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Robert Henri | 1000193-5 | The Eight In 1908, Henri was one of the organizers of a landmark show entitled The Eight (after the eight painters displaying their works) at the Macbeth Galleries in New York. Besides his own works and those produced by the "Philadelphia Four" (who had followed Henri to New York by this time), three other artists who painted in a different, less realistic style—Maurice Prendergast, Ernest Lawson, and Arthur B. Davies—were included. The exhibition was intended as a protest against the exhibition policies and narrowness of taste of the National Academy of Design. The show later traveled to a number of cities from Newark to Chicago, prompting further discussion in the press about the revolt against academic art and the new ideas about acceptable subject matter in painting.
Henri was, by this point, at the heart of the group who argued for the depiction of urban life. He has given it urgency with slashing brush marks and strong tonal contrasts, learning from Winslow Homer, from Édouard Manet, and from Frans Hals".
In 1910, with the help of John Sloan and Walt Kuhn, Henri organized the Exhibition of The Independent Artists, the first nonjuried, no-prize show in the U.S., which he modeled after the Salon des Indépendants in France. Works were hung alphabetically to emphasize an egalitarian philosophy. The exhibition was very well-attended but resulted in few sales. The relationship between Henri and Sloan, both believers in Ashcan realism, was a close and productive one at this time; Kuhn would play a key role in the 1913 Armory Show. Biographer William Innes Homer writes: "Henri's emphasis on freedom and independence in art [as demonstrated in the Exhibition of Independent Artists], his rebuttal of everything the National Academy stood for, makes him the ideological father of the Armory Show." |
Robert Henri | 1000193-6 | The Armory Show, American's first large-scale introduction to European Modernism, was a mixed experience for Henri. He exhibited five paintings but, as a representational artist, he naturally understood that Cubism, Fauvism, and Futurism implied a challenge to his style of picture-making. In fact, he had cause to be worried. A man, not yet fifty, who saw himself in a vanguard was about to be relegated to the position of a conservative whose day had passed. Arthur B. Davies, an organizer of the show and a member of The Eight, was particularly disdainful of Henri's concern that the new European art would overshadow the work of American artists. On the other hand, some Henri scholars have insisted that the reputation Henri earned in later histories as an opponent of the Armory Show and of Modernism in general is unfair and vastly overstates his objections. They point out that he had a keen interest in new art and recommended that his students avail themselves of opportunities to study it. "[As] early as 1910, Henri advised students to attend an exhibition of works by Henri Matisse and two years later he urged them to see the work of Max Weber, one of the most avant-garde of American moderns."
Ireland and Santa Fe
Henri made several trips to Ireland's western coast and rented Corrymore House near Dooagh, a small village on Achill Island, in 1913. Every spring and summer for the following years he would paint the children of Dooagh. Henri's portraits of children, seen today as the most sentimental aspect of his body of work, were popular at the time and sold well. In 1924, he purchased Corrymore House. During the summers of 1916, 1917 and 1922, Henri went to Santa Fe, New Mexico to paint. He found that locale as inspirational as the countryside of Ireland had been. He became an important figure in the Santa Fe art scene and persuaded the director of the state art museum to adopt an open-door exhibition policy. He also persuaded fellow artists George Bellows, Leon Kroll, John Sloan and Randall Davey to come to Santa Fe. In 1918 he was elected as an associate member of the Taos Society of Artists. |
Robert Henri | 1000193-7 | Death and burial While traveling to the United States after visiting his summer home in Ireland in November 1928, Robert Henri suffered an attack of neuritis, which crippled his leg. The underlying cause was metastatic prostate cancer. He was hospitalized at St. Luke's Hospital in New York. Gradually he became weaker, until he died of cardiac arrest early in the morning of July 12, 1929. His illness was not generally known, and came as a surprise in art circles. Upon his death, artist and pupil Eugene Speicher said "not only was he a great painter, but ... I don't think it too much to call him the father of independent painting in this country." At his death, it was reported that he was cremated, and his ashes buried in the family vault in Philadelphia.
Influence and legacy
From 1915 to 1927, Henri was a popular and influential teacher at the Art Students League of New York. "He gave his students, not a style (though some imitated him), but an attitude, an approach, [to art]." He also lectured frequently about the theories of Hardesty Maratta, Denham Waldo Ross, and Jay Hambidge. (Henri's interest in these men, whose ideas were in fashion at the time but were not taken seriously later, has proved to be "the most misunderstood aspect of [Henri's] pedagogy"). Maratta and Ross were color theorists (Maratta manufactured his own system of synthetic pigments), while Hambidge was the author of an elaborate treatise, Dynamic Symmetry, that argued for a scientific basis for composition. Henri's philosophical and practical musings were collected by former pupil Margery Ryerson and published as The Art Spirit (1923), a book that remained in print for several decades. Henri's other students include George Bellows, Arnold Franz Brasz, Stuart Davis, Edward Hopper, Rockwell Kent, Henry Ives Cobb, Jr., Lillian Cotton, Amy Londoner, John Sloan, Minerva Teichert, Peppino Mangravite, Rufus J. Dryer, Yasuo Kuniyoshi, and Mabel Killam Day. |
Robert Henri | 1000193-8 | The significance and often formative influence of Henri as a teacher and mentor is estimable. He also was instrumental in promoting women to be artists.
In the spring of 1929, Henri was named as one of the top three living American artists by the Arts Council of New York. Henri died of cancer that summer at the age of sixty-four. He was eulogized by colleagues and former students and was honored with a memorial exhibition of seventy-eight paintings at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Forbes Watson, editor of The Arts magazine wrote, "Henri, quite aside from his extraordinary personal charm, was an epoch-making man in the development of American art."
Fittingly, among Henri's most enduring works are his portraits of his fellow painters. His 1904 full-length portrait of George Luks (in the collection of the National Gallery of Canada in Ottawa) and his 1904 portrait of John Sloan (in the collection of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, DC, formerly in the collection of The Corcoran Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.), for example, exhibit all the classic elements of his style: forceful brushwork, intense (if dark) color effects, evocation of personality (his and the sitter's), and generosity of spirit. |
Earl Little | 10004418-0 | Earl Jerome Little (born March 10, 1973) is a former American football player. He played professional football as a defensive back in the National Football League (NFL) for nine years from 1997 to 2005 with the New Orleans Saints, Cleveland Browns, and Green Bay Packers. Little played college football at the University of Miami.
Professional career |
Earl Little | 10004418-1 | New Orleans Saints Little was signed as an undrafted free agent before the 1997 NFL season. He started on special teams and was a backup cornerback. His special teams coach, Bobby April, always praised Little outstanding special teams play. During the third preseason game vs the Denver Broncos, he made a big hit and he was taken off the field because of a concussion. Little missed the last preseason game and the first three games of the 1999 season. He was released by the Saints on October 24, 1999.
Cleveland Browns
He was picked up by the Browns off Waivers from the Saints on October 26, 1999. After having an outstanding season, Little signed a three-year multimillion-dollar contract. After having three good seasons (2001–2003), the Browns rewarded him with a five-year multimillion-dollar contract. He spent six seasons with the Browns until being released on 1 April 2005.
Green Bay Packers
Little was signed as a free agent on April 15, 2005. Little pulled his hamstring on October 4, 2005 on Monday Night Football vs Carolina Panthers. He was placed on injured reserve. To make room for a roster spot, he was released on November 23, 2005. Even though he was done for the remainder of the season, Little received his full salary for the 2005 season. |
Phallic stage | 1000429-0 | In Freudian psychoanalysis, the phallic stage is the third stage of psychosexual development, spanning the ages of three to six years, wherein the infant's libido (desire) centers upon their genitalia as the erogenous zone. When children become aware of their bodies, the bodies of other children, and the bodies of their parents, they gratify physical curiosity by undressing and exploring each other and their genitals, the center of the phallic stage, in the course of which they learn the physical differences between the male and female sexes and their associated social roles, experiences which alter the psychologic dynamics of the parent and child relationship. The phallic stage is the third of five Freudian psychosexual development stages: (i) the oral, (ii) the anal, (iii) the phallic, (iv) the latent, and (v) the genital. |
Phallic stage | 1000429-1 | The Oedipus complex In the phallic stage of psychosexual development, a boy's decisive experience is the Oedipus complex describing his son–father competition for sexual possession of his mother. This psychological complex indirectly derives its name from the Greek mythologic character Oedipus, who unwittingly killed his father and sexually possessed his mother. Initially, Freud applied the Oedipus complex to the development of boys and girls alike; he then developed the female aspect of phallic-stage psychosexual development as the feminine Oedipus attitude and the negative Oedipus complex. His student–collaborator Carl Jung proposed the "Electra complex", derived from Greek mythologic character Electra, who plotted matricidal revenge against her mother for the murder of her father, to describe a girl's psychosexual competition with her mother for possession of her father.
Despite mother being the parent who primarily gratifies the child's desires, the child begins forming a discrete sexual identity — "boy", "girl" — that alters the dynamics of the parent and child relationship; the parents become the focus of infantile libidinal energy. The boy focuses his libido (sexual desire) upon his mother, and focuses jealousy and emotional rivalry against his father — because it is he who sleeps with the mother. To facilitate uniting him with the mother, the boy's id wants to kill his father (as did Oedipus), but the ego, pragmatically based upon the reality principle, knows that his father is the stronger of the two males competing to psychosexually possess the one female. Nonetheless, the fearful boy remains ambivalent about his father's place in the family, which is manifested as fear of castration by the physically greater father; the fear is an irrational, subconscious manifestation of the infantile id. |
Phallic stage | 1000429-2 | In developing a discrete psychosexual identity, boys develop castration anxiety and girls develop penis envy towards all males. The girl's envy is rooted in the biologic fact that, without a penis, she cannot sexually possess her mother as the infantile id demands. Resultantly, the girl redirects her desire for sexual union upon father. She thus psychosexually progresses to heterosexual femininity (which culminates in bearing a child) derived from earlier, infantile desires; her child replaces the absent penis. Moreover, after the phallic stage, the girl's psychosexual development includes transferring her primary erogenous zone from the infantile clitoris to the adult vagina. Freud thus considered a girl's Oedipal conflict to be more emotionally intense than that of a boy, resulting, potentially, in a woman of submissive, less confident personality.
Defense mechanisms
In both sexes, defense mechanisms provide transitory resolutions of the conflict between the drives of the Id and the drives of the Ego. The first defense mechanism is repression, the blocking of memories, emotional impulses, and ideas from the conscious mind; yet it does not resolve the id–ego conflict. The second defense mechanism is identification, by which the child incorporates, to his or her ego, the personality characteristics of the same-sex parent; in so adapting, the boy diminishes his castration anxiety, because likeness to father protects him from father's wrath as a rival for mother; by so adapting, the girl facilitates identifying with mother, who understands that, in being females, neither of them possesses a penis, and thus are not antagonists.
An unresolved fixation in the phallic stage could lead to egoism, low self esteem, flirtatious and promiscuous females, shyness, worthlessness and men that treat women with contempt. |
Decimation (punishment) | 1000390-0 | In the military of ancient Rome, decimation () was a form of military discipline in which every tenth man in a group was executed by members of his cohort. The discipline was used by senior commanders in the Roman army to punish units or large groups guilty of capital offences, such as cowardice, mutiny, desertion, and insubordination, and for pacification of rebellious legions. The procedure was an attempt to balance the need to punish serious offences with the realities of managing a large group of offenders.
Procedure
A cohort (roughly 480 soldiers) selected for punishment by decimation was divided into groups of ten. Each group drew lots (sortition), and the soldier on whom the lot of the shortest straw fell was executed by his nine comrades, often by stoning, clubbing, or stabbing. The remaining soldiers were often given rations of barley instead of wheat (the latter being the standard soldier's diet) for a few days, and required to bivouac outside the fortified security of the camp for some time.
As the punishment fell by lot, all soldiers in a group sentenced to decimation were potentially liable for execution, regardless of individual degrees of fault, rank, or distinction.
Usage
The earliest documented decimation occurred in 471 BC during the Roman Republic's early wars against the Volsci and was recorded by Livy. In an incident where his army had been scattered, consul Appius Claudius Sabinus Regillensis had the culprits punished for desertion: centurions, standard-bearers and soldiers who had cast away their weapons were individually scourged and beheaded, while of the remainder, one in ten was chosen by lot and executed.
Polybius gives one of the first descriptions of the practice in the early 3rd century BC: |
Decimation (punishment) | 1000390-1 | If ever these same things happen to occur among a large group of men... the officers reject the idea of bludgeoning or slaughtering all the men involved [as is the case with a small group or an individual]. Instead they find a solution for the situation which chooses by a lottery system sometimes five, sometimes eight, sometimes twenty of these men, always calculating the number in this group with reference to the whole unit of offenders so that this group forms one-tenth of all those guilty of cowardice. And these men who are chosen by lot are bludgeoned mercilessly in the manner described above.
The practice was also used by Alexander the Great against a corps of 6,000 men.
The practice was revived by Marcus Licinius Crassus in 71 BC during the Third Servile War against Spartacus, and some historical sources attribute part of Crassus' success to it. The total number of men killed through decimation is not known, but it varied on occasion between 1,000 from 10,000 men and 48–50 from a cohort of around 500 men. A specific instance saw 500 men selected by Crassus from the survivors of two legions which had broken and run in combat against the rebel slaves. They were divided into groups of ten, one of whom was chosen by lot regardless of actual behaviour in the battle. The nine remaining legionaries in each party were then forced to club their former comrade to death. The dual purpose intended was to stiffen discipline amongst the army at large and to demoralise the enemy.
Julius Caesar threatened to decimate the 9th Legion during the war against Pompey, but never did.
Plutarch describes the process in his work Life of Antony. After a defeat in Media: |
Decimation (punishment) | 1000390-2 | Antony was furious and employed the punishment known as "decimation" on those who had lost their nerve. What he did was divide the whole lot of them into groups of ten, and then he killed one from each group, who was chosen by lot; the rest, on his orders were given barley rations instead of wheat.
Decimation was still being practised during the time of the Roman Empire, although it was very uncommon. Suetonius records that it was used by Emperor Augustus in 17 BC and later by Galba, while Tacitus records that Lucius Apronius used decimation to punish a full cohort of the III Augusta after their defeat by Tacfarinas in AD 20. G.R. Watson notes that "its appeal was to those obsessed with nimio amore antiqui moris" – that is, an excessive love for ancient customs – and notes, "Decimation itself, however, was ultimately doomed, for though the army might be prepared to assist in the execution of innocent slaves, professional soldiers could hardly be expected to cooperate in the indiscriminate execution of their own comrades." The emperor Macrinus instituted a less harsh centesimatio, the execution of every 100th man.
According to legend, the Theban Legion, led by Saint Maurice, was decimated in the third century AD. The legion had refused, to a man, to accede to an order of the emperor, and the process was repeated until none were left. They became known as the Martyrs of Agaunum. |
Decimation (punishment) | 1000390-3 | The Eastern Roman Emperor Maurice forbade in his Strategikon the decimatio and other brutal punishments. According to him, punishments where the rank and file saw their comrades dying by the hands of their own brothers-in-arms could lead to a collapse of morale. Moreover, it could seriously deplete the manpower of the fighting unit.
Post-classical instances
16th century
The Huguenot garrison of Brouage surrendered to Royalist forces in August 1577 during the French Wars of Religion. When the 800 survivors arrived at La Rochelle the city officials, judging their surrender to have been premature, decimated them.
17th century
Von Sparr's cuirassier regiment in Gottfried Heinrich Graf zu Pappenheim's corps fled the field during the Battle of Lützen (1632) during the Thirty Years' War in Central Europe. The imperial commander, Wallenstein, appointed a court martial, which directed the execution of the officer in command, Colonel Hagen, together with Lt Col Hofkirchen, ten other officers and five troopers. They were beheaded with the sword, while two men found guilty of looting the baggage were sentenced to a less honourable death, by hanging. The remaining troopers were decimated, one in every ten cavalrymen being hanged; the others were assembled beneath the gallows, beaten, branded and declared outlaws. Their standards were burned by an executioner after the emperor's monogram had been cut from the fabric. |
Decimation (punishment) | 1000390-4 | Similarly, during the Battle of Breitenfeld (1642), near Leipzig, Colonel Madlo's cavalry regiment was the first that fled without striking a blow. This was followed by the massive flight of other cavalry units, an early turning point in the battle. It ended in a decisive victory for the Swedish Army under the command of Field Marshal Lennart Torstenson over an Imperial Army under Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria and his deputy Ottavio Piccolomini, Duke of Amalfi.
Leopold Wilhelm assembled a court-martial in Prague which sentenced the Madlo regiment to exemplary punishment. Six regiments, which had distinguished themselves in the battle, were assembled fully armed, and surrounded Madlo's regiment, which was severely rebuked for its cowardice and misconduct, and ordered to lay down its arms at the feet of General Piccolomini. When they had obeyed this command, their ensigns (flags) were torn in pieces; and the general, having mentioned the causes of their degradation, and erased the regiment from the register of the imperial troops, pronounced the sentence that had been agreed upon in the council of war, condemning the colonel, captains and lieutenants to be beheaded, the ensigns (junior officers) to be hanged, the soldiers to be decimated and the survivors to be driven in disgrace out of the army. |
Decimation (punishment) | 1000390-5 | Ninety men (chosen by rolling dice) were executed at Rokycany, in western Bohemia, now in the Czech Republic, on December 14, 1642 by Jan Mydlář (junior), the son of Jan Mydlář, the famous executioner from Prague. On the first day of the execution, the regiment's cords were broken by the executioner. On the second day, officers were beheaded and selected men hanged on the trees on the road from Rokycany to Litohlavy. Another version says that the soldiers were shot, and their bodies hanged from the trees. Their mass grave is said to be on the Black Mound in Rokycany, which commemorates the decimation to this day.
19th and 20th century
On September 3, 1866, during the Battle of Curuzu, during the Paraguayan War, the Paraguayan 10th Battalion fled without firing a shot. President Lopez ordered the decimation of the battalion, which was accordingly formed into line and every tenth man shot.
In 1914, in France, there was a case in which a company of Tunisian tirailleurs (colonial soldiers) refused an order to attack and was ordered decimated by the divisional commander. This involved the execution of ten men.
Italian general Luigi Cadorna allegedly applied decimation to underperforming units during World War I. However, the British military historian John Keegan records that his "judicial savagery" during the Battle of Caporetto took the form of the summary executions of individual stragglers rather than the formalized winnowing of entire detachments. Certainly one specific instance of actual decimation did occur in the Italian Army during the war, on May 26, 1916. This involved the execution of one in ten soldiers of a 120-strong company of the 141st Catanzaro Infantry Brigade, which had mutinied. Officers, carabinieri and non-mutinying soldiers had been killed during the outbreak. |
Decimation (punishment) | 1000390-6 | During the German Revolution of 1918–1919, 29 men from the Volksmarinedivision were executed after 300 men turned up to receive their discharge papers and back pay.
Decimation can be also used to punish the enemy. In 1918, during the Finnish Civil War, White troops, after conquering the Red city of Varkaus, summarily executed around 80 captured Reds in what became known as the Lottery of Huruslahti. According to some accounts, the Whites ordered all the captured Reds to assemble in a single row on the ice of Lake Huruslahti, selected every tenth prisoner, and executed him on the spot. The selection was not entirely random though, as some prisoners (primarily Red leaders) were specifically selected for execution and other individuals were intentionally spared.
Current usage of the word
The term decimation was first used in English to mean a tax of one-tenth (or tithe). Through a process of semantic change starting in the 17th century, the word evolved to refer to any extreme reduction in the number of a population or force, or an overall sense of destruction and ruin, not strictly in the punitive sense or to a reduction by one-tenth. Despite its history, criticism of the broader sense has been noted by some language experts, including Bryan A. Garner, H. W. Fowler, and the Lake Superior State University annual "Banished Words List" in 2008. |
David Boaz | 1000363-0 | David Douglas Boaz (; August 29, 1953 – June 7, 2024) was an American author, philosopher and editor. He was a distinguished senior fellow and the executive vice president of the Cato Institute, an American libertarian think tank. |
David Boaz | 1000363-1 | Background Boaz was born on August 29, 1953, in Mayfield, Kentucky. His father was a judge, and one of his uncles, through marriage, was Frank Stubblefield, who served as a Democratic member of the U.S. House of Representatives. Boaz studied history at Vanderbilt University from 1971 to 1975, and as a young man was involved with the Young Americans for Freedom and the College Republicans.
Career
Boaz eventually parted with the conservative movement, and worked on Ed Clark's campaigns for governor of California in 1978 and for president in 1980. Around this time, he joined the Cato Institute.
He was the author of Libertarianism: A Primer, published in 1997 by the Free Press and described in the Los Angeles Times as "a well-researched manifesto of libertarian ideas." He was also the editor of The Libertarian Reader and co-editor of the Cato Handbook for Congress (2003) and the Cato Handbook on Policy (2005). He frequently discussed on national television and radio shows such topics as education choice, the growth of government, the ownership society, his support of drug legalization as a consequence of the individual right to self-determination, a non-interventionist foreign policy, and the rise of libertarianism. Boaz said his views were informed by classical liberalism and opposed to populism. He expressed skepticism of party politics and did not join the Libertarian Party. |
David Boaz | 1000363-2 | His articles were also published in The Wall Street Journal, The Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, National Review, and Slate. He appeared on ABC's Politically Incorrect, CNN's Crossfire, NPR's Talk of the Nation and All Things Considered, Fox News Channel, BBC, Voice of America and Radio Free Europe. A graduate of Vanderbilt University, he was once the editor of The New Guard magazine and was executive director of the Council for a Competitive Economy prior to joining Cato. In 2022, he retired as executive vice president of Cato and was named a distinguished senior fellow. He continued to write and appear on television until shortly before his death.
Personal life
Boaz, who was openly gay, was with his partner, Steve Miller, for over 30 years. He was a teetotaler.
Boaz died from esophageal cancer at his home in Arlington County, Virginia, on June 7, 2024, at the age of 70.
Books
Market Liberalism: A Paradigm for the 21st Century, Editor with Edward H. Crane, 1993. .
Libertarianism: A Primer, Free Press 1997. .
The Libertarian Reader, Editor, Free Press 1997. .
The Politics of Freedom: Taking on The Left, The Right and Threats to Our Liberties, 2008. .
The Libertarian Vote: Swing Voters, Tea Parties, and the Fiscally Conservative, Socially Liberal Center, with David Kirby and Emily Ekins, 2012.
The Libertarian Mind: A Manifesto for Freedom, Simon & Schuster, 2015. |
Weis Markets | 1000261-0 | Weis Markets, Inc. (), or () doing business as Weis and stylized as weis, is an American food retailer headquartered in Sunbury, Pennsylvania. It currently operates 200 stores with over 23,000 employees in Pennsylvania, Maryland, New York, New Jersey, West Virginia, Virginia, and Delaware.
History |
Weis Markets | 1000261-1 | 20th century Weis Markets was founded as Weis Pure Foods in 1912 in Sunbury, Pennsylvania, by two brothers, Harry and Sigmund Weis. Their store has been noted as "revolutionary" since it did not operate on credit; sales were only for cash. At the time, similar stores operated on credit, allowing customers to build a tab that would be paid periodically. Cash sales were a sign of a growing working class earning steady paychecks, and they also helped lower prices by up to 25%.
Three years later, in 1915, a second Weis store opened in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.
The Weis brothers expanded the chain rapidly, opening dozens of small, in-town grocery stores throughout central Pennsylvania, ultimately peaking at 115 stores in 15 central Pennsylvania counties in 1933.
As the supermarket industry shifted to larger, self-service stores, Weis adapted the format of its stores. The company closed several corner grocery stores in Harrisburg in 1938, replacing them with their first self-service, consolidated supermarket. In newspaper ads during the 1940s, Weis referred to its stores first as Weis Super Markets, then Weis Self-Service Markets, and finally Weis Markets.
Over the next two decades, the company continued with this strategy, and it had consolidated all of its corner grocery stores into supermarkets, with 35 stores by 1955. |
Weis Markets | 1000261-2 | In the 1950s and 1960s, Weis expanded its reach, first to York and then Lancaster by 1960. Weis expanded to Maryland in July 1967, opening its first non-Pennsylvania store in Hagerstown, followed by a store in Frederick in August Its first store in the Wilkes-Barre area opened in 1967.
In November 1967, the company purchased the five-store Albany Public Markets chain based in Albany, New York, in an all-cash transaction. It operated Albany Public Markets as a subsidiary, keeping the company's management team intact. Weis closed its Albany Public Markets chain in October 1986, leasing the nine stores to Grand Union.
Weis also expanded to Western Pennsylvania, opening stores as far west as Altoona, Everett, and Philipsburg, and expanded throughout Northeastern Pennsylvania. The company purchased two regional chains in the Poconos and Lehigh Valley region: Mr. Z's, a 14-store chain of IGA supermarkets, in 1992, and King's, a six-store chain based in Hamburg, in 1994. Mr. Z's and King's were operated under separate banners for years before all stores were re-branded as Weis. The westernmost extent of Weis's expansion is along old route 220 with the two stores in Altoona, one on 7th street and one in Park Hills.
Weis's expansion into the Baltimore, market was successful, but expansions into the Washington, D.C. market were less successful. Weis opened stores in Northern Virginia before retreating from that market, first closing most of its stores in Montgomery County, Maryland, and finally closing all stores in Virginia. |
Weis Markets | 1000261-3 | Weis also expanded into North Jersey, beginning with a store opened in Newton in 1992.
21st century
In 2000, another store opened in Flanders; it closed in 2002, two years after its opening. Weis returned to Flanders in 2014, in a former A&P store adjacent to the location of its first Flanders store.
In 2009, Weis expanded into the Southern Tier of New York with the acquisition of the 11-store Giant Markets chain. Weis closed one former Giant Market in Binghamton in 2012, along with two others in 2014. Eight former Giant Markets continue to operate.
In 2012, eastern expansion continued as Weis acquired three former Genuardi's stores from Safeway, in the Philadelphia suburbs of Conshohocken, Doylestown and Norristown, on June 16. A former Superfresh store in Towson, Maryland, opened as a Weis in 2012. Weis entered central New Jersey with the purchase of a former Pathmark store in Hillsborough in August 2013.
In November 2013, Weis opened its closest store to Philadelphia following its acquisition of a former Pathmark store in Huntingdon Valley, Pennsylvania. In July 2015, Weis purchased the location and assets of Nell's Shur-fine Market from C&S Wholesale Grocers in Penn Township, York County, Pennsylvania and followed that up in October 2016 with the purchase of a second Nell's location in East Berlin, Pennsylvania. |
Weis Markets | 1000261-4 | Robert F. Weis, the son of Harry Weis, died in October 2015 at the age of 96. A philanthropist, Weis donated millions of dollars to charities, food banks, and other organizations in Sunbury, the Central Susquehanna Valley, and elsewhere. A strong supporter of Israel, he sponsored a flight of Jewish survivors of the Chernobyl disaster to make aliyah, and served as treasurer of the Sunbury chapter of the United Jewish Appeal. Weis was a member of Sunbury's Congregation Beth El and he helped found the Department of Judaic Studies at Yale University.
In May 2016, Weis Markets announced the purchase of five stores from Mars in Baltimore County, Maryland, after that chain announced it was closing all its stores. In July 2016, it was announced that Weis Markets entered into a purchase agreement with Ahold and Delhaize Group for 38 Food Lion locations in Maryland, Delaware,and Virginia as part of the divestiture of stores to gain clearance from the Federal Trade Commission for the impending Ahold/Delhaize merger.
On October 5, 2016, Weis announced the purchase of Nell's Shur-fine Market in East Berlin, Pennsylvania, from C&S Wholesale Grocers. The company completed the acquisition and conversion of the 44 stores in early November 2016. |
Weis Markets | 1000261-5 | On March 9, 2017, Weis Markets opened a store in Hampden Township, Pennsylvania, that features a pub, ice cream parlor, expanded takeout food selection, a drive-thru pharmacy, and a beer cafe selling 900 varieties of beer and 500 varieties of wine. In late September 2019, Weis acquired two Thomas' Food Market stores, one in Dallas, Pennsylvania and another in Shavertown, Pennsylvania, reopening the Dallas location under the Weis banner and closing the Shavertown location.
On July 19, 2018 Weis Markets opened a second store in Morris County NJ in the town of Randolph (where a former A&P used to operate before A&P's bankruptcy in 2015).
Legal case
The Weis supermarket located in Park Hills Plaza along U.S. Route 220 in Altoona, Pennsylvania, was the subject of a key 1960s United States Supreme Court case concerning the "public forum doctrine." The Court held that a union picket in the supermarket parcel pickup area and parking lot was permissible because the "shopping center here is clearly the functional equivalent to the business district" of a city. At the time of the picketing, the Weis store was located in Logan Valley Mall, the Park Hills Plaza was not built until the mid-1970s, at which time Weis moved across U.S. Route 220 to its current location.
Shooting
In the early hours on the morning of June 8, 2017, employees at a Weis Markets supermarket in Eaton Township, Pennsylvania, United States, were stocking and closing the store for the night. Shortly before 1:00 a.m., 24-year-old Randy Stair barricaded the exits of the store and proceeded to shoot and kill three of his co-workers before fatally shooting himself. |
Weis Markets | 1000261-6 | Banners In addition to the Weis Markets banner, the company once operated supermarkets under the King's and Mr. Z's banners. Those two banners were centered primarily in the Lehigh Valley and the Poconos, respectively, and were acquired in 1993 (Mr.Z's) and 1994 (King's). Since their acquisitions, these stores have been remodeled or replaced. In 2009, they were rebranded to the Weis banner, as was its Cressler's store in Shippensburg. In 2011, it converted its three Scot's Lo-Cost stores, a warehouse store concept, located in Montoursville, Mill Hall, and Coal Township, to the Weis banner.
At one time, the company operated a few stores as Big-Top Market, but as of 2006, no more stores exist under this banner.
Weis Markets owned a majority-stake in, and operated, a chain of pet supply warehouse stores called SuperPetz. The first SuperPetz store opened in 1991 in Dayton, Ohio. Weis Markets acquired an 80% stake in the chain in late 1993. Some stores included grooming services, dog training, and veterinary clinics. While their now-defunct website indicated they had 33 pet stores in eleven states in 2003, their footprint shrunk to only seven stores in June 2011, all of which were in Pennsylvania. None remain today.
Private brand labels
Weis Markets sells a variety of house brands under the following private brand labels:
Weis Quality (Advertised as equivalent to national brands)
Weis Organic (Organic Fruits and Vegetables)
Weis Signature (Premium)
Weis Quality Premium Meats (Deli Meat)
Paws Premium (Dog food)
TopCare (Health and Beauty Care Products)
Full Circle (Fair-Trade Certified food)
Weis 360 (Organic staples such as oatmeal and bread) |
The Valley (stadium) | 1000081-0 | The Valley is a 27,111 capacity sports stadium in Charlton, London, England and has been the home of Charlton Athletic Football Club since the 1920s, with a period of exile between 1985 and 1992. It is served by Charlton railway station, which is less than a five-minute walk away from the stadium. An alternative route is the Jubilee line; exiting at North Greenwich, and changing for route 161, 472 and 486 buses, which stop outside the stadium. |
The Valley (stadium) | 1000081-1 | History In Charlton's early years, the club had a nomadic existence using several different grounds between its formation in 1905 and the beginning of World War I in 1914. The ground dates from 1919, at a time when Charlton were moderately successful and looking for a new home. Mr Fred Barned, the club’s honorary chairman, found an abandoned sand and chalk pit in Charlton, but did not have sufficient funds to fully develop the site. An army of volunteer Charlton supporters dug out a flat area for the pitch at the bottom of the chalk pit and used the excavated material to build up makeshift stands. The ground's name most likely comes from its original valley-like appearance. The club played its first game at the ground before any seats, or even terraces, were installed; there was simply a roped-off pitch with the crowd standing or sitting on the adjoining earthworks. The unique circumstances of the ground's initial construction led to an unusually intense bond between the club's supporters and the site that exists to this day.
In the 1923–24 season, Charlton played at The Mount stadium in Catford but in a much more highly populated area. A proposed merger with Catford South End FC fell through and thus Charlton moved back to the Valley.
In 1967, Len Silver the promoter at Hackney made an application to open Charlton as a British League speedway club, and plans were put forward to construct a track around the perimeter of the football pitch. The application to include speedway at the Valley was enthusiastically supported initially, but was eventually ruled out on the grounds of noise nuisance.
For many years, the Valley was one of the largest Football League grounds in Britain, although its highest maximum capacity of 75,000 was only half the capacity of Glasgow's Hampden Park. However, Charlton's long absence from the top level of English football prevented much-needed renovation, as funds dried up and attendances fell. Charlton were relegated from the First Division in 1957 and did not return until 1986, and in 1972 were relegated to the Third Division for the first time in the postwar era. |
The Valley (stadium) | 1000081-2 | Eventually, the club's debts led to it almost going out of business in the early 1980s. A consortium of supporters successfully acquired the club in 1984, but the Valley remained under the ownership of the club's former owner. However, the club was unable to finance the improvements needed to make the Valley meet new safety requirements. Shortly after the start of the 1985–86 season, Charlton left the Valley, entering into an agreement with Crystal Palace to share the latter's Selhurst Park facilities, the first official groundsharing arrangement in the Football League in 36 years.
In 1988, the ownership of the club and the Valley was again united, and in a "grass roots" effort that harkened back to the ground's initial construction, thousands of supporters volunteered to clean the ground, eventually burning the debris in a huge bonfire on the pitch. By this time, however, the large terraces were no longer seen as desirable or safe. Charlton Athletic supporters then proposed to completely rebuild the stadium in order for Charlton to return there at the beginning of the 1990s. However, the Greenwich Borough Council overwhelmingly turned down plans to renovate the ground. Club supporters formed their own local political party, the Valley Party, in response to the council's decision. The party ran candidates for all but two Greenwich Council seats, sparing the two councillors who had approved the new stadium plans. The party won almost 15,000 votes in the 1990 local elections, successfully pressuring the council to approve the plans for the new stadium. |
The Valley (stadium) | 1000081-3 | In 1991, construction began on the new Valley, and the club moved from Selhurst Park to West Ham's Upton Park. It was originally hoped that the club would return to the stadium before Christmas that year, but the re-opening of the stadium faced a series of delays before finally opening in December 1992. Since then, the ground itself has undergone some remarkable changes. The north, east and west sides of the ground have almost been completely rebuilt, giving the ground a capacity of over 27,000 by December 2001, when Charlton were in the second season of a stay in the FA Premier League which would last for seven seasons. The club had ambitions to extend the ground's capacity to over 40,000 by expanding the east side and completely rebuilding the south side, but these plans were abandoned after Charlton were relegated from the Premier League in 2007.
In 2004 the Unity Cup was held at the Valley with Nigeria winning the competition.
Charlton's former owner Roland Duchâtelet retained ownership of The Valley after selling the football club in 2020; subsequent owner Thomas Sandgaard negotiated a lease for the club to use the stadium until January 2035.
On 24 September 2022, the Valley held a charity match hosted by the YouTube group Sidemen against other major YouTube personalities who formed the YouTube All-Stars, most notably Darren Watkins, also known as IShowSpeed, with Mark Clattenburg as the match referee. The match, the Sidemen's third one at the Valley, ended 8-7 for the Sidemen and raised over £1,000,000 split between the Teenage Cancer Trust, CALM, Rays of Sunshine and M7 Education charities. |
The Valley (stadium) | 1000081-4 | In March 2024, Charlton announced their intention to build a safe standing area which will be completed over the summer. Additional to this, the club had worked worked alongside the Charlton Athletic Supporters Trust to implement one of the UK's first 'Youth Specific Sections' for fans. In 2024, it was also announced a new hybrid pitch will be installed as part of a six-figure investment by the club's owners and a £750,000 grant from the Premier League Stadium Fund. As part of the investment, the Charlton women's team will also play all of their home matches at The Valley for the first time. Their first match at The Valley took place on 28 April 2024, ending in a 2–0 victory against Southampton in front of 985 fans.
Stands
The Covered End
Capacity: 9,743
The North Stand was built as a replacement for the 'covered end', and is still called by this name. It was built during the 2001–02 season as part of the developments to bring the Valley's capacity to 26,500 after promotion to the Premier League in 2000. The North Stand houses the most vocal supporters in the ground in particular the upper tier alongside a drum, along with restaurants and executive suites.
A safe standing area will be installed in the Covered End Upper ahead of Charlton's 2024-25 season, it will have a capacity of 1,064. The club has also received provisional permission to install a safe standing area in the Covered End Lower.
Alan Curbishley Stand |
The Valley (stadium) | 1000081-5 | Capacity: 5,802 The East Stand was constructed during the 1993–94 season and fully completed in 1994. As part of the first development to the ground since the return in 1992, it replaced the massive east terrace, which had remained closed and prohibited from use since the mid-1980s after the Bradford City stadium fire. The East Stand consists of a single tier of seats and houses the television gantry, and also has numerous executive boxes. Occasionally, for FA and League Cup matches, part of the East Stand is used to house away supporters if the demand for away team tickets is high. On 9 April 2021, the club announced that from the start of 2021–22 season, the stand would be renamed to the Alan Curbishley Stand in honour of the former player and manager, and to celebrate the 30th anniversary of when Curbishley was appointed manager of the club - a role he held from 1991 to 2006.
West Stand
Capacity: 8,097
The West Stand was built in 1998 after Charlton's first promotion to the Premier League and is also two tiered. This is the main stand at the Valley with the largest capacity, and also houses the club's offices, as well as the director's box, board room dug-outs, changing rooms and the commercial centre (ticket office). There are also many conferencing rooms in this stand which are used for official and community events. There is a large statue of Sam Bartram, (considered to be Charlton's finest player) at the entrance of the West Stand.
Jimmy Seed Stand |
The Valley (stadium) | 1000081-6 | Capacity: 3,469 The Jimmy Seed (or South) Stand is the oldest part of the ground, and dates from the early 1980s. This stand is named after Charlton's manager, Jimmy Seed (1895–1966) – with whom Charlton won the FA Cup in 1947. This stand has a capacity of around 3,000 and hosts the away supporters at games. It is also the only part of the Valley with a supporting pillar.
Details
Records
Loudest rock concert ever: The Who, 31 May 1976 – 126 db, measured at a distance of from the speakers
Record attendance: 75,031 v. Aston Villa, 12 February 1938 (FA Cup Fifth Round)
Record league attendance: 68,160 v. Arsenal, 17 October 1936 (Football League First Division) - (Arsenal won, 2-0, and Denis Compton scored one goal)
Record all-seater attendance: 27,111 v Chelsea, 17 September 2005; v. Tottenham Hotspur, 1 October 2005; v. Liverpool, 16 December 2006; v. Chelsea, 3 February 2007; v West Ham United, 24 February 2007; v. Sheffield United, 21 April 2007 (all Premier League)
Average attendances
The Valley's highest average attendance came in the 1948–49 season when crowds averaged 40,216, making Charlton one of only thirteen clubs in English football to achieve a seasonal average of 40,000+. The Valley's lowest average attendance is 5,108 from the 1984–85 season.
Highest
Lowest
Average attendance for every season since 1993–94, the first full season since Charlton returned to the Valley.
*Last 5 home matches played behind close doors due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
**Due to the COVID-19 pandemic all home matches were played behind closed doors except for two matches which had limited crowds. |
Johann Heinrich von Thünen | 1000450-0 | Johann Heinrich von Thünen (24 June 1783 – 22 September 1850), sometimes spelled Thuenen, was a prominent nineteenth-century economist and a native of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, now in northern Germany.
Even though he never held a professorial position, von Thunen had substantial influence on economics. He has been described as one of the founders of agricultural economics and economic geography. He made substantial contributions to economic debates on rent, land use, and wages.
Early life
Von Thunen was born on June 24, 1783 on his father's estate Canarienhausen. His father was from an old feudal family. Von Thunen lost his father at the age of two. His mother remarried a merchant and the family moved to Hooksiel.
Von Thunen expected to take over his father's estate, which led him to study practical farming. In 1803, von Thunen published his first economic ideas.
Von Thunen was influenced by Albrecht Thaer.
Von Thunen married in 1806.
Work
Model of agricultural land use |
Johann Heinrich von Thünen | 1000450-1 | Thünen was a Mecklenburg landowner, who in the first volume of his treatise The Isolated State (1826), developed the first serious treatment of spatial economics and economic geography, connecting it with the theory of rent. The importance lies less in the pattern of land use predicted than in its analytical approach.
Thünen developed the basics of the theory of marginal productivity in a mathematically rigorous way, summarizing it in the formula in which
where R = land rent; Y = yield per unit of land; c = production expenses per unit of commodity; p=market price per unit of commodity; F = freight rate (per agricultural unit, per mile); m=distance to market.
Thünen's model of agricultural land, created before industrialization, made the following simplifying assumptions:
The city is located centrally within an "Isolated State."
The Isolated State is surrounded by wilderness.
The land is completely flat and has no rivers or mountains.
Soil quality and climate are consistent.
Farmers in the Isolated State transport their own goods to market via oxcart, across land, directly to the central city. There are no roads.
Farmers behave rationally to maximize profits.
The use which a piece of land is put to is a function of the cost of transport to market and the land rent a farmer can afford to pay (determined by yield, which is held constant here). |
Johann Heinrich von Thünen | 1000450-2 | The model generated four concentric rings of agricultural activity. Dairying and intensive farming lies closest to the city. Since vegetables, fruit, milk and other dairy products must get to market quickly, they would be produced close to the city.
Timber and firewood would be produced for fuel and building materials in the second ring. Wood was a very important fuel for heating and cooking and is very heavy and difficult to transport so it is located close to the city.
The third zone consists of extensive fields crops such as grain. Since grains last longer than dairy products and are much lighter than fuel, reducing transport costs, they can be located further from the city.
Ranching is located in the final ring. Animals can be raised far from the city because they are self-transporting. Animals can walk to the central city for sale or for butchering.
Beyond the fourth ring lies the wilderness, which is too great a distance from the central city for any type of agricultural product.
Thünen's rings proved especially useful to economic history, such as Fernand Braudel's Civilization and Capitalism, untangling the economic history of Europe and European colonialism before the Industrial Revolution blurred the patterns on the ground. |
Johann Heinrich von Thünen | 1000450-3 | In economics, Thünen rent is an economic rent created by spatial variation or location of a resource. It is "that which can be earned above that which can be earned at the margin of production".
Natural wage
In the second volume of his great work The Isolated State, Thunen developed some of the mathematical foundations of marginal productivity theory and wrote about the Natural Wage indicated by the formula , in which equals the value of the product of labor and capital, and equals the subsistence of the laborer and their family. The idea he presented is that a surplus will arise on the earlier units of an investment of either capital or labor, but as time goes on the diminishing return of newer investments will mean that if wages vary with the level of productivity those that are early will receive a greater reward for their labor and capital. But if wage rates were determined using his formula, thus giving labor a share that will vary as a geometric mean: the square root of the joint product of the two factors, and .
This formula was so important to him that it was a dying wish of his that it be placed on his tombstone.
In The Isolated State, he also coined the term Grenzkosten (marginal cost) which would later be popularized by Alfred Marshall in his Principles of Economics. |
Trabzon Province | 1000368-0 | Trabzon Province () is a province and metropolitan municipality of Turkey on the Black Sea coast. Its area is 4,628 km2, and its population is 818,023 (2022). Located in a strategically important region, Trabzon is one of the oldest trade port cities in Anatolia. Neighbouring provinces are Giresun to the west, Gümüşhane to the southwest, Bayburt to the southeast and Rize to the east. Aziz Yıldırım was appointed Governor of the province in August 2023. The capital of the province is Trabzon.
Districts
Trabzon province is divided into 18 districts:
Districts along the 114 km coastline (from west to east): Beşikdüzü, Vakfıkebir, Çarşıbaşı, Akçaabat, Ortahisar, Yomra, Arsin, Araklı, Sürmene and Of.Districts inland: Tonya, Düzköy, Şalpazarı, Maçka, Köprübaşı, Dernekpazarı, Hayrat and Çaykara.
Beşikdüzü and Şalpazarı gained district status in 1988, Çarşıbaşı, Düzköy, Köprübaşı, Dernekpazarı and Hayrat in 1990. The district Ortahisar was created from the former central district of Trabzon Province at the 2013 Turkish local government reorganisation. |
Trabzon Province | 1000368-1 | History Remarkably attractive throughout its history, Trabzon was the subject of hundreds of travel books by western travellers, some of whom had named it "city of tale in the East." The capital city Trabzon was founded, as Trapezus, by Greek colonists from Sinope, modern Sinop, Turkey. Starting from the 9th century BC, the city had also been mentioned by historians such as Homeros, Herodotus, Hesiodos. The first written source regarding Trabzon is Anabasis, authored by Xenophon.
An important Roman and Byzantine centre, it was the capital of the Empire of Trebizond from 1204 to 1461. Trabzon was subsequently made part of the Ottoman Empire by Mehmet the Conqueror. After the region was conquered in 1461, the Fatih Medrese (1462), Hatuniye Medrese (1515), İskender Pasha Medrese (1529) and Hamza Pasha Medrese (1543) were established as important medreses (educational centers; some of them within külliye complexes) of the period. It was initially a sanjak before gaining the status of eyalet, and finally became a vilayet in 1868.
The province was a site of major fighting between Ottoman and Russian forces during the Caucasus Campaign of World War I, which resulted in the capture of the city of Trabzon by the Russian army under command of Grand Duke Nicholas and Nikolai Yudenich in April 1916. The province was restored to Turkish control in early 1918 following Russia's exit from World War I with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. |
Trabzon Province | 1000368-2 | In Turkey In September 1935 the third Inspectorate General (Umumi Müfettişlik, UM) was created. Its creation was based on the Law 1164 from June 1927, which was passed in order to Turkefy the population. The Trabzon province was included in this area. The third UM span over the provinces of Erzurum, Artvin, Rize, Trabzon, Kars, Gümüşhane, Erzincan and Ağrı. It was governed by an Inspector General seated in the city of Erzurum. The Inspectorate General was dissolved in 1952 during the Government of the Democrat Party.
Archaeology
In April 2021, archaeologists announced the discovery of Roman and Byzantine period archeological remains in the Ortahisar district. The southern part of the wicker columns and fortifications of the Roman emperor Hadrian's period, trench walls of Byzantine period dating back to 1460 have been discovered. Remains of Roman tiles and pottery were also discovered during the excavations. According to the Trabzon City Municipality, the excavation area is planned to be turned into an open-air museum.
Attractions
Hagia Sophia of Trabzon
Trabzon Castle
Kalepark
Sümela Monastery
Kuştul Monastery
Kaymaklı Monastery
Vazelon Monastery
Kızlar Monastery
Fatih Mosque
Yeni Cuma Mosque
Nakip Mosque
İskender Pasha Mosque
Lake Uzungöl
Pontic Mountains
Saint Michael Church, also known as 'Saint Joseph Kilisesi', Akçaabat, Ortamahalle. |
Sara (Starship song) | 10004751-0 | "Sara" is a song recorded by the American rock band Starship which reached number-one on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart on March 15, 1986. It was sung by Mickey Thomas, of the newly renamed band Starship, from their first album Knee Deep in the Hoopla, and Grace Slick provided the backing vocals.
The recording became one of the best-selling singles of 1986 in North America. It was the band's second number-one hit after the song "We Built This City" hit that mark a few months earlier in 1985. It also became the band's first number-one song on the adult contemporary chart, where it remained for three weeks. Although written by Peter and Ina Wolf, the song was named for Sara (née Kendrick), Thomas's wife at the time.
Reception
Cash Box called it a "melodic ballad [that] has a biting rock edge led by Mickey Thomas' riveting vocal" and said it has "an ethereal chorus and shy guitars." |
Sara (Starship song) | 10004751-1 | In a retrospective review from 2020, Stereogums Tom Breihan wrote that while "'We Built This City' gets all the hate", "Sara" is "even shittier", calling it a "bad, boring '80s song, and it's pretty easy to forget its existence entirely."
Music video
The music video for "Sara" featured Thomas, and actress Rebecca De Mornay as the song's titular character, in a storyline about the ending of a relationship, set on a Dust Bowl farm in the Midwest, with frequent flashbacks to what is presumably the Thomas character's childhood, and the tornado that wrecked his home and took the life of his beloved mother. It was filmed, not in the Midwest, but at an old farm residence located in west Lancaster, CA. It ends with a panoramic view of the farm, with Thomas walking down the dirt road Sara (De Mornay) has driven away on, with another dust cloud closing in. The flashback portions of the music video were set in the 1950s and directed by Francis Delia.
Personnel
Mickey Thomas – lead vocals
Grace Slick – backing vocals
Craig Chaquico – lead guitar
Peter Sears – bass synth
Donny Baldwin – electronic drums
Additional personnel
Peter Wolf – keyboards, synthesizers, LinnDrum programming
Charts
Weekly charts |
Emil Kraepelin | 10002-0 | Emil Wilhelm Georg Magnus Kraepelin (; ; 15 February 1856 – 7 October 1926) was a German psychiatrist. H. J. Eysenck's Encyclopedia of Psychology identifies him as the founder of modern scientific psychiatry, psychopharmacology and psychiatric genetics.
Kraepelin believed the chief origin of psychiatric disease to be biological and genetic malfunction. His theories dominated psychiatry at the start of the 20th century and, despite the later psychodynamic influence of Sigmund Freud and his disciples, enjoyed a revival at century's end. While he proclaimed his own high clinical standards of gathering information "by means of expert analysis of individual cases", he also drew on reported observations of officials not trained in psychiatry.
His textbooks do not contain detailed case histories of individuals but mosaic-like compilations of typical statements and behaviors from patients with a specific diagnosis. He has been described as "a scientific manager" and "a political operator", who developed "a large-scale, clinically oriented, epidemiological research programme". |
Emil Kraepelin | 10002-1 | Family and early life Kraepelin, whose father, Karl Wilhelm, was a former opera singer, music teacher, and later successful story teller, was born in 1856 in Neustrelitz, in the Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz in Germany. He was first introduced to biology by his brother Karl, 10 years older and, later, the director of the Zoological Museum of Hamburg.
Education and career
Kraepelin began his medical studies in 1874 at the University of Leipzig and completed them at the University of Würzburg (1877–78). At Leipzig, he studied neuropathology under Paul Flechsig and experimental psychology with Wilhelm Wundt. Kraepelin would be a disciple of Wundt and had a lifelong interest in experimental psychology based on his theories. While there, Kraepelin wrote a prize-winning essay, "The Influence of Acute Illness in the Causation of Mental Disorders".
At Würzburg he completed his Rigorosum (roughly equivalent to an MBBS viva-voce examination) in March 1878, his Staatsexamen (licensing examination) in July 1878, and his Approbation (his license to practice medicine; roughly equivalent to an MBBS) on 9 August 1878. From August 1878 to 1882, he worked with Bernhard von Gudden at the University of Munich.
Returning to the University of Leipzig in February 1882, he worked in Wilhelm Heinrich Erb's neurology clinic and in Wundt's psychopharmacology laboratory. He completed his habilitation thesis at Leipzig; it was entitled "The Place of Psychology in Psychiatry". On 3 December 1883 he completed his umhabilitation ("rehabilitation" = habilitation recognition procedure) at Munich. |
Emil Kraepelin | 10002-2 | Kraepelin's major work, Compendium der Psychiatrie: Zum Gebrauche für Studirende und Aerzte (Compendium of Psychiatry: For the Use of Students and Physicians), was first published in 1883 and was expanded in subsequent multivolume editions to Ein Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie (A Textbook: Foundations of Psychiatry and Neuroscience). In it, he argued that psychiatry was a branch of medical science and should be investigated by observation and experimentation like the other natural sciences. He called for research into the physical causes of mental illness, and started to establish the foundations of the modern classification system for mental disorders. Kraepelin proposed that by studying case histories and identifying specific disorders, the progression of mental illness could be predicted, after taking into account individual differences in personality and patient age at the onset of disease.
In 1884, he became senior physician in the Prussian provincial town of Leubus, Silesia Province, and the following year he was appointed director of the Treatment and Nursing Institute in Dresden. On 1 July 1886, at the age of 30, Kraepelin was named Professor of Psychiatry at the University of Dorpat (today the University of Tartu) in what is today Tartu, Estonia (see Burgmair et al., vol. IV). Four years later, on 5 December 1890, he became department head at the University of Heidelberg, where he remained until 1904. While at Dorpat he became the director of the 80-bed University Clinic, where he began to study and record many clinical histories in detail and "was led to consider the importance of the course of the illness with regard to the classification of mental disorders".
In 1903, Kraepelin moved to Munich to become Professor of Clinical Psychiatry at the University of Munich.
In 1908, he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. |
Emil Kraepelin | 10002-3 | In 1912, at the request of the DVP (Deutscher Verein für Psychiatrie; German Association for Psychiatry), of which he was the head from 1906 to 1920, he began plans to establish a centre for research. Following a large donation from the Jewish German-American banker James Loeb, who had at one time been a patient, and promises of support from "patrons of science", the German Institute for Psychiatric Research was founded in 1917 in Munich. Initially housed in existing hospital buildings, it was maintained by further donations from Loeb and his relatives. In 1924 it came under the auspices of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society for the Advancement of Science. The German-American Rockefeller family's Rockefeller Foundation made a large donation enabling the development of a new dedicated building for the institute along Kraepelin's guidelines, which was officially opened in 1928.
Kraepelin spoke out against the barbarous treatment that was prevalent in the psychiatric asylums of the time, and crusaded against alcohol, capital punishment and the imprisonment rather than treatment of the insane. For the sedation of agitated patients, Kraepelin recommended potassium bromide. He rejected psychoanalytical theories that posited innate or early sexuality as the cause of mental illness, and he rejected philosophical speculation as unscientific. He focused on collecting clinical data and was particularly interested in neuropathology (e.g., diseased tissue). |
Emil Kraepelin | 10002-4 | He also firmly rejected the assumption of natural difference in relation to homosexuality, which he regarded as a vice caused by masturbation. In 1918 he called for "educational discipline" such as those introduced by the Nazi party after 1933: severe punishments for the crime of 'corruption' (seduction), applicable to any act related to sexual gratification. This extended the anti-gay policy of the time, which only punished sexual intercourse between men. These ideas eventually went on to lend legitimacy to Nazi policies that persecuted gay people, allowing the Nazi party to do so under the guise of conforming to scientific opinions. His work legitimized the persecution and inhumane treatment of gay people in Nazi Germany.
In the later period of his career, as a convinced champion of social Darwinism, he actively promoted a policy and research agenda in racial hygiene and eugenics.
Kraepelin retired from teaching at the age of 66, spending his remaining years establishing the institute. The ninth and final edition of his Textbook was published in 1927, shortly after his death. It comprised four volumes and was ten times larger than the first edition of 1883.
In the last years of his life, Kraepelin was preoccupied with Buddhist teachings and was planning to visit Buddhist shrines at the time of his death, according to his daughter, Antonie Schmidt-Kraepelin.
Theories and classification schemes
Kraepelin announced that he had found a new way of looking at mental illness, referring to the traditional view as "symptomatic" and to his view as "clinical". This turned out to be his paradigm-setting synthesis of the hundreds of mental disorders classified by the 19th century, grouping diseases together based on classification of syndrome—common patterns of symptoms over time—rather than by simple similarity of major symptoms in the manner of his predecessors. |
Emil Kraepelin | 10002-5 | Kraepelin described his work in the 5th edition of his textbook as a "decisive step from a symptomatic to a clinical view of insanity. . . . The importance of external clinical signs has . . . been subordinated to consideration of the conditions of origin, the course, and the terminus which result from individual disorders. Thus, all purely symptomatic categories have disappeared from the nosology".
Psychosis and mood
Kraepelin is specifically credited with the classification of what was previously considered to be a unitary concept of psychosis, into two distinct forms (known as the Kraepelinian dichotomy):
manic depression (although commonly presented as synonym with bipolar disorder that is inaccurate; manic depressive illness encompasses a broader spectrum of mood disorders such as bipolar disorder and recurrent major depression, and
dementia praecox.
Drawing on his long-term research, and using the criteria of course, outcome and prognosis, he developed the concept of dementia praecox, which he defined as the "sub-acute development of a peculiar simple condition of mental weakness occurring at a youthful age". When he first introduced this concept as a diagnostic entity in the fourth German edition of his Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie in 1893, it was placed among the degenerative disorders alongside, but separate from, catatonia and dementia paranoides. At that time, the concept corresponded by and large with Ewald Hecker's hebephrenia. In the sixth edition of the Lehrbuch in 1899 all three of these clinical types are treated as different expressions of one disease, dementia praecox. |
Emil Kraepelin | 10002-6 | One of the cardinal principles of his method was the recognition that any given symptom may appear in virtually any one of these disorders; e.g., there is almost no single symptom occurring in dementia praecox which cannot sometimes be found in manic depression. What distinguishes each disease symptomatically (as opposed to the underlying pathology) is not any particular (pathognomonic) symptom or symptoms, but a specific pattern of symptoms. In the absence of a direct physiological or genetic test or marker for each disease, it is only possible to distinguish them by their specific pattern of symptoms. Thus, Kraepelin's system is a method for pattern recognition, not grouping by common symptoms.
It has been claimed that Kraepelin also demonstrated specific patterns in the genetics of these disorders and patterns in their course and outcome, but no specific biomarkers have yet been identified. Generally speaking, there tend to be more people with schizophrenia among the relatives of schizophrenic patients than in the general population, while manic depression is more frequent in the relatives of manic depressives. Though, of course, this does not demonstrate genetic linkage, as this might be a socio-environmental factor as well.
He also reported a pattern to the course and outcome of these conditions. Kraepelin believed that schizophrenia had a deteriorating course in which mental function continuously (although perhaps erratically) declines, while manic-depressive patients experienced a course of illness which was intermittent, where patients were relatively symptom-free during the intervals which separate acute episodes. This led Kraepelin to name what we now know as schizophrenia, dementia praecox (the dementia part signifying the irreversible mental decline). It later became clear that dementia praecox did not necessarily lead to mental decline and was thus renamed schizophrenia by Eugen Bleuler to correct Kraepelin's misnomer. |
Emil Kraepelin | 10002-7 | In addition, as Kraepelin accepted in 1920, "It is becoming increasingly obvious that we cannot satisfactorily distinguish these two diseases"; however, he maintained that "On the one hand we find those patients with irreversible dementia and severe cortical lesions. On the other are those patients whose personality remains intact". Nevertheless, overlap between the diagnoses and neurological abnormalities (when found) have continued, and in fact a diagnostic category of schizoaffective disorder would be brought in to cover the intermediate cases.
Kraepelin devoted very few pages to his speculations about the etiology of his two major insanities, dementia praecox and manic-depressive insanity. However, from 1896 to his death in 1926 he held to the speculation that these insanities (particularly dementia praecox) would one day probably be found to be caused by a gradual systemic or "whole body" disease process, probably metabolic, which affected many of the organs and nerves in the body but affected the brain in a final, decisive cascade.
Psychopathic personalities
In the first through sixth edition of Kraepelin's influential psychiatry textbook, there was a section on moral insanity, which meant then a disorder of the emotions or moral sense without apparent delusions or hallucinations, and which Kraepelin defined as "lack or weakness of those sentiments which counter the ruthless satisfaction of egotism". He attributed this mainly to degeneration. This has been described as a psychiatric redefinition of Cesare Lombroso's theories of the "born criminal", conceptualised as a "moral defect", though Kraepelin stressed it was not yet possible to recognise them by physical characteristics. |
Emil Kraepelin | 10002-8 | In fact from 1904 Kraepelin changed the section heading to "The born criminal", moving it from under "Congenital feeble-mindedness" to a new chapter on "Psychopathic personalities". They were treated under a theory of degeneration. Four types were distinguished: born criminals (inborn delinquents), pathological liars, querulous persons, and Triebmenschen (persons driven by a basic compulsion, including vagabonds, spendthrifts, and dipsomaniacs).
The concept of "psychopathic inferiorities" had been recently popularised in Germany by Julius Ludwig August Koch, who proposed congenital and acquired types. Kraepelin had no evidence or explanation suggesting a congenital cause, and his assumption therefore appears to have been simple "biologism". Others, such as Gustav Aschaffenburg, argued for a varying combination of causes. Kraepelin's assumption of a moral defect rather than a positive drive towards crime has also been questioned, as it implies that the moral sense is somehow inborn and unvarying, yet it was known to vary by time and place, and Kraepelin never considered that the moral sense might just be different.
Kurt Schneider criticized Kraepelin's nosology on topics such as Haltlose for appearing to be a list of behaviors that he considered undesirable, rather than medical conditions, though Schneider's alternative version has also been criticised on the same basis. Nevertheless, many essentials of these diagnostic systems were introduced into the diagnostic systems, and remarkable similarities remain in the DSM-5 and ICD-10. The issues would today mainly be considered under the category of personality disorders, or in terms of Kraepelin's focus on psychopathy. |
Emil Kraepelin | 10002-9 | Kraepelin had referred to psychopathic conditions (or "states") in his 1896 edition, including compulsive insanity, impulsive insanity, homosexuality, and mood disturbances. From 1904, however, he instead termed those "original disease conditions, and introduced the new alternative category of psychopathic personalities. In the eighth edition from 1909 that category would include, in addition to a separate "dissocial" type, the excitable, the unstable, the Triebmenschen driven persons, eccentrics, the liars and swindlers, and the quarrelsome. It has been described as remarkable that Kraepelin now considered mood disturbances to be not part of the same category, but only attenuated (more mild) phases of manic depressive illness; this corresponds to current classification schemes.
Alzheimer's disease
Kraepelin postulated that there is a specific brain or other biological pathology underlying each of the major psychiatric disorders. As a colleague of Alois Alzheimer, he was a co-discoverer of Alzheimer's disease, and his laboratory discovered its pathological basis. Kraepelin was confident that it would someday be possible to identify the pathological basis of each of the major psychiatric disorders.
Eugenics
Upon moving to become Professor of Clinical Psychiatry at the University of Munich in 1903, Kraepelin increasingly wrote on social policy issues. He was a strong and influential proponent of eugenics and racial hygiene. His publications included a focus on alcoholism, crime, degeneration and hysteria. |
Emil Kraepelin | 10002-10 | Kraepelin was convinced that such institutions as the education system and the welfare state, because of their trend to break the processes of natural selection, undermined the Germans' biological "struggle for survival". He was concerned to preserve and enhance the German people, the Volk, in the sense of nation or race. He appears to have held Lamarckian concepts of evolution, such that cultural deterioration could be inherited. He was a strong ally and promoter of the work of fellow psychiatrist (and pupil and later successor as director of the clinic) Ernst Rüdin to clarify the mechanisms of genetic inheritance as to make a so-called "empirical genetic prognosis".
Martin Brune has pointed out that Kraepelin and Rüdin also appear to have been ardent advocates of a self-domestication theory, a version of social Darwinism which held that modern culture was not allowing people to be weeded out, resulting in more mental disorder and deterioration of the gene pool. Kraepelin saw a number of "symptoms" of this, such as "weakening of viability and resistance, decreasing fertility, proletarianisation, and moral damage due to "penning up people" [Zusammenpferchung]. He also wrote that "the number of idiots, epileptics, psychopaths, criminals, prostitutes, and tramps who descend from alcoholic and syphilitic parents, and who transfer their inferiority to their offspring, is incalculable". He felt that "the well-known example of the Jews, with their strong disposition towards nervous and mental disorders, teaches us that their extraordinarily advanced domestication may eventually imprint clear marks on the race". Brune states that Kraepelin's nosological system "was, to a great deal, built on the degeneration paradigm". |
Emil Kraepelin | 10002-11 | Influence Kraepelin's great contribution in classifying schizophrenia and manic depression remains relatively unknown to the general public, and his work, which had neither the literary quality nor paradigmatic power of Freud's, is little read outside scholarly circles. Kraepelin's contributions were also to a large extent marginalized throughout a good part of the 20th century during the success of Freudian etiological theories. However, his views now dominate many quarters of psychiatric research and academic psychiatry. His fundamental theories on the diagnosis of psychiatric disorders form the basis of the major diagnostic systems in use today, especially the American Psychiatric Association's DSM-IV and the World Health Organization's ICD system, based on the Research Diagnostic Criteria and earlier Feighner Criteria developed by espoused "neo-Kraepelinians", though Robert Spitzer and others in the DSM committees were keen not to include assumptions about causation as Kraepelin had.
Kraepelin has been described as a "scientific manager" and political operator, who developed a large-scale, clinically oriented, epidemiological research programme. In this role he took in clinical information from a wide range of sources and networks. Despite proclaiming high clinical standards for himself to gather information "by means of expert analysis of individual cases", he would also draw on the reported observations of officials not trained in psychiatry. The various editions of his textbooks do not contain detailed case histories of individuals, however, but mosaiclike compilations of typical statements and behaviors from patients with a specific diagnosis. |
Emil Kraepelin | 10002-12 | Kraepelin wrote in a knapp und klar (concise and clear) style that made his books useful tools for physicians. Abridged and clumsy English translations of the sixth and seventh editions of his textbook in 1902 and 1907 (respectively) by Allan Ross Diefendorf (1871–1943), an assistant physician at the Connecticut Hospital for the Insane at Middletown, inadequately conveyed the literary quality of his writings that made them so valuable to practitioners.
Among the doctors trained by Alois Alzheimer and Emil Kraepelin at Munich at the beginning of the 20th century were the Spanish neuropathologists and neuropsychiatrists Nicolás Achúcarro and Gonzalo Rodríguez Lafora, two distinguished disciples of Santiago Ramón y Cajal and members of the Spanish Neurological School.
Dreaming for psychiatry's sake
In the Heidelberg and early Munich years he edited Psychologische Arbeiten, a journal on experimental psychology. One of his own famous contributions to this journal also appeared in the form of a monograph (105 pp.) entitled Über Sprachstörungen im Traume (On Language Disturbances in Dreams). Kraepelin, on the basis of the dream-psychosis analogy, studied for more than 20 years language disorder in dreams in order to study indirectly schizophasia. The dreams Kraepelin collected are mainly his own. They lack extensive comment by the dreamer. In order to study them the full range of biographical knowledge available today on Kraepelin is necessary (see, e.g., Burgmair et al., I-IX). |
L.A.M.B. | 1000407-0 | L.A.M.B. is a fashion line by American singer Gwen Stefani, the lead vocalist of the rock band No Doubt. The line manufactures apparel and fashion accessories. It was founded in 2003 and made its runway debut in 2004. The line's name is an acronym of Stefani's debut solo album Love. Angel. Music. Baby. As of 2015, the line currently focuses on eyewear. |
L.A.M.B. | 1000407-1 | The line was influenced by a variety of cultures fashions, including Guatemalan, Japanese, Indian and Jamaican styles. Stefani came from a family of seamstresses. This further inspired her to launch her own fashion line. The line achieved popularity among celebrities and was worn by stars such as Teri Hatcher, Nicole Kidman, Paris Hilton and Stefani herself. The fashion line made a runway debut in the spring collection of 2004 and achieved mainstream success at New York Fashion Week in 2005. An additional fashion line, called Harajuku Lovers, was subsequently launched by Stefani.
History
Stefani first came face to face with designing clothes when she and her mother would sew clothes for themselves when she was young. Stefani comes from a long line of seamstresses, as even her great-grandmother would sew clothes. Stefani made most of the things she wore onstage during concerts. When she became successful and began to tour constantly, she felt she lost her way. Then she met the stylist Andrea Lieberman. Lieberman introduced her to ready-to-wear clothing. Later Lieberman became her creative consultant and Zaldy Goco took over as the head designer. Goco parted ways with L.A.M.B. in 2007.
L.A.M.B. started out as a collaboration with LeSportsac in 2003. The name L.A.M.B. is an acronym which stands for Love. Angel. Music. Baby., which is also the name of Stefani's first solo album.
Products
The fashion line manufactures clothes, shoes, bags and a fragrance called "L". The brand started out as a line for women but claims the track items are unisex. The clothes were manufactured by Ska Girl LLC, which was founded in 2003 by Ken Erman, president of L.A.M.B. |
L.A.M.B. | 1000407-2 | The eyewear collection launched in January 2016. It won 3 of 20/20 - Vision Monday Reader's Choice awards: Frame Brand Introduced 2016, Sunglass Brand Introduced 2016 & Frame Brand – Women.
L.A.M.B joined with Royal Elastics for the shoe line. Stefani then started to widen the footwear line for adults to include boots and stilettos. L.A.M.B collaborated with Coty Inc. for the fragrance and with LeSportsac for handbags in 2003. Stefani went on to design a new line of handbags with Shifter and Partners in 2006. The bags feature LeSportsac's rip-stop nylon along with a variety of antiqued metal hardware, leather trims and colorful linings. Stefani planned to design lingerie as well as make-up products for L.A.M.B. L.A.M.B. partnered with Vestal Group on a line of 39 women's watches.
L.A.M.B. products were relatively expensive, with apparel priced $55 to $1100, handbags priced $80 to $825, and watches priced $125 to $995.
Fragrance
Coty Inc. announced a global licensing agreement with Stefani, to develop and market fragrances for L.A.M.B.
The fragrance called "L" was launched in September 2007 at Soho House in New York City. Stefani worked with perfumer Harry Fremont to develop the scent. Stefani described the fragrance as "it's another thing you can wear and another thing I can be part of creatively. I created it for myself -- it's like me shrunk into a box." |
L.A.M.B. | 1000407-3 | Promotion and fashion shows Stefani frequently referred to her clothing line in her music, as one of the brand's promotional strategies. Stefani refers to her clothing line in her songs "Wind It Up," "Harajuku Girls," and "Crash" (which even incorporates the brand's slogan, "I want you all over me like L.A.M.B."). Stefani is often seen wearing her own designs, especially when making public appearances. A thirty-second commercial directed by Sophie Muller was also released to promote the brand's fragrance.
L.A.M.B. had participated in the Spring/Summer 2006, 2007, and 2008 New York Fashion Weeks. Stefani described her first line, which debuted on September 16, 2005, as "a little Sound of Music, some Orange County chola girl, some Rasta, and a bit of The Great Gatsby." The highlights of the show were purple cars bouncing using hydraulics while Stefani's song "Wind It Up" made its debut as the models walked the runway.
For Spring/Summer 2007, Stefani opted for a presentation rather than a catwalk show. The models, all donning identical blond wigs, wore designs Stefani said were inspired by Michelle Pfeiffer's role as Elvira Hancock in the 1983 Scarface. The show included some of Stefani's trademark tracksuits and extensively referenced prints from Guatemala, India, and Japan. On September 5, 2007, L.A.M.B opened New York's Spring/Summer 2008 Mercedes-Benz Fashion Week. The collection "looked like the sixties as seen by someone who grew up in the eighties" and incorporated influences from Stefani's ska roots. |
L.A.M.B. | 1000407-4 | Critical reception The line was mostly well received by critics and Stefani was appreciated for taking fashion seriously even though she is a celebrity. Fern Mallis of IMG praised the line and Stefani as well and said, "the L.A.M.B. line is clearly at the top of these lines and is as unique and individual as Gwen herself." The shoes were well received by the critics, though considered to be pricey. Desiree Stimpert of About.com said, " ... these shoes aren't for everyone, but will most definitely appeal to fans of Ms. Stefani's music and fashion - sense." Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly said, "L.A.M.B.'s embellished tracksuits, Rasta-inspired knits, and gaucho-heel combos deliver the edge" Nicole Phelps of Style.com said, "The collection, which looked like the sixties as seen by someone who grew up in the eighties, was altogether more wearable and on trend." Fashion journalist Cathy Horyn of The New York Times differed and said, "If ever there was a reason for a pop star to concentrate on her vocal skills, it was Gwen Stefani's fashion meltdown."
Commercial success
The brand was sold in 275 stores worldwide and was seen worn on celebrities including Teri Hatcher, Nicole Kidman, Kelly Ripa, Paris Hilton, and Stefani herself. L.A.M.B sales had expanded from $40 million in 2005 to a predicted $90 million in 2006. In March 2008, it was reported the line reached sales of $100 million. According to a Nordstrom spokesperson, the debut of L.A.M.B.'s watch line was the store's most successful watch launch ever. The brand's designs have appeared in W, Marie Claire, Elle, Lucky and InStyle. |
Military engineering | 100034-0 | Military engineering is loosely defined as the art, science, and practice of designing and building military works and maintaining lines of military transport and military communications. Military engineers are also responsible for logistics behind military tactics. Modern military engineering differs from civil engineering. In the 20th and 21st centuries, military engineering also includes CBRN defense and other engineering disciplines such as mechanical and electrical engineering techniques.
According to NATO, "military engineering is that engineer activity undertaken, regardless of component or service, to shape the physical operating environment. Military engineering incorporates support to maneuver and to the force as a whole, including military engineering functions such as engineer support to force protection, counter-improvised explosive devices, environmental protection, engineer intelligence and military search. Military engineering does not encompass the activities undertaken by those 'engineers' who maintain, repair and operate vehicles, vessels, aircraft, weapon systems and equipment."
Military engineering is an academic subject taught in military academies or schools of military engineering. The construction and demolition tasks related to military engineering are usually performed by military engineers including soldiers trained as sappers or pioneers. In modern armies, soldiers trained to perform such tasks while well forward in battle and under fire are often called combat engineers.
In some countries, military engineers may also perform non-military construction tasks in peacetime such as flood control and river navigation works, but such activities do not fall within the scope of military engineering. |
Military engineering | 100034-1 | Etymology The word engineer was initially used in the context of warfare, dating back to 1325 when engine’er (literally, one who operates an engine) referred to "a constructor of military engines". In this context, "engine" referred to a military machine, i. e., a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a catapult).
As the design of civilian structures such as bridges and buildings developed as a technical discipline, the term civil engineering entered the lexicon as a way to distinguish between those specializing in the construction of such non-military projects and those involved in the older discipline. As the prevalence of civil engineering outstripped engineering in a military context and the number of disciplines expanded, the original military meaning of the word "engineering" is now largely obsolete. In its place, the term "military engineering" has come to be used.
History
In ancient times, military engineers were responsible for siege warfare and building field fortifications, temporary camps and roads. The most notable engineers of ancient times were the Romans and Chinese, who constructed huge siege-machines (catapults, battering rams and siege towers). The Romans were responsible for constructing fortified wooden camps and paved roads for their legions. Many of these Roman roads are still in use today. |
Military engineering | 100034-2 | The first civilization to have a dedicated force of military engineering specialists were the Romans, whose army contained a dedicated corps of military engineers known as architecti. This group was pre-eminent among its contemporaries. The scale of certain military engineering feats, such as the construction of a double-wall of fortifications long, in just 6 weeks to completely encircle the besieged city of Alesia in 52 B.C.E., is an example. Such military engineering feats would have been completely new, and probably bewildering and demoralizing, to the Gallic defenders. Vitruvius is the best known of these Roman army engineers, due to his writings surviving.
Examples of battles before the early modern period where military engineers played a decisive role include the Siege of Tyre under Alexander the Great, the Siege of Masada by Lucius Flavius Silva as well as the Battle of the Trench under the suggestion of Salman the Persian to dig a trench.
For about 600 years after the fall of the Roman empire, the practice of military engineering barely evolved in the west. In fact, much of the classic techniques and practices of Roman military engineering were lost. Through this period, the foot soldier (who was pivotal to much of the Roman military engineering capability) was largely replaced by mounted soldiers. It was not until later in the Middle Ages, that military engineering saw a revival focused on siege warfare. |
Military engineering | 100034-3 | Military engineers planned castles and fortresses. When laying siege, they planned and oversaw efforts to penetrate castle defenses. When castles served a military purpose, one of the tasks of the sappers was to weaken the bases of walls to enable them to be breached before means of thwarting these activities were devised. Broadly speaking, sappers were experts at demolishing or otherwise overcoming or bypassing fortification systems.
With the 14th-century development of gunpowder, new siege engines in the form of cannons appeared. Initially military engineers were responsible for maintaining and operating these new weapons just as had been the case with previous siege engines. In England, the challenge of managing the new technology resulted in the creation of the Office of Ordnance around 1370 in order to administer the cannons, armaments and castles of the kingdom. Both military engineers and artillery formed the body of this organization and served together until the office's successor, the Board of Ordnance was disbanded in 1855.
In comparison to older weapons, the cannon was significantly more effective against traditional medieval fortifications. Military engineering significantly revised the way fortifications were built in order to be better protected from enemy direct and plunging shot. The new fortifications were also intended to increase the ability of defenders to bring fire onto attacking enemies. Fort construction proliferated in 16th-century Europe based on the trace italienne design. |
Military engineering | 100034-4 | By the 18th century, regiments of foot (infantry) in the British, French, Prussian and other armies included pioneer detachments. In peacetime these specialists constituted the regimental tradesmen, constructing and repairing buildings, transport wagons, etc. On active service they moved at the head of marching columns with axes, shovels, and pickaxes, clearing obstacles or building bridges to enable the main body of the regiment to move through difficult terrain. The modern Royal Welch Fusiliers and French Foreign Legion still maintain pioneer sections who march at the front of ceremonial parades, carrying chromium-plated tools intended for show only. Other historic distinctions include long work aprons and the right to wear beards. In West Africa, the Ashanti army was accompanied to war by carpenters who were responsible for constructing shelters and blacksmiths who repaired weapons. By the 18th century, sappers were deployed in the Dahomeyan army during assaults against fortifications.
The Peninsular War (1808–14) revealed deficiencies in the training and knowledge of officers and men of the British Army in the conduct of siege operations and bridging. During this war low-ranking Royal Engineers officers carried out large-scale operations. They had under their command working parties of two or three battalions of infantry, two or three thousand men, who knew nothing in the art of siegeworks. Royal Engineers officers had to demonstrate the simplest tasks to the soldiers, often while under enemy fire. Several officers were lost and could not be replaced, and a better system of training for siege operations was required. On 23 April 1812 an establishment was authorised, by Royal Warrant, to teach "Sapping, Mining, and other Military Fieldworks" to the junior officers of the Corps of Royal Engineers and the Corps of Royal Military Artificers, Sappers and Miners. |
Military engineering | 100034-5 | The first courses at the Royal Engineers Establishment were done on an all ranks basis with the greatest regard to economy. To reduce staff the NCOs and officers were responsible for instructing and examining the soldiers. If the men could not read or write they were taught to do so, and those who could read and write were taught to draw and interpret simple plans. The Royal Engineers Establishment quickly became the centre of excellence for all fieldworks and bridging. Captain Charles Pasley, the director of the Establishment, was keen to confirm his teaching, and regular exercises were held as demonstrations or as experiments to improve the techniques and teaching of the Establishment. From 1833 bridging skills were demonstrated annually by the building of a pontoon bridge across the Medway which was tested by the infantry of the garrison and the cavalry from Maidstone. These demonstrations had become a popular spectacle for the local people by 1843, when 43,000 came to watch a field day laid on to test a method of assaulting earthworks for a report to the Inspector General of Fortifications. In 1869 the title of the Royal Engineers Establishment was changed to "The School of Military Engineering" (SME) as evidence of its status, not only as the font of engineer doctrine and training for the British Army, but also as the leading scientific military school in Europe. |
Military engineering | 100034-6 | The dawn of the internal combustion engine marked the beginning of a significant change in military engineering. With the arrival of the automobile at the end of the 19th century and heavier than air flight at the start of the 20th century, military engineers assumed a major new role in supporting the movement and deployment of these systems in war. Military engineers gained vast knowledge and experience in explosives. They were tasked with planting bombs, landmines and dynamite.
At the end of World War I, the standoff on the Western Front caused the Imperial German Army to gather experienced and particularly skilled soldiers to form "Assault Teams" which would break through the Allied trenches. With enhanced training and special weapons (such as flamethrowers), these squads achieved some success, but too late to change the outcome of the war. In early WWII, however, the Wehrmacht "Pioniere" battalions proved their efficiency in both attack and defense, somewhat inspiring other armies to develop their own combat engineers battalions. Notably, the attack on Fort Eben-Emael in Belgium was conducted by Luftwaffe glider-deployed combat engineers.
The need to defeat the German defensive positions of the "Atlantic wall" as part of the amphibious landings in Normandy in 1944 led to the development of specialist combat engineer vehicles. These, collectively known as Hobart's Funnies, included a specific vehicle to carry combat engineers, the Churchill AVRE. These and other dedicated assault vehicles were organised into the specialised 79th Armoured Division and deployed during Operation Overlord – 'D-Day'. |
Military engineering | 100034-7 | Other significant military engineering projects of World War II include Mulberry harbour and Operation Pluto.
Modern military engineering still retains the Roman role of building field fortifications, road paving and breaching terrain obstacles. A notable military engineering task was, for example, breaching the Suez Canal during the Yom Kippur War.
Education
Military engineers can come from a variety of engineering programs. They may be graduates of mechanical, electrical, civil, or industrial engineering.
Sub-discipline
Modern military engineering can be divided into three main tasks or fields: combat engineering, strategic support, and ancillary support. Combat engineering is associated with engineering on the battlefield. Combat engineers are responsible for increasing mobility on the front lines of war such as digging trenches and building temporary facilities in war zones. Strategic support is associated with providing service in communication zones such as the construction of airfields and the improvement and upgrade of ports, roads and railways communication. Ancillary support includes provision and distribution of maps as well as the disposal of unexploded warheads. Military engineers construct bases, airfields, roads, bridges, ports, and hospitals. During peacetime before modern warfare, military engineers took the role of civil engineers by participating in the construction of civil-works projects. Nowadays, military engineers are almost entirely engaged in war logistics and preparedness. |
Military engineering | 100034-8 | Explosives engineering Explosives are defined as any system that produces rapidly expanding gases in a given volume in a short duration. Specific military engineering occupations also extend to the field of explosives and demolitions and their usage on the battlefield. Explosive devices have been used on the battlefield for several centuries, in numerous operations from combat to area clearance. Earliest known development of explosives can be traced back to 10th-century China where the Chinese are credited with engineering the world's first known explosive, black powder. Initially developed for recreational purposes, black powder later was utilized for military application in bombs and projectile propulsion in firearms. Engineers in the military who specialize in this field formulate and design many explosive devices to use in varying operating conditions. Such explosive compounds range from black powder to modern plastic explosives. This particular is commonly listed under the role of combat engineers who demolitions expertise also includes mine and IED detection and disposal. For more information, see Bomb disposal.
Military engineering by country
Military engineers are key in all armed forces of the world, and invariably found either closely integrated into the force structure, or even into the combat units of the national troops.
Brazil
Brazilian Army engineers can be part of the Quadro de Engenheiros Militares, with its members trained or professionalized by the traditional Instituto Militar de Engenharia (IME) (Military Institute of Engineering), or the Arma de Engenharia, with its members trained by the Academia Militar das Agulhas Negras (AMAN) (Agulhas Negras Military Academy). |
Military engineering | 100034-9 | In the Brazil's Navy, engineers can occupy the Corpo de Engenheiros da Marinha, the Quadro Complementar de Oficiais da Armada and the Quadro Complementar de Oficiais Fuzileiros Navais. Officers can come from the Centro de Instrução Almirante Wandenkolk (CIAW) (Admiral Wandenkolk Instruction Center) and the Escola Naval (EN) (Naval School) which, through internal selection of the Navy, finish their graduation at the Universidade de São Paulo (USP) (University of São Paulo).
The Quadro de Oficias Engenheiros of the Brazilian Air Force is occupied by engineers professionalized by Centro de Instrução e Adaptação da Aeronáutica (CIAAR) (Air Force Instruction and Adaptation Center) and trained, or specialized, by Instituto Tecnológico de Aeronáutica (ITA) (Aeronautics Institute of Technology).
Russia
– Pososhniye lyudi
– Engineer Troops (Soviet Union); Assault Engineering Brigades
– Russian Engineer Troops
United Kingdom
The Royal School of Military Engineering is the main training establishment for the British Army's Royal Engineers. The RSME also provides training for the Royal Navy, Royal Air Force, other Arms and Services of the British Army, Other Government Departments, and Foreign and Commonwealth countries as required. These skills provide vital components in the Army's operational capability, and Royal Engineers are currently deployed in Afghanistan, Iraq, Cyprus, Bosnia, Kosovo, Kenya, Brunei, Falklands, Belize, Germany and Northern Ireland. Royal Engineers also take part in exercises in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Italy, Egypt, Jordan, Canada, Poland and the United States. |
Military engineering | 100034-10 | United States The prevalence of military engineering in the United States dates back to the American Revolutionary War when engineers would carry out tasks in the U.S. Army. During the war, they would map terrain to and build fortifications to protect troops from opposing forces. The first military engineering organization in the United States was the Army Corps of Engineers. Engineers were responsible for protecting military troops whether using fortifications or designing new technology and weaponry throughout the United States' history of warfare. The Army originally claimed engineers exclusively, but as the U.S. military branches expanded to the sea and sky, the need for military engineering sects in all branches increased. As each branch of the United States military expanded, technology adapted to fit their respective needs.
United States Army Corps of Engineers
Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency, Rapid Engineer Deployable Heavy Operational Repair Squadron Engineers (RED HORSE), and Prime Base Engineer Emergency Force (Prime BEEF)
The United States Navy Construction Battalion Corps (better known as the Seabees) and Civil Engineer Corps
United States Marine Corps Combat Engineer Battalions
Other nations
Department of the Engineer Troops of the Armed Forces of Armenia
Royal Australian Engineers and the Royal Australian Air Force Airfield Engineers
Corps of Engineers and Military Engineer Services (MES), Bangladesh Army
Canadian Military Engineers
The Danish military engineering corps is almost entirely organized into one regiment, simply named "Ingeniørregimentet" ("The Engineering Regiment").
Engineering Arm, including the Paris Fire Brigade
Indian Army Corps of Engineers
Indonesian Army Corps of Engineers
Irish Army Engineer Corps
Combat Engineering Corps of the Israel Defense Forces
Engineer Regiment (Namibia)
Corps of Royal New Zealand Engineers
("The Engineer Battalion")
Rejimen Askar Jurutera DiRaja ("Royal Engineer Regiment")
Pakistan Army Corps of Engineers and the Military Engineering Service
10th Engineer Brigade
South African Army Engineer Formation
Sri Lanka Engineers and the Engineer Services Regiment
The Le Quy Don Technical University is the main training establishment for the Vietnamese Army's Corps of Engineers |
Big Love (Fleetwood Mac song) | 10003685-0 | "Big Love" is a song written by Lindsey Buckingham and performed by British-American rock band Fleetwood Mac. The song first appeared on the band's 1987 album Tango in the Night. The song was the first single to be released from the album, reaching number 5 in the US and number nine in the UK. The single was also a hit on the American dance charts, where the song peaked at number 7.
A 12-inch version featured an extended dance mix, with added vocals by Stevie Nicks. While the 12-inch version in some territories included "You & I, Part II" from the Tango in the Night album, the 7-inch version and 12-inch version in other territories included a non-album track, "You & I, Part I". A limited edition 12-inch picture disc was released in the UK, as well as a double 7-inch pack that included the "Big Love" single, and an exclusive 7-inch featuring "The Chain" as an A-side. "Big Love" became a standard of the Balearic beat dance sound, and the object of an extended remix by the DJ Arthur Baker. |
Big Love (Fleetwood Mac song) | 10003685-1 | Background In 1985, Buckingham began compiling material for a third solo album, and eventually amassed around 50 songs during those sessions. Among those songs was "Big Love", which Buckingham intended to include on his solo album. However, Fleetwood Mac was also creating a new album at the time, so Buckingham abandoned his solo project and gave the band "Big Love" to use on Tango in the Night. "My choice was to keep making the solo record and walk in as a cameo and have cameo producers, or just surrender to the situation and say there will be more songs later. And I chose the latter.
"Big Love" was nearly complete by the time Fleetwood Mac began work on Tango in the Night, so the band largely left Buckingham's demo untouched for the final release. Buckingham performed the oh-ah vocals himself by sampling his voice. "It was odd," he said, "that so many people wondered if it was Stevie on there with me." The song possesses a I-VII-VI-VII chord progression in the verses and a IV-V-I dominant sequence in the chorus.
Acoustic version
After Buckingham left Fleetwood Mac in 1987 (shortly after Tango in the Night was released), the band did not perform "Big Love" live until his return in 1997. It was in 1993, on his first solo tour, that Buckingham performed a guitar-only version of the song. When Buckingham played "Big Love" live, he used a gutted Gibson Chet Atkins SST with a capo on the fourth fret and a synth pickup. In 1997, he performed "Big Love" in the same style on Fleetwood Mac's live album The Dance. The song also appeared on the second volume of Cameron Crowe's Elizabethtown film soundtrack. Buckingham continues to perform the song on solo tours as well as Fleetwood Mac tours. |
Big Love (Fleetwood Mac song) | 10003685-2 | Music video The video opens on a shot of a mansion. Then the camera slowly pans back and continues to pan back nonstop throughout the video as Buckingham sings with the band featured playing instruments in various settings while Nicks dances around wearing different outfits during the video. During the last segment of the song, the video is then played backwards in a fast forwarded sort of form.
Reception
Cash Box called it a "perfect blend of rock experimentation and pure pop sensibility." The Guardian and Paste ranked the song number 18 and number 19 respectively on their lists of the 30 greatest Fleetwood Mac songs.
Track listings
UK 7" single (Warner Brothers Records W 8398)
"Big Love" – 3:37
"You and I, Part I" – 3:09
UK 12" single (Warner Brothers Records W 8398 T)
"Big Love" (Extended Remix) – 6:42
"You and I, Part I" – 3:09
US 12" single (Warner Brothers Records 0-20683)
"Big Love" (Extended Remix) – 6:42
"Big Love" (House on the Hill Dub) – 3:03
"Big Love" (Piano Dub) – 6:36
"You and I, Part II" – 2:40
Personnel
Lindsey Buckingham – vocals, guitars, Fairlight CMI, synthesizer, drum and percussion programming
Christine McVie – keyboards
Mick Fleetwood – drums
John McVie – bass guitar
Stevie Nicks – vocals (12" single extended remix only)
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts |
Salome (play) | 1000202-0 | Salome (French: Salomé, ) is a one-act tragedy by Oscar Wilde. The original version of the play was first published in French in 1893; an English translation was published a year later. The play depicts the attempted seduction of Jokanaan (John the Baptist) by Salome, stepdaughter of Herod Antipas; her dance of the seven veils; the execution of Jokanaan at Salome's instigation; and her death on Herod's orders. |
Salome (play) | 1000202-1 | The first production was in Paris in 1896. Because the play depicted biblical characters it was banned in Britain and was not performed publicly there until 1931. The play became popular in Germany, and Wilde's text was taken by the composer Richard Strauss as the basis of his 1905 opera Salome, the international success of which has tended to overshadow Wilde's original play. Film and other adaptations have been made of the play.
Background and first production
When Wilde began writing Salome in late 1891 he was known as an author and critic, but was not yet established as a playwright. Lady Windermere's Fan was completed but not yet staged, and his other West End successes, A Woman of No Importance, An Ideal Husband and The Importance of Being Earnest, were yet to come. He had been considering the subject of Salome since his undergraduate days at Oxford when Walter Pater introduced him to Flaubert's story Hérodias in 1877. The biographer Peter Raby comments that Wilde's interest had been further stimulated by descriptions of Gustave Moreau's paintings of Salome in Joris-Karl Huysmans's À rebours and by Heinrich Heine's Atta Troll, Jules Laforgue's "Salomé" in Moralités Légendaires and Stéphane Mallarmé's Hérodiade.
Wilde wrote the play while staying in Paris and explained to an interviewer the following year why he had written it in French: |
Salome (play) | 1000202-2 | He submitted the play to the leading French actress Sarah Bernhardt, who accepted it for production in her 1892 season at the Royal English Opera House, in London. The play went into rehearsals in June, but at that time all plays presented in Britain had to be approved by the official censor, the Lord Chamberlain. Approval was withheld because of a rule prohibiting the depiction of biblical characters on stage. Wilde expressed outrage and said he would leave England and take French citizenship. Bernhardt too condemned the ban and said she would present the play in Paris at some time, although she could not say when.
The play was published in French in 1893 in Paris by the Librairie de l'Art Independent and in London by Elkin Mathews and John Lane. It is dedicated "À mon ami Pierre Louÿs". The author was pleased by the favourable reception given to the published play by leading Francophone writers, in particular Pierre Loti, Maurice Maeterlinck and Mallarmé.
Wilde never saw the play produced. The only performances given in his lifetime were in 1896, by which time he was serving a prison sentence for illegal homosexual activity. The play was first given, in the original French, in a one-off performance on 11 February 1896 by the Théâtre de l'Œuvre company at the Théâtre de la Comédie-Parisienne, as the second part of a double bill with Romain Coolus's comedy Raphaël. The main roles were played as follows:
Iokanaan – Max Barbier
Hérode – Lugné-Poe
Young Syrian – M. Nerey
A Jew – M. Labruyère
First Soldier – M. Lévêque
Salomé – Lina Munte
Hérodias – Mlle Barbieri
Page to Hérodias – Suzanne Auclaire |
Salome (play) | 1000202-3 | The play was given again in October 1896 in a Wilde double bill at the Nouveau-Théâtre, with a French adaptation of Lady Windermere's Fan. Charles Daumerie played Herod and Munte again played Salome.
English and other translations
A biographer of Wilde, Owen Dudley Edwards, comments that the play "is apparently untranslatable into English", citing attempts made by Lord Alfred Douglas, Aubrey Beardsley, Wilde himself revising Douglas's botched effort, Wilde's son Vyvyan Holland, Jon Pope, Steven Berkoff and others, and concluding "it demands reading and performance in French to make its impact". The most familiar English version is by Douglas, extensively revised by Wilde, originally published in 1894. Wilde dedicated the first edition "To my friend Lord Alfred Douglas, the translator of my play". It was lavishly produced, with illustrations by Beardsley that Wilde thought over-sophisticated. An American edition, with the Beardsley illustrations, was published in San Francisco in 1896. In the 1890s and 1900s translations were published in at least eleven other languages, from Dutch in 1893 to Yiddish in 1909.
Plot
Characters
Herod Antipas, Tetrarch of Judea
Jokanaan, the Prophet
The young Syrian, Captain of the guard
Tigellinus, a young Roman
A Cappadocian
A Nubian
First soldier
Second soldier
The page of Herodias
Jews, Nazarenes, etc.
A slave
Naaman, the Executioner
Herodias, Wife of the Tetrarch
Salome, daughter of Herodias
The slaves of Salomé |
Salome (play) | 1000202-4 | Synopsis Jokanaan (John the Baptist, Iokanaan in the original French text) has been imprisoned by Herod Antipas in a cistern below the terrace of Herod's palace, for his hostile comments about Herodias, Herod's second wife. A young captain of the guard admires the beautiful princess Salome, Herod's stepdaughter. A page warns the captain that something terrible may happen if he continues to stare at the princess. Salome is fascinated by Jokanaan's voice. She persuades the captain to open the cistern so that the prophet can emerge, and she can see him and touch him. Jokanaan appears, denouncing Herodias and her husband. At first frightened by the sight of the holy man, Salome becomes fascinated by him, begging him to let her touch his hair, his skin and kiss his mouth. When she tells him she is Herodias's daughter, he calls her a "daughter of Sodom" and bids her keep away from him. All Salome's attempts to attract him fail, and he swears she will never kiss his mouth, cursing her as the daughter of an adulteress and advising her to seek the Lord. He returns to his underground confinement. The young captain of the guard, unable to bear Salome's desire for another man, fatally stabs himself. |
Salome (play) | 1000202-5 | Herod appears from the palace, looking for the princess and commenting on the strange look of the moon. When he slips in the captain's blood, he suddenly panics. Herodias dismisses his fears and asks him to go back inside with her, but Herod's attention has turned libidinously towards Salome, who rejects his advances. From the cistern, Jokanaan resumes his denunciation of Herodias; she demands that Herod hand the prophet over to the Jews. Herod refuses, maintaining that Jokanaan is a holy man and has seen God. His words spark an argument among the Jews concerning the true nature of God, and two Nazarenes talk about the miracles of Jesus. As Jokanaan continues to accuse her, Herodias demands that he is silenced.
Herod asks Salome to dance for him. She refuses, but when he promises to give her anything she wants, she agrees. Ignoring her mother's pleas – "Ne dansez pas, ma fille" – "Do not dance, my daughter" – Salome performs the dance of the seven veils. Delighted, Herod asks what reward she would like, and she asks for the head of Jokanaan on a silver platter. Horrified, Herod refuses, while Herodias rejoices at Salome's choice. Herod offers other rewards, but Salome insists and reminds Herod of his promise. He finally yields. The executioner descends into the cistern, and Salome impatiently awaits her reward. When the prophet's head is brought to her, she passionately addresses Jokanaan as if he were still alive and finally kisses his lips:
Herod, frightened and appalled at Salome's behaviour, orders the soldiers, "Tuez cette femme!" – "Kill that woman!", and they crush her to death under their shields.
Revivals |
Salome (play) | 1000202-6 | International In 1901, within a year of Wilde's death, Salome was produced in Berlin by Max Reinhardt in Hedwig Lachmann's German translation, and ran, according to Robbie Ross, for "a longer consecutive period in Germany than any play by any Englishman, not excepting Shakespeare". The play was not revived in Paris until 1973 (although Richard Strauss's operatic version was frequently seen there from 1910 onwards). Les Archives du spectacle record 13 productions of Wilde's play in France between 1973 and 2020.
The American premiere was given in New York in 1905 by the Progressive Stage Society, an amateur group. A professional production was presented at the Astor Theatre the following year, with Mercedes Leigh in the title role. The Internet Broadway Database records five New York productions between 1917 and 2003. The Salomes included Evelyn Preer (1923), Sheryl Lee (1992) and Marisa Tomei (2003), and among the actors playing Herod was Al Pacino in 1992 and 2003.
The play was given in Czech in Brno in 1924, and in English at the Gate Theatre in Dublin in 1928 (directed by Hilton Edwards, with Micheál Mac Liammóir as Jokanaan). In Tokyo in 1960 Yukio Mishima directed a Japanese version in a translation by Kōnosuke Hinatsu which, The Times reported, "rendered Wilde's rhetoric into the measured cadences of fifteenth-century Japanese". A later Japanese production was seen in Tokyo and subsequently in France in 1996. |
Salome (play) | 1000202-7 | Britain In Britain, the Lord Chamberlain's consent to public performance still being withheld, the first production there was given in May 1905 in a private performance in London by the New Stage Club, in which the performance of Robert Farquharson as Herod was reportedly of remarkable power. Millicent Murby played Salome, and Florence Farr directed. A second private performance followed in 1906 by the Literary Theatre Society, with Farquharson again as Herod. The costumes and scenery by Charles Ricketts were much admired, but the rest of the cast and the direction were poor, according to Ross. A 1911 production at the Court Theatre by Harcourt Williams, with Adeline Bourne as Salome, received disparaging notices.
The ban on public performance of Salome was not lifted until 1931. The last "private" production, earlier that year, featuring a dance of the seven veils choreographed by Ninette de Valois, was judged "creepily impressive" by The Daily Telegraph. For the first sanctioned public production, at the Savoy Theatre, Farquharson reprised his Herod, with real-life mother and daughter casting, Nancy Price and Joan Maude as Herodias and Salome. The production was deemed tame and unthrilling, and the play – "gone modest and middle class" as one critic put it – was not seen again in the West End for more than twenty years. |
Salome (play) | 1000202-8 | A 1954 London revival, a vehicle for the Australian actor Frank Thring, made little impact, and it was not until Lindsay Kemp's 1977 production at the Roundhouse that Salome was established as a critical and box-office success, running for six months in repertory with Kemp's adaptation of Our Lady of the Flowers. That version was a free adaptation of the original, with an all-male cast, switching between French and English texts and using only about a third of Wilde's dialogue. A 1988 production by Steven Berkoff in which he played Herod, was seen at the Gate Theatre, the Edinburgh Festival and at the National Theatre, London. It focused on Wilde's words, relying on the skills of the actors and the imagination of audiences to evoke the setting and action. A 2017 production by the Royal Shakespeare Company, described as "gender fluid", featured a male actor, Matthew Tennyson, as Salome.
Critical reception
In Les Annales du théâtre et de la musique, Edouard Stoullig reported that press reviews had been generally benevolent out of protest at the harsh treatment received by Wilde in Britain. In Stoullig's view the play was a good piece of rhetoric marred by too many "ridiculous repetitions" of lines by minor characters. In Le Figaro Henry Fouquier shared Stoullig's view that the piece owed something to Flaubert, and thought it "an exercise in romantic literature, not badly done, a little boring". The reviewer in Le Temps said, "M. Wilde has certainly read Flaubert, and cannot forget it. The most interesting thing about Salome is the style. The work was written in French by M. Wilde. It is full of very elaborate and ornate verses. The colours, the stars, the birds, the rare gems, everything that adorns nature, has provided M. Wilde with points of comparison and ingenious themes for the stanzas and antistrophes that Salome's characters utter". La Plume said, "Salomé has almost all the qualities of a poem, the prose is as musical and fluid as verse, full of images and metaphors". |
Salome (play) | 1000202-9 | When banning the original 1892 production of Salome, the responsible official in the Lord Chamberlain's office commented privately, "The piece is written in French – half Biblical, half pornographic – by Oscar Wilde himself. Imagine the average British public's reception of it". In Britain the critics in general either ignored or disparaged the play. The Times described it as "an arrangement in blood and ferocity, morbid, bizarre, repulsive, and very offensive in its adaptation of scriptural phraseology to situations the reverse of sacred". The Pall Mall Gazette suggested that the play was far from original: "the reader of Salome seems to stand in the Island of Voices, and to hear around him and about the utterances of friends, the whisperings of demigods" – particularly Gautier, Maeterlinck and above all Flaubert – "There is no freshness in Mr Wilde's ideas; there is no freshness in his method of presenting those ideas". New York reviewers were not impressed when the play was first professionally produced there in 1906: The Sun called it "bloodily degenerate"; The New-York Tribune thought it "decadent stuff, not worthy of notice".
Raby comments that later criticism of the play "has tended to treat it either as a literary text or as a theatrical aberration". The historian John Stokes writes that Salome is a rare instance in British theatrical history of an authentically Symbolist drama. Symbolist authors rejected naturalism and used "poetic language and pictorial settings to invoke the inner lives of characters", expressing without the constraints of naturalism all kinds of emotions "both spiritual and sensual".
Themes and derivatives
Critics have analysed Wilde's use of images favoured by Israel's kingly poets and references to the moon, his depiction of power-play between the sexes, his filling in of gaps in the biblical narrative and his invention of the "dance of the seven veils". |
Salome (play) | 1000202-10 | Wilde's version of the story spawned several other artistic works, the most famous of which is Richard Strauss's opera of the same name. Strauss saw Wilde's play in Berlin in November 1902 at Reinhardt's Little Theatre, with Gertrud Eysoldt in the title role. He began to compose his opera in summer 1903, completing it in 1905 and premiering it later the same year. Critics including Horst Schroeder have argued that the international success of Strauss's adaptation "virtually drove Wilde's drama in its original form off the stage".
There have been numerous adaptations and interpretations of Wilde's Salome, on stage and screen and in the visual arts. In St Petersburg in 1908 Mikhail Fokine created a ballet based on the play, with music by Glazunov and décor by Léon Bakst. Ida Rubinstein played Salome. For the cinema, Salome was first filmed in an American silent version directed by J. Stuart Blackton in 1908, with Florence Lawrence as Salome and Maurice Costello as Herod, followed by an Italian version in 1910. Later adaptations include a 1918 silent film starring Theda Bara, a 1923 silent version directed by Charles Bryant starring Alla Nazimova as Salome and Mitchell Lewis as Herod, and a 2013 sound adaptation directed by and starring Al Pacino, with Jessica Chastain as Salome. Excerpts from the play featured prominently in Ken Russell's 1988 film Salome's Last Dance. |
Mast (film) | 10004664-0 | Mast () is a 1999 Indian Hindi musical romantic film directed by Ram Gopal Varma. This was the debut film for Aftab Shivdasani as a lead actor with Urmila Matondkar as the leading actress. Shivdasani won the Star Screen Award for Most Promising Newcomer – Male for his performance.
Synopsis
Kittu is an arts student in Pune and is madly in love with actress and film star Malika. He has posters up on his wall and goes to all of her movies, and even fantasizes that she is there with him when he is watching these items. His father, concerned with his son's declining exam scores, confronts Kittu on his obsession and later tears down the posters. To Kittu, this is almost as bad as murder, and decides to move out and away to Mumbai, where the star, herself, lives.
Unknowing of where to go, he goes to her bungalow, but the security guard shoos him away. He finds a job at a nearby cafe. After interacting with Malika, Kittu soon finds that she is not the girl that he had pictured from her posters and movies. Being a simple orphan, exploited by her evil uncle and his family, Kittu begins to feel sorry for her and even more in love although for an unknown reason she does not report her uncle's actions to the police. |
Mast (film) | 10004664-1 | A series of events lead him to the point where he decides to convince her to run away with him. But with her being such a famous icon, Kittu soon finds it harder than he had thought to get away. The police are looking for her as is her family; and after a visit to the home of Kittu's family, as well, they are soon helping Malika enjoy her newfound freedom.
Things take a turn for the worse when Mr. Mathur is taken into custody for allegedly housing the "kidnapped" Malika. The police beat Kittu for information. Malika turns herself in to save them, and she tells the cops that Kittu rescued her and that her uncle is the one who has ill-treated her. The police then take her uncle into custody and whack him.
Malika then returns home, leaving Kittu to his life with his family and Nisha believing that they are in love. Kittu returns home as well and is devastated that she left him without an explanation or goodbye. They visit her on set one day to see that she has returned to her old life, uncle-free, but this meeting is an uncomfortable one. Through her awkward goodbye, Kittu then realizes that she believes that Kittu is going to marry Nisha. |
Mast (film) | 10004664-2 | After this realization, he then runs to Malika's dressing room from the cab to tell her of his love and the fact that she has assumed wrong. They have a heartfelt conversation of love and life, and Malika goes on to explain that she thinks that Nisha and Kittu have a love that she cannot come between. She then asks him not to see her anymore and he runs to Nisha to tell her of this belief. After hearing this, Nisha explains the situation that she loves Kittu, but Kittu has always been in love with Malika. Malika and Kittu embrace to express their love.
The closing scene shows that they get married and everyone in the story was there, including his coworkers from the cafe and the taxi driver.
Cast
Soundtrack
All songs were composed by Sandeep Chowta and written by Nitin Raikwar.
Reception
Critical response
Faisal Shariff of Rediff.com wrote, "Yes, a must see. If not for the storyline, if not for Urmila Matondkar, if not for the music, then because most of us, somewhere within, nurture this secret fantasy of realising our wildest dreams. And that is what Mast is all about. Realising a dream." Mohammad Ali Ikram of Planet Bollywood gave the film 9.5 out of 10, writing, "Watching Mast is like watching an ode to (crazy) film fans and a fairy tale all in one."
Box office
The film grossed 10.35 crore against a budget of 4.5 crore. Boxofficeindia.com called it a "Box office flop" while Anupama Chopra wrote that the film "died an agonisingly quick death at the box office." |
Face transplant | 1000053-0 | A face transplant is a medical procedure to replace all or part of a person's face using tissue from a donor. Part
of a field called "Vascularized Composite Tissue Allotransplantation" (VCA) it involves the transplantation of facial skin, the nasal structure, the nose, the lips, the muscles of facial movement used for expression, the nerves that provide sensation, and, potentially, the bones that support the face. The recipient of a face transplant will take life-long medications to suppress the immune system and fight off rejection.
The world's first partial face transplant on a living human was carried out in France in 2005. The world's first full face transplant was completed in Spain in 2010. Turkey, France, the United States, and Spain (in order of total number of successful face transplants performed) are considered the leading countries in the research into the procedure.
Beneficiaries of face transplant
People with faces disfigured by trauma, burns, disease, or birth defects might aesthetically benefit from the procedure. Professor Peter Butler at the Royal Free Hospital first suggested this approach in treating people with facial disfigurement in a Lancet article in 2002. This suggestion caused considerable debate at the time concerning the ethics of this procedure. |
Face transplant | 1000053-1 | An alternative to a face transplant is facial reconstruction, which typically involves moving the patient's own skin from their back, buttocks, thighs, or chest to their face in a series of as many as 50 operations to regain even limited functionality, and a face that is often likened to a mask or a living quilt.
History
Self as donor ("face replant")
The world's first full-face replant operation was on 9-year-old Sandeep Kaur, whose face was ripped off when her hair was caught in a thresher. Sandeep's mother witnessed the accident. Sandeep arrived at the hospital unconscious with her face in two pieces in a plastic bag. An article in The Guardian recounts: "In 1994, a nine-year-old child in northern India lost her face and scalp in a threshing machine accident. Her parents raced to the hospital with her face in a plastic bag and a surgeon managed to reconnect the arteries and replant the skin." The operation was successful, although the child was left with some muscle damage as well as scarring around the perimeter where the facial skin was sutured back on. Sandeep's doctor was Abraham Thomas, one of India's top microsurgeons. In 2004, Sandeep was training to be a nurse.
In 1996, a similar operation was performed in the Australian state of Victoria, when a woman's face and scalp, torn off in a similar accident, was packed in ice and successfully reattached.
Partial face transplant |
Face transplant | 1000053-2 | France The world's first partial face transplant on a living human was carried out on 27 November 2005 by Bernard Devauchelle, an oral and maxillofacial surgeon, Benoit Lengelé, a Belgian plastic surgeon, and Jean-Michel Dubernard in Amiens, France. Isabelle Dinoire underwent surgery to replace her original face, which had been mauled by her dog. A triangle of face tissue from a brain-dead woman's nose and mouth was grafted onto the patient. On 13 December 2007, the first detailed report of the progress of this transplant after 18 months was released in the New England Journal of Medicine and documents that the patient was happy with the results but also that the journey has been very difficult, especially with respect to her immune system's response. Dinoire died on 22 April 2016
at the age of 49 following cancer from medications.
A 29-year-old French man underwent surgery in 2007. He had a facial tumor called a neurofibroma caused by a genetic disorder. The tumor was so massive that the man could not eat or speak properly.
In March 2008, the treatment of 30-year-old Pascal Coler of France, who has neurofibromatosis, ended after he received what his doctors call the world's first successful almost full face transplant. The operation, which lasted approximately 20 hours, was designed and performed by Laurent Lantieri and his team (Jean-Paul Meningaud, Antonios Paraskevas and Fabio Ingallina). |
Face transplant | 1000053-3 | China In April 2006, Guo Shuzhong at the Xijing military hospital in Xi'an, transplanted the cheek, upper lip, and nose of Li Guoxing, who was mauled by an Asiatic black bear while protecting his sheep. On 21 December 2008, it was reported that Li had died in July in his home village in Yunnan. Prior to his death, a documentary on the Discovery Channel showed he had stopped taking immuno-suppressant drugs in favour of herbal medication; a decision that was likely a contributing factor to his death, according to his surgeon.
Turkey
Selahattin Özmen performed a partial face transplant on 17 March 2012 on Hatice Nergis, a twenty-year-old woman at Gazi University's hospital in Ankara. It was Turkey's third, the first woman-to-woman and the first three-dimensional with bone tissue. The patient from Kahramanmaraş had lost her upper jaw six years prior in a firearm accident, including her mouth, lips, palate, teeth and nasal cavity, and was since then unable to eat. She had undergone around 35 reconstructive plastic surgery operations. The donor was a 28-year-old Turkish woman of Moldavian origin in Istanbul, who had died by suicide. Nergis died in Ankara on 15 November 2016 after she was hospitalized two days prior complaining about acute pain. |
Face transplant | 1000053-4 | Belgium In December 2011, a 54-year-old man underwent a partial face transplant to the lower two-thirds of the face (including bone) after a ballistic accident. The operation was performed by a multidisciplinary team led by plastic surgeon Phillip Blondeel; Hubert Vermeersch, Nathalie Roche and Filip Stillaert were other members of the surgical team. For the first time 3D CT planning was used to plan the operation that lasted 20 hours. As of 2014 the patient is alive, with "good recovery of motor and sensory function and social reintegration".
Italy
In September 2018, a 49-year-old woman affected by Neurofibromatosis type I received a partial face transplant from a 21-year-old girl at Sant'Andrea Hospital of Sapienza University in Rome. The procedure took 27 hours and was carried out by two teams led by Fabio Santanelli di Pompeo and Benedetto Longo. The patient had a complication and after two days the surgeons had to replace the facial graft with autologous tissue. The patient is still alive and waiting for a second face transplantation.
Canada
In May 2018, the first Canadian complete face transplant was performed under the leadership of plastic surgeon Daniel Borsuk at the Hopital Maisonneuve Rosemont, in Montreal, Quebec. The transplant took over 30 hours and replaced the upper and lower jaws, nose, lips and teeth on Maurice Desjardins, a 64-year-old man that shot himself in a hunting accident. At that time, Mr. Desjardins was the oldest person to benefit from a face transplant.
Full face transplant
On 20 March 2010, a team of 30 Spanish doctors led by plastic surgeon Joan Pere Barret at the Vall d'Hebron University Hospital in Barcelona carried out the world's first full face transplant, on a man injured in a shooting accident. |
Face transplant | 1000053-5 | On 8 July 2010, the French media reported that a full face transplant, including tear ducts and eyelids, was carried out at the Henri-Mondor hospital in Créteil.
In March 2011, a surgical team, led by Bohdan Pomahač at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts, performed a full face transplant on Dallas Wiens, who was badly disfigured in a power line accident that left him blind and without lips, nose or eyebrows. The patient's sight couldn't be recovered but he has been able to talk on the phone and smell.
In April 2011, less than one month after the hospital performed the first full face transplant in the country, the Brigham and Women's Hospital face transplant team, led by Bohdan Pomahač, performed the nation's second full face transplant on patient Mitch Hunter of Speedway, Indiana. It was the third face transplant procedure to be performed at BWH and the fourth face transplant in the country. The team of more than 30 physicians, nurses, anesthesiologists and residents worked for more than 14 hours to replace the full facial area of the patient, including the nose, muscles of facial animation and the nerves that power them and provide sensation. Hunter had a severe shock from a high voltage electrical wire following a car accident in 2001. |
Face transplant | 1000053-6 | Poland On 15 May 2013, at the Maria Skłodowska-Curie Institute of Oncology branch in Gliwice, Poland, an entire face was transplanted onto a male patient, Grzegorz (aged 33) after he lost the front of his head in a machine accident at work. The surgery took 27 hours and was directed by Professor Adam Maciejewski. There had not been much planning or prep time before the surgery, which was performed about one month after the accident, because the transplantation was done as an urgent life-saving surgery due to the patient's difficulty in eating and breathing. Shortly after the donor's death, the decision to perform the surgery was made and his body was transported hundreds of kilometers to Gliwice once his relatives gave their consent. The doctors believe that their patient has an excellent chance to live a normal, active life after surgery, and that his face should operate more or less normally (his eyes survived the accident untouched).
Seven months later, on 4 December, the same Polish medical team in Gliwice transplanted a face onto a 26-year-old female patient with neurofibromatosis. Two months after the operation, she left the hospital.
Turkey
On 21 January 2012, Turkish surgeon Ömer Özkan and his team successfully performed a full face transplant at Akdeniz University's hospital in Antalya. The 19-year-old patient, Uğur Acar, was badly burnt in a house fire when he was a baby. The donor was 39-year-old Ahmet Kaya, who died on 20 January. The Turkish doctors declared that his body had accepted the new tissue. |
Face transplant | 1000053-7 | Almost one month later on 24 February 2012, a surgical team led by Serdar Nasır conducted the country's second successful full face transplant at Hacettepe University's hospital in Ankara on 25-year-old Cengiz Gül. The patient's face was badly burned in a television tube implosion accident when he was two years old. The donor was 40-year-old N. A. (his family did not permit the identity of the donor to be revealed), who experienced brain death two days before the surgery following a motorcycle accident that occurred on 17 February.
On 16 May 2012, surgeon Ömer Özkan and his team at the Akdeniz University Hospital performed the country's fourth and their second full face transplant. The face and ears of 27-year-old patient Turan Çolak from İzmir were burnt when he fell into an oven when he was three and half years old. The donor was Tevfik Yılmaz, a 19-year-old man from Uşak who had attempted suicide on 8 May. He was declared brain dead in the evening hours of 15 May after having been in intensive care for seven days. His parents donated all his organs.
On 18 July 2013, the face of a Polish man was successfully given to a Turkish man in a transplant performed by Özkan, at Akdeniz University hospital following a 6.5-hour operation, making it the fifth such operation to take place in the country. It was the 25th face transplant operation in the world. The donor was Andrzej Kucza, a 42-year-old Polish tourist who was declared brain dead following a heart attack on 14 July while swimming in Turkey's sea resort Muğla. The 27-year-old patient Recep Sert came immediately from Bursa to Antalya for the surgery in late July 2017. |
Face transplant | 1000053-8 | On 23 August 2013, surgeon Ömer Özkan and his team at Akdeniz University performed the sixth face transplant surgery in Turkey. Salih Üstün (54) received the scalp, eyelids, jaw and maxilla, nose and the half tongue of 31-year-old Muhittin Turan, who was declared brain dead after a motorcycle accident that took place two days before.
On 30 December 2013, Özkan and his team conducted their fifth and Turkey's seventh face transplant surgery at the hospital of Akdeniz University. The nose, upper lip, upper jaw and maxilla of brain dead Ali Emre Küçük, aged 34, were successfully transplanted to 22-year-old Recep Kaya, whose face was badly deformed in a shotgun accident. While Kaya was flown from Kırklareli to Antalya via Istanbul in four hours, the donor's organs were transported from Edirne by an ambulance airplane. The surgery took 4 hours and 10 minutes.
United Kingdom
In October 2006, surgeon Peter Butler at London's Royal Free Hospital in the UK was given permission by the NHS ethics board to carry out face transplants. His team will select four adult patients (children cannot be selected due to concerns over consent), with operations being carried out at six-month intervals. As of 2022, neither Butler nor any other UK surgeon has performed a face transplant.
United States
In 2004, the Cleveland Clinic became the first institution to approve this surgery and test it on cadavers. |
Face transplant | 1000053-9 | She had been disfigured to the point where she could not eat or breathe on her own as a result of a traumatic injury several years ago, which had left her without a nose, right eye and upper jaw.Doctors hoped the operation would allow her to regain her sense of smell and ability to smile, and said she had a "clear understanding" of the risks involved. Connie died 29 July 2020. The second partial face transplant in the US took place at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston on 9 April 2009. During a 17-hour operation, a surgical team led by Bohdan Pomahač, replaced the nose, upper lip, cheeks, and roof of the mouth – along with corresponding muscles, bones and nerves – of James Maki, age 59. Maki's face was severely injured after falling onto the electrified third rail at a Boston subway station in 2005. In May 2009, he made a public media appearance and declared he was happy with the result. This procedure was also shown in the eighth episode of the ABC documentary series Boston Med. |
Face transplant | 1000053-10 | She had been disfigured to the point where she could not eat or breathe on her own as a result of a traumatic injury several years ago, which had left her without a nose, right eye and upper jaw.Doctors hoped the operation would allow her to regain her sense of smell and ability to smile, and said she had a "clear understanding" of the risks involved. Connie died 29 July 2020. The second partial face transplant in the US took place at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston on 9 April 2009. During a 17-hour operation, a surgical team led by Bohdan Pomahač, replaced the nose, upper lip, cheeks, and roof of the mouth – along with corresponding muscles, bones and nerves – of James Maki, age 59. Maki's face was severely injured after falling onto the electrified third rail at a Boston subway station in 2005. In May 2009, he made a public media appearance and declared he was happy with the result. This procedure was also shown in the eighth episode of the ABC documentary series Boston Med. |
Face transplant | 1000053-11 | The Brigham and Women's Hospital transplant team led by Bohdan Pomahač, performed the nation's second full face transplant on patient Mitch Hunter of Speedway, Indiana. Hunter, who is a US war veteran, was left disfigured in a car accident, burning about 94% of his face. It was the third face transplant procedure to be performed at BWH and the fourth face transplant in the country. The team of more than 30 physicians, nurses, anesthesiologists and residents worked for more than 14 hours to replace the full facial area of patient Mitch Hunter including the nose, eyelids, muscles of facial animation and the nerves that power them and provide sensation. Mitch Hunter was a passenger in a single cab pick-up truck, upon exiting the vehicle and pulling another passenger off a downed line, Hunter was then struck by a 10,000-volt 7-amp power line for a little under five minutes. The electricity entered his lower left leg, with the majority exiting his face, leaving him severely disfigured. He also lost part of his lower left leg, below the knee, and lost two digits on his right hand (pinkie and ring finger). Hunter has regained almost 100% of his normal sensation back in his face and his only complaint is that he looks too much like his older brother.
57-year-old Charla Nash, who was mauled by a chimpanzee named Travis in 2009, after the owner gave the chimp Xanax and wine. She underwent a 20-hour full face transplant in May 2011 at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston. Nash's full face transplant was the third surgery of its kind performed in the United States, all at the same hospital. |