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The empathy it is the ability of people to feel in their own body the sensations that another is feeling. The empathy process then is not static in time, as it requires the observation of something that happens to someone, and then identification with those feelings that you have observed. For example: being sad when seeing someone cry, going to help someone who has been hurt. In this sense, it is often said that empathy is a subjective or personal phenomenonBecause precisely the feelings have the characteristic of being completely individual, and perceiving those of others will always be under a personal gaze. Why is empathy important? Especially in a time where the emotional fragility of people is quite great and abuse is frequent, empathy becomes a indispensable quality to be a good person. In fact, within the emotional intelligence, which is the system in which the skills that have to do with communication between the individual and their feelings are included, empathy is included, as well as motivation, emotional control and relationship management. Where does empathy come from? - Cultural values It is often mistakenly believed that empathy is a Don With which people are born, and if they do not have it, it is impossible to acquire it. On the contrary, no person is born with empathy but they develop it as life goes on. Without a doubt, the best way to develop this quality is to interact from the first years of life with people who are not the same as you, even better if they are markedly different. The differences will necessarily bring the understanding and understanding on the other, which at the same time translates into empathy. The life in society it necessarily demands the existence of strong empathy in people. In fact, most States are governed by empathy as a principle that must be taken into account for decisions, to the extent that (in theory) they do not allow people to be exposed to hunger or disease, considering certain ties that unite all the inhabitants. However, when it comes to day-to-day relationships, it seems somewhat more frequent that empathy is limited to the bonds between people who have a previous emotional bond: in the big cities, empathy between strangers seems to be low or almost non-existent. Examples of empathy - When a person watches a movie or reads a book, and feels for or in opposition to a particular protagonist. - Help a disabled person to cross the street. - Be sad when you see someone cry. - Interpret the joy of a loved one as your own. - Go to the rescue of someone who has been injured. - Advocate against any child being bullied. - Give importance to the stories or anecdotes of others. - Suffer the saddest episodes in the history of humanity, such as wars or genocides. - When, looking at sports, the serious injury of an athlete is seen, and many perceive a sense of pain of their own. - Help someone with difficulties to do a simple task.

Approximately 325 million people worldwide are infected with deadly viruses that are slowly sabotaging their livers. Most of them don’t have any symptoms yet. Many don’t know they are infected. But in five, ten or maybe fifteen years they are likely to die from liver cancer or cirrhosis of the liver. In 2016 the World Health Organization launched a global strategy to improve prevention and control all forms of viral hepatitis, and to eliminate Hepatitis B and C by 2030. On World Hepatitis Day, 28 July, we ask: can Hepatitis B and C be eliminated? And what does this mean for Europe? Viral hepatitis is a group of diseases rather than a single infection. There are five viruses that can cause it: Hepatitis A, B, C, D and E. The A and E viruses are generally transmitted by contaminated food or water. Hepatitis B and C are generally blood-borne or sexually transmitted infections, while hepatitis D is a co-infection that only seems to infect people who already have hepatitis B. For many years hepatitis viruses, and particularly the food borne viruses hepatitis A and hepatitis E, have cause outbreaks where large number of people become ill in rapid succession. But in recent decades, doctors have come to realise that “silent epidemics” across the world are the biggest threat posed by viral hepatitis. Research began to reveal the role these viruses play in causing millions of deaths each year from liver cancer and cirrhosis of the liver. People could be infected with viral hepatitis without developing symptoms: they only found out about their infection once it had destroyed their liver. Most worryingly of all, hundreds of millions of people around the world who thought they were healthy were carrying this time bomb in their livers. As stated already, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimates 325million people worldwide have chronic – mostly symptomless – viral hepatitis infections: some 257 million people were living with hepatitis B infection, and 71 million people were living with hepatitis C. WHO estimates that in 2015 alone, viral hepatitis caused 1.34 million deaths in 2015. To put this in context, this is comparable to the number of deaths worldwide caused each year by tuberculosis (TB). And it is more than the number of deaths from HIV in 2015 The good news is that hepatitis B can be prevented by a simple, safe and cheap vaccine. This vaccine has been used for many years in the world’s richer countries. Global action led by WHO has meant this vaccine is increasingly being used in poorer countries as well. As a result, the proportion of children under 5 infected with hepatitis B has declined dramatically. However, WHO warns that 1.75 million adults were newly infected with HCV in 2015. This was largely due to injecting drug use and unsafe injections (e.g. re-using needles) in health care settings in poorer countries. In 2014 a new medicine that could cure chronic hepatitis C infection started to be sold in the US and Europe. This was Sovaldi produced by Gilead Pharmaceuticals. A number of similar treatments developed by other pharmaceutical companies were approved in the years that followed. The challenge for health authorities, though, was that these expensive new drugs arrived at a time when health budgets across the globe are under huge financial pressure. In 2015, 1.1 million people worldwide received treatment for their hepatitis C. This sounds impressive until you realise it is just 7% of people identified as having hepatitis C. In other words, fewer than 1 in 10 people with hepatitis C received the life-saving (and expensive) medicine they needed. WHO is confident it is on track to meet its 2030 targets of 90% of people with HBV and HCV infections being tested, and 80% of eligible patients receiving treatment. WHO’s 2016 Global strategy on viral hepatitis , the World Hepatitis Alliance’s “Show Your Face” campaign and the World Hepatitis Summit to be held in Sao Paulo, Brazil on 1 to 3 November this year, show the fight to eliminate hepatitis B and C has got political momentum. But this will need to be sustained for many years – and turned into cash for hepatitis C treatment – if the goals are to be reached. What does this all mean for Europe? The vast majority of viral hepatitis infections and deaths occur in the developing world. 28 low and middle-income countries account of 70% of the worldwide burden of chronic hepatitis infection, with the top 11 high burden countries – Brazil, China, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nigeria, Pakistan, Uganda, Vietnam – accounting for around 50% of the total global burden. Nonetheless, millions of Europeans are also affected by these viruses. An evidence review published by the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) in 2016 estimated that more than 10 million people in the EU and EEA countries may have chronic hepatitis B or hepatitis C. In 2015, nearly 35,000 new cases of hepatitis C and over 24,000 new cases of hepatitis B were diagnosed in these countries. Further, in 2017, ECDC and national health authorities in Europe have highlighted an upsurge in hepatitis A infections in the EU. This is driven, to a significant degree, by sexual transmission of hepatitis A between men having sex with men. See ECDC website for more details on this. Meanwhile, earlier in July, ECDC published data from 20 European countries on hepatitis E infection. This showed the number of cases in Europe increasing sharply: from just 514 cases in 2005 to 5,617 cases in 2015. This a ten-fold increase. In total, 28 deaths associated with hepatitis E infection were reported from five European countries between 2005 and 2015. “When we talk about the target of eliminating viral hepatitis as a public health issue by 2030, we should also keep hepatitis E in mind” says Prof Mike Catchpole, ECDC’s Chief Scientist.

Nov 04, 2016 Cyberbullying is a huge problem across the U.S. with more and more kids falling victim. Bullying is no longer restricted to the classroom and playground, but now with social media on iPhones and other mobile devices, kids are at risk of being bullied online at all times of the day or night. We as parents are constantly on the lookout for ways to protect our kids from the negative impact of cyberbullying, but often feel at a loss when our kids become victims. Luckily there are things we can do to prevent cyberbullying like utilizing internet filters, restricting internet usage, and attempting to monitor social media accounts, but it can feel overwhelming especially when cyberbullying is being perpetuated in our society. Recent studies have shown a link between violent media and an increase in cyberbullying across the country. We’ve long heard the correlation between videogames and aggression, but now that aggression is being shown through children picking on others, not just at school or in person, but also online. According to the Health Behavior in School-Age Children survey in the U.S., 13.6% of young people have been involved in cyberbullying in some way, whether as a victim or a perpetrator. Kids who are regularly exposed to violent media including TV, news, and violent video games, are more likely to exhibit antisocial or violent behavior themselves. This often comes from a desire to imitate what they see or an overall desensitization of violence. Since youth learn from their surroundings, being consistently exposed to violent media has a strong influence over their learned social skills. If kids view violence all around them, they tend to resort to violent behavior in order to solve problems, this includes showing aggression online. The prevalence of cyberbullying in our society is leading to actual physical violence, depression, PTSD, and suicide among kids and teens. While it's impossible to completely eradicate the risk of bullying for your children, there are ways to help prevent it. In our society, social media is a way of life and for many families, restricting its use completely isn’t an option, but there are ways to help protect your kids from bullying and online predators. Here are a few tips to help parents prevent cyberbullying: - Add your kids on social media: By being Facebook friends or following your children on popular apps like Instagram and SnapChat, you can help regulate the content they are putting out in the world. Kids are less likely to put damaging or questionable images and comments online if they are worried their parents may see. - Use online protection tools: Net Nanny has a number of internet filters and a tool specifically geared toward keeping kids safe from online predators and cyberbullying called Net Nanny Social. This feature gives parents access to their children’s social media accounts so they can monitor conversations and interactions with other kids and make sure bullying or inappropriate behavior is not taking place. - Keep the computer in a communal space: iPhones and mobile devices make monitoring internet usage more difficult, but parents can help curb cyberbullying but keeping computers in a family space, rather than a bedroom. This makes it easier for parents to monitor online activity and kids are less likely to engage in dangerous online behavior while in the same room as their family members. - Encourage open communication: Talk to your child about cyberbullying and online safety. Let them know that as soon as they feel they are being bullied or a person they know is the victim or bully, they can talk to you. The best way to avoid increased cyberbullying is by not engaging with the bully. If your child is being bullied online, keep communication open so they feel comfortable telling you and you can then step in to block the bully or guide your child on how to handle the situation. Cyberbullying is a serious issue in our society and one that is increasing with violent media. The good news is there are tools designed to help parents protect their kids from this kind of abuse. Using internet filters, protection software, and educating ourselves on different forms of online communication, we can work to prevent our kids from becoming victims or engaging in bullying activity. It’s also important to encourage our kids to have healthy alternative hobbies to ingesting violent media. The more time kids spend playing with friends, interacting with family, and disconnecting from social media, the more likely they are to avoid engaging in cyberbullying. Carli Leavitt is a public relations specialist and avid blogger who is passionate about the safety of children in the digital age. Follow her on Twitter @CarliLeavitt

The macula, the center region of the retina that is crucial for clear, detailed vision, is the place where abnormal blood vessel formation under the retina leads to wet macular degeneration. Although the precise reason for this abnormal growth is not fully understood, it is believed to be a result of a number of genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors. Wet macular degeneration causes Wet macular degeneration has a number of risk factors, including age, smoking, a family history of the condition, high blood pressure, and obesity. The sun’s UV rays, a diet high in saturated fat, and a history of cardiovascular disease are among the additional variables that may raise the risk of developing wet macular degeneration. The macula can become damaged and lose vision if aberrant blood vessels that are growing beneath the retina in the macula start to leak fluid, blood, and other substances. This may cause blurred or distorted vision, a blind spot in the center of the field of vision, and trouble focusing on minute details. How do the cells in our eyes age? The eye’s cells alter as we age in a number of ways that may impair our vision. Here are a few examples: - Age-related presbyopia (difficulty seeing up close) and cataracts (lens clouding) can both be brought on by the eye’s lens becoming less flexible and transparent. - Age-related macular degeneration (AMD), which can impair central vision, is caused by a steady decline in the retina’s cell structure. - Cornea: As people age, their corneas may thicken and become less transparent, which might impair their ability to see clearly. - Iris and pupil: As we age, the muscles in the iris and pupil may weaken, making it more challenging to react to variations in light levels. - Optic nerve: As we age, the optic nerve may experience changes that impact how visual information is transmitted to the brain and may result in diseases like glaucoma. These changes collectively have the potential to cause a loss in visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, color vision, and other visual abilities as we age. To identify and treat age-related eye diseases early, it is crucial to have routine eye exams. How the Macular Cells Age and can be the Cause of wet macular degeneration? Age-related macular degeneration (AMD), a prevalent cause of vision loss in older persons, has an unknown specific cause. However, scientists have identified a few essential causes of the macular cells’ degeneration, including: Waste product accumulation Over time, the macula’s cells can accumulate waste materials, which may result in the creation of drusen, which are deposits. These drusen can obstruct the macular cells’ normal function and speed up their aging. Oxidative stress can destroy the cells of the macula and contribute to AMD when the formation of dangerous molecules called reactive oxygen species (ROS) outpaces the body’s capacity to neutralize them. Prolonged eye inflammation can potentially speed up the macular cells’ deterioration. Smoking, high blood pressure, and obesity are a few examples of variables that may contribute to this inflammation. Some genes have been found to enhance the likelihood of getting AMD, indicating that genetic factors may also contribute to macula degeneration. All in all, these elements have the potential to harm the macula’s cells, especially the photoreceptor cells that are in charge of detecting light and transmitting visual information to the brain. Central vision may become distorted, hazy, or lost entirely as these cells age. How High blood pressure can cause wet macular degeneration? The lack of oxygen can harm the blood vessels in the eye and promote the abnormal growth of blood vessels under the retina, which is a defining feature of wet macular degeneration, high blood pressure (hypertension) can lead to wet macular degeneration. The walls of the blood vessels may thicken and become less flexible as a result of high blood pressure, which can reduce blood flow to the eye and harm the retinal blood vessels. By causing damage, the body can produce growth factors that encourage the creation of aberrant blood vessels in the macula, which can then leak fluid and blood and cause wet macular degeneration. Additionally, conditions like atherosclerosis (hardening and narrowing of the arteries), stroke, and other illnesses that may advance wet macular degeneration can all be made more likely by hypertension. Therefore, lowering high blood pressure through medication and/or lifestyle modifications can aid in lowering the risk of developing wet macular degeneration and other complications related to the eyes. To maintain their eye health and identify any changes that may need therapy, people with hypertension should have regular eye exams. How smoking contributes to wet macular degeneration? Smoking is a well-known risk factor for wet macular degeneration, and it is believed to do so through a number of different pathways that contribute to the onset and development of the condition. The blood vessels in the eye, including those in the macula, might get damaged as a result of smoking. Wet macular degeneration may result from this injury because it may trigger inflammation and the growth of new blood vessels, which may allow fluid and blood to leak into the macula. Smoking can cause oxidative stress, which happens when the body’s capacity to neutralize dangerous chemicals known as free radicals is outpaced by the rate at which they are produced. Oxidative stress can harm the macula’s cells and play a role in AMD development. Immune system impairment: Smoking can negatively impact immune system performance, which increases the risk of infection and inflammation in the eyes. AMD development may be accelerated by eye inflammation. Smoking can cause a reduction in blood flow to the eyes, which may accelerate the onset and progression of AMD. Generally speaking, smoking is a big modifiable risk factor for wet macular degeneration and quitting can greatly lower the risk of contracting the condition. Quitting smoking can assist those who already have wet macular degeneration decrease the disease’s progression and lower their risk of developing further visual loss. Wet macular degeneration caused by saturated fat? There is conflicting information regarding the link between the consumption of saturated fat and wet macular degeneration. While other studies have not found a strong correlation, some have suggested that a diet high in saturated fat may increase the risk of developing AMD. Nevertheless, a diet rich in saturated fats can also increase the risk of other diseases like obesity, hypertension, and high cholesterol, all of which are known risk factors for AMD. For instance, consuming a lot of saturated fat can cause blood vessels to accumulate cholesterol, which can exacerbate atherosclerosis (the hardening and constriction of the arteries). Reduced blood flow to the eye caused by atherosclerosis can harm the retinal blood vessels and cause AMD. Saturated fats can also add to the body’s chronic inflammation, which is thought to be a factor in the emergence of AMD. Chronic inflammatory conditions can harm retinal cells, especially those in the macula, and promote the development of atypical blood vessels. However, it is generally advised to eat a healthy, balanced diet low in saturated fat to lower the risk of developing other conditions that can hasten the onset and progression of AMD. Overall, the evidence linking saturated fat intake to wet macular degeneration is inconclusive. How inflammation can contribute to wet macular degeneration? It is believed that inflammation significantly contributes to the onset and progression of wet macular degeneration. Chronic inflammation in the eye can harm the macula’s cells, encourage the development of aberrant blood vessels, and worsen wet macular degeneration’s hallmark leakage of blood and fluid into the retina. Among the ways that inflammation might cause wet macular degeneration are as follows: Damage to cells The photoreceptor cells in the macula, which are in charge of detecting light and transmitting vision information to the brain, are susceptible to damage from chronic inflammation. The function of these cells may be hampered by this damage, which may also contribute to the onset of AMD. Blood vessel growth that is abnormal Inflammation can encourage the creation of growth factors that support the growth of blood vessels that are abnormal in the macula. These blood vessels have the potential to leak fluid and blood, harming the macula and accelerating the onset of wet macular degeneration. Immune system impairment Because of immune system impairment caused by chronic inflammation, the eyes may be more vulnerable to infection and inflammation. AMD development may be accelerated by eye inflammation. Accumulation of waste material Chronic inflammation can also contribute to the buildup of waste materials in the macula’s cells, which can result in the development of drusen, or deposits. The macular cells may become degenerated as a result of these drusen interfering with their normal operation. Overall, it is believed that chronic inflammation plays a substantial role in the onset and development of wet macular degeneration. The progression of the disease may be slowed down and eyesight may be preserved by reducing inflammation by dietary changes and/or medicines. Symptoms of Wet Macular Degeneration Depending on the degree and stage of the disease, wet macular degeneration can produce a wide range of symptoms. The following are some typical signs of wet macular degeneration: - Vision distortion or blurriness: People with wet macular degeneration may have distortion or blurriness in their central vision, making it challenging to read, identify people, or carry out other jobs that call for precise, clear vision. - The center of a person’s visual field may develop dark or empty patches as a result of wet macular degeneration, making it challenging to see items in that area. - Wet macular edema patients may notice changes in their ability to see colors, such as a reduction in color intensity or a shift in color perception. - Straight lines appear wavy or crooked: Straight lines can appear wavy or crooked due to wet macular degeneration, which can be an obvious sign when reading or seeing a grid pattern. - People with wet macular degeneration may find it difficult to adjust to low-light conditions, such as when entering a dark room or driving at night. - Rapid onset of symptoms: Wet macular degeneration can occasionally cause symptoms like distorted or blurry vision or a sudden loss of central vision to appear suddenly and quickly. Treatment of Wet Macular Degeneration There are treatments that could perhaps halt the growth of the disease and protect existing vision. Early treatment has the potential to restore some lost vision. Anti-VEGF medications have been shown to be effective in preventing the development of new blood vessels. These drugs prevent the body’s growth signals from causing the production of new blood vessels. For all stages of wet macular degeneration, they are regarded as the first line of treatment. Treatment options for wet macular degeneration include: - Avastin (bevacizumab). - (Lucentis) Ranibizumab. - Eylea (Aflibercept). - Beovu (brolucizumab). - Vasbysmo (faricimab-svoa) These medications are injected into the troubled eye by your ophthalmologist. To sustain the therapeutic impact of the medication, you could require shots every 4 to 6 weeks. As the blood vessels contract and your body absorb the fluid under the retina, you might occasionally regain some vision. The irregular blood vessel growth in wet macular degeneration may be treated with this therapy. It is far less frequent than anti-VEGF injection therapy, though. Your eye doctor administers verteporfin (Visudyne), a medication, via an injection into an arm vein during photodynamic therapy. After then, the medication enters the blood vessels in your eyes. Your eye doctor uses a specialized laser to direct concentrated light to the problematic blood vessels in your eye. Due to the verteporfin being activated, the issue blood vessels shut. The leak is stopped by this. Your eyesight may be enhanced and the pace of vision loss may be slowed down by photodynamic therapy. Because the treated blood vessels might reopen, you might require additional treatments in the future. You must stay out of the sun and bright lights after photodynamic therapy until the medication has left your body. This could take several days. Your eye doctor will use a high-energy laser beam during photocoagulation therapy to close off problematic blood vessels under the macula. In order to lessen future harm to the macula, this technique aids in stopping the bleeding from the arteries. Blood vessels may grow again after this treatment, necessitating subsequent therapy. Scarring brought on by the laser may also result in blind spots. Wet macular degeneration patients are rarely treated with this method. If you have problematic blood arteries just beneath the macula’s center, it’s usually not a possibility. Additionally, the likelihood of success decreases the more damaged your macula is. Low vision rehabilitation Your side vision is unaffected, and age-related macular degeneration does not result in complete blindness. But it can diminish or even take away your central vision, which is essential for driving, reading, and identifying faces. You might benefit from receiving care from an occupational therapist, an expert in low vision rehabilitation, your eye doctor, and others. They can assist you in figuring out how to adjust to your shifting eyesight. Can lost vision with wet macular degeneration be restored? A wet AMD. When anti-VEGF antibodies are injected into the eye, lost vision in people with wet AMD, which is brought on by new, leaky blood vessels sprouting into the retina, can occasionally be restored. Is it possible to stop wet macular degeneration? A crucial step in preventing AMD is to stop smoking or never start. Maintaining a healthy lifestyle and reducing cholesterol will reduce your risk of developing AMD and help stop the dry type of the illness from developing into the wet form, which can result in irreversible vision loss. Wet macular degeneration: what causes it? Wet AMD is a less frequent form of late AMD that typically results in a rapid visual loss (also known as advanced neovascular AMD). Wet AMD can develop at any stage of dry AMD, however wet AMD is always the late stage. The macula suffers damage when aberrant blood vessels develop behind the eye.

Dogs are classified as omnivores. Though they need protein rich diet, but they can also survive on a diet of plant origin. However, for their optimum health conditions, their diet should have source of animal protein, i.e., meat. Lack of same can cause obesity, skin and coat issues, poor immunity and lethargy. Protein is the basic building blocks for cells, tissues, organs, enzymes, hormones and antibodies. They are essential for growth, maintenance and reproduction. Can be found in mainly two sources- - Animal based- meats such as chicken, lamb, beef, fish, eggs* etc. (one with complete amino acid profiles) - Plant based – vegetables, lentils, cereals etc. (considered incomplete proteins) Protein are also the most abundant component of dog’s body (significantly higher than humans). They need proteins to produce and main hair, nails, tendons, cartilage, and all the connective tissues that support the rest of the tissues and organs of the body. When necessary (such as when food supply is low), they can also use proteins to produce energy. Hence, adequate protein content is important for their growth and functioning including but not limited to– - Muscle development and strength - functioning of immune system - production of hormones - Adequate volume of blood - injury repair and prevention The American Association of Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) sets guidelines for the types and amounts of nutrients dogs need in their foods. The AAFCO has determined that foods for adult dogs should contain no less than 18 percent protein, and that foods for lactating females or puppies should have a minimum of 22 percent protein. Working dogs such as military/ police dogs, herding dogs etc. who work hard every day or who are under stress may need more. Dogs recuperating from injuries or surgery may need more protein as well, to repair muscles, tendons, and ligaments. Some proteins are just more digestible than others. Nutritionists measure the amount of protein in a food, feed it to dogs, and then measure the amount of protein in the dogs’ feces. The difference between how much was in the food to begin with and how much the dog excretes reveals how much of it the dog absorbed, and that is the digestible protein Proteins are made up of amino acids linked in a chain. When they eat, protein in the diet is broken into shorter chains of amino acids called polypeptides which are small enough for the intestines to absorb. A dog’s body makes 20 different amino acids — some are essential and others are nonessential amino acids. As the name implies, they require essential amino acids in food. Food that contains all the essential amino acids is called a complete protein source. For nonessential amino acids, if they are not present in the food, dogs can compensate them by convert other amino acids. As mentioned earlier, proteins can be sourced from both animal and plant. However, only animal-source proteins are complete protein sources. Examples of complete protein sources that come from animals are lean meats, eggs etc. Though grains are another important source of proteins, but they are incomplete source because of lack of some essential amino acids. Plant protein sources frequently used in dog foods include soybeans, wheat, corn etc. In the current times, few other noble source of protein have emerged as popular protein supplements such as Spirulina, Phytoplankton etc. However, they are supplements and not the main source. Dog’s major source of protein should be animal and not grain as they don’t have the enzymes to digest grains properly as main sources of protein. Within meat, not all organs have equal protein content. Example can be between shoulder meat and hoof, they all may have all the essential and nonessential amino acids, but dog can get the amino acids more easily from the shoulder meat than hoof. Hair and feathers are a cheap source of protein, too — but they’re indigestible. On the other hand, eggs are highly digestible but expensive. If your dog’s feces are voluminous, it may be a sign that his food isn’t highly digestible. The highest quality dog foods are 82–86 percent digestible, whereas economy foods (inexpensive brands you get in grocery stores) are around 75 percent. The percent digestibility of a dog food is not stated on the label, but most dog food manufacturers provide that information on request. Any brand stating the same over these parameters are misguiding the unsuspecting pet parents. Adapted from the following sources-

In the field of artificial intelligence, Q-Learning is a prominent algorithm that enables software programs to learn through trial and error. By maximizing cumulative rewards, Q-learning enables machines to perform complex tasks and make decisions on their own. Python, on the other hand, is a popular programming language that offers numerous libraries and tools for implementing Q-learning. In this article, we’ll introduce the basics of Q-learning and its relevance to artificial intelligence. We will cover the fundamentals of how Q-Table drives the decision-making process in reinforcement learning and the necessary steps to implement Q-learning in Python. Furthermore, we’ll delve into the importance of parameter tuning and explore advanced concepts and real-world applications of Q-learning. - Q-Learning is an algorithm used in artificial intelligence to maximize cumulative rewards through trial and error. - Python is a popular programming language used to implement Q-learning. - The Q-Table is fundamental to the decision-making process in reinforcement learning. - Parameter tuning is an essential step in optimizing the performance of the Q-learning model. - Q-learning has a wide range of real-world applications across various industries such as robotics, game playing, and traffic optimization. Q-Learning is a type of machine learning algorithm that falls under the umbrella of reinforcement learning. Reinforcement learning is an approach to decision-making that involves an agent, an environment, and a set of actions that the agent can take to maximize its rewards. The agent learns from its experiences by adapting its decision-making strategy based on the rewards it receives. Q-Learning is unique in that it uses a Q-Table, a matrix of values that maps each state-action pair to a predicted future reward. The Q-Table is updated after each action the agent takes, allowing it to make more informed decisions moving forward. The algorithm is designed to work in environments where the rules of the game are known but the optimal strategy is not. The underlying principles of Q-Learning are based on the Markov decision process (MDP), which is a mathematical framework for modeling decision-making in situations where outcomes are partly stochastic and partly under the control of a decision-maker. By using Q-Learning, agents can learn from their experiences and adapt to new environments without a priori knowledge about the system. Q-Learning has many applications in the field of artificial intelligence, including robotics, game-playing, and autonomous systems. It has been used to develop algorithms that can learn to operate complex machinery, navigate unknown terrain, and even play games at a superhuman level. The Basics of Reinforcement Learning Reinforcement learning is a type of machine learning that focuses on training agents to make decisions based on experience and interactions with their environment. It’s a broader field that encompasses Q-Learning, the algorithm we discussed in the previous section. In reinforcement learning, an agent learns to select actions that maximize cumulative rewards over time. These rewards are signals that the agent receives from the environment based on its actions. The goal of the agent is to learn a policy that maps states to actions, such that the expected cumulative reward is maximized. Some key concepts in reinforcement learning include: - Rewards: The signals that an agent receives from the environment for taking certain actions. - States: The different configurations or observations that the agent can be in. - Actions: The different choices that the agent can make based on its current state. One of the most exciting things about reinforcement learning is that it has the potential to enable agents to learn from scratch and make decisions in complex and dynamic environments. OpenAI, a leading research organization in artificial intelligence, is at the forefront of exploring reinforcement learning and its potential applications. Q-Table: The Core of Q-Learning Q-Table is the fundamental mechanism for implementing Q-Learning. It is a matrix that stores values that represent the quality of an action taken in a particular state. The Q-Table is initialized with default values, and as the algorithm runs through iterations and receives feedback, the Q-Table is updated with new values. This process helps the machine learning algorithm improve its decision-making abilities. In reinforcement learning, the agent chooses an action based on the highest value in the Q-Table for that particular state. This process is repeated in each iteration, with the agent updating the Q-Table based on the results of its actions. By doing this, the agent can learn which actions yield the highest rewards. Python’s simple syntax and vast collection of libraries make it an excellent language for implementing Q-Learning algorithms. The Q-Table data structure can be implemented easily in Python using simple array operations. The implementation process involves defining the state-action space for the problem, initializing the Q-Table to default values, and updating the Q-Table based on the results of each iteration. Implementing Q-Learning in Python Now that we have a solid understanding of Q-Learning, it’s time to implement this algorithm in Python. Luckily, the Python programming language has numerous libraries available that make it easy to build Q-Learning models. The first step in implementing Q-Learning in Python is to import the required libraries: import numpy as np Next, we need to define the Q-Table. This table is used to store values that represent the expected long-term reward for taking a particular action in a specific state. Here’s an example code for initializing the Q-Table: Q = np.zeros((num_states, num_actions)) Next, we need to define the parameters for our Q-Learning algorithm, including the learning rate (alpha), discount factor (gamma), and exploration rate (epsilon). Once the Q-Table and parameters have been defined, we can begin training our Q-Learning model. We start by selecting an action to take in the current state, based on the values stored in the Q-Table. This is done using an exploration-exploitation tradeoff, where we balance between taking the best action according to the Q-Table (exploitation) and randomly selecting an action (exploration). After taking an action, we observe the resulting state and reward. Using this information, we update the values in the Q-Table for the previous state and action. This process is repeated iteratively until our model has sufficiently converged. Overall, implementing Q-Learning in Python is a straightforward process that can be accomplished using just a few dozen lines of code. With the help of libraries like NumPy and random, it is possible to build complex Q-Learning models that can tackle a wide variety of problems in the field of machine learning. Fine-Tuning Q-Learning Parameters In Q-Learning, parameter tuning is essential for optimizing the performance of our algorithm. By adjusting the various parameters, we can attain better results and more efficient learning. The learning rate is a critical parameter in Q-learning, and it controls how much our algorithm adjusts its Q-values in response to new information. A high learning rate results in more volatile Q-Value updates and potentially faster learning, while a low learning rate leads to a more stable approach but slower learning. The discount factor controls how much weighting we give to future rewards. If the discount factor is high, our algorithm will pay more attention to future rewards, which can influence its decision-making process. A low discount factor, on the other hand, will focus more on the immediate rewards. Exploration vs. Exploitation The Exploration vs. Exploitation tradeoff refers to the balance between exploring new actions with potentially higher rewards versus exploiting known actions with proven rewards. Finding the optimal balance between exploration and exploitation is critical in Q-Learning, and it is achieved by fine-tuning our program’s exploration parameters The temperature parameter is another critical parameter in Q-learning that affects the algorithm’s behavior when exploring new states. A high temperature value encourages more exploration, while a low temperature value favors exploitation of known state-action pairs with higher rewards. By carefully fine-tuning these parameters and striking the optimal balance between exploration and exploitation, we can accelerate the learning process and achieve better results. Expanding Q-Learning: Advanced Concepts While the core concepts of Q-Learning provide a strong foundation for machine learning algorithms, there are plenty of advanced concepts that can be explored to improve performance and efficiency. Here, we will dive into a few such concepts. One of the key challenges in Q-Learning is the exploration-exploitation tradeoff. This is the decision of when to explore uncharted territories and when to exploit the known information. Balancing exploration and exploitation is crucial for achieving optimal performance in reinforcement learning. Eligibility traces allow the algorithm to track past state-action pairs and update their Q-values accordingly. This helps assign credit to the right state-action pairs and can improve the performance of the Q-Learning algorithm. Deep Q-Networks (DQNs) Deep Q-Networks (DQNs) are a type of neural network that can be used to approximate Q-values in Q-Learning. DQNs have proven to be effective in complex environments and can improve the performance of the Q-Learning algorithm even further. By exploring these and other advanced concepts, it is possible to push the performance of Q-Learning algorithms even further, making them more efficient and effective for real-world scenarios. Real-World Applications of Q-Learning Q-Learning has demonstrated wide applicability across various industries, allowing machines to make informed decisions, optimize processes, and improve outcomes. Below are some concrete examples of how Q-Learning is being used in the real world. Q-Routing: Q-Learning has been used extensively in robotics to optimize path planning, allowing robots to navigate complex environments efficiently. Q-Routing algorithms use Q-Learning to calculate the optimal path by assigning rewards to actions that lead the robot in the right direction. Game AI: Q-Learning has played a vital role in developing advanced artificial intelligence systems that can play games at a high level. AlphaGo, developed by DeepMind, is one example of how Q-Learning algorithms have been used to train an AI that can play the complex game of Go at a superhuman level. Self-Driving Cars: Q-Learning is one of the techniques used to train autonomous vehicles to make informed decisions on the road. In self-driving cars, Q-Learning can help the system learn how to navigate traffic and reduce the likelihood of accidents. |Q-Learning is used to optimize treatment plans and personalize medication dosages for patients. |Q-Learning is used to forecast stock prices and improve investment strategies. |Q-Learning is applied to optimize production schedules and reduce waste in manufacturing processes. These are just a few examples of how Q-Learning is making a real-world impact. As the field of artificial intelligence continues to evolve, we can expect to see even more innovative applications of Q-Learning in the future. Congratulations on completing this comprehensive guide to Q-Learning from scratch in Python! We hope you found this resource informative and helpful in your machine learning journey. By now, you should have a solid understanding of the basics of Q-Learning, reinforcement learning, and the Q-Table. You should also feel comfortable with implementing Q-Learning in Python and fine-tuning its parameters to optimize performance. Q-Learning is a powerful tool that has a wide range of applications in artificial intelligence, including robotics, game playing, and autonomous systems. By mastering this algorithm, you are well on your way to becoming a skilled machine learning practitioner. If you’re interested in learning more about Q-Learning, we encourage you to explore advanced concepts such as the exploration-exploitation tradeoff, eligibility traces, and deep Q-networks (DQNs). Remember to always keep learning, experimenting, and pushing the boundaries of what’s possible with Q-Learning! Thank you for reading, and we wish you all the best in your future machine learning endeavors! What is Q-Learning? Q-Learning is a reinforcement learning algorithm that enables an agent to learn optimal actions in a given environment. It uses a Q-Table, which stores the expected rewards for each state-action pair, to guide the agent’s decision-making process. Why is Q-Learning important in artificial intelligence? Q-Learning is important in artificial intelligence because it allows agents to learn through trial and error, enabling them to make optimal decisions in complex and dynamic environments. It has numerous applications in robotics, game playing, and autonomous systems. What is the role of Python in implementing Q-Learning? Python is a versatile and popular programming language that is extensively used in machine learning and artificial intelligence. It provides a wide range of libraries and frameworks that facilitate the implementation of Q-Learning algorithms efficiently. How does Q-Learning work? Q-Learning works by iteratively updating the Q-Table based on the agent’s experiences in an environment. The agent explores the environment, takes actions, receives rewards, and updates the Q-Table to store the expected rewards. Over time, the agent learns the optimal actions to maximize cumulative rewards. What is the Q-Table? The Q-Table is a data structure used in Q-Learning to store the expected rewards for each state-action pair. It is initialized randomly and updated iteratively as the agent interacts with the environment. The Q-Table drives the decision-making process by providing a basis for selecting actions based on the expected rewards. How can Q-Learning be implemented in Python? Implementing Q-Learning in Python involves defining the necessary functions, initializing the Q-Table, and using iterative algorithms to update the Q-Table based on the agent’s experiences. Python provides libraries such as NumPy and OpenAI Gym that make the implementation process more convenient. What is parameter tuning in Q-Learning? Parameter tuning in Q-Learning involves adjusting the values of various parameters, such as learning rate and discount factor, to optimize the performance of the algorithm. It aims to find the best combination of parameter values that maximizes the agent’s learning and decision-making capabilities. What are some advanced concepts in Q-Learning? Advanced concepts in Q-Learning include the exploration-exploitation tradeoff, which balances between trying out new actions and exploiting known actions, eligibility traces, which assign credit to multiple actions in a sequence, and deep Q-networks (DQNs), which use deep neural networks to approximate the Q-Table. Can you provide examples of real-world applications of Q-Learning? Q-Learning has been successfully applied in various real-world scenarios. Some examples include using Q-Learning in robotics for autonomous navigation, training agents to play games like chess or poker, and developing self-driving cars that learn to navigate complex road environments. What are the benefits of implementing Q-Learning in Python? Implementing Q-Learning in Python offers several benefits. Python is a popular and versatile programming language with a wide range of libraries and frameworks for machine learning. It has a large community of developers, which means there is extensive support and resources available for implementing Q-Learning algorithms.

There are many myths about Asperger’s syndrome. We’re here to clear up the confusion. Asperger’s syndrome is a neurodevelopmental disorder. It affects a person’s ability to communicate and socialize. Once used as a diagnosis on its own, Asperger’s has now integrated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Asperger’s is no longer an official diagnosis, and as of May 2013, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (DSM-5) only has one broad category for autism — ASD — instead of listing disorders within the spectrum. Though the term is no longer used in clinical contexts, many people still resonate with it. Autism presents itself in many ways, and people who have good language skills but may be socially awkward find Asperger’s more fitting for their unique set of symptoms. Now, “level 1 autism” may be used instead of Asperger’s. While they’re capable of being rude just like anybody else, people with Asperger’s often have difficulty reading social cues and can seem tactless. They may avoid eye contact or misunderstand social conventions, so making friends and “fitting in” can be more challenging. People with Asperger’s can also appear uninterested in social situations. Instead of a back-and-forth cadence, they may tend to monopolize conversations by talking about themselves or their special interests. These conversations can seem one-sided. They may seem detached, which could stem from the difficulty to understand nonverbal cues like body language or recognize when someone is upset. This could also be from being overstimulated and overwhelmed. Though there’s a myth they are blunt and selfish, people with Asperger’s can be very kind. It’s no secret that autistic people have many talents and abilities. Some folks assume all people with Asperger’s are gifted or have a very high IQ. While this is true for some in the autistic community, being on the spectrum doesn’t automatically make you a musical, mathematical, artistic, or another type of genius. According to a One symptom of autism that people with Asperger’s tend to have is special interests. They may find something to fixate on, such as a certain type of animal, fun activity, or subject. They can be perceived as being highly intelligent because they can usually talk about their special interests for hours and appear to know everything about their interests. Like anyone, people with level 1 autism can have unique or impressive strengths but may also have difficulty in other areas. When having a conversation with a person with Asperger’s, they may seem blunt, emotionless, or lacking in empathy. This is a stereotype that creates misconceptions about neurodevelopmental disorders. Though they may have trouble navigating social interactions, people with Asperger’s are capable of understanding the feelings and emotions of others. They can have difficulty processing complex emotions, and there may be a delay in understanding how others are feeling. According to a People with Asperger’s also have morality, which is the subject of Asperger’s doesn’t go away. It’s not a phase that children or adults grow out of. It’s a disorder with a lifelong diagnosis. There’s no “cure” for autism. It’s a part of who people are. It’s not treatable with medication or other therapies, but treatments — such as therapy, educational support, and other resources — can help manage any symptoms. People with Asperger’s and social anxiety disorder may share an overlap of symptoms. Both disorders are characterized by difficulty navigating social situations. However, their causes are much different. Social anxiety disorder is caused by fear, but people with the disorder are capable of communicating and socializing without challenges. Their fear may hold them back, but they likely understand social cues. People with Asperger’s lack the awareness of social conventions to comfortably engage with others in social settings. They may find it difficult to understand nonverbal cues like body language or comprehend jokes in a nonliteral sense that can stilt conversations. Level 1 autism, which used to be called Asperger’s syndrome, is a neurodevelopmental disorder that is characterized by social awkwardness, hyperfixation on special interests, repetitive behaviors, hypersensitivity to stimuli, and more. There are stereotypes about the disorder that perpetuate misinformation and myths. The autism spectrum is wide, and not everyone with level 1 autism is the same. The following organizations may provide more information or support:

The atomic radius of a chemical element is a measure of the distance out to which the electron cloud extends from the nucleus. Neptunium is the first transuranic element. Compare and contrast the atomic structure of hydrogen and helium. Nickel is a chemical element with atomic number 28 which means there are 28 protons and 28 electrons in the atomic structure. Rubidium is a soft, silvery-white metallic element of the alkali metal group, with an atomic mass of 85.4678. Our helium page has over 160 facts that span 64 different quantities. Promethium is one of only two such elements that are followed in the periodic table by elements with stable forms. Lanthanoids comprise the 15 metallic chemical elements with atomic numbers 57 through 71, from lanthanum through lutetium. Charactristics of the atomic structure of helium. This website was founded as a non-profit project, build entirely by a group of nuclear engineers. The atomic mass is the mass of an atom. The chemical symbol for Nobelium is No. The chemical symbol for Manganese is Mn. Uranium is weakly radioactive because all isotopes of uranium are unstable, with half-lives varying between 159,200 years and 4.5 billion years. Protactinium is a chemical element with atomic number 91 which means there are 91 protons and 91 electrons in the atomic structure. Therefore, the number of electrons in neutral atom of Helium is 2. We assume no responsibility for consequences which may arise from the use of information from this website. Chemically, indium is similar to gallium and thallium. The chemical symbol for Gold is Au. The chemical symbol for Thulium is Tm. The chemical symbol for Neon is Ne. The precise estimation of atomic polarizabilities impinges upon a number of areas and processes in physical sciences. The chemical symbol for Sulfur is S. Sulfur is abundant, multivalent, and nonmetallic. Two electrons (white) fill the first electron shell (ring), a very stable configuration. The chemical symbol for Barium is Ba. The number of electrons in each element’s electron shells, particularly the outermost valence shell, is the primary factor in determining its chemical bonding behavior. The mention of names of specific companies or products does not imply any intention to infringe their proprietary rights. Fermium is a chemical element with atomic number 100 which means there are 100 protons and 100 electrons in the atomic structure. The chemical symbol for Magnesium is Mg. Magnesium is a shiny gray solid which bears a close physical resemblance to the other five elements in the second column (group 2, or alkaline earth metals) of the periodic table: all group 2 elements have the same electron configuration in the outer electron shell and a similar crystal structure. Atomic Number of Helium Helium is a chemical element with atomic number 2 which means there are 2 protons and 2 electrons in the atomic structure. Elemental sulfur is a bright yellow crystalline solid at room temperature. Aluminium is a silvery-white, soft, nonmagnetic, ductile metal in the boron group. Carbon is the 15th most abundant element in the Earth’s crust, and the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen, helium, and oxygen. Scientists define this amount of mass as one atomic mass unit (amu) or one Dalton. However, this assumes the atom to exhibit a spherical shape, which is only obeyed for atoms in vacuum or free space. Ruthenium is a rare transition metal belonging to the platinum group of the periodic table. The chemical symbol for Beryllium is Be. Ionization energy, also called ionization potential, is the energy necessary to remove an electron from the neutral atom. 1) You may use almost everything for non-commercial and educational use. Platinum is used in catalytic converters, laboratory equipment, electrical contacts and electrodes, platinum resistance thermometers, dentistry equipment, and jewelry. Copper is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. The chemical symbol for Mendelevium is Md. Atomic Structure: All atoms consist of a nucleus which contains two types of subatomic particles - protons and neutrons. Krypton is a chemical element with atomic number 36 which means there are 36 protons and 36 electrons in the atomic structure. Thulium is a chemical element with atomic number 69 which means there are 69 protons and 69 electrons in the atomic structure. Helium is the element which you can find on the upper right side of the periodic table with atomic number2. 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Democracy is a fantastic theoretical idea successfully implemented by many societies across the globe. To put it in place, though, you need to guarantee that you can run a fair election first, regardless of your intention or purpose. From voting for the president of the United States to voting for the chairperson of your local parents’ association, the systems used to vote must be efficient and effective. Two standard voting systems in use worldwide are plurality voting and majority voting. But knowing how plurality vs. majority voting systems compare to each other is crucial if you want to use the most appropriate system for your needs. Additionally, knowing what the difference is between a plurality voting system and a majority voting system can mean you fully understand the vote-counting process in any circumstance. Here, we look at what the two voting systems mean and their differences. Considering the advantages and disadvantages of both systems allows you to make the most informed decision possible for which is the most beneficial if you are running an election. A plurality voting system is where people cast their vote for one of the available nominees. The winner in such an election is the individual or entity that receives the most votes compared to other runners. Many well-established democracies use plurality voting systems. The United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, and India all use it to reflect the political wishes of their population. A majority voting system is very similar to a plurality voting system. All electorates have one vote to cast on a nominee of their choice. However, there are only winners if they have attained more than fifty percent of the vote. In some elections, election leaders may decide to run a supermajority voting election. A successful nominee needs to win more than fifty percent of the vote in such instances. The election’s decision-makers determine what that amount or proportion of the vote needs to be beforehand. If no one gets the required proportion of the vote to all-out win, it is common for one of two things to happen. Firstly, there can be a run-off election. A run-off election is when the two most popular choices from the initial election go head to head. Voters cast their choice again, and, as there are only two options, a majority win is always achievable. In some countries that require a majority vote in their general elections, it is possible to form a coalition party. A coalition party will still need to add to more than fifty percent of the vote. While that can mean another election is not required, as is the case of a run-off secondary election, coalition governments are historically less effective at driving change. The main difference between plurality and majority voting is that there is a winner only when a nominee receives more than half of the votes in majority voting systems. In plurality voting systems, there is a winner when they have the most votes. So, why use plurality voting systems? After all, if plurality voting systems can be employed to find a winner straight away, why would an electorate demand that a winner must always have more than fifty percent of the vote? The answer to that highlights one of the disadvantages to the plurality voting system. While it may be quick and efficient, more people can vote against the eventual winner than vote for them. That can have negative ramifications in politics and lead to a disenfranchised electoral population. It also can make it difficult for political parties to push through change if they do not hold the majority when in power. If they have more adversaries than supporters, it is challenging to get political support behind new initiatives and modify old laws. However, majority voting is not always a quick way of finding an overall winner. When there are three or more nominees, a nominee’s chances to attain more than half of the vote is that much more difficult. While it does happen, it is also common to hold a subsequent run-off election or form a coalition party. Both events have downsides. A run-off election results can spend time in limbo—leaving countries or entities without a leader until officially deciding the outcome of the secondary election. A coalition, as previously stated, can be inefficient in making legislative progress. Understanding the critical difference between plurality and majority voting is vital when choosing between them, making it likely you select the most appropriate system for your needs by fully grasping that one requires a much higher vote proportion than the other. Consider your unique scenario carefully before choosing which voting system is right for you. It could be that not having an all-out majority is adequate, making a plurality system appropriate. In contrast, your situation may be one where more than half the voting community must choose the eventual winner. No matter your choice, one of these popular voting systems will undoubtedly work for you.

The oldest known grave in Africa is a three-year-old child who died aboμt 78,000 years ago. The find explores how people in the area treated their dead at the time. Archaeologists discovered the top of a bμndle of bones in Kenya’s Panga ya Saidi cave in 2017. The remains were so fragile that a block of sediment aroμnd the bones was extracted intact and sent to the National Research Centre on Hμman Evolμtion (CENIEH) in Spain, where a detailed forensic investigation took place. “We didn’t know μntil a year later what was going on in there,” says María Martinón-Torres at CENIEH. “Unexpectedly, that sediment block was holding the body of a child.” The researchers named the child Mtoto, which means “child” in Swahili, and estimate they lived aroμnd 78,300 years ago, making this the oldest deliberate bμrial foμnd in Africa. “It was a child, and someone gave it a farewell,” says Martinón-Torres. Analysis of the remains’ sediment revealed that the child had been placed in a deliberately excavated pit and covered with residμe from the cave floor. They had been placed on their side with their legs drawn μp to their chest. As the body decayed, most of Mtoto’s bones stayed in position except a few key ones. The collarbone and top two ribs were displaced as typical of a body tightly boμnd in a shroμd. And Mtoto’s head had the characteristic tilt of a corpse whose head was placed on a cμshion. This points to a deliberate bμrial, often difficμlt to prove from archaeological remains. “From these little pieces of bone that were preserved, the work that we have done has allowed μs to reconstrμct the hμman behavior sμrroμnding the moment the body was pμt in the pit,” says Francesco d’Errico at the University of Bordeaμx, France. “The aμthors did a fantastic job in making the case that this is a deliberate bμrial. They have raised the bar and, in my opinion, actμally set the standard on what shoμld be done, scientifically, to demonstrate deliberate bμrial,” says Eleanor Scerri at the Max Planck Institμte for the Science of Hμman History in Germany. She wasn’t involved with the research. The discovery of any ancient hμman remains in Africa is big news in itself. “Hμman fossils are rare everywhere in Africa. We have hμge temporal and spatial gaps, so this discovery is significant,” says Scerri. Mtoto’s bμrial took place in the Middle Stone Age, spanning roμghly 300,000 to 30,000 years ago when a sμite of modern hμman innovations developed in Africa. Early evidence of bμrials in Africa is rare. No bμried adμlts have been foμnd from this period. However, the bμrial of an infant in Border cave in Soμth Africa dates to aroμnd 74,000 years ago, and the tomb of a child who was aboμt nine years old in Taramsa Hill, Egypt, dates to approximately 69,000 years ago. “I find it very interesting that we have interments of two or three children in Africa dating to aroμnd the same period,” says Paμl Pettitt of the University of Dμrham, UK. “Mtoto’s bμrial is an exceptionally early example of a scarce treatment of the dead which might be commonplace in the modern world, bμt dμring the early prehistory of oμr species was rare, exceptional and probably marked odd deaths.” This lack of bμrial shows the mortμary practices of modern hμmans in Africa differed from those of Neanderthals and modern hμmans in Eμrasia. They, from aboμt 120,000 years ago, commonly bμried their dead. “That is qμite a paradox,” says d’Errico. “In Africa, where we have the origin of symbolic behavior in the form of beads and abstract engravings, these modern hμmans wait qμite long to make primary bμrials.”

Teaching young children in English in multilingual contexts supports teachers working with children from the ages of five to eight. The course: - develops teachers’ understandings of the notion of meaning making and how we can use that to inform the kinds of scaffolding that will build the meaning-making capacities of students in multilingual classrooms - develops teachers’ understandings of the need for explicit teaching practices that will build up the students’ repertoires of meaning-making resources so that they can be successful learners - provides a positive context for teachers to reflect critically and openly on their teaching and develop shared understandings about scaffolding in order to improve the effectiveness of whole-school collaboration.

The aviation industry has recognized the urgent need to adopt sustainable practices and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Sustainable aviation technology encompasses a wide range of innovations, including alternative fuels, electric propulsion, improved aerodynamics, and operational efficiency measures. These advancements aim to make air travel greener and more environmentally friendly while maintaining safety and efficiency. One of the most promising areas of sustainable aviation technology is the development and use of alternative fuels. Sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs) are derived from renewable sources such as biomass, waste oils, or synthetic processes. These fuels can be blended with traditional jet fuel or used as a standalone option. SAFs have the potential to significantly reduce carbon emissions compared to conventional jet fuel, as they have lower lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions. The future of sustainable aviation technology relies heavily on the widespread adoption of SAFs. Electric Propulsion and Hybrid Technologies Electric propulsion is another area with great potential for sustainable aviation. Electric and hybrid-electric aircraft are being developed, offering the promise of zero-emission flights. Electric propulsion systems utilize electric motors powered by batteries or fuel cells, reducing or eliminating the reliance on fossil fuels. While electric aircraft are currently in the early stages of development and primarily used for shorter flights, ongoing advancements in battery technology and infrastructure will play a crucial role in their future scalability. Lightweight Materials and Improved Aerodynamics Advancements in materials science and aircraft design are driving sustainability in aviation. Lightweight composite materials, such as carbon fiber-reinforced polymers, are being used to construct aircraft components, reducing weight and increasing fuel efficiency. Improved aerodynamics, including wingtip modifications and laminar flow technologies, help minimize drag and enhance fuel efficiency. These innovations contribute to reduced energy consumption and lower emissions, paving the way for more sustainable air travel. Operational Efficiency and Air Traffic Management Operational efficiency plays a vital role in sustainable aviation technology. Airlines and air traffic management organizations are employing advanced technologies to optimize flight routes, reduce congestion, and minimize fuel consumption. The use of data analytics, machine learning, and artificial intelligence enables more accurate weather forecasting, optimized flight planning, and better management of air traffic flow. These advancements enhance fuel efficiency, reduce emissions, and contribute to a greener aviation industry. Sustainable Airport Infrastructure In addition to aircraft-related technologies, sustainable aviation encompasses the development of eco-friendly airport infrastructure. Airports are investing in renewable energy sources, such as solar power, to meet their energy needs. Sustainable building designs, including energy-efficient terminals and facilities, are becoming more prevalent. Airports are also implementing waste management and recycling programs to minimize environmental impact. The future of sustainable aviation technology will see further integration of renewable energy and sustainable practices in airport operations. Collaboration and Policy Support Achieving a sustainable aviation future requires collaboration among industry stakeholders, governments, and regulatory bodies. Airlines, aircraft manufacturers, and research institutions are partnering to accelerate the development and deployment of sustainable aviation technologies. Governments are providing policy support, such as incentives and regulations, to promote the adoption of cleaner aviation practices. International agreements and organizations, such as the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), are working towards global sustainability standards for the aviation industry. The future of sustainable aviation technology is promising and holds immense potential for reducing the environmental impact of air travel. Alternative fuels, electric propulsion, lightweight materials, improved aerodynamics, operational efficiency measures, and sustainable airport infrastructure are key focus areas. Collaboration and policy.

What does water treatment have to do with vaccine development? If we didn’t have access to clean water, we couldn’t treat diseases and illnesses. Jane Marsh, editor-in-chief of Environment.co which covers climate policy, renewable energy and conservation, takes a look a how and why water is such an important element of vaccines. Dilution & stabilisation needs The process of producing a vaccine requires various solutions and indgredients to construct formulas. These elements include sterile water, which scientists use to dilute vaccines. There are stabilisers such as gelatine in vaccines that also need water. It’s clear that biopharmaceutical researchers need water purification systems to produce vaccines worldwide. Relationship between health & sanitation Countries with developed health care systems don’t usually have issues with vaccine development and patients who need vaccines can generally access them on-demand. This has played out rather differently regarding Covid-19 but, in general, those who live in developed countries can get a vaccine when needed. It’s important to note that some other regions don’t have that luxury. Nations that have underdeveloped resources tend to lack clean water. There’s a link between health and sanitation, which means diseases will surface in areas with polluted water. The 4.2 billion people who don’t have access to sanitation management can’t fight illnesses as quickly or easily. How to boost availability Technology plays a part in how we increase water availability. The lack of available water seems like an ironic problem given that water makes up 70% of the Earth’s surface, but we can only use 3% of that and ice caps are included in that amount. Therefore, we need to find solutions to tap into more of that that 70%. Desalination plants for ocean water offer one option. There are also smaller tools which can be used to convert water from polluted rivers into filtered water bottles for consumption. Initiatives also exist to repurpose rainwater. It’s all about creative and straightforward ways to bring clean water to everyone. Communities with inadequate sanitation tend to rely on others for help. The World Health Organization had to launch a dedicated initiative to guarantee all countries can vaccinate against Covid-19. If we want to ensure all individuals can access a basic resource like a vaccine, we must prioritise an even more important necessity: clean water. Vaccine development requires water treatment There’s an undeniable connection between health and sanitation and we also need clean water to create vaccines themselves. Therefore, we urgently need to make clean water available globally. This way, we can increase protection against diseases and illnesses. This blog was supplied and written by Jane Marsh who writes about green technology and renewable energy topics and is editor-in-chief of Environment.co.

What is LoRa and LoRaWAN? LoRa is a new communication standard for the Internet of Things, which is commonly used for small signal data transmission over very long distances. LoRa sensors typically have low power, low power consumption, and long battery life. LoRa is the abbreviation of the word “Long Range”. From the name, it can be seen that the main feature of LoRa is the long transmission distance. LoRa’s signal modulation scheme, developed by Semtech, enables excellent link margin. LoRa’s signal sensitivity is very high, so LoRa can maintain long-distance communication, even in noisy environments. Similar to other LPAWAN technologies such as NB-IoT, LoRa typically operates at lower data rates, which further increases link headroom. Due to its low data rate, LoRa is not suitable for scenarios that require high data delay. LoRaWAN is a communication standard of LPWAN protocol based on LoRa chip, which is designed for remote IoT connection. LoRaWAN was originally called LoRaMAC, which is a set of communication protocols and system architecture based on LoRa long-distance communication network design. According to the traditional communication protocol, LoRaWAN is the MAC layer, and LoRa is the physical layer. LoRaWAN is an open network standard, and its data link layer access control (MAC) is maintained by the LoRa Alliance. What are LoRaWAN gateways and LoRaWAN cloud servers The LoRaWAN gateway is a LoRa network connector, which can convert the LoRa network communication protocol to the TCP/IP protocol, and transmit the data of the LoRaWAN device to the network. This is similar to setting up an industrial wireless router to connect WiFi devices to the network. Gateways are usually deployed by users or solution providers and are usually deployed at remote regional centers without other types of coverage. The LoRaWAN cloud server is a cloud service center that manages device connections and communications. The web server can be a physical server or a cloud server. When the web server is in the cloud like the hosting service, the gateway operates in a so-called “packet forwarding” mode, which just passes all the original LoRa data packets in the air to the web server and the web server. In this mode, all information such as data encryption and packet decryption, device management and connection, data analysis and processing are stored in the ECS, which makes it easier to manage and upgrade the server and easier to read and process data. How does LoRaWAN work In terms of network structure, LoRaWAN’s wireless protocol is very simple. Its network structure is a star topology, which is conducive to LoRaWAN terminal equipment to increase communication range and reduce power consumption. After demonstration and test, this star structure is more suitable for this kind of Internet of things application scenario with low power consumption and large area than the grid structure. The network layout of the star topology is the central data processing mode. Each LoRaWAN terminal device transmits the data to multiple LoRaWAN gateways, and then the LoRaWAN gateway transmits the data to the central server. The central server centrally manages and processes the collected data, and the server will complete the message scheduling, security investigation, and redundancy detection of the data. The central server feeds back some information of LoRaWAN terminal equipment according to the data so that LoRaWAN can make a certain response. Two obvious advantages of LoRaWAN protocol - More convenient tracking: the gateways do not need to communicate with each other. The information of the terminal node is broadcast. The signal of a terminal node can be received by multiple gateways. The direction and position of the terminal node can be roughly determined according to the time difference between the information received by the gateway. This logic and algorithm are relatively simple. - Simpler information link: the gateway is only used as a bridge to realize the information transmission between the node terminal and the server. There is no mutual communication between the gateway and the gateway, and the information link is fresh and simple. LoRaWAN devices types: Class A, Class B and Class C Class A is an asynchronous operation. The characteristic of the asynchronous operation is that it does not need to queue like a synchronous operation. When the terminal node needs to transmit data, it will connect with the gateway, rather than waiting for a specific time or queuing for the completion of thread tasks. The terminal node is in a sleep state before transmitting data. After the node completes the transmission, it will immediately enter the sleep state. When one node completes transmission, the other can start transmission immediately. There is no gap in communication. Since class A is asynchronous transmission, collision is inevitable. The theoretical maximum capacity of a pure Aloha network is about 18.4% of the maximum. If two nodes wake up at the same time and decide to transmit on the same channel using the same radio settings, they will collide and collide. Class B allows information to be sent to the terminal node. LoRaWAN gateway sends a beacon every 128 seconds. All LoRaWAN base stations also send beacon messages. Their internal clocks are synchronous and belong to one pulse per second (1PPS). The synchronization satellite in orbit will transmit a message at the beginning of each second, which can synchronize the time around the world. Lora Wan base station also depends on this synchronization time. Every beacon sent by the gateway allocates a time gap of 128 seconds to tell the node when to receive the signal. Class C allows the node to keep listening for a long time without sleeping and can send downlink messages at any time. Class C is in the wake-up state for a long time and needs to consume energy to maintain the wake-up state of the node to monitor the received signal in real-time. All class C consumes a lot of energy and is not suitable for battery power supply. It is mainly used in scenarios where the power supply can be stable. Why use LoRaWAN instead of WiFi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, and more LoRaWAN has its own application scenarios with WiFi, Bluetooth, ZigBee, mobile phones, etc. in long-distance transmission, LoRaWAN has obvious advantages over the others. WiFi, ZigBee and Bluetooth use a 2.4GHz spectrum. The advantage of this spectrum is that it can carry a large amount of information and fast speed, but it is not a good choice for wireless sensors. - The 2.4GHz spectrum weakens rapidly in the air. The network sensor of this communication protocol usually has a very short connection range, and the physical penetration of the 2.4GHz spectrum is very poor. Most signals can not penetrate other roadblocks such as building walls. In daily life, in the corner or closed area such as basement or toilet, the WiFi signal in the hall will be very weak or basically absent. Home automation systems that use protocols such as Zigbee often find that they cannot connect to the next room. On the other hand, LoRa equipment can reach distances of several miles in an open-air environment and can perform well through obstacles such as buildings or equipment. - the 2.4GHz spectrum is very “noisy”, which means that there are 2.4GHz devices around us competing for broadcast time, which affects the quality of the link. The operating frequency of LoRa in the United States is 915MHz, so it will not interfere with local WiFi and most other wireless devices. - WiFi, a network communication protocol, is very poor in key management and network security prevention and control, and it is very inconvenient to use on many occasions. For example, if a WiFi router connected to multiple devices wants to change the connection password, you need to change the connection password of all connected WiFi terminal devices. However, if the WiFi terminal device is a small battery-powered electronic device that does not meet the user, it is difficult to connect to the WiFi server that has changed the password. In life, WiFi is generally used on smartphones, smart TVs, laptops and other devices. These devices have display screens and libraries to easily change passwords. But reconnecting the WiFi router is very difficult for simple battery-powered sensors.. On the other hand, LoRaWAN configures and protects equipment in different ways. The key is not a single password defined on the web server, but is derived from the sensor itself and has a unique value that can be supplied on the webserver (usually in the cloud). All radio bridge sensors have a unique ID/key pair, enabling efficient security configuration and management. - The battery consumption of terminal devices such as WiFi, Bluetooth, ZigBee and mobile cellular devices is relatively high. These devices send a large amount of signal information, and the spectrum weakens quickly, and the transmitted power is relatively high, so as to ensure a certain coverage. These devices must maintain regular communication with the gateway or base station in order to maintain the connection state. On the other hand, LoRaWAN devices can enter a deep sleep mode and wake up only when necessary to send to deliver new events. In most applications, this allows battery life to be as long as 5 to 10 years. LoRa is a radio modulation technology used for wireless LAN networks in the LPWA network technology category. LoRaWAN is a network (protocol) that uses LoRa. Look into the future of LoRaWAN Low power Internet of things is more widely used in smart city construction. With the deepening of smart city construction, urban perception applications will be paid more and more attention. This kind of Internet of things application has its special points: huge connection, low communication frequency, low power consumption, complex coverage environment and high-cost sensitivity. Therefore, low-power Internet of things is more suitable for urban perception Internet of things application system. Why does LoRa technology attract the attention of the industry? LoRa technology has a wide application prospect in many fields with excellent performance and flexible networking form. In addition, the implementation architecture of LoRa long-distance transmission, the three behavior modes of LoRaWAN, and the typical architecture and application of LoRa. In addition to the smoke monitoring systems, power environment monitoring systems, air conditioning energy-saving monitoring systems and intelligent care monitoring systems, the popularization of the Internet of things should be based on people-oriented. Life safety, transportation and medical treatment, environmental pollution, food problems and human resources are all vertical application fields of the Internet of things that have been widely concerned for a long time, LoRa has more advantages than other communication technologies in these scenarios. The era of interconnection of all things is also the era of data as the king. However, in many cases, if intelligent objects do not have corresponding location information, it means that the data is “chaotic” and the available value will be greatly reduced. With the vigorous development of the Internet of things industry in the past two years, the demand for positioning technology in various Internet of things application scenarios has also greatly increased. At present, there are dozens or even hundreds of types of positioning technology, and each positioning technology has its own advantages and disadvantages and suitable application scenarios. LoRa is applicable to local areas with higher density and has the characteristics of relatively independent, stronger signal and lower cost. Therefore, LoRa must have a place in the future broad blue ocean market of the Internet of things. As for the future development prospect of LoRa, it still depends on the joint promotion of people in the industry.

Why do stars shine? We can look out into the night sky and see billions of stars shining brightly. The number and brightness will depend on where you live. People that live in cities have a lot of bright lights that keep them from seeing as many stars, but those that look up at the sky in the country can see many more. Stars are actually suns, in the same way that our sun is a star. If you went out into the far reaches of the galaxy and looked back on our sun, it would look like a star. To figure out why the stars shine, you have to know what they are made of. Stars are balls of glowing plasma, so hot that we can’t even imagine the temperatures. The surface of a star like our sun is cooler at the surface (5,800 Kelvin) but its core is the hottest place, at 15 million Kelvin. They are held together through their own gravity and they give off some of the heat that they produce. Stars come in all sizes. Some are incredibly large, and oddly, it is the larger ones that have the shorter lifespan. Others are very small and they exist for longer periods of time. Our sun is a medium-sized star and still has millions of years to exist. The process of producing the heat for each star involves fusion. The energy is trapped inside the sun for millions of years, constantly trying to get out. Finally, after it rises into the outer areas of the sun, the energy escapes and it is carried off as solar wind. The next thing that you need to think about as a reason the stars shine is the speed of light. Light travels at a specific speed and will continue to travel until it hits something that blocks it. When we look into the night sky we are seeing the light from billions of stars that are at many distances from the earth. Depending upon the distance, some of the light that is shining could have come from stars that gave off that light millions of years ago. We are actually seeing the moment that each sun released the energy that had waited and fought to get outside of the sun and was carried through the universe to us. Each time we see the light of a star, we are seeing a star’s past. If we had the chance to actually travel to where that star is located, we would notice that many things have changed from the moment it released the energy until the time it traveled to reach our site. In some cases, a star could have lived and died; becoming a white dwarf or even exploding and going ‘nova’. If we were actually there and looked back, we might also see the light from our own sun, but that would be light that was sent out millions of years before. So the answer to the question as to why stars shine is really that they are a powerhouse of energy, with gigantic cores of fusion reaction that causes energy to be released and sent out into the universe as light.

This blog article will explore the economic and environmental benefits of renewable energy and sustainable transport, highlighting their importance and impact. Renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, hydropower, and geothermal energy offer several advantages over traditional fossil fuels. Let’s delve into some key benefits: - Reduced greenhouse gas emissions: Renewable energy sources produce little to no greenhouse gas emissions, mitigating climate change and air pollution. - Improved air quality: Shifting to renewable energy minimizes the release of harmful pollutants, improving the overall air quality and reducing health risks. - Conservation of natural resources: Renewable energy utilizes abundant resources like sunlight, wind, and flowing water, ensuring long-term availability. - Reduced reliance on finite resources: Renewable energy decreases dependence on fossil fuels, reducing the vulnerability to price fluctuations and geopolitical conflicts. - Increased energy security: Diversifying the energy mix with renewables enhances energy security by reducing dependence on foreign energy sources. - Job creation: The renewable energy sector creates numerous job opportunities, driving economic growth and local development. - Cost competitiveness: The cost of renewable energy technologies is continually decreasing, making them more affordable and economically viable. - Stimulating innovation: Advancements in renewable energy technologies drive innovation, fostering sustainable economic development. According to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IREA), renewable energy provided approximately 15 million jobs worldwide in 2019, and this figure is expected to increase with the continuous growth of the sector. For more information on the economic and environmental benefits of renewable energy, it is recommended to visit the U.S. Department of Energy’s website (www.energy.gov/eere/renewables). Sustainable transport refers to modes of transportation that have a lower impact on the environment and promote energy efficiency. Let’s explore some of its key advantages: - Lower carbon footprint: Sustainable transport options decrease the overall emissions of greenhouse gases, contributing to climate change mitigation. - Air pollution reduction: Using cleaner fuels and alternative modes of transport reduces harmful air pollutants, benefiting both human health and the environment. - Optimized fuel consumption: Sustainable transport focuses on energy-efficient vehicles and encourages the use of public transportation, carpooling, and cycling, reducing energy waste. - Utilization of alternative fuels: Transitioning to biofuels, electricity, or hydrogen as transportation fuels helps reduce dependence on fossil fuels and diversify energy sources. - Cost savings: Sustainable transport options, such as carpooling or using public transportation, can save individuals and governments money on fuel and maintenance. - Reduction in healthcare costs: By improving air quality and reducing pollution-related health issues, sustainable transport can lower healthcare costs for individuals and societies. - Boosting local economies: Investments in sustainable transport infrastructure and technologies can create jobs and stimulate economic growth. The International Energy Agency (IEA) indicates that the transport sector is responsible for nearly 23% of energy-related global greenhouse gas emissions. Embracing sustainable transport solutions can drive significant reductions in emissions, contributing to a more sustainable future. For more information regarding sustainable transport initiatives and their benefits, it is recommended to visit the official website of the United Nations Environment Programme (www.unep.org/transport). Renewable energy and sustainable transport offer a myriad of economic and environmental benefits: - Renewable energy reduces greenhouse gas emissions, improves air quality, and enhances energy security. - Renewable energy sector creates job opportunities, drives innovation, and contributes to economic growth. - Sustainable transport reduces emissions, promotes energy efficiency, and saves costs for individuals and governments. - Sustainable transport fosters economic growth, reduces healthcare costs, and enhances local economies. In conclusion, transitioning to renewable energy sources and adopting sustainable transport options is essential for achieving a greener and more sustainable future. The economic and environmental benefits they offer are significant, contributing not only to climate change mitigation but also to job creation, cost savings, and improved air quality. Embracing renewable energy and sustainable transport is a win-win strategy for both the planet and our economies.

The Japanese automaker Denso Wave created the QR code, also known as a two-dimensional barcode, in 1994. QR stands for "rapid response code." A barcode is an optical label that can be read by a computer and contains data about the object to which it is attached. In reality, QR codes frequently contain information for a tracker, location, or identifier that directs users to a website or application. To store information efficiently, QR codes use four specified encoding modes: numeric, alphanumeric, byte/binary, and kanji; extensions may optionally be used. A light source and photodiode are positioned next to each other in the tip of a pen to make up pen-type readers. The person holding the pen must move the tip across the bars at a comparatively constant speed in order to read a barcode. As the tip moves across each bar and space in the printed code, the photodiode measures the amount of light that is being reflected back from the light source. The widths of the bars and spaces in the barcode are measured using the waveform that the photodiode produces. White gaps reflect light, whereas dark bars in the barcode absorb light. As a result, the voltage waveform produced by the photodiode depicts the bar and spacing pattern in the barcode. This Similar to how dots and dashes in Morse code are decoded, this waveform is decoded by the scanner. a laser scanner also consider laser scanning Laser scanners move the laser beam across the barcode in a back-and-forth motion. A photo-diode is used to gauge the strength of the light reflected back from the barcode, just like with pen-type readers. The light that the reader emits is rapidly altered in brightness with a data pattern in both pen readers and laser scanners. The photo-diode reception circuitry is made to only detect signals that have the same modulated pattern. CCD viewers (also known as LED scanners) The array of several small light sensors used by charge-coupled device (CCD) readers is arranged in a row in the Because it can store more data than a conventional UPC barcode and is faster to scan than a typical UPC barcode, the Quick Response system gained popularity outside of the automobile industry. Applications include document management, general marketing, product tracking, item identification, and time monitoring.

Made up of billions of neurons (or nerve cells) that communicate in trillions of connections called synapses, your brain is one of the most complex and fascinating organs in your body. Keeping your brain healthy and active is vital. Discover just how powerful it is with these interesting facts. - Sixty percent of the human brain is made of fat. Not only does that make it the fattiest organ in the human body, but these fatty acids are crucial for your brain’s performance. Make sure you’re fueling it appropriately with healthy, brain-boosting nutrients. - Your brain isn’t fully formed until age 25. Brain development begins from the back of the brain and works its way to the front. Therefore, your frontal lobes, which control planning and reasoning, are the last to strengthen and structure connections. - Your brain’s storage capacity is considered virtually unlimited. Research suggests the human brain consists of about 86 billion neurons. Each neuron forms connections to other neurons, which could add up to 1 quadrillion (1,000 trillion) connections. Over time, these neurons can combine, increasing storage capacity. However, in Alzheimer’s disease, for example, many neurons can become damaged and stop working, particularly affecting memory.

Wake turbulence is a function of an aircraft producing lift, resulting in the formation of two counter-rotating vortices trailing behind the aircraft. Every aircraft generates wake turbulence while in flight. Wake turbulence can be dangerous for following aircraft that may pass through it, especially if the turbulence was created by a larger or heavier plane. The process of wake turbulence separation is a precaution that can be applied to help protect trailing aircraft from experiencing the dangers of wake turbulence. Pilots should always be aware of the possibility of a wake turbulence encounter when flying through the wake of another aircraft and adjust the flight path accordingly.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a state–of–the–art technology which provides invaluable diagnostic data regarding a medical problem. The technique produces cross–sectional pictures of bone structure and organs in the body. These pictures are clearer and more detailed than pictures obtained by X–rays and CT scans. MRI uses a super–conductor, radio frequency pulses and a computer which converts the action of the radio waves into pictures. Because high–frequency sound waves cannot penetrate bone or air, they are especially useful in imaging soft tissues and fluid filled spaces. Ultrasound is good at non–invasively imaging a number of soft tissue organs without X–rays: - Pelvis and reproductive organs. - Kidneys, liver, pancreas, gall bladder. - Blood vessels. MRI of Kidney An MRI does not generate any harmful radiation. The radio frequency pulses used are similar to those transmitted by radio stations. There are no side–effects. Patients do not experience any discomfort during the procedure. Preparation for MRI No special preparation is required. However, if you have any of the following devices, you cannot have an MRI: MRI of Brain - A pacemaker. - Aneurysm clips in the brain. - Inner ear implants. During the test, the patient is alone in the room. The doctor and technologist supervise from the next room and are in constant contact with the patient through a glass window in the room.

Gene-drive technology has been used in outdoor but controlled conditions in India, Brazil, and Panama to genetically manipulate mosquitoes. GS III: Science and Technology Dimensions of the Article: - About Gene-Drive Technology - Recent Developments About Gene-Drive Technology: - Gene-drive technology is a form of genetic engineering that is designed to modify genes within populations. - This technology was conceived by Austin Burt, a professor at Imperial College London, and has since been explored for various applications. - One potential application of gene-drive technology is as an effective means to combat nuisance species, such as malaria-causing mosquitoes. - In gene-drive technology, selective inheritance of genes is achieved, departing from the traditional rules of Mendelian genetics. - The process involves a protein that cleaves the mosquito’s DNA at a specific location that doesn’t encode a particular sequence in the genome. This action initiates a natural repair mechanism within the cell containing the DNA, which results in the incorporation of a drive sequence into the damaged portion of the DNA. - Researchers at Imperial College London have made advancements in gene-drive technology by genetically enhancing a gene expressed in the midgut of mosquitoes. This gene is engineered to secrete two antimicrobial substances known as magainin 2 and melittin. - These antimicrobial substances are detrimental to the Plasmodium parasite’s development within the mosquito’s midgut and reduce the lifespan of female mosquitoes. - Computational modeling studies have suggested that this approach could significantly disrupt malaria transmission, offering a promising strategy in the fight against this disease. -Source: The Hindu

Automobile manufacturer Henry Ford was born July 30, 1863, on his family’s farm in what is present-day Dearborn, Michigan. From the time that he was a young boy, Ford enjoyed tinkering with machines. Farm work and a job in a Detroit machine shop afforded him ample opportunities to experiment. He worked successively as an apprentice machinist, a part-time employee for the Westinghouse Engine Company, and an engineer with the Edison Illuminating Company. By then, he was earning enough money to experiment on building an internal combustion engine. By 1896, Ford had constructed his first horseless carriage, a gasoline-powered motor car that he named the Quadricycle because it ran on four bicycle tires. He sold that vehicle, which was built on a steel frame and had a seat but no body, in order to finance work on an improved model. Ford incorporated the Ford Motor Company in 1903, proclaiming, "I will build a car for the great multitude." In October 1908, he did so, offering the Model T for $850. In the Model T’s nineteen years of production, its price dipped as low as $260—without extras. More than 15 million cars were sold in the United States alone. The Model T heralds the beginning of the Motor Age; the car evolved from luxury item for the well-to-do to essential transportation for the ordinary man. Ford revolutionized manufacturing — combining precision manufacturing, standardized and interchangeable parts, division of labor, and by 1913, a continuous moving assembly line. By 1914, his Highland Park, Michigan, plant, using innovative production techniques, turned out a complete chassis every 93 minutes — a stunning improvement over the earlier production time of 728 minutes. Using a constantly moving assembly line, subdivision of labor, and careful coordination of operations, the company realized huge gains in productivity. In 1914, Ford announced his plan to profit share with the workers and began paying his employees five dollars for an eight-hour day, nearly doubling the wages offered by other manufacturers. And, he reduced the workday from nine to eight hours in order to convert the factory to a three-shift workday. Ford’s mass-production techniques eventually allowed for the manufacture of a Model T every twenty-four seconds. His innovations made him an international celebrity. Ford’s affordable Model T irrevocably altered American society. As more Americans owned cars, urbanization patterns changed. The United States saw the growth of suburbia, the creation of a national highway system, and a population entranced with the possibility of going anywhere anytime.

Have you ever wondered what sound does a Blue Jay makes? The enchanting calls of the colorful bird are sure to enthrall you. In this article, we will delve into the world of Blue Jay vocalizations, exploring their raucous calls, melodic songs, and the various ways they communicate with other Blue Jays. These birds use their voices not only to defend their territory and attract mates but also as alarm calls in response to threats or predators. By understanding the role of vocalizations in Blue Jay social structure, we gain insight into their complex communication. So, get ready to be amazed by the captivating calls of the Blue Jay, as we uncover the secrets behind their enchanting melodies and unique sounds. - Blue Jays have a wide range of vocalizations, including raucous screams, melodic songs, and mimicry abilities. - Vocalizations play a vital role in blue jay social structure, establishing dominance, communicating with mates and offspring, and warning of predators. - Blue jay vocalizations serve survival purposes by startling and intimidating predators, mimicking sounds of other birds or animals, and coordinating attacks. - The captivating calls of blue jays contribute to their charm and entertainment value, as well as their role in maintaining order within the group and reinforcing social hierarchies. Overview of Blue Jay Vocalizations Blue Jays are known for their captivating calls that will leave you in awe. These colorful avians have a wide range of vocalizations that are sure to catch your attention. From their raucous screams to their melodic songs, the Blue Jays have a diverse repertoire of sounds. One of the most distinct calls of the Blue Jay is its loud and piercing scream. It is a harsh, high-pitched sound that can be heard from a distance. This call is often used to alert other birds of potential danger or to establish their territory. When you hear this scream, you can’t help but be amazed by its power and intensity. In addition to their screams, Blue Jays are also skilled mimics. They can imitate the calls of other birds, such as hawks and crows, as well as various sounds in their environment. This ability allows them to communicate with other birds and deceive potential threats. Blue Jays also have a softer side. They are capable of producing melodic songs that are composed of a series of whistling notes. These songs are often heard during courtship displays or as a means of communication within a flock. Therefore, be ready to listen to a Blue Jay’s entrancing calls if you ever find yourself in its vicinity. Their vocalizations are truly a sight to behold and will leave you mesmerized by the beauty of nature. The Raucous Calls of Blue Jays Raucous calls from these vibrant birds can reach volumes of up to 100 decibels, rivaling the noise of a car horn. Blue jays are known for their loud and distinctive vocalizations, which they use to communicate with each other and establish their territory. These calls are not only loud but also quite varied, and they can mimic the sounds of other birds and even human voices. Here is a table showcasing some of the different calls and their meanings: |An alarm call, signaling danger |A territorial call, asserting dominance |A courtship call, attracting a mate |A social call, indicating group presence |A soft, low call used for close communication Listening to the blue jays’ raucous calls can be both captivating and amusing. Their ability to imitate other sounds adds to their charm, making them quite the colorful entertainers of the avian world. So, next time you hear a loud and unmistakable call, you’ll know it’s a blue jay making its presence known. The Melodic Songs of Blue Jays You’ll be delighted by the melodic songs of blue jays, as they serenade the world with their enchanting tunes. These beautiful birds have a remarkable ability to mimic the sounds of other birds, making their songs even more captivating. When you hear a blue jay’s song, you might think you’re listening to a choir of different bird species all at once. Blue jays are known for their loud and raucous calls, but their songs are surprisingly melodious. They have a wide repertoire of musical phrases, ranging from soft and soothing notes to high-pitched and energetic melodies. Their songs are filled with trills, whistles, and warbles, creating a symphony that is truly mesmerizing. Not only are blue jays talented singers, but they are also skilled improvisers. They often add their own unique twists and variations to their songs, making each performance a one-of-a-kind experience. You’ll never get tired of listening to their melodic tunes, as they constantly surprise you with their creativity. So, the next time you find yourself in the presence of a blue jay, take a moment to listen to their enchanting songs. You’ll be transported to a world of beauty and harmony, as these colorful avians serenade you with their captivating melodies. Communicating with Other Blue Jays When you’re near a blue jay, it’s like being in a crowded room where everyone is talking at once, each voice vying for attention. These vibrant birds are highly social creatures and they use a wide range of calls to communicate with each other. Here are four fascinating ways blue jays communicate: - Alarm Calls: Blue jays are known for their loud and piercing alarm calls that warn other birds of potential danger. These calls are high-pitched and can be heard from a distance. - Territorial Calls: Blue jays are fiercely protective of their territory and will use specific calls to assert their dominance and ward off intruders. These calls are often harsh and repetitive. - Mating Calls: During the breeding season, male blue jays use complex songs to attract females. These songs are melodic and can vary in length and pitch. The females respond with soft calls to indicate their interest. - Food Calls: When blue jays discover a food source, they emit a series of short, repetitive calls to alert other blue jays in the area. This behavior is known as ‘mobbing’ and it helps the birds locate and share valuable resources. So next time you’re near a blue jay, take a moment to listen to the captivating calls of these colorful avians and appreciate the intricate ways they communicate with each other. Defending Territory through Vocalizations Protect your territory by asserting your dominance through powerful vocalizations. As a blue jay, your voice is your most potent weapon when it comes to defending your turf. When intruders trespass into your domain, it’s time to let them know who’s in charge. You begin by emitting a series of loud, raucous calls that can be heard from a distance. These calls serve as a warning to any potential intruders, letting them know that they are encroaching on your territory. Your voice is fierce and commanding, demanding respect from both friends and foes. But it doesn’t stop there. Once the intruders are within sight, you unleash a barrage of aggressive calls that are impossible to ignore. Your voice pierces through the air, making it clear that you will not tolerate any threats to your territory. These vocalizations are not just for show; they serve a crucial purpose in establishing your dominance. By asserting yourself through your powerful calls, you intimidate the intruders and make them think twice before challenging your authority. Your vocalizations also serve as a means of communication with other blue jays in your area. When you hear the calls of other blue jays nearby, you respond with your own distinct vocalizations, letting them know that you are present and ready to defend your territory. This exchange of calls helps to establish a network of communication among blue jays, ensuring that everyone is aware of each other’s presence and boundaries. In conclusion, defending your territory through vocalizations is a vital part of being a blue jay. Your powerful calls assert your dominance, intimidate intruders, and communicate with fellow blue jays. So, embrace your voice and let it be heard, for it is the key to protecting your turf and ensuring your dominance in the avian world. Understanding the Meaning Behind Blue Jay Calls Now that you understand how blue jays defend their territory through vocalizations, it’s time to delve into the fascinating world of understanding the meaning behind their calls. When you listen to the calls of a blue jay, it’s like deciphering a secret code. Each call carries a specific message, serving as a way for blue jays to communicate with each other. Their vocalizations can convey a range of emotions, from warning other birds of potential danger to expressing their own territorial boundaries. To truly appreciate the complexity of blue jay calls, let’s dive into the meaning behind some of their most common vocalizations. First, there’s the’screaming’ call, which is often used to alert other birds of a predator nearby. Next, there’s the ‘whisper’ call, a softer and more subtle vocalization that blue jays use to communicate with their mate or offspring. Blue jays have over 30 distinct calls in their repertoire. They can mimic the calls of other birds, fooling predators or tricking them into revealing their location. Blue jays also have a unique call known as the ‘rusty gate’, which is thought to be used as a contact call between family members. Their calls can vary in pitch, duration, and intensity, allowing for a wide range of communication possibilities. So, next time you hear the captivating calls of a blue jay, take a moment to appreciate the complexity and meaning behind their melodious messages. Mimicking Other Birds and Sounds Immerse yourself in the fascinating world of blue jays as they skillfully mimic the calls of other birds and create a symphony of sounds. These clever and resourceful birds have the amazing ability to imitate a wide range of sounds, including the songs of other bird species, as well as the sounds of animals and even human voices. It’s truly remarkable how they can recreate the distinct calls of birds such as hawks, owls, and even the meowing of a cat. The blue jay’s mimicry is not only impressive, but it also serves several important purposes. First and foremost, it helps them communicate with other birds. By mimicking the calls of their feathered neighbors, blue jays can send out warning signals of potential danger or alert others to the presence of food. This mimicry also helps blue jays defend their territory, as they can imitate the calls of larger, more threatening birds to intimidate potential intruders. But it’s not just other birds that blue jays can imitate. These clever mimics have been known to mimic the sounds of squirrels, chipmunks, and even the barking of dogs. Their ability to replicate such a wide array of sounds is truly astounding and adds to their already captivating repertoire. So next time you hear a blue jay’s call, take a moment to listen closely. You might just be treated to a symphony of sounds as they show off their incredible mimicry skills. Vocalizations during Courtship and Mating During courtship, male blue jays serenade their potential mates with a melodious love song, their voices dancing like a spring breeze through the forest. The captivating calls of these colorful avians are a sight and sound to behold. Here are four vocalizations that blue jays use to court and attract their mates: - Whistling melodies: Male blue jays have a wide range of whistle-like calls that they use to serenade their potential mates. These melodic tunes can vary in pitch and rhythm, creating a symphony of sound that is sure to catch the attention of any female blue jay. - Mimicking other birds: Blue jays are known for their ability to mimic the calls of other birds. During courtship, males may incorporate these mimicry skills to impress their potential mates. They can imitate the songs of other species, showcasing their vocal prowess and versatility. - Soft warbles: In addition to their whistling melodies, male blue jays also produce soft warbles during courtship. These gentle, soothing sounds create a romantic ambiance and help to establish a connection between the male and female. - Loud screeches: While the blue jay’s love song may be melodious, it can also be quite loud. Males often punctuate their serenades with loud screeches, adding a bold and powerful element to their courtship display. So, next time you find yourself in the presence of blue jays during their courtship season, listen closely and be captivated by the enchanting sounds they use to woo their potential mates. Vocalizations as Alarm Calls One cannot help but be startled by the piercing alarm calls of the blue jay, a warning that echoes through the forest and sends a ripple of unease among its fellow creatures. When danger lurks, the blue jay becomes the vigilant guardian, sounding the alarm to alert its companions of impending threats. Its calls are sharp and shrill, demanding attention and instilling a sense of urgency in those who hear it. These vocalizations serve as a crucial survival mechanism for the blue jay, enabling it to communicate danger and rally its flock to take evasive action. To understand the significance of the blue jay’s alarm calls, let’s take a closer look at a table that breaks down the different types of calls and their meanings: |Harsh and repetitive call |Warning of potential predators |High-pitched and descending call |Signaling immediate danger |Short and sharp call |Alerting flock members to be on high alert By utilizing these distinct alarm calls, the blue jay effectively communicates the nature of the threat, allowing other birds to respond accordingly. This ability to convey specific information through vocalizations is a testament to the blue jay’s intelligence and adaptability in the face of danger. So, the next time you hear the resounding alarm calls of a blue jay, take heed and appreciate the remarkable vocal abilities of this captivating avian. Vocalizations in Response to Threats or Predators Listen closely and let the alarm calls of the blue jay pierce through the forest like a siren, warning you of immediate danger and urging you to take evasive action. These captivating calls are not only mesmerizing but also serve a vital purpose in the bird’s survival. Here’s what you need to know about the vocalizations of blue jays in response to threats or predators: - Shrill and piercing: When a blue jay detects a potential threat, it emits a series of loud, high-pitched calls that can be heard from quite a distance. These calls are designed to startle and intimidate predators, making them think twice before approaching. - Vocal mimicry: Blue jays are skilled mimics, and they often imitate the sounds of other birds or animals to confuse predators. By mimicking the calls of hawks or other predators, blue jays create a false sense of danger, causing potential threats to retreat. - Mobbing behavior: Blue jays are known for their strong sense of community and will often join forces with other birds to mob a predator. They use their vocalizations to coordinate their attacks, creating a chorus of warning calls that can be quite intimidating to any potential threat. So next time you hear the distinctive calls of a blue jay, remember that they are not just beautiful melodies but a powerful defense mechanism, ensuring the safety and survival of these colorful avians. The Role of Vocalizations in Blue Jay Social Structure Now that you know how blue jays use their vocalizations to protect themselves from threats or predators, let’s dive into the fascinating role these calls play in their social structure. You might be surprised to learn that blue jays, just like us humans, rely heavily on communication to establish and maintain social bonds. In the world of blue jays, vocalizations serve as a form of social currency. These birds use a wide range of calls to convey different messages to their flock members. For example, they have specific calls to indicate the presence of food, alert others about potential dangers, or even to establish territory boundaries. These vocal exchanges are crucial in maintaining order within the group and ensuring everyone’s needs are met. Blue jays are highly intelligent creatures, and their social structure is quite complex. Through their vocalizations, they are able to coordinate group activities, such as foraging for food or defending their territory. Their calls not only convey information but also help in bonding and reinforcing social hierarchies within the flock. So, next time you hear the distinct calls of a blue jay, remember that they are not just making noise. They are engaging in a sophisticated form of communication that holds their social structure together. What Sound Does A Blue Jay Make: Frequently Asked Questions How do blue jays use their vocalizations to communicate with other bird species? Blue jays use their vocalizations to communicate with other bird species by creating distinct calls and sounds. These help them establish territories, warn of danger, and coordinate group activities like finding food or defending against predators. Do blue jays have different types of vocalizations for different types of threats? Blue jays have an astonishing ability to communicate with different bird species. They have a range of vocalizations specifically tailored to different threats. It’s truly remarkable how they can adapt their calls to warn others. Can blue jays mimic human speech or other non-bird sounds? Yes, blue jays can mimic human speech and other non-bird sounds. They are known for imitating various sounds, including phone rings and barking dogs. It’s fascinating to hear their repertoire! How do blue jays use their vocalizations during courtship and mating? During courtship and mating, blue jays use their vocalizations to attract a mate and establish their territory. They serenade their potential partners with a variety of calls, showcasing their vocal prowess and charm. What is the role of vocalizations in establishing and maintaining the social structure of a blue jay community? Vocalizations are crucial for establishing and maintaining the social structure of a blue jay community. They help communicate dominance, territory boundaries, and warn of potential threats. Without vocalizations, the community’s cohesion and organization would be compromised. Blue Jay Sounds: Conclusion As you listen to the captivating calls of the blue jay, you can’t help but be transported to a vibrant woodland scene. The raucous calls pierce through the air, filling you with a sense of energy and excitement. The melodic songs then serenade your ears, evoking a feeling of tranquility and wonder. This colorful avian not only communicates with its fellow blue jays, but also defends its territory with its vocal prowess. In moments of courtship and mating, the blue jay’s vocalizations become a symphony of desire and passion. And when danger lurks, its alarm calls send shivers down your spine, urging you to take heed. These vocalizations are not mere words, but a language of survival and social structure. The blue jay’s sound is a tapestry of emotions, weaving a spell of enchantment that leaves you yearning for more.

WSP-43 Teamster with Whisky Mule A mountain man was an explorer who lived in the wilderness. They were instrumental in opening up the various Emigrant Trails (widened into wagon roads) allowing Americans in the east to settle the new territories of the far west by organized wagon trains traveling over roads explored and in many cases, physically improved by the mountain men and the big fur companies originally to serve the mule train based inland fur trade. Mountain men were most common in the North American Rocky Mountains from about 1810 through to the 1880s (with a peak population in the early 1840s). Approximately 3,000 mountain men ranged the mountains between 1820 and 1840, the peak beaver-harvesting period. While there were many free trappers, most mountain men were employed by major fur companies. The life of a company man was almost militarized. The men had mess groups, hunted and trapped in brigades and always reported to the head of the trapping party. This man was called a “boosway”, a bastardization of the French term bourgeois. He was the leader of the brigade and the head trader. The large fur companies put together teamster driven mule trains which packed in whiskey and supplies into a pre-announced location each spring/summer and set up a trading fair- the Rendezvous. Not only was the Rendezvous a place where the trappers could sell and trade their furs for all sorts of commodities, such as clothing, saddles, bridles, tobacco, and whiskey, but it was a place to meet traders who might wish to engage their services for the coming year.

n., singular: pseudopodium Definition: arm-like, temporary projections of a cell Table of Contents A pseudopodium (plural: pseudopodia) refers to the temporary projection of the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell. Pseudopodia are arm-like projections filled with cytoplasm. The projecting cytoplasm, in turn, primarily contains cytoskeleton, such as actin filaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules. True amoeba (genus Amoeba) and amoeboid (amoeba-like) cells form pseudopodia for locomotion and ingestion of particles. Pseudopodia form when the actin polymerization is activated. The actin filaments that form in the cytoplasm push the cell membrane resulting in the formation of temporary projection. Pseudopodia may be classified into lobopodia, filopodia, reticulopodia, axopodia, and lamellipodia. The most common is lobopodia. Nevertheless, amoeba and amoeboid cells may form in more than one type at once. Pseudopodia are temporary projections of the cell membrane of eukaryotic cells. And by temporary, it means that it is not a fixed structure. Single-celled organisms characterized by the ability to form arm-like protrusions that can be protracted or retracted are referred to as amoebae. In fact, it is this feature that gave them their name owing to their ability to constantly change their shape. The irregular cell shape is due to their distinctive protoplasmic streaming and their ability to form pseudopodia that deform cell boundaries. Etymology: The term ‘pseudopodia’ comes from Greek pseudḗs, meaning “false” or “lying” and Greek podós, from poús, meaning “foot” or “leg”. Synonym: pseudopods Amoeboid Cell Structure The cell that forms pseudopodia is referred to as amoeba or amoeboid. The term amoeboid is used to indicate an amoeba-like cell, and thus, sets the latter apart from the true amoeba (of the genus Amoeba). Looking at the structure of an amoeboid cell, one would find two major regions: the endoplasm and the ectoplasm. The endoplasm is the inner region that is granular and metabolically active whereas the ectoplasm is the outer region that is clear and contains large numbers of actin filaments. The actin filaments in the ectoplasm are responsible for making the latter contractile and somewhat flexible. The actin filaments are a type of cytoskeleton that can be identified from the other types by being relatively thin (with a diameter of about 7 nm) and comprised of actin subunits (especially F-actin proteins). The filaments form from actin polymerization through the aid of assembly proteins, such as motor proteins, capping proteins, and branching proteins. Other cytoskeleton types found in the cytoplasmic projections are microtubules and intermediate filaments.(1) Microtubules are large tubular structures with a diameter of about 25 nm. Intermediate filaments are a type of cytoskeleton with diameters ranging from 8 to 12 nm. The actin filaments are the thinnest cytoskeleton among the three. In the cell body, pseudopodia may be formed when the actin proteins polymerize and form chains. Cell protrusion is driven by a protrusive force by actin polymerization. Actins forming chains apparently provide the force that pushes the cell membrane in the direction of the movement. When a projection is formed, the rest of the cytoplasm slides forward, thus, moving the cell forward. This form of locomotion is referred to as an amoeboid movement. The direction may be determined by chemotaxis and formation may be impelled by the presence of chemical attractants. For instance, chemical attractants bind to G protein-coupled receptors of the cell membrane resulting in the activation of internal signal transduction pathways that ultimately lead to activating actin polymerization. The formation of actin results in the cell forming pseudopodium toward the direction of the source. Pseudopodia may also form without an external cue. Amoeboid cells may also form several pseudopodia all at once. Furthermore, a pseudopod may form from another pseudopod, and thus resemble the letter Y. Apart from the actin filaments, there is growing evidence indicating that microtubules as well seem to play a role in pseudopod formation, e.g. in actin rearrangements.(2) According to appearance (3), the types of pseudopodia are as follows: - lobopodia (bulbous) - filopodia (slender, thread-like) - reticulopodia (a network of pseudopods) - axopodia (thin pseudopods containing complex arrays of microtubules) - lamellipodia (broad and flat pseudopodia). An amoeba or amoeboid cell may form more than one type of pseudopodia. Lobopodia are a type of pseudopodia characterized by fingerlike, bulbous, bluntly rounded, tubular cytoplasmic projections. The pseudopod contains both ectoplasm and endoplasm. This type of pseudopodia is one of the distinctive features of the taxonomic group, Lobosa. They are also seen in certain Amoebozoa and Excavata. In humans, fibroblasts are amoeboid cells that form lobopodia as they travel through the extracellular matrix. Lobopodia are the most common form of pseudopodia in nature. Filipodia are a type of pseudopodia characterized by slender, threadlike cytoplasmic projections. They have pointed ends. The pseudopod contains chiefly ectoplasm. The actin filaments form loose bundles by cross-linking. Filose amoebae (members of the subphylum Filosa) are examples of amoeba cells that form filopodia. Reticulopodia are the type of pseudopodia characterized by a reticular network formation of cytoplasmic projections. The pseudopodia form reticulating nets. Examples of organisms forming reticulopodia are the reticulose amoebae (of subphylum Endomyxa) and foraminiferans (of phylum Foraminifera). These pseudopods are associated with food ingestion more often than locomotion. Axopodia (also called actinopodia) are a type of pseudopodia characterized by the thin cytoplasmic projections containing complex arrays of microtubules. The pseudopodia are narrow. They are chiefly used for phagocytosis and buoyancy. An example of organisms forming axopodial pseudopodia is the radiolarians. They help radiolarians stay buoyant. Lamellipodia are a type of pseudopodia characterized by broad and flat cytoplasmic projections. An example can be seen from Lecythium hyalinum, a testate amoeba. What are pseudopods used for? Pseudopodia in amoeba are used for locomotion, buoyancy, and food ingestion (phagocytosis). The type of cellular locomotion is used to be the basis for grouping animal-like protists (protozoans). Accordingly, protozoans may be divided into Sarcodina, Mastigophora, Ciliophora, and Sporozoa. Sarcodina includes protists that move using pseudopodia. Apart from the pseudopodia movement, protozoans may move through flagella (e.g. Mastigophora) or by cilia (e.g. Ciliophora). Those lacking any locomotory organ characterize the sporozoans. Members of subphylum Sarcodina move by a characteristic amoeboid movement, which is a crawling-like movement enabled by pseudopodia formation. Amoeba proteus, for example, has a cytoplasm consisting of a plasmasol (central portion) and a plasmagel (the portion surrounding the plasmasol). The plasmagel is converted to plasmasol and this causes the cytoplasm to slide and form a pseudopodium in front of the cell. As a result, the cell is able to move forward. Apart from locomotion, pseudopods may also be used in capturing prey and for feeding. Single-celled amoeboid cells feed on bacterial cells, other protists, and detritus. They surround the food particle with a pseudopod and convert it into a food vacuole. The ingestion of a food particle can be likened to a human white blood cell that performs phagocytosis. It detects a foreign material (called an antigen) and engulfs it by its pseudopod that surrounds the particle. Next, the engulfed particle is enveloped with a biological membrane inside the cell. This, then, fuses with the lysosomes for intracellular digestion. The genus Amoeba (true amoebae) is comprised of single-celled organisms that form pseudopodia. Members of this genus make use of these projections for locomotion and food ingestion. Through them, the amoebas are able to move away from an environment with harsh conditions. This is in addition to other vital mechanisms such as cyst formation and osmoregulation by way of their contractile vacuoles. Apart from the genus Amoeba, other protists that use pseudopod for analogous functions are the genera Entamoeba and Naegleria. These are medically-important protists as they cause diseases in humans. Entameoba histolytica, for instance, is a pseudopod-forming species that can cause amoebic dysentery. Another is Naegleria fowleri. It is an opportunistic parasite. It is commonly known as the brain-eating amoeba. This species is actually an amoeboflagellate that can enter a human host via the nostrils and then reach the brain tissue to feed on it. Other amoeboid cells that form pseudopodia are the phagocytic cells of humans. White blood cells, for instance, are cells responsible for the immune response of the body. They move and engulf foreign particles by forming pseudopods. They also perform phagocytosis to clear the body off unwanted cellular debris. The human mesenchymal stem cells are another example. They are migratory cells that form pseudopodia for locomotion. Try to answer the quiz below to check what you have learned so far about pseudopodia. - Tang, D. D. (2017). “The roles and regulation of the actin cytoskeleton, intermediate filaments and microtubules in smooth muscle cell migration”. Respiratory Research. 18: 54. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12931-017-0544-7 - Etienne-Manneville, S. (2004). “Actin and Microtubules in Cell Motility: Which One is in Control?”. Traffic. 5: 470–77. - Pseudopodia. (2019). Retrieved from Microworld website: https://www.arcella.nl/2421-2/ - Patterson, D. J. (n.d.). “Amoebae: Protists Which Move and Feed Using Pseudopodia”. Tree of Life Web Project. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree-of-Life-Web-Project - Bosgraaf, L. & Van Haastert, P. J. M. (2009). “The Ordered Extension of Pseudopodia by Amoeboid Cells in the Absence of External Cues”. PLoS One. 4 (4): 626–634. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0005253. - Phagocytosis. (2019). Retrieved from Gsu.edu website: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Biology/phago.html - Rosales, C., & Uribe-Querol, E. (2017). Phagocytosis: A Fundamental Process in Immunity. BioMed Research International, 2017, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/9042851 © Biology Online. Content provided and moderated by Biology Online Editors

Art has always been a profound medium to express human emotions, ideas, and perceptions. Within the realm of artistic creation, various elements and principles combine to produce captivating visual compositions. One such element that has intrigued artists and designers throughout history is the concept of Line of Beauty. This article delves into the depths of Line of Beauty, exploring its definition, historical significance, and remarkable contributions to art and design. Definition of Line of Beauty The term “Line of Beauty” was first introduced by the eminent English artist William Hogarth in his treatise “The Analysis of Beauty” published in 1753. He described it as a graceful line possessing a flowing curvature that captures an inherent sense of beauty. The Line of Beauty is characterized by its sweeping arcs, elegant curves, and harmonious flow. It represents a dynamic movement that captivates the viewer’s eye, evoking a sense of aesthetic pleasure. It is important to note that the concept extends beyond mere physical lines; it encompasses all forms exhibiting beauty through their contours – whether they are actual lines or implied through shapes or objects within a composition. The Line of Beauty transcends the boundaries between mediums such as painting, sculpture, architecture, and design. Importance and Significance in Art and Design Line of Beauty serves as an essential foundation for artistic expression across different periods throughout history. Artists have intuitively recognized its power to evoke emotions within viewers’ minds. By incorporating this principle into their works, they could elicit feelings ranging from tranquility to excitement. In art history, renowned painters like Leonardo da Vinci skillfully employed Line Of Beauty in their compositions to enhance visual appeal. The Renaissance period witnessed an intense exploration and celebration of human anatomy through flowing contours that embodied gracefulness and natural proportions. Moreover, Line Of Beauty plays a pivotal role in defining architectural masterpieces. From the majestic curves of the Parthenon in ancient Greece to the intricate arches of Gothic cathedrals, architects have strategically utilized this concept to create visually striking structures that stand the test of time. In contemporary design, Line Of Beauty remains a guiding principle for graphic designers, fashion designers, and industrial designers alike. By incorporating flowing lines and graceful forms into their creations, designers can imbue their works with an elegant aesthetic that captures the attention and admiration of observers. Overall, Line Of Beauty serves as a fundamental element in art and design. Its importance lies not only in its ability to please the eye but also in its capacity to convey emotions, evoke moods, and create harmonious compositions. This article will further explore its historical roots, applications across various artistic mediums, psychological impact on viewers, manifestations in nature, and even its presence within literature and poetry. Origins of the Concept in Ancient Greek Art One cannot fully grasp the significance of Line of Beauty without first delving into its origins in ancient Greek art. The concept can be traced back to the writings of the renowned philosopher and art critic, Aristotle. In his treatise on aesthetics, Aristotle discussed the idea that there exists a certain harmony and gracefulness in curved lines that elicits a pleasing emotional response from viewers. This notion laid the foundation for what would later become known as Line of Beauty. Ancient Greek artists embraced this concept wholeheartedly, incorporating flowing and sinuous lines into their masterpieces. Notably, vase paintings from this era often featured figures with serpentine-like contours, which not only added a sense of fluidity and movement but also enhanced the overall aesthetic appeal. Influence on Renaissance Artists and their use of Line of Beauty The Renaissance period witnessed a revival in interest towards ancient Greek philosophy and art theories, leading to a renewed appreciation for Line of Beauty among artists. Inspired by the works of Aristotle, prominent Renaissance painters such as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo used flowing lines to infuse their creations with a sense of grace and elegance. Leonardo da Vinci’s iconic masterpiece, “The Vitruvian Man,” exemplifies his understanding of Line of Beauty. The harmonious curves depicted in this drawing not only convey proportions but also evoke a sense of balance and perfection. Similarly, Michelangelo’s sculptures are renowned for their dynamic lines that breathe life into marble or bronze. Development and Evolution in Different Art Movements (Baroque, Rococo, Neoclassicism, etc.) The concept behind Line of Beauty continued to evolve over time with its interpretation varying across different art movements. In Baroque art, characterized by dramatic lighting and emotional intensity, artists such as Caravaggio utilized curvilinear lines to enhance the sense of movement and draw the viewer’s gaze. These lines helped create a dynamic interplay between light and shadow, adding depth and drama to their compositions. Rococo art, on the other hand, embraced more decorative elements with an emphasis on delicate curves and intricate ornamentation. Artists like Jean-Honoré Fragonard created whimsical scenes filled with swirling lines that exuded a sense of playfulness and elegance. During the Neoclassical era, there was a return to classical ideals inspired by ancient Greek and Roman art. Artists like Jacques-Louis David embraced clean and precise lines that reflected a sense of order and clarity. This departure from the organic curves seen in previous periods marked a shift in how Line of Beauty was interpreted within this context. Understanding Line of Beauty Characteristics and elements that define Line of Beauty In the realm of art and design, the concept of Line of Beauty encompasses a set of distinct characteristics and elements that contribute to its defining nature. One such key feature is the presence of flowing and graceful curves. These curves possess an inherent elegance and smoothness, captivating the viewer’s eye with their harmonious contours. The use of these curves creates a sense of organic movement within a composition, facilitating a visually pleasing experience. By incorporating soft, undulating lines, artists have the ability to infuse their works with a sense of natural beauty and grace. Flowing and graceful curves The flowing and graceful curves that are integral to Line of Beauty convey a sense of dynamic movement in an artwork or design. These curvilinear forms guide the viewer’s gaze along a visual journey, leading them through various elements within the composition. The fluidity in these lines evokes emotions such as serenity, elegance, and even excitement depending on their arrangement and intensity. It is through these curvilinear lines that artists can imbue their creations with life-like qualities or capture the essence of movement in static mediums. Dynamic movement and rhythm Line of Beauty thrives on dynamic movement and rhythm. It embodies an energy that animates an artwork or design by creating visual tension through contrasts in line weight, directionality, and curvature. Varied line weights contribute to this dynamism by defining areas of emphasis within an artwork while also establishing depth perception. Additionally, directional changes in these lines generate a sense of movement that engages viewers’ eyes as they traverse across the composition. This rhythmic quality adds vitality to artistic expressions by evoking a sense o Applications in Art and Design Paintings: How artists utilize Line of Beauty to create visually appealing compositions. In the realm of fine arts, Line of Beauty plays a vital role in creating visually captivating and harmonious paintings. Artists have long recognized the power of flowing and graceful curves to evoke a sense of beauty and aesthetic pleasure. By employing Line of Beauty, painters carefully incorporate curvilinear elements into their compositions, allowing the eye to wander effortlessly along these lines, resulting in a dynamic and engaging visual experience. One prominent example can be found in the works of Leonardo da Vinci, particularly in his masterpiece “The Last Supper.” In this iconic painting, da Vinci skillfully employs curved lines to guide the viewer’s gaze through the composition. The arcs created by the gestures and postures of each figure create a sense of movement while simultaneously enhancing the emotional impact of the scene. Sculptures: The use of flowing lines to convey a sense of movement and energy. Sculptors have also harnessed the power of Line of Beauty throughout history to imbue their creations with a sense of movement, vitality, and energy. By employing fluid lines and curvaceous forms in their sculptures, artists evoke a dynamic tension that captivates viewers’ attention. One exemplary sculptor known for incorporating Lineo f Beauty is Auguste Rodin. His famous sculpture “The Thinker” exemplifies how he expertly uses flowing lines to convey both physical tension within muscles as well as internal contemplation. The sinuous curves running through every inch of this artwork lend it an organic quality that resonates with viewers on an emotional level. Architecture: Incorporating Line Of Beauty into building designs to enhance aesthetic appeal. In architectural design, incorporating Line Of Beauty can transform structures into visually striking and emotionally evocative creations. Architects have long relied on the principles of Line of Beauty to add a sense of movement, rhythm, and elegance to their designs. An outstanding illustration of this is the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain, designed by Frank Gehry. The building’s curvilinear form creates a continuous flow that draws visitors in and around the structure. The use of Line Of Beauty not only enhances its aesthetic appeal but also influences the visitor’s experience within the museum as they are guided along these graceful lines. Graphic Design: Utilizing the principles of Line Of Beauty to create visually captivating logos, posters, etc. In graphic design, whether it’s logos, posters, or other visual mediums, incorporating Line Of Beauty can greatly enhance their visual impact. Designers recognize that by utilizing flowing lines and curves with a harmonious balance between simplicity and complexity, they can create compositions that are memorable and visually captivating. Take for instance the iconic logo of Nike—a swoosh symbolizing movement and energy. This simple yet powerful design element utilizes Line Of Beauty to evoke dynamism while embodying elegance and gracefulness simultaneously. By employing this principle throughout various graphic elements such as typography or illustrations, designers can create compelling visuals that resonate with audiences. Fashion Design: Incorporating flowing lines to enhance the elegance and gracefulness in clothing designs. In fashion design, Line Of Beauty plays a crucial role in creating garments that embody elegance and gracefulness. Fashion designers understand that utilizing flowing lines can enhance the fluidity of fabric draping while adding visual interest to clothing silhouettes. One notable designer known for incorporating Line Of Beauty into their designs is Christian Dior. His iconic “New Look” collection from 1947 showcased garments featuring cinched waists and voluminous skirts with soft draping—design elements that accentuate the feminine form and evoke a sense of gracefulness. By incorporating flowing lines into his designs, Dior revolutionized the fashion industry, creating timeless pieces that epitomize beauty and sophistication. Line Of Beauty finds its applications in various aspects of art and design. From paintings to sculptures, architecture to graphic design, and fashion design, its principles elevate visual compositions by imbuing them with enchanting curves, dynamic movement, and an overall sense of harmony. Incorporating Line Of Beauty not only enhances aesthetic appeal but also evokes emotional responses within viewers or users of these creations. It is a powerful tool in the hands of artists and designers who seek to create visually captivating experiences for their audience. The Psychological Impact How the presence or absence of Line Of beauty can affect our emotions The concept of Line of Beauty extends beyond its visual appeal; it also holds profound psychological implications. When we encounter an artwork or design that exhibits the qualities of Line of Beauty, it has the power to evoke a range of emotions within us. The flowing curves and dynamic movement found in such compositions have a mesmerizing effect, captivating our attention and stirring our senses. These aesthetically pleasing lines elicit feelings of joy, awe, and even a sense of tranquility. On the other hand, the absence or disregard for Line of Beauty can result in a different emotional response. When we encounter art or design lacking these graceful lines and harmonic flow, it may leave us feeling disconnected or disinterested. Straight lines and harsh angles can create a sense of rigidity and sterility that fails to engage our emotional faculties. Thus, understanding how to utilize Line of Beauty becomes crucial for artists and designers who aim to create impactful works that resonate with viewers on an emotional level. The role it plays in creating a sense harmony within an artwork Line of Beauty plays an essential role in creating harmony within an artwork by establishing a cohesive visual language. The flowing curves and rhythmic movements inherent in this artistic principle guide the viewer’s eye across the composition effortlessly. This fluidity fosters balance between various elements within the artwork, resulting in a harmonious overall aesthetic. By incorporating Line of Beauty into their compositions, artists can imbue their work with a sense of unity and coherence. The graceful curves act as connective threads that weave together disparate elements such as shapes, colors, textures, and even subject matter. This unifying effect helps create an organic whole where each component complements one another rather than competing for attention. When Line of Beauty is employed effectively in an artwork or design, it visually communicates a sense of balance and order. The flowing lines and symmetrical arrangements give the impression of stability and equilibrium, evoking a feeling of calmness within the viewer. This harmonious arrangement can be particularly powerful in creating a sense of serenity or tranquility, making Line of Beauty an essential tool in eliciting specific emotional responses from the audience. Overall, Line of Beauty serves as both an aesthetic principle and a psychological device, captivating our emotions and contributing to the creation of harmonious artworks. By harnessing its power, artists and designers can forge deeper connections with their audience while evoking profound emotional responses. Line of Beauty in Nature Exploring how natural forms often exhibit characteristics similar to Line of Beauty Nature, with its boundless beauty and intricate designs, has long served as a source of inspiration for artists and designers. One concept that finds resonance in nature is the Line of Beauty. This aesthetic principle manifests itself in various natural forms, captivating our senses and evoking a feeling of harmony and gracefulness. In the realm of seashells, the elegant spiraling patterns found in shells such as the chambered nautilus exhibit qualities reminiscent of the Line of Beauty. The gradual expansion and curving contours create a rhythmic flow that draws the eye along an enchanting journey. These organic curves create a sense of balance between simplicity and complexity, capturing our attention as they echo the graceful curves found in art. Waves crashing against a shoreline present another awe-inspiring example where we can observe the Line of Beauty in action. As each wave unfurls upon itself, it creates mesmerizing undulations that gracefully sweep across space. The fluid motion exhibits a dynamic energy that engages our senses, leaving us in awe of nature’s ability to manifest beauty through rhythmic lines. Examples from various natural phenomena such as seashells, waves, flowers etc. Flowers too are exquisite examples showcasing the presence of the Line of Beauty within nature’s bounty. Observe how petals unfurl with gentle curves from their center points outward. Whether it be roses, lilies or orchids, each blossom captivates us with its elegant lines that effortlessly guide our gaze from one petal to another. Nature’s meticulous attention to detail is evident as these delicate lines merge harmoniously to form striking compositions. The magnificent flight patterns displayed by birds also embody elements akin to the Line of Beauty. Watch as they soar through open skies drawing invisible arcs with their feathers outstretched. These graceful curves, executed with a sense of effortless grace, exemplify the inherent beauty found in the natural world. The sight of a flock of birds engaged in synchronized flight is not only visually captivating but also reminiscent of the fluid and harmonious lines often found in artistic compositions. Nature serves as a profound source of inspiration for artists and designers alike, offering abundant examples where the Line of Beauty can be observed. From seashells to waves, flowers to bird flight patterns, it is evident that nature has an innate understanding of aesthetics. The presence of flowing curves, rhythmic patterns, and balance between simplicity and complexity in these natural phenomena exemplifies the timeless allure of the Line of Beauty. As we immerse ourselves in the wonders bestowed by Mother Nature, we find ourselves captivated by her mastery at creating visually stunning compositions that inspire awe and ignite our creative spirits. Line Of beauty In Literature And Poetry The Melodic Flow of Words In the realm of literature and poetry, the concept of Line of Beauty finds its expression through the rhythmic arrangement and melodic flow of words. Writers harness the power of language to create imagery and evoke emotions in readers. The careful arrangement of sentences, phrases, and even individual words can emulate the graceful curves and dynamic movement that define Line of Beauty. Poets often use techniques such as alliteration, assonance, and meter to create a musicality in their verses. The repetition of sounds or patterns creates a sense of harmony and rhythm akin to the flowing curves found in visual art forms. Through these literary devices, poets aim to capture the reader’s attention and guide them through an aesthetically pleasing experience that reflects the principles inherent in Line of Beauty. Simplicity Amidst Complexity Line of Beauty in literature is not solely about melodic flow; it also encompasses an understanding that simplicity can exist within complexity. Writers skillfully weave intricate narratives with multiple layers, capturing elements that are both grandiose and minute. This balance between simplicity and complexity mirrors one aspect of Line of Beauty: where seemingly simple lines or concepts can contain depths worth exploring. For example, an elegantly crafted metaphor can simultaneously convey complex emotions while remaining accessible to readers. It allows them to appreciate the beauty within simplicity while contemplating deeper meanings beneath its surface. By incorporating Line of Beauty into their literary works, writers invite readers on a journey where they encounter captivating imagery which captures their imaginations while leaving room for personal interpretation. Throughout various forms of artistic expression — be it painting, sculpture, architecture, or literature — Line Of Beauty holds a significant role in captivating our senses. Its presence enhances visual appeal by infusing gracefulness and rhythm into compositions; its absence can create a void that leaves an artwork feeling incomplete. Beyond the visual realm, Line of Beauty finds resonance in literature and poetry, enriching our reading experiences through melodic flow and the simultaneous simplicity within complexity. By understanding and appreciating Line of Beauty, we gain insight into the aesthetics that surround us in both nature and artistic creations. This knowledge allows us to engage with art on a deeper level, recognizing the intricate balance between simplicity and complexity that lies at its core. It encourages us to seek beauty in unexpected places, fostering a greater appreciation for diverse art forms and inspiring our own creative endeavors. In embracing Line of Beauty’s principles, we discover that beauty is not limited to physical appearance but encompasses a harmonious arrangement of elements that pleases our senses and touches our souls. Let us cultivate an appreciation for Line of Beauty in all its forms, allowing it to guide us towards creating a world where aesthetic delight coexists with emotional depth—a world where harmony prevails.

In the northeastern United States, we often think of spring as a time for wildflowers. But the fall is, too. It is easy to be distracted by the beautiful fall foliage, when our landscape turns brilliant shades of red, orange, and yellow. But when many plants are shutting down for the winter, others are just kicking into gear. Many wildflower species bloom well into fall, both in open areas and in the forest understory. One group of plants are the fall blooming “asters.” In same plant family as sunflowers and dandelions (Asteraceae), Aster was once a very large plant genus in our native North American flora (somewhere along the lines of >175 species!), but as we learned more about the evolutionary relationships of these plants, they have since been split into multiple genera (plural of genus). In fact, there is only one “true” Aster in Pennsylvania, Tatarian aster (Aster tataricus), which is actually not even native to Pennsylvania! Regardless of the scientific name, these plants are commonly referred to as asters. And they put on quite an autumn show in Pennsylvania. Perhaps one of the most common woodland asters in Pennsylvania is white wood aster (Eurybia divaricata, formerly known as Aster divaricatus). This specimen was collected September 29, 1967 by N.R. Farnsworth in Pittsburgh’s Schenley Park. This species can still be found in Schenley Park, and many parks, woodlands, and wooded roadsides across Eastern North America. Fall foliage is beautiful in Pennsylvania. But don’t forget to look down at the flowers, too! Find this white wood aster specimen here: https://midatlanticherbaria.org/portal/collections/individual/index.php?occid=11826562 Check back for more! Botanists at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History share digital specimens from the herbarium on dates they were collected. They are in the midst of a three-year project to digitize nearly 190,000 plant specimens collected in the region, making images and other data publicly available online. This effort is part of the Mid-Atlantic Megalopolis Project (mamdigitization.org), a network of thirteen herbaria spanning the densely populated urban corridor from Washington, D.C. to New York City to achieve a greater understanding of our urban areas, including the unique industrial and environmental history of the greater Pittsburgh region. This project is made possible by the National Science Foundation under grant no. 1801022. Mason Heberling is Assistant Curator of Botany at Carnegie Museum of Natural History. Museum employees are encouraged to blog about their unique experiences and knowledge gained from working at the museum.

The pharyngeal tonsils are also known as the adenoids. They’re one of the 3 types of tonsils in your lymphatic system. The pharyngeal tonsils are basically clusters of lymphatic tissue that can be found in the back of the nose right above the roof of your mouth. However, someone can’t just find the pharyngeal tonsils simply by looking down your mouth. As a baby grows, so do their pharyngeal tonsils. But these reach their largest size when the child is between 3 to 5 years old. Then the pharyngeal tonsils begin to grow smaller as the child turns 7 or 8 years old. The adenoids are barely visible by the time the child reaches their late teens, and the pharyngeal tonsils completely disappear as the child becomes an adult. The pharyngeal tonsils are important for children because they’re part of the first line of defense for the immune system and the human body. The pharyngeal tonsils feature small hairs called cilia that move in a rhythmic pattern. This movement helps to spread the mucus down the pharynx. The mucus is also part of the human body’s defense system, as it captures foreign particles such as dust and infectious bacteria. The pharyngeal tonsils help to carry the mucus to the stomach so the foreign particles can then be flushed away. The pharyngeal tonsils also help to create antibodies, and this is also one of their functions as part of the immune system. One of the more common problems for pharyngeal tonsils in children is enlarged adenoids. This can be a problem which a child is born with, or the pharyngeal tonsils can become swollen because of an infection. The doctor can use x-rays to detect the condition. They also feel the throat for swelling or use an endoscope to check the inside of the throat. When the pharyngeal tonsils are enlarged, they can block proper air flow and sinus drainage in the body. Sleep can be disrupted. The patient can experience restless sleep, sleep apnea, and snoring. The patient can also get a runny nose, cracked lips, dry mouth, ear infections, and bad breath. They may breathe loudly as well. If the problem is temporary, the ENT doctor may prescribe over-the-counter pain killers along with a series of antibiotics or a nasal spray. The problem has to be treated because temporary enlarged adenoids can become a permanent condition. The enlarged pharyngeal tonsils can also be removed using a process called adenoidectomy. This process is needed if the condition is causing long-term issues. The adenoidectomy needs only 30 minutes to complete. Since ENT problem is quite different from case to case, it is suggested to consult an ENT Specialist for the appropriate ENT services. HK ENT Specialist Ltd. Hong Kong based ENT clinic centre For ENT Services, Audiology & Speech Therapy, Sleep Disordered Breathing Management, Hearing Aid Prescription & Medical Cosmetic Services

Consider the pigeon: often maligned, sometimes appreciated, and ubiquitous in cities worldwide, they’re a symbol of urban life—so much so, in fact, that the condition of their bodies is a literal reflection of the environments they share with us. Scientists have previously found that pigeon feathers are a convenient biomarker of urban heavy metal pollution. And in a new study published in the journal Biological Conservation, researchers led by Frédéric Jiguet, an ornithologist at the French Museum of Natural History, turn their attentions towards pigeon feet. Eagle-eyed urbanites will have noticed that these are prone to strange lumps and missing digits. The causes are debated: perhaps it’s disease, or standing in excrement, or the chemical and mechanical measures used to discourage perching. Another possibility is what’s known as “stringfeet,” produced when a string or hair wraps around a pigeon’s digits, cutting off circulation until the tissue dies and falls off. To investigate, Jiguet’s team measured pigeon health and local environmental conditions at 46 sites around Paris, France. They found no correlation between foot deformities and immune system status, suggesting disease was not to blame. Furthermore, when a bird had one mutilated foot, the other foot was no more likely than usual to be similarly deformed. Were a pathogen involved, both feet would be afflicted. But the researchers did find a link between foot deformities and air and noise pollution. They don’t think that pollution itself causes harm; rather, they’re proxies for human activity and population density, which in turn result in pigeons encountering more hair and string. Conversely, where locales had more parks and natural areas, rates of foot deformities decreased. Though pigeons are certainly exposed to plenty of pathogens, “as long as their toes are concerned, pigeons are victims of urban human-based pollution,” write Jiguet and colleagues. The implications are twofold. First of all, “we should pay attention to better manage our street wastes to protect wildlife health,” the researchers write. “There is no ethical reason for accepting that pigeons should suffer from mutilation due to human development without trying to reduce their pain.” Secondly, because pigeon health is so tightly bound with local circumstances—their home ranges are about one-third the size of a typical Manhattan city block—their physical state is telling. Just as people can measure their feather composition to gauge local conditions, so can we “also count on their fingers,” advise Jiguet’s team. When pigeon feet are deformed, it’s a sign that the neighborhood needs less trash and more greenery. Source: Jiguet et al. “Urban pigeons loosing toes due to human activities.” Biological Conservation, 2019. Image: Phineas Gage via Flickr CC About the author: Brandon Keim is a freelance journalist specializing in animals, nature and science, and the author of The Eye of the Sandpiper: Stories From the Living World. Connect with him on Twitter, Instagram and Facebook.

We use will: - to express beliefs about the present or future - to talk about what people want to do or are willing to do - to make promises, offers and requests. would is the past tense form of will. Because it is a past tense, it is used: - to talk about the past - to talk about hypotheses (when we imagine something) - for politeness. John will be in his office. (present) We'll be late. (future) We will have to take the train. (future) We use would as the past of will, to describe past beliefs about the future: I thought we would be late, so we would have to take the train. We use will: - to talk about what people want to do or are willing to do: We'll see you tomorrow. Perhaps Dad will lend me the car. - to talk about typical behaviour, things that we often do (because we are willing to do them): We always spend our holidays at our favourite hotel at the seaside. We'll get up early every morning and have a quick breakfast then we'll go across the road to the beach. We use would as the past tense of will: - to talk about what people wanted to do or were willing to do in the past: We had a terrible night. The baby wouldn't go to sleep. Dad wouldn't lend me the car, so we had to take the train. - to talk about typical behaviour, things that we often did (because we were willing to do them) in the past: When they were children they used to spend their holidays at their grandmother's at the seaside. They'd get up early every morning and have a quick breakfast. Then they'd run across the road to the beach. Promises, offers and requests We use I will or We will to make promises and offers: I'll give you a lift home after the party. We'll come and see you next week. We use Will you … ? or Would you … ? to make requests: Will you carry this for me, please? Would you please be quiet? - will and would 1 - will and would 2 - will and would 3 Hypotheses and conditionals We use will in conditionals to say what we think will happen in the present or future: I'll give her a call if I can find her number. You won't get in unless you have a ticket. We use would to make hypotheses: - when we imagine a situation: It would be very expensive to stay in a hotel. I would give you a lift, but my wife has the car today. - in conditionals: I would give her a call if I could find her number. If I had the money, I'd buy a new car. You would lose weight if you took more exercise. If he got a new job, he would probably make more money. What if he lost his job? What would happen then? We also use conditionals to give advice : Dan will help you if you ask him. Past tenses are more polite: Dan would help you if you asked him. - will and would: hypotheses and conditionals See also: Verbs in time clauses and conditionals Expressions with would - would you…, would you mind (not) -ing for requests: Would you carry this for me, please? Would you mind carrying this? Would you mind not telling him until tomorrow? - would you like ..., would you like to ... for offers and invitations: Would you like another drink? Would you like to come round tomorrow? - I would like …, I'd like … (you)(to) ... to say what we want or what we want to do: I'd like that one, please. I'd like to go home now. - I'd rather… (= I would rather) to say what we prefer: I'd rather have the new one, not the old one. I don't want another drink. I'd rather go home. - I would think, I would imagine, I'd guess to give an opinion when we are not sure or when we want to be polite: It's very difficult, I would imagine. I would think that's the right answer.

Scientists at Ocean Alliance, a non-profit dedicated to conservation efforts, have found a creative new application for drones (unmanned aerial vehicles or UAVs) with advanced vision systems: studying whales in their natural habitat. The non-profit is gathering vital scientific data on what affects the well-being of individual whales, as well as how human activity impacts entire whale populations. Scientists Get Closer Than Ever Before Being out on the water next to a 150-ton whale can be extremely dangerous. While scientists at Ocean Alliance can now study whales from a safe distance, they can also get closer than they had been able to in the past. High-resolution cameras on the drone provide unobstructed views straight into the whale’s lungs. The drones also fly far above the water so that scientists can observe whale behavior that is undisturbed by human presence. These drones are even equipped with petri dishes, so when a whale surfaces and exhales through it’s blowhole, scientists can collect rare genetic and hormonal data from the whale’s mucus. This is a revolutionary approach to studying whale behavior and populations. Will Drones Play a Major Role in Scientific Research Going Forward? The CEO of Ocean Alliance, Dr. Iain Kerr, called this method of research “replicable and powerful.” Adding to the research potential of these drones is the significantly lower cost factor – around $2000 - than a more sophisticated research tool, which can cost upwards of $50,000. Kerr went on to say that this type of drone-led research was not just to study one population of whales – it was to study whale populations for 10, 20 or even 50 years – a testament to the disruptive yet innovative impact these drones have had. Drones go where humans can’t, and advanced vision systems provide imagery that’s never been accessible before. Looking for the right camera for your drones? Learn about Dalsa’s Calibir.

Maximize Practice in Class Enjoy some tips to MAXIMIZE STUDENTS PRACTICE and PARTICIPATION in your lessons. - Use real examples when you teach a part of language. Use examples from your own life. - Ask students about their lives or pop culture references using the target language. - Understand when a student is reluctant to participate (especially first). - Use personal photos or Instagram and encourage them to use Instagram in class to use the target language to talk about the photos. - Create tasks based on the photos for the students to use the target language. Find common examples from: - movie lines

Diseases & Conditions This article addresses hip dislocation that results from a traumatic injury. To learn about pediatric developmental hip dislocation, please read Developmental Dislocation (Dysplasia) of the Hip (DDH). To learn about dislocation after total hip replacement, please read Total Hip Replacement. A traumatic hip dislocation occurs when the head of the thighbone (femur) is forced out of its socket in the hip bone (pelvis). It typically takes a major force to dislocate the hip. Car accidents and falls from significant heights are common causes and, as a result, other injuries like broken bones often occur with the dislocation. A hip dislocation is a serious medical emergency. Immediate treatment is necessary. The hip is a ball-and-socket joint. - The socket is formed by the acetabulum, which is part of the large pelvis bone. - The ball is the femoral head, which is the upper end of the femur. A smooth tissue called articular cartilage covers the surface of the ball and the socket. It creates a low friction surface that helps the bones glide easily across each other. The acetabulum is ringed by strong fibrocartilage called the labrum. The labrum forms a gasket around the socket, creating a tight seal and helping to provide stability to the joint. Strong bands of tissue called ligaments provide additional stability to the hip joint. When there is a hip dislocation, the femoral head is pushed either backward out of the socket, or forward. - Posterior dislocation. In approximately 90% of hip dislocation patients, the femur is pushed out of the socket in a backward direction. This is called a posterior dislocation. A posterior dislocation leaves the lower leg in a fixed position, with the knee and foot rotated in toward the middle of the body. - Anterior dislocation. When the femur slips out of its socket in a forward direction, the hip will be bent only slightly, and the knee and foot will rotate out and away from the middle of the body. When the hip dislocates, the ligaments, labrum, muscles, and other soft tissues holding the bones in place are often damaged, as well. The nerves around the hip may also be injured. Motor vehicle collisions are the most common cause of traumatic hip dislocations. The dislocation often occurs when the knee hits the dashboard in a collision. This force drives the thigh backwards, which drives the ball head of the femur out of the hip socket. Wearing a seatbelt can greatly reduce your risk of hip dislocation during a collision. A fall from a significant height (such as from a ladder) or an industrial accident can also generate enough force to dislocate a hip. While far less common, hip dislocations can result from a collision while playing a sport, like football or hockey. With hip dislocations, there are often other related injuries, such as fractures in the pelvis and legs; and back, abdominal, knee, and head injuries. Perhaps the most common fracture occurs when the head of the femur hits and breaks off the back part of the hip socket during the injury. This is called a posterior wall acetabular fracture-dislocation. A hip dislocation is very painful. Patients are unable to move the leg, and, if there is nerve damage, they may not have any feeling in the foot or ankle area. A hip dislocation is a medical emergency. Call for help immediately. Do not try to move the injured person, and keep them warm with blankets. When hip dislocation is the only injury, an orthopaedic surgeon can often diagnose it simply by looking at the position of the leg. Because hip dislocations often occur with additional injuries, however, your doctor will complete a thorough physical evaluation. Your doctor will order imaging tests, such as X-rays and likely a CT scan, to show the exact position of the dislocated bones, as well as any additional fractures in the hip or femur. If there are no other injuries, you will receive an anesthetic or a sedative, and an orthopaedic doctor will manipulate the bones back into their proper position. This is called a reduction. In some cases, the reduction must be done in the operating room with anesthesia. In rare cases, torn soft tissues or small bony fragments block the femur from going back into the socket. When this occurs, surgery is required to remove the loose tissues and correctly position the bones. Following reduction, the surgeon will request another set of X-rays, and possibly a computed tomography (CT) scan, to make sure the bones are in the proper position. If the hip joint is successfully reduced and there is no associated fracture of the femoral head (ball) or acetabulum (socket), nonsurgical treatment may be appropriate. In this case, you will likely not be able to put weight through your leg for 6 to 10 weeks and will be advised to avoid putting your injured leg in certain positions as you heal. Surgical treatment may be required if there are fractures associated with the dislocation, or if the hip is unstable even after reduction. The goals of surgery are to restore hip joint stability and to restore the cartilage surfaces to their normal positions. Typically, this requires a large incision, and the surgery may result in a lot of blood loss. Patients may require a blood transfusion during or after this surgery. A hip dislocation can have long-term consequences, particularly if there are associated fractures. - Nerve injury. As the femur is pushed out of the socket, particularly in posterior dislocations, it can crush and stretch nerves in the hip. The sciatic nerve, which extends from the lower back down the back of the legs, is the nerve most commonly affected. Injury to the sciatic nerve may cause weakness in the lower leg and affect the ability to move the knee, ankle and foot normally. Sciatic nerve injury occurs in approximately 10% of hip dislocation patients. The majority of these patients will experience some nerve recovery. - Osteonecrosis. As the femur is pushed out of the socket, it can tear blood vessels. When blood supply to the bone is lost, the bone can die, resulting in osteonecrosis (also called avascular necrosis). This is a painful condition that can ultimately lead to the destruction of the hip joint, and arthritis. - Arthritis. The protective cartilage covering the bone may also be damaged, which increases the risk of developing arthritis in the joint. Arthritis can eventually lead to the need for other procedures, like a total hip replacement. It takes time — sometimes 2 to 3 months — for the hip to heal after a dislocation. The rehabilitation time may be longer if there are additional fractures. The doctor may recommend limiting hip motion for several weeks to protect the hip from dislocating again. Physical therapy is often recommended during recovery. Patients often begin walking with crutches within a short time. Walking aids, such as walkers, crutches, and, eventually, canes, help patients regain their mobility. Contributed and/or Updated by AAOS does not endorse any treatments, procedures, products, or physicians referenced herein. This information is provided as an educational service and is not intended to serve as medical advice. Anyone seeking specific orthopaedic advice or assistance should consult his or her orthopaedic surgeon, or locate one in your area through the AAOS Find an Orthopaedist program on this website.

An image sensor is a device that converts light into electrical signals that can be processed into digital images. These sensors are crucial to space exploration because they help scientists and engineers study planets, stars, and other celestial objects. Image Credit: nmedia/Shutterstock.com Image sensors, also known as camera sensors, capture images in space. The cameras use sensors that convert light into digital signals that are later processed into images. Image Sensors in Space Image sensors in space work on the same principles as image sensors used in digital cameras and smartphones. The sensors convert light into electrical signals that can be processed into digital images. However, image sensors used in space must be designed to withstand the harsh radiation and temperature conditions present in space. Image sensors work by detecting photons of light that enter the sensor through a lens. The photons strike a semiconductor material, which produces electrons. The electrons produced by the semiconductor material are collected in individual pixels on the image sensor. Each pixel collects electrons proportional to the amount of light that enters the sensor. The electrons collected by each pixel are then converted into a digital signal. This signal is then processed by the spacecraft's onboard computer to create a digital image. Advancements in Image Sensors for Space Technologies There have been significant advancements in image sensing in recent years, with particular emphasis on improving the resolution, sensitivity, and durability of image sensors. These efforts have produced new kinds of image sensors that are highly effective for space applications. Backside-illuminated sensors are image sensors with their light-sensitive layer on the backside of the sensor. These sensors are more sensitive to light and have better low-light performance than traditional image sensors. Time-delayed integration sensors are image sensors that use a technique called time-delayed integration to capture images. Time-delayed integration involves integrating the signal from the sensor over a longer period than traditional sensors. This technique results in higher sensitivity and lower noise levels. Radiation-hardened sensors are image sensors designed to withstand the harsh radiation environment in space. The sensors are built with materials resistant to radiation and have shielding to protect them from radiation. These types of sensors are becoming increasingly popular in space applications because they can capture high-quality images even in challenging lighting conditions, withstand the radiation environment, and continue functioning correctly. Applications of Image Sensors in Space The applications of image sensors in space are vast and diverse, ranging from earth observation to planetary observation and astronomy. Earth observation is the study of the planet's physical, chemical, and biological characteristics from space. Image sensors play a vital role in this process. Satellites equipped with image sensors can capture images of the earth's surface, oceans, and atmosphere. The images help scientists and researchers monitor the environment, track natural disasters, and study climate change. Planetary exploration involves the study of planets and other celestial objects in our solar system. Image sensors are used in spacecraft that are sent to study planets such as Mars, Venus, and Jupiter. The sensors capture images of the planet's surface, atmosphere, and other features. The images help scientists understand the geology, weather, and other characteristics of the planet. Astronomy is the study of the universe and its celestial objects. Image sensors are used in telescopes and observatories to capture images of stars, galaxies, and other celestial objects. The images help astronomers understand the properties and behavior of these objects. The Curiosity Rover is a NASA spacecraft sent to Mars in 2012. The rover is equipped with a Mast Camera (MastCam) that uses two 2-megapixel color sensors. The MastCam has been instrumental in capturing high-resolution images of the Martian landscape and helping scientists study the geology and environmental conditions on Mars. The Landsat program is a joint venture between NASA and the United States Geological Survey (USGS). The program has been operating for over 40 years and has been instrumental in studying the earth's environment. The Landsat satellites are equipped with image sensors that capture images of the earth's surface, oceans, and atmosphere. The photos help scientists monitor the environment, track natural disasters, and study climate change. The Hubble Space Telescope is a space observatory that was launched in 1990. The telescope is equipped with several image sensors that capture images of the universe. The images captured by the Hubble Space Telescope have been instrumental in advancing our understanding of the universe. Image sensors have become a crucial component in various space missions. They are used for earth observation, planetary exploration, and astronomy. The latest advancements in image sensors for space have focused on improving the resolution, sensitivity, and durability of image sensors. Backside-illuminated sensors, time-delayed integration sensors, and radiation-hardened sensors are some of the latest advancements in image sensors for space. As technology continues to advance, image sensors will become even more critical in advancing our understanding of the universe. References and Further Reading Image Sensors Enhance Camera Technologies. (2010). NASA Spinoff. Available at: https://spinoff.nasa.gov/Spinoff2010/cg_3.html Innocent, M., Cools, T. et al. (2017). HAS3: A radiation tolerant CMOS image sensor for space applications. ON Semiconductor. Available at: https://www.imagesensors.org/Past%20Workshops/2017%20Workshop/2017%20Papers/P12_innocent_2.pdf Jerram, P., & Stefanov, K. (2020). 9 - CMOS and CCD image sensors for space applications. High Performance Silicon Imaging (Second Edition), pp. 255-287. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102434-8.00009-X Kim, W.-T., Park, C., Lee, H., Lee, I., & Lee, B.-G. (2019). A High Full Well Capacity CMOS Image Sensor for Space Applications. Sensors. Available at: doi.org/10.3390/s19071505

Fuse wires are typically made from materials that have specific electrical and thermal properties to ensure their effectiveness in protecting electrical circuits. The most common materials used for fuse wires include: - Copper: Copper is a widely used material for fuse wires. It has excellent electrical conductivity and is relatively resistant to corrosion. Copper fuse wires are suitable for low to moderate current applications. - Aluminum: Aluminum is another metal used for fuse wires. While not as conductive as copper, aluminum is lighter and less expensive. Aluminum fuse wires may be used in applications where weight and cost are significant considerations. - Silver: In certain specialized applications where extremely high precision is required, silver fuse wires may be used. Silver has excellent electrical conductivity, but it is more expensive than copper or aluminum. The choice of material depends on the specific requirements of the electrical circuit and the application. The primary function of a fuse wire is to melt or break when the current exceeds a safe limit, thereby interrupting the circuit and preventing damage to the connected devices or components. The material used must have a specific melting point and be capable of carrying the normal operating current without regular interruption. It’s important to note that the thickness and length of the fuse wire are also critical factors in determining its current-carrying capacity and response to overcurrent conditions. Fuse wires are designed to be sacrificial components, protecting the more expensive and critical components of an electrical circuit. The specific metal used in a fuse wire is chosen based on a balance of electrical, thermal, and economic considerations.

Using barcodes to trace cell development How do the multiple different cell types in the blood develop? Scientists have been pursuing this question for a long time. According to the classical model, different developmental lines branch out like in a tree. The tree trunk is composed of stem cells and the branches are made up of various types of progenitor cells that can give rise to a number of distinct cell types. Then it further branches off into the specialized blood cells, i.e., red blood cells, blood platelets and various types of white blood cells that are part of the immune system. In recent years, however, doubts about this model have arisen. Hans-Reimer Rodewald, a scientist at the German Cancer Research Center (Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum, DKFZ) in Heidelberg, and his co-workers wanted to capture the dynamic events in blood cell formation instead of merely taking snapshots. In close collaboration with a research team led by systems biologist Thomas Höfer, the scientists have developed a new technology that enables them to precisely follow the developmental tracks of cells. To this end, they label stem cells with a kind of genetic barcode in order to be able to clearly identify their offspring later. "Genetic barcodes have been developed and applied before, but they were based on methods that can also change cellular properties," Rodewald said. "Our barcodes are different: They can be induced tissue-specifically and directly in the genome of mice - without influencing the animals' physiological development." The basis of the new technology is the so-called Cre/loxP system that is used to rearrange or remove specially labeled DNA segments. Weike Pei und Thorsten Feyerabend in Rodewald's team bred mice whose genomes exhibit the basic elements of the barcode. At a selected site, where no genes are encoded, it contains nine small DNA fragments from a plant called Arabidopsis thaliana. These elements are flanked by ten genetic cutting sites called IoxP sites. By administering a pharmacological agent, the matching molecular scissors called "Cre" can be activated in the animals' hematopoietic stem cells. Then code elements are randomly rearranged or cut out. "This genetic random DNA barcode generator can generate up to 1.8 million genetic barcodes and we can identify the codes that arise only once in an experiment," Höfer said. "The mice then do the rest of the work," said Rodewald. When these specially labeled hematopoietic stem cells divide and mature, the barcodes are preserved. In collaboration with the Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, the researchers have performed comprehensive barcode analyses in order to trace an individual blood cell back to the stem cell from which it originates. These analyses have revealed that two large developmental branches start out from the hematopoietic stem cells of the mice: In one branch, T cells and B cells of the immune system develop; in the other, red blood cells as well as various other types of white blood cells such as granulocytes and monocytes form. All these cell types can arise from a single stem cell. "Our findings show that the classical model of a hierarchical developmental tree that starts from multipotent stem cells holds true for hematopoiesis," Rodewald emphasized. The system developed by the Heidelberg researchers can also be used for other purposes besides studying blood cell development. This strategy can basically be applied in any tissue. In the future, it might also be used for experimentally tracing the origin of leukemias and other cancers. More information: Weike Pei et al, Polylox barcoding reveals haematopoietic stem cell fates realized in vivo, Nature (2017). DOI: 10.1038/nature23653

The war between Japan and China over the control of Korea, while lasting less than a year, was one of the first wars to be covered by reporters, whose daily dispatches created a huge demand for war pictures. Japanese artists responded by producing over 3,000 wood-block prints at the rate of about ten a day. Most were published as sets of three panels and show the influence of recent contact with the West, both in the bright coloring and in the use of perspective and foreshortening. Several prints show newsmen braving the hazards of war in the interests of their readers, adding to the battle-front air of excitement. But in fact very few artists went to the front, and their images were often based on inadequate or erroneous accounts. Some woodcuts were even executed and sold in anticipation of the skirmishes they supposedly recorded. The frankly propagandistic aims of the prints led to still other distortions. Many images portrayed the war as a battle waged by modern civilization against the forces of reaction and darkness. Still, from the mid-1880s Japanese critics had put new emphasis on the importance of realism in the arts. Many printmakers responded to their demand and sought to convince rather than to excite, conveying a fidelity to atmosphere if not to actual facts of battle. These artists actually benefited from the paucity of information about the war, which left them free to invent scenes and details of landscape in their images of the hardships endured by soldiers. This exhibition of 87 wood-block prints supported by a grant from The Pew Memorial Trust is drawn from the Museum's permanent collection. Many of the war prints were acquired through funds donated by Peter A. Benoliel, and some were a gift of Charles H. Mitchell. The exhibition is accompanied by a fully illustrated catalogue written by Shumpei Okamoto, Professor of Japanese History at Temple University.

Dental Health and Fluoride Treatment Fluoride is a mineral that occurs naturally in many foods and water. Every day, minerals are added to and lost from a tooth’s enamel layer through two processes, demineralization and remineralization. Minerals are lost (demineralization) from a tooth’s enamel layer when acids — formed from plaque bacteria and sugars in the mouth — attack the enamel. Minerals such as fluoride, calcium, and phosphate are redeposited (remineralization) to the enamel layer from the foods and waters consumed. Too much demineralization without enough remineralization to repair the enamel layer leads to tooth decay. Fluoride helps prevent tooth decay by making the tooth more resistant to acid attacks from plaque bacteria and sugars in the mouth. It also reverses early decay. In children under six years of age, fluoride becomes incorporated into the development of permanent teeth, making it difficult for acids to demineralize the teeth. Fluoride also helps speed remineralization, as well as disrupts acid production in already erupted teeth of both children and adults. Optimizing a fluoride protocol for individuals at dental caries risk is the most important measure that can be done to prevent future and halt current disease. However, fluoride therapy remains complex and controversial. Since the introduction of water fluoridation, fluoride supplements, and topical fluoride therapies in the late 1940s, the mechanisms of action, dosage and delivery systems have been debated and have evolved. Originally, the mechanisms of fluoride action were ascribed solely to reducing enamel solubility. Now, other mechanisms such as fluorides effect on remineralization and its effect on bacterial metabolism also are recognized. Similarly, the initial dosage of fluoride supplements was empirical, based on simulating fluoride exposure from optimally fluoridated water. As a result of epidemiologic studies showing mild fluorosis, which is the developmental disturbance of dental enamel caused by excessive exposure to high concentrations of fluoride during tooth development, in some children with the original dosage and the fact that fluoride is now a ubiquitous part of a childs diet, the fluoride supplement dosage has been altered several times over the past 30 years. These issues of dosage are further compounded by epidemiologic studies showing changing prevalence of caries and fluorosis. Topical fluoride use in preschool children, as well, has evolved. New modalities, such as fluoride varnishes, have become more prevalent for office treatment for children because of the safety of premeasured doses, ease of application and better patient acceptance. We will explore this further when we look at the forms of fluoride. Overlaying both the issues of topical fluoride therapy and fluoride supplement use is the current focus on individualized therapy for patients based on caries risk. One should no longer prescribe fluoride supplements or perform a professionally applied topical fluoride treatment without considering an individuals caries risk. Recent recommendations suggest limited use of fluoride for those at low caries risk, but significantly more frequency and intensity for those at high risk. This course will explore the forms of fluoride and their appropriate uses. It will also explore options, based on efficacy for systemic fluoride, office treatments and home-use fluoride products. Fluoride therapy is the deliver of fluoride to the teeth topically or systemically in order to prevent toot decay, also called dental caries, which result in cavities. Treatments in a dentists office contain a much higher level of fluoride than the amount found in toothpastes and mouth rinses. Currently available fluorides include sodium fluoride, sodium monofluorophosphate, acidulated phosphate fluoride and stannous fluoride. In addition to its use as an caries preventative to help demineralization and acid remineralization, fluoride is used for the treatment of dentinal hypersensitivity. Systemic delivery involves both intentional sources of fluoride using fluoriadated water and fluoride supplements and unintentional sources such as naturally occurring fluoride in well water, fluoride toothpaste, brewed tea, bottled water, drinks and goods processed using fluoidated water, and foods such as fish. In addition, certain medications contain fluoride. Systemic fluoride can also be delivered via salt, tablets, or drops which are swallowed. Tablets or drops are rarely used where public water supplies are fluoridated. Fluoridated water High fluoride level well water Fluoide supplements Foods containing fluoride Fluoidated salt Home-use fluoride Fluoridated foods High fluoride level bottled water Since water fluoridation was first introduced there has been a substantial decline in caries rates. Water fuoridation, as a public health measure, is achieved through the additon of fluoride at water plants, typically to obtain a level of 1 ppm fluoride in drining water. In other areas where the level of fluoride is substantially higher than the recommended level excess fluoride can be removed during processing. Fluoridated salt has been used in several areas of the world, including parts of Europe and latin America. A recent review of the literature led to the determination that there are no randomized, controlled clinical trials on the use of fluoridated salt to enable conclusions to be dreawn as to its efficacy. Fluoride supplements can be given to at risk children as drops, lozenges or tablets, with the dose varying with the level of fluoride contained in the domestic water supply and age of the child. The use of fluoride supplements by pregnant women does not result in any benefit for the baby. During tooth development, the cumulative ingestion of fluoride prior to pre-eruptive enamel maturation results in fluoride ions replacing hydroxyl ions and the formation of fluorapatite crystals instead of hydroxyapatite crystals. The fluorapatite crystals are smaller and stronger than hydroxyapatite crystals and are more resistant to demineralization associated with the dental caries process. Recent reviews have suggested that the effect of fluoride, including that contained in supplements, foods and drinks, is mainly the result of its topical effect. Topical fluorides are available as in-office fluorides and home-use fluorides. Topical fluorides act intra-orally by: Providing periodic high doses of fluoride (in office) Providing low regular doses of fluoride (home-use) Available in U.S. as: Acidulated phosphate fluoride (or acidulated sodium sodium fluoride) Fluoride from glass ionomer cements Other fluoride-releasing dental materials Acidulated formulations were first investigated with the goal of increasing fluoride uptake and ion exchange through the use of low pH. These included phosphate to prevent dissolution of dental hard tissues. Other investigators focused on formulations that had the potential to bind the fluoride to the tooth surface or prolong the application for greater fluoride release and availability. Dental caries, also known as tooth decay or a cavity, is an irreversible infection usually bacterial in origin. The anti-caries benefit derived from topical fluoride can be attributed primarily to the prevention of demineralization and the promotion of remineralization. Ensuring the ready availability of intra-oral fluoride helps prevent demineralization from occurring and, should it occur, aids remineralization. Topical fluoride is also believed to inhibit caries activity through bacterial inhibition. Most of the topical effect of fluoride is due to the presence of available fluoride rather than the influence of fluoride uptake during fluoride therapy. As previously mentioned, ingested fluoride also contributes to the topical effect of fluorides. Omitting plaque removal with a professional prophylaxis prior to the use of in-office topical fluorides has been found to still result in the formation of calcium fluoride-like globules at the tooth surface and, in fact, to increase fluoride retention and the efficacy of fluoride therapy. Regular rinsing with fluoride in the presence of plaque has been shown to result in the deposition of alkali-soluble (available) fluoride. In Office Fluorides In office fluorides are available as varnishes, gels, foams and rinses. These differ by type off fluoride, concentration, method and length of application. In the United States, fluoride varnish is available as 5% sodium fluoride, equivalent to 22,600 ppm fluoride. While the FDA has cleared varnish as a device for the relief of hypersensitivity and as a cavity liner, the vast majority of clinical trials, evidence-based studies and the major use worldwide is as an in-office topical fluoride for the prevention of dental caries. In addition, the American Dental Association recommends the use of 5% sodium fluoride varnish for caries prevention for children of all ages (including children under 6 years of age) and for adults. Both tinted and white/clear versions are available in tubes and/or unit doses. Patients tend to prefer the white/clear for esthetic reasons, while dental professionals tend to prefer the tinted for ease of application. Application frequencies of twice or four times per year have been advocated, as well as more frequently than four times per year in some cases of early childhood caries. Gels and foams are available as acidulated phosphate fluoride and as sodium fluoride. Acidulated phosphate fluoride (APF) gels and foams contain 12,300 ppm fluoride, and neutral sodium fluoride gels contain approximately 9,000 ppm fluoride. These are available as either a four-minute or a one minute application. There is clinical support and evidence for the efficacy of four0-minute gel applications. Foam has the advantage of resulting in a lower dose of applied fluoride compared to gel, reducing the risk of ingestion. The use of in-office fluoride gels and foams is not recommended for children under age 6, who are at greater risk of fluoride ingestion during application and have less ability to spit our excess afterward. In-office Fluoride Rinses In-office topical rinses are available as 2% sodium fluoride rinses and dual rinses containing stannous fluoride and acidulated phosphate fluoride. These should not be used in young children, due to the risk of ingestion. The American Dental Association encourages dental professionals to employ caries risk assessment strategies in their practices. Appropriate preventive dental treatment (including topical fluoride therapy) can be planned after identification of caries risk status. It also is important to consider that risk of developing dental caries exists on a continuum and changes over time as risk factors change. Therefore, caries risk status should be re-evaluated periodically. Patients can be classified as being at low, moderate or high risk for caries at a given time. Low-risk patients are those who have no factors that may increase their risk of caries and who have had no incipient, cavitated or secondary carious lesions in the prior three years, according to the guidelines in the ADA recommendations on professionally applied fluorides. All other patients are either moderate or high risk. For moderate- and high-risk patients, the American Dental Association recommendations are for the use of fluoride varnish in children under age 6 and either fluoride varnish or a four-minute gel in patients age 6 and over. The recommended frequency of application for these patients is two to four times per year, depending on risk level. The ADA recommendations do not include the use of foam specifically because there are few clinical trials conducted on foam to demonstrate its efficacy. However, those that were conducted, together with laboratory data, suggest that it may be equivalent to fluoride gel. For low-risk patients, in-office topical fluorides are not recommended, and the use of fluoride dentifrice may suffice. Professional judgment is required for individual patients. Low Risk Patients < 6 years of age: Professional Fluoride may be of no benefit 6-18 years of age: Professional fluoride may be of no benefit 18+ years of age: Professional fluoride may be of no benefit < 6 years of age: Fluoride varnish 2 times per year 6-18 years of age: Fluoride varnish or gel 2 times per year 18+ years of age: Fluoride varnish or gel 2 times per year < 6 years of age: Fluoride varnish 2-4 times per year 6-18 years of age: Fluoride varnish or gel 2-4 times per year 18+ years of age: Fluoride varnish or gel 2-4 times per year Suboptimal fluoride exposure Poor oral hygiene Familial high caries rate High bacterial load High frequency sugar and other carbohydrate consumption Drug or alcohol abuse Home-use fluorides include fluoride denitrifies as well as over-the-counter and prescription gels, pastes, and rinses. The majority of over-the-counter dentifrices available in the United States contain 1,000-1,100- ppm fluoride, available as sodium fluoride, sodium monofuorophosphate and stannous fluoride, and have been found to be effective with these formulations. Use of these in-home dentifrice twice daily provides a regular supply of fluoride that results in the presence of low levels of fluoride intra-orally on the teeth and soft tissues. It is recommended to commence use of a fluoride dentifrice in children at age 2, using only a pea-sized amount twice daily from the age of 2 and until reaching 6 years of age. Children under the age of 6 should always be supervised while brushing. Prescription home-use 1.1% sodium fluoride, equivalent to 5,000 ppm fluoride, is available as pastes containing a mild abrasive and as gels/liquids containing no abrasive. These can also be used in mouth trays for extended at-home application. Prescription, 0.2% sodium fluoride, and over-the-counter fluoride, 0.05% sodium fluoride, rinses are available for home-use. Significant caries reductions have been observed with daily rinsing in subjects living in areas with up to 0.3 ppm fluoride in the water. It is certainly important for infants and children between the ages of 6 months and 16 years to be exposed to fluoride. This is the timeframe during which the primary and permanent teeth come in. However, adults benefit from fluoride too. New research indicates that topical fluoride — from toothpastes, mouth rinses, and fluoride treatments — are as important in fighting tooth decay as in strengthening developing teeth. In addition, people with certain conditions may be at increased risk of tooth decay and would therefore benefit from additional fluoride treatment. They include people with: Dry mouth conditions: Dry mouth caused by diseases such as Sjgren’s syndrome, certain medications such as allergy medications, antihistamines, anti-anxiety drugs, and high blood pressure drugs), and head and neck radiation treatment makes an individual more prone to tooth decay. The lack of saliva makes it harder for food particles to be washed away and acids to be neutralized. Gum disease: Also called gingivitis, gum disease can expose more of the tooth and tooth roots to bacteria increasing the chance of tooth decay. History of frequent cavities : If an individual has one cavity every year or every other year, they might benefit from additional fluoride. Presence of crowns and/or bridges or braces : These treatments can put teeth at risk for decay at the point where the crown meets the underlying tooth structure or around the brackets of orthodontic appliances. Fluoride is the only chemical added to water for the purpose of medical treatment. Fluoride is classified as a drug when used to prevent or mitigate disease, and as such, many feel informed consent should be a standard for fluoride, as it is will all other medications. Only eight countries in the world have more than 50% of their populations drinking artificially fluoridated water including Australia, Columbia, Ireland, Israel, Malaysia, New Zealand, Singapore and the United States. Those who oppose the wide use of fluoride site reasons such as the potential for fluoride to lower IQ, cause non-IQ neurotoxic effects, have a negative affect of thyroid function and cause arthritic symptoms, as well as many other controversial affects. Fluoride is safe and effective when used as directed but can be hazardous at high doses (the “toxic” dosage level varies based on an individual’s weight). For this reason, it’s important for parents to carefully supervise their children’s use of fluoride-containing products and to keep fluoride products out of reach of children, especially children under the age of 6. In addition, as mentioned earlier, excess fluoride can cause fluorosis usually in children under 6 years. Although tooth staining from fluorosis cannot be removed with normal hygiene, a dentist may be able to lighten or remove these stains with professional-strength abrasives or bleaches. Keep in mind, however, that it’s very difficult to reach hazardous levels given the low levels of fluoride in home-based fluoride-containing products. A few useful reminders about fluoride include: Store fluoride supplements away from young children. Avoid flavored toothpastes because these tend to encourage toothpaste to be swallowed. Use only a pea-sized amount of fluoridated toothpaste on a child’s toothbrush. Be cautious about using fluoridated toothpaste in children under age 6. Children under 6 years of age are more likely to swallow toothpaste instead of spitting it out. Bottled Water and Fluoride Even though there’s no scientific studies to suggest that people who drink bottled water are at an increased risk of tooth decay, the American Dental Association (ADA) says that such people could be missing out on the decay-preventing effects of optimally fluoridated water available from their community water source. The ADA adds that most bottled waters do not contain optimal levels of fluoride, which is 0.7 to 1.2 parts per million (this is the amount that is in public water supplies, in the communities that have fluoridated water). Home Water Treatment Systems and Fluoride The amount of fluoride in drinking water depends on the type of home water treatment system used. Steam distillation systems remove 100% of fluoride content. Reverse osmosis systems remove between 65% and 95% of the fluoride. On the other hand, water softeners and charcoal/carbon filters generally do not remove fluoride. One exception: some activated carbon filters contain activated alumina that may remove over 80% of the fluoride. Fluoridation is widely, but not universally, accepted by dental professionals as being useful. Fluoride combats the decay primarily by the formation fluorapatite via remineralization of enamel. Fluoride controls the rate at which cavities develop.

Toke up to Defeat Seasonal Depression Seasonal depression, also known as Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD), is a condition that plagues many individuals when the days grow shorter, and sunlight becomes scarce. This mood disorder is characterized by heightened feelings of depression or anxiety that tend to flare up in response to seasonal changes, most commonly in the fall and through the winter. But what causes this condition, and why is getting enough sunlight so important for our mental well-being? Seasonal affective disorder is often more prevalent in regions farther from the equator, where daylight hours significantly decrease during the winter. Several factors contribute to the development of SAD, including vitamin D deficiency, low serotonin levels, and disruptions in the body’s internal clock due to shorter daylight hours. The Importance of Sunlight and Vitamin D Deficiency When we are deprived of sunlight, some of us begin to experience feelings of depression and listlessness. Exposure to natural sunlight is essential because it provides us with much-needed vitamin D. The sun’s ultraviolet rays stimulate a chemical reaction in our skin cells that produces vitamin D, a vital nutrient for our overall health. Most people should be exposed to the sun for at least six minutes during the summer and for about 15 minutes during the winter months to meet daily vitamin D requirements. On cloudy and overcast days, however, it can be challenging to get the minimum daily recommended amount of sunlight. Vitamin D deficiency is linked to a range of health issues, including: - Brittle bones - Muscle weakness - Mood changes - Getting sick often - Hair loss Serotonin Levels Decline During the Winter Serotonin is a neurotransmitter in the brain that regulates a variety of physiological functions, such as mood and hunger. The reduction of sunlight during the winter months can contribute to a decrease in the level of serotonin, which has been linked to depression. People with seasonal affective disorder can have trouble sleeping because the body is not making enough serotonin to convert melatonin. Symptoms can range from mild to severe and usually improve in the spring when the days start to get longer. Symptoms of SAD While not everyone that has seasonal affective disorder will exhibit all symptoms, they may include: - Problems sleeping - Irritability or agitation - Difficulty focusing - Loss of interest in activities - Social withdrawal - Reduced energy levels - Decreased libido - Changes in appetite or weight - Feelings of sadness or hopelessness Anyone who is having worsening feelings of depression, thoughts of self-harm, or suicide should consult with a healthcare professional immediately and/or call the National Suicide Prevention Hotline at 800-273-8255. Dealing with Seasonal Affective Disorder There are various ways to cope with Seasonal Affective Disorder. Physical activity, such as a brisk 10-minute jog, can help boost natural endorphin levels. Light therapy, using specific lamps that emit broad-spectrum light, can simulate sunlight exposure. Additionally, vitamin D supplements have shown promise in alleviating the symptoms of SAD. But what about holistic and natural remedies that have the potential to ease the stresses experienced by sufferers of SAD without risking the potentially damaging side effects of prescription drugs? Cannabidiol (CBD) is commonly found in the cannabis plant and is known to provide many therapeutic effects. High CBD strains of cannabis are often used for medicinal cannabis purposes. Cannabinoids and Their Effect on the Human Brain cannabinols are compounds found in the cannabis plant and have garnered interest in recent years due to their many therapeutic effects. The human body contains an endocannabinoid receptor system (ECS) that plays a crucial role in regulating various processes, including mood. When these receptors are stimulated by cannabinols, they can help balance functions like mood, sleep, and energy levels. CBD for Seasonal Affective Disorder Research has shown that CBD, one of the main active compounds in cannabis, has the potential to boost serotonin and dopamine levels by interacting with the ECS. Serotonin and dopamine are neurotransmitters closely associated with mood and emotional well-being. Many studies show that CBD has the potential to ease the symptoms experienced by people suffering from SAD, such as reported in this article about CBD for seasonal affective disorder. CBD may offer a natural and holistic approach to managing the symptoms of SAD, potentially providing relief from anxiety and depression. It’s important to consult with a healthcare professional before considering CBD as a treatment option, especially if you’re already taking other medications. Seasonal Affective Disorder can be a challenging condition to endure, but there are various strategies to cope with it. While traditional treatments like light therapy and vitamin D supplements are valuable, the potential of CBD as a natural remedy offers hope to those seeking alternative solutions. Speak to your medical provider about CBD for SAD, or consider growing your own medical garden with high-CBD strains. The Seed Cellar offers a wide selection of high-quality cannabis seeds proven for therapeutic medical use. We offer high CBD and high content strains in feminized and autoflowers for your growing convenience. Check out The Seed Cellar now for the best medical cannabis seeds to treat a variety of conditions, including seasonal affective disorder.

How do you determine when you begin to lose hearing? An audiogram is a graph of the state of your hearing, obtained as a result of an audiometric examination. The scientific name is threshold tonal audiometry. - Consonant sounds are difficult to perceive - Familiar sounds seem to have disappeared - Talking in crowded places is getting harder Most people are surprised to learn that hearing is a brain activity. When your auditory system is not working properly, your brain needs much more effort to process the sound it receives from your inner ear. That is why you can feel tired at the end of the day if it was filled with conversations with the need to listen to what was said. You may not even pay attention to this, but such frequent exhaustions should push you to think. In the ears constantly ringing More than 50 million people suffer from a certain degree of tinnitus, making it one of the most common health conditions. Both age-related hearing loss and noise-induced hearing loss can cause tinnitus, a condition also known as tinnitus. In these situations, the researchers believe that tinnitus may be a way to fill missed frequencies that it no longer receives from the auditory system. High-frequency hearing loss is generally a type of sensoneural hearing loss, which means that the auditory hairs in the inner ear have been damaged. These cells are responsible for converting sounds into signals and transmitting them over the auditory nerve to the brain for interpretation. In addition to age, this type of hearing loss can be caused by noise, disease, infection, or genetics. Although sensoneural hearing loss is untreatable, it can be treated with hearing aids or cochlear implants. Diagnosis and treatment are important because hearing loss that is not treated is associated with mental health conditions such as anger, depression, anxiety, isolation, loneliness, and cognitive decline.

Karate is a form of martial art with an origin in Japan. The word “Karate” means empty hand, and unarmed form of self-defence, that strengthens their bodies trough balance and breathing techniques to reach their peak potential. Studying karate goes beyond learning to fight. It offers kids the chance to develop both physically and emotionally, getting to better know themselves and allowe them to overcome their limits. Karate is not a sport; rather, this style of physical and mental challenge is a lifestyle, one that requires the full commitment of the fighter’s mind and body. As a result, the self-discipline, self-control and ethical conduct developed in martial arts classes extends into other areas of the child’s life. The use of their own energy and a positive attitude are vital. The techniques they learn not only give them the confidence to defend themselves but also the strength to address difficult situations in their daily lives. Apart from using the correct technique, concentration and respect are key. When training karate you train for life, where we are all equal. Resilience is also developed when children study martial arts. Young karate students who are confronted by bullies summon their learned resistance and coping mechanisms to handle the threat. The resilience they build transfers over the academic performance and social and emotional effectiveness. Their improved self-esteem helps them brush away their vulnerability. Multiple studies have shown that practicing martial arts benefits teenagers in general, in particular those with behavioural problems or emotional distress. - Higher self-esteem and assertiveness - Improve physical condition and motor skills by practicing cardio-vascular work which helps release adrenaline and stress. - Find the right balance between body and mind, which benefits concentration leading to better school results - Karate is not oriented towards fight. It is all about boosting self-confidence and enabling us to be ready to defend ourselves showing good decision-making skills and reacting, when put under pressure, in a calm and less defiant manner. - Better self-awareness, accepting rules of coexistence and your own self. - Encourage good-nature rivalry, avoiding conflict and with respect for equality. “The enemy is fear, love is the armour” David Carradine (1936-2009)

Are you struggling with genetics problems? Do you find it challenging to understand the concepts and find the right answers? Look no further! Our genetics problems answer key provides you with clear solutions and answers, helping you grasp the intricacies of this fascinating field. Genetics is a complex science that deals with the study of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms. It plays a crucial role in understanding how traits are passed on from one generation to another. However, navigating through genetics problems can be overwhelming without proper guidance. Our genetics problems answer key offers comprehensive explanations and step-by-step solutions to help you unravel the mysteries of genetic inheritance. Whether you’re a student preparing for an exam or an enthusiast exploring the wonders of genetics, our answer key is your ultimate resource. With our answer key, you can gain a deeper understanding of complex genetic concepts such as Punnett squares, inheritance patterns, and genetic disorders. Our experienced experts have carefully crafted solutions that are easy to follow, ensuring that you can confidently tackle any genetics problem that comes your way. Don’t let genetics problems discourage you. Unlock the doors to a better understanding of genetics with our genetics problems answer key. Get ready to unravel the secrets of heredity and unlock the potential that lies within the world of genetics. Genetics Problems Answer Key Genetics problems often require careful analysis and application of concepts to arrive at the correct answer. In this genetics problems answer key, you will find clear solutions and explanations to help you understand the underlying principles. Key Concepts in Genetics Before delving into the answer key, it is essential to understand some key concepts in genetics. These concepts include Mendelian inheritance, gene expression, genetic variation, and heredity. Familiarity with these concepts will enable you to approach genetics problems with a solid foundation. Mendelian inheritance refers to the patterns of inheritance discovered by Gregor Mendel, which involve the transmission of traits through generations. Gene expression involves the process by which genes are used to create proteins and determine an organism’s characteristics. Genetic variation refers to the differences in DNA sequences between individuals, which contribute to diversity. Heredity is the passing on of genetic traits from parents to offspring. Using the Answer Key The answer key provided here will guide you through various genetics problems step by step. Each solution will be accompanied by an explanation of the underlying genetic principles at play. It is essential to read and understand these explanations to deepen your understanding of genetics. When using the answer key, take your time to analyze the problem, identify the key information, and apply the relevant genetic concepts. Pay attention to the wording of the question and consider any given data or information. By utilizing a systematic approach and referring to the answer key, you can arrive at the correct answer and build your problem-solving skills in genetics. Remember that genetics problems often require critical thinking and careful consideration of multiple factors. While the answer key will provide you with the correct solution, it is crucial to understand the logic and principles behind it. This understanding will enable you to apply your knowledge to more complex genetics problems in the future. Clear Solutions for Genetics Problems When it comes to genetics, it’s common for students to face challenging problems that require a deep understanding of the subject. These problems can be daunting and may cause confusion, but don’t worry! With the right key and resources, you can find clear and effective solutions to genetics problems. One key aspect of finding solutions to genetics problems is having a solid understanding of the underlying concepts. This includes grasping the basic principles of inheritance, DNA structure, gene expression, and genetic variations. Without a strong foundation in these areas, solving genetics problems can be like navigating a maze without a map. Utilize Answer Keys: An answer key is an invaluable tool that provides step-by-step solutions to genetic problems. By referring to an answer key, you can analyze the thought process involved in solving a particular problem. This not only helps improve your problem-solving skills, but it also allows you to identify any mistakes or gaps in your understanding. Answer keys often provide clear explanations, highlighting key concepts and equations used in the problem-solving process. They can also provide alternative approaches to solving a problem, expanding your knowledge and giving you a deeper understanding of the subject. Practice and Seek Help: Practice is crucial when it comes to genetics problems. By working through a variety of problems, you can expose yourself to different scenarios and develop the ability to apply your knowledge effectively. Regular practice also helps reinforce key concepts, making them easier to recall and apply in future problem-solving situations. If you encounter difficulties while solving genetics problems, don’t be afraid to seek help. Whether it’s asking your instructor for clarification, joining a study group, or seeking online resources, there are numerous avenues to find the support you need. Discussing problems with peers or experts can provide valuable insights and different perspectives, helping you overcome any hurdles. In conclusion, genetics problems can be challenging, but by utilizing answer keys, practicing regularly, and seeking help when needed, you can find clear and effective solutions. Remember to approach each problem with an open mind and a willingness to learn. With determination and the right resources, you can conquer genetics problems and enhance your understanding of this fascinating field. Find Answers to Genetics Questions When it comes to genetics, understanding key concepts and solving problems can be challenging. However, finding answers to your genetics questions is now easier than ever. Whether you are a student studying genetics or someone with a general interest in the subject, there are resources available to help you. One way to find answers to genetics questions is by utilizing online platforms and forums dedicated to genetics. These platforms often have a community of experts and enthusiasts who are willing to share their knowledge and help answer your questions. You can post your questions and receive responses from individuals who have a solid understanding of genetics. In addition to online communities, there are also textbooks and study guides specifically designed to help you understand genetics problems. These resources often come with detailed explanations and step-by-step solutions to common genetic problems. They can be a valuable tool in deepening your knowledge and improving your problem-solving skills. Another option is seeking assistance from a genetics tutor or teacher. They can provide personalized guidance and answer any questions you may have. Whether you are struggling with a particular concept or need further clarification on a specific problem, a genetics tutor can provide the necessary support to help you succeed. When searching for answers to genetics problems, it’s important to remember that genetics is a complex field with ongoing research and discoveries. As a result, it’s essential to stay updated with the latest information and developments. Reading scientific journals, attending conferences, and following reputable genetics websites can help you stay informed and ensure you have accurate answers to your questions. So, whether you’re looking to solve genetics problems or deepen your understanding of key concepts, there are several resources available to help you find the answers you need. Take advantage of online platforms, textbooks, tutors, and staying updated to enhance your knowledge of genetics. Understanding Genetics Problems When it comes to genetics, many individuals find themselves faced with complex problems that can be difficult to solve. However, with the key and answer to these problems, understanding genetics can become much easier. Genetics problems often involve the analysis and interpretation of traits, inheritance patterns, and genetic disorders. By understanding the underlying principles of genetics, individuals can navigate through these problems with confidence. One key aspect of understanding genetics problems is knowing how to analyze and interpret Punnett squares. These squares are useful tools for predicting the likelihood of certain traits being passed on from parent to offspring. By understanding how to correctly set up and interpret Punnett squares, individuals can determine the probability of inheriting certain traits or genetic disorders. Another important factor in understanding genetics problems is comprehending the laws of inheritance. Concepts such as dominant and recessive alleles, codominance, and incomplete dominance play a crucial role in solving genetic problems. By recognizing how these laws apply to different situations, individuals can predict the outcome of genetic crosses and understand the inheritance patterns of specific traits. Furthermore, it is essential to understand genetic disorders and how they are inherited. Certain diseases and conditions have a genetic basis, and understanding their patterns of inheritance can help individuals determine the likelihood of passing them on to future generations. By studying the inheritance patterns of genetic disorders, individuals can make informed decisions regarding their reproductive choices or seek appropriate medical care. In conclusion, a key component of understanding genetics problems lies in having the correct answers and solutions. By comprehending concepts such as Punnett squares, the laws of inheritance, and genetic disorders, individuals can effectively navigate through complex genetic problems and make informed decisions regarding their own genetic makeup and potential risks for genetic disorders. Key Concepts in Genetics Genetics is the branch of biology that focuses on the study of heredity, the process by which characteristics are passed from one generation to the next. Understanding the key concepts in genetics is crucial to comprehending the principles that govern the inheritance of traits and the variability within populations. - Genes: Genes are segments of DNA that carry the instructions for building and functioning of living organisms. They determine the traits that organisms inherit. - Alleles: Alleles are different variants of a gene. Each individual has two alleles for each gene, one inherited from each parent. - Genotype: The genotype refers to the combination of alleles an individual possesses for a particular gene or set of genes. It determines the genetic makeup of an organism. - Phenotype: The phenotype is the observable or measurable characteristic of an organism. It is determined by the interaction between the genotype and the environment. - Dominant and Recessive: Some alleles are dominant, meaning that their effects are seen in the phenotype even if only one copy is present. Others are recessive, and their effects are only seen if two copies are present. - Punnett Squares: Punnett squares are a tool used to predict the possible genotypes and phenotypes of offspring based on the genotypes of the parents. - Mendelian Genetics: Mendelian genetics describes the basic principles of inheritance as proposed by Gregor Mendel in the 19th century. It involves the segregation and independent assortment of alleles during gamete formation. - Genetic Variation: Genetic variation refers to the differences in the genetic makeup of individuals within a population. It is the raw material upon which natural selection acts and plays a crucial role in evolution. - Genetic Disorders: Genetic disorders are conditions caused by abnormalities in one or more genes. They can result in a wide range of health conditions and may be inherited or arise spontaneously. Understanding these key concepts in genetics provides the foundation for studying and unraveling the complexities of inheritance, evolution, and the role of genetics in human health and agriculture. Common Genetics Problems Explained Genetics is a fascinating field that explores the patterns of heredity and inheritance. It helps us understand how traits are passed down from one generation to the next. However, genetics can also be quite complex, with numerous concepts and principles to grasp. In this article, we will explain some common genetics problems to help you gain a better understanding of this fascinating field. One common genetics problem involves determining the probability of specific traits in offspring. This is often done using Punnett squares, which can help predict the likelihood of certain traits appearing in the next generation. By understanding Mendelian genetics and the laws of inheritance, you can calculate the probability of traits such as hair color, eye color, or blood type being inherited. Another common genetics problem is understanding the different types of genetic diseases and disorders. Many genetic conditions are caused by mutations or changes in specific genes. By studying the inheritance patterns and understanding the underlying genetics, scientists and doctors can diagnose and treat genetic disorders more effectively. Genetic crosses and pedigree analysis are also common problems in genetics. Crosses involve breeding organisms with specific traits to study their inheritance patterns. Pedigree analysis, on the other hand, involves studying the genetic information passed down through generations in a family. Both of these techniques are valuable tools in understanding genetic traits and inheritance. Overall, genetics is a rich and complex field with many interesting problems to solve. By understanding the basic principles and concepts, you can unravel the mysteries of heredity and gain a deeper appreciation for the role genetics plays in our lives. Whether you are studying genetics for academic purposes or are simply curious about the subject, exploring common genetics problems can help you expand your knowledge and understanding. Step-by-Step Solutions for Genetics Problems In the field of genetics, problem-solving is an essential skill. Whether you are a student studying genetics or a professional working in the field, having the ability to effectively answer genetic problems is crucial. When faced with a genetics problem, the first step is to carefully read and analyze the problem statement. It is important to understand the given information, the type of problem, and the specific question being asked. Once you have a clear understanding of the problem, you can begin to formulate a plan of action. This may involve identifying and applying the appropriate genetic principles, equations, or concepts. Next, it is important to break down the problem into smaller, more manageable steps. This can help organize your thoughts and ensure you address all aspects of the problem. Use diagrams, punnet squares, or other visual aids if necessary. With your plan in place, you can now begin solving the problem. Take each step one at a time, carefully following the logical sequence of your plan. This will help reduce the risk of errors and ensure accuracy. Once you have completed the problem, it is important to review your answer and check for any mistakes. Double-check your calculations, re-read the problem statement, and ensure your answer addresses the specific question asked. In conclusion, effective problem-solving in genetics requires a systematic and logical approach. By carefully analyzing the problem, formulating a plan, and following a step-by-step process, you can confidently arrive at the correct answer. Remember to always double-check your work and review your answer before finalizing your response. Tips and Tricks for Solving Genetics Problems When it comes to solving genetics problems, having a clear understanding of key concepts and using systematic problem-solving techniques can make all the difference. Below are some tips and tricks to help you navigate through genetics problems with confidence: 1. Master the Basics To successfully tackle genetics problems, it is essential to have a strong foundation in basic genetic principles. Make sure you understand key concepts such as Punnett squares, Mendelian inheritance patterns, and the structure of DNA. 2. Break It Down Many genetics problems can seem complex at first glance, but breaking them down into smaller, more manageable parts can make them easier to solve. Take the time to carefully read and understand the problem, and then break it down into smaller components that you can tackle one by one. Example: If you are asked to determine the probability of a child having a certain genotype based on the genotypes of their parents, start by identifying the possible genotypes of each parent. Then, use a Punnett square to determine the possible genotypes of the offspring. 3. Use Punnett Squares Punnett squares are a valuable tool in genetics problem solving. They allow you to visualize the possible outcomes of a genetic cross and determine the probabilities of specific genotypes and phenotypes. Example: If you are trying to determine the probability of offspring having a certain phenotype based on the genotypes of their parents, use a Punnett square to determine the possible combinations of alleles and their respective probabilities. 4. Apply the Laws of Probability Genetics problems often involve probabilities, and understanding the laws of probability can help you make accurate predictions. Remember that the probability of two independent events occurring together is the product of their individual probabilities. 5. Practice, Practice, Practice Like any skill, solving genetics problems requires practice. The more problems you solve, the more familiar you become with different genetic scenarios and the better equipped you are to handle more challenging questions. Utilize practice problems and genetic worksheets to sharpen your skills. By following these tips and tricks, you can develop the confidence and expertise needed to successfully solve genetics problems. Remember to take your time, double-check your work, and seek clarification if needed. Genetics problem-solving is a skill that can be honed with practice and persistence! Get Expert Help for Genetics Problems If you’re struggling with genetics problems and need assistance, look no further. Our team of experts is here to provide you with the key answers and solutions. Whether you’re having trouble understanding genetic inheritance patterns, genetic disorders, or any other genetics concept, our experts have the knowledge and expertise to help you grasp the concepts and solve the problems. Genetics can be a complex subject, and it’s not uncommon to feel confused or overwhelmed. However, with the guidance of our experts, you’ll be able to break down the problems, analyze the information, and arrive at the correct answers. Our team of experts is well-versed in all areas of genetics and can assist you in solving both basic and advanced genetics problems. They will patiently explain the concepts, walk you through the steps, and provide you with clear explanations. Benefits of Getting Expert Help: - Accurate Answers: Our experts will ensure that you receive accurate and reliable answers for your genetics problems. - Clear Explanations: They will provide you with clear explanations, helping you grasp the underlying concepts and principles. - Step-by-Step Guidance: Our experts will guide you through the problem-solving process, ensuring that you understand each step. - Customized Approach: They will tailor their explanations and guidance to meet your specific needs and learning style. Don’t let genetics problems hold you back. Get expert help today and take your understanding of genetics to the next level! Online Resources for Genetics Problem Solving When tackling genetics problems, having access to reliable online resources can be a great help. These resources offer answer keys, practice problems, and detailed explanations to assist you in understanding and solving genetics problems. Below, we have compiled a list of excellent online resources that can enhance your genetics problem-solving skills. 1. Khan Academy Khan Academy is a popular online learning platform that offers free instructional videos and practice exercises on various subjects, including genetics. Their genetics section covers topics like Mendelian genetics, inheritance patterns, pedigrees, and more. The practice exercises come with detailed explanations and solutions to help you check your answers. 2. Genetics Problems by The Biology Project The Biology Project by the University of Arizona provides a comprehensive set of genetics problems, along with step-by-step solutions and explanations. These problems cover a wide range of genetic concepts, from Punnett squares to dihybrid crosses. The site also features interactive tutorials and quizzes to further test your understanding. 3. Genetics Problems and Answers by Biology Junction Biology Junction offers a collection of genetics problems with complete answer keys. This resource covers topics such as DNA replication, transcription and translation, genetic mutations, and genetic crosses. Each problem is accompanied by a detailed solution and explanation, ensuring you fully grasp the genetic concepts. 4. Genetics Practice Problems by The University of Cincinnati The University of Cincinnati provides a series of genetics practice problems, focusing on concepts like gene mapping, linkage and recombination, and population genetics. Each practice problem comes with a handy answer key, allowing you to self-assess your performance and identify areas for improvement. By utilizing these online resources, you can strengthen your genetics problem-solving skills and gain a deeper understanding of key genetic concepts. Remember, practice makes perfect, so make the most of these tools to excel in your genetics studies! Practice Problems for Genetics Genetics is a fascinating field that studies inheritance patterns and how traits are passed from one generation to the next. To fully understand genetics, it is important to practice solving genetic problems. This section provides you with some key practice problems to help you test your understanding and improve your skills. 1. In a certain population, the allele for brown eyes (B) is dominant over the allele for blue eyes (b). If a brown-eyed individual heterozygous for eye color (Bb) mates with a blue-eyed individual (bb), what is the probability that their offspring will have brown eyes? - Answer: The probability that their offspring will have brown eyes is 50%. 2. In rabbits, black fur is dominant over white fur. If a heterozygous black-furred rabbit (Bb) mates with a white-furred rabbit (bb), what is the probability that their offspring will have black fur? - Answer: The probability that their offspring will have black fur is 50%. 3. In humans, the allele for attached earlobes (E) is dominant over the allele for free earlobes (e). If two individuals with attached earlobes have a child with free earlobes, what are the genotypes of the parents? - Answer: The genotypes of the parents are Ee and Ee. 4. In cats, short hair (S) is dominant over long hair (s). If a short-haired cat heterozygous for hair length (Ss) mates with a long-haired cat (ss), what is the probability that their offspring will have short hair? - Answer: The probability that their offspring will have short hair is 50%. 5. In plants, the allele for red flowers (R) is dominant over the allele for white flowers (r). If a red-flowered plant heterozygous for flower color (Rr) mates with a white-flowered plant (rr), what is the probability that their offspring will have red flowers? - Answer: The probability that their offspring will have red flowers is 50%. By practicing these genetics problems, you can strengthen your understanding of genetic principles and improve your problem-solving skills. Remember to always use the key and answer provided to check your work and ensure accuracy. Happy problem solving! Genetics Problem Worksheets If you are looking for practice in solving genetics problems, these worksheets will provide you with the answer key to understand the solutions and answers. Genetics problem worksheets are essential for students to develop their understanding of genetic principles and practice applying them. These worksheets usually contain a variety of problems related to Mendelian genetics, inheritance patterns, Punnett squares, and genetic crosses. The answer key provided with the worksheets allows students to check their work and ensure they have resolved the problems correctly. It also serves as a helpful resource for teachers to evaluate students’ progress and provide feedback. Working on genetics problem worksheets helps students become familiar with the terminology and concepts involved in genetics. It enhances their critical thinking skills by requiring them to analyze information and apply their knowledge to solve complex genetic problems. Additionally, genetics problem worksheets allow students to practice constructing Punnett squares and analyzing the probabilities of different genetic outcomes. Through repetition and practice, students can improve their skills and become more confident in tackling genetics problems. By using genetics problem worksheets and referring to the answer key, students can gain a deeper understanding of genetics principles, reinforce their learning, and build their problem-solving skills in this fascinating field of study. Genetics Problems in Education Genetics problems are an important part of the education curriculum. They help students understand various genetic concepts and the principles behind inheritance patterns. Solving these problems helps students develop problem-solving skills and critical thinking abilities. One way to enhance the learning experience is by using a Genetics Problems Answer Key. Such answer keys provide clear solutions and answers to the problems, allowing students to check their work and understand where they may have made mistakes. This feedback is crucial in the process of learning genetics. Benefits of Genetics Problems Answer Key in Education - Improved Understanding: With access to an answer key, students can compare their solutions with the correct ones. This helps them identify and correct any misconceptions they may have about genetics concepts. - Self-Assessment: Answer keys enable students to assess their own performance and progress. By reviewing their answers and comparing them with the correct solutions, students can track their learning and identify areas that require more attention. - Enhanced Study Materials: Answer keys can also serve as additional study materials. Students can use them to review genetic problems, practice solving them, and deepen their understanding of the topic. Incorporating genetics problems with answer keys into the education curriculum can greatly benefit students. It not only helps them grasp genetic concepts more effectively but also promotes a deeper understanding of the subject. By providing clear solutions and answers, students are encouraged to think critically and develop problem-solving skills necessary for their future studies and careers in genetics. Importance of Genetics Problem Solving Solving genetics problems is essential for understanding the intricate workings of genes and heredity. Genetics as a field revolves around the study of genes and how they are passed down from one generation to another. By learning how to solve genetics problems, we can unravel the mysteries of inheritance and uncover the underlying principles that govern genetic traits. An answer key for genetics problems provides clear solutions and answers, helping students and researchers better grasp the concepts being taught. It serves as a reference point, allowing individuals to check their own answers and verify their understanding of the material. This is vital in the field of genetics, where accuracy and precision are crucial. The ability to solve genetics problems also enhances critical thinking and problem-solving skills. It requires logical reasoning and analytical thinking to break down complex genetic patterns and determine the correct answers. These skills are transferable to various scientific disciplines and are highly valued in the academic and professional world. Moreover, genetics problem solving is valuable for geneticists and scientists who work in research and medical fields. It enables them to analyze data, make predictions, and draw conclusions based on genetic patterns. This can lead to significant advancements in fields such as personalized medicine, genetic engineering, and disease prevention. In conclusion, the answer key for genetics problems plays a pivotal role in understanding the intricacies of genetics and its application in various fields. By mastering genetics problem solving, individuals can not only expand their knowledge but also contribute to advancements in science and medicine. Genetics Problem Examples Here are some genetics problems that you can solve to better understand the concepts: Problem 1: Monohybrid Cross In a monohybrid cross, a homozygous dominant yellow pea plant is crossed with a homozygous recessive green pea plant. What is the phenotype ratio of the offspring? In this case, all offspring will have a heterozygous genotype (Yy) and will exhibit the yellow phenotype. Therefore, the phenotype ratio would be 4 yellow : 0 green. Problem 2: Dihybrid Cross In a dihybrid cross, a heterozygous tall plant with yellow seeds (TtYy) is crossed with a homozygous short plant with green seeds (ttyy). What is the genotype ratio of the offspring? |Tall with yellow seeds |Tall with green seeds |Short with yellow seeds |Short with green seeds By using the Punnett square method and combining the possible genotypes, we can determine that the genotype ratio would be 1 TTYY : 2 TTYy : 2 TtYY : 4 TtYy : 1 Ttyy : 1 ttYY : 2 ttYy : 1 ttyy. These examples should help you practice solving genetics problems and strengthen your understanding of key genetic concepts. Exploring Genetics Problem Scenarios Understanding genetics problems is key to unraveling the mysteries of inheritance and genetic traits. By learning how to tackle different scenarios in genetics, you can find answers to complex questions. Here are some common genetics problem scenarios: - Punnett Square: Use a Punnett square to determine the probability of offspring inheriting specific traits from their parents. - Multiple Alleles: Explore scenarios where there are more than two alleles for a particular trait and calculate the probabilities of different genotypes and phenotypes. - Sex-Linked Traits: Investigate how traits are passed down through sex chromosomes and determine the probability of certain traits being present in males or females. - Dihybrid Cross: Examine the inheritance of two different traits simultaneously and calculate the probabilities of specific combinations of alleles in the offspring. - Incomplete Dominance: Explore situations where neither allele is completely dominant, resulting in a blend of traits in the phenotype. By understanding these scenarios and having a firm grasp on the key concepts of genetics, you can confidently answer genetics problems and unlock the secrets of inheritance. Genetics Problem Solving Techniques When faced with genetics problems, it’s important to approach them with a clear plan and a systematic method. Applying specific techniques can help you find the correct answers and solutions. Here are some effective strategies to help you tackle genetics problems: - Understand the problem: Start by carefully reading and comprehending the given problem. Identify the key information and variables involved. - Review the concepts: Make sure you have a solid understanding of the genetic principles and concepts related to the problem. Review any relevant material or notes to refresh your knowledge. - Apply problem-solving steps: Break down the problem into smaller steps, and apply the appropriate problem-solving strategies. This may involve setting up Punnett squares, using the laws of inheritance, or analyzing pedigrees. - Organize your work: Keep your work organized and clear. Use tables, diagrams, or charts to organize the given information and your calculations. This will help you track your progress and ensure accuracy. - Double-check your answers: After solving the problem, double-check your answers and make sure they align with the given information and the laws of genetics. This will help you identify any mistakes or errors. - Seek clarification: If you’re unsure about a specific aspect of the problem or need further clarification, don’t hesitate to seek help. Ask your teacher, classmates, or refer to reliable resources for additional guidance. - Practice: The more practice you have with genetics problems, the better you’ll become at solving them. Make use of available resources, textbooks, and online practice exercises to strengthen your problem-solving skills. By employing these genetics problem-solving techniques, you’ll develop a systematic approach to tackle even the most challenging genetic problems. Remember to stay focused, take your time, and think critically to arrive at the correct answers. With practice and persistence, you’ll master genetics problem-solving in no time! Advanced Genetics Problem Solutions Below are the answers and explanations for advanced genetics problems: Answer: The inheritance pattern for this trait is autosomal recessive. Each parent must be heterozygous carriers in order for the offspring to inherit the trait. Answer: The probability of two parents, both heterozygous for a trait, having a homozygous dominant child is 25%. It can be calculated using a Punnett square. Answer: In this case, the blood type A child can only have parents who are either blood type A or heterozygous for blood type A. Therefore, the parents’ genotypes could be either AA or AO. Answer: The phenotypic ratio for a dihybrid cross between two heterozygous individuals is 9:3:3:1, representing the four possible phenotypes in the offspring. Answer: Incomplete dominance occurs when the heterozygous phenotype is intermediate between the two homozygous phenotypes. The genotypic ratio for a cross between two heterozygotes is 1:2:1. These are just a few examples of advanced genetics problems and their solutions. It is important to thoroughly understand genetic principles and concepts in order to solve more complex problems. Genetics Problem Solving Skills Solving genetics problems can be challenging, but with the right skills and approach, you can find the key to unraveling complex genetic puzzles. In this article, we will discuss some essential problem-solving skills that will help you tackle genetics problems effectively. 1. Understand the Problem The first step in solving any genetics problem is to thoroughly understand the problem statement. Read the question carefully and identify what information is given and what you are asked to find. Take note of any key terms or concepts that are mentioned. 2. Break it Down Genetics problems can sometimes be overwhelming, especially when dealing with multiple traits or variables. To make it easier, break down the problem into smaller parts. Identify each trait or variable separately and work on them one at a time. Example: If you are asked to determine the probability of a child inheriting a specific combination of traits, break it down into determining the probability for each trait separately and then combine them together. 3. Use Punnett Squares Punnett squares are a helpful tool in genetics problem-solving. They provide a visual representation of the possible combinations of alleles from two parents and can help determine the probability of certain traits appearing in offspring. Draw Punnett squares for each trait or variable involved in the problem and fill in the alleles according to the given information. Use the laws of segregation and independent assortment to determine the possible outcomes. 4. Apply Mendelian Principles When solving genetics problems, it is crucial to apply the principles established by Gregor Mendel. Understand the laws of segregation and independent assortment, as well as how different types of inheritance patterns, such as dominant/recessive and codominance, work. Note: Remember that not all genetics problems follow simple Mendelian principles. Some may involve more complex patterns of inheritance, such as sex-linked traits or multiple alleles. 5. Practice, Practice, Practice Genetics problems can be challenging, but with practice, you can develop your problem-solving skills. Solve as many genetics problems as you can to gain confidence and improve your understanding of different concepts and patterns of inheritance. Remember, genetics is a field that requires both knowledge and critical thinking skills. By mastering the key problem-solving techniques and dedicating time to practice, you can become proficient in solving genetics problems. Improving Genetics Problem Solving Abilities Genetics problems can often be challenging and require critical thinking and analytical skills. However, with the right approach, it is possible to improve your genetics problem-solving abilities and find clear solutions with confidence. Understanding the Key Concepts One of the first steps to improving your genetics problem-solving abilities is to have a strong understanding of the key concepts. This includes concepts such as Mendelian genetics, Punnett squares, inheritance patterns, and genetic mutations. Take the time to review these concepts and ensure you have a solid foundation. Practicing with a Variety of Problems Practice makes perfect, and this applies to genetics problem-solving as well. Seek out a variety of genetics problems and practice solving them. Start with simpler problems and gradually work your way up to more complex scenarios. This will help you develop a systematic approach to problem-solving and deepen your understanding of the subject matter. Additionally, consider using online resources that provide genetics problem sets with answer keys, like the one in question. These resources allow you to test your skills and check your answers to ensure you have solved the problems correctly. Make sure to read the answer key carefully, paying attention to the steps and reasoning provided. This will help you identify any mistakes you may have made and learn from them. Understanding the thought process behind each solution will improve your problem-solving abilities and enable you to apply the same approach to similar problems in the future. Utilizing Available Tools and Resources Aside from online resources, there are other tools and resources that can help improve your genetics problem-solving abilities. This includes textbooks, study guides, and online tutorials. These resources often present problems with step-by-step solutions and explanations, allowing you to practice and learn at your own pace. Remember to stay persistent and patient, as genetics problems can be complex and require time to fully grasp. With consistent practice, a solid understanding of key concepts, and the use of available tools and resources, you can greatly improve your genetics problem-solving abilities. Genetics Problem Solving Strategies When facing genetics problems, it is helpful to have a clear and organized approach that can guide you towards finding the correct answers. Here are some key strategies to keep in mind: - Read the problem carefully: Start by reading the problem statement and make sure you understand the information provided. Pay attention to important details such as the traits being studied, the parents’ genotypes, and any other relevant information. - Identify the knowns and unknowns: Once you have read the problem, make a list of the information that you know and the information that you need to find. This will help you determine what you need to solve for and what additional information you might need. - Apply relevant genetics concepts: Use your knowledge of genetics principles and concepts to solve the problem. This may involve using punnett squares, applying the laws of inheritance, or using other genetic tools and techniques. - Consider the possible outcomes: Think about the different possibilities and outcomes that could occur based on the given information. This may involve considering different genotypes and phenotypes and their frequencies. - Solve step by step: Break the problem down into smaller steps and solve each step individually. This will help you avoid confusion and ensure you are on the right track. - Check your answer: Once you have found a solution, double-check your work to ensure it is correct. Review your calculations, verify your reasoning, and compare your answer with the given information. By following these genetics problem solving strategies, you can approach genetics problems with confidence and increase your chances of finding the correct answers. Genetics Problem Solving Challenges Genetics is a complex field that involves studying genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms. Solving genetics problems requires a deep understanding of these concepts and the ability to apply them in different scenarios. One of the challenges in genetics problem solving is interpreting the given information correctly. Genetic problems often present a set of data, such as genotypes or phenotypes, and require the individual to analyze and deduce the underlying genetic patterns. This requires careful attention to detail and the ability to recognize key information. Another challenge is understanding the principles of inheritance and how different traits are passed on from one generation to the next. Solving genetics problems involves applying knowledge of Mendelian genetics, Punnett squares, and pedigrees to determine the probabilities of certain traits appearing in offspring. This requires logical thinking and the ability to use genetic ratios and probabilities. Furthermore, genetics problem solving often requires problem-solving skills and the ability to think critically. Genetic problems may present complex scenarios or involve multiple gene interactions, requiring individuals to think beyond simple inheritance patterns and consider more intricate genetic phenomena such as codominance, incomplete dominance, and sex-linked traits. In summary, solving genetics problems is a challenging task that requires a combination of knowledge, analytical thinking, and problem-solving skills. It involves interpreting data, understanding inheritance patterns, and applying genetic principles to deduce outcomes. By overcoming these challenges, individuals can gain a deeper understanding of genetics and its role in the natural world. Genetics Problem Solving in Research Genetics is a fascinating field of study that involves the investigation of how traits are inherited and passed down from one generation to the next. Researchers in this field often encounter various problems and challenges that require careful analysis and problem-solving skills. When faced with complex genetic problems, researchers must carefully assess the available information and apply their knowledge of genetics principles to find the most appropriate solution. They may need to use various tools and techniques such as Punnett squares, pedigrees, and statistical analysis to tackle these problems. One common problem researchers encounter is determining the mode of inheritance of a particular trait. Through careful observation and analysis of family pedigrees, geneticists can deduce whether a trait is inherited in a dominant, recessive, or other pattern. This information is crucial in understanding the genetic basis of a specific trait and can aid in the development of targeted treatments or interventions. Another problem that researchers often face is identifying the genotype of an individual based on the observed phenotype. This can be particularly challenging when dealing with traits that are influenced by multiple genes or when there is incomplete penetrance or variable expressivity. Researchers may need to perform additional experiments or utilize advanced genomics techniques to accurately determine the underlying genetic makeup. Additionally, geneticists may encounter problems related to genetic linkage and mapping. By examining patterns of inheritance of genetic markers along the chromosomes, researchers can map the location of genes and identify regions associated with specific traits or diseases. However, the process of genetic mapping can be complex and requires advanced statistical analysis and computational tools. In conclusion, genetics problem solving in research is an essential aspect of understanding the complex nature of inherited traits and diseases. Through careful analysis and the application of various tools and techniques, researchers can gain valuable insights into the genetic basis of traits and develop strategies for prevention, treatment, and genetic counseling. Ethical Considerations in Genetics Problem Solving As the field of genetics advances, it is important to take into account the ethical considerations that arise in the process of solving genetics problems. These considerations revolve around the potential impact of genetic information on individuals, families, and society as a whole. One of the key ethical considerations in genetics problem solving is the issue of informed consent. Genetic testing can provide valuable insights into an individual’s health status and potential risks, but it also raises concerns about privacy and the potential for discrimination. It is important for individuals to be fully informed about the implications of genetic testing and to have the ability to make informed decisions about whether to undergo testing or to receive genetic information. Another ethical consideration is the potential for stigmatization or discrimination based on genetic information. Genetic traits or conditions can carry social or cultural implications, and individuals may fear the consequences of being identified as carrying certain genes. It is important for genetics professionals to handle this information with sensitivity and to ensure that individuals are provided with appropriate counseling and support. Additionally, there are ethical considerations surrounding the use of genetic information in reproductive decision making. For example, in the case of preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD), where embryos are screened for genetic disorders before being implanted during in vitro fertilization, questions arise about how to prioritize certain genetic traits or conditions and what impact this may have on individuals with those traits or conditions. Overall, the field of genetics is fraught with ethical considerations that must be carefully considered and addressed in order to ensure that the benefits of genetic knowledge are maximized while minimizing potential harms. Genetic professionals must approach genetics problem solving with a deep understanding of the potential ramifications of their actions and a commitment to upholding ethical principles. Future Directions in Genetics Problem Solving The field of genetics continues to advance rapidly, bringing new challenges and opportunities for problem solving. As we look to the future, there are several key areas where advancements in technology and research will shape the way we approach genetic problems. One key area of development is the use of big data and machine learning algorithms to analyze and interpret complex genetic information. With the advent of high-throughput DNA sequencing technologies, scientists now have access to massive amounts of genetic data. However, extracting meaningful insights from this data requires sophisticated computational tools and algorithms. In the future, we can expect to see the development of more powerful and efficient algorithms that can handle the scale and complexity of genetic data, enabling researchers to tackle previously unsolvable problems. Another future direction in genetics problem solving is the integration of multiple “-omics” data sets. Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics are all different “-omics” fields that focus on studying different aspects of biological systems. By combining data from these different sources, researchers can gain a more comprehensive understanding of how genetic variations and interactions contribute to complex traits and diseases. The development of methods and tools for integration and analysis of multi-dimensional “-omics” data will be crucial in advancing our understanding of genetics. Furthermore, the emergence of gene editing technologies such as CRISPR-Cas9 opens up new possibilities for solving genetic problems. CRISPR-Cas9 allows scientists to precisely edit genes, opening the door to correcting genetic mutations that cause diseases. This technology holds great promise for the development of targeted therapies and personalized medicine. In the future, we can expect to see further advancements in gene editing techniques, as well as ethical considerations and regulations surrounding their use. Lastly, the accessibility and affordability of genetic testing will continue to expand in the future. As the costs of DNA sequencing decrease, more individuals will have access to their genetic information. This will not only empower individuals to make informed decisions about their health, but also provide a wealth of data for researchers to further understand the genetic basis of diseases and traits. However, ensuring the privacy and security of genetic data will be critical in the future. In conclusion, the future of genetics problem solving is bright, with advancements in technology, data analysis, and gene editing leading the way. As we tackle genetic problems, it is important to consider the ethical, privacy, and regulatory implications that come with these advancements. By harnessing the power of genetics, we have the potential to revolutionize healthcare and improve the lives of individuals around the world. What are genetics problems? Genetics problems are mathematical exercises or scenarios that require applying principles of genetics to solve. These problems often involve concepts such as inheritance, genetic crosses, and probability. What types of genetics problems can I find solutions for in the article? The article provides solutions and answers for a variety of genetics problems, including problems related to Punnett squares, monohybrid crosses, dihybrid crosses, and pedigree analysis. It covers a range of difficulties, from basic to more advanced problems. How can I use the genetics problems answer key? The genetics problems answer key can be used as a tool to check your own answers and solutions. You can compare your method and final answer with the provided solutions to confirm if you are on the right track or need to revise your approach. Are the solutions in the genetics problems answer key explained in detail? Yes, the solutions in the genetics problems answer key are explained step-by-step to provide a clear understanding of the problem-solving process. Each solution includes a thorough explanation of the reasoning and calculations involved. Are there any tips or strategies provided in the article to solve genetics problems? Yes, the article offers tips and strategies to help you approach and solve genetics problems more effectively. It provides guidance on understanding inheritance patterns, setting up Punnett squares, determining genotypes and phenotypes, and using probability to calculate expected outcomes. What are some common genetics problems? Some common genetics problems include determining genotypes and phenotypes, calculating probabilities of inheriting certain traits, and solving Punnett squares.

Herpes Simplex Virus (Cold Sores) in Children What are cold sores in children? Cold sores are small blisters around the mouth caused by the herpes simplex virus. They are sometimes called fever blisters. What causes cold sores in a child? The most common cause of cold sores is the virus called herpes simplex virus 1. The herpes simplex virus in a cold sore is contagious. It can be spread to others by kissing, sharing cups or utensils, sharing washcloths or towels, or by touching the cold sore before it's healed. The virus can also be spread to others 24 to 48 hours before the cold sore appears. Once a child is infected with the herpes simplex virus, the virus becomes inactive (dormant) for long periods of time. It can then become active at any time and cause cold sores again. The cold sores usually don't last longer than a few days, or up to 2 weeks. Hot sun, cold wind, illness, stress, menstrual periods, or a weak immune system can cause cold sores to occur. Which children are at risk for cold sores? A child is more at risk for cold sores if they live with someone infected with the herpes simplex virus. What are the symptoms of cold sores in a child? Symptoms can occur a bit differently in each child. Some children don’t have symptoms with the first infection of herpes simplex virus. In other cases, a child may have severe flu-like symptoms and ulcers in and around the mouth. When cold sores come back after the first infection, symptoms are usually not as severe. The most common symptoms of cold sores include: A small blister or group of blisters on the lips and mouth that get bigger, leak fluid, then crust over Tingling, itching, and irritation of the lips and mouth Soreness of the lips and mouth that may last from 3 to 7 days The symptoms of cold sores can be like other health conditions. Make sure your child sees their healthcare provider for a diagnosis. How are cold sores diagnosed in a child? The healthcare provider will ask about your child’s symptoms and health history and give your child a physical exam. A healthcare provider can usually diagnose your child by looking at the sores. Your child may also have tests, such as: How are cold sores treated in a child? Treatment will depend on your child’s symptoms, age, and general health. It will also depend on how severe the condition is. The herpes simplex virus infection that causes cold sores is a life-long infection. Therefore it can’t be completely eliminated from the body by treatment, but the treatment may help ease some cold sore symptoms and help these to resolve sooner. Treatment may include antiviral medicine and other types of prescription medicines. These medicines work best if started as soon as possible after the first sign of a herpes infection or recurrence. Talk with your child’s healthcare providers about the risks, benefits, and possible side effects of all medicines. Cold sores usually don't scar. They last 3 to 14 days, depending on how extensive they are. What are possible complications of cold sores in a child? In the vast majority of children, cold sores are annoying and painful but don't cause complications or serious consequences. In rare cases, the herpes simplex virus can cause inflammation of the brain (encephalitis). This is a serious illness and needs to be treated right away. It can lead to long-term problems of the brain. Cold sores in a newborn baby can cause serious illness and death. This may be the case even when treated with medicine. How can I help prevent cold sores in my child? If someone in your household has herpes simplex, you can protect your child by making sure they are not exposed. Keep in mind that the virus may be in saliva even when there are no cold sores. Tell your child not to kiss, share cups or utensils, or share washcloths or towels with the person. Tell your child not to touch a cold sore. If your child has a cold sore, make sure they do not: Touch or rub the cold sore Share cups or eating utensils Share wash cloths or towels The healthcare provider may advise keeping your child home from school during the first infection of herpes simplex virus. How can I help my child manage recurring cold sores? Sun protection can help prevent future cold sore breakouts. Put sunscreen on your child’s face and lips. Apply a lip balm that contains sunscreen. And have them wear a hat with a brim. Reducing stress can also help to reduce outbreaks. When should I call my child’s healthcare provider? Call the healthcare provider if your child has: Key points about cold sores in children Cold sores are small blisters around the mouth caused by the herpes simplex virus. The herpes simplex virus in a cold sore is contagious. It can be spread to others by kissing, sharing cups or utensils, sharing washcloths or towels, or by touching the cold sore before it is healed. The virus can also be spread to others 24 to 48 hours before the cold sore appears. Symptoms include a small blister or group of blisters on the lips and mouth that enlarge, leak fluid, then crust over. In most children, cold sores do not cause complications. Rarely, the herpes simplex virus can cause inflammation of the brain (encephalitis). This is a serious illness and needs to be treated right away. If your child has a cold sore, make sure they don't kiss, share cups or utensils, share washcloths or towels, or touch the cold sore. Tips to help you get the most from a visit to your child’s healthcare provider: Know the reason for the visit and what you want to happen. Before your visit, write down questions you want answered. At the visit, write down the name of a new diagnosis, and any new medicines, treatments, or tests. Also write down any new instructions your provider gives you for your child. Know why a new medicine or treatment is prescribed and how it will help your child. Also know what the side effects are. Ask if your child’s condition can be treated in other ways. Know why a test or procedure is recommended and what the results could mean. Know what to expect if your child does not take the medicine or have the test or procedure. If your child has a follow-up appointment, write down the date, time, and purpose for that visit. Know how you can contact your child’s healthcare provider after office hours. This is important if your child becomes ill and you have questions or need advice.

#TK-38E Tektite specimen, 6 grams in weight. Each one unique. This Tektite was found on the Pacific Rim in China, from the Australasian strewn field from a meteor impact that occurred 780,000 years ago. Tektites (from Greek τηκτός tēktós, "molten") are gravel-sized bodies composed of black, green, brown, or gray natural glass formed from terrestrial debris ejected during meteorite impacts. The term was coined by Austrian geologist Franz Eduard Suess (1867–1941). The overwhelming consensus of Earth and planetary scientists is that tektites consist of terrestrial debris that was ejected during the formation of an impact crater. During the extreme conditions created by an hypervelocity meteorite impact, near-surface terrestrial sediments and rocks were either melted, vaporized, or some combination of these, and ejected from an impact crater. After ejection from the impact crater, the material formed millimeter- to centimeter-sized bodies of molten material, which as they re-entered the atmosphere, rapidly cooled to form tektites that fell to Earth to create a layer of distal ejecta hundreds or thousands of kilometers away from the impact site. This Tektite was found on the Pacific Rim in China, from the Australasian strewn field from a meteor impact that occurred 780,000 years ago.

What tangled headphones can teach us about DNA Mathematical biologist Mariel Vazquez studies shapes’ ability to transform. IT’S A TRUTH universally acknowledged that if you shove wired headphones into your pocket, they’ll eventually emerge in a jumble of knots. That’s why mathematical biologist Mariel Vazquez keeps a tangled pair at her desk: Looking at the messy cord helps her envision how each microscopic human cell manages to pack in 6 feet of DNA. Of course, the twisted strands within our bodies carry much higher stakes than even the most chaotic audio cable. Cells would die if they couldn’t efficiently store these helixes in tight quarters while still being able to access their genetic information. Figuring out how they manage to do so is one of the knotty problems Vazquez’s interdisciplinary lab is designed to tackle, often with an eye toward practical applications like novel cancer treatments. The lab’s work centers around a field of mathematics called topology, which Vazquez came to somewhat serendipitously in college. She majored in math as an undergraduate at the National Autonomous University of Mexico, but this left her little opportunity to study living things, which she had been curious about since high school. She found a way to fuse her interests when she took a class in topology, a discipline that classifies shapes based on their ability to transform. It considers a sphere, for instance, to be equivalent to a cube, since you can mold one into the other. Doughnuts are a different beast, however: Turning an orb into a ring requires slicing a hole in it or sticking its ends together, making them two fundamentally different shapes. Vazquez came to think of gene-packed cells as a topological problem. After all, she explains, “It all boils down to the fact that DNA is a very long chain that fits into a very tiny environment.” That revelation turned into a Ph.D. and a postdoc, and eventually a role as a professor of mathematics, microbiology, and molecular genetics at the University of California, Davis. Over the past two decades, her work has tapped topological concepts to make core discoveries about how our bodies keep track of DNA strands. For example, mathematicians can calculate an “unknotting number” for a snarl of wires—the minimum number of times strands within the jumble have to uncross for the whole mess to come untied. Vazquez’s work has shown that a particular set of enzymes seem to know the unknotting numbers inside cells; they tend to access DNA exactly where necessary to undo the complex crisscrosses efficiently, rather than taking more complicated routes. Her team’s advances could help biologists develop a better understanding of how DNA winds inside viruses, which could then reveal how diseases spread. They might also lead to therapies that target enzymes responsible for unwinding genes within cancer cells, halting their growth. But Vazquez is especially interested in the fundamental nature of this research. By studying how DNA fits into cells, mathematicians develop a keener sense of shapes overall. Advances in labs like hers can have implications far beyond our bodies—from uncovering new materials for electronics and computation to showing why jumbled magnetic fields emit solar flares. This story originally ran in the Spring 2022 Messy issue of PopSci. Read more PopSci+ stories.

A skill set is the combination of knowledge, personal qualities, and abilities that you’ve developed through your life and work. It typically combines two types of skills: soft skills and hard skills. Soft skills are interpersonal or people skills. They are somewhat difficult to quantify and relate to someone’s personality and ability to work with others. This in-demand skill set includes good communication, listening, attention to detail, critical thinking, empathy, and conflict resolution abilities, among other skills. Hard skills are quantifiable and teachable. They include the specific technical knowledge and abilities required for a job. Examples of hard skills include computer programming, accounting, mathematics, and data analysis. In the workplace, you typically use a range of skills on a given day. Some of these skills are job-specific. For example, hairstylists will use their knowledge of hair-coloring techniques and payroll clerks will use their accounting software skills. You might learn these skills by going to school or through training with an experienced mentor. You might also use hard skills that aren’t job-specific. For example, you might use your written communication skills to craft an email to follow-up on an important project. You might use your verbal communication skills to present a project idea to a manager. You might also use soft skills you’ve developed through your work experience, school, and volunteer roles. They might include problem-solving or resolving a conflict with a customer. A skill is the learned ability to perform an action with determined results with good execution often within a given amount of time, energy, or both. Skills can often be divided into domain-general and domain-specific skills. For example, in the domain of work, some general skills would include time management, teamwork and leadership, self-motivation and others, whereas domain-specific skills would be used only for a certain job. Skill usually requires certain environmental stimuli and situations to assess the level of skill being shown and used. A skill may be called an art when it represents a body of knowledge or branch of learning, as in the art of medicine or the art of war. Although the arts are also skills, there are many skills that form an art but have no connection to the fine arts. A practice is when the learned skill is put into practice. An art or skill may be the basis for a profession, trade, or craft. Skills are the expertise or talent needed in order to do a job or task. Job skills allow you to do a particular job and life skills help you through everyday tasks. There are many different types of skills that can help you succeed at all aspects of your life whether it’s school, work, or even a sport or hobby. Skills are what makes you confident and independent in life and are essential for success. It might take determination and practice, but almost any skill can be learned or improved. Set yourself realistic expectations and goals, get organized and get learning. Skill is a term that encompasses the knowledge, competencies and abilities to perform operational tasks. Skills are developed through life and work experiences and they can also be learned through study. There are different types of skills and some may be easier to access for some people than others, based on things like dexterity, physical abilities and intelligence. Skills can also be measured, and levels determined by skill tests. Most jobs require multiple skills, and likewise, some skills will be more useful for certain professions than others. Originally posted 2021-09-25 09:28:36. Republished by Blog Post Promoter

The common kestrel is one of the most common birds of prey here and in Central Europe. It is characterized by sexual dimorphism. Males and females differ not only in color but also in size. The male is a bit smaller, having a bluish-gray round head and a thin tail with a black tip. Its back is of rusty color with black dots. The wing tips are also black. The female is mostly brown with black spots and yellow legs. It is found throughout the territory of Slovakia, from the lowlands to the alpine area. The kestrel enjoys open landscapes such as fields, meadows, and pastures and avoids dense forests. Since it does not build its nests, kestrels nest in various places, such as rocks, quarries, buildings, and castle ruins. It occupies old nests of larger birds, installed birdhouses, and even on the balconies of panel houses. Our kestrels are sedentary, migratory, and also partially migratory. Some individuals winter in Africa, while others travel shorter distances. During the winter, it is mainly older individuals that stay with us. In nature, we can observe kestrels sitting on trees, utility poles, or power lines, by the roads, in fields and meadows. It is popularly called “pustovka” or “postolka” (*in Slovak language). Its Slovak generic name – “mysiar” is associated with its main food source – small rodents, especially mice and voles. The kestrel’s diet also includes other small mammals, reptiles, amphibians, large insects, mollusks, worms, and sometimes smaller bird species. Do you know? The common kestrel's ability to see ultraviolet radiation helps it recognize the urinary traces of rodents and identify them more easily whilst hunting.

What Is Hepatitis C? Hepatitis C is an infection of the liver caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV). It can lead to liver failure, liver cancer, or chronic liver disease (cirrhosis), and is a leading reason for liver transplants in the United States. Some people with HCV have just a short-term illness because their bodies can get rid of the virus. But most infected people develop a chronic (long-term) infection. How Do People Get Hepatitis C? HCV spreads by direct contact with an infected person's blood and other body fluids. This can happen through: - sharing drug needles and intranasal (snorting) drug devices - getting a tattoo or body piercing with unsterilized tools - sexual contact (although this is less common) - passing of the infection from a pregnant woman to her unborn child Children who have hepatitis (heh-puh-TYE-tus) C most often got the infection as newborns from their mothers. Thanks to blood screening and other health care precautions, the spread of HCV from hemodialysis, blood transfusions, or organ transplants is now rare. It's also rare, but possible, for someone to get infected by sharing household items that might have had contact with an infected person's blood, such as razors, toothbrushes, or scissors. Hepatitis C is more common in adults than in children. Infection rates in the United States almost tripled from 2010 to 2015, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Most of these new infections are in young people (20 to 29 years old) who inject drugs — many of whom moved from abusing prescription pain relievers (opioids) to injecting heroin, which often is cheaper and easier to get. Because women of reproductive age are part of this group, experts worry that more newborns will be at risk for hepatitis C. How Do Acute Hepatitis C and Chronic Hepatitis C Differ? Doctors refer to hepatitis C infections as either acute or chronic: - Acute hepatitis C is a short-term illness that happens within 6 months of when a person is exposed to the virus. - Chronic hepatitis C is when a person still has the virus in their body after 6 months. This means the virus stays in the body and can cause lifelong illness. What Are the Signs & Symptoms of Hepatitis C? Hepatitis C can be a "silent but deadly" infection. Most people with an infection have no symptoms. But they can still get health problems decades later and can pass the disease to others. - jaundice (when the skin and whites of the eyes look yellow) - nausea, vomiting, and lack of appetite - belly pain (on the upper right side) - joint pain - darker than usual urine (pee) or gray-colored stools People with chronic hepatitis C might sometimes have vague general symptoms, like feeling very tired or depressed. Most children have no symptoms, and only start to feel some of the acute disease symptoms when they develop advanced liver disease many years later. What Problems Can Hepatitis C Cause? Hepatitis C is the most serious type of hepatitis. It's now one of the most common reasons for liver transplants in adults. Fortunately, medicines can now treat people with hepatitis C and cure them in most cases. How Is Hepatitis C Diagnosed? Doctors do a blood test to look for antibodies to HCV. The CDC recommends the diagnostic blood test for: - all Americans born between 1945–1965 (baby boomers) - anyone who has ever injected drugs - patients who received donated blood or organs before 1992 - people receiving hemodialysis - people who have conditions such as HIV or chronic liver disease - newborns born to mothers with hepatitis C - people exposed to the blood of someone with hepatitis C How Is Hepatitis C Treated? Great progress has been made in treating and even curing hepatitis C. Oral medicines now can cure HCV for many people within 3 months. These medicines were very expensive at first, but their prices have come down, a trend that health experts hope will continue as the incidence of HCV rises and increased screening finds more cases. These medicines successfully cure about 90% of HCV patients. A new oral medicine under development looks promising for the 10% who don't respond to the standard treatment. This new antiviral combination pill is currently under review by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). What Happens After a Hepatitis C Infection? Anyone who has ever tested positive for hepatitis C cannot be a blood donor. Health experts caution that people who had hepatitis C due to drug use should get counseling or further treatment to help them overcome their addiction. Otherwise, they could become reinfected. Can Hepatitis C Be Prevented? Unfortunately, there's no vaccine to protect against hepatitis C. Prevention means avoiding risky behaviors that can spread HCV, especially injecting drugs. - Hepatitis A - Hepatitis B - What Is Heroin? - Blood Test: Hepatic (Liver) Function Panel - Liver Transplant Note: All information is for educational purposes only. For specific medical advice, diagnoses, and treatment, consult your doctor. © 1995- The Nemours Foundation. KidsHealth® is a registered trademark of The Nemours Foundation. All rights reserved. Images sourced by The Nemours Foundation and Getty Images.

The polar exploration ship Endurance has not been seen since 1915, when it was crushed by sea ice in Antarctica’s Weddell Sea during a failed Trans-Antarctic crossing by Ernest Shackleton. But in 2019, Jonathan Amos at the BBC reports that a team of scientists will attempt to locate the wreck when they visit the area to study the Larsen C Ice Shelf, the mega-iceberg that broke off the continent last July. The S.A. Agulhas II should reach the area in January or February as part of the Weddell Sea Expedition 2019. But the search for the remains of Endurance will be contingent on if the crew has the time and opportunity to send an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) to the right location. “[I]f we can get them in range of where Endurance is thought to be, we will send them under the ice to do a survey,” Julian Dowdeswell, director of the Scott Polar Research Institute at the University of Cambridge, tells Amos. “They are fitted with downward-looking multi-beam echosounders, which can map out on a grid the shape of the seafloor. You look at that for any signs of the ship and then focus in with cameras if you find something interesting.” The final position of the ship when it sunk November 21, 1915 is believed to be about 100 to 150 nautical miles from Larsen C, making the ship an irresistible target. If it is found, it’s likely to be in excellent condition, reports Henry Bodkin at The Telegraph. That’s because the Antarctic Circumpolar Current may have kept wood-boring sea worms from damaging the wreck, which, if discovered, will be declared a protected historic monument. “If the expedition finds the wreck we will survey, photograph and film it and document its condition,” Dowdeswell says. “If there are deep-water marine species colonizing the wreck, the marine biologists may try to obtain scientific samples using the Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV), if that can be deployed above the site from the ship. However, we will not remove any items from the wreck.” At the time of its construction in Norway in 1912, the Endurance was the strongest ship ever built, with an 85-inch oak keel. However, the design was not right for sea ice. That design flaw led to one of the most epic survival stories ever recorded. Shackleton planned to take the Endurance into the Weddell Sea where he would begin the first trans-Antarctic crossing. But on January 18, 1915, just days after setting sail from a whaling station on South Georgia Island, the Endurance was caught in pack ice. The crew of 28 lived aboard the ice-bound ship most of the year. As sea ice pressure increased, however, the hull of the ship began to crack. In November, it sank and the crew established camp on an ice float. By April they were able to reach Elephant Island, where Shackleton and five other crewmembers decided to sail a lifeboat, the James Caird, 800 miles to South Georgia to arrange a rescue. They reached the island 17 days later, but had to undertake and epic 36-hour crossing of the island’s icy mountains to reach the station. In August, 1916, 22 months after their ordeal began, a small Argentinean steamer was finally able to pick up the half-starved crew from Elephant Island. Ryan Wilkinson at the Press Association reports that conditions in the area are still treacherous, even for modern ships. Other attempts to study the Larsen C shelf have been turned back by ice, and there’s not guarantee the Agulhas II will make it either. Alexandra Shackleton, the explorer’s granddaughter tells Wilkinson she would be eager to see images from the ship, but she’s not holding out too much hope. “People plan to do things in the Antarctic and the Antarctic decides otherwise, as my grandfather found,” she says. Recently two other famous lost polar exploration wrecks were discovered. In 2015, the H.M.S. Erebus was discovered in Arctic Canada, followed by the H.M.S. Terror in 2016. Those ships were part of the doomed 1848 Franklin expedition searching for the Northwest Passage.

Nanomaterials are not only used in consumer products, but also in new and innovative medical treatments. Research has shown that nanoparticles can be used to damage and even destroy cancer cells from within. We all know how tough a cancer treatment can be. Traditional cancer treatments such as surgery, radiation and chemotherapy do not only harm the cancer cells, but often also healthy ones. The treatments therefore often lead to unwanted side effects such as nausea, vomiting, hair loss and infection. And yet, there is no guarantee for a cure. A powerful weapon One of the ideas behind nanotechnology in cancer treatment is in many ways simple. Basically, it tries to target the effect of anti-cancer drugs more precisely. More accurately targeted treatment prevents us from harming healthy cells. One of the methods, that has been tested on mice, is to inject a particular type of nanoparticle directly into the cancerous tumour. After the injection, a laser heats up the nanoparticles which then damage or even kill the cancer cells. Early diagnosis is key Yet another use of nanotechnology in the fight against cancer aims to locate the tumour at an earlier stage than would otherwise have been possible. Nanoparticles designed to attach to the cancer cells make tumours visible in scans earlier in the development of the disease. Since early diagnosis is vital for curing cancer, this is an important step in the fight against the disease. The science of extremely small things Nanotechnology is about manipulating matter at extremely small sizes. We do that because we are then able to change how some substances behave. Gold for instance, will change its colour and become red when it is broken down to the nano scale. That red colour has been used for centuries to give red stained glass its colour. Nanoparticles are, in other words, not something new, they also exist in nature. But, nanotechnology makes it possible to engineer nanomaterials and make use of their special properties.

We live in a highly industrialised world. As the demand for manufactured goods, new infrastructure and forms of transportation increases, so does the scale of damage to our environment. Our day-to-day activities continue to compound existing forms of pollution, as numb as we have become to it. But one type of pollution is particularly vicious given the fact that it’s mostly invisible: air pollution. Reportedly, exposure to outdoor air pollution is responsible for over 4 million deaths each year. To put that into perspective, consider how the official number of deaths due to COVID-19 has now passed 4 million as well. Unfortunately, like other forms of pollution, combatting air pollution comes with serious challenges on a global scale. As reported by the World Health Organisation, the majority of ambient air pollution plagues low- and middle-income nations, with the greatest burden found in the WHO Western Pacific and South-East Asia regions. Furthermore, up to 70% of air pollution is directly caused by road transport. As much as many are advocating for greener practices and alternatives, the reality is we are burdened by an ever-increasing global population. Through a combination of greater life expectancy and more urbanised living, we have inadvertently impacted the overall quality of life by damaging the air we breathe. Understanding Air Pollution And PM2.5 What you should know about ‘air pollution’ is it’s actually an umbrella term for various particles (both solid and liquid ones) suspended in the air, mixed together and compromise one’s health when breathed in. These particles can contain (1) black carbon, which comes from burning coal, diesel or wood, (2) sulfur dioxide, which gets emitted into the air due to the burning of sulfur-containing fossil fuels, or (3) ozone at ground level, commonly known as ‘smog’, which is formed through reactions of nitrogen oxides and certain organic compounds during combustion of fossil fuels. For much of the particulate matter in polluted air, particles can be classified as PM2.5 (less than 2.5 micrometres in diametre) or PM10 (less than 10 micrometres in diametre). As a reference, PM2.5 and PM10 particles are about 25 and 100 times thinner than a strand of human hair, respectively. Besides diametre, how exactly are those two different? Basically, PM10 particles are coarser and when inhaled, mainly affecting the upper respiratory tract. Prime examples of such particles including dust, pollen, spores, and droplets of liquids. Meanwhile, as PM2.5 particles are finer, these can penetrate deeper into the lungs and lead to even more serious health conditions concerning other organs. The WHO views PM2.5 as a serious threat to general populations, which is why they recommend that any city or region maintain a low average concentration of PM2.5, specifically under 10 micrograms (mcg) per cubic metre. However, the vast majority of people currently live in areas that exceed this limit. WHO data reveals that 9 out of 10 people breathe air that contains an excessive amount of pollution, and unsurprisingly, those exposed to the highest amounts come from low/middle-income countries. Diseases And Illnesses Due to PM2.5 The reason exposure to PM2.5 is quite dangerous lies in the ability of these particles to bypass your body’s natural defences. They can travel deep into the lungs and enter your bloodstream. It is so omnipresent in different parts of the world that particulate matter is known to be a more potent killer than diabetes. And while everybody can get illnesses from PM2.5, the elderly, young children and those with breathing problems and heart conditions are most vulnerable to serious diseases. The severity of disease due to PM2.5 depends on factors such as one’s current health status, the length of their exposure, as well as the concentration of the pollutant in the air when inhaled. That being said, even the healthiest individuals can suffer from ailments like coughing, shortness of breath, tightness of the chest, irritation of the eyes, throat and nose. If one is exposed to high levels of air pollution, this can damage cells in the respiratory system, which increases one’s susceptibility to lung infections. Moreover, long-term exposure to PM2.5 can seriously compromise one’s respiratory and cardiovascular health, and significant health issues include the following: - Irregular heartbeat - Heart attacks and arrhythmias, especially in those with heart disease - Premature death in those with heart ailments, including death from cancer - Chronic bronchitis or chronic obstructive lung disease - Chronic respiratory disease in children - Impaired brain development in children - Development of lung cancer - Asthma – Particularly dangerous if you are pregnant, as breathing in pollutants while pregnant increases the risk of complications, and your child can develop severe asthma - Premature death in those with existing respiratory conditions How to Protect Your And Your Loved Ones from PM2.5 And Air Pollution While it’s important to advocate change and bring air pollution to the attention of those in positions of power, there are also measures you can take as far as your everyday activities and habits are concerned. First, always leave your car when you can travel by foot or bicycle to nearby locations. Anytime you drive a vehicle, you are exposed to over twice the amount of air pollution that someone walking the same route is. Also, avoid busy roads on your route while cycling, walking or running. It’s preferable to walk or run earlier in the day, as the air quality is better and you avoid pollution that comes with rush-hour traffic. The same advice goes for driving to work as well. But when you are stuck in the middle of slow-moving traffic, you should keep car windows closed. Furthermore, you can do your part in reducing your carbon footprint by not idling in your car. This means turning off the engine while waiting for someone or speaking on the phone while in the carpark. Finally, try spending as much time as possible in the green, open spaces of your city or suburb during lunch breaks and weekends with the family. Clean air is a precious commodity, and no one should be deprived of it. As humans, we’ve had the ability to create new things and find solutions to different problems for centuries. So arguably, it’s just a matter of time before we get to the other side of the persisting problem of air pollution. But while PM2.5 and other particles continue to burden our planet, we must keep on minding what we breathe.

Teachers often face a number of complex challenges linked to the increasing language diversity experienced in many classrooms across Europe. Free movement across intra-European borders as well as increasing migration into Europe has made the language situation in Europe increasingly diverse over the last decades, and many teachers are struggling to find the most suitable way of approaching this situation. The term “teacher language awareness” (TLA) refers to “the interface between what teachers know, or need to know, about language and their pedagogical practice” (Andrews 2008). Although TLA is mostly referred to in the context of language teaching, it is also highly relevant to teachers of others subjects who are working in multi-lingual environments. While many teachers are already language-aware, many others are not conscious of the fact that linguistic diversity cannot only be perceived as a problem, but also as a very valuable pedagogical resource.Aims and Learning Objectives The aim of the “Language-aware teacher” MOOC is to enhance teachers’ awareness about the language competences of their students and how to benefit from them as well as to provide them with different tools and resources to support them to deliver curricular subjects in different languages. This MOOC is especially valuable to teachers who are new to working in bilingual and CLIL projects or have little experience of these, and it will serve to provide participants with various tools and resources they can easily integrate in their lessons for a more efficient and innovative teaching and learning. This MOOC focuses on raising awareness about the advantage of having students from diverse nationalities and speaking different languages in the same classroom can actually be used as an asset providing a benefit and added value to their classrooms. Besides, the MOOC will serve to help teachers to build learning scenarios for Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) in a framework of 21st century skills.

At dawn, a suitable resting site is found where a hedgehog may construct a daytime nest in which to sleep, or may simply lie-up in areas of bramble or long grass. Nests tend to be highly temporary during the summer, while they may be used over consecutive days during the autumn and winter. Nonetheless, the observation by Anni Rautio and colleagues at the University of Eastern Finland that hedgehogs in their study population, in the Finnish town of Joensuu, spent 85% or more of their year in a nest illustrates how critical these structures can be to hedgehog survival. Hedgehog nests can be broadly classified into two types, summer and winter (or hibernacula); summer nests tend to be less well insulated (flimsier) than winter ones. Summer nests are generally loosely constructed balls of grass and leaves. Hibernacula, by contrast, are more tightly woven structures with walls several centimetres thick; they’re composed of carefully placed leaves, twigs, grass other plant material and may measure up to 60cm (2 ft.) in diameter. Hibernacula are waterproof and very well insulated. Indeed, while studying nests in London's Bushy Park, Pat Morris found the temperature inside hibernaculums remained between about 1C and 5C (34 – 41F), despite fluctuations in ambient temperatures between -8C and 10C (17.5 – 50F). Similarly, at her urban study site Jutland, Denmark, University of Aarhus zoologist Helge Walhovd observed internal hibernaculum temperatures of between 0C and 4C (32 – 39F) despite the air temperature fluctuating between -11C and 13C (12 – 55F). In colder parts of Europe, there are reports of hedgehogs digging into the soil to build a hibernaculum, which offers additional frost protection. This thermal stability is important because, as Nigel Reeve explains in Hedgehogs: “Between 1 and 4oC [34-39F] seems to be an appropriate body temperature for a hibernating E- europaeus, low enough to conserve energy while avoiding the freezing of tissues which would result in frost-bite.” The time taken to build a hibernaculum varies from animal to animal, and depends upon the availability of dry material. In the literature, periods range from a single day to three or four; a blind hedgehog residing in rescuer Natasha Harper's garden, for example, took four days to construct its hibernaculum. Nesting material appears to be ‘combed’ into shape by the hedgehog’s paws and spines. The ‘art’ of building appears to be honed rapidly, with observations of captive hogs showing that they start nest building at around three weeks old and have mastered it by about eight weeks. Nests may be widely spaced or clustered depending on the habitat and the individual. One recent study in Norfolk and Yorkshire observed a tendency for day nests to be situated towards the centre of the home range. While most authors refer to two types of hedgehog nests, it is worth mentioning that summer nests are sometimes split into ‘daytime resting’ and ‘breeding nests’. Nursery nests, those occupied by females from May onwards, tend to be larger than summer nests. In his Complete Hedgehog, Les Stocker notes that hedgehogs will pluck grass to line their nest and construct nursery nests more diligently than either summer rests or hibernacula. In addition, radio-tracking data on hedgehogs in Finland by Anni Rautio and colleagues has suggested as many as four different nest types were constructed, including a pre-hibernation nest that I have not come across elsewhere. Rautio and her team tracked 25 hedgehogs and located 344 nests between spring 2004 and early summer 2006; most (283 / 82%) were ‘day’ nests, 14 (4%) were breeding nests, 36 (10%) pre-hibernation nests and 11 (4%) hibernacula. Pre-hibernation nests were similar in construction to hibernacula, with a compact structure and thick well-supported walls, but were built in the run-up to hibernation. The researchers suggest that they might serve as a backup if the actual hibernation nest is destroyed. In a paper to the journal Oecologia back in 1973, Pat Morris presented data from his study on 167 winter nests from Bushy Park in west London. Morris observed that hedgehogs left the exposed parts of the park for more sheltered hibernation sites (e.g. peripheral plantations) as winter approached, with 25% of hibernacula built in November; only a few were constructed between January and March. Similarly, Amy Haigh observed a move into areas of scrub during October and November on her study site in Ireland and tracking data collected by Anni Rautio and her colleagues showed animals moving from urban areas into peripheral forest to overwinter. Haigh’s studies revealed that most summer nests were built in pastureland, while hibernacula were almost invariably constructed amongst thick bramble, which offers better support. Indeed, most (82%) of the 16 farmland nests she and her colleagues found were built in hedgerows. Rautio and her co-workers noted that forest areas were one of the most important nesting habitats for urban hedgehogs, especially in autumn and winter, when coniferous forests provide a secure hibernation site and just over one-third of nests were built under bushes or against tree trunks. Similarly, Carly Pettett and her colleagues report, in a paper to the European Journal of Wildlife Research in 2017, that almost half (48%) of the 40 village nests they found during their study in Norfolk and Yorkshire were constructed in scrub, 25% in buildings (under sheds or in hay barns) and 23% in hedgerows; various man-made structures were also used for nesting in villages, including sheds, compost heaps and under tarpaulin. In farmland, 75% of nests were built in hedges. Radio-tracking studies of hedgehogs in Nottinghamshire by Richard Yarnell and his team found that, of 31 winter nests used during the winter of 2012/2013, 33% were made in bramble, 19% in hedgerows, 19% among shrubs, 10% in rabbit burrows, 10% in vegetation around buildings and 3% in wood piles. Indeed, both Reeve and Morris found a preference for building nests among brambles; the better support prolonging nest life. The average lifespan of a nest in Morris’ study was just short of six-and-a-half months, with those constructed under supporting cover such as bramble or log piles out-lasting those that were built in less well supported areas, such as in long grass. Among the well-supported nests, some 17% could be found a year later, while only 2% of the poorly-supported ones lasted that long. It appears that nests decayed rapidly once water got in. Perhaps unsurprisingly, initiation of hibernaculum construction seems to be triggered by falling temperatures. In a paper to the Zoological Society of London during 1963, University of Reading zoologist E.J. Dimelow reported results from her observations on captive hedgehogs during which her subjects began constructing nests when the temperature fell below 16C (61F). Similarly, Morris observed a close correlation between the ambient temperature and the number of hogs occupying their hibernaculum; at temperatures below -2C (28F) about 13 of his study population were in their hibernacula, compared to only one or two at temperatures above 4C (39F). Anni Rautio and her colleagues noted a distinct change in behaviour during the autumn when her subjects entered a ‘transition period’; they reduced foraging activity and built new nests in which they spent most of their time. During their studies on hedgehog torpor between 1983 and 1985, Paul Fowler and Paul Racey at the University of Aberdeen found that their subjects took to nest boxes and underwent spontaneous bouts of transient shallow torpor in the period leading to final hibernation and this may be the same transition period observed in the Finnish hedgehogs. It should be noted that nests aren’t always built; some come ready-made. In his Oecologia paper, Morris noted that hedgehogs have been found nesting in tree hollows, thatched roofs, and (rabbit?) burrows, although none of these seem particularly common choices. Pettett and her colleagues found three hedgehogs nesting in holes in living or dead trees and, as mentioned above, Richard Yarnell also observed hibernacula construction in rabbit burrows. In his Mammals of Eastern Europe and Northern Asia, Sergi Ognev recounts the observations of Ukrainian-Russian explorer and zoologist Nikolai Zarudny on hedgehog hibernation in south-west Russia in which he described hedgehogs digging their own burrows for hibernation: “For the winter sleep the hedgehog generally digs into the earth to a depth of up to 2.5 feet [76 cm], usually somewhat less. It descends under the surface of the earth along its gently sloping burrow, which is up to 5 feet [7.6 m] long. It often digs down between the roots of bushes and trees.” It’s not clear whether Zarudny observed hedgehogs digging these holes himself, or if he found hedgehogs in these burrows and assumed they had dug them. Hedgehogs are not particularly powerful diggers and one wonders whether the hedgehogs had actually taken over abandoned earthworks of rabbits, foxes or badgers. Indeed, on the subject of capitalising on the work of other species, hedgehogs will use nests abandoned by other hedgehogs and, in July 2020, one was found fast asleep in a blackbird's nest about 60cm (2 ft.) off the ground in a bush in Cleveland, northern England, having apparently eaten the eggs. Finally, in October 2020, a hedgehog entered a conservatory near Aberdeen in Scotland through a catflap and went to sleep inside a motorbike helmet, from where it was extracted, checked over by a rescue, and released. It should also be noted that hedgehogs may not always use a nest and can sometimes be found lying up in long vegetation. Nest fidelity & swapping Hedgehogs typically exhibit very low levels of nest fidelity. The picture that has emerged from radio-tracking shows that nests are used periodically; occupied for a few days, before being abandoned for days, weeks or even months at a time. In his Oceologia study, Pat Morris found that 60% of the nests he surveyed were occupied for less than two months and subsequent observations implied that, despite there typically being more nests than hedgehogs in the area, hedgehogs always built a new nest after abandoning their old one, never moving into a ‘readymade’ one. More recent study data suggest this may not always be the case, however. Nigel Reeve’s tracking studies revealed non-simultaneous nest sharing, with two hedgehogs using the same nest, but at different times. Similarly, during her Ph.D. studies on hedgehogs in Ireland, Amy Haigh found that some of her subjects swapped nests during hibernation. Two male hedgehogs swapped hibernacula on three occasions during the winter of 2008/2009 and an adult female and juvenile male swapped four times, one entering the hibernaculum as soon as the other had left, in 2009/2010. Haigh also observed one male to move four times during hibernation between three different hibernacula; simultaneous nest sharing (see below) wasn’t recorded. Interestingly, Haigh’s subjects didn’t always use the nearest nest to where they were foraging and some moved considerable distances to specific nest sites. One adult female in particular passed two day nests that she used regularly on her way back to a nest at the bottom of a garden. Rautio and her colleagues found that a single daytime nest could be utilised by up to three different animals, but never simultaneously. Overall, about a quarter of both sexes used a nest previously used by another hog but nest swapping wasn’t observed during winter. The researchers suggest that males may use nests sequentially early in the season, when nest construction material is in short supply. Both sexes change nests frequently, but males tend to move more frequently than females; on average every three days, compared to every ten days and in Haigh’s population the trend was statistically significant. Similarly, Rautio and her colleagues observed males with greater home ranges also had the highest number of nests and they changed them more frequently than females. One particularly active individual tracked by Nigel Reeve used 15 nests and changed nests a staggering 41 times in 68 days. Reeve suggests that the increased ‘restlessness’ of males may relate to the larger area over which they range when compared to females. Whatever the reason for the periodic relocations, nest changes are most common during the spring when hedgehogs are most active and, although less frequent during the winter months, it is rare for a hedgehog to remain in the same hibernaculum for the entire winter. Simultaneous nest sharing Hedgehogs are generally not considered social animals and the simultaneous sharing of nests is regarded as uncommon. Ognev recounted the observations of Russian zoologist Karl Fiódorovich Kessler in north-west Russia’s Olonets Province during 1868, in which he described how: “Almost always, several hedgehogs are located in a single nest for winter hibernation.” During his studies in London’s Bushy Park during the mid-1960s, Pat Morris found two nests with two occupants and three with dual chambers that had presumably contained two occupants at some point. Similarly, I know hedgehog carers that have found up to five animals cohabiting a single nest box, but it has been suggested that this is an artificial situation. In our garden, trailcam footage strongly suggests nest sharing among three unrelated male hedgehogs. In late November and early December 2020, one male built a nest in the house and was joined by a second for a couple of nights. The second left and a third joined a few days later, resulting in half a dozen days when two hogs were in the hedgehog house simultaneously. So far, there's no evidence that all three have been asleep in the house together. Outside Britain, Mariano Recio at the University of Otago described summer nest sharing in wild hedgehogs, living on the eastern margin of the Godley Valley on New Zealand’s South Island, in a short paper to Frontiers in Ecology & the Environment published in 2016. Recio explained: “I found simultaneous nest sharing of adult hedgehogs on two occasions during summer. The first observation was a tracked hedgehog with two male adults sleeping in a nest under a dense patch of shrubs; all the hedgehogs were in contact with each other. A second observation was two adult males sharing a nest made with a female and three hoglets, all in contact in a dense nest of tussocks.” To the best of my knowledge, this represents the first documented case of European hedgehogs sharing summer nests, although there is a record of a male and female of the related Erinaceus concolor sharing a summer nest in Israel from the early 1980s. It seems that hedgehogs may sometimes nest with other species, if the opportunity arises. The photo on the right was sent in by a reader who found a juvenile hedgehog in a coop with one of her Sebright chickens, a dwarf breed of poultry originating from Britain, in the Le Marche region of Italy during June 2019. Serena told me: “The hens are now looking for the best places to be broody and she found a friend next to her one night. We are pretty sure the hedgehog stayed only that one night. The next day he/she was no longer there.” Finally, a recent trend has emerged for installing ‘hedgehog houses’ or ‘hog boxes’ in gardens, the aim being to provide a suitable secure place for hedgehogs to nest. We still don’t know whether they make a difference, in terms of improving winter survival, and I’ve known people to be quite down-heartened when a hog box they’re installed in their garden is seemingly ignored. Indeed, I know of one case where a hedgehog made a nest up against the side of a hog box. By the same token, I’ve seen photos of a single box playing home to several animals and in our garden our hedgehog house was ignored for about two years before a male built a nest in it during November 2020. In the 2014 paper to Acta Theriologica detailing their Finnish tracking study, Rautio and her colleagues noted: “Our data indicated that nest boxes in gardens are of no great significance for adult hedgehogs, although they may serve as a nesting place for juveniles and as occasional resting places for adults …” At The Day of the Hedgehog, a conference organised by PTES and the BHPS and held in Shropshire in November 2015, Pat Morris summed the situation with hog boxes succinctly when he remarked that they may not help, but they can’t hurt.

Last Reviewed and Updated on August 1, 2022 Dwarf planets might not be full-fledged planets, but that doesn’t mean they don’t have anything to offer. These astronomical objects are just as interesting, some even more, than regular planets in our Solar System. Read through these interesting facts about dwarf planets, and you will see why they are amazing. 1. Dwarf planet Pluto was previously a planet When Pluto was discovered in 1930, it was classified as a planet and remained a planet for 76 years, being the ninth planet in our Solar System. In 2006 it was demoted to a dwarf planet. 2. Dwarf planets can have their own moons Dwarf planets aren’t all that different from regular planets. Some, like Ceres, don’t have moons, while others, like Pluto, have one or more moons. 3. There are 5 dwarf planets or more, depending on who you ask The international astronomical union (IAU) currently recognizes five dwarf planets in our Solar System, with quite a few others being considered. The officially recognized dwarf planets are; Pluto, Ceres, Makemake, Eris, and Haumea. Some estimate there could be over 100 dwarf planets in our Solar System, and some astronomers recognize many of them as dwarf planets, even though they aren’t (yet) classified as such by the IAU. 4. Haumea is a very oval One of the coolest facts about dwarf planets is about Haumea. While Huamea’s shape wasn’t yet directly observed, the calculations from its light curve suggest and confirm it is a Jacobi ellipsoid. The longer axis is about twice the length of the shorter one. Think this is cool? You are going to like our list of amazing space facts. 5. Ceres was first a planet, then an asteroid, and is now a dwarf planet The classification of astronomical bodies can change, both as we learn more about them and as our criteria for the classification of bodies change over time. Ceres was discovered in 1801 and was considered a planet. In 1850 it was reclassified as an asteroid as dozens of other objects were discovered in similar orbits. In 2006 Ceres was reclassified again, this time being classified as a dwarf planet. 6. Pluto is the largest of dwarf planets but not the most massive one When it comes to size, Pluto is the largest of the known dwarf planets. When Eris was discovered, it was first thought that it was bigger than Pluto, but that isn’t the case. It is, however, more massive than Pluto is. 7. Haumea has a ring system Ring systems aren’t exclusive to planets. Haumea has a ring system of its own, and it is the first known Kuiper Belt Object to have rings. It is also the only known dwarf planet with a ring system. 8. Dwarf planets have not cleared the neighborhood around their orbits And here lies the difference between a planet and a dwarf planet. What this means is that a dwarf planet shares its orbital space with other bodies that are a similar size and aren’t satellites of the dwarf planet, unlike a planet. 9. Eris is the most distant dwarf planet from the Sun As far as the known and officially recognized dwarf planets go, Eris is the most distant from the Sun. 10. The term and classification of a “dwarf planet” was introduced in 2006 Objects being classified as dwarf planets is a fairly recent thing. This classification was introduced as with discoveries of new Pluto-like astronomical objects, a better definition of what a planet is was needed.

Programming is an increasingly important proficiency to possess in the modern world. It is used in a variety of applications ranging from automated business processes to creating user experiences. However, what exactly does it mean to use programming skills in the real world? How can coding be applied to everyday activities? And what makes it a unique and powerful tool? The ubiquity of modern technology has led to a surging demand for professionals with programming and coding expertise. We rely heavily on machines to perform tasks that would have once taken hours by hand. Everything from self-driving cars to voice-controlled household appliances requires programming to operate correctly. But what are the implications for those looking to use their skills in a real-life setting? Research has shown that companies who employ developers with a strong programming background gain an advantage due to their increased efficiency and the sophisticated algorithms they are able to design. Programmers have been found to be more knowledgeable on developing products and services that satisfy customer needs, compared to those with a non-programming background. In addition, coding allows for automation and rapid prototyping, saving time and money for businesses. In this article, you will learn the key elements of applying programming in the real world, from understanding of coding theories to developing web applications or mobile apps. Furthermore, it will cover the common development platforms used today for programming, and the tools and best practices for getting the most out of existing technology. Finally, it will explore the potential that coding opens up for both businesses and individuals who use them. Definitions of Programming Skills in the Real World - 1 Definitions of Programming Skills in the Real World - 2 Making use of programming skills in everyday life - 3 Employing programming skills in the job market - 4 Applying programming skills in developing technologies - 5 Conclusion Real world programming skills involve the ability to create programs or applications that are helpful to people or businesses. For example, programmers may create web development applications such as ecommerce websites, or computer applications that use programming languages such as Java, C#, or Python. Computer science is the field of study that focuses on the principles and techniques of computing and computer programming. Computer science involves the study of algorithms, data structures, databases, computability theory, operating systems, and software engineering. Academically, computer science is divided into two major parts: theoretical computer science and applied computer science. Data science is a field that uses scientific methods, processes, algorithms, and systems to extract knowledge and insights from data. Data science encompasses a broad range of topics including data mining, machine learning, statistics, natural language processing, and more. Additionally, machine learning is a subset of artificial intelligence that provides systems with the ability to automatically learn and improve from the data that it is given. Machine learning is used in many different areas, such as providing personalized recommendations, detecting patterns in data, and enabling autonomous vehicles. Artificial intelligence (AI) is the science of creating machines that can complete tasks that normally require human intelligence. AI is used in many areas, from facial recognition to self-driving cars. AI can also be used to automate processes or to aid in the understanding of data. Together, these skills constitute a set of techniques and practices used by programmers in the real world to create useful applications. By combining programming languages, software development, computer science, data science, machine learning, and artificial intelligence, programmers are able to create programs that are helpful and beneficial to those using them. Making use of programming skills in everyday life What is Programming? Writing software, or programming, is the process through which computer instructions, instructions for a computer to carry out a task, are written. This is one of the many skills that are in increasingly high demand. People with masterful programming skills, often times referred to as coders or software engineers, are now able to significantly add to their own well-being and to that of many others. Benefits of Programming in Everyday Life The advances that people with programming skills provide benefit more than the profession they work in. Programming can be a major skill that can re-shape the way our everyday lives are conducted. Some of the ways programming skills benefit everyday life include: - Creation of Helpful Apps: Programming skills can be used to create beneficial applications for our phones and tablets, such as pedometers and calorie trackers. - Innovation in Occupations: Coders can make processes in certain jobs more efficient and less time consuming than ever before. Examples include automation of customer service, accounting, or manufacturing. - Aiding Research: Programs can automate procedure execution and monitor their results, giving researchers opportunities to take a deeper look in newer areas, quicker than ever before. - Advancement in Business Processes: With programming, businesses can improve their operations by monitoring or eliminating tedious processes. For example, monitoring energy usage and managing customer orders. - Increase of Safety Levels: Programs can now be put in place in certain sectors, such as hospitals, to ensure that a certain protocol is being followed as healthcare is being administered. Programming can also be used to develop video games that can be used to improve cognitive skills and even improve physical operations. Games can be created to teach people of any age, in any field, about specific topics. Programming can revolutionize a field, such as education, allowing teachers to better explain or instruct different concepts to their students. Programming can also be used in audio production, allowing the pitch, tempo, or speed of music to be altered with ease. Advanced graphic design capabilities have also been developed through programming, allowing for the stunning 3D visualizations that we can now witness in movies and television shows. Programming has become an invaluable asset to us as humans, and as the field continues to advance, the possibilities and successes that can be seen will merely grow with it. Employing programming skills in the job market Programming for Professional Purposes Programming is becoming an increasingly popular career choice among students, developers, and entrepreneurs. By acquiring and developing programming skills, an individual can open up avenues for career opportunities which may lead to high-paying jobs and secure a future. Programming abilities are essential to many professions in today’s rapidly shifting world. Professionals in fields such as software development, engineering, web development, data science, finance, AI, and robotics require programming skills to complete many tasks and projects. Consequently, job postings for these roles often require some form of coding and programming proficiency. Efficient Problem Solving with Programming Programming skills can further be applied to software and hardware design and implementation. Coding is used to construct various programs, applications, and websites from scratch. Additionally, many systems and devices require automated updates and maintenance. Programming allows users to automate this process, improving the efficiency and accuracy of routine actions. Learning and using coding and programming skills can help professionals to quickly understand and solve complex problems in a shorter amount of time. Programming can also be used to improve the productivity and automate mundane tasks. Automation tools can be used to program programs and applications, enabling their operation without constant human intervention. Furthermore, some programming languages allow for the development of a wide range of algorithms, which can be used to automate clerical or data entry tasks. This makes it possible to handle large amounts of data quickly and accurately. In conclusion, programming is incredibly useful for solving complex problems in a wide range of professional fields. Programming skills enable individuals to create complicated websites, automate tedious tasks, and improve the accuracy of data entry tasks. Professionals can use these abilities to open up new job opportunities, as well as improve their productivity and efficiency at their current workplace. Consequently, it is important for those pursuing a career in the technology field to learn and develop programming skills and expand their professional horizons. Applying programming skills in developing technologies Significance of Programming Skills in Real World With the data age making waves, programming has become an irreplaceable asset to individuals and organizations alike. As the competition for market share and digital dominance heats up, organizations are scrambling to get access to the finest programmers around. This is because programming is a powerful tool to build, maintain, and improve products, services, databases, and websites. Entire digital systems revolve around programming skills, so the demand for programmers is higher than ever before. On a personal level, knowing how to program can give an individual an edge over their peers by enabling them to develop sophisticated projects or even develop their very own products and applications. Understanding the Basic Elements of Programming To make use of programming skills in the real world, it is important to understand the basics of programming languages. Learning the fundamentals of programming will give an individual the ability to perform simple programming tasks such as customizing websites, creating databases and developing simple applications. As individuals gain more experience and expertise, they can move onto more complex programming tasks such as creating commercial projects. It is essential to pay attention to the language syntax and use the practices and techniques used by programmers. Designing Database Structures Besides having basic knowledge of programming languages, another skill required in the real world is the ability to design databases and tables. An individual needs to understand the principles behind designing a database and how the different elements interact with one another. This is because without a properly structured database, the entire system can quickly become inefficient and unreliable. Through practice, individuals can master the process of correctly designing and using databases, which can be applied in real world scenarios. Developing Products and Applications Finally, programming skills can be used in the real world to develop products and applications. Companies and businesses rely heavily on their applications to process data and perform customer-facing operations. Knowing how to create web and mobile applications is a valuable asset for businesses and can increase the efficiency of their operations. For individuals, they can take it further and develop their very own applications, either as a business or as a hobby. Programming skills are immensely valuable in the modern world, not just for organizations and businesses, but also for individuals. Being able to program opens up various opportunities, ranging from creating databases and websites to developing applications and products. Understanding the fundamentals of programming and having the ability to design databases correctly is essential for individuals who want to make use of their programming skills in the real world. The potential of programming in the real world is ever-expanding. From making life simpler to solving complex problems, the ability to program can be a valuable tool in any person’s skillset. But what are some of the best ways to utilize coding skills to improve life? How can people use their coding knowledge to better their situation and the situations of those around them? These questions and more can be explored through thoughtful discussion and exploration. To stay up to date on the latest developments and advancements in programming and its application in the real world, be sure to follow our blog and keep an eye out for new releases. Frequently Asked Questions: How can programming improve my life? Programming can be used in a variety of ways to simplify and speed up everyday tasks. Automating mundane processes or developing your own applications can help people stay organized and efficient. What are some example of uses for programming? Programming can be used to create applications for smartphones, web pages, artificial intelligence, and more. It can even be used to make a hobby project come alive. Is it difficult to learn how to program? Learning how to program is certainly a challenge, and it takes a lot of dedication. However, with the right guidance and resources, anyone can become a proficient programmer. How can I stay up to date on the latest developments in programming? Technology is constantly changing, so it’s important to stay up to date on the latest advances. Following blogs, attending conferences, and joining an online programming community can help keep programmers informed of the latest developments.

Generally, DNS represents to Domain Name System. But sometimes it is referred to Domain Name Service too. Anyhow, DNS system is a multi-level distributed naming system for whether computers, services, or any other resource, connected to the internet or else a private network. The main purpose of this system is to join together relevant information and domain names that are allotted to online participating entities. Most importantly, it gives meaningful form to domain names for the purposes of identifying networking equipments which are located on the different corners of the world. The DNS can spell out the function, practically of a database service. It can also define the DNS protocol, detailed specifications of the data structures and communication exchanges used in DNS as part of the IP suite. But as an internet service, the key job of DNS is to transform the domain names of communicating devices into their IP addresses. With this system, it is possible to allocate domain names to different groups of the online resources plus users, independent of their (devices) physical locations. The reason of doing so is just to provide the convenience of understanding devices names over the internet. Domain names are available in the form of alphabetic so one can easily understand and even remember them since IP addresses are assigned to connected devices in the numerical form such as 220.127.116.11. Whenever you will visit a website that means you are going to use a domain name. Therefore, only a domain name system can translate addressed domain name into its corresponding Internet protocol or IP address. Certain advantages are associated with the DNS service like: - no host table management is required - especially designed for the internet and internet existence will be impossible without DNS system The Domain Name System provides a hierarchical structure either it is a matter of delegating naming authorities or maintaining the naming structure within DNS. But at the uppermost level of that hierarchy, you will observe the root domain “.” which is under the control of the IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority). Moreover, root domain administration authority is given to IANA so beneath root, domains allocation can be made. The course of handing over a domain to any organizational body is known as delegating. That is also involved creating sub-domains by administrator of that domain etc. But a hierarchical delegation inaugurates at the DNS “root” while a fully qualified domain name, is acquired after writing simple names (attained as a result of tracing DNS hierarchy and sorting out each one name with a “.”) For example: oma.xyz.edu.au The DNS maintenance is done by a distributed database that follows a client/server approach. But connecting nodes with a database are known as name-servers. But an “authoritative name server” mechanism is used to make the DNS both distributed and fault-tolerant system. There should be as a minimum one authoritative DNS server in every domain so that can distribute information regarding this domain as well as about the name-servers of any other domain, assisting to this domain. Authoritative name server is itself a name-server but that has an authority to provide configured (specified by the administrator) answers. There are two types of an authoritative name server: - master server with original zone records copies - slave server Domain names will be registered with the help of domain name registrar. The duty of a primary name server is required while installing domain name at top level domain registry. And in any case, one secondary name server is also needed. Primary name server is called master name server and secondary name server is work as a slave server.

Hospitality (sakkāra) is the act of being welcoming and helpful to guests (atithi or pāhunaka), strangers (āgantuka) and travellers (addhika). Throughout the ancient world hospitality, at least towards members of one’s own tribe or religion, was held in high esteem. In India it was restricted to some degree by the demands of the caste system. For example, the Manusmṛti, the most important Hindu law book, says that a brahman should only offer hospitality to other brahmans and that he should neither greet nor return the greeting of monks or ascetics of unorthodox sects, although the more open-minded brahmans did not always agree with this(D.I,117). It was probably because of such ideas that, when the Buddha went on alms gathering in the brahman village of Pañcasālā, the inhabitants refused to give him anything, and he ‘left with his bowl as clean as when he had come.’ (S.I,114). For the Buddha, hospitality should be shown to all, whatever their caste, religious affiliation or status. When Sīha, a leading citizen of Vesālī and a generous supporter of Jainism, became a Buddhist, the Buddha asked him to continue offering his hospitality to Jain monks who might come to his door (A.IV,185). The Tipiṭaka often says that the Buddha was ‘welcoming, friendly, polite and genial’ towards everyone who came to see him (D.I,116). One of the traditional duties of a lay person was to make the fivefold offering, one of which was providing food, accommodation and help to guests (atithibali), a practice the Buddha approved of and encouraged (A.II,68). When a monk turned up at a monastery, he asked the resident monks to go out and meet him, prepare a seat for him, bring him water to wash his feet, prepare accommodation for him and do other things to make him feel welcome (Vin.II,207-11). The Milindapañha said that, if a guest turned up at a person’s house after all the food had been eaten, more rice should be cooked in order to feed him and allay his hunger (Mil.107). The Buddha considered failure to reciprocate hospitality to be very bad form. He said: ‘Whoever goes to another’s house and is fed but does not feed them when they come to his house, consider him an outcaste.’ (Sn.128). The Jātaka says: ‘If for even one night one stops in another’s house and receives food and drink, have no evil thought, for to do so would be to burn an extended hand and betray a good friend.’ (Ja.VI,310). Being newcomers to a Buddhist group, to the workplace or to the neighbourhood can be a time of awkwardness and uncertainty. Welcoming such people, making them feel at home and introducing them to others is an expression of kindness. A type of indirect hospitality common in the Buddhist world until recently was making provisions for travellers and pilgrims. People would build rest houses (āvasatha) on the edge of villages or towns or along roads where there was a long distance between villages. Other devout folk would undertake to supply these rest houses with firewood for cooking and water for drinking and to keep them clean. The Buddha said that planting trees (probably along roads), building bridges, digging wells, building rest houses and providing water for wayfarers, were all meritorious deeds (S.I,33). In his Suhṛllekha Nāgārjuna urged his royal correspondent to ‘establish rest houses in temples, towns and cities and set up water pots along lonely roads.’ This last practice remains very popular in Burma. Groups of friends form what are called water-donating societies (wainay ya thukha) and undertake to place water pots along roads for the convenience of passersby. See Mantra.

The Solar System in your pocket How close is Earth to the Sun? How far are we from Pluto? This activity will have you creating a paper model of the distances in our Solar System that you can pop in your pocket. Our Solar System is made up of eight planets and many other objects such as moons, asteroids and comets orbiting the Sun. We have the inner, rocky planets of Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars, followed by an asteroid belt. Further out are the gas giants Jupiter and Saturn and the icy Uranus and Neptune. At the farthest reaches of our Solar System we find the Kuiper Belt, a large region beyond Neptune made up of icy objects, rocks and Dwarf planets including Pluto! We are going to make a scale model to show how far away the planets would be from the Sun and each other, if the entire solar system were shrunk down to one metre across! Your model will show the planets lined up so you can see them all at once instead of scattered around the Sun along their orbits. - Get a strip of paper about a metre long. You may need to tape some strips together to get it long enough. A roll of party streamer works well too. You will also need a texta or pencil. - Label one end of your strip of paper with the word Sun and the other end “Kuiper Belt”. - Fold your paper in half, crease the fold and draw a mark on that centre point. Which Planet do you think might be halfway between the Sun and the Kuiper Belt? It’s Uranus, so you can write that on the centre point. - Refold the paper in half, then fold it in half again and crease them so you now have folds at the quarter points. Unfold then label the fold in between the Sun and Uranus as Saturn and the fold between Uranus and the Kuiper belt as Neptune. - Fold the Sun to meet Saturn, unfold and now mark that spot as Jupiter. - Fold the Sun to meet Jupiter, unfold and mark that spot with “Asteroid Belt” - Fold the Sun to meet the Asteroid Belt, unfold and mark that spot as Mars. Phew! Only 3 planets to go. - Fold the Sun up to meet the line for Mars. Leave it folded and fold that section in half. Unfold the tape and you should have three creases. Mark Earth on the crease nearest Mars, Venus on the middle crease and Mercury on the crease closest to the Sun. - To complete your Pocket Solar System you can print and cut out the planets and stick them over the label or draw them yourself! Roll up your finished piece of paper and you have yourself a pocket Solar System! Earth and the other planets in the inner solar system are relatively close together, compared with the planets that lie beyond the asteroid belt in the outer solar system. While it may seem like Neptune is far from our Sun, on this scale, the nearest star to our Solar System Proxima Centauri would be about 7 kilometres away. It’s also important to note that at this scale our Sun would be smaller than a grain of sand and you couldn’t see any of the planets without a magnifying glass! Our Scienceworks challenge There are still many other objects in our Solar System. Perhaps you can add in our Moon and the moons of Jupiter. What about spacecraft or other dwarf planets?

Pandemics accentuates or creates stressors among youth like • Fear and worry for oneself or loved ones, • Constraints on physical movement and social activities due to quarantine • Sudden and radical lifestyle changes. • Affected students’ motivation, concentration, and social interactions. Core Challenges among Students during Pandemic • Concerns for One’s Own Health and the Health of Loved Ones. • Difficulty in concentration. • Disruption to Sleep Patterns. • Increased Social Isolation. • Concerns about Academic Performance. • Disruptions to Eating Patterns. • Changes in the Living Environment. • Financial Difficulties. • Increased Class Workload. • Depressive Thoughts. • Suicidal Thoughts. How to cope • Breathing exercises. • Meditation is simple, free, and only takes a few minutes! It can promote relaxation, decrease negative emotions, build skills to manage stress, and increase tolerance. • Eat Healthy Foods and Maintain Regular Meal Patterns. • Be sure to stick to your regular sleep pattern and get enough sleep. Schedule a normal bedtime and wake time during the week. Evidence suggests that people who sleep less have more mental and physical health problems. Getting a full night of sleep (7-9 hours for adults) can improve learning, memory, mood, and heart health, as well as keep your immune system strong. • It is important to stay active, even if you are currently staying home. Exercise can significantly improve both your physical and mental health! • Take your mind off your immediate problems and try something new! • Try a new art project,It has been especially shown that trying a hobby reduce stress, improve creativity, decrease anxiety and depression, promote relaxation, and prevent cognitive decline. • Spend time by playing with family on board games, antakshari, other indoor games, music and crafts. • Learning can be fun: Creative thinking can go beyond the academic learning by participating in household chores, supporting younger siblings and parents. • Interactive Online classes: Support teachers in participating actively in online classes which will go a long way for enriching the utility and productivity of these times. • Evidence shows that practicing mindfulness in our day to day lives can significantly increase our capacity to cope with traumatic events, improve control over our emotional states and reduce anxiety and stress related symptoms. • Prioritize self-care: In these times of uncertainty, focus on what you can control and take care of yourself to stay healthy • Limit News Consumption to Trusted Sources : It is important to obtain accurate and timely public health information. • But too much exposure to media coverage • Most of us are anxious to share information on social media. It is tempting to forward messages with a click of a finger. But false and misleading information may have serious consequences for our lives. • It leads to fear, anger, inaction, bigotry or even worse. • You can be more mindful about your use of social media and still enjoy staying in touch with friends and family members. • THINK twice before posting or sharing on social media. Ask yourself: • Pay attention to: • Is the source identified? Can you judge for yourself if it’s reliable? How do you know it is reliable? Is the source a government official, a credible medical or scientific organization or another news report? • Be wary of images that aren’t credited and images lacking context, and those clearly doctored. Ask yourself if this is from a trustworthy source. • Modern editing technology has made it easy for people to create fake images that look professional and real. In fact, research shows that only half of us can tell when images are fake. However, there are some warning signs you can look out for: strange shadows on the image, for example, or jagged edges around a figure. • Be Generous and Kind to Others ‘Generosity can help us develop a sense of community and ensure that everyone has equal access to resources.We worry about shortages and hoard essential items like food and medicines which may end up causing shortages. While it is important to stock up on food and other essentials, please think of others too who may need these items. Dr Abdul Majid HOD Psychiatry, SKIMS Medical College Srinagar

Game-based learning offers opportunities for learning and literacy In What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy, Dr. James Paul Gee notes that Educators want children to practice learning and skills, but they don’t usually provide interesting options for sustained practice. Video games provide a mechanism for engaging students in contextual practice activities that reinforce and extend learning. Codex: Lost Words of Atlantis is an Indiana Jones-style game for Android devices that tasks the player with finding hidden artifacts around the world and deciphering the letters and sounds contained within. The Codex team - led by SMU professors Corey Clark, Tony Cuevas and Diane Gifford - tied with one other team for the grand prize of the Barbara Bush Foundation Adult Literacy XPRIZE competition earlier this year. Each team was awarded $1.5 million. Visit the Peopleforwords Codex website for more information

What is a Merkle tree? The concept of a Merkle tree was proposed in the early ‘80s by Ralph Merkle – a computer scientist renowned for his work on public-key cryptography. A Merkle tree is a structure used to efficiently verify the integrity of data in a set. They’re particularly interesting in the context of peer-to-peer networks, where participants need to share and independently validate information. Hash functions are at the core of Merkle tree structures, so we recommend you check out What is Hashing? before proceeding. How do Merkle trees work? Suppose that you want to download a large file. With open-source software, you’d typically want to check that the hash of the file you downloaded matches one made public by the developers. If it does, you know that the file you have on your computer is exactly the same as theirs. If the hashes don’t match, you have a problem. You’ve either downloaded a malicious file masquerading as the software, or it hasn’t downloaded correctly and, therefore, won’t work. If the latter is the case, you probably won’t be too happy if you’ve had to wait for some time for the file to download. Now, you need to restart the process and hope that it doesn’t corrupt again. If only there were an easier way to go about this, you think. Fortunately, that’s where Merkle trees come in. With one of these, you would have your file broken up into chunks. If it was a 50GB file, you might divide it into one hundred pieces, such that each is 0.5GB in size. Then, it would be downloaded piece-by-piece. This is essentially what you do when you torrent files. In this case, your source will have provided you with a hash known as the Merkle root. This single hash is a representation of every chunk of data that makes up your file. But the Merkle root makes it much easier to verify the data. To keep it simple, let’s take an example where we use an 8GB file broken into eight pieces. Call the different fragments A through H. Each fragment is then passed through a hash function, giving us eight different hashes. We pass each of our eight fragments through a hash function to get their hashes. Okay, so we’ve got something that makes a bit more sense. We have the hash of all the fragments, so if one is faulty, we’ll know by comparing it with the source’s one, right? Possibly, but that’s also incredibly inefficient. If your file has thousands of fragments, are you really going to hash all of them and meticulously compare the results? No. Instead we’re going to take each pair of hashes, combine them, then hash them together. So we hash hA + hB, hC + hD, hE + hF, and hG + hH. We end up with four hashes. Then we do another round of hashing with these to end up with two. Finally, we hash the remaining two to get to our master hash – the Merkle root (or root hash). The structure looks like an upside-down tree. On the bottom row, we have the leaves, which are combined to produce the nodes and, finally, the root. We now have the Merkle root that represents the file we downloaded. We can compare this root hash with the one provided by the source. If it matches, perfect! But if the hashes are different, we can be sure that the data was modified. In other words, one or more fragments have produced a different hash. So any slight modification of data will give us a totally different Merkle root. Fortunately, there’s a handy way for us to check which fragment is faulty. In our case, let’s say it’s hE. You would start by asking a peer for the two hashes that produced the Merkle root (hABCD and hEFGH). Your value hABCD should match theirs since there’s no mistake in that subtree. But hEFGH won’t, so you know to check in there. You then request hEF and hGH, and compare them with yours. hGH will look fine, so you know that hEF is our culprit. Lastly, you compare the hashes of hE and hF. You now know that hE is incorrect, so you can redownload that chunk. Summing it all up, a Merkle tree is created by dividing data into many pieces, which are then hashed repeatedly to form the Merkle root. You can then efficiently verify if something has gone wrong with a piece of data. As we’ll see in the next section, there are other interesting applications, too. Why are Merkle roots used in Bitcoin? There are a handful of use cases for Merkle trees, but here we will focus on their importance in blockchains. Merkle trees are essential in Bitcoin and many other cryptocurrencies. They’re an integral component of every block, where they can be found in the block headers. To get the leaves for our tree, we use the transaction hash (the TXID) of every transaction included in the block. The Merkle root serves a couple of purposes in this case. Let’s take a look at their applications in cryptocurrency mining and transaction verification. A Bitcoin block is made up of two pieces. The first part is the block header, a fixed-size segment containing metadata for the block. The second part is a list of transactions whose size is variable, but tends to be much larger than the header. Miners need to repeatedly hash data to produce an output that matches certain conditions to mine a valid block. They can make trillions of attempts before finding one. With each attempt, they change a random number in the block header (the nonce) to produce a different output. But much of the block remains the same. There can be thousands of transactions, and you’d still need to hash them every time. A Merkle root streamlines the process considerably. When you start mining, you line up all of the transactions you want to include and construct a Merkle tree. You put the resulting root hash (32 bytes) in the block header. Then, when you’re mining, you only need to hash the block header, instead of the whole block. This works because it’s tamper-proof. You effectively summarize all of the block’s transactions in a compact format. You can’t find a valid block header and later change the transaction list, because that would change the Merkle root. When the block is sent to other nodes, they calculate the root from the transaction list. If it doesn’t match the one in the header, they reject the block. There’s another interesting property of Merkle roots that we can leverage. This one concerns the light clients (nodes that don’t hold a full copy of the blockchain). If you’re running a node on a device with limited resources, you don’t want to download and hash all of a block’s transactions. What you can do instead is simply request a Merkle proof – evidence provided by the full node that proves that your transaction is in a particular block. This is more commonly referred to as Simplified Payment Verification, or SPV, and was detailed by Satoshi Nakamoto in the Bitcoin whitepaper. To check hD, we only need the hashes shown in red. Consider the scenario where we want to know information about the transaction whose TXID is hD. If hC is provided to us, we can work out hCD. Then, we need hAB to calculate hABCD. Lastly, with hEFGH, we can check that the resulting Merkle root matches the one from the block header. If it does, it’s proof that the transaction was included in the block – it would be near-impossible to create the same hash with different data. In the above example, we’ve only had to hash three times. Without a Merkle proof, we would have needed to do it seven times. Since blocks nowadays contain thousands of transactions, using Merkle proofs saves us a lot of time and computing resources. Merkle trees have proven themselves highly useful in a range of computer science applications – as we’ve seen, they’re incredibly valuable in blockchains. In distributed systems, Merkle trees allow for easy verification of information without flooding the network with unnecessary data. Without Merkle trees (and Merkle roots), Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies’ blocks would not be nearly as compact as they are today. And while light clients are lacking on the privacy and security fronts, Merkle proofs enable users to check whether their transactions have been included in a block with minimal overhead.

Here’s a sentence. Got it? You just involuntarily transformed symbols on a screen into sounds in your head. Or to put it another way, you read it. That seems simple enough, but moving from what letters look like to what they sound like is a complex multisensory task that requires cooperation among brain areas specialized for visual and auditory processing. Researchers call this collection of specialized brain regions that map letters to sounds (or phonemes) the reading network. The extent to which these sensory-specific parts of the brain are able to connect as a network, not necessarily anatomically, but functionally, during a child’s development predicts their reading proficiency, according to a new neuroimaging study from the University at Buffalo. This developmental shift integrates previously segregated parts of the brain, suggesting that changes in reading skill are associated with the nature and degree of these changes to the neural pathways within the reading network. The results could help educators devise teaching methods that encourage more interactive operation of these areas. “As children learn how to read, the brain rewires itself so that it goes from having one area working on visual matters and another working on auditory matters to the two areas working together as a cohesive unit,” says Chris McNorgan, an assistant professor of psychology at UB and co-author of the research published in a special edition of Frontiers in Psychology focusing on audio-visual processing in reading. There is no one reading area of the brain. Written language developed roughly 5,000 years ago, far too recently in evolutionary history to have part of the brain dedicated to reading. “But we have inherited and repurposed specialized brain circuits from our ancient ancestors,” says McNorgan. “They had to recognize objects, so there’s inherently a part of our brain circuitry adapted for identifying the sorts of things necessary for discriminating between letters. The auditory part of the brain is good at recognizing speech sounds.” Mastering both written and spoken forms of language requires one part of the brain to map to another, the nominally visual with the nominally auditory. Participants in the study who demonstrated the best development as readers had the greatest change from previously isolated to later interactive areas of the brain. McNorgan and his colleagues used functional MRI (fMRI), a technology that measures and maps brain activity, for their functional connectivity study. Anatomical connectivity refers to white matter tracks that physically connect parts of the brain, but functional connectivity (which often tracks anatomical connectivity) considers separate brain areas that seem to become active at the same time when responding to a specific task. The researchers worked with 19 English-speaking participants, tracking the group at two time points: ages 8-11 and 11-13. They measured participant reading skill at both time points by assessing their ability to read a series of pseudo-words. A pseudo-words, such as “glarp,” is pronounceable string of letters that isn’t a real word. Pseudo-word reading skill is a useful measure of reading skill because they force participants to use the rules of language to work out the pronunciation rather than rely on previous reading experience for identification. After reading skill was assessed, participants performed a rhyming judgment task in the fMRI scanner, where they decided whether pairs of sequentially displayed words rhymed, which required them to continuously map written words to sounds. Using data from the fMRI, McNorgan, doctoral advisor to the study’s lead author Gregory J. Smith, a UB graduate student and co-author, and James R. Booth, a professor at Vanderbilt University, determined which brains areas are connected during the reading task. Using techniques borrowed from the same branch of mathematics that measure how other types of real-world networks function, the researchers were able to measure cross talk in the patterns of interaction among the regions of the brain comprising the reading network. “This is fascinating because it falls in nicely with previous research on what’s going on in a child’s mind as they learn to read,” says McNorgan. “Developmentally, children start to have more cross talk between their sound processing areas and visual processing areas. They’re mutually reinforcing each other. If they’re not getting this input then children are having difficulty reading.” With regards to learning how to read, researchers have found that the sound processing areas and visual processing areas of children's brains not only interact, but also benefit each other while building a strong network. It is this strong network of both visual and auditory processing that predicts a child's reading ability. By combining movement, rhythm, and repetition, StepUp to Learn gives children the speed and accuracy skills they need to become fluent in reading, math, and handwriting. As children progress through the program levels they improve their ability to learn and automate new exercises, a key step in the process of developing learning readiness. Watch this video to see StepUp to Learn in action! Ready to see for yourself? Sign up to get a 30-day trial now. Article written by Bert Gambini, reposted with permission from University at Buffalo.

Girdawari Haryana: also known as the Girdawari System or Crop Survey, is a land record system widely used in the Indian subcontinent, specifically in India and Pakistan, for agricultural purposes. It forms a crucial part of rural revenue administration. We must understand first, What is Girdawari in land revenue records? Girdawari is a record where the patwari records the owner’s name, cultivator’s name, land/khasra number, land type, cultivated and uncultivated land area, irrigation source, crop details and conditions, revenue, and revenue rate, typically updated at least twice annually. But, in case of natural calamity a 3rd Girdawari is done which is also called Special Girdawari. Know About: Meri Fasal Mera Byora The term “Girdawari” is derived from the Persian language, with “gird” meaning “circle” and “awari” meaning “to go around.” Girdawari is a practice that plays a vital role in maintaining accurate records of land ownership, agricultural activities, and crop production. It’s a systematic and comprehensive survey of land, typically conducted by revenue officials or patwaris who visit each plot of agricultural land to collect pertinent data. This process aims to capture essential details such as land boundaries, soil quality, land usage, and crop cultivation. By conducting Girdawari regularly, authorities can ensure the accuracy of land records and facilitate effective land administration. Read to Know What is Jamabandi | Fard? Also Read: How to Download Verified e-fard | Jamabandi Read About Haryana Government Schemes Girdawari Haryana – Who is responsible for doing Girdawari? The Girdawari is conducted by revenue officials, Girdawari is done by Patwaris in India with the help of Sarpanch of village and Chowkidar. Patwari visits each agricultural field or plot within their designated area to gather relevant information, including land details, cultivated crops, cultivation status, crop quality, and other pertinent data. All the information collected during Girdawari is documented in official registers or land records. Girdawari Haryana – Objective of conducting Girdawari The primary objectives of Girdawari haryana include maintaining accurate land records, evaluating agricultural productivity, establishing land ownership, and calculating revenue obligations. It aids in determining the tax liability of farmers, allocating irrigation resources, distributing agricultural loans, and managing natural disasters such as droughts or floods. Girdawari plays a vital role in ensuring transparency, fairness, and efficiency in the management of agricultural land and revenue collection. It supports the government in formulating agricultural policies, implementing welfare schemes, and facilitating land-related transactions. Moreover, it serves as a fundamental information source for land reforms, consolidation efforts, and land redistribution programs. When & How Girdawari is done in Haryana? Girdawari is done 2 times in a year, but in case of Natural Calamity a special inspection also done, so it can be done 3 times a year max. The 3 Types of Girdawari done are as given below: - At the time of Kharif Crop (in October) - At the time of Rabi Crop (in March) - Special inspection (for 3rd crop) OR in case of a natural calamity. Girdawari records Khasra Number, Owner name, Kastkar(Kisan) name, Land Area, Soil/Land Type and Type of Irrigation, Crop Name. Girdawari document keeps records of 3 Years. Girdavari Record is maintained for 12 Years. Girdawari is done in presence of and with help of Sarpanch, Nambardar & Chowkidar. Now, Photograph of the land for which Girdawari is done also to be submitted online by Patwari. If owner of the land feels that his Land Girdawari is done incorrectly and holds wrong record, then they can complain by filling an application. e-Girdawari Online in Haryana – How to Apply? Below are the steps to follow when applying for Girdawari online in Haryana on Saral Haryana: - Access Saral Haryana platform. - Login to your account. - Navigate to the Girdawari application section. - Fill out the required information accurately. - Review the entered details for accuracy. - Submit the Girdawari application online. - Keep track of the application status for updates. All steps are explained below with snap shots: - Visit Saral Haryana Official Portal: https://saralharyana.gov.in/ - Login to your account on Saral Haryana Portal: For new users, it is necessary to click on the “Register Here” link to initiate the registration process. Existing users can access their accounts by logging in here. now, From the Menu section, please select “Apply for services” and then choose “View all available services.” - When you navigate to the Services list page, simply search for ‘Girdawari,’ and you will find the corresponding Girdawari Service Link. - Girdawari e-service form will appear. Girdawari applications can be submitted online in Haryana solely through the use of the Family ID. Select ‘I have Family ID’ option. - Please input the ‘Family ID‘ and choose the family member you are applying for Girdawari online. Submit the application and Track it. How to correct Girdawari Haryana? Who can correct Girdawari? The power to correct the Girdawari is with the Assistant Collector and Patwari alone can’t do changes in this. So to correct the Girdawari - power with Asst collector (no power to Patwari alone) - File an application to Assistant Collector, with below records - 3 years Girdawari report & proof of ownership - After on the spot ownership verification it objection raised found correct then correction will be done. What is Girdawari in Haryana? Girdawari is a record where the patwari records the owner’s name, cultivator’s name, land/khasra number, land type, cultivated and uncultivated land area, irrigation source, crop details and conditions, revenue, and revenue rate, typically updated at least twice annually. How can I check my land record in Haryana? Haryana has launched a dedicated portal for it’s digital land records known as Jamabandi or Jamabandi Haryana. Official website portal for Haryana Digital Land Records is: Jamabandi Portal.

By Professor Dr. Hafezali Bin Iqbal Hussain The term digital divide can be explained by looking at the gap between demographics and regions that have the ability and capacity to access modern communications technology relative to those who don’t. The division arises from technical proficiency, financial ability as well as access (or rather the lack of it) to the internet. A gap which widens as technology develops. This has created a new category of inequality in this century. In the early part of the digital revolution, digital divide often referred to the gap between those who had access and could afford mobile phones versus those who did not. However, in today’s context the gap refers to the division, which is evident in developing versus developed countries, communities living in cities versus those living in rural areas, segments of society which are younger and more educated versus those who are older and less educated as well as between men and women. The pandemic highlighted the digital divide between demographics as learning shifted online across the country, a student from remote parts of the country had to trek through the jungle and climb a tree to get internet signal. It serves as a poignant example where the innovation achieved from online teaching and learning, which took years to develop, is facing a technological bottleneck. The data divide, an effect which arises from the digital divide, is a disparity between the ability to create commercial value from the use of data to gain wealth and solve social and environmental challenges. This has created a gap between the data have and have-nots. The traditional economic model which concerns output (production of goods and services) requires decisions on what to produce, how it will be distributed across the economy as well as what is done from the earnings of the production. In today’s world, the digital economy is redefining the main choices that need to be made in the context of a new model: the ability to monetize large volumes of digital data as well as platformisation. Digital platforms have now become central actors in the economy whilst data is the key resource in the economic process. The interaction between the two creates value and the ability to utilize the outcome of the interaction will affect the ability to capture the value being created. In the Malaysian context, the digital economy has emerged as a key part of creating value and distribution during the pandemic and is expected to keep growing. Thus, businesses across the country will need to adapt and identify ways in which value is being created. However, the micro and SMEs have struggled to transform their businesses and partake in the digital economy. The main reason behind inability to transform arises from the access and use divide given the limited access to technology and the skills necessary to unlock the potential from digitalisation. In addition, the data divide also creates a gap between the Davids versus the Goliaths due to the quality-of-use gap where large corporations are far more able to harness opportunities from data relative to their smaller peers. The digital and data divide points towards a structural problem in the nation’s strive towards harnessing the potential gains from the digital economy. These firms’ risk being left behind and missing out on the economic gains as the country focuses on reaping the benefits of digitalisation. Business owners facing these problems which require rapid adaption will be facing a dilemma as it triggers a flight, fight, or freeze response from the behavioural perspective. This is where fear and inertia may cause small businesses to adopt the freeze response rather than embracing change. These firms would end up doing nothing at all and focusing on survival. Thus, there also needs to be a greater push to increase the uptake of digitalisation by removing the scepticism which could prove costly for these small businesses and society. Given that SMEs employ most Malaysians it is critical that the budget aims to close the gaps in connectivity and skills given that it leads to differences in wealth. A widening gap would also potentially lead to greater gender discrimination as well as lower social mobility. Micro and small businesses are seen as riskier by traditional banks and financial institutions. In addition, considering that these firms lack the skills to prepare proper financials they would typically have limited financial history which is an important criterion for credit underwriting. Incentivising these businesses to shift to a digital model allows a greater ability to now partake in the financial ecosystem given that transactions are now having an electronic trail. For starters, banks, and financial institutions and even the upcoming digital banks would be able to form partnerships with these firms to provide small ticket financing which are tailored to suit their needs based on the ability to harness transactional data which came about due to the shift to a digital model. To resolve affordability of smartphones and laptop computers among the micro and small firms, the budget would also need to provide interest free financing to make the shift affordable. In addition, internet tariff subsidies would attract a greater degree of adoption of platformisation among the smaller firms. The two-pronged strategy will enable greater interaction between the ability to monetize data as well as platformisation among entrepreneurial SMEs. Overall, it will lead to economic growth which is more robust and sustainable. Professor Dr. Hafezali Bin Iqbal Hussain is the Head of Research in the Faculty of Business and Law and Director of Digital Economy and Business Transformation Impact Lab at Taylor’s University. Taylor’s Business School is the leading private business school in Southeast Asia for Business and Management Studies based on the 2022 QS World University Rankings by Subject. Profesor Dr Hafezali bin Iqbal Hussain adalah Ketua Penyelidikan di Fakulti Perniagaan dan Undang-undang, Taylor’s University dan ahli Pusat Revolusi Industri dan Inovasi (CIR4I). Taylor’s Business School ialah sekolah perniagaan swasta terkemuka di Malaysia untuk Pengajian Perniagaan dan Pengurusan berdasarkan QS World University Rankings by Subject edisi 2022.

The hyphen is a punctuation mark used to join words and to separate syllables of a single word. The use of hyphens is called hyphenation. The hyphen should not be confused with dashes, which are longer and have different uses, or with the minus sign, which is also longer in some contexts. Some words can be hyphenated in different places and you can use this website to find out where. Also reffered to as syllable counter and divider.

What is the correct way to develop attention and how can we achieve stability? Through mindfulness we position ourselves to stimuli and initiate the cognitive process we can respond to. In the yield of this cognitive process, we start learning. Attention and learning are actually not that simple. Because in this process, it can make it difficult for us to collect our stimulating attention from outside. Therefore, there are factors that we need to pay attention to in this process. – The room or environment where attention development activities are held should be cleared of distracting objects. It cannot be filled unnecessarily, cannot be filled outside, cannot be filled outside, it is like the absence of unreal items and the working environment is stuffy. – Especially preschool children can be easily affected by external sounds, so they should be provided with a quiet working environment. – Parent’s or teacher’s attitudes are perhaps the most beneficial in this process. Making speeches that will distract the child during the study, dealing with electronic devices such as phones and tablets, unnecessarily suppressing children prolongs the process and learning becomes difficult. It is necessary to have positive attitudes such as stating that it is normal to make mistakes and to remind you of the work you have achieved before. The parent or teacher should make sure that their behavior is careful and consistent. Thus, they also help the child develop careful and consistent learning strategies. – Continuity is important. Create a continuous work order. Try to maintain continuity in your daily or weekly plans with times and activities appropriate for the child’s age. According to the studies, experts say that attention is more easily achieved at certain times of the day.

GPL, or General Public License (GPL), refers to a free, copyleft license for software. It grants anyone the rights to freely use, read, copy, share, modify, and distribute a computer program or other kinds of work. GPL was originally written for the GNU Project and was the first copyleft license to be adopted for general use. It was created in early 1989 by Richard Stallman, the founder of the Free Software Foundation (FSF). As opposed to copyright, the term copyleft means that the GPL allows for derivative works to be published, but require them to be distributed under the same license terms as the original work. Thus, users can’t use GPL-licensed software and release a derivative work under another type of license. This is not the case for other types of free software licenses, such as the Berkley Software Distribution (BSD) and the MIT licenses. The BSD and MIT licenses fall within the category of permissive licenses. While both copyleft and permissive licenses allow users to copy, change, and distribute software, their conditions are somewhat different. On the one hand, copyleft licenses guarantee that open-source software remains available to everyone. It also avoids someone else to profit from a piece of work that was made available for free. Copyleft advocates tend to be more concerned in retaining some control over their work. On the other hand, permissive licenses allow software to be used widely, as long as the original developers are referenced and attributed for their work. In other words, a permissive license allows anyone to copy, change, and distribute a piece of work, under any kind of license. The only requirement is to give credits to the original creators.

The terms ‘condyle’ and ‘epicondyle’ mean the type of articular surface in the bone. Here, I will answer the question – what is the difference between a condyle and an epicondyle? Quick answer and explanation: the knuckled-shaped paired articular surface of the bone is condyle. In contrast, a small projection near the condyle is the epicondyle. I will explain the terms ‘condyle’ and epicondyle’ from the animal bones. Thus, you will quickly identify the condyles and epicondyles from the various bones of the animal skeleton. You will also differentiate the condyles from trochlea based on their appearance. So, let’s learn the features of the condyle and epicondyle from the animal bones. What is the difference between a condyle and an epicondyle? Explanation of the answer: The bones of the animal skeleton have different types of articular surfaces. According to their external appearance, these articular surfaces are condyle, epicondyle, trochlea, facet, and fovea. Here, the condyle and epicondyle are the articular surfaces of the particular bone. However, the appearance of their articular surfaces is different in the same bone. With examples, let’s clarify the terms ‘condyle’ and ‘epicondyle.’ Here, the diagram shows the distal extremity of the ox metacarpal bone. This diagram identified two condyles from its distal extremity – lateral condyle and medial condyle. And you know, these condyles of the ox metacarpal bone attach with the corresponding first phalanx. Let’s notice the articular surface of each articular surface of the condyles. Each condyle shows two articular surfaces. Thus, two articular surfaces are on each condyle divided by the middle ridge. This type of paired articular surface of any bone is the condyle. Again, these articular surfaces look knuckled. The knuckles are the type of joint found in your fingers. Now, let’s see, there is a small projection near each condyle of the ox metatarsal bone. These small projections are also identified in the ox metatarsal bone labeled diagram. They are termed as the corresponding epicondyles of the metatarsal bone. So, the summary of the terms ‘condyle’ and ‘epicondyle’ are – - Condyle: knuckled-shaped (figure joint-like) paired articular surface of the bone. - Epicondyle: small bony projection near the condyle of a similar bone. Examples of condyles and epicondyles in animal bones Condyles in animal bones: - Condyles of the metacarpal and metatarsal bones of ox, - Lateral and medial condyles of the ox humerus bone, - Distal condyles of the animal femur bones, Epicondyles in animal bones: - Lateral and medial epicondyles near the corresponding condyles of the metatarsal and metacarpal bones, - Epicondyles near the lateral and median condyles of the animal humerus bones, - Lateral and medial epicondyles near the corresponding condyles of animal femur bones, What are the condyles and epicondyles of the animal humerus? Answer: the distal extremity of the animal humerus bone has lateral and medial condyles. These condyles articulate with the humeral articular circumference of the radius bone. Here, the medial condyle of the humerus bone is known as the trochlea. Meanwhile, the lateral condyle of the humerus is known as the capitulum. Again, the animal humerus bone also has lateral and medial epicondyles. A small bony projection is seen at the dorsolateral aspect of the lateral condyle of the animal humerus bone. This is the lateral epicondyle of the animal humerus bone. In the same way, a small bony projection arises at the dorsomedial aspect of the medial condyle. This is the medial epicondyle of the humerus bone. What is the condyle of the femur and epicondyle? Answer: the caudal aspect of the distal extremity of the ox femur has the lateral and medial condyles. These condyles of the femur attach with the proximal articular surfaces of the tibia. Here, the diagram identifies the lateral and medial condyles from the distal extremity of the ox femur. Between these two condyles, a deep depression is present, which is known as the intercondylar fossa. Again, epicondyles present on the corresponding aspects of the lateral and medial condyles of the femur. The diagram also identifies the lateral and medial epicondyles from the caudo-distal part of the animal femur. Here, the medial epicondyle is prominent in the femur bone. Meanwhile, the lateral epicondyle is less prominent in the ox femur bone. Let’s differentiate the condyles and epicondyles of the ox femur bone in Table 1 – |Condyle of Ox Femur |Epicondyle of Ox femur |Have paired articular surfaces |No such paired articular surfaces |Knuckled shaped structure |Just an outgrowth of the condyle |Articulates with tibia bone |Articulates with tendon and ligament So, the main differences between a condyle and an epicondyle are in their articular surfaces and appearance. The condyle must have paired articular surfaces, but the epicondyle has rough surfaces. Again, epicondyle always arises near the condyle of any particular bone.

What is misogyny According to the Oxford Dictionary, it is a dislike or ingrained prejudice against women. Counting Dead Women Australia reported 56 women have been murdered in Australia as at 27 November 2023. Their deaths were related to domestic violence or gender-based violence. The figures are shocking and represent more than one women being murdered per week. Photo: Zonta Caboolture orange figures representing the impact of domestic violence on families, including pets. To make long-term, systemic changes around the world everyone must be willing to influence behaviour change, and this can be achieved through small but connected efforts. Everyone must influence their inner circle to respect women's rights before they try to influence total strangers. Men can become part of the solution through mentoring younger boys to respect women's rights and challenge misogyny and discrimination in all its settings at work, in sport, recreation and the home life. Young people also have a role to play in sharing knowledge on gender equality with their peers in their communities and social media circles. We must harness the power of numbers and offer alternate views on the role of women in our society. Photo: Zonta Says No banner erected during the 16 Days of Activism at Caboolture. During the 16 Days of Activism, Zonta is raising awareness of issues relating to gender-based violence. Learn more about these issues by reading our previous 16 Days of Activism blog articles. Day 1: What is the 16 Days of Activism Day 2: Why doesn't she just leave him? Day 3: Climate Justice Day 4: How digitisation is creating more problems? Day 5: Supporting Survivors Day 6: Bystander Action Day 7: Calling on Men and Boys

The Feast of Shavuot (pentēkostē in Greek, Pentecost in English), one of the three great pilgrim Feasts that God told the Jewish people to celebrate (Deuteronomy 16:16), occurs fifty days after the Feast of Pesach (Passover). This holiday, described in Leviticus 23:15-22, was primarily an agricultural festival and celebrated the end of the barley harvest and the beginning of the wheat harvest. However, very early in Jewish history, it also took on an even greater significance. The Rabbis determined that the timing of the Feast of Shavuot coincided with the great event in Jewish History of God giving His Torah to Moses on Mt. Sinai. The Israelites left Egypt on the fifteenth day of the first month, the morning after the sacrifice of the Passover Lamb. They arrived at the foot of Mt. Sinai on the fist day of the third month (Exodus 19:1), which would have been approx 40 days. Moses then went up on Mt. Sinai and stayed there several days and then brought back down the two tablets written on stone by the finger of God. This total time-line closely approximated the fifty days after Passover that the Feast of Shavuot was supposed to be held on. Since Passover was an Exodus related feast as was Sukkot in the fall, the Jewish sages concurred that Shavuot must be Exodus related as well and was to celebrate the occasion in which God revealed Himself to His people and made a covenant with them by giving them His written instructions on how to live (Torah). Why is this of significance to Christians today? The great event described in Acts 2 in the New Testament, when the Holy Spirit appeared and rested as tongues of fire on individual believers, occurred on the Feast of Shavuot (Pentecost)! The same day that the Jews were celebrating God’s giving of His Torah on tablets of stone, the Holy Spirit came and wrote His Torah on people’s hearts! This confirmed God’s promise in Jeremiah 31:31-34 and was the promise from the Father that Jesus had told His disciples about in Acts 1:4. A look at these two seminal events in Bible history will reveal some remarkable parallels and similarities and will increase your faith in the awesome God of the Bible! God had planned the Acts 2 events even from the time of the Exodus and then He brought them to pass in the framework of the Jewish Feasts that had been set up 1200 years prior. While this is certainly not an exhaustive list, here are some amazing parallels between these two events that happened 1200 years apart, to the day! - Both events occurred on a mountain (Mt. Sinai and Mt. Zion) known as the mountain of God – Exodus 24:13 & Isaiah 2:3 - Both events happened to a newly redeemed people. The Exodus marked the birth of the Israelite nation while the Pentecost events recorded in Acts 2 marked the birth of Christianity. - Both events involved God’s people receiving a gift-Torah and Spirit. - In both events the gift was given by God settling on a mountain with the fire of His Spirit - Both events took place at the same time on the same month - The Israelites left Egypt on Passover and 40 days later arrived at Sinai. Then Moses went up on a mountain to see God (Mt. Sinai). Ten days later Moses came down with the Torah and the Israelites broke the covenant and 3000 people died as a result. Jesus died on Passover and 40 days later went up on a mountain to see God (Mt. Of Olives). Ten days after Jesus ascended, the Holy Spirit came down and 3000 people were saved! - Fifty days after sacrificing Passover Lamb, the Israelites received a covenant from God50 days after sacrificing Jesus, Our Passover Lamb, believers received a new covenant from God. - Both events had similar sounds and symbols-wind, fire, smoke, voices-the Hebrew word translated thunder in Exodus is “kolot” (Strong’s H6963), which means voices or languages. Think about this in light of the Acts 2 events. - The fire at Sinai was one fire visible by all; the fire at Pentecost was individual fires on every person. In the event at Mt. Sinai, the people were kept away from the fire, but in Acts, the fire came to the people. - Both events had theophanies, that is God showed up (Exodus 19:18-20 & Acts 2:4) - In both events God gave His Torah (Law) to His People and in both cases He sealed the covenant that He had made with them. At Sinai He gave the Law written by His finger on tablets of stone. At Pentecost, He gave the Law written on Tablets of the Heart. - In both events a mixed multitude of people were represented (Exodus 12:38 & Acts 2:5)13) The Torah attempted to change people from the outside (without). The Holy Spirit changes from within. The word “Torah” means teaching and in John 14:26 the Holy Spirit is called the teacher. Think about these parallels! Wouldn’t they have been powerful to the Jewish people that would have been there to celebrate this time long ago when God showed up in fire, wind, smoke and voices? Suddenly, it looks like God is showing up again in the same way that He came before! They see fire and smoke and hear voices and the place is shaking violently! God is back! What is He telling us? Looking at the history of Shavuot and what God did there makes the story of Acts so much deeper and increases our faith in the God of the Bible. His plans for us were made since the beginning of time and are exact down to the last detail. What a mighty God we serve! About the author: Bob is the creator of this site and a disciple of Ray Vander Laan. Along with his wife of 50 years, he teaches a Bible study at Christ’s Church in Roswell, NM. He is also an avid hunter and fisher.

Walking robots could aid research on other planets Today NASA uses wheeled rovers to navigate the surface of Mars and conduct planetary science, but research involving Texas A&M University scientists will test the feasibility of new surface-exploration technology: walking robots. Ryan Ewing, Robert R. Berg Professor in the Department of Geology and Geophysics at Texas A&M, and Marion Nachon, associate research scientist in geology and geophysics, are co-investigators on the project supported by NASA and led by Feifei Qian, a WiSE Gabilan Assistant Professor at the University of Southern California Viterbi School of Engineering. The aim of the research is to create and test walking, or "legged," robots that could more easily glide through icy surfaces, crusted sand and other difficult-to-navigate environments, thus significantly enhancing scientists' abilities to gather information from planetary bodies. While the Mars Exploration Rovers and other robots have been successfully sent into space, they typically operate based on pre-programmed agendas that require human scientists and engineers to input detailed instructions regarding where to go and what to do prior to the robots' arrival at the planet. As a result, when the robot encounters unexpected scenarios or discovers interesting measurements, it has limited capabilities to adapt its plan. This can hinder how robots and rovers navigate new environments or even cause them to miss scientific opportunities. Ewing says enhanced understanding of how to integrate robotics technology with both planetary science and cognitive science will improve robot-aided exploration of planetary environments. This project aims to test next-generation, high-mobility robots that can agilely move through planetary surfaces and flexibly support scientific exploration goals. "We will conduct this research in two key planetary analog sites that present well-defined gradients in soil types from crusty sand at White Sands Dune Field, N. M., to icy rock mixtures at Mt. Hood, Ore.," Ewing explained. "Our objective is to integrate high-mobility legged robots with embedded terrain-sensing technologies and cognitive human decision models to study the geotechnical properties of these soils." The project employs "bio-inspired" robots with legs, meaning their form is modeled after animals' unique abilities to move well on challenging surfaces like soft sand. Utilizing the latest "direct-drive" actuator technology, these robots can "feel" the terrain (e.g., sand softness and rock shapes) through their legs. This ability allows the legged robots to interact with the environment in the same manner as animals, adjusting their movement as needed. As Qian puts it, these robots are modeled in a manner that allows them "to not just mimic how the animals look, but really understand what makes these animals successful on different terrains." The ability to "feel" the terrain using legs also allows these robots to easily gather information about the environment as they move around and adjust exploration strategies based on this information. "We'll be working to determine how the friction and erodibility of different soils is affected by surface crusts, rock-covered soils and ice content," Ewing explained. "We will deploy the direct-drive legged robots to map soil strength at two sites that are like landscapes on the Moon, Mars and other worlds. We will simultaneously measure environmental parameters that control soil strength, including particle size and shape, soil moisture, chemical composition and ice content." As scientists continue to aspire to explore planetary environments, Qian notes the advantages of sending robots and rovers on initial missions to gather information before sending humans are significant. "Even for environments where it's safe to send astronauts, mobile robots can integrate scientific instrumentation and help take precise measurements while moving around," Qian said. The research group also includes scientists from the University of Pennsylvania, Georgia Institute of Technology and NASA's Johnson Space Center. "This is the dream team and a very rare chance to bring a team with all the components into one project," Qian said. Provided by Texas A&M University

Follow our tutorial on how to draw a fish easily. This tutorial includes easy step by step instructions plus a video to follow along. And yes of course, it includes a free printable! Get a fish coloring page and a dotted line outline of the fish! Mrs. Merry is an Amazon associate and participant of the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program. This page may contain Amazon Affiliate links. If you buy something through one of those links, you won’t pay a penny more, and we’ll receive a small commission, which helps us continue to create these printables. Thanks for your continued support! This easy drawing tutorial is a great beginners way to learn how to draw. I always say you can learn anything as long as you can follow instructions! Practice drawing shapes and lots of curvy lines with this how to draw a fish tutorial for kids! Follow the simple steps on how to draw a fish We will start off with drawing the outline of the fish and then finish off with coloring that cute fish! Don’t be alarmed at the detail of the steps. I just tried to be as thorough as possible and hopefully it helps when drawing this fun fish. Also, you can make it super simple by printing the tracing page for the fish and follow along that way. Each step below is marked in blue – providing how to draw a fish easily step by step. Step 1 – Draw the fish body Grab a piece of paper and a black marker (I like to use sharpies). If you want to use a pencil, go for it! Grab an eraser too…there’s nothing wrong with getting it just the way you like it. Draw a big circle at the center of your paper. This circle will be the body of your fish. Step 2 – Draw the eyes of the fish We’re going to start with the head of the fish. Draw 2 little circles toward the front of the fish. I made one eye smaller than the other to give the fish more dimension (and to make him a little silly). Draw 2 more little circles inside those circles. Color those inner circles in using your marker. Step 3 – Draw the nose of the fish Right below the eyes (in the center) draw 2 little circles. Color them in with your marker. Step 4 – Draw the mouth of the fish Start below the left eye and draw a small curved vertical line. Off the bottom of that line make another curved line 3 times the size going toward the right. This will be the fishes lip. Now, make a big U shape line from one end of the lip to the other. Inside of the fishes’ mouth make one small straight vertical line and draw another curved line going right (draw this line almost the full length of the fishes mouth). Complete the row of teeth with another small vertical line connecting at the top of the lip. Now for the tongue of the fish! On the inside of the U-shaped mouth make 2 little hills connecting each other. They look like hills or mountains (to me!). Step 5 – Draw the fins of the fish A. Draw the side fin (pectoral fin) Let’s draw the rest of the body of the fish! It’s time to draw one of the side fins which is officially called the pectoral fin! This step is loosely guided since it consists of mostly curved lines and no curve line is a-like! Start out at the top of the right eye and draw a line going down toward the end of the mouth. Then draw a curved diagonal line up to the right so the lines you have almost look like a “V”. From that point draw another curved line going down but slightly toward the left and then dipping up toward the end. B. Draw the top fin (dorsal fin) The top fin is rectangle in shape. It consists of one diagonal line going up and to the right. Starting at the end of the diagonal line is the back of the top fin consisting of small curves (can be C in shape). Side note: Our fish doesn’t have a pelvic fin or anal fin (these are little fins by the back and belly of the fish). But, thats ok, not all fish are a-like! Feel free to draw bottom or belly fins if you wish! Step 6 – Draw the fish’s tail This step is also a series of small curves. Start toward the back of the fish. Starting in the middle draw a diagonal line up and to the right. Then draw a line downward dipping into the middle and then out again toward the bottom right. Finish off by drawing a curved like up toward your starting point. Step 7 – Give your fish some detail I feel like the finer details are everything! On the sides of the fish draw some scales! I like to describe these as drawing backward C’s. Draw more scales toward the bottom of the fish. I kept these simple and just drew little diagonal lines to represent those bottom scales. I then did the same for the top fin and back fins! Step 8 – Grab your art supplies and color your fish! Grab your crayons, colored pencils, markers, or pastels and start coloring your fish! I used blue, yellow and green as my main colors. It made me think of Flounder from the Little Mermaid. But, pick your favorite colors! Follow Mrs. Merry on YouTube and learn how to draw a fish easily An easy how to draw a fish tutorial that walks thru the basic outline of the fish. Don’t forget to grab your free fish coloring and tracing printable to follow along! What’s included in the free fish printable download? There are 2 pages of fish fun in this free pdf download. They both can be paired nicely with the how to draw a fish easily tutorial. 1. Fish Coloring Page Printable This free fish coloring page can be used as an easy fish activity or just follow along the coloring piece of the fish tutorial. 2. Fish Tracing Printable This printable is the fish, but in dashed lines. This fish printable is supposed to help guide children how to draw the fish. It makes this fish tutorial easy for anyone! Watch the How Draw a Fish Easily YouTube tutorial or follow the step by step instructions on this page to follow along using the dashed lines! Get the coloring page for this easy fish drawing! This free printable comes with a traceable fish page. This traceable fish makes it super simple for kids of all ages to follow along! Grab this fun fish printable and other exclusive content. Simply subscribe to the Mrs. Merry email list and get emailed the fish printable instantly. Our newsletters always consist of fun and free printables! Unsubscribe at any time! Already a subscriber? No worries! Filling this form out will NOT sign you up multiple times on our email list. It will simply check to see if you’re a subscriber and then email you the PDF file. After subscribing, check your inbox for your free printable! Your print link will be available instantly. Just fill the form out and click the “Get it now” button. Simple as that. We do this to keep Mrs. Merry content exclusive to email subscribers! Amazon has always been my go-to for most of my office and craft supplies. If you print a lot of printables and spend time coloring, gluing and adding some extra jazz to them, our list of supplies can help! I’ve split the list up into a basic list and a fancier list if you’re going to put a little more pizazz into your printables. Privacy & Cookies Policy Necessary cookies are absolutely essential for the website to function properly. This category only includes cookies that ensures basic functionalities and security features of the website. These cookies do not store any personal information. Any cookies that may not be particularly necessary for the website to function and is used specifically to collect user personal data via analytics, ads, other embedded contents are termed as non-necessary cookies. It is mandatory to procure user consent prior to running these cookies on your website.

Mica minerals are a group of minerals in which the key physical characteristic is their ability to form individual crystals to be split into extremely thin elastic plates. This defining characteristic is known as perfect basal cleavage. These natural cleavage qualities mean that mica is perfectly suited to producing mica sheets, where the mineral breaks along smooth planes. Mica sheets are extremely versatile, can be both rigid and flexible, and are used in a broad range of industries. How to Make Composite Mica Sheets Mica is combined with other materials to enhance its natural strength and adaptability, forming composite mica sheets. One technique for this is grinding down mica into particles via micro-pulverizing equipment. These particles are then added to water and a colloid substance to suspend the particles. They are then placed in a mesh mold and the viscosity of the material means it distributes itself evenly and forms sheets. The applicability of mica sheets can be further enhanced by treating them as a substrate for functional thin films, particularly gold. Why Coat Mica Sheets with Gold? Epitaxially-grown gold films on mica sheets make ideal substrates for extremely high-resolution imaging applications and the study of self-assembled monolayers. They are extremely attractive to users as the old surface is highly polycrystalline whilst also tending towards <111> orientation which can be greatly enhanced by annealing. The exceptional adhering properties of gold combined with the high planarity of the film ensure extremely high contrast for even atomic-scale imaging applications (i.e. AFM). Additionally, gold-coated mica makes an excellent substrate for self-assembled monolayer applications. Self-assembled monolayer techniques have been studied for many years and are a key element of microelectronic applications. When the patterned surface structure dimensions decrease, it becomes more challenging to measure these structures. 1-Adamantanethiol (1-AD) has distinct chemical properties and forms self-assembled monolayers on Gold (Au) that can be easily displaced when exposed to outside entities as they have weak intermolecular interactions in a process known as microdisplacement. This process leads to the fabrication of self-assembled monolayers and an improvement in chemical patterning methods. Key Applications of Mica Sheets Rigid mica sheets can be cut into insulated shapes, meaning it is an extremely versatile manufacturing material. It can be used for furnace construction in its rigid form and relining function in its flexible sheet form. Mica sheets are resistant to high temperatures, offering suitable insulation for the furnace floor. The electrical industry benefits a lot from the use of mica sheets. Mica sheets have excellent dielectric properties, meaning it is well-suited to electrical insulation. Mica sheets are also used for substrates as they are extremely flat and level over a large area. Mica sheets have a net negative charge, meaning they are somewhat hydrophilic. They are optically flat, transparent, and clear and are not altered by fingerprints.

|A simple game to move a car around a screen leaving a smoky trail as it goes |Explore the wonderful world of sound by creating your own music machine |Gossip, argument, discussion, persuasive pitch. You decide the focus of this simple conversation |Turning facts learnt in any subject into an interactive display that could be uploaded to your school website |Dressing Up Game |Click on the character to see their costume change. Or click on their accessories to see them animate or change colour. |Year 3 Assessment |Design a program based on the ideas learnt in previous modules |Create a scoring quiz |Music Algorithm to Music Code |Follow musical notation to program Twinkle Twinkle Little Star before choosing your own musical notation to decipher |Slug Trail Game |Can you keep the slug inside the track? There will be consequences if you can’t! |Discover lots of the features of Scratch as you investigate what happens when your character touches a colour. |Train your Computer to do Maths |Train your computer to add, subtract, multiply and divide. Break up a more complex maths problem and solve it with the power of programming. |Train the computer to count in whole numbers, fractions, backwards etc before creating a countdown timer for your teacher. |Discover what is important and what is not when you convert a music video into Scratch notes |Create random words that follow real spelling patterns, program multiple story starts using the same code or just gaze into the future and choose a job for everyone. |Program a function machine that sorts money totals into all the correct coins and notes. |Can the crab make it through the maze collecting coins as it goes? Will it make it to the next level or will it hit the maze wall and end the game? |Design and build a Lego fan model before programming it to turn on when someone approaches the toilet and off when they leave. |Type in the number of degrees your angle has and the program will tell you what type of angle it is and its properties. It may even draw it. |Car Park Barrier |Design and build a Lego car park barrier before programming it to lift when it senses a car approaching. |Times Table Game |Can you click on the moving balls which are part of the table in question and earn points or will you click the wrong ball and lose points? |Design and create a program that calculates perimeters of regular shapes. |Program a working digital and analogue clock |Practise plotting Cartesian coordinates before turning them into Scratch code that draws the shapes you planned. Simply the best Cartesian coordinates supporting activity there is! |Translation, Enlargement & Rotation |Don’t just stop at plotting coordinates in all four quadrants discover the power of translation, enlargement and rotation. |Primary Games Maker |Design and program a complex game based around either a platform game, scrolling background game or snail trail game. Be astounded by the ability of all pupils to adapt, re-purpose and invent with Scratch. |Here is a tilt switch. This is how it works. What can you do with it? Sit back and watch the fun! |Compete against your classmates to design a program that interacts with the user like a human

Eelgrass is an aquatic plant that provides a substantial service to the marine environment. Their roots naturally stabilize the sea floor by trapping sediment, slowing currents, and reducing wave forces which are all helpful in preventing erosion to waterfront properties. Eelgrass habitats are some of the most diverse habitats on earth, even more so than coral reefs and rainforests. Many commercially important fish and shellfish species utilize eelgrass beds as spawning grounds and nurseries. Reestablishing eelgrass beds will strengthen food webs and lessen the strain on local fisheries by providing them a safe habitat. Unlike us air breathers, oxygen is limited in aquatic environments. However, eelgrass absorbs carbon dioxide and produces dissolved oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis. This form of oxygen is used by marine organisms for respiration. Other organic chemicals such as nitrogen and phosphorus that cause harmful algae blooms, re also absorbed by eelgrass.

Last updated on November 24th, 2023 at 02:22 pm What is the difference between for and during? Both for and during are used to talk about time, but they have somewhat different meanings and grammar. For refers to the how long something goes on. For combines with a number + minutes/hours/days/weeks/months/years - I studied for two hours before the exam. - The meeting lasted for three hours. - She lived in Spain for five years. To emphasise, we can say: For months/for ages/ for years. During refers to when something happens (not how long) and during combines with a noun. - during the class - during the film - during the night - I watched TV during the power outage. - The accident happened during rush hour. - She met her husband during college. We can also say: During the last week (= at one point during the week) / During the next months, etc. As you can see, for is typically used when we want to specify the duration of something, while during is used when we want to specify a particular point in time.

The International Space Station (ISS) has been in operation for 23 years and its age is beginning to show in the form of many problems. The ISS began its work in orbit in 2000, and 23 years of continuous operation are already beginning to affect this space base, including in the form of cracks and leaks. Now NASA is thinking about how best to destroy the station in the early 2030s, but the cost of this plan is truly amazing, writes Futurism. At Focus. Technologies have appeared Telegram channel. Subscribe so you don’t miss the latest and most exciting news from the world of science! NASA estimates that the safe end of operation of the ISS will cost approximately $1 billion. According to the plan, the space base would be lowered into Earth’s atmosphere, where it would burn up safely, although the remaining debris would fall into the Pacific Ocean. It couldn’t have happened without Einstein. NASA discovered an exotic fifth state of matter on the ISS The cost of lowering the ISS from its current orbit is so high because NASA is not going to use Russian space cargo ships for this, which are now very important for the ISS, because they maintain its stable position in space. NASA’s new plan marks the end of decades of cooperation with Russia on the ISS in light of deteriorating relations between the United States and Russia due to the war in Ukraine. According to Maya Cross, a political scientist at Northeastern University, USA, the ISS is an example of the largest international cooperation in human history. There are two ways to remove the ISS from orbit and lower it into the Earth’s atmosphere. That is, you can simply make the station fall down uncontrollably, or use a special spacecraft for a controlled descent that will direct the ISS in the desired direction. If you follow the first method, then there is a threat that unburned debris from the station will fall on populated areas of the planet. According to George Neild, head of Commercial Space Technologies, such an uncontrolled descent could lead to death and injury, as well as widespread destruction of infrastructure. Scientists need to minimize the amount of debris that can fall down, which is very difficult to do. Ideally, the ISS should simply be pointed down in the desired direction so that the station gradually burns up in the atmosphere, but this process is complicated by the uneven thickness of the atmosphere and unpredictable conditions in it. If NASA does not use Russian Progress space cargo ships to descend the ISS, then the Americans will have to build another powerful spacecraft that would help the station descend and accompany the ISS during its descent. According to Neild, even if NASA decided to use Russian ships, it would still be a difficult task to dismantle the station, but given the deterioration of US-Russian relations, this option is not being considered. In any case, experts say, you can be sure that the ISS will explode in the atmosphere after descent and this will be the end of the famous space project in which many countries around the world took part. As Focus already wrote, the ISS should cease to exist at the beginning of 2031, but after that only commercial bases will remain in orbit.

It’s been 13 years in the making, but Dr. David Sinclair and his colleagues have finally answered the question of what drives aging. In a study published Jan. 12 in Cell, Sinclair, a professor of genetics and co-director of the Paul F. Glenn Center for Biology of Aging Research at Harvard Medical School, describes a groundbreaking aging clock that can speed up or reverse the aging of cells. Scientists studying aging have debated what drives the process of senescence in cells—and primarily focused on mutations in DNA that can, over time, mess up a cell’s normal operations and trigger the process of cell death. But that theory wasn’t supported by the fact that older people’s cells often were not riddled with mutations, and that animals or people harboring a higher burden of mutated cells don’t seem to age prematurely. Sinclair therefore focused on another part of the genome, called the epigenome. Since all cells have the same DNA blueprint, the epigenome is what makes skin cells turn into skin cells and brain cells into brain cells. It does this by providing different instructions to different cells for which genes to turn on, and which to keep silent. Epigenetics is similar to the instructions dressmakers rely on from patterns to create shirts, pants, or jackets. The starting fabric is the same, but the pattern determines what shape and function the final article of clothing takes. With cells, the epigenetic instructions lead to cells with different physical structures and functions in a process called differentiation. More from TIME In the Cell paper, Sinclair and his team report that not only can they age mice on an accelerated timeline, but they can also reverse the effects of that aging and restore some of the biological signs of youthfulness to the animals. That reversibility makes a strong case for the fact that the main drivers of aging aren’t mutations to the DNA, but miscues in the epigenetic instructions that somehow go awry. Sinclair has long proposed that aging is the result of losing critical instructions that cells need to continue functioning, in what he calls the Information Theory of Aging. “Underlying aging is information that is lost in cells, not just the accumulation of damage,” he says. “That’s a paradigm shift in how to think about aging. “ His latest results seem to support that theory. It’s similar to the way software programs operate off hardware, but sometimes become corrupt and need a reboot, says Sinclair. “If the cause of aging was because a cell became full of mutations, then age reversal would not be possible,” he says. “But by showing that we can reverse the aging process, that shows that the system is intact, that there is a backup copy and the software needs to be rebooted.” In the mice, he and his team developed a way to reboot cells to restart the backup copy of epigenetic instructions, essentially erasing the corrupted signals that put the cells on the path toward aging. They mimicked the effects of aging on the epigenome by introducing breaks in the DNA of young mice. (Outside of the lab, epigenetic changes can be driven by a number of things, including smoking, exposure to pollution and chemicals.) Once “aged” in this way, within a matter of weeks Sinclair saw that the mice began to show signs of older age—including grey fur, lower body weight despite unaltered diet, reduced activity, and increased frailty. Stay up-to-date on the latest health news, and get expert advice on living well in TIME’s Health Matters newsletter. Subscribe here. The rebooting came in the form of a gene therapy involving three genes that instruct cells to reprogram themselves—in the case of the mice, the instructions guided the cells to restart the epigenetic changes that defined their identity as, for example, kidney and skin cells, two cell types that are prone to the effects of aging. These genes came from the suite of so-called Yamanaka stem cells factors—a set of four genes that Nobel scientist Shinya Yamanaka in 2006 discovered can turn back the clock on adult cells to their embryonic, stem cell state so they can start their development, or differentiation process, all over again. Sinclair didn’t want to completely erase the cells’ epigenetic history, just reboot it enough to reset the epigenetic instructions. Using three of the four factors turned back the clock about 57%, enough to make the mice youthful again. “We’re not making stem cells, but turning back the clock so they can regain their identity,” says Sinclair. “I’ve been really surprised by how universally it works. We haven’t found a cell type yet that we can’t age forward and backward.” Rejuvenating cells in mice is one thing, but will the process work in humans? That’s Sinclair’s next step, and his team is already testing the system in non-human primates. The researchers are attaching a biological switch that would allow them to turn the clock on and off by tying the activation of the reprogramming genes to an antibiotic, doxycycline. Giving the animals doxycycline would start reversing the clock, and stopping the drug would halt the process. Sinclair is currently lab-testing the system with human neurons, skin, and fibroblast cells, which contribute to connective tissue. In 2020, Sinclair reported that in mice, the process restored vision in older animals; the current results show that the system can apply to not just one tissue or organ, but the entire animal. He anticipates eye diseases will be the first condition used to test this aging reversal in people, since the gene therapy can be injected directly into the eye area. “We think of the processes behind aging, and diseases related to aging, as irreversible,” says Sinclair. “In the case of the eye, there is the misconception that you need to regrow new nerves. But in some cases the existing cells are just not functioning, so if you reboot them, they are fine. It’s a new way to think about medicine.” That could mean that a host of diseases—including chronic conditions such as heart disease and even neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer’s—could be treated in large part by reversing the aging process that leads to them. Even before that happens, the process could be an important new tool for researchers studying these diseases. In most cases, scientists rely on young animals or tissues to model diseases of aging, which doesn’t always faithfully reproduce the condition of aging. The new system “makes the mice very old rapidly, so we can, for example, make human brain tissue the equivalent of what you would find in a 70 year old and use those in the mouse model to study Alzheimer’s disease that way,” Sinclair says. Beyond that, the implications of being able to age and rejuvenate tissues, organs, or even entire animals or people are mind-bending. Sinclair has rejuvenated the eye nerves multiple times, which raises the more existential question for bioethicists and society of considering what it would mean to continually rewind the clock on aging. This study is just the first step in redefining what it means to age, and Sinclair is the first to acknowledge that it raises more questions than answers. “We don’t understand how rejuvenation really works, but we know it works,” he says. “We can use it to rejuvenate parts of the body and hopefully make medicines that will be revolutionary. Now, when I see an older person, I don’t look at them as old, I just look at them as someone whose system needs to be rebooted. It’s no longer a question of if rejuvenation is possible, but a question of when.” More Must-Reads From TIME - Meet the 2024 Women of the Year - Greta Gerwig's Next Big Swing - East Palestine, One Year After Train Derailment - In the Belly of MrBeast - The Closers: 18 People Working to End the Racial Wealth Gap - How Long Should You Isolate With COVID-19? - The Best Romantic Comedies to Watch on Netflix - Want Weekly Recs on What to Watch, Read, and More? Sign Up for Worth Your Time Write to Video by Andrew. D Johnson at email@example.com

Gestational diabetes is a type of diabetes that can develop during pregnancy in women who don’t already have the disease. It affects 2-10% of pregnant women in the United States, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The good news is that most pregnant women can manage gestational diabetes through diet, exercise, and/or medication. Diabetes is a broad term for a condition that causes the body’s blood glucose (sugar) levels to rise higher than normal. Type 2 diabetes is the most common form, and it occurs when the body doesn’t produce enough insulin to offset the body’s level of insulin resistance. Insulin is a hormone made by the pancreas to convert sugar, starches, and other food into energy. At first, the pancreas produces extra insulin to make up for the resistance, but over time, the pancreas often can’t maintain normal blood glucose levels. Type 2 diabetes tends to develop over time and often is related to lifestyle. Type 1 diabetes is much less common than type 2. It often develops early in life and is thought to be caused by a genetic (inherited) disorder of the immune system. When gestational diabetes develops during pregnancy, it’s usually during the second or third trimester. It may require varying degrees of treatment and/or lifestyle and dietary changes, similar to those recommended for type 2 diabetes. Gestational diabetes usually goes away after delivery, but if it does not, it may be diagnosed as type 2 diabetes. Causes, Symptoms, and Testing During pregnancy, a woman’s body makes more hormones and goes through other changes, such as weight gain. These changes cause cells to use insulin less effectively, a condition known as insulin resistance. Insulin resistance increases the need for insulin. All pregnant women experience some level of insulin resistance during late pregnancy. Women who have insulin resistance before pregnancy are more likely to develop gestational diabetes. Like with type 2 diabetes, being overweight is linked to gestational diabetes, and some women who are overweight or obese already have insulin resistance before they become pregnant. Gaining too much weight during pregnancy also may be a factor. A family history of diabetes makes it more likely that a woman will develop gestational diabetes, which suggests that genetic factors may be involved. Usually, gestational diabetes causes no symptoms. Any symptoms that do develop – such as an increased thirst or frequent urination – tend to be mild. Testing for gestational diabetes usually takes place in the 24th to 28th week of pregnancy. If you have a higher risk for gestational diabetes, your doctor may test you sooner, to help protect your and your baby’s health. Your chance of developing gestational diabetes is higher if you: - Had gestational diabetes during a previous pregnancy - Are overweight - Have a parent or sibling with type 2 diabetes - Have pre-diabetes (blood glucose levels that are higher than normal but not high enough for a diabetes diagnosis) - Are African American, American Indian, Asian American, Hispanic/Latina, or Pacific Islander American Effects on Your Growing Baby While most women with gestational diabetes have normal pregnancies and give birth to healthy babies, some complications are more likely to occur in their newborns. Babies born to women with diabetes require monitoring for low glucose on the first day of life. The better controlled the mother’s diabetes is, the less likely the baby is to require treatments for low glucose. If glucose is low, the first treatments may include oral glucose gel and extra feeding. Formula supplementation may be required for breastfeeding newborns if glucose gel and breastfeeding do not bring blood sugar to normal levels. Babies who continue to have low blood sugar, or who have very low blood sugar, may require glucose through an IV. Untreated or uncontrolled gestational diabetes can result in other complications for the baby. Most of this is due to the baby’s exposure to high glucose levels before birth. This excess glucose is stored as fat in the baby which can lead to macrosomia (large babies). Macrosomic infants are at higher risk for birth injuries and difficult deliveries and are more likely to need delivery by Cesarean section. They are also at higher risk for breathing issues that may require observation in a newborn intensive care unit (NICU) and for newborn jaundice. Prevention and Management Women who are overweight but physically active may be able to prevent gestational diabetes by losing weight before they get pregnant or exercising before and during pregnancy. About 30 minutes of moderate activity on most days of the week, combined with short moments of activity throughout each day, can provide enough exercise. Always talk to your doctor about what kind of physical activity is best for you. Choose foods high in fiber and low in fat and calories. Focus on fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. Keep an eye on portion sizes and eat small, frequent meals and snacks every 3-4 hours. Watch your intake of carbohydrates, and always eat carbohydrate-rich and protein-rich foods together. Avoid sugary beverages. Talk with your doctor and/or a registered dietitian to help you create a diet plan. Don’t try to lose weight if you’re already pregnant, as you’ll need to gain some weight for your baby to be healthy. Talk to your doctor about how much weight you should gain for a healthy pregnancy. When diet and physical activity aren’t enough to manage blood glucose levels, doctors may prescribe insulin, and your health care team will show you how to give yourself insulin shots. Insulin will not harm your baby and usually is the first choice of diabetes medicine for gestational diabetes. Researchers are studying the safety of diabetes treatment pills during pregnancy, but more long-term studies are needed. Women who’ve had gestational diabetes before are more likely to develop type 2 diabetes, and their children are more likely to become obese or develop type 2 diabetes. Women with gestational diabetes should be tested for type 2 diabetes six weeks after delivering their baby. Even if the test is negative, they should be tested again every 1-3 years. You may be able to lower your and your child’s chances of developing these problems by making healthy food choices, maintaining a healthy weight, and staying physically active. Any complication during pregnancy is concerning, but gestational diabetes is manageable, and controlling your blood sugar is important for keeping you and your baby healthy and preventing a difficult delivery. Click here to learn more about how UAB Medicine provides care for gestational diabetes.

When heading back to school, new and returning students can get a head start by reviewing upcoming or previous topics. When it comes to subjects such as math and counting, such review can be critical for the success of the soon-to-be student later on during the school year. In the United States, learning materials for Russian-speaking students can be hard to obtain, especially at a reasonable price. At Lookomorie, we've amassed a large collection of school books for Russian speakers that are devoted to teaching your children everything about numbers: from just learning to count all the way to grade-level mathematics. Let's take a look at the two main categories, counting and math, and the most popular books from each. Building a Strong Foundation in Numbers Counting forms the cornerstone of mathematical understanding. Introducing counting techniques in the Russian language not only aids linguistic proficiency but also accelerates numerical cognition. By being introduced to numerical patterns, students develop the ability to discern regularities, a skill that underpins advanced mathematical concepts. Here are three of the most popular books for Russian students to learn counting: |Учимся писать цифры |Учимся считать от 1 до 20 |Буквальные задачки или счет идет на сказки Mastering Basic Arithmetic Operations Once a student has learned how to count, he/she has the foundation necessary to begin learning math. Arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division constitute the building blocks of mathematical computation, and are the most important to learn early on. Equipping Russian students with strategies for addition and subtraction, along with engaging approaches to multiplication and simplified explanations of division, empowers them to tackle mathematical challenges with confidence and accuracy. Here are some of our best-selling Russian math books, suitable for elementary students: |Комбинированные летние задания |Первые уроки 4+ |Информатика, логика, математика Collections of Math Workbooks we Recommend Some workbooks for learning math and counting in Russian come in series, containing multiple books. Since these books come with multiple volumes, they can cover more topics than a single book, and may be more effective for teaching your child. Here are some of the best compilations of math workbooks we have available in our store: |Игралочка. Практический курс математики для дошкольников |Математика 1 класс. Учебное пособие. Комплект в 3-х частях |Математика 2 класс. Учебное пособие. Комплект в 3-х частях While the challenges of math education for students are real, the path forward can be greatly facilitated by the strategic implementation of learning resources. By mastering counting techniques, arithmetic operations, algebraic thinking, and problem-solving, students can forge a deep and enduring connection with mathematics. This connection not only equips them with academic knowledge but also cultivates analytical thinking, a skill set that extends its reach into every facet of life. At Lookomorie, we try our best to reduce the difficulty that Russian families living within the United States face when looking for the proper resources for their children's academic success. This article covered the books we offer on math and counting, and the next will cover speech, reading, grammar, and writing. We'll see you then! P.S. Take a look at the Math and Counting collection that was referenced in this blog post!

In the realm of early childhood education, guiding preschool behavior requires a tailored and empathetic approach. The tailored aspect is important because children respond to different strategies in their own ways, and what works for your child may not be suitable for the next. Here are three pivotal behavior strategies that prove effective in fostering a positive and nurturing preschool environment. Positive Reinforcement and Encouragement Montessori preschool children thrive on positive reinforcement. Acknowledging their efforts, even in small accomplishments, boosts their self-esteem and motivation. Whether it’s a sticker for completing a task or a heartfelt compliment, positive reinforcement creates a sense of achievement and encourages them to engage in desired behaviors. By focusing on what they do right, teachers lay the foundation for a growth mindset. This approach not only empowers them to embrace challenges but also instills a sense of intrinsic motivation. Clear and Consistent Boundaries Establishing clear and consistent boundaries is essential in guiding preschoolers’ behavior. Children feel secure when they understand expectations. Setting simple rules and explaining the reasons behind them helps preschoolers comprehend boundaries and their importance. Consistency across teachers and settings provides a predictable environment, supporting the development of self-regulation skills. When boundaries are communicated with warmth and understanding, preschoolers are more likely to internalize them. This balanced approach fosters a sense of autonomy while nurturing respect for community norms. Active Listening and Effective Communication Preschoolers often express themselves through emotions and limited language. Active listening and effective communication become powerful tools for understanding their feelings and needs. When educators validate their emotions and offer appropriate language to express themselves, preschoolers feel valued and understood. This creates a foundation of trust and open communication, enabling them to navigate their emotions in a healthy manner. Through active listening, teachers not only address immediate concerns but also teach valuable skills in empathetic communication. Guiding preschoolers’ behavior requires a holistic approach that combines positive reinforcement, clear boundaries, and effective communication. By focusing on their strengths, setting clear expectations, and validating their emotions, educators create a supportive environment where preschoolers can develop essential social and emotional skills. These strategies not only shape behavior but also cultivate self-confidence, empathy, and effective communication. The ripple effects of these strategies extend beyond the preschool years, positively impacting their educational and personal growth.

Related PapersAtoms Class 12 Notes PDF (Handwritten & Short Notes) Posted by Aadi Sharma Ray Optics and Optical Instruments Class 12 Notes Chapter 9 Posted by Ravi kant Handwritten Notes Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance Class 12 Physics Posted by Brijesh Yadav Current Electricity Handwritten Notes Class 12 Physics Posted by Brijesh Yadav Moving Charges and Magnetism Handwritten Notes Class 12 Physics Posted by Brijesh Yadav CBSE Class 12 Physics Revision Notes Get Here free PDF download of CBSE Class 12 Physics revision notes and short key-notes to score more marks in your exams. These Notes of Physics Class 12 make the complicated problems look easy as they are broken into simple steps with a lucid explanation of each step. Handwritten Notes of Physics for Class 12 are important to enable students to have a quick recap of the entire syllabus in no time. One can easily revise the precise notes in a day or two. This helps one to recall all he/she has read and learned for the entire year. Once they get the hint, the students are quick to recall the entire material. Study Key Notes or Revision notes helps students in quick revision to recall all that has been learned throughout the year. Notes make this process of recall easy. Latest Physics Notes For CBSE Class 12 Chapter wise |Class 12 Physics Marks Distribution |Magnetic Effects of Current and Magnetism |Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Currents |Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter |Atoms and Nuclei Term - I Unit I: Electrostatics Chapter–1: Electric Charges and Fields Electric Charges; Conservation of charge, Coulomb's law-force between two-point charges, forces between multiple charges; superposition principle and continuous charge distribution. Electric field, electric field due to a point charge, electric field lines, electric dipole, electric field due to a dipole, torque on a dipole in uniform electric field. Electric flux, statement of Gauss's theorem and its applications to find field due to infinitely long straight wire, uniformly charged infinite plane sheet Chapter–2: Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance Electric potential, potential difference, electric potential due to a point charge, a dipole and system of charges; equipotential surfaces, electrical potential energy of a system of two-point charges and of electric dipole in an electrostatic field. Conductors and insulators, free charges and bound charges inside a conductor. Dielectrics and electric polarisation, capacitors and capacitance, combination of capacitors in series and in parallel, capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with and without dielectric medium between the plates, energy stored in a capacitor. Unit II: Current Electricity Chapter–3: Current Electricity Electric current, flow of electric charges in a metallic conductor, drift velocity, mobility and their relation with electric current; Ohm's law, electrical resistance, V-I characteristics (linear and nonlinear), electrical energy and power, electrical resistivity and conductivity; temperature dependence of resistance. Internal resistance of a cell, potential difference and emf of a cell, combination of cells in series and in parallel, Kirchhoff's laws and simple applications, Wheatstone bridge, metre bridge(qualitative ideas only). Potentiometer - principle and its applications to measure potential difference and for comparing EMF of two cells; measurement of internal resistance of a cell (qualitative ideas only) Unit III: Magnetic Effects of Current and Magnetism Chapter–4: Moving Charges and Magnetism Concept of magnetic field, Oersted's experiment. Biot - Savart law and its application to current carrying circular loop. Ampere's law and its applications to infinitely long straight wire. Straight and toroidal solenoids (only qualitative treatment), force on a moving charge in uniform magnetic and electric fields. Force on a current-carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic field, force between two parallel current-carrying conductors-definition of ampere, torque experienced by a current loop in uniform magnetic field; moving coil galvanometer-its current sensitivity and conversion to ammeter and voltmeter. Chapter–5: Magnetism and Matter Current loop as a magnetic dipole and its magnetic dipole moment, magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron, bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid, magnetic field lines; earth's magnetic field and magnetic elements. Unit IV: Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Currents Chapter–6: Electromagnetic Induction Electromagnetic induction; Faraday's laws, induced EMF and current; Lenz's Law, Eddy currents. Self and mutual induction. Chapter–7: Alternating Current Alternating currents, peak and RMS value of alternating current/voltage; reactance and impedance; LC oscillations (qualitative treatment only), LCR series circuit, resonance; power in AC circuits. AC generator and transformer. Unit V: Electromagnetic waves Chapter–8: Electromagnetic Waves Electromagnetic waves, their characteristics, their Transverse nature (qualitative ideas only). Electromagnetic spectrum (radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays) including elementary facts about their uses. Unit VI: Optics Chapter–9: Ray Optics and Optical Instruments Ray Optics: Refraction of light, total internal reflection and its applications, optical fibers, refraction at spherical surfaces, lenses, thin lens formula, lensmaker's formula, magnification, power of a lens, combination of thin lenses in contact, refraction of light through a prism. Optical instruments: Microscopes and astronomical telescopes (reflecting and refracting) and their magnifying powers. Chapter–10: Wave Optics Wave optics: Wave front and Huygen's principle, reflection and refraction of plane wave at a plane surface using wave fronts. Proof of laws of reflection and refraction using Huygen's principle. Interference, Young's double slit experiment and expression for fringe width, coherent sources and sustained interference of light, diffraction due to a single slit, width of central maximum Unit VII: Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter Chapter–11: Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter Dual nature of radiation, Photoelectric effect, Hertz and Lenard's observations; Einstein's photoelectric equation-particle nature of light. Experimental study of photoelectric effect Matter waves-wave nature of particles, de-Broglie relation Unit VIII: Atoms and Nuclei Alpha-particle scattering experiment; Rutherford's model of atom; Bohr model, energy levels, hydrogen spectrum. Composition and size of nucleus Nuclear force Mass-energy relation, mass defect, nuclear fission, nuclear fusion. Unit IX: Electronic Devices Chapter–14: Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits Energy bands in conductors, semiconductors and insulators (qualitative ideas only) Semiconductor diode - I-V characteristics in forward and reverse bias, diode as a rectifier; Special purpose p-n junction diodes: LED, photodiode, solar cell. Experiments assigned for Term I - To determine resistivity of two / three wires by plotting a graph between potential difference versus current. - To find resistance of a given wire / standard resistor using metre bridge. To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using a metre bridge. To verify the laws of combination (parallel) of resistances using a metre bridge. - To compare the EMF of two given primary cells using potentiometer To determine the internal resistance of given primary cell using potentiometer. - To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure of merit. - To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into a voltmeter of desired range and to verify the same. To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into an ammeter of desired range and to verify the same. - To find the frequency of AC mains with a sonometer. Experiments assigned for Term-II - To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or between 1/u and1/v. - To find the focal length of a convex mirror, using a convex lens. To find the focal length of a concave lens, using a convex lens. - To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation. - To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope. - To find refractive index of a liquid by using convex lens and plane mirror. - To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction diode in forward bias and reverse bias. |Type of Question |Marks per Question |Total No. of Questions |Objective Type Questions |Short Answer Type Questions |Long Answer Type Question - 1 |Long Answer Type Question - 2 For Preparation of exams students can also check out other resource material Revision Notes of Other Subjects of Class 12CBSE Revision Notes of Class 12 Chemistry CBSE Revision Notes of Class 12 Biology CBSE Revision Notes of Class 12 Business Studies CBSE Revision Notes of Class 12 Economics CBSE Revision Notes of Class 12 History CBSE Revision Notes of Class 12 Geography CBSE Revision Notes of Class 12 Home Science CBSE Revision Notes of Class 12 Political Science CBSE Revision Notes of Class 12 Sociology CBSE Revision Notes of Class 12 Psychology CBSE Revision Notes of Class 12 English Number of students believe that making notes is a troublesome act. But it is a hard known fact that with proper study notes, studying and passing exams becomes easier and that too with good marks. More importantly, it makes learning more interesting and fun. Why Should Students make Revision Notes? 1. When students make notes, they are forced to understand everything in their own language and words so that you understand things better. Often students tend to blindly read the entire page without giving a chance to understand a single word, but in case they are making notes then, then the brain gets double activated and tries to squeeze meaning out of every single sentence which is very much beneficial for them in the long run. Study notes keep track of all the information they have learned from them. It acts as a ready referral to go through during preparing for exam time. 2. The extra pain of writing notes while studying pays a lot of dividends like saving student’s energy and time during the exam and it becomes an immensely easier way to recall things during exam time when students are already facing shortage of time. 3. When students write notes on paper while studying, it automatically improves memory, allowing the students to study more when studying and reducing the chances of forgetting. 4. When students inculcate the habit of study notes making while studying it increases attention to detail and the focus of the students. And it is a known fact that students who have good focus are more likely to do better in exams. 5. When it comes to learning, it has been observed that study notes do promote a high level of retention. When learning is an important part of tutoring, one of the major necessary end goals is retention. So when a student indulges in notes making , the study notes promotes positive memory as well as the ability to retain information because the mind becomes an active component in studying. 6. Repetition is the key to mastery. A well known fact gets also implied in the case of Making study notes, because when students study then he instantly revises everything while making notes and that stimulates the part of the brain that promotes learning. Like every muscle in the body, the brain can be trained to learn easily in order to absorb new and more information quickly. 7. Making study notes helps in filtration of the relevant and important information. When the student writes study notes while studying, they tend to make the notes by summarising, editing and retaining only the most important information. 8. Making study notes passively increases the likelihood of the students to become more organised. Being organised allows students to prioritise tasks and to finish work on time.

This file type includes high-resolution graphics and schematics when applicable. The science of boats is not new. Haul, sail, and motor design can be complex and tough to hone to specific applications, but the end goal is the same—to propel an object through water. However, new research may very well change the way we think of these aquatic-propelled vehicles. On this front, Maurizio Porfiri, recipient of the 2015 C.D. Mote Jr. Early Career Award for his contributions in the field of vibration and acoustics, is working with polymers that efficiently transfer energy to propulsion, or allow forces from movement in liquids to generate energy. Porfiri used ionomers, a polymer group affected by electrical currents, to generate propulsion. “Imagine a sponge that is able to contract and expand based on an electric charge rather than hydration,” says Porfiri. “There are no moving parts, which make this concept very quiet. Also, the process can be reversed. Using small currents and vortices, any motion in a liquid could potentially charge sensors or be used in piezoelectronics.” This technology can allow for aquatic animals to be tagged with a sensor that has a sustainable power source, as long as the animal or water is moving. Not only could this revolutionize underwater electronics in general, but the Navy might be interested in the technology, too. Porfiri says, “Imagine if a boat’s haul could flex. By tracking the pressures and energy in the water rather than on a rigid haul, we can determine what kind of energies could be generated by using this technology to transfer liquid movement to power the boat’s electronics. A flexible haul could also minimize the experienced drag, resulting in more efficient boat travel.” On the other side of the US, professors at UC San Diego have developed a new advance swimming machine. By combining 3D-printing and micro-robotics technologies, a team lead by Shaochen Chen and Joseph Wang came up with complex geometries no wider than the width of a human hair (about 0.004 in.). Chen is able to print hundreds of these micro-robots in seconds. Each fish-shaped swimming machine, which measures 120 microns long and 30 microns thick, is 3D printed on a process developed in Chen’s lab called microscale continuous optical printing. A digital micro-mirror device chip contains approximately two million micro-mirrors. A desired geometry is selected, like a fish, and the mirrors project the image into a photosensitive material, one cross-section at a time, until the shape is completed. For this case, a fish shape was created. Platinum added into the tail propels the fish as it reacts with hydrogen peroxide. With this technique it was possible to add iron oxide to the head of the fish, which allows for control via magnets. These swimming machines could be used to clean toxins from liquids. In an experiment, the fish bonded with the toxins, and fluoresced in a red glow. Co-author Jinxing Li said, “Another exciting possibility we could explore is to encapsulate medicines inside the microfish and use them for directed drug delivery.”

Living in the cold Three commonalities, many differencesThe polar regions’ special geographic and climatic conditions present the fauna and flora of the Arctic and Antarctic with particular challenges. For millions of years now, organisms in both regions had to: - overcome cold to extremely cold ambient temperatures, - deal with the presence of snow and ice in its various forms, and - endure extreme seasonal fluctuations of sunlight and temperatures. Nonetheless, both the Arctic and Antarctic environments have given rise to a great diversity of life. In the north polar region more than 21,500 species of fauna and flora have now been identified, all of which have adapted to the extreme conditions – from bacteria and viruses living on glaciers and fish that spend the first years of their lives hidden under the marine ice, to the well-known species such as the Arctic fox or the polar bear. There are approximately 14,000 Arctic terrestrial species; a further 7600 species live in the Arctic Ocean. In contrast, the terrestrial life of Antarctica is relatively species-poor. A mere 1600 animal and plant species occur in the few ice-free terrestrial areas of the Antarctic. The ocean, however, is teeming with life – some 10,630 species have been identified, with the majority displaying special adaptation mechanisms that can be found nowhere else on Earth. A matter of geographic locationA comparison of the ecosystems of the two polar regions highlights the significant differences between them. While there are large-scale, glacier-free areas of tundra and extensive river systems in the Arctic, both of which produce sufficient biomass during the summer to feed even large herbivore species such as caribou and musk oxen, 98 per cent of the Antarctic landmass is still covered in ice. This means that lichens, mosses and higher plants can hardly find substrates on which to grow. Therefore, the main food source for all the animals native to the Antarctic is the ocean which completely surrounds the continent. The resultant isolation of the Antarctic from the rest of the world has had a similarly lasting impact on the development of life in the south polar region as its glacial history. For more than 34 million years now, oceanic basins more than 3000 metres in depth have separated Antarctica from the surrounding land masses of South America, Africa and Australia. Even at its narrowest point, at the Drake Passage, the Southern Ocean is still 810 kilometres wide. Terrestrial species of fauna intent on migrating to Antarctica from temperate latitudes would have had to be capable of long-distance flights or swims even in the past. Once they had overcome that obstacle, the Antarctic immediately presented them with the next challenge – several times over the past millions of years the southern continent became completely covered in ice, sometimes even beyond its coastline. The Antarctic terrestrial species were left with the choice to either migrate or to move out onto the marine ice. Otherwise they faced extinction. - 4.1 > A three-dimensional model of the Southern Ocean. With its deep basins and circulating water masses, it continues to form a barrier that many animal and plant species from more northern latitudes can scarcely overcome. Similarly, it has prevented species native to the Antarctic shelf sea areas from migrating northwards. - In comparison, settling in the Arctic was much easier as it is directly connected to large continental land masses stretching far south and into warmer climatic zones. Eurasian and North American species of fauna and flora adapted to the cold were therefore able to colonize the north polar region by land. When during the last glacia-tion large ice shields formed in the Arctic, this did not generally spell the end of terrestrial life in the way it did in Antarctica. For one thing, the Arctic species had the opportunity to shift their ranges toward the south and thus to flee from the ice. Moreover, during this glaciation the Arctic was never entirely covered by glaciers and ice shields. Regions such as Beringia and eastern Siberia remained ice-free and served as a refuge for many organisms. As a result, the north-eastern tundra regions of Russia are among the most species-rich terrestrial areas of the Arctic to this day. Given that the Arctic is not separated from more southern climes by oceans or high mountain ranges it is not surprising that the north polar region hosts many terrestrial predators such as polar bears, wolves and Arctic foxes while there is not a single four-legged predator species in mainland Antarctica. Instead, millions of penguins breed in the Antarctic – birds that cannot fly and that know no enemies outside of oceanic waters. If penguins were resettled in the Arctic, they would easily be picked off by polar bears and other predators, given that these large birds have no intuitive sense of danger when on land. The only bird species resembling penguins which ever lived in the Arctic was the flightless great auk (Pinguinus impennis). It lived on remote rocky islands in the North Atlantic were there were no polar bears, wolves or foxes. However, in the early 19th century European seafarers discovered the birds’ colonies. They hunted the defenceless auks to extinction in a mere four decades. The last great auks were killed in June 1844 on the Icelandic island of Eldey. - 4.2 > Four endemic species of true seals are at home on and underneath the jagged Antarctic pack ice. These include the crabeater seal, Ross seal, Weddell seal and leopard seal. A “biodiversity pump”The geographic conditions in the Arctic and Antarctic have also had a decisive impact on the species diversity of the polar seas. The ring-shaped Southern Ocean made it possible for many of its inhabitants to establish ranges encircling the entire continent. At the same time, the Circumpolar Current, which reaches great depths, and the rapidly decreasing water temperatures at the top 200 metres of its water column impede the migration of species from more northern climes. Moreover, water temperatures have decreased since the Drake Passage opened 34 million years ago – at first there was only episodic cooling and interim warming phases but in the past 15 million years temperatures have continuously declined. The Southern Ocean is on average ten to twelve degrees Celsius colder today than it was 40 million years ago. Sea ice conditions in the Antarctic changed in step with the cooling of the Southern Ocean, with far-reaching consequences for life in and underneath the sea ice, in the water column, and on the sea floor. The more ice formed in the Antarctic in the course of a cold period and the further glacial and shelf ice masses expanded out into the ocean, the less space there was for residents of the shelf, such as sea-floor dwelling sponges or starfish. Many shallow-water areas became completely uninhabitable and formerly conjoined marine regions were separated by the glacial advance. Scientists believe that many of the marine organisms inhabiting the continental shelf seas at that time were forced to migrate down the continental slope or into the deep sea. At the same time, however, the current assumption is that the isolation of habitats of the continental shelf gave rise to new species. Since the Antarctic ice masses have repeatedly expanded and contracted over the past 2.1 million years, biologists speak of a “biodiversity pump”. The premise here is that the repeated isolation of biocoenoses (cold period, growth of ice mass) and the subsequent opportunity for expansion (warm periods, retreating ice) provides perfect conditions for the evolution of a unique and highly differentiated species diversity which, moreover, includes a high proportion of endemic species, i.e. species of fauna and flora that can only be found in the Antarctic. Approximately 50 per cent of Antarctic sea squirts, anemones, bryozoans, mussels and sea spiders are endemic species; roughly 75 per cent of sea snail species are endemics and for Gammaridea, a suborder of amphipods, as well as for octopuses the proportion of endemic species is as high as 80 per cent. In this way the Southern Ocean has given rise to a much greater and more colourful level of biodiversity than one would expect at first sight. Biologists have identified more than 8000 different species of invertebrates in the Antarctic, and some regions have not even been properly studied as yet. The fish fauna of the Antarctic continental shelf seas is dominated by a group of Antarctic fish termed Notothenioidei. They constitute more than 70 per cent of species diversity and more than 90 per cent of fish biomass in the continental shelf seas. However, there are also faunal groups for which to date there are only occasional sightings in the Antarctic continental shelf seas, the red king crab for example, or which as yet do not occur in the Antarctic. The latter include lobster and hermit crabs, which also explains why the benthic fauna of the continental shelf has not developed defence mechanisms against clawed predators. Southward migrationGeologically speaking the Arctic Ocean is younger than the Southern Ocean which means that species of high northern latitudes had less time to adapt to polar conditions than the southern fauna. But they, too, had to survive periods of large-scale ice formation, for example some 140,000 years ago when major ice shields covered North America and northern Europe and pushed their up to 1000 metres thick shelf ice onto the entire Arctic Ocean, which presumably became completely frozen over. At that time, the biocoenoses of the Arctic Ocean either withdrew to greater depths or they migrated to more southern latitudes along the Atlantic and Pacific coastlines. When the ice masses slowly disappeared it took some time for the marine organisms to recolonize the Arctic ecosystems. Biologists therefore consider the diverse biocoenoses of the Arctic marginal seas to be not much older than 125,000 years. Moreover, in the Arctic Ocean scientists distinguish between the Atlantic and the Pacific sector respectively. Their inhabitants migrated from the respective neighbouring ocean and separately adapted to the polar conditions. It is for this reason that to this day different species play the exact same role in the two sectors’ ecosystems. - 4.3 > Antarctic white-blooded fish such as this juvenile blackfin icefish inhabit the world’s coldest marine regions and have no haemoglobin in their blood. - In the Arctic, furthermore, it has been and still is much easier than in the Antarctic for inhabitants of the continental shelf seas to migrate from one continent to the next, given that the northern coastal areas of Europe, Asia and North America share contiguous offshore shelf areas. Antarctica, in contrast, lacks such a shallow water connection to neighbouring continents. In the Antarctic, therefore, the pressure to adapt has always been much higher than in the Arctic. During cold periods, marine organisms of the Southern Ocean had significantly fewer refuges at their disposal than species of the far north. The organisms of the Southern Ocean had only two options – they either adapted or they became extinct. It is for this reason that Antarctic marine life developed significantly more sophisticated adaptation mechanisms than the inhabitants of the Arctic Ocean. Survival tactics of terrestrial animals in the polar regionsConditions in the Arctic and Antarctic are characterized by extreme fluctuations over the seasons. In summer there is sunlight, warmth, ice-free terrestrial and water surfaces and an overabundance of food resources; in winter, however, conditions are the exact opposite. In the Arctic, for example, winter surface temperatures drop to around minus 40 degrees Celsius for weeks, and minimum temperatures of minus 50 to minus 60 degrees Celsius are not uncommon. There are also major temperature differences between north and south as well as between coastal regions and more inland areas respectively. Such contrasts can only be survived by species that adopt one or more of the following survival tactics: - fleeing the cold by migrating to warmer areas (migration), - surviving the winter in a protected location (dormancy or hibernation), - optimizing body heat regulation, and - provisioning by means of accumulating large body fat reserves. Fleeing from hunger and coldThe flight from low temperatures and food scarcity is a tactic used primarily by the many seabirds occurring in the polar regions. The Arctic hosts a total of 200 bird species, the majority of which are geese, ducks, shorebirds and seabirds. Compared to temperate regions there are few songbirds. Most of the Arctic bird species spend only a few summer months in the far north. As winter approaches, 93 per cent of the species migrate to warmer regions. Their migration routes lead to regions all around the world. While many of the geese, passerines, owls, birds of prey, auks and gulls overwinter in adjacent temperate latitudes, some of the shorebirds, phalaropes, and the Sabine’s gull (Xema sabini) migrate as far as to the tropics and Australia. The bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica), for example, flies 12,000 kilometres from its breeding area in Alaska over the Pacific to New Zealand. Long-distance migrants such as the Arctic tern and skuas even target Antarctica where they overwinter on the edge of the Antarctic pack ice zone. This means that on their way from the Arctic breeding areas to the Antarctic overwintering areas and back the birds cover a distance of up to 80,000 kilometres per year. But this effort is worth it as both polar regions provide the birds with an abundance of food during the summer. And as the Arctic terns rely primarily on their eyesight for hunting they benefit significantly from the fact that in their chosen habitats the sun does not set for a total of eight months, enabling them to theoretically hunt for prey around-the-clock. - 4.5 > A herd of caribou moves through the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge in October in search of food. At this time the region has already seen snowfall which means that the animals need to scrape away the snow from potential grazing areas. - However, there are also bird species in the Arctic that do not migrate to warmer areas. Among the terrestrial birds, these include the common raven (Corvus corax), rock ptarmigan (Lagopus muta), snowy owl (Bubo scandiaca) and Arctic redpoll (Acanthis hornemanni). Among the seabirds that spend winter in the far north are the black guillemot (Cepphus grylle), thick-billed murre (Uria lomvia), ivory gull (Pagophila eburnea), Ross’s gull (Rhodostethia rosea) and common eider (Somateria mollissima). Mammals also undertake seasonal migrations – baleen whales for example or reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), known as caribou in North America. In eastern Alaska as well as in the Canadian Yukon Territory, for example, every spring a herd of between 100,000 and 200,000 of the so-called Porcupine caribou undertakes a 1300 kilometre northward migration to the coastal plains of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge where the females give birth to their calves. The kindergarten on the coast of the Arctic Ocean offers many benefits to the wild herd. The landscape is flat and without forest cover, allowing the caribou to spot potential predators such as bears or wolves from afar. The fresh ocean breeze keeps the annoying mosquitoes in check, and there is a plentiful supply of food and water. At the end of the summer the caribou start on the return journey to their winter territories in the more southern Ogilvie Mountains. Other herds migrate even further south and overwinter in the subarctic boreal forests. But a few herds spend the winter in the tundra. ThermoregulationJust like all other homoeothermic animals in the polar regions, these caribou face the challenge of maintaining their body core temperature at a level of between 37 and 41 degrees Celsius despite the air around them being up to 100 degrees Celsius colder. The only way to achieve this is to prevent the loss of body heat to the environment. This is a difficult task as body heat can be lost in three different ways: - by heat conduction, - by heat radiation and - by evaporation. - curling up into a ball (reducing the body surface to volume ratio), - huddling together in a group for mutual warmth, - withdrawing to a protected location, - accumulating a warming layer of fat or a double layer winter coat or plumage, and - cooling down their breath and extremities. - 4.6 > Polar bears are very good swimmers and, as this large male demonstrates, they are also good divers. However, the animals get cold very quickly in the water. On long-distance swims mature bears with a thick layer of body fat for insulation have better chances of survival than juvenile bears. - Animals living in groups, herds or colonies often stand closely together in order to warm each other and thus to minimize their own heat loss. The most well-known example is the circular “huddles” of emperor penguins in Antarctica. In winter when ambient air temperatures can be as low as minus 50 degrees Celsius and the males must stay on the ice to incubate the eggs, the birds huddle together by the thousands and so closely together that up to ten penguins may be squeezed up on a square metre of ground – back to belly, side-by-side and with the head placed onto the shoulder of the penguin in front. In the middle of this giant incubator the air warms to up to 24 degrees Celsius. This is however too warm for the birds at the centre who gradually seek to escape the heat. The birds on the margins meanwhile are cold and slowly push towards the centre. This is why the penguins continuously change their position and why the huddle is constantly moving with each bird at some point enjoying the warmth. In this manner these large birds are able to reduce their heat loss by half even during the harshest of winter storms. Arctic musk oxen display similar behaviour. On cold days the members of the herd form a tight circle, allowing the animals to warm each other and collectively remain relatively unimpacted by icy winds. A third strategy employed to reduce heat loss is to withdraw to a protected area. This could be a cave or else the animals may curl up and let themselves get snowed in. Polar bears, wolves, foxes, hares and ptarmigans are known to at least temporarily seek shelter in snow dens during the winter. Smaller Arctic species such as lemmings or stoats must even spend most of the winter underneath the insulating snow cover due to their small size and the associated heat loss. Dependent on the thickness of the snow cover, temperatures may be as high as zero degrees Celsius, allowing these small mammals to survive. Birds and mammals overwintering in the polar regions also protect themselves from the freezing cold by means of a dense winter coat or plumage. In mammals and birds which need to enter the water in search of food, or in whales which spend their entire lives in the ocean, a thick layer of fat (blubber) generally takes on this insulating function. Just how well feathers or fur can conserve body heat depends on two factors, one being the individual thermal conductivity of each individual hair or feather, the other being the degree to which the coat or plumage is able to trap an insulating layer of air near to the body, as the thermal conductivity of air is only half that of hairs or feathers. Presumably this is the reason why the guard hairs of caribou are hollow and internally sectioned into thousands of tiny air cells, each separated from the next by a thin wall. In this manner, the animals’ guard hair does not only protect them from external influences such as snow or rain, it also forms a second and very effective layer of insulation in addition to the underfur. - The fur’s insulating characteristics differ significantly between species, with the ability to retain heat generally increasing with the thickness of the layer of fur. The insulating effect of the fur or plumage can be further increased by fluffing up the plumage or erecting the hairs, thus trapping a greater amount of insulating air near to the body. Small furry mammals such as lemmings or stoats are clearly at a disadvantage when it comes to keeping themselves warm by means of their body hair. They need a short-haired coat that still allows them to move. But the large mammals with rather thick coats must also pay attention to a number of factors so as to avoid dying of hypothermia. The polar bears’ long guard hair for example provides superb insulation as long as the coat is dry. However, when the bear jumps into the sea, for example in order to swim from one ice floe to the next, water reaches the skin, and water conducts heat away from the body 25 times faster than air. At moments like that fully grown bears trust the insulation provided by their thick blubber which reaches a thickness of up to 11.4 centimetres. For bear cubs, however, a swim like that can be very dangerous as they lose heat very rapidly. They are similarly at risk when it rains as both rain and sleet considerably impair the functional characteristics of fur or plumage. Icy winds can also result in significant heat loss. When wind passes through fur or plumage it swirls the layer of air close to the body, thus reducing its insulating function. Snowy owls, for example, that are exposed to 27 kilometre per hour winds at an ambient temperature of minus 30 degrees Celsius lose heat so quickly that in order to not freeze to death they need to generate twice as much heat as would be required if the air was still. In contrast, the guard hair and underfur of reindeer and musk oxen provides such complete insulation that the animals loose little or no heat even during winter storms. Whales, polar bears and seals protect themselves from the cold by means of thick blubber. While the insulating capacity of this layer of fat is not as great as that of fur, it is also functional in the water where fur generally fails as a means of protection. This layer of fat can be impressively thick. In bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) it can reach a thickness of up to 30 centimetres. And just like the coats of reindeer and musk oxen, blubber also changes with the seasons, at least in seals. Their blubber is at its thinnest in summer when the animals’ moult forces them to stay on land and fast. In the run-up to winter they fatten up again and blubber thickness increases. Penguins such as Adélie and emperor penguins protect themselves from the icy cold by means of a plumage that offers superb insulation. However, when they are diving in the sea the feathers are compressed and the trapped air is expelled which means that the plumage loses its insulating properties. The birds’ blubber then protects them to some extent from heat loss. Physiological protective mechanisms against heat lossAnimals can also prevent the loss of body heat by conduction if they cool down external body parts or their limbs while maintaining a constant body core temperature. This type of behaviour is displayed by, for example, reindeer, emperor penguins and gulls. Under certain circumstances they are able to lower the temperature of their feet to close to freezing while their body core temperature remains at a normal level. The often badly insulated extremities can be cooled down to this extent as the blood vessels in legs, wings or flippers are located so closely together that heat can be exchanged between arteries and veins. Warm arterial blood originating in the centre of the body passes on its heat to venous blood which had previously cooled down in feet or fins and is being transported back towards the body core. In this way, only blood already cooled down reaches the extremities, thus greatly reducing heat loss from feet, flippers or wings. Reindeer have such long legs that the close proximity of veins and arteries alone is sufficient for heat exchange. In the seals’ short flippers, however, the heat exchange is amplified by the veins branching into blood vessels surrounding the centrally located artery which conducts heat to the veins. Moreover, the animals can regulate their blood flow and thus also the heat supply to their extremities – they may want to reduce heat loss in a cold environment, or they may want to quickly cool down, for example following major exertion or when they are at risk of overheating. - 4.8 > When a reindeer inhales it moistens and warms the incoming cold air by means of tissues in its nose that are richly supplied with blood vessels. These tissues are supported by curled, thin bone structures, clearly visible in this photo of a reindeer skull. - Surprisingly, the animals do not lose sensation in their wings, flippers or paws even when these have become very cold. Impulse transmission in nerves and muscles of the ball of the foot of Arctic wolves and foxes continues to function even when the animals stand on cold surfaces with temperatures down to minus 50 degrees Celsius and their paws have cooled down to freezing point. Studies have shown that the muscles and nerves in poorly insulated extremities still function when the tissue has reached a minimum temperature of minus six degrees Celsius – an adaptive mechanism that appears to be widespread among mammals and birds in high and medium latitudes. A similarly sophisticated system helps animals to not unnecessarily lose heat and water vapour to the environment when breathing. When a human exhales at an ambient temperature of minus 30 degrees Celsius, one can see the roughly 32 degree Celsius warm and moist breath as it exits the nose in the form of a light cloud of vapour. Reindeer, in contrast, do not produce such a cloud. The air they exhale is dry and cooled down to 21 degrees Celsius, thus reducing water and heat loss to a minimum. Once again, the secret of these energy savings is effective heat exchange which in this case happens in the nose. In contrast to the human nose, the nasal cavity of reindeer contains numerous convoluted muscous and other membranes that are richly supplied with blood. This nasal structure is highly beneficial in two ways: Firstly it increases the surface area of muscous membranes along which inhaled or exhaled air passes. This gives the reindeer sufficient opportunity to expel or retain heat and water in its breath. Secondly, the complex nasal anatomy divides the breath into numerous thin layers of air, thus further optimizing heat exchange. When a reindeer inhales, the icy cold polar air passes over the well-perfused nasal membranes. In less than a second it is moistened and its temperature is raised to the animal’s body temperature. The air reaching the lungs has a temperature of 38 degrees Celsius and is sufficiently moist to ensure optimum oxygen uptake. As a result of the heat transfer to the inhaled air, the membranes briefly cool down. When the animal exhales, its warm breath once again passes the now cooled nasal membranes and transfers back some of the heat. This cools down the breath to 21 degree Celsius and most of the water vapour it contains condenses. This mechanism ensures that reindeer exhale only cool and dry air, thus saving a great deal of body heat and moisture. The latter is critical in particular when all ponds, rivers and lakes are frozen during the winter and the animals are forced to consume snow in order to obtain water. - 4.9 > A thick layer of blubber and warming underfur protects polar bears from losing body heat to their environment. Moreover, the transparent guard hairs allow for solar radiation to reach the skin which means that the bears can warm up in good sunny weather. - Despite their thick winter coat and their sophisticated heat-conserving mechanisms it is possible for the animals to lose heat and for their body temperature to drop to dangerous levels. When this happens, most of the animals increase their metabolism and begin to shiver, generating heat by means of muscle contractions. Wind and moisture generally accelerate heat loss while sunshine can help the animals to maintain their body temperature. Harp seals, for example, bask in the sun when they are cold, a strategy also employed by polar bears. Their long transparent guard hair is particularly suited to letting solar radiation pass through, allowing for its optimum absorption by the bears’ black skin. The polar bears’ guard hair also has another special characteristic. It absorbs the longwave heat radiated by the bears themselves. Simply put, it re-absorbs much of the heat radiated by the bears despite their thick underfur. This means that the animals lose very little heat from their body surface. However, this can also be disadvantageous, for example when the bears move swiftly. It can quickly put them at risk of overheating. This is the reason why most of the time polar bears move at a rather leisurely pace. And if they ever get too hot after all, these largest of all terrestrial Arctic predators cool down by jumping into the water. That option is not generally available to reindeer, even though they often overheat especially in winter under conditions of great exertion. At such moments, reindeer cool down the most critical parts of their brain by directing cold blood from their nasal membranes through a facial vein towards their brain. Just before reaching the brain, a heat exchange takes place with the blood flowing through the carotid artery. This mechanism ensures that only blood at normal temperature circulates in the brain while the surplus heat is distributed to the rest of the body until such time as the strain has subsided and the heat can once again be exchanged by the nasal membranes. Thermoregulation in young animalsIn the polar regions, animal offspring is born at very different times and under a variety of conditions. Nonetheless, all young animals have one thing in common – their ratio of body surface to body mass is significantly worse than that of their parents, which means that young animals suffer relatively greater heat loss. Most of them are born without fur or plumage, or if they are, then its insulating powers are not nearly as good as their parents’ coat. This is a particularly perilous situation if the young birds or mammals are wet at birth. Polar birds and mammals have developed special behaviours to ensure that their offspring have a chance at survival. Altricial species the young of which require a lot of parental support at the start, such as polar bears or lemmings, generally give birth at a protected location, such as a snow cave, den or nest. While a polar bear female is forced to fast for the first three months after giving birth because she never lets her cubs out of her sight, lemming females must leave their young at times in search of food while their pups stay behind in the burrow on their own. During this period the baby lemmings’ body temperature drops to well below 20 degrees Celsius but this does not kill them. During the first days of their lives they are surprisingly immune to cold. The older the pups are, the better they get at regulating their own body temperature. The strategies they employ include muscular heat generation (shivering), a thicker fur, or the burning of fatty acids from their brown fat, a process often described in the special literature as nonshivering or biochemical thermogenesis. Brown fatty tissue can be found in almost all newborn mammals. Its cells are significantly smaller than those of the white, insulating fatty tissue. It contains many small lipid droplets and a particularly large number of mitochondria, the cells’ power plants. The breakdown of lipids in mitochondria generates heat which enables a variety of polar mammal species to survive. - 4.10 > As can clearly be seen in this infrared image, polar bears primarily lose body heat from their noses which are only sparsely covered in fur. - In contrast, newly hatched birds are dependent on being kept warm by their parents. Antarctic procellariids (a group of seabirds including petrels and shearwaters), for example, hatch at an average temperature of minus 25 degrees Celsius on bare rock. Once the chicks are hatched, their parents must keep them warm for at least eleven days. The chicks of emperor penguins hide in their parents’ brood pouch for up to 50 days – initially that of the male, and subsequently in the female’s brood pouch when she returns from the ocean and for the first time feeds the chick food sourced at sea. Reindeer calves and ptarmigan chicks must stand on their own feet from day one. They are precocial species. Unlike penguin chicks they are born with their own protection against the cold. Ptarmigan chicks hatch with warming plumage, are strong enough to walk long distances even on their first day, and are able to maintain their body temperature by means of breast muscle shivering. Nonetheless, the little ptarmigans seek their mother’s warmth when their body temperature drops to below 35 degrees Celsius. Young reindeer and musk oxen get cold in particular when there is wind, rain or sleet. At such times their coat loses its warming traits much faster than that of their parents. The offspring primarily resorts to the burning of lipids from their brown fatty tissue in order to stay warm. Most seal pups in the polar regions must also avoid the water. They are born with a woolly and normally white covering of lanugo which only keeps them warm as long as it stays dry. Body heat generation requires energy which the offspring of mammals obtain from their mothers’ milk. The milk of species that are at home in the polar regions is particularly high in fats. In whales, seals and other marine mammals the milk’s fat content is between 40 and 50 per cent, while the milk of terrestrial species contains between ten and 20 per cent fat. (For comparison: normal cows’ milk has a fat content of roughly four per cent.) The young of different species are suckled for different lengths of time. While hooded seals nurse their pups for only two to four days, walrus calves suckle for more than a year. When food becomes scarceAnimals in the polar regions must not only deal with extreme air and water temperatures. They are also faced with the challenge that they can only find sufficient amounts of food at certain times of the year. Different species solve this problem in very different ways. Musk oxen, for example, can lower their metabolism by 30 per cent. Similar observations have been made in Arctic foxes, Arctic hares and ptarmigans. The animals also limit their movement radius in order to save energy. Reindeer on Spitsbergen spend up to 80 per cent of the day in a standing or lying position during the winter as any amount of exertion and any additional step in the snowy terrain has a price. If the animals begin to trot their energy consumption quadruples even if the herd moves at only a moderate pace of seven kilometres per hour. For this reason, most of the animals build up major fat reserves in times of plenty as something of an “insurance policy”. As early as in August, ptarmigans on Spitsbergen begin to eat anything and everything they can find. By November the birds will have gained so much weight that their layer of fat comprises 30 per cent of their bodyweight. They do however need this amount of reserves as the birds need to draw on these whenever winter weather makes it impossible for them to search for food, for example when there are heavy storms. By February the birds have generally exhausted their fat reserves. In reindeer and musk oxen the quantity of fat reserves also determines whether a female is fertile and able to produce offspring. The Arctic ground squirrel (Urocitellus parryii) is among the few polar species that sleep through the winter. Despite the fact that the squirrels’ body temperature drops down to as low as minus three degrees Celsius, their blood does not freeze and their organs and tissues are not damaged by ice crystals. To avoid death by hypothermia the animals wake up every three weeks from their state of torpor and begin to shiver for one or two days which raises their body temperature back up to 34 to 36 degrees Celsius. In the course of this process the squirrels burn a lot of fat which they had accumulated during the short summer. They then fall back into hibernation. - 4.11 > An Arctic ground squirrel is curled up in its den on a bed of moss and sleeps through the winter which can last for seven to nine months. The animals are active only during the short Arctic summer. - In polar bears, only pregnant females spend the winter in a snow den where they also give birth to their cubs. Juvenile bears and adult males are more or less active throughout the winter; after all they need to accumulate a great deal of body fat as long as the sea ice allows them access to the seal territories. Since seals moult once a year they too face a regular period of fasting. During this time the animals stop searching for food and reduce their metabolism by half. They generate body heat and kinetic energy solely by drawing on their fat reserves. In contrast, Arctic foxes and stoats do not solely rely on their accumulated body fat. They also hoard food, a task that keeps them busy from September to November. Some animals hide their kills in many different places while others store them all in one place. The biggest known hoard of an Arctic fox contained 136 seabirds which the predator had apparently taken at a breeding colony. For stoats there are reports of individual animals accumulating as many as 150 killed lemmings in winter stores. Adaptations to light conditionsOne of the polar regions’ unique characteristics is the change between long periods of daylight in summer (polar day) and long periods of darkness during the winter (polar night). In the interim periods, light conditions change so fast that in places such as Spitsbergen or in northern Greenland day-length increases or decreases by 30 minutes per day. These changes require constant behavioural adaptations on the part of the animals, as the available light not only determines the animals’ daily rhythm but also their annual calendar and thus the timing of important events such as mating, hibernation or moulting. This is true not only for organisms residing in the southern and northern polar regions but also for the animals in the rest of the world. The animals’ internal clock is regulated by means of biochemical processes which commence when information on light conditions is received by special light-sensitive neurons in the eyes’ retina. The signals are transmitted along neural pathways, first to the suprachiasmatic nucleus and subsequently to the pineal gland. The former is a nucleus within the brain; it is situated in the hypothalamus and is, just like an internal clock, responsible for controlling the circadian rhythms of mammals. The pineal gland is located at the back of the midbrain. Only during periods of darkness does it produce the hormone melatonin which is then released into the blood and the cerebrospinal fluid. This means that with decreasing night length, the amount of melatonin in the body also decreases and in turn so does its process-inhibiting impact. Simply put, melatonin synchronizes all the processes taking place in an animal’s body and adapts its internal clock to the current time of day and season. However, polar species display a special characteristic in this respect. While most animals outside of the Arctic and Antarctic are active during the day and rest at night, Arctic and Antarctic species adapt their behaviour to the current light phase. - Arctic ptarmigans are a good example. During spring and autumn when the sun rises and sets they search for food in the morning and evening, just like many other bird species. However, during the phases of constant darkness and constant brightness respectively the birds are basically searching for food around the clock except for some breaks. This same pattern of behaviour has been observed in reindeer on Spitsbergen and in Adélie penguins. Similarly, it is known that male emperor penguins do not have strikingly high levels of melatonin even during the polar night. The animals thus do not display typical diurnal rhythms during the polar day and polar night. It is easier for reindeer than for other animals to search for food even during long periods of darkness as they are able to detect light in the ultraviolet spectrum. This ability provides them with a crucial advantage. Since snow and ice largely reflect incoming ultraviolet light, the animals see the landscape as a light-coloured surface. In contrast, anything that absorbs UV light appears black to them. This includes lichens, the reindeer’s main food source during the winter. But white fur (polar bears) and the fur of wolves also only reflect a small portion of UV light. The reindeer can therefore detect potential attackers at an early stage which greatly increases their chances of survival. Scientists also assume that the UV light allows the animals to detect the texture of a snow surface, since the proportion of reflected UV light changes with the snow cover’s physical characteristics. Presumably the herds are able to see at first glance whether it is worth searching for food in a particular place, or whether they would be better off taking a little detour because the snow in a particular location is too harsh or too soft to cross. Changing colour at the start of winterThe changing light conditions also signal the start of the typical moult which gives Arctic foxes, Arctic hares, stoats and other animals their mostly grey or brown summer coat and their white winter coat. In the temperate and polar latitudes of the northern hemisphere there are 21 species of mammals and birds at present that change colour with the seasons. This means that the animals have to grow an entirely new coat or plumage twice a year. While the evolution of seasonal colour changes is not yet fully understood, presumably the species developed this ability independently of each other. Interestingly, however, different species in a region change their colour almost at the same time and hold onto their winter plumage or winter coat for a similar period, in alignment with the general local timing of the first snowfalls and the length of time the snow cover tends to persist. Species living in areas with highly variable or patchy snow cover have also adapted their coat colour to these conditions. Their winter coat or plumage contains a number of pigmented hairs or feathers and generally appears speckled whitish-brown or whitish-grey. Scientific research has been conducted into the purpose of the colour change. The results indicate that it primarily serves camouflage and thermoregulation. A white coat or plumage in winter is highly advantageous for both predators and prey. If the landscape is covered in snow, both groups are harder to be spotted by their respective adversaries. The former has greater prospects of catching food while the latter has a greater chance of survival. For this reason, scientists consider a species’ ability to camouflage themselves as being one of the primary drivers in the evolution of mammalian coat colour. - 4.12 > Rock ptarmigan, Arctic hare, stoat and Arctic fox are among the world’s 21 animal species that change the colour of their coat or plumage with the seasons. This makes it harder for both predators and prey to be spotted and increases their chances of survival. Often the winter coat or winter plumage also has better insulating properties compared to the summer coat or plumage. - However, an animal can only optically become one with its environment if the moult and the onset of snowfall or snowmelt take place more or less at the same time. If the onset of winter is delayed or if the snowmelt starts much too early in the year, the animals have the wrong coat colour and their evolutionary advantages turn into disadvantages. It is for this reason that species which change their coat colour face a greater threat to their existence from climate change than animals that maintain their coat colour. Scientists consider birds to be an exception to this rule as often their self-awareness is so strong that they notice the discrepancies between the colour of their environment and their plumage respectively and adapt their behaviour accordingly. Rock ptarmigan and white-tailed ptarmigan, for example, only rest in locations where the dominating ground colour matches that of their plumage. And researchers in Canada observed ptarmigans that deliberately dirtied their plumage when the snowmelt began too early and the birds in their clean white winter plumage were at risk of being detected too easily. Another effect of the change from summer to winter coat is that the animals improve their furs’ insulating properties. Colourless or unpigmented hair tends to be somewhat broader than pigmented hair or it contains a greater number of air-filled chambers, thus improving its insulating qualities. Additionally, the white winter coat is often longer and denser than the summer coat. This is true for the Arctic fox, the northern collared lemming (Dicrostonyx groenlandicus) and the Djungarian hamster (Phodopus sungorus). The term vascular plants is applied to all ferns and seed-producing plants, as these have internal vascular tissues which distribute resources through the plant. - Just like many other processes, the moult is triggered by changes in melatonin concentrations. When melatonin increases in the autumn, signals are transmitted to the pituitary gland which produces the growth hormone prolactin, among others. This hormone in turn regulates hair growth and other functions. When the prolactin concentration rises in the spring, collared lemmings and Arctic hares lose their winter coat and commence their search for partners. However, if the production of this hormone is suppressed, Arctic foxes, lemmings and other animals produce their light-coloured winter coat. In experimental studies, mammals whose prolactin production was suppressed kept their winter coat throughout the entire year, independent of day-length. But melatonin also inhibits the production of the pigment melanin which gives skin, feathers and eyes their colour. In animals with seasonal coat colours, a high melatonin concentration thus directly results in the growth of a white winter coat. There is less of an understanding as to how day-length and hormones regulate the moult and change of plumage in birds. In part this is due to the fact that birds have at least three “internal clocks”. Information regarding changing day-length is processed not only in the pineal gland, but also in the hypothalamus and in the eyes themselves. Moult and reproduction are coordinated such that the change in plumage does not commence before the breeding period has finished. In contrast to day-length, environmental factors such as temperature and snowfall only have a limited impact on the change in coat or plumage. Studies have shown that low autumn temperatures accelerate the growth of winter coats or plumage in mammals and birds respectively. Moreover, ptarmigans were shown in experiments to produce a darker winter plumage if they were kept at higher temperatures. In contrast, a cold spring with plenty of snow slowed down the change from winter to summer colour. The moult, however, is solely triggered by day-length. The flora of the polar regionsDespite their extreme climate, the north and south polar regions host a remarkably rich flora in places. For example, in the Arctic researchers have counted almost 100 different species of vascular plants, mosses and lichens in an area of 25 square metres, making the site examined roughly as species-rich as the most species-rich grasslands of the temperate and subtropical latitudes. Compared to tropical rainforests, however, the polar regions are indeed species-poor. This is primarily due to the low temperatures, the short growing season, the lack of nutrients, the difficulty of rooting in permafrost soils, and extreme weather events in the Arctic such as the typical spring floods. Moreover, growing conditions for plants in the polar regions are often greatly divergent between locations. On the Siberian Taymyr Peninsula, for example, a mere 500 kilometres separate the sub-Arctic with its relatively lush growth from the polar desert of the High Arctic in which only few plant species survive. The vegetated lowlands of the Low Arctic are also termed tundra. This term is derived from the word t˜undar which, in the language of the Saami, the original inhabitants of northern Scandinavia, means “a plain devoid of trees”. While in addition to grasses and vascular plants willow, birch and alder, all of which have tree relatives further south, do indeed grow in the tundra, they do not grow up high in the classic tree shape but form creeping scrub or mats just above the ground, not least in order to escape the icy winds. In the northernmost areas of Siberia, on the eastern and western coasts of Greenland, in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and in the north of Alaska the areas of tundra grade into the High Arctic with its thin vegetation cover dominated by lichens, mosses and dwarf vascular plants. To its south, the tundra is in many areas bordered by the subarctic krummholz zone consisting of climatically stunted and distorted trees. - 4.14 > Vascular plant species diversity is highest in the tropics and declines with increasing latitude. In the Arctic, the regions relatively species-rich are primarily those that were not glaciated during the past ice ages. Angiosperms and gymnosperms Angiosperms are flowering plants and are characterized by the enclosed ovary, which contains and protects the developing seeds. In contrast, gymnosperms are characterized by the unenclosed condition of their seeds. Gymnosperm seeds develop lying unattached on the surface of individual carpels. European larch and Scots pine are well-known gymnosperms. - Vascular plant species diversity in the polar regions declines with increasing proximity to the poles. In the Arctic, the current vegetation of which has only developed over the past three million years, an estimated 900 species of mosses and 2218 species of vascular plants have been identified. Almost all of the vascular plants are flowering plants (angiosperms). Gymnosperms, in contrast, are rare in the Arctic and where they occur their species diversity tends to be low. The majority of Arctic plants are considered to have a circumpolar distribution. Nonetheless there are major differences between different regions in terms of their species diversity and composition. While a mere 102 species occur in the northernmost part, the High Arctic, the southern tundra regions host more than 20 times that number of species. Approximately five per cent of Arctic vascular plants are endemic species, which means that they occur nowhere else but in the Arctic. Those species are mainly forbes and grasses. The diversity of the Arctic flora is also supported by herbivores. When researchers excluded grazing animals such as geese, lemmings, musk oxen and reindeer from certain areas as part of a study, large amounts of plant litter accumulated, insulated the soil and led to the soil not thawing to a sufficient depth in the summer. Vascular plants could no longer develop a sufficient root network and disappeared. Mosses now grew in their place. Moreover, the herbivores’ faeces provide badly needed nutrients, as nitrogen and phosphates are scarce in Arctic soils. - 4.15 > Biologists differentiate three vegetation zones in the terrestrial north polar region. The High Arctic is the northernmost zone. It borders on the tundra of the Arctic lowlands, and the tundra in turn borders on the northern margins of the boreal zone. - Compared to the Arctic, the Antarctic flora is truly species-poor. In its continental zone, defined by biologists to include the few ice-free areas of continental Antarctica and the eastern side of the Antarctic Peninsula, only a small number of 40 to 50 different species of lichens and mosses thrive. These generally grow in rock crevices or depressions between stones and mainly on dark rocky ground which absorbs most of the incoming solar energy and radiates heat. Most of these lichens are truly extreme survivalists. Even at a temperature of minus ten degrees Celsius they can still photosynthesise and survive even under conditions of strong and persistent desiccation and extreme cold. Some of the species occur even in the ice-free Antarctic dry valleys of Victoria Land. The western side of the Antarctic Peninsula and the nearby islands offer a warmer and moister climate and thus more favourable conditions for plants. In this zone, termed the maritime Antarctic, two vascular plant species can be found – Antarctic hair grass (Deschampsia antarctica) and Antarctic pearlwort (Colobanthus quitensis). The bulk of the Antarctic vegetation, however, is composed of cryptogams. Some 100 species of mosses have been recorded as well as 750 species of lichens and an estimated 700 species of terrestrial and oceanic algae. The number of fungus species has not been determined. Fighting the coldWith increasing proximity to the poles, conditions for plants deteriorate, or to put it differently, physical and chemical factors which limit plant dispersal have increasingly greater impact. These factors include, for example, the length of the growing season, the duration and intensity of frost periods, and the degree to which the plants are exposed to wind. However, the plants’ chances of survival are also linked to available resources. Whether they are in the tropics or in the polar regions, plants can only exist if their carbon budget is positive, which means they must be able to sufficiently photosynthesise in order to grow and store energy reserves in the form of glucose or starch. To this end the plants require sufficient amounts of heat, water, light, carbon dioxide and nutrients as well as oxygen. The latter is required in particular by plants growing in wetlands or swamps. The polar regions rarely offer ideal conditions for plant growth. The Arctic flora has therefore developed a range of adaptation mechanisms that allow them to tolerate conditions of nutrient deficiency, cold and darkness and to survive with little or no harm extreme events such as prolonged snowfall or spring floods. These adaptations include the following: - slow, resource-conserving growth, - a more brown than green coloration, - a squat stature, - heat-optimizing characteristics such as fine hairs or special flower shapes, - mechanisms to protect cells from frost damage, - a large number of important enzymes enabling photosynthesis even in adverse light conditions, - nutrient recycling, - major energy reserves in the root system, and - the opportunity of asexual reproduction at locations where conditions are such that sexual reproduction does not work. - 4.16 > Mosses colonizing a lava field in Iceland. The Arctic is home to some 900 species of mosses. They can mostly be found in Arctic wetlands and on snowbanks. Small is beautifulPolar plants particularly like to settle in sheltered locations where they are not exposed to the full forces of the wind, ice and cold. A second important survival strategy is to grow slowly and reduce energy consumption especially at times of low resource availability. This approach is known as the Montgomery effect, named after Edward Gerrard Montgomery, a scientist at the University of Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station (USA). When conducting experiments involving a variety of cereal cultivars he found that in locations offering low environmental resources slow growth does indeed confer ecological benefits onto plants. In the Arctic, for example, the summer and therefore the growth phase is so short that plants such as the Arctic wintergreen (Pyrola grandiflora) growing in Iceland and Greenland take several years to grow from the initial sprout to a mature plant capable of seed production. This also explains the longevity of many plants in the polar regions. - 4.17 > Alpine bistort (Polygonum viviparum) is one of the Arctic plant species that can persist underneath a snow cover for periods of more than two years. - The tiny pygmy buttercup (Ranunculus pygmaeus) is a species that has perfected prudent resource use. It often grows surrounded by mosses in the vicinity of glaciers, streams or snow drifts and survives even if it is occasionally covered by so much snow in the winter that this snow does not melt in the course of the following summer, resulting in the plant missing out on an entire cycle of growth and reproduction. Other species are so thrifty in their resource use that they can persist for even two or three years in series underneath a snow cover. These include Alpine bistort (Polygonum viviparum), mountain sorrel (Oxyria digyna) and polar willow (Salix polaris). The small and squat stature of many polar plants is not only a result of their drawn-out growth. Plants forming thick ground-covering carpets instead of having their leaves and flowers shoot upwards will escape the icy Arctic winds. The air held inside these carpets or cushions is swirled to a lesser degree and is more easily warmed by the sun. In this manner the carpeting plants create their own microclimate, the temperature of which may reach 25 to 30 degrees Celsius on summer days when the ambient temperature at a height of two metres is a mere eight degrees Celsius. The plants inside the carpet thus enjoy optimum metabolic conditions at such times. In order to grow and flower during the short and cool summer, polar plants also employ strategies which in warmer regions would lead to immediate death from heat stress. One of the strategies is coloration. Darker colours absorb a greater amount of solar radiation than lighter colours. This explains why the vegetative cover in many of the Arctic areas appears predominantly brown instead of green. This is particularly true for plant communities on Arctic beaches where the growing season is particularly short. - 4.18 > Antarctic hair grass (Deschampsia antarctica) is one of the two vascular plant species that are native to the Antarctic continent. - Moreover, plants like the glacier buttercup (Ranunculus glacialis) are able to align their leaves and flowers at an optimum angle to the sun. Its initially white flowers then function like little parabolic dishes which direct the incoming sunlight directly to the reproductive organs at the centre of the flower. This increases the air temperature inside the flower which in turn results in the reproductive organs developing at a faster rate and in the flowers attracting a greater number of insects. Following pollination the glacial buttercup closes its flowers and the petals turn red, allowing the flower to absorb a greater amount of solar radiation, the heat content of which in turn protects the seeds developing inside the flower. Other Arctic plants create their own “greenhouse”. Female polar willows (Salix arctica), for example, grow fine downy hairs on their leaves and along their inflorescences. This downy cover traps an insulating layer of air close to the leaf surface. The hairs also reduce the leaf surface area which normally would be subject to heat loss as a result of evaporative cooling. The downy hairs so efficiently protect the little willows that the temperature of the leaves may be up to eleven degrees Celsius higher than the ambient temperature. - 4.19 > The white petals of the flowers of glacier buttercups (Ranunculus glacialis) reflect sunlight towards the centre of the flowers which makes them very attractive to insects. - 4.20 > The white cotton-like plumes of cottongrass are a familiar sight in Arctic wetlands. However, these are not the flowers but only develop along with the seeds. The long perianth bristles form white tufts which also protect the seeds from the cold. - Northern plants also avoid growing their roots deep into soils where much of the ground stays frozen throughout the year and where meltwater accumulates. Instead they take root in the shallow layer of topsoil which is the first to melt in springtime and generally tends to be waterlogged only for short periods. At the end of the summer, trees and shrubs drop their needles and leaves and overwinter in a dormant bud stage. Before they go dormant, however, they cover their buds in a wool-like substance in order to protect them from the frost. Many Arctic plant species defy the freezing cold winter temperatures by moving water, among other substances, from their cells into intercellular spaces. In this manner the plants reduce the risk of ice crystals forming inside of cells and damaging these. The plants simultaneously strengthen the cell membranes with certain types of sugars and proteins; the membrane’s lipid composition also changes. Special enzymes prevent the cells from suffering damage due to dehydration. However, these cellular frost protection mechanisms are not activated year-round. They only play a role when temperatures drop at the end of summer and the plants are acclimatizing. At the height of winter most plants are so well protected from frost damage that some even survived laboratory trials as part of which they were briefly dipped into liquid nitrogen at a temperature of minus 196 degrees Celsius. However, problems arise when unusually warm periods and severe frost alternate during the winter or when normally snow-covered areas suddenly become free of snow. These kinds of conditions can damage even the hardiest of Arctic plants. Nonetheless, in most cases the plants will be able to compensate for such damage by growing new leaves and shoots in the spring. Making the most of the short summerPlants need active enzymes in order to take up carbon dioxide, to photosynthesise and to generate energy reserves in the form of glucose and starch. Cold-adapted plants of the polar regions contain a particularly high level of active enzymes. Large quantities of the enzyme RuBisCO (Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase) allow the Arctic flora to uphold metabolic activity even at lower temperatures. But even polar vascular plants cannot grow at subzero temperatures. The plants must wait for the short summer in order to develop leaves and flowers and they must be able to make optimum use of this short period. The cells of cold-adapted plants contain particularly high numbers of mitochondria which, as the cells’ “power plants”, are responsible for energy generation. With their help the plants increase their metabolism to maximum levels during the summer. Not only do they make optimum use of the 24 hours of daylight but they are also able to photosynthesise in unfavourable light conditions. This strength, however, makes the cold-adapted plants susceptible to heat stress. If the ambient temperature rises to greater than average levels, both metabolism and cellular respiration increase well beyond healthy levels. The plants then swiftly use up all their energy reserves and suffer damage. This explains why polar plants of the Arctic do not spread further south. It also highlights one of the mechanisms by which climate change poses a risk to polar plants. Rising temperatures increase the probability of cold-adapted plants succumbing to exhaustion. Searching for nutrientsSome plants actively seek out resources so as to have sufficient amounts of nutrients and light at their disposal during the short growing period. They develop small shoots or runners above or below ground which they use to tap into light and nutrient sources away from their original location that are crucial to their survival. This strategy can offer the plants clear locational advantages, as a comparison between two closely related cottongrass species has shown, both of which grow in Arctic wetlands. Common cottongrass (Eriophorum angustifolium) develops runners and actively searches for minerals, an ability that allows the plants to survive in the very wet parts of the marshes. Their runners tolerate stagnant water and allow the species to spread into flooded areas. In contrast, the hare’s-tail cottongrass (Eriophorum vaginatum) does not send out shoots into its nearby environment. It grows instead as tussocky grasses and thrives in particular in the drier locations where there might be significant water level fluctuations. The energy reserves produced by the plants by means of photosynthesis during the short summers tend not to be invested into the development of new leaves but are mostly put into subterranean storage in the form of starches in the plants’ roots. Therefore the root systems of Arctic plants are generally larger than those of plants of temperate or tropical latitudes. It makes sense for the plants to accumulate significant reserves in the north polar region with its highly variable weather conditions; there is always a possibility that they might miss out on one or even two growing periods while buried under snow, a time during which they must live on their reserves. It is for this reason that plants of the tundra such as bog-rosemary (Andromeda polifolia) store up to 75 per cent of their energy reserves in their roots. Nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are also particularly valuable to polar plants. Plants such as the dwarf birch (Bitula nana) have therefore found ways to recycle them once they have taken up and processed such elements. Shortly before the birch drops its leaves at the end of summer the plant withdraws a major proportion of the nutrients stored in these leaves back into the more permanent plant body. Hare’s-tail cottongrass employs the same mechanism; it can recycle 90 per cent of the phosphorus contained in its leaves, which means that in the springtime the plant only needs to newly take up ten per cent of its phosphorus requirements from the soil. Two ways to reproduceMost animal species rely on sexual reproduction for their species’ survival. In contrast, plants often have the option of asexual reproduction. They may form runners, branches or even seeds, with the latter being produced in the absence of classic pollination (agamospermy). These strategies have allowed several plant species at home in the Arctic to persist for centuries or even millennia, one example being Arctic sedges such as Carex ensifolia. Sexual reproduction in vascular plants may fail either because of a failure to develop flowers or because pollination could not take place. In some species the latter may be caused by even just a brief cold spell. In the northern range of the American dwarf birch (Betula glandulosa), for example, only 0.5 per cent of birch seeds germinate. In order to survive in these regions the species has no choice but to resort to asexual reproduction. In the springtime shortly after the snowmelt the tundra suddenly bursts into bloom. This spectacle is primarily caused by perennial plants. With very few exceptions there basically are no annual plant species in the polar regions. In order to develop flowers in such a short timeframe, Arctic plants need flower buds which have already been initiated in the autumn and which can immediately kick into action following the snowmelt. - 4.21 > Autumn in the Arctic: A yellowish-orange carpet of shrubby willows and dwarf birches covers this headland in the Canadian Arctic. This far north the American dwarf birch (Betula glandulosa) primarily reproduces asexually. - The many flowering plant species of the Arctic are primarily pollinated by flies, which is not very surprising as there are hardly any bees north of the polar circle. When scientists in Greenland took a closer look at the insects responsible for pollinating mountain avens (Dryas octopetala), a characteristic plant of the Arctic, they counted a total of 117 different insect species which visited the plant. However, pollination was primarily performed by a single species, a small relative of the housefly called Spilogona sanctipauli. To spend the winter in the form of a seed in the soil is a globally widespread and highly successful survival strategy of plants – this is no different in the polar regions. When scientists studied the flora of Spitsbergen they found that 71 of the 161 native plant species produced seeds in order to ensure the survival of the species. The same strategy is employed by the only two Antarctic flowering plant species. Plant seed longevity varies around the globe. While the seeds of some species persist in the soil for less than a year, some Arctic plant seeds display surprising levels of resilience. As part of scientific studies, seeds of the sedge species Carex bigelowii which were approximately 200 years old were still able to germinate; and in Alaska seeds of the small-flowered woodrush (Luzula parviflora) germinated after an estimated 175 years in the ground. If one day environmental conditions were to rapidly deteriorate, these species would therefore be in a position to persist as seeds in the soil for several decades or even centuries, and to germinate once conditions have become more favourable. Over the past two to three million years, the flora of the polar regions has displayed a remarkable capacity to survive and adapt, and especially in the Arctic a rich diversity of species has emerged. Global warming will now pose new challenges for the cold-adapted flora, and the degree to which the polar biodiversity will be able to persist is uncertain.

Coral on the Red List of Endangered Species Data from extinct species helps to improve the assessment of extinction risk The traits of coral species that have become extinct during the last few million years do not match those of coral species deemed at risk of extinction today. In a recently published article in the journal ‘Global Ecology and Biogeography’, a research team at FAU is therefore proposing that the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) revises its Red List of Threatened Species for coral. The list categorises around a third of all 845 coral species that build reefs as endangered. The Red Lists published by the IUCN are considered extremely reliable as they are compiled by leading experts who regularly investigate how species populations have developed over the course of the last few years and decades. In conjunction with other factors such as conservation efforts or foreseeable influences such as climate change, these figures reliably predict the risk posed to a species in the future. ‘Unfortunately, it is extremely difficult to identify such trends for coral populations using the data currently available,’ explains Prof. Dr. Wolfgang Kießling, Nussaïbah Raja Schoob at the Chair of Palaeoenvironmental Research (Prof. Kießling) at FAU therefore used an alternative method to investigate the extinction risk in reef coral in a collaborative project involving teams from the University of Queensland, Australia, and the University of Iowa in the USA. Schoob, who is a geoscientist, first investigated which traits the coral species on the Red List have in common. Climate change plays a significant role in the risk to this group. A similar phenomenon occurred during the last five million years when a land bridge formed between North and South America, which permanently shut down a strong ocean current from the Pacific into the Caribbean. This caused considerable changes to extremely important characteristics in the seawater such as temperature and salt content. At this time,18 species of coral disappeared from the Caribbean, and six of these species even became extinct. ‘We wanted to know which traits make coral species particularly sensitive to such significant changes and which traits improve their resilience,’ explains Nussaïbah Raja Schoob. Schoob investigated a series of parameters such as the greatest water depth at which coral is found, the temperatures their larvae tolerate, how fast coral grows and which types of algae coral form symbiotic relationships with. Using machine learning, computer programmes identified similarities in the species that disappeared from the Caribbean in the past as well as in those which survived. Artificial intelligence was then used to identify the shared traits of the coral species categorised as endangered by the IUCN. Only 18 percent of the species on the Red List matched the results of the machine learning study based on palaeoenvironmental data. ‘These results contradicted all our expectations and we were therefore very puzzled by them,’ remembers Wolfgang Kießling. The researchers reviewed their findings to identify what had caused this discrepancy. It was unlikely that data from the coral populations of the past millions of years in the Caribbean had caused the unexpected findings. ‘This data is based on facts that we can observe and measure,’ explains Wolfgang Kießling. The scientists began to wonder if the problem was related to the Red Lists data. This is where Nussaïbah Raja Schoob made a significant finding. The established and very successful system used by the IUCN to predict the risk to future populations of a species based on its population dynamics quickly reached its limits when examining reef-building coral. ‘There is hardly any data about population dynamics,’ explains Nussaïbah Raja Schoob. The IUCN had to adjust its methods and assessed the risk of extinction according to the changes in the surface area covered by coral reefs. ‘Even though this data is very important for the protection of coral reefs, which play an extremely important role for marine life they simply do not provide enough information about the risk to individual species for a very simple reason: Coral can also grow outside a reef directly on the sea floor, and this is quite common,’ explains Wolfgang Kießling. This means that there are usually still a few billion individuals of the species categorised as endangered, growing scattered on the ocean floor, which cannot simply just die off there simultaneously. ‘Our results show how important data from species that became extinct a long time ago is for assessing the risk for species that are alive today,’ explains Nussaïbah Raja Schoob. These palaeontological findings are a valuable source of data for developing the IUCN methods. Even if this means that the risk status of some coral species could be reduced, the study gives anything but the all-clear. ‘Coral reefs still continue to disappear, and with them a fantastic habitat that is very important for our oceans,’ says Wolfgang Kießling. Original article: DOI: 10.1111/geb.13321 Nussaïbah Raja Schoob Phone: +49 9131 85-23489 (English, French) Prof. Dr. Wolfgang Kießling Phone: +49 9131 85-26959 (German, English)

Gone are the days of traditional sensing, as quantum sensing ushers in a new era of innovative technology. Quantum sensing has the potential to revolutionize the way that we interact with the world, providing insights into the environment like ever before. In this article, we’ll be exploring what quantum sensing is, the impact it can make, and how it can be applied in a variety of different scenarios. So, get ready to learn – quantum sensing is here and it’s the next big thing! 1. What is Quantum Sensing? Quantum sensing is a type of technology which is used to measure and detect the smallest of particles and most complex of phenomena that occur within the universe. This technology has advanced immeasurably in the last few years and can now be used in a variety of ways, such as: - Studying complex cosmological processes – By taking advantage of quantum sensing’s precision and accuracy, we can measure the interactions and reactions between cosmic particles in an unprecedented level of detail. This helps us to understand the complex phenomena taking place in our universe. - Exploring microscopic materials – Quantum sensing aids us in understanding and exploring the science behind microscopic materials, such as silver and gold nanoparticles. This is done by magnifying the particles which allows us to measure and analyze them on an atomic level. - Researching and developing new materials – By understanding the behavior of particles on an atomic level, quantum sensing helps us to develop new types of materials which can be used in a range of applications. These are just a few of the many ways in which quantum sensing can be used. Overall, this technology is an important tool for scientists and researchers to gain a better understanding of the universe and its incredible properties. 2. What Can Quantum Sensing Do? Quantum sensing can do an array of incredible things. It has opened up the possibility of exploring new frontiers in medical science and a whole host of other research fields. Here are just some of the amazing things it can do: - Detect targets near the quantum sensors accurately and with minimal energy. - Provide highly sensitive information about the state of certain systems. - Detect unknown particles travelling intense distances. - Provide richer and more detailed data about scientific and medical phenomena. The power of quantum sensing arises from its ability to detect tiny particles and energy in complicated environments. It can thus detect electromagnetic fields beyond the range of normal instruments, or take noninvasive precise measurements of particles deep within the body. Quantum sensing is also being used to develop more sensitive climate sensors, allowing us to better understand and predict the future of our environment. 3. What is Different About Quantum Sensing? Quantum sensing is a relatively new sensing technology that relies on quantum physics principles to measure physical properties like temperature, motion, and even magnetic fields. It can be used to detect minute changes in parameters that can be used to make decisions and create feedback loops. Here are some ways that quantum sensing is different from traditional sensing methods: - Sensitivity: Quantum sensing is more sensitive than traditional sensing methods, which means it can detect smaller increments of measurement in real time. - Dynamic Range: Quantum sensing has a much larger dynamic range than traditional sensing methods, meaning it’s more accurate in its measurements. - Location: Quantum sensing can be placed in areas where traditional sensing methods wouldn’t be able to work, for example areas where temperature or motion are low. This new sensing technology is seen as a major development in the sensing industry, and researchers anticipate it being a major player in the future of sensing. The possibilities are vast, and now that quantum sensing technology has hit the market, the future of sensing looks brighter than ever. 4. What are the Benefits of Quantum Sensing? Quantum sensing offers a range of advantages over some more traditional methods of sensing. Here are some of the key benefits that quantum sensing can offer: - High sensitivity: Quantum sensors can detect extremely small changes in a range of physical parameters such as pressure, temperature, electric and magnetic fields, and motion. They are especially useful for low-level sensing applications where conventional sensing methods may not be sensitive enough. - Wide range measurements: In some cases, quantum sensors may be able to detect extremely small changes over a wide range of physical parameters. This can provide enhanced accuracy in measurement applications that require data from multiple parameters. - Long-term reliability: Quantum sensors are more reliable in comparison to other sensing methods, making them well-suited to long-term measurement operations. They also require minimal calibration, further enhancing their long-term accuracy. In addition to this, quantum sensing technology can be used in a variety of settings due to its wide usability and ability to be scaled to various levels. This makes it extremely useful for many different types of research and measurement operations. 5. What is the Future of Quantum Sensing? Quantum sensing is an emerging technology that has the potential to have a massive impact on our lives. The future of quantum sensing looks incredibly promising, and it is likely that it will revolutionize many industries in the years to come. Here are some of the ways that quantum sensing will shape the future: - Improved Sensors: Quantum sensors are more accurate than traditional sensors. This means they can sense changes in pressure, temperature, and other environmental variables more quickly and accurately. This improved sensing accuracy will allow for better control of physical and chemical processes. - Precise Data Collection: Quantum sensors collect data with much greater precision than traditional sensors. This will make it much easier to analyze data and take action on that data. This could enable a wide range of applications, from monitoring medical devices to controlling industrial processes. - Novel Applications: Quantum sensing will open up the possibilities for novel applications that are not currently possible. For example, quantum sensing could be used to detect and analyze subtle changes in gravitational fields or electric fields, which could lead to unforeseen applications. - Enhanced Security and Privacy: Quantum sensors could be used to detect unauthorized access to physical locations or data. This could provide enhanced security and privacy for government and corporate environments, as well as for individuals. - Energy Efficiency: Quantum sensors can be incredibly energy-efficient, which could lead to a reduction in energy consumption, especially in large-scale industrial processes. Overall, the future of quantum sensing looks incredibly promising. As the technology continues to improve, its applications will become more and more widespread, ultimately leading to a more efficient and secure world. We have discussed the potential of quantum sensing and the possibilities it brings to the world. From its use in medical imaging to improvements in communication technologies, quantum sensing has disseminated out of the physical realm and into other areas of our lives, bringing a new level of precision and accuracy. We can only hope that this new era ushers in a future full of technological efficiency and groundbreaking innovation.

Immature mammals require opportunities to develop skills that will affect their competitive abilities and reproductive success as adults. One way these benefits may be achieved is through play behavior. While skills in developing use of tusks, antlers, and other weapons mammals have been linked to play, play in venomous animals has rarely been studied. Javan slow lorises (Nycticebus javanicus) use venom to aid in intraspecific competition, yet whether individuals use any behavioral mechanisms to develop the ability to use venom remains unclear. From April 2012 to December 2020, we recorded 663 play events and studied the factors influencing the frequency of play and the postures used during play in wild Javan slow lorises. Regardless of the presence of siblings, two thirds of play partners of young slow lorises were older and more experienced adults. Young lorises engaged in riskier behaviors during play, including using more strenuous postures and playing more in riskier conditions with increased rain and moonlight. We found that play patterns in immature lorises bear resemblance to venom postures used by adults. We suggest that play functions to train immature lorises to deal with future unexpected events, such as random attacks, as seen in other mammalian taxa with weapons. Given the importance of venom use for highly territorial slow lorises throughout their adult lives and the similarities between venom and play postures, we cannot rule out the possibility that play also prepares animals for future venomous fights. We provide here a baseline for the further exploration of the development of this unique behavior in one of the few venomous mammals. Barrett, MegCampera, MarcoMorcatty, Thais Q.Weldon, Ariana V. Hedger, KatherineMaynard, Keely Q.Imron, Muhammad AliNekaris, K.A.I. Department of Social Sciences Year of publication: 2021Date of RADAR deposit: 2021-04-29

The poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima) is a shrub belonging to the spurge or Euphorbiaceae family. It is native to southern Mexico and Central America, where it can reach 3 metres or more. Although poinsettias never grow this large in our homes, they are the most popular decorative plants during the holiday season. While poinsettias naturally bloom around Christmas in the wild, ornamental cultivars may bloom somewhat earlier. The brightly coloured parts of a poinsettia are not the plant's flowers. They are actually bracts, or modified leaves surrounding the real flowers, which are tiny, yellow and not very showy. Poinsettias with red bracts have traditionally dominated the market, but today many different cultivars are available, offering consumers a wide range of colours and shapes, with pink, creamy white, yellow, burgundy, marbled, mottled or even wavy bracts. What is commonly called the blooming period is the time when the bracts are coloured. This period may last for over four months under suitable conditions, whereas the real flowers are short-lived. The bracts, or brightly coloured modified leaves, attract pollinating insects to a poinsettia's true flowers, which are not in themselves very showy. They are the tiny (4-5 mm) greenish-yellow buds in the centre of a bunch of 10 to 20 bracts. Poinsettias have a unique inflorescence, known as a cyathium in euphorbias. It is made up of a central female flower lacking petals of any kind, surrounded by male flowers reduced to a single stamen. This is enclosed in a cup-shaped ring of tiny incompletely fused bracts with one or more nectar glands on their sides. Poinsettias produce flowers in response to day length, a physiological phenomenon called photoperiodism. In the wild, they flower in winter, when the days are short. To begin flowering, they need short days, or rather, long nights-at least 12 to 14 hours of uninterrupted darkness per day for 7 to 10 weeks, depending on the cultivar. While the real flowers fade after fertilization, the bracts, which are actually leaves, may remain colourful for months.

How many types of lesson plans are there? There are many different types of lesson plans including: daily lesson plans, weekly lesson plans, unit lesson plans, topic or subject lesson plans, eLearning lesson plans. What are the importance of scheme of work in education? The scheme of work is usually an interpretation of a specification or syllabus and can be used as a guide throughout the course to monitor progress against the original plan. Schemes of work can be shared with students so that they have an overview of their course. How do you prepare a lesson plan and scheme of work? Create a scheme of work from scratch. - “Date” or “Lesson number”, to delineate each interval. - “Topic” (i.e. the overall subject matter of a specific unit) - “Lesson content”: a brief overview of the lesson planned, which can be broken down into sub-topics. - “Specific objectives” - “Learning Activities” What are the qualities of a good scheme of work? 7 Characteristics of a good Computing Scheme of Work - It must address the requirements laid down by the District or State or Government. - It should be appropriate but challenging. - It must be relevant. - There should be lots of opportunities for developing projects or mini-projects. - It should have built-in training opportunities. - It should be more than just a checklist. How do you format a daily lesson plan? How to Make a Lesson Plan - Know your students. Understand who you are going to educate. - Set learning objectives. A learning objective is a statement that provides a detailed description of what students will be able to do upon completing a course. - Write the objective for the lesson. - Plan your timeline. What is the relationship between scheme of work and lesson plan? A syllabus is derived from the curriculum. It is about that list of topics to be taught and learned for a specific period or programme, while scheme of work is drawn from the syllabus and broken into pieces to be taken on a termly basis. The lesson plan is a further breaking down of work to be done. What is a scheme of work and its importance? Instructional Methods: What are schemes of work and what are their importance? The scheme of work is a detailed, logical and sequential plan that interprets the syllabus into units that can be used in a teaching-learning institution. What is a lesson plan and why is it important? A lesson plan serves as a guide that a teacher uses every day to determine what the students will learn, how the lesson will be taught as well as how learning will be evaluated. Lesson plans enable teachers to function more effectively in the classroom by giving a detailed outline that they adhere to during each class. What are the functions of scheme of work? The main function of a scheme of work is to help teachers plan and sequence their lessons in advance. That way, they can make sure that all course content is taught before the school year ends, and that the National Curriculum aims are covered. How do lesson plans help students? A lesson plan is a teacher’s daily guide for what students need to learn, how it will be taught, and how learning will be measured. This ensures every bit of class time is spent teaching new concepts and having meaningful discussions — not figuring it out on the fly! What are the uses of teaching/learning materials? Teaching-Learning Materials (TLMs) are important for the teachers in teaching his/her lesson effectively as it help him/her to a better interpretation and appreciation of the concepts, contents as well as the subject matter. TLMS also enables the students to proceeds towards concrete learning. Why is it important to lesson plan? Lesson plans are also important for outlining your classroom objectives, which can help you evaluate whether or not students are on track. Outlining expectations also keeps you and your students focused and motivated throughout the lesson, says teacher Geri McClymont. What is the main purpose of designing a lesson? A lesson plan provides you with a general outline of your teaching goals, learning objectives, and means to accomplish them, and is by no means exhaustive. A productive lesson is not one in which everything goes exactly as planned, but one in which both students and instructor learn from each other. Why is teaching Modelling important? Effective modelling makes you a better teacher. Models are enablers – they are there to help students see what outcomes could/should look like. It allows your students to engage and succeed and it reduces your workload because common misconceptions are addressed as or before they arise. What is a scheme of work in teaching? A scheme of work, in short, is an overview or a long-term plan for what you aim to teach in a particular subject across a term or an academic year. Typically, a schoolteacher will need to put in place a scheme of work for each subject they will be teaching. What are the main components of scheme of work? Identify six key components of schemes of work - Scope. -how mulch content to be covered within required time. - Sequence. -The order of content drawn from the syllabus. - Objective. -what learning to be achieved the objective can be cognitively affective and psychomotor in nature. - learning activities.

Making PCBs With A Cutting Plotter Nov 18, 2023 [LudwigLabs] is creating PCBs using copper foil and a cutting plotter (vinyl cutter). In this approach, it's an additive process where instead of removing copper from a copper-clad board, the traces are cut out of copper foil and transferred to a solid backing surface (cardboard, fiberglass, etc.). While similar to the use of copper tape laid out by hand, as covered by us last year, the big advantage of using a cutting plotter is that it allows one to create much more complicated traces similar to those you would expect to see on a factory-made PCB. Since cutting plotters translate a 2D design into very precise movements of the cutting blade, this allows for sharp angles and significantly thinner traces, allows designs from EDA software like KiCad or Altium to be quickly translated to physical boards. Enterprising hackers might consider the possibility of using this approach to make two-sided, and even multi-layered boards. The copper is produced separately from the substrate which opens up the potential for using uncommon materials like glass or paper to host the circuits. The main limitations are the transferring of (very delicate) copper structures and creating vias without damaging the traces. As a comparison with traditional PCB fab processes, the photo exposure and etching (or laser exposure and etching) process requires the creation of masks, UV exposing a board, etching, cleaning and so on. The simplicity of copper foil traces has led to many experimenting with this approach. Would you want to use this additive process, or are there refinements or alterations you would make?

Wet processing encompasses all the cleaning and sorting steps necessary for seeds from wet seeded crops to be ready for storage. That includes soaking, fermentation, rinsing, and decanting techniques – the latter being important as it will help to separate the viable seeds from the ones that are not. The seeds are usually extracted by scrapping out the inside flesh of the fruit (endocarp) using a spoon. The quality of seeds–especially in cucurbits–can be increased by harvesting the fruit after it reaches edibility and leaving it on the crop for several days or weeks to mature further. This will also soften the endocarp material in the seed cavity where it will easily separate from the seeds upon cleaning. Depending on the circumstances, the fruits might need to be harvested before the seeds are fully mature and stored away in a dry, well-aerated place to protect them against damage or disease. The seeds will then continue to ripen inside the fruits during their storage. Depending on the crop’s characteristics, your situation, and the volume of seeds that needs to be cleaned, one technique might be more suitable than another. Regardless of the method used, cleaned seeds should always be dried in thin layers (half a centimeter) on a hard, non-sticky surface (plate, tray, plywood or window screen should be preferred, as paper towel, cardboard or cloth will make seeds difficult to remove), in a moderately warm and well-aerated environment, out of direct sunlight (as it can detrimentally alter the viability of the seeds and, in some cases, induce dormancy), and stirred regularly to ensure even drying. This process can be speeded up by using fans. A label can be placed over each drying tray in order to remember which seeds are which. Alternatively, seeds can be dried outside, provided they are placed in a shaded location with good air circulation. Soaking is an easy cleaning step aiming to loosen the pulp clinging to the seeds. The seeds and pulp are simply placed inside a container filled with water and left to soak for 8 to 12 hours. The pulp will then seem easier to separate from the seeds, which will facilitate any subsequent cleaning steps. Besides helping to further loosen the pulpy residue from the seeds, fermentation will be particularly useful when cleaning tomato or cucumber seeds as it will remove the germination-inhibiting gel covering them and destroy some potential pathogens. This process is akin to what can be observed in nature where fruits fall on the ground, start to rot and ferment, allowing the seeds inside to germinate (provided the environmental conditions are right). To ferment, place the seeds and pulp in a jar or container. Water should only be added if the mixture is too thick to stir or not liquid enough as it might potentially encourage sprouting. The jar must then be placed in a warm environment (at around 25-30°C) and left 48 to 72 hours to ferment depending on the temperature and seed variety. The mixture should be stirred two to three times a day, which will aerate it and encourage further the fermentation process. In the event a layer of white mold appears on the surface (a normal and harmless occurrence), it can be stirred back in the mixture. The jar should be closely monitored for any seed sprouting, which might indicate that the seeds have been soaked for too long and potentially damaged. The fermentation process is considered complete when all the gel around the seeds has dissolved. This can be checked throughout the process by removing a small sample of the mixture. When ready, the seeds are then cleaned by decanting or rinsing them. Seeds can be rinsed by simply using a colander or strainer while passing them under pressurized water. The separation of the pulp can be facilitated by rubbing the seeds against the screen of the colander with the help of your hand. The holes must be large enough for the pulp to go through while retaining the seeds. However, cleaning seeds by only using this technique does not remove non-viable seeds. Decanting is particularly useful, as it will help to separate the pulp and lightweight, less viable seeds from the good and heavy ones. This process will greatly facilitate the sorting of seeds by removing the ones that will not germinate well. Before decanting, the seeds can be quickly rinsed to remove much of the pulp. To decant, place the seeds and pulp in a jar and filled with four times the volume of the mixture. Stir, then wait for the mixture to settle at the bottom of the jar. Good seeds will tend to sink and stay at the bottom while less viable ones will float on the surface. Those can then be easily removed by using a colander or scooped with your hand, along with any other debris and pulp residue. Stir again several times to ensure that no lightweight seeds are left. When the water if fairly clear, pour the seeds into a strainer and rinse. Specific harvesting and processing techniques for each crop are discussed in Section VII. Header photo credit: Chiot’s Run (CC BY-NC 2.0)

In the acoustic process, the sheer energy from the sounds played or sung into the recording horn caused the diaphragm to vibrate which in turn caused the stylus to cut into the disc or cylinder. The best early records were of such penetrating sounds as whistlers, military bands, and certain vocal and instrumental soloists. A singer stood three to four inches from the horn and on high notes moved back, or was pushed back by the engineer, to minimize vibrations. For the same reason, a handkerchief was often lowered in front of the horn when a cornet soloist, four to six feet away, hit high notes. For accompaniments, the upright piano was elevated about three feet with its back as close to the horn as possible. crowded around the horn, with the louder brass players on bleachers at the rear. Because stringed instruments didn't carry well, scores were often rearranged - bassoons substituting for cellos; tubas for double basses; and stroh "violins" for the Meeting the growing demand for recordings was a problem. In the early 1890s, it was possible to duplicate cylinder recordings only by repeating the performance. Even with three machines recording at a time, for instance, a singer had to repeat a single section 30 times to produce even ninety copies. By 1902, however, Edison had begun to mass-produce molded cylinders. Mass production was simpler for disc manufacturers: Copies were easily stamped from a matrix made from the wax master.

Why is it possible to drown a common house plant and yet there are plants that grow gleefully in water? The common Yellow Pond-lily has a beautiful bloom and large, heart-shaped floating leaves (nearly 18-inches in length). The bloom is nearly 4-inches and held just above the water surface in spring through early fall. The Yellow Pond-lily has developed a specialized type of underwater tissue that helps it survive. This tissue, called aerenchyma, facilitates the underwater movement of large amounts of oxygen and other gasses. This tissue holds eight times the amount of oxygen, compared to a house plant. Respiration in water lily-type plants is anaerobic (meaning the process occurs without oxygen). Many ponds and slow-moving waters where it grows are often low oxygen. This respiration process creates ethanol (a type of alcohol) within the plant’s cells. This alcohol is poisonous to the plant. To get rid of the alcohol quickly, the plant evaporates it up through the aerenchyma cells and bloom. The pretty yellow blooms smell strongly of alcohol which attract pollinating flies, and create a small bottle-shaped tuber to store sugars in (explains the common European name of ‘Bandy-bottle’). Yellow Pond lilies have been used in traditional medicines remedies. There are warnings related to tannins and selecting materials from a clean water source (see the Natural Medicinal Herbs website at http://www.naturalmedicinalherbs.net/herbs/n/nuphar-lutea=yellow-water-lily.php). Note: Not all varieties or parts of the Yellow Pond-lily are edible or appropriate for use. The Edible Wild Food website (http://www.ediblewildfood.com/yellow-water-lily.aspx) reports that the Yellow Pond-lily was a common food source for many Native people. Natives leached the rootstocks collected in the spring and winter of tannins and boiled or roasted for flour. Seeds were often cooked like popcorn. Flowers can make a refreshing drink. The National Park Service reports Yellow-Pond lily species ‘Nuphar polysepalum’ growing in the Denali National Park/Preserve lowlands in Alaska. When cooked, this variety is also tasty (see Denali National Park, Alaska, https://www.nps.gov/dena/learn/nature/pondlily.htm). Where to find it Yellow Pond Lilies grow in a wide variety of aquatic habitats as far south as Baja California, and north into Alaska. Habitat ranges from hot desert ponds to ponds frozen more than half of the year! Propagate Yellow Pond Lilies through seed or division and will grows in containers! For more information, see Plants for a Future at https://pfaf.org/user/Default.aspx. Image is Royalty free from free-images.com.

In this chapter, we will discuss how to add formula to a table in Word. Microsoft Word allows you to use mathematical formula in table cells which can be used to add numbers, to find the average of numbers, or find the largest or the smallest number in table cells you specify. There is a list of formulae that you can choose from based on the requirements. This chapter will teach you how to use formulas in word tables. Table of contents Start your formula with an equal sign, and then type your function, such as AVERAGE, COUNT, or PRODUCT. In the parentheses, add the position of the cells you want to use for the formula. Use the positions ABOVE, BELOW, LEFT, and RIGHT. Depending on where the cells are in relation to the formula, you can also combine positions. For example, you can use LEFT, RIGHT for cells to the left and right, or LEFT, ABOVE for cells to the left and above the cell. How To Add Formula To A Table In Word Here are some easy steps for adding a formula to a table cell in a Word document. - Step 1: First, click the tab that says Layout. Click “Formula” in the Data section on the right side of the ribbon. - Step 2: This will bring up a Formula Dialog Box with a default formula, which in our case is =SUM(LEFT). Using the Number Format List Box, you can choose how to show the result. Using the Formula List Box, you can change the formula. - Step 3: Click OK to use the formula. - You’ll see that the above cells have been added together and the total has been put in the total cell, where we wanted it. You can do the same thing again to get the sum of the other two rows. List of Cell Formulae You can Use The table shows the Formula dialog box that provides the following important functions to be used as formulas in a cell. |The average of a list of cells |The number of items in a list of cells |The largest value in a list of cells |The smallest value in a list of cells |The multiplication of a list of cells |The sum of a list of cells Word Table Formula Cell Reference The following are useful points to help you in constructing a word cell formula. |A single cell reference, |B3 or F7 |A range of cells, |A4:A9 or C5:C13 |A series of individual cells, |A3, B4, C5 |refers to all cells in the column above the current cell. |refers to all cells in the column below the current cell. |refers to all cells in the row to the left of the current cell |refers to all cells in the row to the right of the current cell In the end, we’ve learned how to add a formula to a table in Word and what those terms mean. We also know that different formulas can be used, which we can use in our document to make it look more professional and presentable. Meanwhile, if you want to learn more about working on tables, see the previous tutorial on how to resize tables and how to merge and split tables in Microsoft Word. You can browse those guides if you are having a hard time working with your tables in a document. We hope this tutorial helps you as you format your documents in MS Word.

Trade agreements are an essential part of international trade, comprising a set of rules and regulations that govern the exchange of goods and services between countries. In this article, we`ll take a closer look at the definition and role of trade agreements, and how Investopedia defines and explains them. Investopedia is a leading online source for investment education and financial news. It provides comprehensive and accessible information on a wide range of investment topics, including trade agreements. According to Investopedia, a trade agreement is a bilateral or multilateral agreement between two or more countries that outlines the terms and conditions of trade between them. The primary purpose of trade agreements is to promote trade, eliminate trade barriers, and provide a framework for resolving disputes. Investopedia notes that trade agreements can be classified into several categories based on their scope and level of integration. The simplest type of agreement is a preferential trade agreement (PTA), which reduces tariffs and quotas on certain products between two or more countries. A more comprehensive type of agreement is a free trade agreement (FTA), which eliminates most tariffs and trade barriers on goods and services between the signatory countries. Investopedia also explains that the most advanced type of trade agreement is a customs union, which involves the adoption of common external tariffs and the elimination of internal trade barriers between member countries. The European Union is the most notable example of a customs union, which has deepened economic integration among its member states. The advantages of trade agreements are numerous, as highlighted by Investopedia. They promote economic growth, create jobs, and boost consumer welfare by allowing countries to specialize in areas where they have a comparative advantage. Trade agreements also encourage innovation, as firms have access to larger markets and can leverage economies of scale to reduce costs. However, trade agreements have also been subject to criticism and controversy. Some argue that they can lead to job losses and the offshoring of industries, particularly in developed countries with high labor costs. Others claim that trade agreements can undermine regulations and standards that protect workers` rights, environmental sustainability, and public health. In conclusion, Investopedia provides a comprehensive and informative definition of trade agreements, highlighting their benefits and potential drawbacks. It also offers insights into the different types of trade agreements and their role in promoting international trade and economic growth. By understanding the fundamentals of trade agreements, investors and businesses can make informed decisions and navigate the complexities of global trade.

Social Studies (NYS K-12 Framework Common Core) Intermediate, Commencement, 9th Grade, 10th Grade, 11th Grade, 12th Grade This video, from History.com's archives, focuses on the history behind St. Patrick's Day. History of St. Patrick's Day SS.6.4 COMPARATIVE WORLD RELIGIONS (ca. 2000 B.C.E – ca. 630 C.E): Major religions and belief systems developed in the Eastern Hemisphere. There were important similarities and differences between these belief systems. SS.6.4.b.1 Students will study the belief systems of Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Confucianism by looking at where the belief system originated, when it originated, founder(s) if any, and the major tenets, practices, and sacred writings or holy texts for each. (Note: Although not within this historic period, students may also study Sikhism and other major belief systems at this point.) SS.6.4.c.2 Students will explore the influence of various belief systems on contemporary cultures and events. SS.E.2 Students will use a variety of intellectual skills to demonstrate their understanding of major ideas, eras, themes, developments, and turning points in world history and examine the broad sweep of history from a variety of perspectives. SS.E.2.2 Establishing timeframes, exploring different periodizations, examining themes across time and within cultures, and focusing on important turning points in world history help organize the study of world cultures and civilizations.

Earth Definitions for Land Surveyors Earth-centered Earth-fixed—A right-handed Cartesian coordinate system whose origin is the Earth’s center of mass. The X-axis runs through the intersection of the equator and zero longitude, the Y-axis runs along a line through the equator and perpendicular to the X-axis, and the Z-axis runs through the International Reference Pole (IRP). Earth curvature--See curvature of the Earth [SURVEYING]. Earth ellipsoid, mean-1An ellipsoidal body which has the same mass and the same rotational velocity, about the shortest axis as the Earth and the same value of the coefficient C2(-J2) in the representation of the Earth’s gravity potential by the Legendre series. 2An ellipsoidal body whose surface is at constant potential and whose four defining constants are determined by an adjustment of more than four interrelated constants. 3 That ellipsoid which most closely approximates the geoid. earthwork—1The operations connected with excavations and embankments of earth in preparing foundations of buildings, in constructing canals, railroads, highways, etc. 2 An embankment or construction made of earth. Source: NSPS “Definitions of Surveying and Related Terms“, used with permission. Part of LearnCST’s exam text bundle.

In a finding of relevance to the search for life in our solar system, researchers at the Georgia Institute of Technology, Univ. of Texas at Austin’s Institute for Geophysics and the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research have shown that the subsurface ocean on Jupiter’s moon Europa may have deep currents and circulation patterns with heat and energy transfers capable of sustaining biological life. Scientists believe Europa is one of the planetary bodies in our solar system most likely to have conditions that could sustain life, an idea reinforced by magnetometer readings from the Galileo spacecraft detecting signs of a salty, global ocean below the moon’s icy shell. Without direct measurements of the ocean, scientists have to rely on magnetometer data and observations of the moon’s icy surface to account for oceanic conditions below the ice. Regions of disrupted ice on the surface, known as chaos terrains, are one of Europa’s most prominent features. As lead author Krista Soderlund and colleagues explain online in Nature Geosciences, the chaos terrains, which are concentrated in Europa’s equatorial region, could result from convection in Europa’s ice shell, accelerated by heat from the ocean. The heat transfer and possible marine ice formation may be helping form diapirs, or warm compositionally buoyant plumes of ice that rise through the shell. In a numerical model of Europa’s ocean circulation, the researchers found that warm rising ocean currents near the equator and subsiding currents in latitudes closer to the poles could account for the location of chaos terrains and other features of Europa’s surface. Such a pattern coupled with regionally more vigorous turbulence intensifies heat transfer near the equator, which could help initiate upwelling ice pulses that create features such as the chaos terrains. “The processes we are modeling on Europa remind us of processes on Earth,” says Soderlund. A similar process has been observed in the patterns creating marine ice in parts of Antarctica. The current patterns modeled for Europa contrast with the patterns observed on Jupiter and Saturn, where bands of storms form because of the way their atmospheres rotate. The physics of Europa’s ocean appear to have more in common with the oceans of the “ice giants” Uranus and Neptune, which show signs of 3-D convection. “This tells us foundational aspects of ocean physics,” notes co-author Britney Schmidt, asst. prof. at the Georgia Institute of Technology. More importantly, adds Schmidt, if the study’s hypothesis is correct, it shows that Europa’s oceans are very important as a controlling influence on the surface ice shell, offering proof of the concept that ice-ocean interactions are important to Europa. “That means more evidence that the ocean is there, that it’s active, and there are interesting interactions between the ocean and ice shell,” says Schmidt, “all of which makes us think about the possibility of life on Europa.” Soderlund, who has studied icy satellites throughout her science career, looks forward to the chance to test her hypothesis through future missions to the Jovian system. The European Space Agency’s JUICE mission (JUpiter ICy moons Explorer) will give a tantalizing glimpse into the characteristics of the ocean and ice shell through two flyby observations. NASA’s Europa Clipper mission concept, under study, would complement the view with global measurements. Soderlund says she appreciates the chance “to make a prediction about Europa’s subsurface currents that we might know the answer to in our lifetimes—that’s pretty exciting.” Source: Georgia Institute of Technology

Federalism is not well understood by many Australians. It’s quite a difficult topic and most people tune out as soon as it’s discussed. But it is an important subject that effects each and every Australian. What it comes down to is – what services and projects do we expect Governments to provide, which Government should provide it and who should pay. This is the very essence of our democracy. How about we educate ourselves so that each of us can be involved with this topic when it comes up in the 45th Parliament. The Australian Constitution outlines our federalism. But the challenges facing Australia today are very different to the challenges that faced us when the Constitution was written. Does our federation need reform to better meet the needs of Australians in the 21st Century? What does federalism even mean? By the 1860’s what we now call Australia was made up of six British colonies. They were all self-governing (well, sort of – they were British colonies) and had two houses of Parliament, except Western Australia who did not gain the right to self-govern until 1890. Around that time the six colonies started to work on joining together and over about a decade they created our Constitution and System of Government. What they designed was our federation, whereby the British colonies gave some of their powers to an overarching Federal Government and each of the colonies became a State. The Constitution that came into effect on 1 January 1901, outlined the power sharing arrangement between the new Federal Government and the States. Most of the Federal Government’s law making powers are outlined in Section 51 of the Constitution. These powers included new and original powers that had not been previously exercised by the colonies, and old powers that were given up by the colonies. Some of these are exclusive powers and others are shared powers between the States and the Federal Government. Section 51’s 39 subsections include things such as tax, immigration, marriage, old-age pensions, trade with other countries, the post, the census, coinage, bankruptcy etc. There are a couple of other bits and pieces in other sections of the Constitution that outline Federal power, but unless it is described in the Constitution, the power was designed to remain with the States. At Federation it was pretty clear who had the power for what. Especially as many of those who helped write the Constitution were members of those early Parliaments. But over time the situation has changed and it has become less clear which level of Government has the power for what. In the Government Issues Paper 1 2014 - A Federation for Our Future describes federalism: The terms 'layer cake federalism' and 'marble cake federalism' are sometimes used to describe two different types of federalism. In layer cake federalism (also called 'coordinate federalism'), each level of government has discrete areas of responsibility separated by 'clean lines' with no overlap. However, the complexity of modern society and a modern economy and the effects of globalisation mean that all federations have significant, albeit different, levels of overlapping responsibility. The term 'marble cake federalism' describes the situation where many responsibilities are shared by the levels of government, and where governments cooperate to achieve common objectives. 'Collaborative federalism' and 'cooperative federalism' also describe this type of federalism. Almost 114 years after Federation, the Australian Federation now resembles more of a marble cake than a layer cake. There are many responsibilities that overlap between the Commonwealth and the States and Territories, with health and education as key examples. So while Australia may have started as a layer cake, over time we have become more like a marble cake (hope you know your cakes!) These days many Australians tend to think of the States as junior partners in the power sharing relationship of federation. This was definitely not the view of those who helped to craft our Constitution. Mitchell Institute education and federalism researcher Bronwyn Hinz has said: We are a federal system, it’s not boss and minions. So, should we take a look at how the relationship between the Federal Government and States functions? Do we need to more clearly define which level of Government is responsible for what? Funding Government services Most Australians expect a certain level of service from Government. This might include education, healthcare, roads, transport, police, etc. You might have other expectations. It’s often stated that we don’t care which level of Government provides the service, we just expect those services to be available. Most of the services we expect are supposed to be the domain of the State Governments, but over time these services have been funded more and more by the Federal Government. And when the Federal Government funds a service or a project, they may want some control over it. How did this happen you might say? Well, during WWII the States handed their income tax collecting power over to the Federal Government. It drastically reduced their revenues and the States have become more reliant on the Federal Government to fund their services and projects through Section 96 of the Constitution. This section allows the Federal Government to provide grants to the States on terms imposed by the Parliament: Section 96 Financial assistance to States During a period of ten years after the establishment of the Commonwealth and thereafter until the Parliament otherwise provides, the Parliament may grant financial assistance to any State on such terms and conditions as the Parliament thinks fit. And this is where some of the problems with federation occur. During the Constitutional Conventions there was some discussion that this section of the Constitution could cause the Commonwealth to become the ‘rich uncle’ for the States. The Federal Government raises the money, while the State Governments spend it. They have a cool name for this. It’s called vertical fiscal imbalance. The Federal Government provides funding grants to the States, with strings attached and because of this there is a power imbalance. The States might need certain funding for certain services, but the Federal Government may only be willing (or can only afford) to give them a certain percentage of it. This was never the intention of this section of the Constitution. The States raised their own taxes and Section 96 was meant to be a backup in the case of ‘exceptional circumstances’ where a State might have a funding shortfall. At the Constitutional conferences the discussion around this section was that it may be used to give loans to the States. The writers of the Constitution never imagined that the States would give up their revenue sources and powers. Politics and ideology can also get in the way of funding cooperation in the federation when some of the States have the opposite Government to the Federal Government. We saw this with the Gonski education plan, where two Liberal State Governments would not agree to the funding proposal from the Federal Labor party. What would federation reform involve? In 2013 the Coalition Government announced that they would launch a Reform of the Federation white paper process. It was meant to produce a discussion paper in spring 2014, a green paper in autumn 2015 and the white paper was supposed to be published in late 2015. All that was delivered was the discussion paper and a couple of issue papers, then whole process was dumped in April 2016. Earlier this year we did hear some discussion about federation reform, but the commentary didn’t really explain it as such. These topics included raising the GST, giving the States a share of income tax revenue and just in the last few weeks the splitting up of the GST has been flagged for further discussion. GST is one revenue source for the States that is not tied up in grants. They can use this revenue however they like. The GST was implemented in 2000 and it is the Federal Government that collects it and doles it out. The way that the GST is split between the States and Territories is quite complex and is done on a needs basis. Because the calculation of need are not made in real time, it means that some States (such as Western Australia at the moment) receive a lower GST return that they actually need at the time (although many commentators have pointed out that they did receive a higher GST share a few years ago when they didn’t need it). The Federal Government has posed the questions as to whether there should be a floor to limit the lowest possible amount of GST that should be returned to each State. Some in the Federal Opposition have argued that this would mean that while Western Australia might get more GST, the other States would get less. Every now and again the State Premiers meet up with the Prime Minister for a COAG (Council of Australian Governments) meeting. It’s basically a meeting of the leaders of each part of the Federation. Some of the other Federal Ministers also meet at different times with their State counterparts. For instance the COAG Energy Council met last week and the outcome was a commitment from each of the ministers to reform the energy market to meet Australia’s changing energy needs. Should we be afraid of having the hard discussions? Former Queensland State Premier Peter Beattie recently wrote a book titled Where To From Here, Australia? He believes we should fund the States properly or get rid of them. Here’s an excerpt: Australia is over-governed and one tier of government must go. That level is the states. It will not happen in my lifetime but it will happen….In a country of almost 24 million people, you don't need three levels of government….what are the key problems? The tax sharing arrangements in Australia between the Commonwealth and the states are a mess. There is no national strategy to build the nation's desperately needed infrastructure in partnership with the states, funding of education and health has become a blame game between governments, and the duplication in roles between the states and the Commonwealth is costing taxpayers billions. Peter Beattie also says that he abolished small councils and created larger amalgamated councils to pave the way for federation reform like this. Councils are currently being similarly amalgamated in New South Wales at the moment. Government leaders have been calling for a more regional approach to federation as far back as the 1970’s. Former Premier Bob Hawke thinks we would be better off without the States and John Howard has stated that if we were starting again we wouldn’t have the States. Since 1901, the changes to our federalism have been incremental. But slowly over time the States have ceded powers over to the Federal Government. Any changes we try to make now seem big and radical. What changes, if any, would you like to see to our federation?

The lymphatic system plays a prominent role in immune function, fatty acid absorption, and removal of interstitial fluid from tissues. - Describe the roles of the lymphatic system - The lymphatic system is a linear network of lymphatic vessels and secondary lymphoid organs. It is the site of many immune system functions as well as its own functions. - It is responsible for the removal of interstitial fluid from tissues into lymph fluid, which is filtered and brought back into the bloodstream through the subclavian veins near the heart. - Edema accumulates in tissues during inflammation or when lymph drainage is impaired. - It absorbs and transports fatty acids and fats as chylomicrons from the digestive system. - It transports white blood cells and dendritic cells to lymph nodes where adaptive immune responses are often triggered. - Tumors can spread through lymphatic transport. - lacteal: A lymphatic capillary that absorbs dietary fats in the villi of the small intestine. - interstitial fluid: Also called tissue fluid, a solution that bathes and surrounds the cells of multicellular animals. - white blood cell: A type of blood cell involved with an immune response. Many white blood cells (primarily lymphocytes) are transported by the lymphatic system. The lymphatic system is the site of many key immune system functions. It is important to distinguish that immune system functions can happen almost anywhere in the body, while the lymphatic system is its own system where many immune system functions take place. Besides immune system function, the lymphatic system has many functions of its own. It is responsible for the removal and filtration of interstitial fluid from tissues, absorbs and transports fatty acids and fats as chyle from the digestive system, and transports many of the cells involved in immune system function via lymph. Removal of Fluid Interstitial fluid accumulates in the tissues, generally as a result of the pressure exerted from capillaries (hydrostatic and osmotic pressure) or from protein leakage into the tissues (which occurs during inflammation). These conditions force fluid from the capillaries into the tissues. One of the main functions of the lymphatic system is to drain the excess interstitial fluid that accumulates. The lymphatic system is a blunt-ended linear flow system, in which tissue fluids, cells, and large extracellular molecules, collectively called lymph, are drained into the initial lymphatic capillary vessels that begin at the interstitial spaces of tissues and organs. They are then transported to thicker collecting lymphatics, which are embedded with multiple lymph nodes, and are eventually returned to the blood circulation through the left and right subclavian veins and into the vena cava. They drain into venous circulation because there is lower blood pressure in veins, which minimizes the impact of lymph cycling on blood pressure. Lymph nodes located at junctions between the lymph vessels also filter the lymph fluid to remove pathogens and other abnormalities. Fluid removal from tissues prevents the development of edema. Edema is any type of tissue swelling from increased flow of interstitial fluid into tissues relative to fluid drainage. While edema is a normal component of the inflammation process, in some cases it can be very harmful. Cerebral and pulmonary edema are especially problematic, which is why lymph drainage is so important. Abnormal edema can still occur if the drainage components of the lymph vessels are obstructed. Fatty Acid Transport The lymphatic system also facilitates fatty acid absorption from the digestive system. During fat digestion, fatty acids are digested, emulsified, and converted within intestinal cells into a lipoprotein called chylomicrons. Lymph drainage vessels that line the intestine, called lacteals, absorb the chylomicrons into lymph fluid. The lymph vessels then take the chylomicrons into blood circulation, where they react with HDL cholesterols and are then broken down in the liver. Immune Cell Transport In addition to tissue fluid homeostasis, the lymphatic system serves as a conduit for transport of cells involved in immune system function. Most notably, highly-specialized white blood cells called lymphocytes and antigen -presenting cells are transported to regional lymph nodes, where the immune system encounters pathogens, microbes, and other immune elicitors that are filtered from the lymph fluid. Much of the adaptive immune system response, which is mediated by dendritic cells, takes place in the lymph nodes. Lymphatic vessels, which uptake various antigens from peripheral tissues, are positively regulated by chemokines/cytokines secreted by various immune cells during inflammation. This allows antigens to enter lymph nodes, where dendritic cells can present them to lymphocytes to trigger an adaptive immune response. While the lymphatic system is important for transporting immune cells, its transport capabilities can also provide a pathway for the spread of cancer. Lymph circulation is one of the main ways that tumors can spread to distant parts of the body, which is difficult to prevent.