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316 | 316 | Academy Award for Best Production Design | The Academy Award for Best Production Design recognizes achievement for art direction in film. The category's original name was Best Art Direction, but was changed to its current name in 2012 for the 85th Academy Awards. This change resulted from the Art Director's branch of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) being renamed the Designer's branch. Since 1947, the award is shared with the set decorator(s). It is awarded to the best interior design in a film. | [
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316 | 316 | Academy Award for Best Production Design | The films below are listed with their production year (for example, the 2000 Academy Award for Best Art Direction is given to a film from 1999). In the lists below, the winner of the award for each year is shown first, followed by the other nominees in alphabetical order. | [
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316 | 316 | Academy Award for Best Production Design | BULLET::::- BAFTA Award for Best Production Design BULLET::::- Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Art Direction | [
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206493 | 206493 | Brak | Brak may refer to: BULLET::::- Brak (title) (or Braque), former title for the kings of Waalo, part of present-day Senegal, West Africa BULLET::::- Brak (character), a character on 1966 Hanna-Barbera cartoon "Space Ghost" BULLET::::- "The Brak Show", a 2000 animated series BULLET::::- Brak, a barbarian character in a series of 1960s novels by John Jakes BULLET::::- Brak, a supporting character in the 1950s classic science fiction film, "This Island Earth" | [
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|
206493 | 206493 | Brak | BULLET::::- Brak, Libya, a city in Libya BULLET::::- Syd Brak, South African illustrator | [
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|
206673 | 206673 | Minstrelsy | Minstrelsy may refer to: BULLET::::- The art of the medieval minstrel BULLET::::- The art of the 19th-century American minstrel show | [
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|
290 | 290 | A | A (named , plural "As", "A's", "a"s, "a's" or "aes") is the first letter and the first vowel of the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. It is similar to the Ancient Greek letter alpha, from which it derives. The uppercase version consists of the two slanting sides of a triangle, crossed in the middle by a horizontal bar. | [
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290 | 290 | A | The lowercase version can be written in two forms: the double-storey a and single-storey ɑ. The latter is commonly used in handwriting and fonts based on it, especially fonts intended to be read by children, and is also found in italic type. In the English grammar, "a", and its variant "an", is an indefinite article. | [
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290 | 290 | A | The earliest certain ancestor of "A" is aleph (also written 'aleph), the first letter of the Phoenician alphabet, which consisted entirely of consonants (for that reason, it is also called an abjad to distinguish it from a true alphabet). In turn, the ancestor of aleph may have been a pictogram of an ox head in proto-Sinaitic script influenced by Egyptian hieroglyphs, styled as a triangular head with two horns extended. | [
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290 | 290 | A | By 1600 BC, the Phoenician alphabet letter had a linear form that served as the base for some later forms. Its name is thought to have corresponded closely to the Paleo-Hebrew or Arabic aleph. | [
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290 | 290 | A | When the ancient Greeks adopted the alphabet, they had no use for a letter to represent the glottal stop—the consonant sound that the letter denoted in Phoenician and other Semitic languages, and that was the first phoneme of the Phoenician pronunciation of the letter—so they used their version of the sign to represent the vowel , and called it by the similar name of alpha. | [
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290 | 290 | A | In the earliest Greek inscriptions after the Greek Dark Ages, dating to the 8th century BC, the letter rests upon its side, but in the Greek alphabet of later times it generally resembles the modern capital letter, although many local varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle at which the cross line is set. | [
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290 | 290 | A | The Etruscans brought the Greek alphabet to their civilization in the Italian Peninsula and left the letter unchanged. The Romans later adopted the Etruscan alphabet to write the Latin language, and the resulting letter was preserved in the Latin alphabet that would come to be used to write many languages, including English. | [
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290 | 290 | A | During Roman times, there were many variant forms of the letter "A". First was the monumental or lapidary style, which was used when inscribing on stone or other "permanent" media. There was also a cursive style used for everyday or utilitarian writing, which was done on more perishable surfaces. | [
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290 | 290 | A | Due to the "perishable" nature of these surfaces, there are not as many examples of this style as there are of the monumental, but there are still many surviving examples of different types of cursive, such as majuscule cursive, minuscule cursive, and semicursive minuscule. Variants also existed that were intermediate between the monumental and cursive styles. The known variants include the early semi-uncial, the uncial, and the later semi-uncial. | [
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290 | 290 | A | At the end of the Roman Empire (5th century AD), several variants of the cursive minuscule developed through Western Europe. Among these were the semicursive minuscule of Italy, the Merovingian script in France, the Visigothic script in Spain, and the Insular or Anglo-Irish semi-uncial or Anglo-Saxon majuscule of Great Britain. | [
{
"text": "Roman Empire",
"href": "Roman%20Empire",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 10,
"start": 18,
"end": 30
},
"start": 18,
"end": 30
},
{
"text": "Italy",
"href": "Italy",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 10,
"start": 171,
"end": 176
},
"start": 171,
"end": 176
},
{
"text": "Merovingian script",
"href": "Merovingian%20script",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 10,
"start": 182,
"end": 200
},
"start": 182,
"end": 200
},
{
"text": "Visigothic script",
"href": "Visigothic%20script",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 10,
"start": 216,
"end": 233
},
"start": 216,
"end": 233
},
{
"text": "Insular",
"href": "Insular%20script",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 10,
"start": 252,
"end": 259
},
"start": 252,
"end": 259
}
] | ISO basic Latin letters | {
"revid": 907008348,
"timestamp": "2019-07-19T20:25:53",
"parentid": 906725792,
"pre_dump": true,
"pageid": 290,
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A&oldid=907008348"
} | [
{
"paragraph_id": 10,
"start": 0,
"end": 329
}
] | Section::::History.:Typographic variants. |
290 | 290 | A | By the 9th century, the Caroline script, which was very similar to the present-day form, was the principal form used in book-making, before the advent of the printing press. This form was derived through a combining of prior forms. | [
{
"text": "Caroline script",
"href": "Carolingian%20minuscule",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 10,
"start": 354,
"end": 369
},
"start": 24,
"end": 39
}
] | ISO basic Latin letters | {
"revid": 907008348,
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"pageid": 290,
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A&oldid=907008348"
} | [
{
"paragraph_id": 10,
"start": 330,
"end": 561
}
] | Section::::History.:Typographic variants. |
290 | 290 | A | 15th-century Italy saw the formation of the two main variants that are known today. These variants, the "Italic" and "Roman" forms, were derived from the Caroline Script version. The Italic form, also called "script a," is used in most current handwriting and consists of a circle and vertical stroke. This slowly developed from the fifth-century form resembling the Greek letter tau in the hands of medieval Irish and English writers. | [
{
"text": "handwriting",
"href": "handwriting",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 11,
"start": 244,
"end": 255
},
"start": 244,
"end": 255
},
{
"text": "tau",
"href": "tau",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 11,
"start": 380,
"end": 383
},
"start": 380,
"end": 383
}
] | ISO basic Latin letters | {
"revid": 907008348,
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"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A&oldid=907008348"
} | [
{
"paragraph_id": 11,
"start": 0,
"end": 435
}
] | Section::::History.:Typographic variants. |
290 | 290 | A | The Roman form is used in most printed material; it consists of a small loop with an arc over it ("a"). Both derive from the majuscule (capital) form. In Greek handwriting, it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop, as demonstrated by the uncial version shown. Many fonts then made the right leg vertical. | [] | ISO basic Latin letters | {
"revid": 907008348,
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"pre_dump": true,
"pageid": 290,
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A&oldid=907008348"
} | [
{
"paragraph_id": 11,
"start": 436,
"end": 775
}
] | Section::::History.:Typographic variants. |
290 | 290 | A | In some of these, the serif that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc, resulting in the printed form, while in others it was dropped, resulting in the modern handwritten form. | [
{
"text": "serif",
"href": "serif",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 11,
"start": 798,
"end": 803
},
"start": 22,
"end": 27
}
] | ISO basic Latin letters | {
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} | [
{
"paragraph_id": 11,
"start": 776,
"end": 963
}
] | Section::::History.:Typographic variants. |
290 | 290 | A | Italic type is commonly used to mark emphasis or more generally to distinguish one part of a text from the rest (set in Roman type). There are some other cases aside from italic type where "script a" ("ɑ"), also called Latin alpha, is used in contrast with Latin "a" (such as in the International Phonetic Alphabet). | [
{
"text": "Italic type",
"href": "Italic%20type",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 12,
"start": 0,
"end": 11
},
"start": 0,
"end": 11
},
{
"text": "Latin alpha",
"href": "Latin%20alpha",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 12,
"start": 219,
"end": 230
},
"start": 219,
"end": 230
},
{
"text": "International Phonetic Alphabet",
"href": "International%20Phonetic%20Alphabet",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 12,
"start": 283,
"end": 314
},
"start": 283,
"end": 314
}
] | ISO basic Latin letters | {
"revid": 907008348,
"timestamp": "2019-07-19T20:25:53",
"parentid": 906725792,
"pre_dump": true,
"pageid": 290,
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A&oldid=907008348"
} | [
{
"paragraph_id": 12,
"start": 0,
"end": 316
}
] | Section::::History.:Typographic variants. |
290 | 290 | A | In modern English orthography, the letter represents at least seven different vowel sounds: BULLET::::- the near-open front unrounded vowel as in "pad"; BULLET::::- the open back unrounded vowel as in "father", which is closer to its original Latin and Greek sound; BULLET::::- the diphthong as in "ace" and "major" (usually when is followed by one, or occasionally two, consonants and then another vowel letter) – this results from Middle English lengthening followed by the Great Vowel Shift; | [
{
"text": "English orthography",
"href": "English%20orthography",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 15,
"start": 10,
"end": 29
},
"start": 10,
"end": 29
},
{
"text": "near-open front unrounded vowel",
"href": "near-open%20front%20unrounded%20vowel",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 16,
"start": 16,
"end": 47
},
"start": 108,
"end": 139
},
{
"text": "open back unrounded vowel",
"href": "open%20back%20unrounded%20vowel",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 17,
"start": 16,
"end": 41
},
"start": 169,
"end": 194
},
{
"text": "diphthong",
"href": "diphthong",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 18,
"start": 16,
"end": 25
},
"start": 282,
"end": 291
},
{
"text": "Middle English lengthening",
"href": "Middle%20English%20lengthening",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 18,
"start": 167,
"end": 193
},
"start": 433,
"end": 459
},
{
"text": "Great Vowel Shift",
"href": "Great%20Vowel%20Shift",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 18,
"start": 210,
"end": 227
},
"start": 476,
"end": 493
}
] | ISO basic Latin letters | {
"revid": 907008348,
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"parentid": 906725792,
"pre_dump": true,
"pageid": 290,
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A&oldid=907008348"
} | [
{
"paragraph_id": 15,
"start": 0,
"end": 91
},
{
"paragraph_id": 16,
"start": 0,
"end": 60
},
{
"paragraph_id": 17,
"start": 0,
"end": 112
},
{
"paragraph_id": 18,
"start": 0,
"end": 228
}
] | Section::::Use in writing systems.:English. |
290 | 290 | A | BULLET::::- the modified form of the above sound that occurs before, as in "square" and "Mary"; BULLET::::- the rounded vowel of "water"; BULLET::::- the shorter rounded vowel (not present in General American) in "was" and "what"; BULLET::::- a schwa, in many unstressed syllables, as in "about", "comma", "solar". | [
{
"text": "before",
"href": "English-language%20vowel%20changes%20before%20historic%20/r/",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 19,
"start": 61,
"end": 67
},
"start": 61,
"end": 67
},
{
"text": "General American",
"href": "General%20American",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 21,
"start": 54,
"end": 70
},
"start": 192,
"end": 208
},
{
"text": "schwa",
"href": "schwa",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 22,
"start": 14,
"end": 19
},
"start": 245,
"end": 250
}
] | ISO basic Latin letters | {
"revid": 907008348,
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{
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{
"paragraph_id": 20,
"start": 0,
"end": 41
},
{
"paragraph_id": 21,
"start": 0,
"end": 92
},
{
"paragraph_id": 22,
"start": 0,
"end": 83
}
] | Section::::Use in writing systems.:English. |
290 | 290 | A | The double sequence does not occur in native English words, but is found in some words derived from foreign languages such as "Aaron" and "aardvark". However, occurs in many common digraphs, all with their own sound or sounds, particularly , , , , and . | [
{
"text": "aardvark",
"href": "aardvark",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 23,
"start": 139,
"end": 147
},
"start": 139,
"end": 147
},
{
"text": "many common digraphs",
"href": "List%20of%20Latin-script%20digraphs",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 23,
"start": 169,
"end": 189
},
"start": 169,
"end": 189
}
] | ISO basic Latin letters | {
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"pageid": 290,
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A&oldid=907008348"
} | [
{
"paragraph_id": 23,
"start": 0,
"end": 253
}
] | Section::::Use in writing systems.:English. |
290 | 290 | A | In most languages that use the Latin alphabet, denotes an open unrounded vowel, such as , , or . An exception is Saanich, in which (and the glyph Á) stands for a close-mid front unrounded vowel . | [
{
"text": "Saanich",
"href": "Saanich%20dialect",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 25,
"start": 113,
"end": 120
},
"start": 113,
"end": 120
},
{
"text": "Á",
"href": "%C3%81",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 25,
"start": 146,
"end": 147
},
"start": 146,
"end": 147
},
{
"text": "close-mid front unrounded vowel",
"href": "close-mid%20front%20unrounded%20vowel",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 25,
"start": 162,
"end": 193
},
"start": 162,
"end": 193
}
] | ISO basic Latin letters | {
"revid": 907008348,
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"pageid": 290,
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A&oldid=907008348"
} | [
{
"paragraph_id": 25,
"start": 0,
"end": 195
}
] | Section::::Use in writing systems.:Other languages. |
290 | 290 | A | In phonetic and phonemic notation: BULLET::::- in the International Phonetic Alphabet, is used for the open front unrounded vowel, is used for the open central unrounded vowel, and is used for the open back unrounded vowel. BULLET::::- in X-SAMPA, is used for the open front unrounded vowel and is used for the open back unrounded vowel. | [
{
"text": "International Phonetic Alphabet",
"href": "International%20Phonetic%20Alphabet",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 28,
"start": 19,
"end": 50
},
"start": 54,
"end": 85
},
{
"text": "open front unrounded vowel",
"href": "open%20front%20unrounded%20vowel",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 28,
"start": 68,
"end": 94
},
"start": 103,
"end": 129
},
{
"text": "open central unrounded vowel",
"href": "open%20central%20unrounded%20vowel",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 28,
"start": 112,
"end": 140
},
"start": 147,
"end": 175
},
{
"text": "open back unrounded vowel",
"href": "open%20back%20unrounded%20vowel",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 28,
"start": 162,
"end": 187
},
"start": 197,
"end": 222
},
{
"text": "X-SAMPA",
"href": "X-SAMPA",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 29,
"start": 15,
"end": 22
},
"start": 239,
"end": 246
},
{
"text": "open front unrounded vowel",
"href": "open%20front%20unrounded%20vowel",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 29,
"start": 40,
"end": 66
},
"start": 264,
"end": 290
},
{
"text": "open back unrounded vowel",
"href": "open%20back%20unrounded%20vowel",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 29,
"start": 87,
"end": 112
},
"start": 311,
"end": 336
}
] | ISO basic Latin letters | {
"revid": 907008348,
"timestamp": "2019-07-19T20:25:53",
"parentid": 906725792,
"pre_dump": true,
"pageid": 290,
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A&oldid=907008348"
} | [
{
"paragraph_id": 27,
"start": 0,
"end": 34
},
{
"paragraph_id": 28,
"start": 0,
"end": 188
},
{
"paragraph_id": 29,
"start": 0,
"end": 113
}
] | Section::::Use in writing systems.:Other systems. |
290 | 290 | A | In algebra, the letter "a" along with other letters at the beginning of the alphabet is used to represent known quantities, whereas the letters at the end of the alphabet ("x", "y", "z") are used to denote unknown quantities. | [
{
"text": "algebra",
"href": "algebra",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 31,
"start": 3,
"end": 10
},
"start": 3,
"end": 10
}
] | ISO basic Latin letters | {
"revid": 907008348,
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"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A&oldid=907008348"
} | [
{
"paragraph_id": 31,
"start": 0,
"end": 225
}
] | Section::::Other uses. |
290 | 290 | A | In geometry, capital A, B, C etc. are used to denote segments, lines, rays, etc. A capital A is also typically used as one of the letters to represent an angle in a triangle, the lowercase a representing the side opposite angle A. | [
{
"text": "geometry",
"href": "geometry",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 32,
"start": 3,
"end": 11
},
"start": 3,
"end": 11
},
{
"text": "segment",
"href": "Line%20segment",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 32,
"start": 53,
"end": 60
},
"start": 53,
"end": 60
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{
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"href": "line%20%28geometry%29",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 32,
"start": 63,
"end": 67
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"start": 63,
"end": 67
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{
"text": "rays",
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"source": {
"paragraph_id": 32,
"start": 70,
"end": 74
},
"start": 70,
"end": 74
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{
"text": "triangle",
"href": "triangle",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 32,
"start": 165,
"end": 173
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"start": 165,
"end": 173
}
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"revid": 907008348,
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"pageid": 290,
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A&oldid=907008348"
} | [
{
"paragraph_id": 32,
"start": 0,
"end": 230
}
] | Section::::Other uses. |
290 | 290 | A | "A" is often used to denote something or someone of a better or more prestigious quality or status: A-, A or A+, the best grade that can be assigned by teachers for students' schoolwork; "A grade" for clean restaurants; A-list celebrities, etc. Such associations can have a motivating effect, as exposure to the letter A has been found to improve performance, when compared with other letters. | [
{
"text": "A-list",
"href": "A-list",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 33,
"start": 220,
"end": 226
},
"start": 220,
"end": 226
},
{
"text": "motivating",
"href": "motivation",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 33,
"start": 274,
"end": 284
},
"start": 274,
"end": 284
}
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} | [
{
"paragraph_id": 33,
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"end": 393
}
] | Section::::Other uses. |
290 | 290 | A | "A" is used as a prefix on some words, such as asymmetry, to mean "not" or "without" (from Greek). In English grammar, "a", and its variant "an", is an indefinite article. Finally, the letter A is used to denote size, as in a narrow size shoe, or a small cup size in a brassiere. | [
{
"text": "asymmetry",
"href": "asymmetry",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 34,
"start": 47,
"end": 56
},
"start": 47,
"end": 56
},
{
"text": "indefinite article",
"href": "Article%20%28grammar%29%23Indefinite%20article",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 35,
"start": 53,
"end": 71
},
"start": 152,
"end": 170
},
{
"text": "brassiere",
"href": "brassiere",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 36,
"start": 97,
"end": 106
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"start": 269,
"end": 278
}
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{
"paragraph_id": 35,
"start": 0,
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{
"paragraph_id": 36,
"start": 0,
"end": 107
}
] | Section::::Other uses. |
290 | 290 | A | BULLET::::- Æ æ : Latin "AE" ligature BULLET::::- A with diacritics: Å å Ǻ ǻ Ḁ ḁ ẚ Ă ă Ặ ặ Ắ ắ Ằ ằ Ẳ ẳ Ẵ ẵ Ȃ ȃ Â â Ậ ậ Ấ ấ Ầ ầ Ẫ ẫ Ẩ ẩ Ả ả Ǎ ǎ Ⱥ ⱥ Ȧ ȧ Ǡ ǡ Ạ ạ Ä ä Ǟ ǟ À à Ȁ ȁ Á á Ā ā Ā̀ ā̀ Ã ã Ą ą Ą́ ą́ Ą̃ ą̃ A̲ a̲ ᶏ | [
{
"text": "Latin \"AE\"",
"href": "%C3%86",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 39,
"start": 18,
"end": 28
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"start": 18,
"end": 28
},
{
"text": "diacritic",
"href": "diacritic",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 40,
"start": 19,
"end": 28
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"start": 57,
"end": 66
},
{
"text": "Å å",
"href": "%C3%85",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 40,
"start": 31,
"end": 34
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"start": 69,
"end": 72
},
{
"text": "Ǻ ǻ",
"href": "%C7%BA",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 40,
"start": 35,
"end": 38
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"start": 73,
"end": 76
},
{
"text": "Ḁ ḁ",
"href": "Ring%20%28diacritic%29",
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"paragraph_id": 40,
"start": 39,
"end": 42
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"start": 77,
"end": 80
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{
"text": "ẚ",
"href": "%E1%BA%9A",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 40,
"start": 43,
"end": 44
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"start": 81,
"end": 82
},
{
"text": "Ă ă",
"href": "%C4%82",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 40,
"start": 45,
"end": 48
},
"start": 83,
"end": 86
},
{
"text": "Ặ ặ",
"href": "%E1%BA%B6",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 40,
"start": 49,
"end": 52
},
"start": 87,
"end": 90
},
{
"text": "Ắ ắ",
"href": "%E1%BA%AE",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 40,
"start": 53,
"end": 56
},
"start": 91,
"end": 94
},
{
"text": "Ằ ằ",
"href": "%E1%BA%B0",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 40,
"start": 57,
"end": 60
},
"start": 95,
"end": 98
},
{
"text": "Ẳ ẳ",
"href": "%E1%BA%B2",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 40,
"start": 61,
"end": 64
},
"start": 99,
"end": 102
},
{
"text": "Ẵ ẵ",
"href": "%E1%BA%B4",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 40,
"start": 65,
"end": 68
},
"start": 103,
"end": 106
},
{
"text": "Ȃ ȃ",
"href": "%C8%82",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 40,
"start": 69,
"end": 72
},
"start": 107,
"end": 110
},
{
"text": "Â â",
"href": "%C3%82",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 40,
"start": 73,
"end": 76
},
"start": 111,
"end": 114
},
{
"text": "Ậ ậ",
"href": "%E1%BA%AC",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 40,
"start": 77,
"end": 80
},
"start": 115,
"end": 118
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{
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"start": 119,
"end": 122
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"start": 123,
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"start": 127,
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{
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"start": 131,
"end": 134
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{
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"start": 97,
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"start": 135,
"end": 138
},
{
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"href": "Caron",
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"start": 139,
"end": 142
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"start": 143,
"end": 146
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"start": 147,
"end": 150
},
{
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"start": 113,
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"start": 151,
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{
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"end": 120
},
"start": 155,
"end": 158
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{
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"start": 159,
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},
{
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"start": 163,
"end": 166
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{
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"href": "%C3%80",
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"start": 129,
"end": 132
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"start": 167,
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{
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"start": 133,
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"start": 171,
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{
"text": "Á á",
"href": "%C3%81",
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"end": 140
},
"start": 175,
"end": 178
},
{
"text": "Ā ā",
"href": "%C4%80",
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"start": 141,
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},
"start": 179,
"end": 182
},
{
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},
"start": 189,
"end": 192
},
{
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"start": 155,
"end": 158
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"start": 193,
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},
{
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] | ISO basic Latin letters | {
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] | Section::::Related characters.:Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet. |
290 | 290 | A | BULLET::::- Phonetic alphabet symbols related to A (the International Phonetic Alphabet only uses lowercase, but uppercase forms are used in some other writing systems): BULLET::::- Ɑ ɑ : Latin letter alpha / script A, which represents an open back unrounded vowel in the IPA BULLET::::- ᶐ : Latin small letter alpha with retroflex hook BULLET::::- Ɐ ɐ : Turned A, which represents a near-open central vowel in the IPA | [
{
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"start": 239,
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{
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{
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"source": {
"paragraph_id": 44,
"start": 47,
"end": 70
},
"start": 384,
"end": 407
}
] | ISO basic Latin letters | {
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] | Section::::Related characters.:Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet. |
290 | 290 | A | BULLET::::- Λ ʌ : Turned V (also called a wedge, a caret, or a hat), which represents an open-mid back unrounded vowel in the IPA BULLET::::- Ɒ ɒ : Turned alpha / script A, which represents an open back rounded vowel in the IPA BULLET::::- ᶛ : Modifier letter small turned alpha BULLET::::- ᴀ : Small capital A, an obsolete or non-standard symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet used to represent various sounds (mainly open vowels) | [
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{
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] | Section::::Related characters.:Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet. |
290 | 290 | A | BULLET::::- ᴬ ᵃ ᵄ : Modifier letters are used in the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet (UPA) BULLET::::- ₐ : Subscript small a is used in Indo-European studies BULLET::::- ꬱ : Small letter a reversed-schwa is used in the Teuthonista phonetic transcription system BULLET::::- Ꞻ ꞻ : Glottal A, used in the transliteration of Ugaritic | [
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}
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}
] | Section::::Related characters.:Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet. |
290 | 290 | A | BULLET::::- ª : an ordinal indicator BULLET::::- Å : Ångström sign BULLET::::- ∀ : a turned capital letter A, used in predicate logic to specify universal quantification ("for all") BULLET::::- @ : At sign BULLET::::- ₳ : Argentine austral | [
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{
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{
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{
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{
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] | Section::::Related characters.:Derived signs, symbols and abbreviations. |
290 | 290 | A | BULLET::::- : Semitic letter Aleph, from which the following symbols originally derive BULLET::::- Α α : Greek letter Alpha, from which the following letters derive BULLET::::- А а : Cyrillic letter A BULLET::::- : Coptic letter Alpha BULLET::::- : Old Italic A, which is the ancestor of modern Latin A BULLET::::- : Runic letter ansuz, which probably derives from old Italic A BULLET::::- : Gothic letter aza/asks | [
{
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},
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{
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{
"text": "Greek",
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},
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"end": 111
},
{
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},
{
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"end": 201
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"paragraph_id": 63,
"start": 14,
"end": 20
},
"start": 216,
"end": 222
},
{
"text": "Old Italic",
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"source": {
"paragraph_id": 64,
"start": 16,
"end": 26
},
"start": 252,
"end": 262
},
{
"text": "Runic",
"href": "Runes",
"source": {
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"end": 324
},
{
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"paragraph_id": 65,
"start": 27,
"end": 32
},
"start": 332,
"end": 337
},
{
"text": "Gothic",
"href": "Gothic%20alphabet",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 66,
"start": 14,
"end": 20
},
"start": 394,
"end": 400
}
] | ISO basic Latin letters | {
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{
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},
{
"paragraph_id": 66,
"start": 0,
"end": 36
}
] | Section::::Related characters.:Ancestors and siblings in other alphabets. |
290 | 290 | A | BULLET::::- History of the Alphabet | [] | ISO basic Latin letters | {
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{
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}
] | Section::::External links. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | Albedo () (, meaning 'whiteness') is the measure of the diffuse reflection of solar radiation out of the total solar radiation received by an astronomical body (e.g. a planet like Earth). It is dimensionless and measured on a scale from 0 (corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation) to 1 (corresponding to a body that reflects all incident radiation). | [
{
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},
{
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{
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"start": 111,
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},
{
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"source": {
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"start": 142,
"end": 159
},
"start": 142,
"end": 159
},
{
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},
"start": 168,
"end": 174
},
{
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{
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"start": 194,
"end": 207
},
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"end": 207
},
{
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"href": "black%20body",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 1,
"start": 259,
"end": 269
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] | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology | {
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] | Section::::Abstract |
39 | 39 | Albedo | Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiosity to the irradiance (flux per unit area) received by a surface. The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself, but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface. These factors vary with atmospheric composition, geographic location and time (see position of the Sun). | [
{
"text": "radiosity",
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"source": {
"paragraph_id": 2,
"start": 42,
"end": 51
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"start": 42,
"end": 51
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{
"text": "irradiance",
"href": "irradiance",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 2,
"start": 59,
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"start": 59,
"end": 69
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{
"text": "position of the Sun",
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"source": {
"paragraph_id": 2,
"start": 381,
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"start": 381,
"end": 400
}
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] | Section::::Abstract |
39 | 39 | Albedo | While bi-hemispherical reflectance is calculated for a single angle of incidence (i.e., for a given position of the Sun), albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period. The temporal resolution may range from seconds (as obtained from flux measurements) to daily, monthly, or annual averages. | [
{
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"start": 426,
"end": 437
},
"start": 23,
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] | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology | {
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"end": 741
}
] | Section::::Abstract |
39 | 39 | Albedo | Unless given for a specific wavelength (spectral albedo), albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation. Due to measurement constraints, it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface (between 0.3 and 3 μm). This spectrum includes visible light (0.39–0.7 μm), which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark (e.g., trees absorb most radiation), whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright (e.g., snow reflects most radiation). | [
{
"text": "visible light",
"href": "visible%20spectrum",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 3,
"start": 276,
"end": 289
},
"start": 276,
"end": 289
}
] | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology | {
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"paragraph_id": 3,
"start": 0,
"end": 487
}
] | Section::::Abstract |
39 | 39 | Albedo | Albedo is an important concept in climatology, astronomy, and environmental management (e.g., as part of the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) program for sustainable rating of buildings). The average albedo of the Earth from the upper atmosphere, its "planetary albedo", is 30–35% because of cloud cover, but widely varies locally across the surface because of different geological and environmental features. The term albedo was introduced into optics by Johann Heinrich Lambert in his 1760 work "Photometria". | [
{
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] | Section::::Abstract |
39 | 39 | Albedo | Any albedo in visible light falls within a range of about 0.9 for fresh snow to about 0.04 for charcoal, one of the darkest substances. Deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an effective albedo approaching the zero of a black body. When seen from a distance, the ocean surface has a low albedo, as do most forests, whereas desert areas have some of the highest albedos among landforms. Most land areas are in an albedo range of 0.1 to 0.4. The average albedo of Earth is about 0.3. | [
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] | Section::::Terrestrial albedo. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | This is far higher than for the ocean primarily because of the contribution of clouds. | [] | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology | {
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] | Section::::Terrestrial albedo. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | Earth's surface albedo is regularly estimated via Earth observation satellite sensors such as NASA's MODIS instruments on board the Terra and Aqua satellites, and the CERES instrument on the Suomi NPP and JPSS. As the amount of reflected radiation is only measured for a single direction by satellite, not all directions, a mathematical model is used to translate a sample set of satellite reflectance measurements into estimates of directional-hemispherical reflectance and bi-hemispherical reflectance (e.g.,). | [
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] | Section::::Terrestrial albedo. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | These calculations are based on the bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF), which describes how the reflectance of a given surface depends on the view angle of the observer and the solar angle. BDRF can facilitate translations of observations of reflectance into albedo. | [
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] | Section::::Terrestrial albedo. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | Earth's average surface temperature due to its albedo and the greenhouse effect is currently about 15 °C. If Earth were frozen entirely (and hence be more reflective), the average temperature of the planet would drop below −40 °C. If only the continental land masses became covered by glaciers, the mean temperature of the planet would drop to about 0 °C. | [
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] | Section::::Terrestrial albedo. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | In contrast, if the entire Earth was covered by water — a so-called ocean planet — the average temperature on the planet would rise to almost 27 °C. | [
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] | Section::::Terrestrial albedo. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | For land surfaces, it has been shown that the albedo at a particular solar zenith angle "θ" can be approximated by the proportionate sum of two terms: BULLET::::- the directional-hemispherical reflectance at that solar zenith angle, formula_1, sometimes referred to as black-sky albedo, and BULLET::::- the bi-hemispherical reflectance, formula_2, sometimes referred to as white-sky albedo. | [
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] | Section::::Terrestrial albedo.:White-sky, black-sky, and blue-sky albedo. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | with formula_3 being the proportion of direct radiation from a given solar angle, and formula_4 being the proportion of diffuse illumination, the actual albedo formula_5 (also called blue-sky albedo) can then be given as: This formula is important because it allows the albedo to be calculated for any given illumination conditions from a knowledge of the intrinsic properties of the surface. | [] | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology | {
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] | Section::::Terrestrial albedo.:White-sky, black-sky, and blue-sky albedo. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | The albedos of planets, satellites and minor planets such as asteroids can be used to infer much about their properties. The study of albedos, their dependence on wavelength, lighting angle ("phase angle"), and variation in time comprises a major part of the astronomical field of photometry. For small and far objects that cannot be resolved by telescopes, much of what we know comes from the study of their albedos. | [
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] | Section::::Astronomical albedo. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | For example, the absolute albedo can indicate the surface ice content of outer Solar System objects, the variation of albedo with phase angle gives information about regolith properties, whereas unusually high radar albedo is indicative of high metal content in asteroids. | [
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] | Section::::Astronomical albedo. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | Enceladus, a moon of Saturn, has one of the highest known albedos of any body in the Solar System, with 99% of EM radiation reflected. Another notable high-albedo body is Eris, with an albedo of 0.96. Many small objects in the outer Solar System and asteroid belt have low albedos down to about 0.05. A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04. Such a dark surface is thought to be indicative of a primitive and heavily space weathered surface containing some organic compounds. | [
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39 | 39 | Albedo | The overall albedo of the Moon is measured to be around 0.136, but it is strongly directional and non-Lambertian, displaying also a strong opposition effect. Although such reflectance properties are different from those of any terrestrial terrains, they are typical of the regolith surfaces of airless Solar System bodies. | [
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] | Section::::Astronomical albedo. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | Two common albedos that are used in astronomy are the (V-band) geometric albedo (measuring brightness when illumination comes from directly behind the observer) and the Bond albedo (measuring total proportion of electromagnetic energy reflected). Their values can differ significantly, which is a common source of confusion. | [
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39 | 39 | Albedo | In detailed studies, the directional reflectance properties of astronomical bodies are often expressed in terms of the five Hapke parameters which semi-empirically describe the variation of albedo with phase angle, including a characterization of the opposition effect of regolith surfaces. The correlation between astronomical (geometric) albedo, absolute magnitude and diameter is: formula_7, where formula_8 is the astronomical albedo, formula_9 is the diameter in kilometers, and formula_10 is the absolute magnitude. | [
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39 | 39 | Albedo | Albedo is not directly dependent on illumination because changing the amount of incoming light proportionally changes the amount of reflected light, except in circumstances where a change in illumination induces a change in the Earth's surface at that location (e.g. through albedo-temperature feedback). That said, albedo and illumination both vary by latitude. Albedo is highest near the poles and lowest in the subtropics, with a local maximum in the tropics. | [] | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology | {
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39 | 39 | Albedo | The intensity of albedo temperature effects depends on the amount of albedo and the level of local insolation (solar irradiance); high albedo areas in the arctic and antarctic regions are cold due to low insolation, where areas such as the Sahara Desert, which also have a relatively high albedo, will be hotter due to high insolation. Tropical and sub-tropical rainforest areas have low albedo, and are much hotter than their temperate forest counterparts, which have lower insolation. | [
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] | Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Insolation effects. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | Because insolation plays such a big role in the heating and cooling effects of albedo, high insolation areas like the tropics will tend to show a more pronounced fluctuation in local temperature when local albedo changes. | [] | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology | {
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] | Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Insolation effects. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | Arctic regions notably release more heat back into space than what they absorb, effectively cooling the Earth. This has been a concern since arctic ice and snow has been melting at higher rates due to higher temperatures, creating regions in the arctic that are notably darker (being water or ground which is darker color) and reflects less heat back into space. This feedback loop results in a reduced albedo effect. | [
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] | Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Insolation effects. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | Albedo affects climate by determining how much radiation a planet absorbs. The uneven heating of Earth from albedo variations between land, ice, or ocean surfaces can drive weather. | [
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] | Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Climate and weather. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | When an area's albedo changes due to snowfall, a snow–temperature feedback results. A layer of snowfall increases local albedo, reflecting away sunlight, leading to local cooling. In principle, if no outside temperature change affects this area (e.g., a warm air mass), the raised albedo and lower temperature would maintain the current snow and invite further snowfall, deepening the snow–temperature feedback. | [
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] | Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Albedo–temperature feedback. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | However, because local weather is dynamic due to the change of seasons, eventually warm air masses and a more direct angle of sunlight (higher insolation) cause melting. When the melted area reveals surfaces with lower albedo, such as grass or soil, the effect is reversed: the darkening surface lowers albedo, increasing local temperatures, which induces more melting and thus reducing the albedo further, resulting in still more heating. | [
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] | Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Albedo–temperature feedback. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | Snow albedo is highly variable, ranging from as high as 0.9 for freshly fallen snow, to about 0.4 for melting snow, and as low as 0.2 for dirty snow. Over Antarctica snow albedo averages a little more than 0.8. If a marginally snow-covered area warms, snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to more snowmelt because more radiation is being absorbed by the snowpack (the ice–albedo positive feedback). | [
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] | Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Snow. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | Just as fresh snow has a higher albedo than does dirty snow, the albedo of snow-covered sea ice is far higher than that of sea water. Sea water absorbs more solar radiation than would the same surface covered with reflective snow. When sea ice melts, either due to a rise in sea temperature or in response to increased solar radiation from above, the snow-covered surface is reduced, and more surface of sea water is exposed, so the rate of energy absorption increases. | [] | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology | {
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] | Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Snow. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | The extra absorbed energy heats the sea water, which in turn increases the rate at which sea ice melts. As with the preceding example of snowmelt, the process of melting of sea ice is thus another example of a positive feedback. Both positive feedback loops have long been recognized as important to the modern theory of Global warming. Cryoconite, powdery windblown dust containing soot, sometimes reduces albedo on glaciers and ice sheets. | [
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] | Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Snow. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | The dynamical nature of albedo in response to positive feedback, together with the effects of small errors in the measurement of albedo, can lead to large errors in energy estimates. Because of this, in order to reduce the error of energy estimates, it is important to measure the albedo of snow-covered areas through remote sensing techniques rather than applying a single value for albedo over broad regions. | [] | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology | {
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] | Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Snow. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. In sunlight, dark clothes absorb more heat and light-coloured clothes reflect it better, thus allowing some control over body temperature by exploiting the albedo effect of the colour of external clothing. | [] | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology | {
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] | Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Small-scale effects. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | Albedo can affect the electrical energy output of solar photovoltaic devices. For example, the effects of a spectrally responsive albedo are illustrated by the differences between the spectrally weighted albedo of solar photovoltaic technology based on hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) and crystalline silicon (c-Si)-based compared to traditional spectral-integrated albedo predictions. Research showed impacts of over 10%. | [
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] | Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Solar photovoltaic effects. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | More recently, the analysis was extended to the effects of spectral bias due to the specular reflectivity of 22 commonly occurring surface materials (both human-made and natural) and analyzes the albedo effects on the performance of seven photovoltaic materials covering three common photovoltaic system topologies: industrial (solar farms), commercial flat rooftops and residential pitched-roof applications. | [] | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology | {
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] | Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Solar photovoltaic effects. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | Because forests generally have a low albedo, (the majority of the ultraviolet and visible spectrum is absorbed through photosynthesis), some scientists have suggested that greater heat absorption by trees could offset some of the carbon benefits of afforestation (or offset the negative climate impacts of deforestation). In the case of evergreen forests with seasonal snow cover albedo reduction may be great enough for deforestation to cause a net cooling effect. Trees also impact climate in extremely complicated ways through evapotranspiration. | [
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] | Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Trees. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | The water vapor causes cooling on the land surface, causes heating where it condenses, acts a strong greenhouse gas, and can increase albedo when it condenses into clouds. Scientists generally treat evapotranspiration as a net cooling impact, and the net climate impact of albedo and evapotranspiration changes from deforestation depends greatly on local climate. | [] | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology | {
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] | Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Trees. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | In seasonally snow-covered zones, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily. Deciduous trees have an albedo value of about 0.15 to 0.18 whereas coniferous trees have a value of about 0.09 to 0.15. Variation in summer albedo across both forest types is correlated with maximum rates of photosynthesis because plants with high growth capacity display a greater fraction of their foliage for direct interception of incoming radiation in the upper canopy. | [
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] | Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Trees. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | The result is that wavelengths of light not used in photosynthesis are more likely to be reflected back to space rather than being absorbed by other surfaces lower in the canopy. Studies by the Hadley Centre have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of carbon sequestration on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g., Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming. | [
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] | Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Trees. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | Water reflects light very differently from typical terrestrial materials. The reflectivity of a water surface is calculated using the Fresnel equations (see graph). | [
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] | Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Water. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | At the scale of the wavelength of light even wavy water is always smooth so the light is reflected in a locally specular manner (not diffusely). The glint of light off water is a commonplace effect of this. At small angles of incident light, waviness results in reduced reflectivity because of the steepness of the reflectivity-vs.-incident-angle curve and a locally increased average incident angle. | [
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] | Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Water. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | Although the reflectivity of water is very low at low and medium angles of incident light, it becomes very high at high angles of incident light such as those that occur on the illuminated side of Earth near the terminator (early morning, late afternoon, and near the poles). However, as mentioned above, waviness causes an appreciable reduction. | [
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] | Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Water. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | Because light specularly reflected from water does not usually reach the viewer, water is usually considered to have a very low albedo in spite of its high reflectivity at high angles of incident light. Note that white caps on waves look white (and have high albedo) because the water is foamed up, so there are many superimposed bubble surfaces which reflect, adding up their reflectivities. Fresh 'black' ice exhibits Fresnel reflection. Snow on top of this sea ice increases the albedo to 0.9. | [] | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology | {
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{
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{
"paragraph_id": 52,
"start": 0,
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},
{
"paragraph_id": 53,
"start": 0,
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}
] | Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Water. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | Cloud albedo has substantial influence over atmospheric temperatures. Different types of clouds exhibit different reflectivity, theoretically ranging in albedo from a minimum of near 0 to a maximum approaching 0.8. "On any given day, about half of Earth is covered by clouds, which reflect more sunlight than land and water. Clouds keep Earth cool by reflecting sunlight, but they can also serve as blankets to trap warmth." | [
{
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"start": 0,
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] | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology | {
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}
] | Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Clouds. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | Albedo and climate in some areas are affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the contrails of heavy commercial airliner traffic. A study following the burning of the Kuwaiti oil fields during Iraqi occupation showed that temperatures under the burning oil fires were as much as 10 °C colder than temperatures several miles away under clear skies. | [
{
"text": "contrail",
"href": "contrail",
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"start": 97,
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},
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"end": 105
}
] | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology | {
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"end": 362
}
] | Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Clouds. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | Aerosols (very fine particles/droplets in the atmosphere) have both direct and indirect effects on Earth's radiative balance. The direct (albedo) effect is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect (the particles act as cloud condensation nuclei and thereby change cloud properties) is less certain. As per Spracklen et al. the effects are: BULLET::::- "Aerosol direct effect." Aerosols directly scatter and absorb radiation. The scattering of radiation causes atmospheric cooling, whereas absorption can cause atmospheric warming. | [
{
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"href": "Aerosols",
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"paragraph_id": 58,
"start": 0,
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},
"start": 0,
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},
{
"text": "cloud condensation nuclei",
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] | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology | {
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},
{
"paragraph_id": 59,
"start": 0,
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}
] | Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Aerosol effects. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | BULLET::::- "Aerosol indirect effect." Aerosols modify the properties of clouds through a subset of the aerosol population called cloud condensation nuclei. Increased nuclei concentrations lead to increased cloud droplet number concentrations, which in turn leads to increased cloud albedo, increased light scattering and radiative cooling ("first indirect effect"), but also leads to reduced precipitation efficiency and increased lifetime of the cloud ("second indirect effect"). | [
{
"text": "cloud condensation nuclei",
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"source": {
"paragraph_id": 60,
"start": 130,
"end": 155
},
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"end": 155
}
] | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology | {
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{
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"end": 481
}
] | Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Aerosol effects. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from black carbon particles. The size of this effect is difficult to quantify: the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change estimates that the global mean radiative forcing for black carbon aerosols from fossil fuels is +0.2 W m, with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W m. Black carbon is a bigger cause of the melting of the polar ice cap in the Arctic than carbon dioxide due to its effect on the albedo. | [
{
"text": "black carbon",
"href": "black%20carbon",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 62,
"start": 53,
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},
"start": 53,
"end": 65
},
{
"text": "Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change",
"href": "Intergovernmental%20Panel%20on%20Climate%20Change",
"source": {
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},
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{
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"source": {
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},
"start": 204,
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}
] | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology | {
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} | [
{
"paragraph_id": 62,
"start": 0,
"end": 443
}
] | Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Black carbon. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | Human activities (e.g., deforestation, farming, and urbanization) change the albedo of various areas around the globe. However, quantification of this effect on the global scale is difficult. | [] | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology | {
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"end": 191
}
] | Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Human activities. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | Single-scattering albedo is used to define scattering of electromagnetic waves on small particles. It depends on properties of the material (refractive index); the size of the particle or particles; and the wavelength of the incoming radiation. | [
{
"text": "Single-scattering albedo",
"href": "Single-scattering%20albedo",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 66,
"start": 0,
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"start": 0,
"end": 24
},
{
"text": "refractive index",
"href": "refractive%20index",
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},
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] | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology | {
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{
"paragraph_id": 66,
"start": 0,
"end": 244
}
] | Section::::Other types of albedo. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | Albedo can be measured by an Albedometer. | [
{
"text": "Albedometer",
"href": "Albedometer",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 68,
"start": 29,
"end": 40
},
"start": 29,
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}
] | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology | {
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"paragraph_id": 68,
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"end": 41
}
] | Section::::Acquisition. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | BULLET::::- Cool roof BULLET::::- Daisyworld BULLET::::- Emissivity BULLET::::- Exitance BULLET::::- Global dimming BULLET::::- Irradiance BULLET::::- Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation BULLET::::- Opposition surge BULLET::::- Polar see-saw BULLET::::- Solar radiation management | [
{
"text": "Cool roof",
"href": "Cool%20roof",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 70,
"start": 12,
"end": 21
},
"start": 12,
"end": 21
},
{
"text": "Daisyworld",
"href": "Daisyworld",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 71,
"start": 12,
"end": 22
},
"start": 34,
"end": 44
},
{
"text": "Emissivity",
"href": "Emissivity",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 72,
"start": 12,
"end": 22
},
"start": 57,
"end": 67
},
{
"text": "Exitance",
"href": "Exitance",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 73,
"start": 12,
"end": 20
},
"start": 80,
"end": 88
},
{
"text": "Global dimming",
"href": "Global%20dimming",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 74,
"start": 12,
"end": 26
},
"start": 101,
"end": 115
},
{
"text": "Irradiance",
"href": "Irradiance",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 75,
"start": 12,
"end": 22
},
"start": 128,
"end": 138
},
{
"text": "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation",
"href": "Kirchhoff%27s%20law%20of%20thermal%20radiation",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 76,
"start": 12,
"end": 48
},
"start": 151,
"end": 187
},
{
"text": "Opposition surge",
"href": "Opposition%20surge",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 77,
"start": 12,
"end": 28
},
"start": 200,
"end": 216
},
{
"text": "Polar see-saw",
"href": "Polar%20see-saw",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 78,
"start": 12,
"end": 25
},
"start": 229,
"end": 242
},
{
"text": "Solar radiation management",
"href": "Solar%20radiation%20management",
"source": {
"paragraph_id": 79,
"start": 12,
"end": 38
},
"start": 255,
"end": 281
}
] | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology | {
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{
"paragraph_id": 72,
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{
"paragraph_id": 73,
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{
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{
"paragraph_id": 75,
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{
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{
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},
{
"paragraph_id": 78,
"start": 0,
"end": 25
},
{
"paragraph_id": 79,
"start": 0,
"end": 38
}
] | Section::::See also. |
39 | 39 | Albedo | BULLET::::- Albedo Project BULLET::::- Albedo – Encyclopedia of Earth BULLET::::- NASA MODIS BRDF/albedo product site BULLET::::- Surface albedo derived from Meteosat observations BULLET::::- A discussion of Lunar albedos BULLET::::- reflectivity of metals (chart) | [] | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology | {
"revid": 906500850,
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"paragraph_id": 84,
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},
{
"paragraph_id": 85,
"start": 0,
"end": 41
},
{
"paragraph_id": 86,
"start": 0,
"end": 42
}
] | Section::::External links. |
330 | 330 | Actrius | Actresses (Catalan: Actrius) is a 1997 Catalan language Spanish drama film produced and directed by Ventura Pons and based on the award-winning stage play "E.R." by Josep Maria Benet i Jornet. The film has no male actors, with all roles played by females. The film was produced in 1996. | [
{
"text": "Catalan",
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},
{
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] | Section::::Abstract |
330 | 330 | Actrius | In order to prepare herself to play a role commemorating the life of legendary actress Empar Ribera, young actress (Mercè Pons) interviews three established actresses who had been the Ribera's pupils: the international diva Glòria Marc (Núria Espert), the television star Assumpta Roca (Rosa Maria Sardà), and dubbing director Maria Caminal (Anna Lizaran). | [
{
"text": "Mercè Pons",
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{
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},
{
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"paragraph_id": 3,
"start": 342,
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] | 1990s drama films,Catalan-language films,1997 films,Films set in Barcelona,Spanish films | {
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{
"paragraph_id": 3,
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"end": 356
}
] | Section::::Synopsis. |
330 | 330 | Actrius | BULLET::::- Núria Espert as Glòria Marc BULLET::::- Rosa Maria Sardà as Assumpta Roca BULLET::::- Anna Lizaran as Maria Caminal BULLET::::- Mercè Pons as Estudiant | [
{
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},
{
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"start": 140,
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{
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},
{
"paragraph_id": 8,
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"end": 35
}
] | Section::::Cast. |
330 | 330 | Actrius | "Actrius" screened in 2001 at the Grauman's Egyptian Theatre in an American Cinematheque retrospective of the works of its director. The film had first screened at the same location in 1998. It was also shown at the 1997 Stockholm International Film Festival. | [
{
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}
] | Section::::Recognition.:Screenings. |
330 | 330 | Actrius | In "Movie - Film - Review", "Daily Mail" staffer Christopher Tookey wrote that though the actresses were "competent in roles that may have some reference to their own careers", the film "is visually unimaginative, never escapes its stage origins, and is almost totally lacking in revelation or surprising incident". | [
{
"text": "Daily Mail",
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"paragraph_id": 13,
"start": 29,
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] | 1990s drama films,Catalan-language films,1997 films,Films set in Barcelona,Spanish films | {
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{
"paragraph_id": 13,
"start": 0,
"end": 315
}
] | Section::::Recognition.:Reception. |
330 | 330 | Actrius | Noting that there were "occasional, refreshing moments of intergenerational bitchiness", they did not "justify comparisons to "All About Eve"", and were "insufficiently different to deserve critical parallels with "Rashomon"". He also wrote that "The Guardian" called the film a "slow, stuffy chamber-piece", and that "The Evening Standard" stated the film's "best moments exhibit the bitchy tantrums seething beneath the threesome's composed veneers". | [
{
"text": "All About Eve",
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},
{
"text": "Rashomon",
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"end": 768
}
] | Section::::Recognition.:Reception. |
330 | 330 | Actrius | MRQE wrote "This cinematic adaptation of a theatrical work is true to the original, but does not stray far from a theatrical rendering of the story." | [
{
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] | 1990s drama films,Catalan-language films,1997 films,Films set in Barcelona,Spanish films | {
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}
] | Section::::Recognition.:Reception. |
330 | 330 | Actrius | BULLET::::- 1997, won 'Best Catalan Film' at Butaca Awards for Ventura Pons BULLET::::- 1997, won 'Best Catalan Film Actress' at Butaca Awards, shared by Núria Espert, Rosa Maria Sardà, Anna Lizaran, and Mercè Pons BULLET::::- 1998, nominated for 'Best Screenplay' at Goya Awards, shared by Josep Maria Benet i Jornet and Ventura Pons | [
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] | 1990s drama films,Catalan-language films,1997 films,Films set in Barcelona,Spanish films | {
"revid": 903407765,
"timestamp": "2019-06-25T14:37:13",
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{
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] | Section::::Recognition.:Awards and nominations. |
330 | 330 | Actrius | BULLET::::- as archived February 17, 2009 (Spanish) | [
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] | Section::::External links. |
332 | 332 | Animalia (book) | Animalia is an illustrated children's book by Graeme Base. It was originally published in 1986, followed by a tenth anniversary edition in 1996, and a 25th anniversary edition in 2012. Over four million copies have been sold worldwide. A special numbered and signed anniversary edition was also published in 1996, with an embossed gold jacket. | [
{
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] | Alphabet books,Puzzle books,1986 children's books,Picture books by Graeme Base | {
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] | Section::::Abstract |
332 | 332 | Animalia (book) | "Animalia" is an alliterative alphabet book and contains twenty-six illustrations, one for each letter of the alphabet. Each illustration features an animal from the animal kingdom (A is for alligator, B is for butterfly, etc.) along with a short poem utilizing the letter of the page for many of the words. The illustrations contain many other objects beginning with that letter that the reader can try to identify. | [
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"start": 211,
"end": 220
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] | Alphabet books,Puzzle books,1986 children's books,Picture books by Graeme Base | {
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] | Section::::Synopsis. |
332 | 332 | Animalia (book) | As an additional challenge, the author has hidden a picture of himself as a child in every picture. | [] | Alphabet books,Puzzle books,1986 children's books,Picture books by Graeme Base | {
"revid": 901731223,
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] | Section::::Synopsis. |