have demonstrated that predictions can be quite accurate. A study of ''Hesperia comma'' butterflies in Britain identified unoccupied habitat sites that were likely to support the species under a warmer climate based on their similarity to occupied sites.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Lawson | first1 = C. R. | last2 = Bennie | first2 = J. J. | last3 = Thomas | first3 = C. D. | last4 = Hodgson | first4 = J. A. | last5 = Wilson | first5 = R. J. | title = Local and landscape management of an expanding range margin under climate change | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02098.x | journal = Journal of Applied Ecology | pages = no | year = 2012 | doi-access = free }}</ref> As the climate warmed, the butterfly colonized many of the sites; most of the sites it did not colonize were located far from existing populations, suggesting they were uncolonized because the butterfly could not reach them on its own. The data suggested that the suitable, uncolonized sites could be good targets for assisted migration. The results suggested that if investigators can demonstrate their model makes reliable predictions with real-world data, models might be trusted for informing assisted migration decisions.
===Risks and benefits===
The science is clear that climate change will drive many species extinct, and a traditional, land-preservation ethic will not prevent extinctions.<ref name=McLachlanH/> Those wary of moving species instead suggest expanding networks of [[habitat corridor]]s, allowing species to naturally migrate into newly suitable areas.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Krosby | first1 = M. | last2 = Tewksbury | first2 = J. | last3 = Haddad | first3 = N. M. | last4 = Hoekstra | first4 = J. | title = Ecological Connectivity for a Changing Climate | doi = 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2010.01585.x | journal = Conservation Biology | volume = 24 | issue = 6 | pages = 1686–1689 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20961330| s2cid = 5095281 }}</ref> Under the rates of climate change projected for the coming decades, however, even perfectly connected habitats will probably be insufficient.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Galatowitsch | first1 = S. | last2 = Frelich | first2 = L. | last3 = Phillips-Mao | first3 = L. | doi = 10.1016/j.biocon.2009.03.030 | title = Regional climate change adaptation strategies for biodiversity conservation in a midcontinental region of North America | journal = Biological Conservation | volume = 142 | issue = 10 | pages = 2012 | year = 2009 }}</ref> Species that cannot naturally keep pace with shifting climates will be at risk regardless of habitat connectivity. Evidence suggests that slowly evolving and slowly dispersing species (including species that are dispersal-limited due to [[habitat fragmentation]]) will decline or go extinct in the absence of assisted migration programs.<ref name=Hoegh/>
In their rejection of assisted migration, Ricciardi and Simberloff cite the precautionary principle, stating that any unknown risk, no matter how small, of assisted migration resulting in the creation of new invasive species is enough to require that it not be undertaken.<ref name=Simberloff/> Many scientists reject this position, however, noting that in many cases where extinctions due to climate change are likely, the risks of extinction from not facilitating migration are probably far worse than the risks of facilitating migration.<ref name=Sax/><ref name=Schwartz>{{Cite journal | last1 = Schwartz | first1 = M. W. | last2 = Hellmann | first2 = J. J. | last3 = McLachlan | first3 = J. S. | doi = 10.1016/j.tree.2009.05.006 | title = The precautionary principle in managed relocation is misguided advice | journal = Trends in Ecology & Evolution | volume = 24 | issue = 9 | pages = 474; author reply 476–7 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19595477}}</ref> They argue that the precautionary principle cuts both ways, and the risks of inaction must be compared against the risks of action. Others note that the ethics of assisting migration will depend on the values of the stakeholders involved in a specific decision rather than the position of scientists on assisted migration in general.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Schlaepfer | first1 = M. A. | last2 = Helenbrook | first2 = W. D. | last3 = Searing | first3 = K. B. | last4 = Shoemaker | first4 = K. T. | title = Assisted colonization: Evaluating contrasting management actions (and values) in the face of uncertainty | doi = 10.1016/j.tree.2009.05.008 | journal = Trends in Ecology & Evolution | volume = 24 | issue = 9 | pages = 471–2; author reply 476–7 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19595475}}</ref> At the very least, some note, scientists should conduct further research into assisted migration and improve our capacity to predict specific outcomes instead of outright rejecting it.<ref name=Schwartz/>
Because confidence in expected outcomes is often greater in the short-term (e.g., 20 years) than the long-term future, it may be more reasonable to use short-term projections to guide actions.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Gray | first1 = L. K. | last2 = Gylander | first2 = T. | last3 = Mbogga | first3 = M. S. | last4 = Chen | first4 = P. Y. | last5 = Hamann | first5 = A. | title = Assisted migration to address climate change: Recommendations for aspen reforestation in western Canada | doi = 10.1890/10-1054.1 | journal = Ecological Applications | volume = 21 | issue = 5 | pages = 1591–1603 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21830704}}</ref> However, it is also important to consider whether the climate will remain suitable long enough for colonizing species to mature and reproduce, if that is the management goal.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = McDonald-Madden | first1 = E. | last2 = Runge | first2 = M. C. | last3 = Possingham | first3 = H. P. | last4 = Martin | first4 = T. G. | title = Optimal timing for managed relocation of species faced with climate change | doi = 10.1038/nclimate1170 | journal = Nature Climate Change | volume = 1 | issue = 5 | pages = 261 | year = 2011 | url = http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:246908/UQ246908_OA.pdf | bibcode = 2011NatCC...1..261M }}</ref>
Due to climate change, accidental species introductions, and other global changes, there is nowhere on the planet free of human disturbance.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Vitousek | first1 = P. M. | title = Human Domination of Earth's Ecosystems | doi = 10.1126/science.277.5325.494 | journal = Science | volume = 277 | issue = 5325 | pages = 494–499 | year = 1997 | url = https://izvestia.igras.ru/jour/article/view/743 }}</ref> Thus, the idea that land managers should refrain from creating human-altered communities through assisted migration may be moot given that all communities have been altered by humans to some degree whether managers undertake assisted migration or not.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Seddon | first1 = P. J. | title = From Reintroduction to Assisted Colonization: Moving along the Conservation Translocation Spectrum | doi = 10.1111/j.1526-100X.2010.00724.x | journal = Restoration Ecology | volume = 18 | issue = 6 | pages = 796–802 | year = 2010 | s2cid = 84866686 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/998241 }}</ref><ref name=Thomas2>{{Cite journal | last1 = Thomas | first1 = C. D. | title = Translocation of species, climate change, and the end of trying to recreate past ecological communities | doi = 10.1016/j.tree.2011.02.006 | journal = Trends in Ecology & Evolution | volume = 26 | issue = 5 | pages = 216–221 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21411178}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Hobbs | first1 = R. J. | last2 = Hallett | first2 = L. M. | last3 = Ehrlich | first3 = P. R. | last4 = Mooney | first4 = H. A. | title = Intervention Ecology: Applying Ecological Science in the Twenty-first Century | doi = 10.1525/bio.2011.61.6.6 | journal = BioScience | volume = 61 | issue = 6 | pages = 442 | year = 2011 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Given the reality of global change, it will be impossible to maintain past ecological communities indefinitely. Many therefore believe we should strive to maintain biodiversity and functioning ecosystems in the face of climate change, even if it means actively moving species beyond their native ranges.<ref name=Thomas2/> In the absence of assisted migration, climate change is already causing many highly mobile species, such as butterflies, to colonize areas they have not previously inhabited.<ref name=Thomas2/> Through assisted migration, managers could help rare or less-mobile species keep pace, possibly preventing future extinctions due to a their inability to colonize new areas fast enough. Though some argue that nature often responds to challenges more effectively in the absence of human intervention, others note that current climate change, itself, is a human intervention.<ref name=Thomas2/> Many species that would have been effective dispersers under slower, natural climate change may be left behind by more mobile species under current rates of human-caused climate change. Thus, through changing the climate, humans may already be artificially segregating species even without actively relocating them.<ref name=Thomas2/>
Critics may also have major concerns about different genetic issues when considering assisted migration such as maladaptation to novel environmental conditions and hybridization with similar species. These often depend on the genetic structure and level of genetic variation in the source populations. The environmental conditions in which these populations are being introduced must also be taken into account. In order to enhance genetic variation, and thus adaptive potential, material could be sourced from multiple populations. This is known as composite provenancing.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Broadhurst|first1=Linda|title=Seed supply for broadscale restoration: maximizing evolutionary potential|journal=Evolutionary Applications|date=4 September 2008|volume=1|issue=4|pages=587–597|doi=10.1111/j.1752-4571.2008.00045.x|pmid=25567799|pmc=3352390}}</ref> However, if the environmental gradient is well known, such as predictable changes in elevation or aridity, source populations should be ‘genetically matched’ to recipient sites as best as possible to ensure that the translocated individuals ae not maladapted. This strategy of moving species beyond their current range has been suggested for those that are severely threatened or endangered. By moving them outside their native range, hopefully the immediate threats of predation, disease, and habitat loss can be avoided. However, these species are usually already suffering from some sort of genetic issue resulting from low effective population size such as inbreeding depression, loss in genetic diversity, or maladaptation. Therefore, caution must be taken with what few individuals remain and rapid population growth must be the primary goal. In the case of some species, this can be accomplished with a captive breeding program <ref>{{cite journal|last1=Weeks|first1=Andrew|last2=Sgro|first2=Carla|last3=Young|first3=Andrew|last4=Frankham|first4=Richard|last5=Mitchell|first5=Nicki|last6=Byrne|first6=Margaret|last7=Coates|first7=David|last8=Eldridge|first8=Mark|last9=Sunnucks|first9=Paul|last10=Breed|first10=Martin|last11=James|first11=Elizabeth|last12=Hoffmann|first12=Ary|title=Assessing the benefits and risks of translocations in changing environments: a genetic perspective|journal=Evolutionary Applications|date=18 June 2011|volume=4|issue=6|pages=709–725|doi=10.1111/j.1752-4571.2011.00192.x|pmid=22287981|pmc=3265713}}</ref>
==Governmental policies ==
===Global conservation policy===
A review paper published in the journal ''Science'' in 1989, titled "Translocation as a Species Conservation Tool: Status and Strategy," compiled the use of [[Species translocation|translocations for rare species]] (of birds and mammals) from 1973 to 1989 in the United States, Hawaii, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Griffith | first1 = B. | last2 = Scott | first2 = J.M. | last3 = Carpenter | first3 = J.W. | last4 = Reed | first4 = C. | year = 1989 | title = Translocation as a species conservation tool: status and strategy | journal = Science | volume = 245 | issue = 4917| pages = 477–480 | doi=10.1126/science.245.4917.477| pmid = 17750257| bibcode = 1989Sci...245..477G | s2cid = 45514129 }}</ref> [[Habitat destruction]], [[habitat fragmentation]], and [[hunting]] were the primary causes of decline listed in that paper. [[Climate change]] was not mentioned as a cause for concern.
Three decades later, the [[International Union for the Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) published that "climate change currently affects at least 10,967 species on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species."<ref name="iucn">{{cite web |title=Issues brief: Species and climate change |url=https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-brief/species-and-climate-change#:~:text=Species%20are%20already%20being%20impacted,the%20likelihood%20of%20their%20extinction. |publisher=IUCN |access-date=18 December 2022}}</ref> In another IUCN publication in 2021, climate change was mentioned 20 times in a 355-page report by the organization's Conservation Translocation Specialist Group; but "assisted colonization" as an adaptive response was mentioned just once.<ref>{{cite web |last1=IUCN SSC Conservation Translocation Specialist Group (CTSG) |title=Global conservation translocation perspectives (2021): Case studies from around the globe |url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2021-007-En.pdf |publisher=IUCN |access-date=18 December 2022}}</ref>
In 2022, the update of the United Nations [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] agreement recognized "climate change" as the third most significant threat to global biodiversity. "Changes in land and sea use" along with "direct exploitation of organisms" were regarded as greater threats. Because the agreement was at the level of "goals" and "targets," no mention was made of conservation tools, such as translocation, nor its climate-adaptive form (assisted migration).<ref>{{cite web |title=Convention on Biological Diversity (2022) |url=https://www.cbd.int/doc/c/e6d3/cd1d/daf663719a03902a9b116c34/cop-15-l-25-en.pdf |publisher=U.N. Environment Program |access-date=19 December 2022}}</ref>
===USA Endangered Species Act===
June 2022, the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service|U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]] published a proposed rule in the ''[[Federal Register]]'' that would "revise section 10(j) regulations under the [[Endangered Species Act of 1973|Endangered Species Act]] to better facilitate recovery by allowing for the introduction of listed species to suitable habitats outside of their historical ranges. The proposed change will help improve the conservation and recovery of imperiled ESA-listed species in the coming decades, as growing impacts from [[climate change]] and [[invasive species]] cause habitats within their historical ranges to shift and become unsuitable."<ref>{{cite web |last1=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service |title=Press release (6 June 2022): Department of the Interior Proposes Expanding Conservation Technique as Climate Change Threatens Greater Species Extinction |url=https://fws.gov/press-release/2022-06/department-interior-proposes-proposes-expanding-conservation-technique |website=fws.gov |date=June 6, 2022 |publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service |access-date=8 September 2022}}</ref> The comment period ended August 2022, with more than 500 comments posted online by supporters and opponents.<ref>{{cite news |last1=St. George |first1=Zach |title=Last Resort: Moving Endangered Species in Order to Save Them |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/assisted-migration-endangered-species-climate-change-united-states |publisher=Yale Environment 360 |date=27 October 2022}}</ref> The final decision is scheduled for publication June 2023.<ref>{{cite web |title=Rulemaking document: Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Designation of Experimental Populations |url=https://www.regulations.gov/docket/FWS-HQ-ES-2021-0033/unified-agenda |website=Regulations.gov |publisher=U.S. Government |access-date=8 September 2022}}</ref> A 2010 paper in ''Conservation Letters'' had pointed out that, while no statutory changes appeared necessary to facilitate this newly proposed form of climate adaptation, "current regulations are an impediment to assisted colonization for many endangered animal species, whereas regulations do not necessarily restrict assisted colonization of endangered plants."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shirey |first1=Patrick D |last2=Lamberti |first2=Gary A |title=Assisted colonization under the U.S. Endangered Species Act |journal=Conservation Letters |date=2010 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=45–52 |doi=10.1111/j.1755-263X.2009.00083.x |s2cid=49565853 |url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2009.00083.x|doi-access=free }}</ref>
The [[United States Department of the Interior|U.S. Department of Interior]] in June 2023 announced its decision to modify the section 10(j) rule by deleting reference to "historical range" as a parameter for where "experimental populations" were authorized to be located. This effectively authorized assisted species migration for endangered or threatened plants and animals.<ref name="sierra-2023">{{cite journal |last1=Thompson |first1=Joanna |title=Assisted Migration Helps Animals Adapt to Climate Change |journal=Sierra Magazine |date=12 October 2023 |url=https://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/assisted-migration-helps-animals-adapt-climate-change}}</ref> The press release summarized the reason for the change as, "At the time the original 10(j) regulations were established, the potential impact of climate change on species and their habitats was not fully realized, yet in the decades since have become even more dramatic. These revisions will help prevent extinctions and support the recovery of imperiled species by allowing the Service and our partners to implement proactive, conservation-based species introductions to reduce the impacts of climate change and other threats such as invasive species."<ref>{{cite web |last1=U.S. Department of Interior |title=Press release: Interior Department Takes Action to Strengthen Endangered Species Protections |url=https://www.doi.gov/pressreleases/interior-department-takes-action-strengthen-endangered-species-protections |website=fws.gov |date=June 30, 2023}}</ref>
==Implementation ==
A number of scholarly reports have documented natural poleward range shifts of mobile species — notably, butterflies and birds, during the past several decades of [[climate change|global warming]]. This is especially the case in the [[United Kingdom]], where [[natural history]] observations are reputable and reach back several centuries.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=Chris D |title=REVIEW: Climate, Climate Change, and Range Boundaries |journal=Diversity and Distributions |date=2010 |volume=16 |pages=488–495 |doi=10.1111/j.1472-4642.2010.00642.x |s2cid=82893033 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1472-4642.2010.00642.x|doi-access=free }}</ref> It has also been documented that plants are being sold in nurseries in Europe far north of their historically native ranges, and with apparent success in the colder habitats.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van der Veken |first1=Sebastiaan |title=Garden plants get a head start on climate change |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |date=2008 |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=212–216 |doi=10.1890/070063 |url=https://mvellend.recherche.usherbrooke.ca/Van_der_Veken_Frontiers2008.pdf}}</ref> Evidence of such "inadvertent assisted migration", owing to the horticultural trade, has also been documented for plants in the United States.<ref name="bellemare">{{cite journal |last1=Bellemare |first1=Jesse |last2=Connolly |first2=Bryan|last3=Sax |first3=Dov|title=REVIEW: Climate Change, Managed Relocation, and the Risk of Intra-Continental Plant Invasions: A Theoretical and Empirical Exploration Relative to the Flora of New England |journal=Rhodora |date=2017 |volume=119 |issue=978 |pages=73–109 |doi=10.3119/16-10 |s2cid=52104073 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
In the North American context, assisted migration is most often discussed in the context of the [[Assisted migration of forests in North America|relocalization of the continent's forests]]. In the late 2000s and early 2010s, the [[Provinces and territories of Canada|Canadian provinces]] of [[Alberta]] and [[British Columbia]] modified their tree reseeding guidelines to account for the northward movement of forest's optimal ranges.<ref name="Williams">{{Cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Mary I. |last2=Dumroese |first2=R. Kasten |date=2014 |title=Assisted Migration: What It Means to Nursery Managers and Tree Planters |url=https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_other/rmrs_2014_williams_m002.pdf |journal=Tree Planters' Notes |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=21–26}}</ref> British Columbia even gave the green light for the relocation of a single species, the [[Western larch|Western Larch]], 1000 km northward.<ref name="Klenk">{{Cite journal |last=Klenk |first=Nicole L. |date=2015-03-01 |title=The development of assisted migration policy in Canada: An analysis of the politics of composing future forests |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264837714002749 |journal=Land Use Policy |language=en |volume=44 |pages=101–109 |doi=10.1016/j.landusepol.2014.12.003 |issn=0264-8377}}</ref>
In the series below of actual and prospective assisted migration projects, all but one (Florida torreya tree) are being advocated and implemented by professional scientists, and usually with oversight by governmental [[endangered species]] programs. [[Taxonomic rank|Taxonomic significance]] in successfully translocating plant and animal species range from (a) maintaining the genetics of an isolated [[population genetics|'''population''']] (American pika), to (b) preventing extinction of a '''[[subspecies]]''' (Quino checkerspot butterfly), to (c) preventing the extinction of a '''[[species]]''' (Florida torreya tree), and to (d) preventing extinction of a '''[[genus]]''' (Western swamp tortoise).
===First projects ===
====• Florida torreya, US====
[[File:Torreya Guardians homepage image.jpg|thumb|Source: homepage of the [[Torreya Guardians]] website.<ref>{{cite web |title=Map of torreya seed distribution by Torreya Guardians |url=http://www.torreyaguardians.org/ |website=Torreya Guardians |access-date=21 July 2022}}</ref>]]
The [[Florida Torreya|Florida torreya]] (''Torreya taxifolia)'' is a [[critically endangered]] tree of the yew [[Family (biology)|family]], [[Taxaceae]],<ref name="Esser1993">{{cite report|url=https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/tortax/all.html|title=''Torreya taxifolia''. In: Fire Effects Information System|author=Esser, Lora L.|date=1993|publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory|access-date=15 March 2020}}</ref> found in the [[Southeastern United States]], at the state border region of northern [[Florida]] and southwestern [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. A self-organized group of conservationists called the [[Torreya Guardians]] was created in 2004 to undertake the assisted migration of this [[glacial relict]] tree by [[Rewilding (conservation biology)|rewilding]] it in more northern parts of the [[United States]].<ref name="BostonGlobe">{{Cite news|last=Berdik|first=Chris|date=12 October 2008|title=Driving Mr. Lynx|work=[[The Boston Globe]]|url=http://archive.boston.com/bostonglobe/ideas/articles/2008/10/12/driving_mr_lynx/?page=1|access-date=2021-08-07}}</ref><ref name="dalrymple" /> The controversy that developed was that the citizens used an exception (just for plants) in the United States [[Endangered Species Act of 1973]] to begin their own assisted migration of a listed [[critically endangered species]] — even while the official recovery plan did not yet allow for it.
By 2018 the citizens had accomplished documentation of species thrival in a dozen legacy horticultural plantings — including seed production and next-generation saplings at several sites in North Carolina.<ref name="groves" /> In 2018 their own plantings in Cleveland, Ohio, began producing seeds<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bess |first1=Fred |title=''Torreya taxifolia'' in Cleveland, Ohio |url= http://www.torreyaguardians.org/ohio-cleveland.html |website=Torreya Guardians |access-date=19 December 2022}}</ref> (turquoise star in image at right).
Early scholarly debates on the pros and cons of assisted migration as a climate-adaptation tool for endangered species conservation often mentioned the Florida torreya project.,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Torreya Guardians |title=Torreya Guardians in the Media |url=http://www.torreyaguardians.org/guardians.html#media |website=Torreya Guardians |access-date=19 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beardmore |first1=Tannis |last2=Winder |first2=Richard |title=Review of science-based assessments of species vulnerability: Contributions to decision-making for assisted migration |journal=The Forestry Chronicle |date=November 2011 |volume=87 |issue=6 |pages=745–754 |doi=10.5558/tfc2011-091 |url=https://pubs.cif-ifc.org/doi/pdf/10.5558/tfc2011-091?download=true&|doi-access=free }}</ref> as did international media<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stone |first1=Richard |title=Home, Home Outside the Range? |journal=Science |date=24 September 2010 |volume=329 |issue=5999 |pages=1592–1594 |doi=10.1126/science.329.5999.1592 |pmid=20929823 |bibcode=2010Sci...329.1592S |url=https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.329.5999.1592?sid=187de4cd-f4dc-418e-916b-81cbb0ae90ae}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=A modern ark: To save endangered species, move them to more congenial places |newspaper=The Economist |date=26 November 2016 |url=https://www.economist.com/special-report/2015/11/26/a-modern-ark}}</ref>
====• Western Swamp Tortoise, Australia====
The [[western swamp tortoise]] (''Pseudemydura umbrina'') is a [[critically endangered]] reptile that is [[Endemism|endemic]] to a small portion of southwestern [[Australia]].<ref>King, J.M., G. Kuchling, & S.D. Bradshaw (1998). Thermal environment, behavior, and body condition of wild Pseudemydura umbrina (Testudines: Chelidae) during late winter and early spring. Herpetologica. 54 (1):103-112.</ref> It was deemed extinct until it was rediscovered in 1954 and reported in 1981 to be "a relict species of a monotypic genus, of very restricted range and specialized habitat."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Burbridge |first1=A A |title=The Ecology of the Western Swamp Tortoise, ''Pseudemydura umbrina'' (Testudines: Chelidae) |journal=Australian Wildlife Research |date=1981 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=203–223 |doi=10.1071/WR9810203 |url=https://www.publish.csiro.au/WR/WR9810203}}</ref> This species is notable in conservation history for being the first example of an endangered [[vertebrate]] that was experimentally translocated to a distant location (300 kilometers poleward) expressly because of climate change.
By the time assisted migration trials began, the sole remaining original refuge for this species was inhabited only by captive-bred tortoises that had been reintroduced.<ref name="bouma">{{cite journal |display-authors=etal |last1=Bouma |first1=Alexandra |title=Assisted colonisation trials for the western swamp turtle show that juveniles can grow in cooler and wetter climates |journal=Endangered Species Research |date=September 2020 |volume=43 |pages=75–88 |doi=10.3354/esr01053 |s2cid=222260601 |url=https://www.int-res.com/articles/esr2020/43/n043p075.pdf |access-date=2022-12-21 |archive-date=2020-11-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105205733/https://www.int-res.com/articles/esr2020/43/n043p075.pdf |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> The first trial began in 2016, with the release of 24 captive-raised juveniles.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wahlquist |first1=Calla |title=Australia's rarest tortoises get new home to save them from climate change |journal=The Guardian |date=16 August 2016 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/aug/17/australias-rarest-tortoises-get-new-home-to-save-them-from-climate-change}}</ref> In contrast to the Florida torreya tree example, this first experiment in assisted migration of an endangered species in Australia was "preceded by detailed planning and research." A generally positive result, despite impediments to statistically significant data, was reported in a journal article four years later.<ref name="bouma" />
A second trial began in 2022 in the same region, this time in [[Scott National Park]]. Lead scientist is Nicola Mitchell, an associate professor of conservation physiology at the University of Western Australia. She openly spoke to the ''International New York Times'' about the ethical imperative: Should humans just let nature run its course, thereby dooming this species to extinction because of climate change? "Or do we have an ethical responsibility" to act in its behalf?<ref name = tortoise>{{cite news |last1=Zhuang |first1=Yan |title=Can Australia Save a Rare Reptile by Moving It to a Cooler Place? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/12/world/australia/assisted-colonization-tortoise.html |work=New York Times |date=12 December 2022}}</ref>
Mark Schwartz, a conservation scientist at the University of California, Davis, was quoted in the article. Speaking about the scale of biodiversity threats posed by climate change, versus using assisted migration as an adaptive strategy, Schwartz said: "To move enough species to resolve this threat basically seems untenable." Yet he also noted that climate-responsive translocations were more acceptable than another approach under consideration: initiating gene editing to make species more climate-proof. Lead scientist Mitchell acknowledged the risks, while offering "we can potentially undo our mistakes by recapturing them."<ref name = tortoise/> Additional translocations of baby turtles continued into 2023.<ref name="nature-2023" />
===Early advocacy without implementation===
====• Quino Checkerspot butterfly, US====
The [[Quino checkerspot butterfly|'''Quino checkerspot''']] (''Euphydryas editha quino'') is a [[butterfly]] native to southern [[California]] and northwestern [[Baja California]]. It is a [[subspecies]] of the common [[Edith's checkerspot]] (''Euphydryas editha''), which ranges as far north as southern [[British Columbia]] and [[Alberta]]. In 1997 it became the second subspecies of Edith's checkerspot to be listed under the federal [[Endangered Species Act]]. (The first was Bay checkerspot, which was listed as "threatened" in 1987.)<ref name="ecos">{{cite web |title=Quino checkerspot butterfly (''Euphydryas editha quino'') |url=https://ecos.fws.gov/ecp/species/5900 |website=ECOS Environmental Conservation Online System |publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service |access-date=21 December 2022}}</ref>
Notably, it became the first endangered species for which climate change was reported as a current threat and thus a factor to be considered in its recovery plan.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Toub |first1=Steve |title=Climate Change Will Leave Edith's Checkerspot Butterflies Out Of Sync (November 2009) |url=https://www.endangered.org/climate-change-will-leave-ediths-checkerspot-butterflies-out-of-sync/ |website=Endangered Species Coalition |date=20 November 2009 |access-date=21 December 2022}}</ref> However, as reported in ''The Guardian'' April 2014<blockquote>
[[File:Quino Checkerspot Butterfly on a wild hyacinth (31651366006) cropped.jpg|thumb|Quino Checkerspot Butterfly on a wild hyacinth]]
A butterfly species whose population collapsed because of climate change and habitat loss has defied predictions of extinction to rapidly move to cooler climes and change its food plant. The quino checkerspot (''Euphydryas editha quino''), found in Mexico and California, has shifted to higher altitudes and surprisingly chosen a completely different species of plant on which to lay its eggs, according to research presented at the Butterfly Conservation's seventh international symposium in Southampton.... "Every butterfly biologist who knew anything about the quino in the mid-1990s thought it would be extinct by now, including me," said Prof Camille Parmesan of the Marine Sciences Institute at Plymouth University...."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barkham |first1=Patrick |title=Endangered butterfly species defies climate change |journal=The Guardian |date=7 April 2014 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/apr/07/endangered-butterfly-species-defies-climate-change-quino-checkerspot}}</ref></blockquote>
In a paper titled, "Endangered Quino checkerspot butterfly and climate change: Short-term success but long-term vulnerability?", the authors acknowledged the butterfly's surprising ability to utilize a new larval plant food in a cooler nearby habitat and concluded: "Quino appears resilient to warming climate. However, projections indicate that most or all of Quino’s current range in the USA, including the new high elevation expansion, will become uninhabitable. Our most frequent projected future range (circa 2050) is c. 400 km northward from current populations, hence conservation of Quino may eventually require assisted colonization."<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=etal |last1=Parmesan |first1=Camille |title=Endangered Quino checkerspot butterfly and climate change: Short-term success but long-term vulnerability? |journal=Journal of Insect Conservation |date=2015 |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=185–204 |doi=10.1007/s10841-014-9743-4|hdl=10026.1/10112 |s2cid=254600881 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272746958|hdl-access=free }}</ref>
====• American Pika (rodent) and Joshua Tree, US====
{{multiple image
| total_width = 400
| image1 = American Pika area.png
| image2 = Joshua tree map cole 2011 climate future.jpg
| footer = LEFT: Current native range of '''American pika'''. RIGHT: Modelled range contraction (red) and expansion (green) for '''Joshua Tree''' in future climate warming.<ref name="cole-2011">{{cite journal |display-authors=etal |last1=Cole |first1=Kenneth L |title=Past and ongoing shifts in Joshua tree distribution support future modeled range contraction |journal=Ecological Applications |date=January 2011 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=137–149 |doi=10.1890/09-1800.1 |pmid=21516893 |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/rm/pubs_other/rmrs_2011_cole_k001.pdf}}</ref>}}
Within the first decade of the terms '''assisted migration''' and '''assisted colonization''' appearing in the journals of [[conservation biology]] science, two wide-ranging species in the western USA (image right) were scrutinized for possible application of the new climate adaptation tool. The [[American pika]], ''Ochotona princeps'', (a close relative of rabbits)<ref name="pika-2015">{{cite journal |display-authors=etal |last1=Wilkening |first1=Jennifer L |title=Alpine biodiversity and assisted migration: the case of the American pika (''Ochotona princeps'') |journal=Biodiversity |date=December 2015 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=224–236 |doi=10.1080/14888386.2015.1112304|s2cid=131656767 }}</ref> and the [[Joshua tree]], ''Yucca brevifolia'', (the iconic tree of the [[Mojave Desert]])<ref name="cole-2011" /> were experiencing climate-driven range contractions in their southernmost populations.
At the time, when climate-adaptation tools were originally discussed, scientific applications to well-known species garnered media attention.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Thomas B |title=Op-Ed: 'Assisted migration' may save some species from climate change doom |journal=Los Angeles Times |date=21 September 2014 |url=https://www.latimes.com/nation/la-oe-smith-pika-evolution-climate-change-20140922-story.html}}</ref> Because successfully capturing, transporting, and releasing an alpine mammal would require planning and "considerable financial resources,"<ref name="pika-2015" /> serious advocacy for launching such a project for the pika did not occur. As for Joshua tree, in 2019 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service ruled against listing this desert plant as a "threatened" species,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; 12-Month Findings on Petitions To List Eight Species as Endangered or Threatened Species |journal=Federal Register |date=15 August 2019 |url=https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2019/08/15/2019-17536/endangered-and-threatened-wildlife-and-plants-12-month-findings-on-petitions-to-list-eight-species}}</ref> and California state government did the same in 2022.<ref>{{cite news |title=California won't immediately list Joshua tree as threatened |url=https://spectrumnews1.com/ca/la-west/environment/2022/06/16/california-western-joshua-tree-threatened#:~:text=SACRAMENTO%2C%20Calif.,the%20plant%20from%20climate%20change. |access-date=21 December 2022 |agency=Associated Press |date=16 June 2022}}</ref> During this time, three U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service scientists aggregated existing research (including range shift climate modelling) into a report titled, "Examining the Past, Present, and Future of an Iconic Mojave Desert Species, the Joshua Tree."<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=etal |last1=Wilkening |first1=Jennifer L |title=Examining the Past, Present, and Future of an Iconic Mojave Desert Species, the Joshua Tree |journal=The Southwestern Naturalist |date=September 2020 |volume=65 |issue=3 |pages=216–229 |doi=10.1894/0038-4909-65.3-4.216 |s2cid=246340766 |url=https://bioone.org/journals/the-southwestern-naturalist/volume-65/issue-3-4/0038-4909-65.3-4.216/EXAMINING-THE-PAST-PRESENT-AND-FUTURE-OF-AN-ICONIC-MOJAVE/10.1894/0038-4909-65.3-4.216.short}}</ref> It was published in December 2020. No mention was made of any form of translocation, including assisted migration, for securing the species against future climate change.
====• Stitchbird (hihi), New Zealand====
The [[stitchbird]], also known as the Hihi, is a bird endemic to New Zealand. Changes in climate have shown to have a profound effect on the hihi's ability to thrive and reproduce. As a result, human caused climate change is an existential threat to the species. The hihi's current native habitat is becoming unstable due to rising temperatures, and suitable temperatures are shifting further south. Assisted migration is being considered as a means of ensuring the hihi can remain in its current natural habitat. Critics, however, argue the risks that are presented to the new host environments are not worth the potential benefits assisted migration may present.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chauvenet |first1=Alienor L M |title=Saving the hihi under climate change: a case for assisted colonization |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |date=5 September 2013 |volume=50 |issue=6 |pages=1330–1340 |doi=10.1111/1365-2664.12150 |s2cid=86584128 |url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1365-2664.12150}}</ref>
==Inadvertent assisted migration==
[[File:Magnolia tripetala in flower in northeast Alabama.jpg|thumb|Umbrella magnolia, a subcanopy tree, in flower northeast Alabama|left]]
Mature [[horticultural]] plantings of trees northward of their native ranges are a form of assisted migration already underway.<ref>{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Van der Veken |first1=Sebastiaan |title=Garden plants get a head start on climate change |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |date=May 2008 |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=212–216 |doi=10.1890/070063 |url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/070063|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Because the original plantings likely did not include the goal of helping the trees migrate northward in a warming climate, this form of unintended climate adaptation enabled by humans can be called [[Assisted migration of forests in North America|inadvertent assisted migration]]. Jesse Bellemare and colleagues may have coined the term in a paper published in 2017: "It appears that a subset of native plants, particularly those with ornamental value, might already have had opportunities to shift their ranges northward via inadvertent human assistance."<ref name="bellemare" /> A subcanopy tree native to the southeastern United States, [[Magnolia tripetala|umbrella magnolia]], that had fully [[naturalisation (biology)|naturalized]] into a forest adjacent to its original horticultural planting in Massachusetts was the subject of an earlier paper by Bellemare.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bellemare |first1=Jesse|last2=Deeg|first2=Claudia |title=Horticultural Escape and Naturalization of Magnolia tripetala in Western Massachusetts: Biogeographic Context and Possible Relationship to Recent Climate Change |journal=Rhodora |date=2015 |volume=117 |issue=971 |pages=371–383 |doi=10.3119/15-04 |s2cid=86153619|url=https://bioone.org/journals/rhodora/volume-117/issue-971/15-04/Horticultural-Escape-and-Naturalization-of-Magnolia-tripetala-in-Western-Massachusetts/10.3119/15-04.short}}</ref> This and other examples suggest not only that poleward assisted migration of plants can be successful, but that distinguishing [[native species|native from non-native species]] in this time of rapid climate change will require novel standards.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marinelli |first1=Janet |title=As World Warms, How Do We Decide When a Plant is Native? |journal=Yale Environment 360 |date=19 April 2016 |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/how_do_we_decide_when_a_plant_is_native_climate_change}}</ref>
[[File:Torreya taxifolia historic groves videos by Torreya Guardians.jpg|thumb|Historic groves of ''Torreya taxifolia'' planted outside of native range have been documented by [[Torreya Guardians]] and posted as photo-essays on the group's website<ref>{{cite web |title=Assisted Migration, Torreya Guardians |url=http://www.torreyaguardians.org/ |website=Torreya Guardians |access-date=19 July 2022}}</ref> and also as videos.<ref name="videos">{{cite web |title=Videos on the Torreya Guardians Website |url=http://www.torreyaguardians.org/video.html |website=Torreya Guardians |access-date=19 July 2022}}</ref>|right|upright=1.75]]
Reports of full naturalization of poleward horticultural plantings of other native trees have been used as support for intentional deployment of assisted migration at larger scales as a tool for climate adaptation. [[Sequoia sempervirens|Coast redwood]] (native to California) and [[Torreya taxifolia]] (native to Florida) are two examples. In 2022 a Canadian Forestry Service publication pointed to the success of horticultural plantings in [[British Columbia]] and [[Washington state]], along with a review of research detailing redwood's [[paleobiogeography]] and current range conditions, as grounds for proposing that Canada's [[Vancouver Island]] already offered "narrow strips of optimal habitat" for extending the range of coast redwood.<ref name="winder2022">{{cite journal |display-authors=etal| last1=Winder |first1=Richard S |title=Potential for Assisted Migration of Coast Redwood (''Sequoia sempervirens'') to Vancouver Island |journal=Canadian Forest Service Publications |date=October 2022 |issue=BC-X-459 | isbn=9780660458618 |url=https://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/publications?id=40819 |access-date=30 October 2022}}</ref> As to Florida torreya, documentation of "historic groves in northward states"<ref name="groves">{{cite web |last1=Barlow |first1=Connie |title=Historic Groves of Torreya Trees: Long-term Experiments in Assisted Migration |url=http://www.torreyaguardians.org/historic-groves.html |website=Torreya Guardians |access-date=19 July 2022}}</ref> was presented by the group [[Torreya Guardians]] as a supportive factor in their 2019 "Petition to Downlist from endangered to threatened ''Torreya taxifolia''".<ref name="Barlow petition">{{cite web |last1=Barlow |first1=Connie |title=Petition to DOWNLIST from endangered to threatened ''Torreya taxifolia'', Florida Torreya (2019) |url=https://ecos.fws.gov/docs/tess/petition/864.pdf |website=ECOS Environmental Conservation Online System |publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service |access-date=18 July 2022}}</ref> Two years later, a decision was issued and published,<ref name="petition-decision-FR">{{cite journal |title=Evaluation of a Petition To Downlist Florida Torreya |journal=Federal Register |date=29 September 2021 |volume=86 |issue=186 |pages=53939 |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2021-09-29/pdf/2021-20963.pdf}}</ref> with no change in species status of imperilment. But Factor E of the decision, "Documentation of Historical Groves," did acknowledge the citizen accomplishments in this regard.
==See also==
*[[Climate change adaptation]]
*[[Forest management]]
*[[Effect of climate change on plant biodiversity]]
*[[Hemerochory]]
*[[Escaped plant]]
==References==
<references />
[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Climate change]] |
Sentinel species | {{Short description|Organisms used to detect risks to humans}}
{{Redirect|Canary in a coal mine|the song by the Police|Canary in a Coalmine}}
[[File:Canario amarillo.png|thumb|upright|[[Domestic canary]], historically used to detect gas in [[coal mines]]]]
'''Sentinel species''' are [[organism]]s, often animals, used to detect risks to humans by providing advance warning of a danger. The terms primarily apply in the context of environmental hazards rather than those from other sources. Some animals can act as sentinels because they may be more susceptible or have greater exposure to a particular hazard than humans in the same environment.<ref name="national research council">National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Animals as Monitors of Environmental Hazards, "Animals as Sentinels of Environmental Health Hazards: Committee on Animals as Monitors of Environmental Hazards," National Academy Press: 1991, {{ISBN|0309040469}}.</ref> People have long observed animals for signs of impending hazards or evidence of environmental threats. Plants and other living organisms have also been used for these purposes.
== Historical examples ==
[[File:Strasbourg-16 rue du 22 Novembre (4).jpg|thumb|Miner with a canary in a cage|alt=Depiction of a miner with a canary in a cage]]
Many observations of animals point to toxicity in food, water or air that would or could harm humans.
=== Canaries ===
The classic example is the "[[domestic canary|canary]] in the [[Coal mining|coal mine]]". The idea of placing a warm-blooded animal in a mine to detect [[carbon monoxide]] was first proposed by [[John Scott Haldane]] in 1895,<ref>{{cite journal |author1= Haldane, John Scott |date=1895 |title=The Action of Carbonic Oxide on Man |journal=[[The Journal of Physiology]] |volume=XVIII |issue= 5–6|pages=448 |doi= 10.1113/jphysiol.1895.sp000578|pmid= 16992272|pmc= 1514663}}</ref> and canaries were used as early as 1896.<ref>{{cite journal |author1= Haldane, John Scott |date=1896 |title=The Detection and Estimation of Carbonic Oxide in Air |journal=[[The Journal of Physiology]] |volume=XX |issue= 6|pages=521–522 |doi= 10.1113/jphysiol.1896.sp000635|pmid= 16992351|pmc= 1512612}}</ref><ref name="acott">{{cite journal |last=Acott |first=C. |title=JS Haldane, JBS Haldane, L Hill, and A Siebe: A brief resume of their lives. |journal=South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society Journal |volume=29 |issue=3 |year=1999 |issn=0813-1988 |oclc=16986801 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/6016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727224432/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/6016 |url-status=usurped |archive-date=July 27, 2011 |access-date=2008-07-12 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Boycott |first1=A. E. |first2=G. C. C. |last2=Damant |first3=J. S. |last3=Haldane |title=Prevention of compressed air illness |journal=J. Hygiene |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=342–443 |year=1908 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7489 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917041924/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7489 |url-status=usurped |archive-date=September 17, 2008 |access-date=2013-09-05 |doi=10.1017/S0022172400003399 |pmc=2167126 |pmid=20474365}}</ref><ref>{{The Timetables of Science|pages=411}}</ref> Countries such as Britain, the United States, and Canada used canaries as a sentinel species.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Magazine |first1=Smithsonian |last2=Eschner |first2=Kat |title=The Story of the Real Canary in the Coal Mine |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/story-real-canary-coal-mine-180961570/ |access-date=2022-10-17 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}</ref> Well into the 20th century, coal miners brought canaries into coal mines as an early-warning signal for toxic gases, primarily carbon monoxide.<ref>David A. Bengston, Diane S. Henshel, "Environmental Toxicology and Risk Assessment: Biomarkers and Risk Assessment", ASTM International, 1996, {{ISBN|0803120311}}, p 220.</ref> The birds, being more sensitive, would become sick before the miners, who would then have a chance to escape or put on protective [[respirators]]. In some cases, the canaries were kept in cages with dedicated oxygen tanks so the birds could survive after their illness provided a warning.<ref name="pollard">{{Cite web |last=Pollard |first=Lewis |date=2018-03-27 |title=The canary resuscitator |url=https://blog.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/canary-resuscitator/ |access-date=2021-10-13 |website=Science and Industry Museum blog |language=en-GB}}</ref> "Canary in the coal mine" is now used as an idiom for a person or thing that warns people of danger.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ShareAmerica |date=2014-11-12 |title=Idiom in the news: Canary in the coal mine |url=https://share.america.gov/english-idiom-canary-coal-mine/ |access-date=2022-10-17 |website=ShareAmerica |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Forsaith |first=Carly |date=2022-09-22 |title='Canary in a Coal Mine': Definition, Meaning, and Examples |url=https://writingtips.org/canary-in-a-coal-mine/ |access-date=2022-10-17 |website=Writing Tips |language=en-US}}</ref>
=== Cats ===
In [[Minamata Bay]], Japan, [[Domestic cat|cats]] developed "[[Minamata disease|dancing cat fever]]" before humans were affected due to eating mercury-contaminated fish.<ref name="withrow">Stephen J. Withrow, David M. Vail, ''Withrow and MacEwen's Small Animal Clinical Oncology'', Elsevier: 2007, {{ISBN|0721605583}}, p. 73-4.</ref>
=== Dogs ===
Dogs were recognized as early as 1939 to be more susceptible to tonsil cancer if they were kept in crowded urban environments.<ref name="withrow" /> Studies similarly found higher disease rates in animals exposed to [[tobacco smoke]].<ref name="withrow" />
===Poultry===
[[Yushō disease]] was discovered when poultry began dying at alarming rates due to [[polychlorinated biphenyl]] (PCB) poisoning, although not before approximately 14,000 people were affected.
== Characteristics ==
Animal sentinels must have measurable responses to the hazard in question, whether that is due to the animal's death, disappearance, or some other determinable aspect.<ref name="national research council" />{{rp|34}} Many of these species are ideally [[Endangered species|unendangered]] and easy to handle. It is important that the species' range overlap with the range being studied.<ref name="bds" /> Often the ideal species is determined by the characteristics of the hazard.
For example, [[honey bee]]s are susceptible to [[air pollution]].<ref name="national research council" />{{rp|35}} Similarly both [[bats]] and [[swallows]] have been used to monitor pesticide contamination due to their diet of insects that may have been affected by the chemicals.<ref name="national research council" />{{rp|35}} By the same token, aquatic animals, or their direct predators, are used as sentinel species to monitor [[water pollution]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sentinel Species - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/sentinel-species |access-date=2023-05-13 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref>
Some species may show effects of a contaminant before humans due to their size, their reproductive rate, or their increased exposure to the contaminant.<ref name="bds">Arthur D. Bloom, Frederick de Serres, ''Ecotoxicity and Human Health: A Biological Approach to Environmental Remediation'', CRC Press: 1995, {{ISBN|1566701414}}, page 76.</ref>
== Specific applications ==
=== Toxic gases ===
[[File:Canary coal mine.jpg|thumb| Mining foreman R. Thornburg shows a small cage with a canary used for testing carbon monoxide gas in 1928.]]
Canaries were iconically used in [[coal mines]] to detect the presence of [[carbon monoxide]]. The bird's rapid breathing rate, small size, and high metabolism, compared to the miners, led birds in dangerous mines to succumb before the miners, thereby giving the miners time to take action.
=== Air and water pollution ===
A number of animals have been used to measure varying kinds of air pollution. These include [[honey bee]]s for air pollution, [[bivalve molluscs]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://molluscan-eye.epoc.u-bordeaux1.fr/index.php?rubrique=accueil&lang=en |title=Molluscan eye |access-date=2014-01-25 |archive-date=2016-11-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161113173444/http://molluscan-eye.epoc.u-bordeaux1.fr/index.php?rubrique=accueil&lang=en |url-status=dead }}</ref> for online water-quality survey and [[pigeon]]s for atmospheric lead.<ref name="national research council" />{{rp|35}} Bats and swallows have been used to monitor pesticide contamination due to their diet of insects that may have been affected by the chemicals.<ref name="national research council" />{{rp|35}}
Aquatic [[DDT]] pollution has been quantitatively measured in [[California]] fish. [[Polychlorinated biphenyl|PCB]] has been measured through the analysis of fish livers.<ref name="national research council" />{{rp|82}} [[Toxaphene]] concentrations were discovered far from the area of its use through analysis of [[trout]] in the [[Great Lakes]].<ref name="national research council" />{{rp|85}} The evidence of atmospheric transport of the substance influenced the subsequent prohibition of its widespread use. [[Alligators]] may have been used to warn of hazardous contamination in [[Centreville, Mississippi]] retention ponds.<ref>{{Citation |author=Eugene Love Fair Jr. |date=May 28, 2013 |title=Christmas v. Exxon Mobil |work= [[Mississippi Court of Appeals]] |url=https://caselaw.findlaw.com/ms-court-of-appeals/1632483.html |access-date=January 3, 2014}}</ref>
Scientists also monitor [[crayfish]] in the wild in natural bodies of water to study the levels of pollutants there.<ref name="Brewery" /><ref name="Missouri">{{cite magazine|url=https://mdc.mo.gov/conmag/2008/11/clean-water|title=Clean Water|magazine=Missouri Conservationist Magazine|publisher=Missouri Department of Conservation|date=November 2008|volume=69|issue=11|access-date=1 November 2019}}</ref><ref name="Meuse">{{Cite journal | first1 = P. A. E. L. | last1 = Schilderman | first2= E. J. C. |last2=Moonen|first3=L. M.|last3=Maas|first4=I.|last4=Welle|first5=J. C. S.|last5=Kleinjans | year=1999 | title = Use of Crayfish in Biomonitoring Studies of Environmental Pollution of the River Meuse | journal = Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety | volume = 44 | issue = 3 | pages = 241–252 | doi =10.1006/eesa.1999.1827 | pmid = 10581118 | issn = 0147-6513}}</ref>
The Protivin brewery in the [[Czech Republic]] uses crayfish outfitted with sensors to detect any changes in their bodies or pulse activity in order to monitor the purity of the water used in their product. The creatures are kept in a fish tank that is fed with the same local natural source water used in their brewing. If three or more of the crayfish have changes to their pulses, employees know there is a change in the water and examine the parameters.<ref name="Brewery">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-czech-crayfish-water-purity/crayfish-staff-help-czech-brewery-keep-its-water-as-pure-as-can-be-idUSKCN1C22GP|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025221438/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-czech-crayfish-water-purity/crayfish-staff-help-czech-brewery-keep-its-water-as-pure-as-can-be-idUSKCN1C22GP|title=Crayfish staff help Czech brewery keep its water as pure as can be|work=[[Reuters TV]]|last=Hanrahan|first=Mark|date=27 September 2017|archive-date=25 October 2019|access-date=1 November 2019}}</ref>
=== Infectious diseases ===
The discovery of [[West Nile virus]] in the Western Hemisphere was heralded by an outbreak of disease in crows and other wild birds. Other emerging diseases have demonstrated linkages between animal health events and human risk, including [[monkeypox]], [[SARS]], and [[avian influenza]]. In outbreaks of bubonic plague, rats begin dying out before humans. {{citation needed|date=October 2021}}
=== Household toxins ===
[[Dog]]s may provide early warning of [[lead poisoning]] hazards in a [[home]], and certain cancers in dogs and [[cat]]s have been linked to household exposures to [[pesticide]]s, [[cigarette]] smoke, and other [[carcinogens]]. {{citation needed|date=October 2021}}
==Cultural references==
* [[Kurt Vonnegut]] in an interview compared the function of artists in human society to coal-mine canaries; see [[:q:Kurt Vonnegut|Wikiquote]].<ref>Interview "Physicist, Purge Thyself" in the Chicago Tribune Magazine (22 June 1969)</ref>
* "Canary in a Coalmine" is the title of a non-single track on [[The Police]]'s 1980 album [[Zenyatta Mondatta]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Christmas Day lost and found: Police's 'Canary in a Coalmine' |url=https://www.tampabay.com/archive/2013/12/25/christmas-day-lost-and-found-police-s-canary-in-a-coalmine/ |access-date=2022-10-17 |website=Tampa Bay Times |language=en}}</ref>
* "Canary in a Coalmine" is the title of a non-single track on [[The Crane Wives]]’ 2012 album [https://www.thecranewives.com/music-fool The Fool in Her Wedding Gown]
== See also ==
* [[Guard dog]]
* [[Indicator species]]
* [[Stack canary]]
* [[Warrant canary]]
== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}
==Further reading==
* {{cite journal
|author1=van der Schalie WH |author2=Gardner HS Jr |author3=Bantle JA |author4=De Rosa CT |author5=Finch RA |author6=Reif JS |author7=Reuter RH |author8=Backer LC |author9=Burger J |author10=Folmar LC |author11=Stokes WS. | title = Animals as sentinels of human health hazards of environmental chemicals | journal = [[Environ Health Perspect]] |date=Apr 1999 | volume = 107 | issue = 4 | pages = 309–315 | doi=10.1289/ehp.99107309 |pmid=10090711 |pmc=1566523 }}
* {{cite journal |author1=O'Brien DJ |author2=Kaneene JB |author3=Poppenga RH | title = The use of mammals as sentinels for human exposure to toxic contaminants in the environment | journal = Environ Health Perspect |date=Mar 1993 | volume = 99 | pages = 351–368 | pmid = 8319652 | pmc=1567056 | doi=10.1289/ehp.9399351 }}
* {{cite journal |author1=Backer LC |author2=Grindem CB |author3=Corbett WT |author4=Cullins L |author5=Hunter JL | title = Pet dogs as sentinels for environmental contamination | journal = Sci Total Environ | date = 2001-07-02 | volume = 274 | issue = 1–3 | pages = 161–169 | doi = 10.1016/S0048-9697(01)00740-9 |pmid=11453293 |bibcode=2001ScTEn.274..161B |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1259733 }}
* {{cite journal |author1=Rabinowitz P |author2=Gordon Z |author3=Chudnov D |author4=Wilcox M |author5=Odofin L |author6=Liu A |author7=Dein J. | title = Animals as sentinels of bioterrorism agents | journal = Emerg Infect Dis |date=Apr 2006 | volume = 12 | issue = 4 | pages = 647–652 | pmid = 16704814 | doi=10.3201/eid1204.051120 | pmc=3294700}}
* {{cite journal |author1=Meselson M |author2=Guillemin J |author3=Hugh-Jones M |author4=Langmuir A |author5=Popova I |author6=Shelokov A |author7=Yampolskaya O | title = The Sverdlovsk anthrax outbreak of 1979 | journal = [[Science (journal)|Science]] | date = 1994-11-18 | volume = 266 | issue = 5188 | pages = 1202–1208 | pmid = 7973702 | doi = 10.1126/science.7973702 |bibcode=1994Sci...266.1202M }}
* {{cite journal | author = Kahn LH | title = Confronting zoonoses, linking human and veterinary medicine
| journal = Emerg Infect Dis |date=Apr 2006 | volume = 12 | issue = 4 | pages = 556–561 | doi=10.3201/eid1204.050956 | pmid = 16704801
| pmc = 3294691 }}
== External links ==
* [http://canarydatabase.org The Canary Database: Animals As Sentinels of Human Environmental Health Hazards]
* Online biomonitoring of water quality by a permanent record of bivalve molluscs' behavior and physiology (biological rhythms, growth rate, spawning, early warning), 24/7, worldwide: the [http://molluscan-eye.epoc.u-bordeaux1.fr/index.php?rubrique=accueil&lang=en MolluSCAN ''eye''] project
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Mine safety]] |
Organic chocolate | [[File:Dark chocolate Blanxart.jpg|thumb|Organic dark chocolate with 72% [[Cocoa solids|cocoa]] content]]
'''Organic chocolate''' is [[chocolate]] which has been [[Organic certification|certified organic]]. As of 2016, it was a growing sector in the global chocolate industry. Organic chocolate is a [[Conspicuous conservation|socially desirable]] product for some consumers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-money-organic-chocolate-idUSKBN0LF2F820150211|title=Is organic chocolate worth the price?|author=Mitch Lipka|date=11 February 2015|work=Reuters|accessdate=15 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.candyindustry.com/articles/85215-report---19-5-billion-in-chocolate-sales-and-20--growth-in-organic|title=Report: $19.5 billion in chocolate sales—and 20% growth in organic - 2012-05-30 - Candy Industry|publisher=|accessdate=15 March 2016}}</ref> Major brands, such as [[The Hershey Company]], have begun to produce organic chocolate.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.treehugger.com/green-food/dagoba-sold-to-hersheys.html|title=Dagoba Sold To Hershey's|work=TreeHugger|accessdate=15 March 2016}}</ref>
==Sources==
Many, if not most, producers of organic chocolate source their ingredients from certified [[fair trade cocoa]] farms and cooperatives.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://vision.ucsd.edu/~kbranson/stopchocolateslavery/main.html|title=Slave-Free Chocolate|publisher=|accessdate=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313054416/http://vision.ucsd.edu/~kbranson/stopchocolateslavery/main.html|archive-date=13 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Organic chocolate comes in many varieties, including milk chocolate, white chocolate, and dark chocolate. Major brands of organic chocolate include [[United Kingdom|Britain]]-based [[Green & Black's]], Hershey-owned [[Dagoba Chocolate]], and [[Equal Exchange]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goodhousekeeping.com/food-recipes/dessert/g165/fair-trade-chocolate-organic-chocolate/|title=Best Organic and Fair Trade Chocolate - Fair Trade and Organic Chocolates|author=The Daily Green Staff|date=9 May 2013|work=Good Housekeeping|accessdate=15 March 2016}}</ref> Less-known retailers include [[Taza Chocolate]], [[Pacari Chocolate]], and Sacred Chocolate, a brand noted for producing [[raw chocolate]].<ref name="foxnews.com">{{cite web|url=http://video.foxnews.com/v/2755356477001/can-changing-your-diet-prevent-heart-disease/?playlist_id=2647851223001#playlist_id=2647851223001&sp=show-clips&v=2755356477001|title=Can changing your diet prevent heart disease?|work=Fox News|accessdate=3 April 2016}}</ref>
== Production process ==
The Seattle-based chocolate maker [[Theo Chocolate]] was one of the first companies that were "fair-trade certified" and produced organic chocolate. In 2006 Theo Chocolate began their production of organic chocolate, there were no solid guidelines for [[Chocolate#Production|chocolate manufacturing]] at the time and they had to get the process and ingredients in the correct measurements. The main ingredient in chocolate, cocoa is found [[Chocolate#History|close to the equator]] and the majority of it is grown in [[West Africa|Western Africa]] or [[South America]]. The organic cocoa, the main ingredient in organic chocolate, is sent to the chocolate factory, where it arrives in burlap sacks. The cocoa beans are then thoroughly cleaned and foreign objects are removed until just the beans remain. The manufacturer makes sure to use all organic ingredients to ensure that the final product is truly organic.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://emagazine.com/sweet-dreams/|title=Sweet Dreams|date=2007-10-26|work=Emagazine.com|access-date=2018-11-04|language=en-US}}</ref>
==See also==
{{portal|Food}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
*[[Raw chocolate]]
*[[Environmental impact of cocoa production]]
*[[Fair trade cocoa]]
*[[Tropical rainforest conservation]]
*[[Types of chocolate]]
{{div col end}}
==References==
{{commons}}
{{reflist}}
{{Chocolate}}
[[Category:Organic chocolate| ]]
[[Category:Environmental certification]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Forest conservation]]
[[Category:Sustainable agriculture]]
{{Confectionery-stub}}
{{Dessert-stub}} |
Laboratory for the Conservation of Endangered Species | {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}
'''LaCONES''' or '''Laboratory for the Conservation of Endangered Species''', is a [[Council of Scientific and Industrial Research]] lab located in [[Hyderabad]]. It was conceptualised by [[Lalji Singh]].<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.ccmb.res.in/lacones/ |title = LaCONES :: Laboratory for the Conservation of Endangered Species}}</ref> It is India's only research facility engaged in conservation and preservation of wildlife and its resources. It was established in 1998 with the help of [[Central Zoo Authority of India]], CSIR and the government of [[Andhra Pradesh]]. It was dedicated to the nation in 2007 by then President of India [[APJ Abdul Kalam]]. It is a part of the [[Centre for cellular and molecular biology]]. India's first genetic bank for wildlife conservation, the National wildlife genetic resource bank (NWGRB) established by the government at LaCONES in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |title=LaCONES :: Laboratory for the Conservation of Endangered Species |url=http://e-portal.ccmb.res.in/lacones/ |access-date=2022-12-01 |website=e-portal.ccmb.res.in}}</ref>
==See also==
*[[Billy Arjan Singh]]
*[[Vava Suresh]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{coord missing|Hyderabad, India}}
[[Category:Council of Scientific and Industrial Research]]
[[Category:1998 establishments in Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Wildlife conservation in India]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Research institutes in Hyderabad, India]]
{{Hyderabad-geo-stub}} |
Vulnerable species | {{Short description|IUCN conservation category}}
{{Conservation status}}
A '''vulnerable species''' is a [[species]] which has been [[Conservation status|categorized]] by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] as being [[threatened species|threatened]] with [[extinction]] unless the circumstances that are [[threatened species|threatening]] its survival and [[reproduction]] improve.
Vulnerability is mainly caused by [[habitat loss]] or destruction of the species' home. Vulnerable habitat or species are monitored and can become increasingly threatened. Some species listed as "vulnerable" may be common in [[captivity (animal)|captivity]], an example being the [[military macaw]].
There are currently 5,196 [[animal]]s and 6,789 [[plant]]s classified as Vulnerable, compared with 1998 levels of 2,815 and 3,222, respectively.<ref name="iucn 2012.2">{{cite web | url = http://www.iucnredlist.org/documents/summarystatistics/2012_2_RL_Stats_Table_2.pdf | title = IUCN Red List version 2012.2: Table 2: Changes in numbers of species in the threatened categories (CR, EX, VU) from 1996 to 2012 (IUCN Red List version 2012.2) for the major taxonomic groups on the Red List | access-date = 2012-12-31 | author = [[IUCN]] | date = 2012 | archive-date = 2013-01-27 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130127140524/http://www.iucnredlist.org/documents/summarystatistics/2012_2_RL_Stats_Table_2.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref> Practices such as [[cryoconservation of animal genetic resources]] have been enforced in efforts to conserve vulnerable breeds of livestock specifically.
==Criteria==
[[File:Brachypelma_smithi_2009_G09.jpg|thumb|right|Mexican red-knee tarantula (''[[Brachypelma hamorii]]''), a vulnerable species from Mexico]]
[[File:Snares Penguin (Eudyptes robustus) -group.jpg|thumb|Snares penguin (''[[Eudyptes robustus]]''), a vulnerable species from New Zealand]]
The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] uses several criteria to enter species in this category. A [[taxon]] is Vulnerable when it is not [[critically endangered]] or Endangered but is facing a high risk of extinction in the wild in the medium-term future, as defined by any of the following criteria (A to E):
'''A) Population reduction in the form of either of the following:'''
#An observed, estimated, inferred or suspected population size reduction of ≥ 50% over the last 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer, provided the causes of the reduction are clearly reversible AND understood AND ceased.<ref name=iucnvu>{{cite web |url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/static/categories_criteria_3_1#critical |title=IUCN 2008 Red List - Categories and Criteria (version 3.1) |website=www.iucnredlist.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081008002903/http://www.iucnredlist.org/static/categories_criteria_3_1 |archive-date=2008-10-08}} </ref> This measurement is based on (and specifying) any of the following:
##direct observation
##an index of abundance appropriate for the taxon
##a decline in area of occupancy, extent of occurrence or quality of habitat
##actual or potential levels of exploitation
##the effects of [[Introduced species|introduced taxa]], [[hybrid (biology)|hybridisation]], pathogens, [[pollutants]], competitors or [[parasites]].
#A reduction of at least 20%, projected or suspected to be met within the next ten years or three generations, whichever is the longer, based on (and specifying) any of (2), (3), (4) or (5) above.
'''B) Extent of occurrence estimated to be less than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> or area of occupancy estimated to be less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>, and estimates indicating any two of the following:'''
#Severely [[Habitat fragmentation|fragmented]] or known to exist at no more than ten locations.
#Continuing decline, inferred, observed or projected, in any of the following:
##extent of occurrence
##area of occupancy
##area, extent or quality of habitat
##number of locations or subpopulations
##number of mature individuals
#Extreme fluctuations in any of the following:
##extent of occurrence
##area of occupancy
##number of locations or subpopulations
##number of mature individuals
'''C) Population estimated to number fewer than 10,000 mature individuals and either:'''
#An estimated continuing decline of at least 10% within 10 years or three generations, whichever is longer, or
#A continuing decline, observed, projected, or inferred, in numbers of mature individuals and population structure in the form of either:
##severely fragmented (i.e. no subpopulation estimated to contain more than 1,000 mature individuals)
##all mature individuals are in a single subpopulation
'''D) Population very small or restricted in the form of either of the following:'''
#Population estimated to number less than 1,000 mature individuals.
#Population is characterised by an acute restriction in its area of occupancy (typically less than 20 km<sup>2</sup>)<ref name=iucnvu /> or in the number of locations (typically less than five). Such a taxon would thus be prone to the effects of human activities (or stochastic events whose impact is increased by human activities) within a very short period of time in an unforeseeable future, and is thus capable of becoming Critically Endangered or even Extinct in a very short period.
'''E) Quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 10% within 100 years.'''
The examples of vulnerable animal species are [[hyacinth macaw]], [[mountain zebra]], [[gaur]], [[black crowned crane]] and [[blue crane]]
==See also==
*[[:Category:IUCN Red List vulnerable species]] for an alphabetical list
*[[Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources]]
*[[List of vulnerable amphibians]]
*[[List of vulnerable arthropods]]
*[[List of vulnerable birds]]
*[[List of vulnerable fishes]]
*[[List of vulnerable insects]]
*[[List of vulnerable invertebrates]]
*[[List of vulnerable mammals]]
*[[List of vulnerable molluscs]]
*[[List of vulnerable reptiles]]
*[[List of IUCN Red List Vulnerable plants]]
==Notes and references==
{{Reflist|2}}
==External links==
*[https://www.iucnredlist.org/search/grid?redListCategory=vu List of Vulnerable species] as identified by the [[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]
{{Threatened species|state=expanded}}
{{Threatened species by region}}
{{Portal bar|Ecology|Biology}}
[[Category:Vulnerable species| ]]
[[Category:Biota by conservation status]]
[[Category:IUCN Red List]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]] |
Northwest Straits Marine Conservation Initiative | {{Short description|Environmental conservation organization}}
The '''Northwest Straits Marine Conservation Initiative''' or '''Northwest Straits Initiative''' ('''NWSI''') was established under Title IV of Public Law 105–384 in 1998.<ref>105th Congress. (1998, November 13). Title IV. Public Law 105-384, p. 9.</ref> It is composed of the [[Northwest Straits Commission]], the [[Marine Resources Committees]], and the [[Northwest Straits Foundation]].
The NWSI was born from political deadlock over the proposed formation of a federal marine sanctuary in the waters of northwest Washington, including Strait of Juan de Fuca and the San Juan Islands. Democratic Senator [[Patty Murray]] and Republican Congressman Jack Metcalf proposed the Initiative as an alternative to the marine sanctuary.<ref>"Giving locals a chance." Island Times 21 July 1999: 4.</ref> Its base operations are federally-funded.<ref>Smith, Colleen. "Save Our Aquatic Ecosystem - Practice Marine Stewardship." The Islands' Weekly 18 May 2004.</ref>
The NWSI focuses on conservation and restoration of [[Puget Sound]] in northwest Washington State and relies on the work of local, citizen-based Marine Resources Committees (located in seven counties) to prioritize actions in recovering the health of the sound.<ref>Puget Sound Water Quality Action Team. "New Initiative Tackles 'Tough Problems' to Protect, Restore Marine Resources." Sound Waves 2000.</ref> The seven Washington State counties are: Whatcom, Skagit, Snohomish, Island, San Juan, Jefferson and Clallam.
==References==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]] |
Marine Resources Committees | The '''Marine Resources Committees''' (MRC) are a type of government board for maritime counties in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Washington (state)|Washington]]. It is part of the [[Northwest Straits Marine Conservation Initiative]], enacted in 1998. Seven of the state's counties have MRCs: [[Whatcom County|Whatcom]], [[Skagit County, Washington|Skagit]], [[Snohomish County, Washington|Snohomish]], [[Clallam]], Island, Jefferson and San Juan. The first MRC was San Juan County in 1996,<ref>Smith, Colleen. "Save Our Aquatic Ecosystem - Practice Marine Stewardship." The Islands' Weekly May 18, 2004.</ref> setting an example for others. A typical MRC has representation from local government, tribal government, the local port district, local business, and the scientific, recreational and conservation communities. Funding for the MRCs comes from federal, state, and local governments and non-profit groups.<ref>Stiffler, Lisa. "Marine initiative gets a thumb up ." Seattle Post-Intelligencer April 8, 2004.</ref> General operational funding is provided by the [[Northwest Straits Commission]].<ref>Puget Sound Water Quality Action Team. "New Initiative Tackles 'Tough Problems' to Protect, Restore Marine Resources." Sound Waves 2000.</ref> Each MRC has a representative who sits on the Northwest Straits Commission board, making up the majority of the group.<ref>"Giving locals a chance." Island Times July 21, 1999: 4.</ref>
These committees perform baseline studies of Northern [[Puget Sound]] and provide solutions for protection of the waters and their habitats.<ref>"Senator sightings abound." The Coupeville Examiner August 25, 2000.</ref> They also serve to carry out the overall mission of the Northwest Straits Marine Conservation Initiative.<ref>Murray- Metcalf Northwest Straits Citizens Advisory Commission. (1998). Report to Convenors. Seattle: Washington Sea Grant Program, University of Washington.</ref>
==References==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Nature conservation organizations based in the United States]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]] |
Zhao Yufen | {{short description|Chinese chemist}}
{{family name hatnote|[[Zhao (surname)|Zhao]]|lang=Chinese}}
'''Zhao Yufen''' ({{zh|s=赵玉芬|t=趙玉芬|p=Zhào Yùfēn}}; born 1948) is a Chinese chemist at the college of chemistry and chemical engineering at [[Xiamen University]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title = China bows to public over chemical plant|journal = Nature News|date = 2008-01-09|pages = 117|volume = 451|issue = 7175|doi = 10.1038/451117a|pmid = 18185552|first = Jane|last = Qiu|author-link=Jane Qiu|bibcode = 2008Natur.451..117Q|doi-access = free}}</ref> She has been an outspoken critic of chemical plants.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://english.caixin.com/2015-04-07/100798074.html|title = PX Plant Explosion Sparks Echoes of Warnings Past|last = Dawei|first = Yu|date = 7 April 2015|work = Caixin Online|access-date = 9 November 2015}}</ref> She was the youngest female member elected to the [[Chinese Academy of Sciences]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url = http://www.tsinghua.edu.cn/publish/chemen/2141/2011/20110409175259106200403/20110409175259106200403_.html|title = Prof. Yufen Zhao Ph.D|access-date = 9 November 2015|website = Tsinghua University}}</ref>
== Biography ==
Zhao was born in [[Qi County, Hebi]], [[Henan]], and moved to [[Taiwan]] in 1949 with her parents.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url = http://www.zonaeuropa.com/20070603_1.htm|title = Zhao Yufen: Two Hometowns, Same Deep Love|date = 21 July 2006|work = People.com.cn|access-date = 9 November 2015|via = Zonaeuropa}}</ref> Zhao graduated from [[National Tsing Hua University]] (Taiwan) in 1971, and received her Ph.D from [[Stony Brook University|State University of New York at Stony Brook]] in 1975.<ref name=":2" /> In 1979, she went on to become a researcher at the Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences.<ref name=":3" /> She became a professor at [[Tsinghua University]] (Beijing) in 1988 and in 1991, was elected to the [[Chinese Academy of Sciences]], then the youngest female academician.<ref name=":3" />
In March 2007, Zhao created a petition to halt the construction of a chemical plant in [[Xiamen]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/06/27/AR2007062702962.html|title = Text Messages Giving Voice to Chinese|last = Cody|first = Edward|date = 28 June 2007|newspaper = The Washington Post|access-date = 9 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = Changing Media, Changing China|url = https://archive.org/details/changingmediacha00shir|url-access = limited|last1 = Gang|first1 = Qian|publisher = Oxford University Press|year = 2011|isbn = 9780199751983|pages = [https://archive.org/details/changingmediacha00shir/page/n72 66]–67|chapter = China's Emerging Public Sphere|last2 = Bandurski|first2 = David|editor-last = Shirk|editor-first = Susan L.}}</ref> Zhao was against the plant, which was going to produce [[P-Xylene|paraxylene]] (PX), a [[carcinogen]]ic [[petrochemical]], due to health risks and pollution of the environment.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url = http://www.china.org.cn/english/environment/239503.htm|title = People vs. Chemical Plant|date = 14 January 2008|work = China.org|access-date = 9 November 2015}}</ref> She said that "As a project with a high risk of poisonous emissions and explosions, the project should not be located close to a city."<ref name=":4" /> She also started writing letters to propose a relocation of the plant to He Lefeng, the Party chief of Xiamen.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|url = http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=28339099&site=ehost-live|title = Power to the People|last = Li|first = Li|date = 3 January 2008|journal = Beijing Review|access-date = 9 November 2015|volume = 51|issue = 1|pages = 20–21|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Months later, protesters used text messages to spread the word of a demonstration against the plant.<ref name=":0" /> Xiamen lawmakers voted overwhelmingly against the plant, which was located to Gulei Peninsula.<ref name=":1" />
June 15, 2014, Zhao, as the head of the Academy Zhao Yufen of Xiamen University, along with BIOasis, signed on for the construction of a Phosphorus & Marine Science Research Center to be built at the Shandong International Biotechnology Park.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://en.luyetz.com/news/20140804133612368.htm|title = Academy Zhao Yufen and Her Research Team Start Cooperation with BIOasis|date = 15 June 2014|work = Luye Investment|access-date = 10 November 2015}}</ref>
Zhao has work published in the ''[[Journal of the American Chemical Society]]'', ''[[Journal of Organic Chemistry]]'',<ref>{{Cite journal|title = CuBr/rac-BINOL-Catalyzed N-Arylations of Aliphatic Amines at Room Temperature|journal = The Journal of Organic Chemistry|date = 2007-01-01|issn = 0022-3263|pages = 672–674|volume = 72|issue = 2|doi = 10.1021/jo062060e|first1 = Deshou|last1 = Jiang|first2 = Hua|last2 = Fu|first3 = Yuyang|last3 = Jiang|first4 = Yufen|last4 = Zhao|pmid=17221996}}</ref> ''[[Angewandte Chemie]]'',<ref>{{Cite journal|title = A Simple and Efficient Approach to Quinazolinones under Mild Copper-Catalyzed Conditions|last1 = Liu|first1 = Xiaowei|date = 3 December 2008|journal = Angewandte Chemie|doi = 10.1002/ange.200804675|pmid = 19053126|volume = 121|issue = 2|pages = 354–357|last2 = Fu|first2 = Hua|last3 = Jiang|last4 = Zhao|first3 = Yuyang|first4 = Yufen}}</ref> ''[[Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry]]'',<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Chrysin and its phosphate ester inhibit cell proliferation and induce apoptosis in Hela cells|journal = Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry|date = 2004-12-01|pages = 6097–6105|volume = 12|issue = 23|doi = 10.1016/j.bmc.2004.09.013|pmid = 15519155|first1 = Ting|last1 = Zhang|first2 = Xiaolan|last2 = Chen|first3 = Lingbo|last3 = Qu|first4 = Jinglan|last4 = Wu|first5 = Ran|last5 = Cui|first6 = Yufen|last6 = Zhao}}</ref> ''[[Chemical Communications]]'',<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Highly efficient copper-catalyzed cascade synthesis of quinazoline and quinazolinone derivatives|journal = Chemical Communications|issue = 47|pages = 6333–6335|doi = 10.1039/b814011a|pmid = 19048146|first1 = Cheng|last1 = Huang|first2 = Yuan|last2 = Fu|first3 = Hua|last3 = Fu|first4 = Yuyang|last4 = Jiang|first5 = Yufen|last5 = Zhao|date = 2008-12-21}}</ref> ''Advanced Synthesis & Catalysis'',<ref>{{Cite journal|title = An Inexpensive and Efficient Copper Catalyst for N-Arylation of Amines, Amides and Nitrogen-Containing Heterocycles|journal = Advanced Synthesis & Catalysis|date = 2006-10-01|issn = 1615-4169|pages = 2197–2202|volume = 348|issue = 15|doi = 10.1002/adsc.200606198|first1 = Xun|last1 = Guo|first2 = Honghua|last2 = Rao|first3 = Hua|last3 = Fu|first4 = Yuyang|last4 = Jiang|first5 = Yufen|last5 = Zhao}}</ref> and other journals.
== References ==
<!--- See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes on how to create references using <ref></ref> tags, these references will then appear here automatically -->
{{Reflist|30em}}
== External links ==
* [http://chem.xmu.edu.cn/group/yfzhao/home.html Prof. Zhao Group]
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Zhao, Yufen}}
[[Category:1948 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:20th-century women scientists]]
[[Category:21st-century women scientists]]
[[Category:Chemists from Henan]]
[[Category:Chinese women chemists]]
[[Category:Educators from Henan]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Members of the Chinese Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:National Tsing Hua University alumni]]
[[Category:People from Hebi]]
[[Category:Stony Brook University alumni]]
[[Category:Taiwanese people from Henan]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Tsinghua University]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Xiamen University]] |
Conservation development | {{Short description|Controlled-growth land use development}}
{{essay|date=August 2020}}
[[File:Costa Rica - Caribbean Sea - Parismina (Eco-Tourism) - 03.jpg|thumb|alt=Parismina|[[Parismina]], main street, Costa Rica]]
'''Conservation development''', also known as '''conservation design''', is a controlled-growth [[land use]] [[land development|development]] that adopts the principle for allowing limited [[sustainable development]] while protecting the area's [[natural environment]]al features in perpetuity, including preserving [[Open space reserve|open space]] landscape and vista, protecting [[Arable land|farmland]] or natural [[habitat]]s for wildlife, and maintaining the character of rural communities.<ref name="Arendt">{{cite book |title=Conservation Design for Subdivisions: A Practical Guide To Creating Open Space Networks |last=Arendt |first=Randall G. |year=1996 |publisher=Island Press |location=Washington |isbn=978-1-55963-489-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/conservationdesi0000aren|url-access=registration }}</ref> A conservation development is usually defined as a project that dedicates a minimum of 50 percent of the total development parcel as [[Open space reserve|open space]]. The management and ownership of the land are often formed by the partnership between private land owners, land-use conservation organizations and [[local government]]. It is a growing trend in many parts of the country, particularly in the [[Western United States]]. In the [[Eastern United States]], conservation design has been promoted by some [[State governments of the United States|state]] and local governments as a technique to help preserve [[water quality]].<ref>Delaware Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control, Dover, DE; and Brandywine Conservancy, Chadds Ford, PA. [http://www.dnrec.state.de.us/dnrec2000/Divisions/Soil/Stormwater/New/Delaware_CD_Manual.pdf ''Conservation Design for Stormwater Management.''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303171158/http://www.dnrec.state.de.us/dnrec2000/Divisions/Soil/Stormwater/New/Delaware_CD_Manual.pdf |date=2016-03-03 }} September 1997.</ref>
This type of planning has become more relevant as "[[land conversion]] for [[housing development]] is a leading cause of [[habitat loss]] and [[habitat fragmentation|fragmentation]]".<ref name="Pejchar">{{cite journal|last=Pejchar|first=Liba|author2=Margaret R. Caldwell |author3=Carl Palmer |author4=Gretchen C. Daily |title=Evaluating the Potential for Conservation Development: Biophysical, Economic and Institutional Perspectives|journal=Conservation Biology|year=2007|volume=21|issue=1|pages=69–78 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00572.x|pmid=17298512|bibcode=2007ConBi..21...69P |s2cid=7601586 }}</ref> With a loss or fragmentation of a species' habitat, it results in the endangerment of a species and pushes them towards premature [[extinction]].<ref name="Miller">{{cite book|last=Miller Jr.|first=Tyler G.|title=Living in the Environment|year=201|publisher=Nelson Education|edition=2nd Canadian |author2=Dave Hackett}}</ref> Land conversion also contributes to the reduction of agriculturally productive land,<ref name="Milder">{{cite journal|last=Milder|first=Jeffery C.|title=A Framework for Understanding Conservation Development and its Ecological Implications|journal=BioScience|year=2007|volume=57|issue=9|pages=757–768|doi=10.1641/b570908|doi-access=free}}</ref> already shrinking due to [[climate change]].
Conservation development differs from other land protection approaches by aiming to protect land and environmental resources on parcels slated for immediate development—to protect land here and now. In contrast, a [[green belt]] approach typically aims to protect land from future development, and in a region beyond areas currently slated for development. It seeks to offer a gradient between [[urban region]]s and open [[countryside]], beyond what a line on a map—typically a [[highway]]—currently provides. This approach seeks to avoid the [[dichotomy]] of economic [[urbanism]] on one side of such a street while on the other lies completely protected woodlands and farm fields, devoid of inclusion in that economy. Addressing the theoretical illusion that humanity walled off is better-off, conservation development recognizes that design of how we live is far more important than we allot credit; that instead of walling off a problem we need to face that problem and drastically lower our impact on the sites where we live, and indeed raise the performance of our communities toward a level where such walls are no longer considered first response requirements.
== History ==
Conservation development was formulated in the early 1980s by a British-trained planner Randall Arendt. He pulled together several concepts from the 1960s. He combined the idea of cluster and open space design with Ian McHarg's "design with nature" philosophy.<ref name="Doyle">{{cite journal |last=Doyle |first=Donna L. |title=Planning for Greener Development: Conservation Development and Landon Bay East |journal=FES Outstanding Graduate Student Paper Series |year=2005 |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=1–20}}</ref>
== Conservation development ==
Conservation development seeks to protect a variety of ecological resources and services such as [[biodiversity]], productive farmland, [[ecosystem services]], scenic landscapes and historic and cultural resources.<ref name="Milder"/> This is achieved by identifying the ecologically sensitive and valuable areas. The protected lands can be under an easement to prevent development on it. Housing is then built around the protected areas. Density, lots sizes, types of housing and amount of protected area is dependent on the type of conservation development.
While not a prevalent type of development, it's estimated that conservation development takes up between 2.5%-10% of the total US [[real estate development]].<ref name="Milder"/> Conservation development is usually applied to rural, exurban or suburban residential subdivisions, though it does have a few urban applications (Doyle 4).
While there are several types of conservation developments, they all have several features in common.<ref name="Milder"/> All developments have conservation land set aside, either held by a [[conservation organization]] or protected by a conservation easement. These developments must have ongoing stewardship for the protected portion of the parcel.<ref name="Pejchar"/> Secondly, the development finances the protected area. Third, each development begins by surveying the land's ecological features and resources. A decision can then be made about where to build and what areas need to be protected. Lastly, these developments also use a variety of design features to reduce some of the negative impacts inherent in development. Examples include [[Low-impact development (Canada/US)|low-impact stormwater management systems]], and landscape design.
== Types ==
Milder cites four principal conservation development techniques found in the United States.<ref name="Milder"/> The first two he groups together as having a "conservation with development" philosophy. Conservation is the main goal with development as a means to that end. The latter two types fall under the "development with conservation" ethos. These two types of projects are done through private developers whose goal is to turn a profit at the end of the day, but in a "conservation-friendly matter".<ref name="Milder"/> Table 1 provides an excellent summary of the different conservation development techniques.
=== Conservation buyer projects ===
The first type he calls conservation buyer projects. In this situation, a [[land trust]] buys the property and places the ecologically important areas under a conservation easement. They then resell the land, including the easement, to a conservation buyer. The buyer cannot build on the easement, but may do so on the remaining, unprotected portion. This technique usually results in a few houses being built on the piece of land, resulting in a low density.<ref name="Milder"/> According to a study undertaken by Milder & Clark, 98.4% of the total land receives protection, the highest amongst the four conservation development types.<ref name="Milder_Clark">{{cite journal|last=Milder|first=Jeffery C.|author2=Story Clark|title=Conservation Development Practices, Extent and Land-Use Effects in the United States|journal=Conservation Biology|year=2001|volume=25|issue=4|pages=697–707|doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2011.01688.x|pmid=21658127|s2cid=5828829 }}</ref>
=== Conservation and limited development projects ===
The second type identified by Milder is called conservation and limited development projects (CLDP). They are often carried out by land trusts, and occasionally by conservation-minded developers or landowners. Real estate is developed for sale on an open market, and the profit is used to finance conservation of the nearby land. Milder & Clark found that 93.5% of the total land area is protected under this type of development.<ref name="Milder_Clark"/> Recent studies done on the effectiveness of CLDPs in protecting, restoring and managing threatened resources reveal that it is significantly more effective at doing so, in comparison to conservation subdivisions and conventional development.
=== Conservation subdivisions ===
Conservation subdivisions are the third and best-known type of conservation development. This is a development that "sets aside a major portion of the site as conservation land" and clusters housing on the remaining portion.<ref name="Milder"/> The houses are built on lots smaller than usual, meaning the density of the development nears the maximum allowed by zoning. Unlike conservation and limited development projects, a homeowners' association manages the protected land. These associations may lack knowledge and have different goals regarding the lands' management, which may result in a less than ideally managed conservation. As a result of this and other factors, a study found that on average only 57.1% of the total land area is protected from development.<ref name="Milder_Clark"/>
=== Conservation-oriented planned development projects ===
The final type identified by Milder is called conservation-oriented planned development projects. These are large-scale development projects found in suburban and exurban areas. The scale of the projects means large tracts of land can be protected. They typically have densities nearing the zoned maximum and feature of a mix of housing types and land uses. The resulting percentage of protected land is 71.3.<ref name="Milder_Clark"/>
==Conservation community==
[[File:Santa Lucia Preserve Design.jpg|thumb|This map of [[Santa Lucia Preserve]], a conservation community in California, depicts which portions are protected by conservation covenants.]]
A '''conservation community''' (or '''conservation development''') is a real estate and conservation hybrid model of [[land development]], consisting of both [[Protected area|protected areas]] and [[Human settlement|human settlements]], with the primary goal of saving large parcels of land from ecological degradation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=McMahon |first1=Edward T. |title=Conservation Communities |url=https://urbanland.uli.org/sustainability/conservation-communities/ |website=UrbanLand.ULI.org |publisher=Urban Land Institute |access-date=7 March 2022 |date=July 1, 2010}}</ref> This land can be [[forest]]ed land, [[agriculture|agricultural]] land, [[ranch]] land, or any other type of land that needs protecting from high-impact development. This model is contrasted from other protected area models by integrating human communities within nature, rather than relocating them outside, and as such falls under the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature|IUCN's]] [[IUCN protected area categories|Category V]] protected area designation.
The model represents an integral balance between people and nature and can sustain for-profit activity such as residential communities, private clubs, or small-scale industrial activity on conditions that ensure the continued protection or [[ecological restoration]] of an area.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Milder |first1=Jeffrey |title=A Framework for Understanding Conservation Development and Its Ecological Implications |journal=BioScience |date=October 1, 2007 |volume=57 |issue=9 |pages=757–768 |doi=10.1641/B570908 |s2cid=14417328 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Conservation communities are models of sustainable community development, providing an alternative to conventional forms of development.<ref>[https://www.sfu.ca/cscd/ Sustainable Development], Simon Fraser University.</ref> They are adaptable to the needs of different regions and they use small-scale residential development to fund [[Conservation (ethic)|conservation]], eliminating the need to solely depend on funding from private [[Donation|donor]]s or [[government]]s, though they are sometimes additionally subsidized by such investments. This land development model is important to the [[Environmental movement|Environmental movement's]] goals of [[sustainable development]], Green homebuilding, local [[food security]], and responsible management of natural resources.
Some of the tools used to create conservation communities are conservation covenants, [[ecoforestry]] covenants, and other forms of covenant registered to the title of the land. Covenants are a legal contract used to protect the integrity of ecosystem, the ecological health of [[drainage basin|watersheds]] (which are damaged by increased development),<ref>"[https://engineering.purdue.edu/SafeWater/watershed/ Watershed Protection]". Purdue University, College of Engineering.</ref> maintain long-term access to natural resources and associated [[value added|value-added]] opportunities, protect native plant and animal species, and prevent [[effects of climate change|climate change impacts]].
In an effort to avoid [[greenwashing]] and in order to increase accountability and public transparency, some conservation communities establish separate federally registered charities or [[501(c)(3) organization|501(c)(3) non-profit]] [[Land trust|land trusts]], which own the land in fee and extend [[Conservation easement|conservation easements]] to developers and private homeowners. This way, the incentive structure ensures real estate developers stay true to the mission of conservation, with the land trust vested with authority to investigate, report, and penalize infractions.
Conservation communities are developed not only to minimize their [[ecological footprint]], but also to improve (or at least does not diminish) the existing ecological system's performance. The planning stage for the residential community focuses around maintaining and enhancing the ecological integrity of the land. The community, therefore, sits on the least sensitive part of the land from an ecological point of view, and is often built using low-impact infrastructure such as [[Nature-based solutions|Nature-based Solutions]] for the civil engineering and [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design|LEED]]-targeted housing. To further reduce broader environmental impact, many conservation communities (whether in whole or in part) generate their own power, pump their own water, and grow food on-site.
===The economy===
In addition to residential use, conservation communities can supplement their funding through other eco-compatible uses such as sustainable resource extraction, value-added manufacturing opportunities, [[organic horticulture]], [[mixed-use development|live/work enterprises]], [[ecotourism]], recreational and ecological educational opportunities. Through these additional measures, long-term protection of the land is sustained by the economic value created through restrained, eco-conscious business.
Additionally, conservation communities can create sustainable employment opportunities for those living in the communities as well as the surrounding region. Ecotourism promotes environmental protection and support for the well-being of local community members by bringing visitors into the conservation community for educational and recreational purposes.<ref>Randall, A. (1987). ''Resource economics''. 2nd ed. New York, USA: John Wiley and Sons.</ref>
===Community===
As a novel and intentional approach to human settlement, conservation communities can be designed to strengthen interconnectedness between community members as well as with the broader local community. Doug Makaroff, founder of [[Elkington Forest]] (recently renamed to Malahat Forest Estates) noted that "by building sustainable and relational communities, our lives are richer."<ref>"[https://www.pressreader.com/canada/vancouver-sun/20081213/283128539716389 Hard Times Can Increase Innovation and Collaboration]". Davis, Kim (December 13, 2008). ''Vancouver Sun'', Westcoast Homes.</ref>
===Examples===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Community name
! Location
! Active?
|-
| Deer Path Farm<ref>{{cite web |title=Deer Path Farm History |url=https://www.deerpathfarm.com/about/history/ |website=DeerPathFarm.com |publisher=Deer Path Farm |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref>
| Illinois, US
| Yes
|-
| [[Elkington Forest]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Elkington Forest |url=http://elkingtonforest.com/ |website=ElkingtonForest.com |publisher=Elkington Forest |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120501163026/http://elkingtonforest.com/ |access-date=5 March 2022|archive-date=2012-05-01 |version=renamed}}</ref>
| British Columbia, Canada
| Yes
|-
| Independence Denver<ref>{{cite web |title=Independence Denver |url=https://independencedenver.com |website=IndependenceDenver.com |publisher=Independence |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref>
| Colorado, US
| Yes
|-
| [[Montage Hotels & Resorts#Montage Palmetto Bluff|Palmetto Bluff]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Palmetto Bluff Conservation |url=https://www.palmettobluff.com/conservation |website=PalmettoBluff.com |publisher=Palmetto Bluff |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref>
| South Carolina, US
| Yes
|-
| Pendergrast Farm Community<ref>{{cite web |title=Pendergrast Farm |url=https://pendergrastfarm.com |website=PendergrastFarm.com |publisher=Pendergrast Farm |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref>
| Georgia, US
| Yes
|-
| Prairie Crossing<ref>{{cite web |title=Prairie Crossing |url=https://www.pchoa.com/home.asp |website=PCHOA.com |publisher=Prairie Crossing |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref>
| Illinois, US
| Yes
|-
| [[Santa Lucia Preserve]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Santa Lucia Preserve |url=https://www.santaluciapreserve.com/ |website=SantaLuciaPreserve.com |publisher=Santa Lucia Preserve |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref>
| California, US
| Yes
|-
| Serenbe<ref>{{cite web |title=Serenbe |url=https://serenbe.com |website=Serbene.com |publisher=Serenbe |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref>
| Georgia, US
| Yes
|-
| The Boulders<ref>{{cite web |title=The Boulders |url=https://thebouldersnc.com/ |website=TheBouldersNC.com |publisher=The Boulders |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref>
| North Carolina, US
| Yes
|-
| Tryon Farm<ref>{{cite web |title=Tryon Farm |url=http://tryonfarm.com |website=TryonFarm.com |publisher=Tryon Farm |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref>
| Indiana, US
| Yes
|-
| Young Ranch<ref>{{cite web |title=Young Ranch |url=https://www.youngranchsanjose.com/ |website=YoungRanchSanJose.com |publisher=Young Ranch |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref>
| California, US
| Proposed
|-
|}
== Advantages ==
The biggest advantage of conservation development is that it can protect species and ecosystems, preventing further habitat fragmentation and loss. By surveying the land and identifying the primary conservation areas where ecosystems are most at risk, communities are created without huge disruption to the environment.<ref name="Pejchar"/><ref name="Doyle"/> Conservation development also provides for secondary conservation areas, which provide corridors for animals to hunt, mate and travel through.<ref name="Arendt"/>
However, any development will have some impact on the land. But by studying it, there are ways in which this can be mitigated. A developer can have native vegetation planted. Wildlife friendly native species could be introduced,<ref name="Milder"/> while invasive species are monitored and controlled.<ref name="Pejchar"/> [[Stormwater#Stormwater management|Stormwater management]] systems are also used to "promote natural flow patterns and infiltration", considered a very important factor in minimizing a development's impact.<ref name="Milder"/>
There are several benefits from an economic standpoint. Conservation development allows developers to make themselves distinct in a competitive housing market.<ref name="Pejchar"/> A developer can use an environmentally oriented marketing strategy, highlighting the benefits of the development to possible buyer with a green thumb.<ref name="Arendt"/> A final advantage of conservation development is that homes in these developments tend appreciate faster than their conventional counterparts.<ref name="Arendt"/><ref name="Doyle"/>
Pejchar et al. and Arendt cite a number of economic benefits that accrue to municipalities through conservation development. They include fewer public costs on maintenance and infrastructure, protecting open space without losing tax revenues, and avoiding the loss of [[ecological services]] like landscape stabilization, flood control and clean water.<ref name="Pejchar"/><ref name="Arendt"/> A municipality also experiences a reduced demand for public green space since it has been provided free of charge by the development.<ref name="Arendt"/>
Lastly, there are a few social and recreational advantages to conservation development.<ref name="Arendt"/> With the smaller lots that accompany these houses, homeowners are likely to move into public green space and engage with their neighbors. Community events such as picnics or parties are more common. The protected green space also provides excellent recreational activities, such as hiking, jogging, or simply observing nature. It's hopeful that with this experience, people can reconnect with nature and develop a land ethic.<ref name="Doyle"/>
== Disadvantages ==
There are several drawbacks to conservation development. The first problem encountered is the perceived risk by both developers and homebuyers.<ref name="Pejchar"/> In protecting sensitive areas, developers and homeowners see a risk in the possible elimination of desired sites to build homes. This might be a large enough risk to discourage developers. This could be a place for government intervention, which could provide tax breaks to developers building a development this way.
Conservation subdivisions and conservation-oriented planned development projects have been "criticized for protecting land at too small a scale to provide meaningful conservation benefits, while simultaneously promoting "leapfrog" development".<ref name="Milder"/> This pushes [[urban sprawl|sprawl]] further from the city and contributes to a more fragmented rural area.
== Implications ==
This type of planning has become more relevant as "[[land conversion]] for [[housing development]] is a leading cause of [[habitat loss]] and [[habitat fragmentation|fragmentation]]".<ref name="Pejchar"/> With a loss or fragmentation of a species' habitat, it results in the [[endangered species|endangerment of a species]] and pushes them towards premature extinction.<ref name="Miller"/> [[biodiversity loss|Without biodiversity]], we lose the many benefits we derive from it, including economic and [[ecological services]], genetic information, and recreational pleasure, just to name a few.<ref name="Miller"/> Land conversion also contributes to the reduction of agriculturally [[soil fertility|productive land]],<ref name="Milder"/> already shrinking due to [[climate change]].
== See also ==
{{Portal|Ecology|Environment}}
* {{annotated link|Community-based conservation}}
* {{annotated link|Conservation community}}
* {{annotated link|Environmental planning}}
* {{annotated link|Land trust}}
* {{annotated link|Low-impact development (UK)|Low impact development}}
* {{annotated link|Preservation development}} (farmland preservation)
* {{annotated link|Private protected area}}
* {{annotated link|Protected area}}
* {{annotated link|Residential cluster development}}
* {{annotated link|Smart growth}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Sources==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last1=McMahon |first1=Edward |title=Conservation communities : creating value with nature, open space, and agriculture |date=2010 |publisher=Urban Land Institute |location=Washington, DC |isbn=9780874202175}}
* {{cite news |last1=Anderson |first1=Jennifer |title=Protecting Land Through Conservation Development: Lessons from Land Trust Experience |url=https://www.landtrustalliance.org/news/protecting-land-through-conservation-development-lessons-land-trust-experience |access-date=7 March 2022 |work=Saving Land Magazine |publisher=Land Trust Alliance |date=Summer 2014}}
* {{cite web |last1=Heid, FASLA |first1=Jim |title=Conservation Development |url=https://jheid.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/P6-2015-Conservation-Development.pdf |website=JHeid.com/ideas |access-date=7 March 2022 |date=June 2014 |quote=A definitional framework of Conservation Development and four case studies.}}
{{Refend}}
==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
* Ellis, Ronald L. Jr. (2006). [http://ecommons.txstate.edu/arp/110/ "Residential Land Use Policy and Conservation Development in the Blanco River Basin."] Applied Research Project. Texas State University-San Marcos. Paper 110.
* Gillfillan, Abigail (2007). [http://ecommons.txstate.edu/arp/273/ "Using Geographic Information Systems to Develop and Analyze Land-Use Policies."] Applied Research Project. Texas State University-San Marcos. Paper 273.
* Sullivan, Michael and Warren, John-Paul (2002). "Conservation Development: Blending Ecology and Development" Ontario Planning Journal, Vol 17, No. 6, 2002
* Daigle, Andre and Savard, Daniel (2005) "Designing for Conservation" Plan Canada, Winter 2005
* Warren, John-Paul (2007) "Sustainable Development based on Conservation Design: A New Approach in New Brunswick Land Planning - Is It Working?" York University MES Major Research Paper
* Warren, John-Paul and Mercer, Kevin (2008) "Water: Harvesting the Resource" Ground, Ontario Assn of Landscape Architects, Landscape Architecture Quarterly, Fall/Winter 2008
* Warren, John-Paul (2001) "Blake-Duck-Siep In One Go: A CD Developer Survey" Conservation Development Alliance of Ontario, for The Natural Lands Trust, PA
* Yaro, Robert, Randall G. Arendt, Harry L. Dodson and Elizabeth A. Brabec (1988) ''Dealing with Change in the Connecticut River Valley: A Design Manual for Conservation and Development'', Lincoln Institute of Land Policy
* Arendt, Randall G. (2015) ''Rural By Design: Planning for Town and Country'' 2nd Edition, APA Planners Press
* McHarg, Ian (1995) ''Design With Nature'', Wiley
* Donohue, Brian (2001) ''Reclaiming the Commons: Community Farms and Forests in a New England Town'', Yale University Press
* Warren, John-Paul (2001) "A Survey on Conservation Development: 13 U.S. Land Trusts respond", for The Natural Lands Trust, PA
* Warren, John-Paul (2005) "A Database of Canadian Urban Conservation Developments", Evergreen, Common Grounds, all the above available from the author at jpwarren-inter at uniserve.com
{{Refend}}
==External links==
* [http://www.greenneighborhoods.org "Green Neighborhoods: Open Space Residential Design in Massachusetts"] - Massachusetts Audubon Society
* [http://www.conservationtools.org/tools/general/show/9 "Growing Greener." Case Studies in Pennsylvania.] - Natural Lands Trust, Media, PA
{{Land-use planning}}
{{conservation of species}}
{{Environmentalism|state=autocollapse}}
{{Real estate developments|state=autocollapse}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Economy and the environment]]
[[Category:Urban design]]
[[Category:New Urbanism]]
[[Category:Sustainable urban planning]]
[[Category:Rural development]]
[[Category:Economic development]] |
Conservation management system | A '''conservation management system''' (CMS) is a procedure for maintaining a species or [[habitat]] in a particular state. It is a means whereby humankind secures wildlife in a favourable condition for [[contemplation]], education or research, in perpetuity. It is an important topic in [[cultural ecology]], where conservation management counterbalances the unchecked [[resource exploitation|exploitative management of natural resources]]. Conservation management systems are vital for turning [[sustainable development]] strategies into successful operations.
In New Zealand the [[New Zealand Department of Conservation|Department of Conservation]] develops conservation management strategies in conjunction with the community as a means of prioritising conservation issues.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/getting-involved/consultations/conservation-management-strategies/how-the-strategies-are-developed/|title=Developing conservation management strategies: Consulting|publisher=Department of Conservation|accessdate=30 May 2012}}</ref>
Conservation management has historically adopted ideals deriving from 3 discursive approaches: the classic approach, populist approach, and neoliberal approach. All three approaches have differing ideas about the nexus of conservation and development and their potential interactions.
* The Classic Approach understands local people to be a threat to [[Nature conservation|environmental conservation]] and therefore people occupying landed intended for conservation have historically and presently been evicted from their land. {{cn|date=August 2020}}
* The Populist Approach understands that conservation requires the participation and the empowerment of local people in order to reach both social and environmental aims.
* The [[Neoliberal]] Approach sees the need for value to be placed on [[biodiversity]] in order for conservation to be incorporated in the economic systems and be successful as a tool of [[economic development]].<ref>Brown, K. (2002). Innovations for Conservation and Development. The Geographical Journal,168(1), 6-17. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/3451218 </ref>
[[National Park]]s are heavily managed conservation areas. The approach adopted by a conservation authority will influence the management of a Park and dictate how the park authorities view the role of the park and the relationship visitors may have with it.
An example of a park adopting a populist approach is the [[Rouge National Urban Park]] located in Canada’s largest city [[Toronto]]. Though controlled by the Government of Canada through Parks Canada, the Rouge National Urban Park encourages the community to access the park to learn, play and live. The complexity of the Park being in a large metropolitan city has meant that [[Parks Canada]] has incorporated the surrounding communities into the planning, implementation, and management of the park.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pc.gc.ca/en/pn-np/on/rouge/info/~/media/028EC69FE3264676AD660595012FED36.ashx|title=Rouge National Urban Park Management Plan|last=Parks Canada|date=2014|website=www.pc.gc.ca|access-date=2019-07-18}}</ref>
== Conservation Management Systems in Practice ==
Poorly managed or incorrectly manage conservation practices can have consequences beyond what is initially expected<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|last=Gonzalez-Duarte|first=C|title=Butterflies, organized crime, and ''sad trees": A critique of the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve Program in a context of rural violence|work=World Development}}</ref> while successful plans can make positive change. One example of unintended consequences of the Classic approach is the spread of organized crime in the Mexican Oyamel forest.<ref name=":1" /> The land was made part of [[UNESCO]]'s [[Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve]] Program and had the intention of protecting the [[Migration (ecology)|migratory]] [[habitat]] of the [[monarch butterfly]]. Locals were pushed out to protect the habitat as part of the classic management approach. However, local crime organizations have now taken up residence and there have been numerous deaths and 'disappearances' in the area<ref name=":1" /> An example of a plan that made positive change was that of the use of [[technoscience]] to create [[American chestnut tree]]s that were resistant to blight. Through crosses and manipulations, a lab at SUNY-ESF was able to create a [[blight resistance|blight resistant]] strain of hybrid American chestnut trees. In order to prevent privatization and patenting from limiting the access of conservation endeavors from using this strain, the lab chose to forego such neoliberal practices. This has led to positive impact in the conservation endeavors for the American chestnut tree but has also opened up the door to further biotechnological advances and possible [[commodification]] of related strains. <ref>{{Cite news|last=Barnes, J.C. and Delborne, J.A.|date=2021|title=The politics of genetic technoscience for conservation: The case of blight-resistant American chestnut. Environment and Planning E|work=Nature and Space}}</ref>
==See also==
*[[Conservation management system (United Kingdom)]]
*[[Conservation ethic]]
*[[Conservation biology]]
*[[Environmental management]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
*[http://www.cmsconsortium.org/ Conservation Management System Consortium], an international partnership of conservation organisations from the UK and the Netherlands
{{conservation of species}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Natural resource management]] |
Joint Forest Management | {{Short description|Term for partnerships in forest movements}}
[[File:Arabari.jpg|thumb|Joint Forest Movement scheme at work upgraded forests of the [[Arabari]] forest range, [[Gujarat]]
(Rajeev kumar) ]]
'''Joint Forest Management''' often abbreviated as '''JFM''' is the official and popular term in [[India]] for partnerships in [[forest]] [[Social movement|movement]] involving both the state forest departments and local communities. The policies and objectives of Joint Forest Movement are detailed in the Indian comprehensive [[National Forest Policy, 1988|National Forest Policy]] of 1988<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://moef.nic.in/downloads/about-the-ministry/introduction-nfp.pdf|title=National Forest Policy, 1988|last=|first=|date=|website=Ministry of Environment, Forests and climate change|access-date=31 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329155216/http://www.moef.nic.in/downloads/about-the-ministry/introduction-nfp.pdf|archive-date=29 March 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=autogenerated1>{{Cite web |url=http://www.manage.gov.in/managelib/extdig/Untitled-1.pdf#search=%22%22joint%20forest%20management%22%22 |title=Archived copy |access-date=2006-09-13 |archive-date=2006-07-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060721111645/http://www.manage.gov.in/managelib/extdig/Untitled-1.pdf#search=%22%22joint%20forest%20management%22%22 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and the Joint Forest Management Guidelines of 1990 of the [[Government of India]].<ref>[http://www.fire.uni-freiburg.de/iffn/country/in/in_6.htm Lessons from Joint Forest Management<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
Although schemes vary from state to state and are known by different names in different [[Languages of India|Indian languages]], usually a village committee known as the Forest Protection Committee (FPC) and the Forest Department enter into a JFM agreement. Villagers agree to assist in the safeguarding of forest resources through protection from fire, grazing, and illegal harvesting in exchange for which they receive [[non-timber forest product]]s and a share of the revenue from the sale of [[timber]] products.<ref>[http://www.envfor.nic.in/divisions/forprt/terijfm.html Study on Joint Forest Management<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111095120/http://envfor.nic.in/divisions/forprt/terijfm.html |date=2007- hg 66gdedc.b01-11 }}</ref>
==Origins==
Joint forest management is concept of developing relationships between fringe forest groups and forest department on the basis of mutual trust and jointly defined roles and responsibilities for forest protection and development. Joint Forest Management originated in [[Odisha]] in 1988 . The major hardwood of [[Arabari|Arabari Forest Range]] is [[Sal tree|sal]], a commercially profitable forest crop. [[Ajit Kumar Banerjee]], a [[Silviculture|silviculturist]], working for the [[Indian Forest Service|Forest Department]] as the Divisional Forest Officer, was conducting trials which were constantly being disturbed by grazing and illegal harvesting by the local populace. At the time there were no initiatives for sharing of forest resources between the government and the locals, with the government considering many of the locals no more than "thieves".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/sourcebook/sb0207.pdf#search=%22arabari%20banerjee%22 |title=Archived copy |access-date=2006-09-13 |archive-date=2006-09-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060920234923/http://worldbank.org/wbi/sourcebook/sb0207.pdf#search=%22arabari%20banerjee%22 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The forest official, against the suggestions of his co-workers, sought out representatives of eleven local villages and negotiated the terms of a contract with an ''ad hoc'' Forest Protection Committee. The initial program involved 612 families managing 12.7 square kilometres of forests classified as "degraded". 25% of profits from the forests were shared with the villagers. The experiment was successful and was expanded to other parts of the state in 1987. JFM is still in force at Arabari.<ref name=autogenerated1 />
A few years later, Joint Forest Management was employed in the state of [[Haryana]] to prevent [[soil erosion]] and [[deforestation]]. In 1977, villagers were persuaded that instead of [[grazing]] on erosion-prone hills, building small dams would help agricultural output on areas currently under cultivation. The program led to reforestation of many hills in the state. However, officially the state of [[Odisha]] remains the first to pass the first resolutions for JFM<ref>[http://www.tribuneindia.com/1998/98sep27/haryana.htm#3 tribuneindia... Haryana<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
==Current status==
After the initial successes in West Bengal and Haryana, the JFM schemes received national importance in the legislation of 1988 and thrust in the Guidelines of 1998. As of 2000 27 states of the Indian Union had various JFM schemes with over 63,000 FPCs involved in the joint management of over 1400,000 km<sup>2</sup> of forested land. In 2010 the areas increased to 2460000 km2 was managed by more than 112896 committees with around 14500000 families getting benefit from JFM programme.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rupfor.org/jfm.asp |title=Resource Unit for Participatory Forestry (RUPFOR) – Joint Forest Management |access-date=2006-09-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060902012906/http://www.rupfor.org/jfm.asp |archive-date=2006-09-02 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
==See also==
*[[Communal forests of India]]
*[[Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education]]̈
*[[National Forest Commission]]
*[[Social forestry]]
*[[Sustainable forest management]]
*[[Sustainable forestry]]
*[[Illegal logging]]
*[[Van Vigyan Kendra|Van Vigyan Kendra (VVK)]] Forest Science Centres
==References and notes==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060815120453/http://www.jfmindia.org/ A website with extensive research on the history, issues, case studies, and conflict resolution methods in JFM]
*[http://envfor.nic.in Indian Ministry of Environment and Forests webpage]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060828235453/http://wbln1018.worldbank.org/sar/sa.nsf/a22044d0c4877a3e852567de0052e0fa/acf2b8a3eb9f69878525687f00605632?OpenDocument Detailed World Bank case study of JFM in an Indian state]
*[http://www.manage.gov.in/managelib/extdig/Untitled-1.pdf#search=%22%22joint%20forest%20management%22%22 Government guidelines and highlights of JFM] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060721111645/http://www.manage.gov.in/managelib/extdig/Untitled-1.pdf#search=%22%22joint%20forest%20management%22%22 |date=2006-07-21 }}
* [http://www.myjungle.in My Jungle] – A website appealing for community collaborative forest conservation project by [http://snmcpn.org/ Sahyadri Nisarga Mitra], Chiplun. Maharashtra.
{{Forestry}}
[[Category:Communal forests of India]]
[[Category:Nature conservation in India]]
[[Category:Forest administration in India]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Indian forest law]] |
Category:Desert greening | {{commonscat}}{{Cat main|desert greening}}
{{Portal|Ecology|Environment}}
[[Category:Deserts]]
[[Category:Ecological restoration]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Land reclamation]]
[[Category:Permaculture]]
[[Category:Sustainable agriculture]]
[[Category:Water conservation]] |
Near-threatened species | {{Short description|IUCN conservation category}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Conservation status}}
A '''near-threatened species''' is a [[species]] which has been [[Conservation status|categorized]] as "'''Near Threatened'''" ('''NT''') by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) as that may be vulnerable to [[Endangered species|endangerment]] in the near future, but it does not currently qualify for the threatened status.<ref name="IUCN FAQ">{{cite web
| url = https://www.iucnredlist.org/about/faqs#What%20are%20the%20Red%20List%20Categories%20and%20Criteria
| title = What are The IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria?
| website = IUCN Red List
| publisher = IUCN
| access-date = 11 August 2020
| archive-date = 11 August 2020
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200811002306/https://www.iucnredlist.org/about/faqs#What%20are%20the%20Red%20List%20Categories%20and%20Criteria
| url-status = live
}}</ref><ref name="IUCN Summary sheet">{{cite web
| url = https://nc.iucnredlist.org/redlist/content/attachment_files/summary_sheet_en_web.pdf
| title = SUMMARY OF THE FIVE CRITERIA (A-E) USED TO EVALUATE IF A TAXON BELONGS IN AN IUCN RED LIST THREATENED CATEGORY (CRITICALLY ENDANGERED, ENDANGERED OR VULNERABLE)
| website = IUCN Red List
| publisher = IUCN
| access-date = 11 August 2020
| archive-date = 9 August 2020
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200809013820/https://nc.iucnredlist.org/redlist/content/attachment_files/summary_sheet_en_web.pdf
| url-status = live
}}</ref>
The IUCN notes the importance of re-evaluating near-threatened [[taxon|taxa]] at appropriate intervals.
The rationale used for near-threatened taxa usually includes the criteria of [[Vulnerable species|vulnerable]] which are plausible or nearly met, such as reduction in numbers or range. Near-threatened species evaluated from 2001 onwards may also be ones which are dependent on conservation efforts to prevent their becoming threatened, whereas before this [[conservation-dependent species]] were given a separate category ("Conservation Dependent").
Additionally, the 402 conservation-dependent taxa may also be considered near-threatened.
== IUCN Categories and Criteria version 2.3 ==
[[File:Status iucn2.3 NT.svg|left|Diagram of ''{{nowrap|Lower Risk{{\}}near threatened}}'' in the older IUCN version 2.3, beside the former ''{{nowrap|Lower Risk{{\}}conservation dependent}}'' subcategory.]]
Before 2001, the IUCN used the version 2.3 Categories and Criteria to assign [[conservation status]], which included a separate category for [[conservation-dependent]] species ("Conservation Dependent", LR/cd). With this category system, Near Threatened and Conservation Dependent were both subcategories of the category "Lower Risk". Taxa which were last evaluated before 2001 may retain their LR/cd or LR/nt status, although had the category been assigned with the same information today the species would be designated simply "Near Threatened (NT)" in either case.
== Gallery ==
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Otter in Southwold.jpg|The near-threatened [[Eurasian otter]]
File:Maned wolf-aguara guazu.jpeg|The [[maned wolf]] is near-threatened largely as the result of habitat loss.
File:Gray Bat USACE.jpg|The [[gray bat]] was moved from "endangered" to "near-threatened" due to successful conservation efforts. It has now been moved to vulnerable.<ref name="Grey bat status">{{cite journal | url = https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/14132/22051652 | title = Myotis grisescens status | journal = IUCN Red List of Threatened Species | date = 24 February 2017 | publisher = IUCN | access-date = 2020-08-11 | archive-date = 25 October 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201025085211/https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/14132/22051652 | url-status = live }}</ref>
File:Plains zebra in Mlilwane Wildlife Sanctuary 02.jpg|[[Plains zebra]]s (or ''Equus quagga'') are listed as 'near threatened' by the IUCN.
File:Python regius.jpg|The [[ball python]], formerly a common species, had become near-threatened as a result of illegal trades and [[poaching]].
</gallery>
==See also==
*[[IUCN Red List near threatened species]], ordered by [[taxonomic rank]].
*[[:Category:IUCN Red List near threatened species]], ordered alphabetically.
*[[List of near threatened amphibians]]
*[[List of near threatened arthropods]]
*[[List of near threatened birds]]
*[[List of near threatened fishes]]
*[[List of near threatened insects]]
*[[List of near threatened invertebrates]]
*[[List of near threatened mammals]]
*[[List of near threatened molluscs]]
*[[List of near threatened reptiles]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
== External links ==
*[http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/search/link/4cb7fb7b-41ac38af List of Near Threatened species] as identified by the [[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]
{{Threatened species |expanded}}
{{Threatened species by region}}
{{Portal bar|Ecology|Biology}}
[[Category:Near threatened species| ]]
[[Category:Near threatened plants| ]]
[[Category:Biota by conservation status]]
[[Category:IUCN Red List]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]] |
Decline in amphibian populations | {{short description|Ongoing mass extinction of amphibian species worldwide}}
[[File:Bufo periglenes2.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[Golden toad]] of [[Monteverde]], [[Costa Rica]], was among the first casualties of amphibian declines. Formerly abundant, it was last seen in 1989.]]
Since the 1980s, decreases in [[amphibian]] populations, including population decline and localized [[mass extinction]]s, have been observed in locations all over the world. This type of [[biodiversity loss]] is known as one of the most critical threats to global [[biodiversity]]. The possible causes include [[habitat destruction]] and modification, diseases, exploitation, [[pollution]], [[pesticide]] use, [[introduced species]], and [[ultraviolet-B]] radiation (UV-B). However, many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood, and the topic is currently a subject of ongoing research.
Modeling results found that the current extinction rate of amphibians could be 211 times greater than the [[background extinction rate]]. This estimate even goes up to 25,000–45,000 times if endangered species are also included in the computation.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=McCallum |first1=M. L. |year=2007 |title=Amphibian Decline or Extinction? Current Declines Dwarf Background Extinction Rate |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=483–491 |doi=10.1670/0022-1511(2007)41[483:ADOECD]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=30162903 |url=https://www.herpconbio.org/~herpconb/McCallum/amphibian%20extinctions.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217133741/https://www.herpconbio.org/~herpconb/McCallum/amphibian%20extinctions.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2008-12-17 }}</ref>
Scientists began observing reduced populations of several European amphibian species already in the 1950s. Nevertheless, awareness of the phenomenon as a global problem and its subsequent classification as a [[Holocene extinction|modern-day mass extinction]] only dates from the 1980s. By 1993, more than 500 species of [[Frog|frogs]] and [[Salamander|salamanders]] on all five continents were in decline.
== Observations ==
[[File:Distribuição das 2873 espécies de anfíbios globalmente ameaçadas - Luedtke et al. 2023.jpg|thumb|380px|The distribution of 2,873 globally threatened amphibian species.<ref>{{Cite Q|Q123056982}}</ref>]]
In the past three decades, declines in populations of amphibians (the [[Class (biology)|class]] of organisms that includes [[frogs]], [[toads]], [[salamanders]], [[newts]], and [[caecilians]]) have occurred worldwide. In 2004, the results were published of the first worldwide assessment of amphibian populations, the Global Amphibian Assessment. This found that 32% of species were globally threatened, at least 43% were experiencing some form of population decrease, and that between 9 and 122 species have become extinct since 1980.<ref name="stuart">{{cite journal |last1=Stuart |first1=Simon N. |last2=Chanson |first2=Janice S. |last3=Cox |first3=Neil A. |last4=Young |first4=Bruce E. |last5=Rodrigues |first5=Ana S. L. |last6=Fischman |first6=Debra L. |last7=Waller |first7=Robert W. |date=3 December 2004 |title=Status and Trends of Amphibian Declines and Extinctions Worldwide |journal=Science |pmid=15486254 |volume=306 |issue=5702 |pages=1783–1786 |doi=10.1126/science.1103538 |citeseerx=10.1.1.225.9620 |bibcode=2004Sci...306.1783S |s2cid=86238651 }}</ref> {{As of|2010}}, the [[IUCN Red List]], which incorporates the Global Amphibian Assessment and subsequent updates, lists 650 amphibian species as "[[Critically Endangered]]", and 35 as "[[Extinct]]".<ref name="RedListAmphibiansCR">{{cite web |url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/search/link/4c879f29-b092b8e2 |title=IUCN Red List - Search Results |work=[[IUCN Red List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]. Version 2010.3 |publisher=[[International Union for Conservation of Nature|IUCN]] |access-date=September 8, 2010}}</ref> Despite the high risk this group faces, recent evidence suggests the public is growing largely indifferent to this and other environmental problems, posing serious problems for conservationists and environmental workers alike.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = McCallum | first1 = M.L. | last2 = Bury | first2 = G.W. | year = 2013 | title = Google search patterns suggest declining interest in the environment | journal = Biodiversity and Conservation | volume = 22| issue = 6–7| pages = 1355–1367| doi = 10.1007/s10531-013-0476-6 | s2cid = 15593201 }}</ref>
Declines in amphibian populations were first widely recognized in the late 1980s{{Citation needed|date=September 2016}}, when a large gathering of [[herpetology|herpetologists]] reported noticing declines in populations in amphibians across the globe.<ref name="blaustein">{{cite journal | last1 = Blaustein | first1 = A.R. | last2 = Wake | first2 = D.B. | year = 1990 | title = Declining amphibian populations: a global phenomenon? | journal = Trends in Ecology and Evolution | volume = 5 | issue = 7| pages = 203–204 | doi=10.1016/0169-5347(90)90129-2}}</ref> Among these species, the [[Golden toad]] (''Bufo periglenes'') [[Endemism|endemic]] to [[Monteverde]], [[Costa Rica]], featured prominently. It was the subject of scientific research until populations suddenly crashed in 1987 and it had disappeared completely by 1989.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Crump | first1 = M.L. | last2 = Hensley | first2 = F.R. | last3 = Clark | first3 = K.I. | year = 1992 | title = Apparent decline of the golden toad: Underground or extinct? | journal = Copeia | volume = 1992 | issue = 2| pages = 413–420 | doi=10.2307/1446201| jstor = 1446201 }}</ref> Other species at Monteverde, including the Monteverde Harlequin Frog (''[[Atelopus varius]]''), also disappeared at the same time. Because these species were located in the pristine Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve, and these extinctions could not be related to local human activities, they raised particular concern among biologists.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=J. Alan Pounds |author2=Martha L. Crump |s2cid=53330451 |title=Amphibian Declines and Climate Disturbance: The Case of the Golden Toad and the Harlequin Frog|journal=Conservation Biology|volume=8|issue=1|pages=72–85|year=1994|doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.1994.08010072.x}}</ref>
Many scientists believe that amphibians serve as "[[Animal sentinel#Historical examples|canaries in a coal mine]]," and that declines in amphibian populations and species indicate that other groups of animals and plants will soon be at risk.<ref name="onethird">''Science Daily'' (October 15, 2004), [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/10/041015103700.htm Amphibians in dramatic decline: Study finds nearly one third of species threatened with extinction]. Sciencedaily.com. Retrieved on September 18, 2007.</ref>
=== Initial skepticism ===
When amphibian declines were first presented as a conservation issue in the late 1980s, some scientists remained unconvinced of the reality and gravity of the conservation issue.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Pechmann | first1 = J.H.K. | last2 = Scott | first2 = D.E. | last3 = Semlitsch | first3 = R.D. | last4 = Caldwell | first4 = J.P. | last5 = Vitt | first5 = L.J. | last6 = Gibbons | first6 = J.W. | s2cid = 27171692 | year = 1991 | title = Declining amphibian populations: the problem of separating human impacts from natural fluctuations | journal = Science | volume = 253 | issue = 5022| pages = 892–895 | doi=10.1126/science.253.5022.892 | pmid=17751826| bibcode = 1991Sci...253..892P }}</ref> Some biologists argued that populations of most organisms, amphibians included, naturally vary through time. They argued that the lack of long-term data on amphibian populations made it difficult to determine whether the anecdotal declines reported by biologists were worth the (often limited) time and money of conservation efforts.{{citation needed|date=April 2015}}
However, since this initial skepticism, biologists have come to a consensus that declines in amphibian populations are a real and severe threat to biodiversity.<ref name="stuart" /> This consensus emerged with an increase in the number of studies that monitored amphibian populations, direct observation of mass mortality in pristine sites that lacked apparent cause, and an awareness that declines in amphibian populations are truly global in nature.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Houlahan | first1 = J.E. | last2 = Findlay | first2 = C.S. | last3 = Schmidt | first3 = B.R. | last4 = Meyer | first4 = A.H. | last5 = Kuzmin | first5 = S.L. | year = 2000 | title = Quantitative evidence for global amphibian population declines | journal = Nature | volume = 404 | issue = 6779| pages = 752–758 | doi = 10.1038/35008052| pmid = 10783886 | bibcode = 2000Natur.404..752H | s2cid = 4393392 }}</ref>
== Causes ==
[[Habitat destruction|Habitat loss]], disease and [[climate change]] are thought to be responsible for the drastic decline in populations in recent years.<ref>{{cite web |title=Conservation International - Amphibians |url=http://www.conservation.org/learn/biodiversity/species/profiles/amphibians/Pages/overview.aspx |access-date=8 August 2012}}</ref>
Declines have been particularly intense in the western [[United States]], [[Central America]], [[South America]], eastern [[Australia]] and [[Fiji]] (although cases of amphibian extinctions have appeared worldwide). While human activities are causing a loss of much of the world's biodiversity, amphibians appear to be suffering much greater effects than other classes of organism. Because amphibians generally have a two-staged life cycle consisting of both [[aquatic animal|aquatic]] ([[larva]]e) and [[terrestrial animal|terrestrial]] ([[adult]]) phases, they are sensitive to both terrestrial and [[aquatic ecosystem|aquatic environmental]] effects. Because their skins are highly permeable, they may be more susceptible to [[toxins]] in the environment than other organisms such as birds or mammals.<ref name="onethird" />
Numerous potential explanations for amphibian declines have been proposed. Most or all of these causes have been associated with some population declines, so each cause is likely to affect in certain circumstances but not others. Many of the causes of amphibian declines are well understood, and appear to affect other groups of organisms as well as amphibians. These causes include habitat modification and fragmentation, introduced predators or competitors, introduced species, pollution, pesticide use, or over-harvesting. However, many amphibian declines or extinctions have occurred in pristine habitats where the above effects are not likely to occur. The causes of these declines are complex, but many can be attributed to emerging diseases, climate change, increased ultraviolet-B radiation, or long-distance transmission of chemical contaminants by wind.
Artificial lighting has been suggested as another potential cause. Insects are attracted to lights making them scarcer within the amphibian habitats.<ref>Eisenbeis, G., 2006. Artificial night lighting and insects: Attraction of insects to streetlamps in a rural setting in Germany. In C. Rich & T. Longcore (eds), Ecological Consequences of Artificial Night Lighting. Island Press: 281-304.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Baker | first1 = B.J. | last2 = Richardson | first2 = J.M.L. | year = 2006 | title = The effect of artificial light on male breeding-season behaviour in green frogs, ''Rana clamitans melanota'' | journal = Canadian Journal of Zoology | volume = 84 | issue = 10| pages = 1528–1532 | doi=10.1139/z06-142}}</ref>
=== Habitat modification ===
{{Main|Habitat destruction}}
[[Habitat]] modification or destruction is one of the most dramatic issues affecting amphibian species worldwide. As amphibians generally need aquatic and terrestrial habitats to survive, threats to either habitat can affect populations. Hence, amphibians may be more vulnerable to habitat modification than organisms that only require one habitat type. Large scale climate changes may further be modifying aquatic habitats, preventing amphibians from spawning altogether.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7693381.stm | work=BBC News | title=Climate link to amphibian decline | date=2008-10-27 | access-date=2010-05-01}}</ref>
=== Habitat fragmentation ===
{{Main|Habitat fragmentation}}
Habitat fragmentation occurs when habitats are isolated by habitat modification, such as when a small area of forest is completely surrounded by agricultural fields. Small populations that survive within such fragments are often susceptible to [[inbreeding]], [[genetic drift]], or extinction due to small fluctuations in the environment. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Knozowski |first1=P. |last2=Górski |first2=A. |last3=Stawicka |first3=A. M. |last4=Nowakowski |first4=J. J. |date=2022-12-31 |title=Long-term changes in the diversity of amphibian communities inhabiting small water bodies in the urban area of Olsztyn (NE Poland) |journal=The European Zoological Journal |volume=89 |issue=1 |pages=791–812 |doi=10.1080/24750263.2022.2087773|doi-access=free }}</ref>
=== Disease ===
Research from 2007 and 2018 indicated that the reemergence of varieties of [[Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis|chytrid fungi]] may account for a substantial fraction of the overall decline.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kriger |first1=Kerry M. |last2=Hero |first2=Jean‐Marc |date=26 July 2007 |title=The chytrid fungus ''Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis'' is non‐randomly distributed across amphibian breeding habitats |journal=Diversity and Distributions |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=781–788 |doi=10.1111/j.1472-4642.2007.00394.x |s2cid=85857635 |quote=Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis has been implicated as the causative agent of mass moralities, population declines, and the extinctions of stream‐breeding amphibian species worldwide. |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Retallick |first1=Richard W. R. |last2=Miera |first2=Verma |year=2007 |title=Strain differences in the amphibian chytrid Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and non-permanent, sub-lethal effects of infection |url=https://www.int-res.com/articles/dao2006/75/d075p201.pdf |journal=Diseases of Aquatic Organisms |volume=75 |issue=3 |pages=201–207 |doi=10.3354/dao075201 |pmid=17629114 |quote=The chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) is likely the cause of numerous recent amphibian population declines worldwide. |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=O’Hanlon |first1=Simon J |display-authors=etal |year=2018 |title=Recent Asian origin of chytrid fungi causing global amphibian declines |journal=Science |volume=360 |issue=6389 |pages=621–627 |bibcode=2018Sci...360..621O |doi=10.1126/science.aar1965 |pmc=6311102 |pmid=29748278}}</ref>
A number of diseases have been related to mass die-offs or declines in populations of amphibians, including "red-leg" disease (''[[Aeromonas hydrophila]]''), ''[[Ranavirus]]'' (family [[Iridoviridae]]), ''[[Anuraperkinsus]]'', and [[chytridiomycosis]]. It is not entirely clear why these diseases have suddenly begun to affect amphibian populations, but some evidence suggests that these diseases may have been spread by humans, or may be more virulent when combined with other environmental factors.<ref name="Daszaketal1999">{{cite journal |last=Daszak |first=Peter |author2=Lee Berger |author3=Andrew A. Cunningham |author4=Alex D. Hyatt |author5=D. Earl Green |author6=Rick Speare |year=1999 |title=Emerging Infectious Diseases and Amphibian Population Declines. |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=735–48 |doi=10.3201/eid0506.990601 |pmc=2640803 |pmid=10603206}}</ref>
==== Trematodes ====
{{More information|Ribeiroia}}
[[File:Trematode cyst-infected Pacific Treefrog (Hyla regilla) with supernumerary limbs, from La Pine, Deschutes County, Oregon (9672239342).jpg|thumb|Trematode cyst-infected [[Pacific Tree Frog]] (''Hyla regilla'') with supernumerary limbs, from La Pine, Deschutes County, Oregon, 1998–9. This 'category I' deformity (polymelia) is believed to be caused by the trematode cyst infection. The cartilage is stained blue and calcified bones in red.]]
There is considerable evidence that parasitic [[trematode]] [[platyhelminth]]s (a type of [[Trematoda|fluke]]) have contributed to developmental abnormalities and population declines of amphibians in some regions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=P.T.J. |last2=Chase |first2=J.M. |year=2004 |title=Parasites in the food web: linking amphibian malformations and aquatic eutrophication |journal=Ecology Letters |volume=7 |issue=7 |pages=521–526 |doi=10.1111/j.1461-0248.2004.00610.x}}</ref> These trematodes of the genus ''[[Ribeiroia]]'' have a complex life cycle with three host species. The first host includes a number of species of aquatic snails. The early larval stages of the trematodes then are transmitted into aquatic tadpoles, where the metacercariae (larvae) encyst in developing limb buds. These encysted life stages produce developmental abnormalities in post-metamorphic frogs, including additional or missing limbs.<ref name="blaustein" /> These abnormalities increase frog predation by aquatic birds, the final host of the trematode.
[[File:P. regilla with parasite-induced limb malformation.png|thumb|[[Pacific Tree Frog]] with limb malformation induced by ''[[Ribeiroia ondatrae]]'']]
A study showed that high levels of nutrients used in farming and ranching activities fuel parasite infections that have caused frog deformities in ponds and lakes across North America. The study showed increased levels of nitrogen and phosphorus cause sharp hikes in the abundance of trematodes, and that the parasites subsequently form cysts in the developing limbs of tadpoles causing missing limbs, extra limbs and other severe malformations including five or six extra or even no limbs.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Johnson PTJ |author2=Jonathan M. Chase |author3=Katherine L. Dosch |author4=Richard B. Hartson |author5=Jackson A. Gross |author6=Don J. Larson |author7=Daniel R. Sutherland |author8=Stephen R. Carpenter |year=2007 |title=Aquatic eutrophication promotes pathogenic infection in amphibians |journal=PNAS |volume=104 |issue=40 |pages=15781–15786 |bibcode=2007PNAS..10415781J |doi=10.1073/pnas.0707763104 |pmc=2000446 |pmid=17893332 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
=== Pollution and chemical contaminants ===
There is evidence of chemical [[pollutant]]s causing frog developmental deformities (extra limbs, or malformed eyes).<ref>{{cite journal|title=The complexity of deformed amphibians|author1=Blaustein, Andrew R|author2=Pieter TJ Johnson|journal=Front. Ecol. Environ.|year=2003|volume=1|issue=2|pages=87–94|url=http://tiee.ecoed.net/vol/v2/issues/frontier_sets/amphibians/pdf/Frontiers-Blaustein-Johnson.pdf|doi=10.1890/1540-9295(2003)001[0087:TCODA]2.0.CO;2|issn=1540-9295|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029213623/http://tiee.ecoed.net/vol/v2/issues/frontier_sets/amphibians/pdf/Frontiers-Blaustein-Johnson.pdf|archive-date=2013-10-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Burkhart, James G. |author2=Gerald Ankley |author3=Heidi Bell |author4=Hillary Carpenter |author5=Douglas Fort |author6=David Gardiner |author7=Henry Gardner |author8=Robert Hale |author9=Judy C. Helgen |author10=Paul Jepson |author11=Douglas Johnson |author12=Michael Lannoo |author13=David Lee |author14=Joseph Lary |author15=Rick Levey |year=2000 |title=Strategies for assessing the implications of malformed frogs for environmental health |url=https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/10.1289/ehp.0010883 |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=108 |issue=1 |pages=83–90 |doi=10.1289/ehp.0010883 |jstor=3454299 |pmc=1637865 |pmid=10620528 |author16=Joseph Magner |author17=Carol Meteyer |author18=Michael D. Shelby |author19=George Lucier |display-authors=3}} [https://wayback.archive-it.org/20032/20221214170903/https://www.niehs.nih.gov/news/newsroom/releases/1997/november18/index.cfm Associated workshop held on December 4-5, 1997].</ref> Pollutants have varying effects on frogs. Some alter the [[central nervous system]]; others cause a disruption in the production and secretion of hormones. Experimental studies have also shown that exposure to commonly used herbicides such as [[glyphosate]] (Tradename [[Roundup (herbicide)|Roundup]]) or insecticides such as [[malathion]] or [[carbaryl]] greatly increase mortality of tadpoles.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Relyea | first1 = R.A. | year = 2004 | title = The impact of insecticides and herbicides on the biodiversity and productivity of aquatic communities | journal = Ecological Applications | volume = 15 | issue = 2| pages = 618–627 | doi=10.1890/03-5342}}</ref> Additional studies have indicated that terrestrial adult stages of amphibians are also susceptible to non-active ingredients in Roundup, particularly [[Polyethoxylated tallow amine|POEA]], which is a [[surfactant]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Relyea | first1 = R.A. | year = 2005 | title = The lethal impact of Roundup on aquatic and terrestrial amphibians | journal = Ecological Applications | volume = 15 | issue = 4| pages = 1118–1124 | doi=10.1890/04-1291}}</ref> Although sex reversal in some species of frogs occur naturally in pristine environments, certain estrogen-like pollutants can forcibly induce these changes.<ref>{{cite news | url = https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/frogs-reverse-sex-more-often-than-thought | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210220224800/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/frogs-reverse-sex-more-often-than-thought | url-status = dead | archive-date = February 20, 2021 | title = Healthy frogs can mysteriously reverse their sex | work= National Geographic}}</ref> In a study conducted in a laboratory at Uppsala University in Sweden, more than 50% of frogs exposed to levels of estrogen-like pollutants existing in natural bodies of water in Europe and the United States became females. Tadpoles exposed even to the weakest concentration of estrogen were twice as likely to become females while almost all of the control group given the heaviest dose became female.<ref>{{cite news | url = https://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20070227/sc_afp/scienceenvironmentanimalssexfrogs_070227120242 | title = Pollutants change 'he' frogs into 'she' frogs | work= Yahoo! News | access-date = 2007-03-01 | year = 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070302073022/http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20070227/sc_afp/scienceenvironmentanimalssexfrogs_070227120242 |archive-date = March 2, 2007}}</ref>
While most pesticide effects are likely to be local and restricted to areas near agriculture, there is evidence from the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] mountains of the western United States that pesticides are traveling long distances into pristine areas, including [[Yosemite National Park]] in [[California]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Grossi, Mark |title=Sierra Frogs Fall Silent|journal=The Fresno Bee|date=24 July 2001|url = http://www.yosemite.org/newsroom/clips2001/July/072401.html|access-date=2008-10-02|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070618083908/http://www.yosemite.org/newsroom/clips2001/July/072401.html |archive-date = June 18, 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Some recent evidence points to [[ozone]] as a possible contributing factor to the worldwide decline of amphibians.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Dohm | first1 = M.R. | year = 2005 | title = Effects of ozone exposure on nonspecific phagocytic capacity of pulmonary macrophages from an amphibian, ''Bufo marinus'' | journal = Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry | volume = 24 | issue = 1| pages = 205–210 | doi=10.1897/04-040r.1| pmid = 15683185 | s2cid = 6574504 |display-authors=etal}}</ref>
=== Ozone depletion, ultraviolet radiation and cloud cover ===
{{See also|Climate change}}
Like many other organisms, increasing [[ultraviolet-B]] (UVB) radiation due to stratospheric [[ozone depletion]] and other factors may harm the [[DNA]] of amphibians, particularly their eggs.<ref>{{Cite news
| date = November 1995
| title = Ambient UV-B radiation causes deformities in amphibian embryos
| periodical = [[PNAS]]
| volume = 92
| pages = 11049–11052
| url = http://www.pnas.org/content/94/25/13735.full?ijkey=go9pEPNU9CiQY
| doi =10.1073/pnas.92.24.11049
|author1=Andrew R. Blaustein |author2=Joseph M. Kiesecker |author3=Douglas P. Chivers |author4=Robert G. Anthony | pmid = 9391095
| doi-access = free
}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Belden|first=Lisa K.|author2=Blaustein, Andrew R.|title=Population differences in sensitivity to UV-b radiation for larval long-toed salamanders|journal=Ecology|year=2002|volume=83|issue=6|pages=1586–1590|doi=10.1890/0012-9658(2002)083[1586:PDISTU]2.0.CO;2|url=http://people.oregonstate.edu/~blaustea/pdfs/BeldenBlausteinEcology.pdf|issn=0012-9658}}</ref> The amount of damage depends upon the life stage, the species type and other environmental parameters. Salamanders and frogs that produce less [[photolyase]], an enzyme that counteracts DNA damage from UVB, are more susceptible to the effects of loss of the ozone layer. Exposure to ultraviolet radiation may not kill a particular species or life stage but may cause sublethal damage.
More than three dozen species of amphibians have been studied, with severe effects reported in more than 40 publications in peer-reviewed journals representing authors from North America, Europe and Australia. Experimental enclosure approaches to determine UVB effects on egg stages have been criticized; for example, egg masses were placed at water depths much shallower than is typical for natural oviposition sites. While UVB radiation is an important stressor for amphibians,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bancroft | first1 = B.A. |display-authors=et al | year = 2007 | title = Effects of UVB radiation on marine and freshwater organisms: a synthesis through meta-analysis | journal = Ecology Letters | volume = 10 | issue = 4| pages = 332–345 | doi=10.1111/j.1461-0248.2007.01022.x| pmid = 17355571 }}</ref> its effect on the egg stage may have been overstated.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Licht | first1 = LE | year = 2003 | title = Shedding Light on Ultraviolet Radiation and Amphibian Embryos | journal = BioScience | volume = 53 | issue = 6| pages = 551–561 | doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2003)053[0551:sloura]2.0.co;2| doi-access = free }}</ref>
<!-- this was moved from a "global warming" section added 1 nov 08 -->Anthropogenic climate change has likely exerted a major effect on amphibian declines. For example, in the Monteverde Cloud Forest, a series of unusually warm years led to the mass disappearances of the Monteverde Harlequin frog and the Golden Toad.<ref name="Pounds et al 2006">{{cite journal|last=Alan Pounds|first=J.|author2=Bustamante, Martín R. |author3=Coloma, Luis A. |author4=Consuegra, Jamie A. |author5=Fogden, Michael P. L. |author6=Foster, Pru N. |author7=La Marca, Enrique |author8=Masters, Karen L. |author9=Merino-Viteri, Andrés |author10=Puschendorf, Robert |author11=Ron, Santiago R. |author12=Sánchez-Azofeifa, G. Arturo |author13=Still, Christopher J. |author14=Young, Bruce E. |title=Widespread amphibian extinctions from epidemic disease driven by global warming|journal=Nature|year=2006|volume=439|issue=7073|pages=161–167|doi=10.1038/nature04246|url=http://webpages.icav.up.pt/ptdc/bia-bec/099915/2008/9.Pounds%20et%20al%202006%20Nature.pdf|pmid=16407945|bibcode=2006Natur.439..161A|s2cid=4430672}}</ref> An increased level of [[cloud cover]], a result of [[geoengineering]]{{citation needed|date=February 2018}} and global warming, which has warmed the nights and cooled daytime temperatures, has been blamed for facilitating the growth and proliferation of the fungus ''Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis'' (the causative agent of the fungal infection [[chytridiomycosis]]).
[[File:Ecnomiohyla rabborum 2.jpg|thumb|An adult male ''[[Ecnomiohyla rabborum]]'' in the [[Atlanta Botanical Garden]], a species ravaged by ''[[Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis]]'' in its native habitat. It was the last known surviving member of its species, and with its death on Sept 28, 2016, the species is believed to be extinct.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Messenger|first1=Stephen|title=Last Frog Of His Kind Dies Alone|url=https://www.thedodo.com/last-frog-of-his-kind-dies-2023519285.html|website=The Dodo|access-date=30 September 2016|date=2016-09-30}}</ref><ref name="ZA2">{{cite web|url=http://www.zooatlanta.org/home/article_content/leapyear|title=It's Leap Year. Remember the Rabbs' tree frog.|author=Zoo Atlanta|date=February 17, 2012|publisher=Atlanta Fulton County Zoo|access-date=March 12, 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524060207/http://www.zooatlanta.org/home/article_content/leapyear|archive-date=May 24, 2012}}</ref>]]
Although the immediate cause of the die offs was the chytrid, climate change played a pivotal role in the extinctions. Researchers included this subtle connection in their inclusive climate-linked epidemic hypothesis, which acknowledged climatic change as a key factor in amphibian extinctions both in Costa Rica and elsewhere.<ref name="PoundsetalReply2007">{{cite journal|last=Pounds|first=J. Alan|author2=Bustamante, Martín R. |author3=Coloma, Luis A. |author4=Consuegra, Jamie A. |author5=Fogden, Michael P. L. |author6=Foster, Pru N. |author7=La Marca, Enrique |author8=Masters, Karen L. |author9=Merino-Viteri, Andrés |author10=Puschendorf, Robert |author11=Ron, Santiago R. |author12=Sánchez-Azofeifa, G. Arturo |author13=Still, Christopher J. |author14=Young, Bruce E. |title=Global warming and amphibian losses; The proximate cause of frog declines? (Reply)|journal=Nature|year=2007|volume=447|issue=7144|pages=E5–E6|doi=10.1038/nature05942|bibcode=2007Natur.447....5P|s2cid=4372607}}</ref>
New evidence has shown global warming to also be capable of directly degrading toads' body condition and survivorship.<ref name="Reading2006">{{cite journal|last=Reading|first=C. J.|title=Linking global warming to amphibian declines through its effects on female body condition and survivorship|journal=Oecologia|year=2006|volume=151|issue=1|pages=125–131|doi=10.1007/s00442-006-0558-1|pmid=17024381|s2cid=24832716|url=http://www.salvemossapos.com/threats/pdfs/Reading-2007-Global-Warming.pdf|access-date=2014-01-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202112142/http://www.salvemossapos.com/threats/pdfs/Reading-2007-Global-Warming.pdf|archive-date=2014-02-02|url-status=dead}}</ref> Additionally, the phenomenon often colludes with landscape alteration, pollution, and species invasions to effect amphibian extinctions.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pounds|first=J. Alan|author2=Puschendorf, Robert|title=Ecology: Clouded Futures (News & Views)|journal=Nature|year=2004|volume=427|issue=6970|pages=107–109|doi=10.1038/427107a|pmid=14712258|s2cid=877425}}</ref>
=== Introduced predators ===
{{Main|Introduced species}}
Non-native predators and competitors have also been found to affect the viability of frogs in their habitats. The [[mountain yellow-legged frog]] which typically inhabits the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] lakes have seen a decline in numbers due to stocking of non-native fish ([[trout]]) for recreational [[fishing]]. The developing tadpoles and froglets fall prey to the fish in large numbers. This interference in the frog's three-year [[Metamorphosis (biology)|metamorphosis]] is causing a decline that is manifest throughout their ecosystem.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Knapp | first1 = R. A. | last2 = Matthews | first2 = K. R. | s2cid = 51734566 | year = 2000 | title = Non-native fish introductions and the decline of the mountain yellow-legged frog from within protected areas | journal = Conservation Biology | volume = 14 | issue = 2| pages = 428–438 | doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.99099.x}}</ref>
=== Increased noise levels ===
Frogs and toads are highly vocal, and their reproductive behaviour often involves the use of vocalizations. There have been suggestions that increased noise levels caused by human activities may be contributing to their declines. In a study in Thailand, increased [[ambient noise level]]s were shown to decrease calling in some species and to cause an increase in others.<ref name="Anthropogenic sounds">{{cite journal|last=Sun|first=Jennifer W.C.|author2=Narins, Peter M.|title=Anthropogenic sounds differentially affect amphibian call rate|journal=Biological Conservation|year=2005|volume=121|issue=3|pages=419–427|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2004.05.017|url=https://www.ibp.ucla.edu/Faculty/Narins/publications/pdfs/Sun%20and%20Narins%20BC.pdf}}</ref> This has, however, not been shown to be a cause for the widespread decline.
== Symptoms of stressed populations ==
Amphibian populations in the beginning stages of decline often exhibit a number of signs, which may potentially be used to identify at-risk segments in conservation efforts. One such sign is developmental instability, which has been proven as evidence of environmental stress.<ref name=Alfordetal2007>{{cite journal|last=Alford|first=Ross A.|author2=Bradfield, Kay S. |author3=Richards, Stephen J. |title=Ecology: Global warming and amphibian losses|journal=Nature|year=2007|volume=447|issue=7144|pages=E3–E4|doi=10.1038/nature05940|url=http://eprints.jcu.edu.au/16656/1/16656.pdf|pmid=17538571|bibcode=2007Natur.447....3A|s2cid=4412404}}</ref> This environmental stress can potentially raise susceptibility to diseases such as chytridiomycosis, and thus lead to amphibian declines. In a study conducted in [[Queensland]], Australia, for example, populations of two amphibian species, ''[[Litoria nannotis]]'' and ''[[Litoria genimaculata]]'', were found to exhibit far greater levels of limb asymmetry in pre-decline years than in control years, the latter of which preceded die offs by an average of 16 years.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}} Learning to identify such signals in the critical period before population declines occur might greatly improve conservation efforts.
== Conservation measures ==
{{See also|Amphibian Ark}}
The first response to reports of declining amphibian populations was the formation of the Declining Amphibian Population Task Force (DAPTF) in 1990. DAPTF led efforts for increased amphibian population monitoring in order to establish the extent of the problem, and established working groups to look at different issues.<ref name="journals.openedition.org">P. J. Bishop, A. Angulo, J. P. Lewis, Robin D. Moore, G. B. Rabb and J. Garcia Moreno, « The Amphibian Extinction Crisis - what will it take to put the action into the Amphibian Conservation Action Plan? », S.A.P.I.EN.S [Online], 5.2 | 2012, Online since 12 August 2012, connection on 09 April 2019. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/sapiens/1406</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor=Alastair Campbell |year=1999|publisher=Environment Australia|isbn=0-642-54656-8|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/publications/pubs/frogs.pdf|title=Declines and disappearances of Australian frogs|oclc=44894378|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111114145514/http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/publications/pubs/frogs.pdf|archive-date=2011-11-14|url-status=dead}}</ref> Results were communicated through the newsletter Froglog.
Much of this research went into the production of the first Global Amphibian Assessment (GAA), which was published in 2004 and assessed every known amphibian species against the IUCN Red List criteria. This found that approximately one third of amphibian species were threatened with extinction.<ref>Stuart et al (2004) Status and Trends of Amphibian Declines and Extinctions Worldwide. Science. Vol. 306, Issue 5702, pp. 1783-1786. {{doi|10.1126/science.1103538}}</ref> As a result of these shocking findings an Amphibian Conservation Summit was held in 2005, because it was considered "morally irresponsible to document amphibian declines and extinctions without also designing and promoting a response to this global crisis".<ref name="Gascon 2007">{{cite conference | editor1-first=Claude | editor1-last=Gascon | editor2-first=James P. | editor2-last=Collins | editor3-first=Robin D. | editor3-last=Moore | editor4-first=Don R. | editor4-last=Church | editor5-first=Jeanne E. | editor5-last=McKay | editor6-first=Joseph R. | editor6-last=Mendelson III | date=2007 | title=Amphibian Conservation Action Plan | location=[[Gland]]/[[Cambridge]] | publisher=[[IUCN]] SSC Amphibian Specialist Group | s2cid=87645483}}</ref>
Outputs from the Amphibian Conservation Summit included the first Amphibian Conservation Action Plan (ACAP)<ref name="Gascon 2007"/> and to merge the DAPTF and the Global Amphibian Specialist Group into the [[IUCN]] SSC Amphibian Specialist Group (ASG).<ref name="journals.openedition.org"/> The ACAP established the elements required to respond to the crisis, including priority actions on a variety of thematic areas. The ASG is a global volunteer network of dedicated experts who work to provide the scientific foundation for effective amphibian conservation action around the world.
The ACAP (Gascon et al 2007), concerned that time and capability were short, recommended that all relevant species be immediately incorporated into ex situ [[breeding program]]s.<ref name="Silla-Byrne-2019">{{cite journal | last1=Silla | first1=Aimee J. | last2=Byrne | first2=Phillip G. | title=The Role of Reproductive Technologies in Amphibian Conservation Breeding Programs | journal=[[Annual Review of Animal Biosciences]] | publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] | volume=7 | issue=1 | date=2019-02-15 | issn=2165-8102 | doi=10.1146/annurev-animal-020518-115056 | pages=499–519| pmid=30359086 | s2cid=53098666 | doi-access=free }}</ref> On 16 February 2007, scientists worldwide met in [[Atlanta]], [[United States|U.S.]], to form a group called the [[Amphibian Ark]] to help save more than 6,000 species of amphibians from disappearing by starting [[captive breeding]] programmes.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.thestandard.com.hk/news_detail.asp?we_cat=9&art_id=38447&sid=12249536&con_type=1&d_str=20070216 | title = Bid to save frogs from killer goes worldwide | access-date = 2007-02-22 | year = 2007 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151018180029/http://www.thestandard.com.hk/news_detail.asp?we_cat=9&art_id=38447&sid=12249536&con_type=1&d_str=20070216 | archive-date = 2015-10-18 }}</ref> Overall between the call to action in 2007 and 2019 there has been a 57% increase in number of breeding programs, or 77 additional species.<ref name="Silla-Byrne-2019" />
Areas with noticed frog extinctions, like Australia, have few policies that have been created to prevent the extinction of these species. However, local initiatives have been placed where conscious efforts to decrease global warming will also turn into a conscious effort towards saving the frogs. In South America, where there is also an increased decline of amphibian populations, there is no set policy to try to save frogs. Some suggestions would include getting entire governments to place a set of rules and institutions as a source of guidelines that local governments have to abide by.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.frogs.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230929231921/http://frogs.org/|archive-date=29 September 2023|title = Amphibian Conservation Alliance|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>[http://www.denverzoo.org/conservation/project46]{{dead link|date=May 2013}}</ref>
A critical issue is how to design protected areas for amphibians which will provide suitable conditions for their survival. Conservation efforts through the use of protected areas have shown to generally be a temporary solution to population decline and extinction because the amphibians become inbred.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Amphibians, Reptiles, and their Conservation|url = https://archive.org/details/amphibiansreptil00crum|url-access = registration|last = Crump|first = M.|publisher = Linnet Books|year = 2002|location = North Haven, CT|isbn = 9780208025111}}</ref> It is crucial for most amphibians to maintain a high level of genetic variation through large and more diverse environments.
Education of local people to protect amphibians is crucial, along with legislation for local protection and limiting the use of toxic chemicals, including some fertilizers and pesticides in sensitive amphibian areas.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The New Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians (2 ed.)|last = Halliday, Adler|publisher = Oxford University Press|year = 2008|isbn = 9780198525073|location = Online}}</ref>
== See also ==
{{portal|Amphibians}}
* [[Effects of pesticides on amphibians]]
* [[Holocene extinction]]
* [[Colony collapse disorder]]
* [[Decline in insect populations]]
* [[White nose syndrome]]
* [[The Sixth Extinction (book)|''The Sixth Extinction'']] (book)
* ''[[Racing Extinction]]'' (film)
== References ==
{{reflist|2}}
<!-- Dead note "Licht": Licht, L.E. 2003. Shedding light on ultraviolet radiation and amphibian embryos. BioScience 53: 551-561. -->
<!-- Dead note "Lannoo": Lannoo, M. ed.2005. Amphibian declines. University of California Press. Berkeley. -->
<!-- Dead note "Semlitsch": Semlitsch, R.D. ed. 2003. Amphibian Conservation. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington. D.C. -->
<!-- Dead note "Gordon": Gordon, M.S. and S.M. Bartol. eds. Experimental approaches to conservation biology. University of California Press. Berkeley. -->
== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100217145333/http://www.frogweb.gov/ FrogWeb: Amphibian Declines & Malformations]
* [http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/amphibians IUCN Red List - Amphibians] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140701164228/http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/amphibians |date=2014-07-01 }} – assesses the current status of amphibian species worldwide (incorporates the Global Amphibian Assessment)
* [http://www.amphibiaweb.org/declines/declines.html AmphibiaWeb] – provides background information on amphibian declines.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090210171452/http://alternatives2toxics.pointinspace.com/fmi/iwp/cgi?-db=A2T_HerpDB&-loadframes Reptile Amphibian & Pesticide (RAP) Database]
* [http://www.ourstolenfuture.org/NEWSCIENCE/wildlife/frogs/2003/2003-1023hayesetal.htm Weedicide induced feminization]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090912024029/http://www.qldfrogs.asn.au/01_cms/details.asp?ID=36 Photos of Sick Frogs] at Queensland Frog Society
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{{Extinction}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Decline In Amphibian Populations}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Extinct amphibians]]
[[Category:Population ecology]]
[[Category:Amphibian extinctions since 1500]]
[[Category:Amphibian conservation]] |