Datasets:

morteza

/

cogtext

like 0

10.1590/S1980-57642011DN05040013

Dementia & neuropsychologia

Dement Neuropsychol

Pragmatic and executive functions in traumatic brain injury and right brain damage: An exploratory comparative study.

To describe the frequency of pragmatic and executive deficits in right brain damaged (RBD) and in traumatic brain injury (TBI) patients, and to verify possible dissociations between pragmatic and executive functions in these two groups. The sample comprised 7 cases of TBI and 7 cases of RBD. All participants were assessed by means of tasks from the Montreal Communication Evaluation Battery and executive functions tests including the Trail Making Test, Hayling Test, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, semantic and phonemic verbal fluency tasks, and working memory tasks from the Brazilian Brief Neuropsychological Assessment Battery NEUPSILIN. Z-score was calculated and a descriptive analysis of frequency of deficits (Z< -1.5) was carried out. RBD patients presented with deficits predominantly on conversational and narrative discursive tasks, while TBI patients showed a wider spread pattern of pragmatic deficits. Regarding EF, RBD deficits included predominantly working memory and verbal initiation impairment. On the other hand, TBI individuals again exhibited a general profile of executive dysfunction, affecting mainly working memory, initiation, inhibition, planning and switching. Pragmatic and executive deficits were generally associated upon comparisons of RBD patients and TBI cases, except for two simple dissociations: two post-TBI cases showed executive deficits in the absence of pragmatic deficits. Pragmatic and executive deficits can be very frequent following TBI or vascular RBD. There seems to be an association between these abilities, indicating that although they can co-occur, a cause-consequence relationship cannot be the only hypothesis.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

10.1093/brain/awr173

Brain : a journal of neurology

Brain

Convergent grey and white matter evidence of orbitofrontal cortex changes related to disinhibition in behavioural variant frontotemporal dementia.

Disinhibition is a common behavioural symptom in frontotemporal dementia but its neural correlates are still debated. In the current study, we investigated the grey and white matter neural correlates of disinhibition in a sample of behavioural variant frontotemporal dementia (n = 14) and patients with Alzheimer's disease (n = 15). We employed an objective (Hayling Test of inhibitory functioning) and subjective/carer-based (Neuropsychiatric Inventory) measure of disinhibition to reveal convergent evidence of disinhibitory behaviour. Mean and overlap-based statistical analyses were conducted to investigate profiles of performance in patients with behavioural variant frontotemporal dementia, Alzheimer's disease and controls. Hayling Test and Neuropsychiatric Inventory scores were entered as covariates in a grey matter voxel-based morphometry, as well as in a white matter diffusion tensor imaging analysis to determine the underlying grey and white matter correlates. Patients with behavioural variant frontotemporal dementia showed more disinhibition on both behavioural measures in comparison to patients with Alzheimer's disease and controls. Voxel-based morphometry results revealed that atrophy in orbitofrontal/subgenual, medial prefrontal cortex and anterior temporal lobe areas covaried with total errors score of the Hayling Test. Similarly, the Neuropsychiatric Inventory disinhibition frequency score correlated with atrophy in orbitofrontal cortex and temporal pole brain regions. The orbitofrontal atrophy related to the objective (Hayling Test) and subjective (Neuropsychiatric Inventory) measures of disinhibition was partially overlapping. Diffusion tensor imaging analysis revealed that white matter integrity fractional anisotropy values of the white matter tracts connecting the identified grey matter regions, namely uncinate fasciculus, forceps minor and genu of the corpus callosum, correlated well with the total error score of the Hayling Test. Our results show that a network of orbitofrontal, anterior temporal and mesial frontal brain regions and their connecting white matter tracts are involved in inhibitory functioning. Further, we find convergent evidence for objective and subjective disinhibition measures that the orbitofrontal/subgenual brain region is critical for adapting and maintaining normal behaviour.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

10.1142/S0219635211002695

Journal of integrative neuroscience

J Integr Neurosci

Effects of wi-fi signals on the p300 component of event-related potentials during an auditory hayling task.

The P300 component of event-related potentials (ERPs) is believed to index attention and working memory (WM) operation of the brain. The present study focused on the possible gender-related effects of Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) electromagnetic fields (EMF) on these processes. Fifteen male and fifteen female subjects, matched for age and education level, were investigated while performing a modified version of the Hayling Sentence Completion test adjusted to induce WM. ERPs were recorded at 30 scalp electrodes, both without and with the exposure to a Wi-Fi signal. P300 amplitude values at 18 electrodes were found to be significantly lower in the response inhibition condition than in the response initiation and baseline conditions. Independent of the above effect, within the response inhibition condition there was also a significant gender X radiation interaction effect manifested at 15 leads by decreased P300 amplitudes of males in comparison to female subjects only at the presence of EMF. In conclusion, the present findings suggest that Wi-Fi exposure may exert gender-related alterations on neural activity associated with the amount of attentional resources engaged during a linguistic test adjusted to induce WM.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

10.1159/000321670

Dementia and geriatric cognitive disorders

Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord

Orbitofrontal dysfunction discriminates behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia from Alzheimer's disease.

Behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia (bvFTD) patients show prefrontal cortex dysfunction and atrophy. We investigated whether executive function in conjunction with prefrontal cortex atrophy discriminates bvFTD and Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients efficiently at presentation. AD and bvFTD patients were distinguishable by 89.5% on their performance of 3 executive tasks: the Hayling Test of Inhibitory Control, Digit Span Backward and Letter Fluency. Similarly, scan ratings showed that orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex regions distinguish both patient groups. More importantly, employing the Hayling error score in conjunction with the OFC atrophy rating showed that 92% of patients can be correctly classified into bvFTD and AD. A combination of OFC and disinhibition measures appears to be a powerful diagnostic tool in differentiating bvFTD from AD patients in this preliminary study.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

10.1016/j.archger.2010.11.005

Archives of gerontology and geriatrics

Arch Gerontol Geriatr

The effect of age and individual differences in attentional control: a sample case using the Hayling test.

Individual differences in working memory (WM) have been shown to reflect the ability to control attention in order to prevent interference. This study examines the role of WM capacity in resisting interference in the Hayling task, in samples of younger and older adults. In each age group, high and low WM span individuals had to complete high-cloze sentences with either expected words (initiation) or words providing no meaning to the sentences (interference). Results showed increased response times and decreased correct responses in interference, as compared to initiation. As interference increased, older adults demonstrated lower accuracy than younger ones. Further, low spans demonstrated higher interference costs than high spans on accuracy, while the reverse pattern was found for response times. Our findings suggest that both age and individual differences in WM capacity need to be considered to account for differences in the ability to resist to interference.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

10.1093/alcalc/agq062

Alcohol and alcoholism (Oxford, Oxfordshire)

Alcohol Alcohol

A new test to measure attentional bias and cognitive disinhibition in drinkers, based on the Hayling task.

To generate and pilot unfinished sentences, based on the Hayling Task of disinhibition, which could be completed with alcohol or non-alcohol words. To determine whether drinking habits influenced responses on the new sentences, which may advance understanding of the cognitive processes underlying alcohol-related behaviours. Three phases: I-Generation of appropriate sentences (via email correspondence); II-Sentence completion to establish proportion of alcohol-related and non-alcohol-related responses; III-A Hayling-style task using the sentences (laboratory-based). During the Hayling task, sentences were completed with the first word that came to mind (initiation task), and with a word that did not make semantic sense (inhibition task). In Phase III, the alcohol use disorder identification test (AUDIT) was also completed to determine whether drinking habits were related to responses. Fifteen sentences were generated and tested. Compared with low hazardous drinkers, higher hazardous drinkers gave more alcohol-related responses; persisted in giving alcohol responses in the inhibition task; and were slower to make non-alcohol-related responses. A positive correlation was found between AUDIT score and number of alcohol-related responses. A new alcohol-related sentence-completion tool, based upon the Hayling disinhibition task, was developed and piloted. Responses on the task were associated with measures of alcohol use disorders. The task can be used in research investigating the processes underlying the acute and chronic effects of alcohol, such as attentional bias and disinhibition. In future, the task could be used in conjunction with non-alcohol-related sentence completion tasks to investigate general and alcohol-specific processes of disinhibition.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

10.1016/j.encep.2009.12.011

L'Encephale

Encephale

[Neuro-anatomic activations of prepotent responses in schizophrenia in Hayling's task].

In schizophrenia, alteration in the prefrontal cortex can induce some deficiencies of the executive functions, and among them errors in inhibition of prepotent responses. This type of inhibitory processes was called "restraint function" by Hasher et al. It implies a conscious and voluntary inhibition which demands attentional resources. Among the tasks exploring this function, the Hayling completion sentence task (Burgess and Shallice) appears to be the most specific. Moreover, healthy subjects performing this task in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) show activation of the prefrontal cortex. In this study, we investigated inhibitory processes in schizophrenic patients using two versions of the Hayling completion sentence task, a behavioural version and an fMRI version in order to assess both performance levels and brain correlates of inhibitory processes. Forty-eight schizophrenic participants according to DSM-IV, (mean age: 32.8, S.D. 7.7), stabilized for at least one month, receiving antipsychotic medication and with IQ higher than 70 (mean: 96.86, S.D. 20.67) and education level (mean: 11.15, S.D. 3.26) participated in the behavioural study. They were matched on age (mean: 33.8, S.D. 7.6) and education level (mean: 12.28, S.D. 2.87) with thirty-two healthy controls. Nineteen of schizophrenic participants (mean age: 33, S.D. 6.9 and IQ: 99, S.D. 10.74) were assessed by an fMRI adaptation of the Hayling task, matched with 12 controls (mean: 33.9, S.D. 7.3). All the participants had to perform the Hayling task and a speed accuracy task. The Hayling task consists in sentences for which the last word is missing. In the initiation condition, the participants had to complete the sentence with the appropriate word, whereas in inhibition condition the participants had to complete the sentence with inappropriate and unrelated words. Compared to controls, schizophrenics showed an increased number of errors in the inhibition of prepotent responses associated with increased reaction times, even when considering information processing speed. fMRI results showed fairly similar frontal activations in both groups. Nevertheless, schizophrenic patients presented principally large activations in dorsolateral and ventrolateral frontal cortex, the superior frontal sulcus, the frontal pole and the premotor cortex, and stronger activations (bilateral) in the posterior parietal cortex. Control subjects demonstrated a network of deactivated brain regions whereas the schizophrenics did not. Our results are in favour of poorer efficacy of restraint function, sometimes comprising impairment of inhibitory processes inducing errors in schizophrenics. This deficiency might be considered as insufficiency in attentional resources and/or in working memory. Hence patients cannot simultaneously restrain prepotent response and find appropriate controlled strategy for correct completion of the task. Moreover, bilateral patterns of parietal hyperactivation and absence of patterns of deactivation seem also in favour of an attentional hypothesis. The Hayling task might be interesting for assessment of inhibitory processes in schizophrenia.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

10.1097/WNN.0b013e3181e61cb7

Cognitive and behavioral neurology : official journal of the Society for Behavioral and Cognitive Neurology

Cogn Behav Neurol

Impaired comprehension of nonliteral language in Tourette syndrome.

To investigate theory of mind and the understanding of nonliteral language in patients with Tourette syndrome (TS). In TS, striatal dysfunction could affect the functioning of the frontal cortex. Changes in frontal functioning could lead to impairments in theory of mind: the understanding of mental states, such as beliefs, emotions, and intentions. Poor understanding of a speaker's mental state may also impair interpretation of their nonliteral remarks. In this study, patients with TS and healthy controls completed tasks to assess their understanding of sarcasm, metaphor, indirect requests, and theory of mind. These tasks were the Pragmatic Story Comprehension Task, the Hinting task, and a faux pas task. Inhibitory ability was also assessed through the use of the Hayling task and a black and white Stroop test. Patients with TS exhibited significant impairment on the faux pas task and Pragmatic Story Comprehension Task despite limited evidence of inhibitory impairment. TS may be associated with changes in theory of mind.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

10.1037/a0016152

Neuropsychology

Neuropsychology

Semantic inhibition impairment in mild cognitive impairment: a distinctive feature of upcoming cognitive decline?

This study aimed to measure semantic inhibitory capacities in persons with a diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) or mild cognitive impairment (MCI), in healthy older and younger adults. This was done by relying on a computerized adaptation of the Hayling task, designed to diminish the likelihood of using alternative noninhibitory strategies. Participants with both AD and MCI showed impaired performance on the inhibition condition. Participants with AD showed both poorer score and an increased number of errors, whereas persons with MCI obtained lower score. There was also an effect of normal aging in the inhibition condition when considering reaction time only. In participants with MCI and AD, there was a significant correlation between lexico-semantic capacities and performance on the automatic condition. Follow-up analysis revealed that participants with MCI who experienced a subsequent significant cognitive decline had impaired performance in the inhibition condition at the time of the experiment, while participants with MCI who remained stable did not. Overall, results indicate that semantic inhibition of a prepotent response is impaired in participants with MCI and may have predictive value regarding future decline, supporting its prognostic role in the early identification of dementia.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

10.1016/j.pscychresns.2009.02.009

Psychiatry research

Psychiatry Res

Brain activation during executive processes in schizophrenia.

Schizophrenia patients show some deficits in executive processes (impaired behavioural performance and abnormal brain functioning). The aim of this study is to explore the brain activity of schizophrenia patients during different inhibitory tasks. We used functional magnetic resonance imaging to investigate to investigate the restraint and deletion aspects of inhibition in 19 patients with schizophrenia and 12 normal subjects during the performance of the Hayling and the N-back tasks. The patients demonstrated impaired performance (more errors and longer reaction times) in the Hayling task. Schizophrenia subjects activated the same fronto-parietal network as the control subjects but demonstrated stronger parietal activations. For the N-back task, the deficit shown by the patients was limited to the number of target omissions. The reaction times and the number of false alarms did not differ in the two groups. We interpret this pattern of deficit as an alteration of working memory processes (and unaltered inhibition). Schizophrenia subjects showed higher activations in a fronto-parietal network. Since schizophrenia patients reached normal inhibitory performances in the N-back task and not in the Hayling task, the frontal hyperactivation may reflect an increased effort or a compensatory mechanism that facilitates the performance of executive tasks. During the Hayling task, this frontal hyperactivation was not achieved, and its absence was associated with a performance deficit relative to the performance of normal subjects.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

10.1016/j.bandc.2009.06.007

Brain and cognition

Brain Cogn

Executive functions in children with autism spectrum disorders.

Executive dysfunction is a characteristic impairment of individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). However whether such deficits are related to autism per se, or to associated intellectual disability is unclear. This paper examines executive functions in a group of children with ASD (N=54, all IQ > or = 70) in relation to a typically developing control group individually matched on the basis of age, gender, IQ and vocabulary. Significant impairments in the inhibition of prepotent responses (Stroop, Junior Hayling Test) and planning (Tower of London) were reported for children with ASD, with preserved performance for mental flexibility (Wisconsin Card Sorting Task) and generativity (Verbal Fluency). Atypical age-related patterns of performance were reported on tasks tapping response inhibition and self-monitoring for children with ASD compared to controls. The disparity between these and previous research findings are discussed. A multidimensional notion of executive functions is proposed, with difficulties in planning, the inhibition of prepotent responses and self-monitoring reflecting characteristic features of ASD that are independent of IQ and verbal ability, and relatively stable across the childhood years.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

10.1080/02699050802635273

Brain injury

Brain Inj

Can 'partial' PTSD explain differences in diagnosis of PTSD by questionnaire self-report and interview after head injury?

Can the concept of 'partial' PTSD explain the disparity between the relatively high incidence of PTSD found using self-report questionnaires and the relatively low incidence using structured interview? It was hypothesized that self-report of greater PTSD symptom severity is associated with increased heart rate and movement when responding to questions about the traumatic event, if 'partial' PTSD is an explanation. A within participants single group design. Twenty-one adults with head injury underwent self-report (Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Scale) and interview (Clinical Assessment of PTSD) assessments of PTSD, the Traumatic Memory Interview, self-report of mood (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale) and cognitive assessment (Wechsler Test of Adult Reading, Auditory Verbal Learning Test, Hayling Test, Digit Symbol Test), during which heart rate and motor activity were recorded. Self-report of greater PTSD symptom severity was not associated with increases in heart rate or movement during questions about the traumatic event. In fact, heart rate decreased from baseline in those with higher self-report scores for PTSD, consistent with curiosity about the traumatic event and not 'partial' PTSD. These preliminary findings agree with an emerging theme suggesting that, although PTSD can occur after head injury, it is easily over-diagnosed.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

10.1080/09658210802574146

Memory (Hove, England)

Memory

Inhibitory control of memory in normal ageing: dissociation between impaired intentional and preserved unintentional processes.

The aim of this study was to compare the performance of elderly and young participants on a series of memory tasks involving either intentional or unintentional inhibitory control of memory content. Intentional inhibition processes in working and episodic memory were explored with directed forgetting tasks and in semantic memory with the Hayling task. Unintentional inhibitory processes in working memory, long-term memory, and semantic memory were explored with an interference resolution task, the retrieval practice paradigm, and the flanker task, respectively. The results indicate that elderly participants' performance on the two directed forgetting tasks and the Hayling task is lower than that of young ones, and that this impairment is not related to their initial memory capacity. This suggests that there is a specific dysfunction affecting intentional inhibitory control of memory contents in normal ageing.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

10.1212/01.wnl.0000334299.72023.c8

Neurology

Neurology

Executive function in progressive and nonprogressive behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia.

Recent studies suggest that behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia (bv-FTD) patients differ in their prognosis with fast-progressing and very slow-progressing cases. We investigated executive and behavioral profiles of progressive and nonprogressive bv-FTD patients to establish diagnostic markers discriminating the two groups. A range of neuropsychological and behavioral tests were used. Mean overlap-based statistical analyses and logistic regression analyses were performed to distinguish progressive from nonprogressive bv-FTD cases. Although progressors and nonprogressors showed similar behavioral profiles, they were distinguishable by their performance on executive tasks. The nonprogressors' performance on all tests was with the normal range, whereas the progressors were consistently impaired on four tests: Digit Span Backward, Hayling Test of inhibitory control, Letter Fluency, and Trails B. Logistic regression showed that 86% of patients could be classified on the basis of Digit Span and Hayling subscores. Contrary to some prior reports, behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia (bv-FTD) patients who progress over time are typically impaired on executive tasks at first presentation, although an important minority of true FTD patients perform normally. Previous inconsistencies are explicable by the mixture of patients with progressing FTD and phenocopy cases.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

10.1016/j.psychres.2007.06.004

Psychiatry research

Psychiatry Res

Awareness of everyday executive difficulties precede overt executive dysfunction in schizotypal subjects.

Much evidence indicates that schizophrenic patients exhibit deficits on tests of executive functioning. It is therefore hypothesized that individuals with high schizotypal personality traits that may have a predisposition to schizophrenia, are also likely to exhibit impairments in neuropsychological tests of executive function. The sample consisted of 65 healthy controls that were divided into high and low scorers on the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (SPQ-B: Raine et al., 1995). Participants completed a battery of executive tasks (category and letter fluency, the Hayling test, Zoo map); however, a MANOVA revealed no significant differences between high and low SPQ scorers. Nevertheless, high SPQ scorers scored significantly higher on the Dysexecutive Questionnaire (DEX) self-rating scale of everyday executive problems; and these self-ratings correlated significantly with the disorganisation and cognitive-perceptual features of the SPQ-B, but not with the interpersonal features. This suggests that perceived executive dysfunction is pre-morbidly present and may become evident in test performance only with the onset of schizophrenia itself.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07020365

The American journal of psychiatry

Am J Psychiatry

Prefrontal function and activation in bipolar disorder and schizophrenia.

Distinctive patterns of speech and language abnormalities are associated with bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. It is, however, unclear whether the associated patterns of neural activation are diagnosis specific. The authors sought to determine whether there are differences in language-associated prefrontal activation that discriminate bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Forty-two outpatients with bipolar I disorder, 27 outpatients with schizophrenia, and 37 healthy comparison subjects were recruited. Differences in blood oxygen level-dependent activity were evaluated using the Hayling Sentence Completion Test and analyzed in Statistical Parametric Mapping (SPM) 2. Differences in activation were estimated from a sentence completion versus rest contrast and from a contrast of decreasing sentence constraint. Regional activations were related to clinical variables and performance on a set shifting task and evaluated for their ability to differentiate among the three groups. Patients with bipolar disorder showed differences in insula and dorsal prefrontal cortex activation, which differentiated them from patients with schizophrenia. Patients with bipolar disorder recruited the orbitofrontal cortex and ventral striatum to a greater extent relative to healthy comparison subjects on the parametric contrast of increasing difficulty. The gradient of ventral striatal and prefrontal activation was significantly associated with reversal errors in bipolar disorder patients. Brain activations during the Hayling task differentiated patients with bipolar disorder from comparison subjects and patients with schizophrenia. Patients with bipolar disorder showed abnormalities in frontostriatal systems associated with performance on a set shifting task. This finding suggests that bipolar disorder patients engaged emotional brain areas more than comparison subjects while performing the Hayling task.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.06.019

Neuropsychologia

Neuropsychologia

Lexical-semantic inhibitory mechanisms in Parkinson's disease as a function of subthalamic stimulation.

Inhibitory control may be affected by Parkinson's disease (PD) due to impairment within the non-motor basal ganglia-thalamocortical circuits. The present study aimed to identify the effects of chronic stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus (STN) on lexical-semantic inhibitory control. Eighteen participants with PD who had undergone surgery for deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the STN, completed a picture-word interference (PWI) task and the Hayling test in on and off stimulation conditions. The results of PD participants were compared with 21 non-neurologically impaired control participants. PD participants performed no differently from controls on the PWI task, and no significant differences between on and off stimulation conditions were revealed, therefore suggesting that PD participants are not impaired in lexical-semantic interference control. In contrast, in the off stimulation condition, PD participants had significantly delayed reaction times and increased errors on the inhibition section of the Hayling test compared with the STN stimulation condition and control participants. These results suggest that PD patients are impaired in aspects of inhibitory control that are dependent on behavioural inhibition (such as the suppression of prepotent responses) and selection from competing alternatives without the presence of external cues. Furthermore, STN stimulation acts to restore these behavioural inhibitory processes.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

Psychologie & neuropsychiatrie du vieillissement

Psychol Neuropsychiatr Vieil

[Impairment of executive function in elderly patients with major unipolar depression: influence of psychomotor retardation].

The results from several studies assessing the executive function in depressed patients compared to control subjects varied from significant impairment to normal performance. To assess the executive impairment in elderly patients with major unipolar depression and to evaluate the influence of psychomotor retardation and severity of depression in the executive deficits, the performance of 15 elderly patients with unipolar depression was compared to that of 15 elderly control subjects on executive tasks. The severity of depression was evaluated by the Montgomery and Asberg depressive scale and that of psychomotor retardation by the Widlöcher's scale. In depressed patients, deficits were found on tasks assessing cognitive flexibility (Modified card sorting test (MCST) and Trail making test B), planification and elaboration of strategies (cognitive estimates), motor initiation (graphic sequences), categorisation and hypothesis making (MCST) and interference resistance (Stroop test). However, depressed patients performed normally on the Hayling test assessing the inhibition processes. Intensity of psychomotor retardation was not correlated to the performance of executive tasks. Conversely, severity of depression was related to the scores of MCST (number of errors and perseverations), Stroop and Hayling tests (time taken to complete the end of the sentence). Unipolar depressed patients showed deficits in most tasks assessing executive function. However, inhibition processes appeared to be intact in depressed patients although their implementation was difficult. The severity of depression but not that of psychomotor retardation was associated with executive deficits.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

10.1016/j.bandc.2006.04.006

Brain and cognition

Brain Cogn

Use of the Hayling task to measure inhibition of prepotent responses in normal aging and Alzheimer's disease.

This study measures the effect of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and normal aging on the inhibition of prepotent responses. AD patients, normal aged controls, and young subjects were tested with the Hayling task, which measures the ability to inhibit a semantically constrained response, and with the Stroop procedure. AD patients showed a severe deficit in both error rates and response time on the Hayling task. Inhibition was also impaired on the Stroop procedure, both when using raw performance and when using an inhibition score that controlled for reading and naming speed. Normal aged participants showed modest impairment relative to young controls on both tests. Examination of individual performance in AD patients indicated that the impairment was found in most patients on the Hayling test but in only a subgroup of patients on the Stroop test.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

10.1080/13546800344000039

Cognitive neuropsychiatry

Cogn Neuropsychiatry

Comprehension, encoding, and monitoring in the production of confabulation in memory: a study with schizophrenic patients.

The aim of the present study was to test the hypotheses proposed by Nathaniel-James and collaborators (Nathaniel-James & Frith, 1996; Nathaniel-James, Foong, & Frith, 1996) to account for the cognitive deficits involved in the production of confabulations in schizophrenic patients: impairments in comprehension, memory encoding, and memory monitoring. Five patients were investigated in this multiple single-case study. Comprehension abilities were investigated in several tests in which a memory bias was avoided. The encoding deficit hypothesis was tested by manipulating cues at encoding and/or retrieval. "Memory monitoring" abilities were examined in two tasks: the Hayling test for all patients and an AB-AC word pairs learning task for two patients. Four of the patients produced an abnormal level of confabulations in story and fable learning tests. All patients exhibited encoding deficits and specific comprehension difficulties. However, some demonstrated preserved memory monitoring abilities. Across different tests, it was observed that the more the confabulations occurred, the more severe were the comprehension difficulties. The results are in favour of the hypothesis that verbal comprehension difficulties lead to the production of confabulation. They are inconsistent with the idea that memory monitoring impairment is necessarily involved.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

10.1017/S1355617705050927

Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society : JINS

J Int Neuropsychol Soc

Investigation of response inhibition in obsessive-compulsive disorder using the Hayling task.

This study investigates response inhibition deficits in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) by using the Hayling task. Sixteen OCD washers, 16 OCD checkers, 16 social phobic patients and 16 nonanxious controls were asked to complete sentences with either the expected word (section A: "initiation") or an unrelated word (section B: "inhibition"). The groups did not differ in terms of section B minus section A latencies. However, OCD washers and checkers made significantly more errors (sentence-related responses) in section B than social phobic patients and controls. In the OCD patients, the frequency of these errors correlates with the total OCD severity score and the compulsion subscore, but not with the depression and anxiety scores. These findings suggest that OCD patients might present a specific deficit affecting the inhibition of a prepotent response.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

10.1016/s0010-9452(08)70868-2

Cortex; a journal devoted to the study of the nervous system and behavior

Cortex

Frontal cortex as the central executive of working memory: time to revise our view.

For historical reasons (Bianchi, 1895; Harlow, 1968; Luria, 1966; Shallice, 1982), a specific link between the central executive of working memory and the frontal cortex was originally suggested by Baddeley (1986). This review discusses the evidence against such a univocal link. Two executive processes investigated in neuropsychology are discussed: inhibition (WCST, Stroop, proactive interference, go-no go, Stop signal and the Hayling test) and dual-task management. The evidence reviewed demonstrates (i) that executive processes involve links between different brain areas, not exclusively with the frontal cortex, (ii) that patients with no evidence of frontal damage present with executive deficits, and (iii) that patients with frontal lesions do not always show executive deficits. In conclusion, this review suggests that it is time for a more dynamic and flexible view of the neural substrate of executive processes to be considered. It also confirms, as recently suggested by Baddeley (1996, 1998a, 1998b), that the study of frontal patients cannot be used as a primary source of evidence to understand CE functions.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

10.1076/jcen.25.6.751.16478

Journal of clinical and experimental neuropsychology

J Clin Exp Neuropsychol

Investigation of supervisory attentional system functions in patients with Parkinson's disease using the Hayling task.

The study explored executive dysfunction in Parkinson's disease (PD) by using the Hayling test (Burgess & Shallice, 1996) and verbal fluency tasks (VFTs). PD patients showed longer response latencies than controls in both parts of the Hayling test (Section A/automatic and Section B/inhibition). Patients and controls did not differ in the proportion of errors or number of responses that revealed the use of strategies. PD patients also showed verbal fluency deficits in semantic, phonemic, and alternating fluency tasks. These impairments on tests known to be sensitive to frontal lobe dysfunction confirm executive or Supervisory Attentional System (Norman & Shallice, 1986) deficits and further indicate suppression skills impairments in PD.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

10.1006/nimg.2002.1167

NeuroImage

Neuroimage

The role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex: evidence from the effects of contextual constraint in a sentence completion task.

Although the prefrontal cortices, in particular the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), have been examined in numerous imaging and neuropsychological studies, it has proved difficult to assign a specific function to this brain region. The aim of this study was therefore to delineate the function of the DLPFC first by using positron emission tomography with a word generation task and second by comparing these findings with a series of different circumstances in which the DLPFC is activated in association with response selection. Six healthy volunteers were presented with a sentence completion task based on the Hayling test. In each of two conditions, (A) response initiation and (B) response suppression, volunteers saw a sentence with the final word omitted. In condition A they had to provide a word that fitted at the end of the sentence and in condition B they had to provide a word that did not fit. The corpus of sentences used varied systematically in their level of contextual constraint, ranging from low to high. With all levels of constraint combined, significant greater activation was observed in the left DLPFC (BA46/9) under the suppression condition and in the medial orbitofrontal cortex (BA11) under the initiation condition. Under the high-constraint condition with both tasks combined, significant right middle temporal activity (BA21) was observed, whereas under low constraint, the left DLPFC was significantly activated. An interaction of task and constraint revealed that the left DLPFC was significantly more active in the suppression task at all levels of constraint, but only under the low-constraint conditions in the initiation task. The reaction time analyses mirrored the pattern of activity observed, with slower reaction times under conditions of suppression and under conditions of initiation with low constraint. By comparing these findings with other studies of response selection, we argue that the most likely single cognitive function of the DLPFC is to specify a set of responses suitable for a given task and to bias these for selection (sculpting the response space). This function resembles the biasing of competition between stimuli in the model of Desimone and Duncan and is analogous to the component of the Supervisory Attentional System that modulates the contention scheduling system.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

10.1093/alcalc/37.4.347

Alcohol and alcoholism (Oxford, Oxfordshire)

Alcohol Alcohol

Contribution of frontal cerebral blood flow measured by (99m)Tc-Bicisate spect and executive function deficits to predicting treatment outcome in alcohol-dependent patients.

To determine whether inhibition and working memory deficits, and reduced regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) (previously shown to be related), measured at the end of a detoxification programme, predict alcoholic relapse 2 months later. Twenty uncomplicated alcoholic inpatients were investigated at the end of detoxification, at least 7 days since the last dose of diazepam, and a mean of 18.8 days since the last drink. Their performance was assessed on the inhibition (Hayling) test, working memory (Alpha-span task), episodic memory (California Verbal Learning Test) and abstract reasoning (Progressive Matrices). Frontal CBF was assessed at the same time with a semiquantitative (99m)Tc-Bicisate SPECT procedure. Patients were contacted 2 months later. Patients who abstained (n = 9) did not differ from those who relapsed (n = 11) on age, gender, smoking, duration of alcohol misuse, number of previous detoxifications, amount of ethanol consumed the month prior to admission to the detoxification programme, state anxiety, trait anxiety, or depression. Relapsed subjects had shown a lower uptake of (99m)Tc-Bicisate in the bilateral medial frontal gyrus (n = 9; mean ratio +/- SD = 0.69 +/- 0.006) than abstainers (n = 11; 0.85 +/- 0.19), and poorer performance on the Alpha-span task and the Hayling test. The other tests were not different. Inhibition and working memory deficits, associated with low levels of CBF in the medial frontal gyrus, are related to the difficulty of maintaining short-term abstinence from alcohol.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

10.1093/alcalc/36.6.556

Alcohol and alcoholism (Oxford, Oxfordshire)

Alcohol Alcohol

Correlation between inhibition, working memory and delimited frontal area blood flow measure by 99mTc-Bicisate SPECT in alcohol-dependent patients.

Recently detoxified non-neurological alcoholic patients appear to be impaired in cognitive tasks measuring inhibitory processes as well as working memory (involving storage and manipulation of information). The aim of this study was to investigate in alcoholic participants the relationship between these two cognitive functions and regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) studied at rest in regions of interest selected on the basis of recent PET studies which explored inhibitory and working memory in normal subjects. Twenty non-neurological alcoholic patients and 20 normal volunteers were selected for a neuropsychological exploration, including assessment of inhibition processes (by means of the Hayling test) and working memory (by means of the Alpha-span task). rCBF of alcoholics was also evaluated with a semi-quantitative method using a 99mTc-Bicisate single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) procedure. Alcoholic patients performed worse than controls in the alphabetical condition of the Alpha-span task (involving manipulation and storage of information), and on the Hayling test. Significant correlation emerged between inhibition performance and both the bilateral inferior (left BA 47, r = -0.40; right BA 47, r = -0.599) and median frontal gyrus (left BA 10, r = -0.55; right BA 10, r = -0.59), but not with the region of reference (occipital/cerebellum, r = -0.13). Coordination of storage and manipulation was correlated with bilateral median frontal (left BA 10/46, r = -0.50; right BA 10/46, r = -0.45), but not with bilateral parietal area (left BA 7, r = -0.12, right BA 7, r = -0.18). These results suggest a relationship between inhibition and working memory deficits in alcoholic patients, and regional rCBF measured in frontal areas. Clinical implications of these data related to alcohol relapse are discussed.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

10.1006/nimg.2001.0846

NeuroImage

Neuroimage

The functional anatomy of inhibition processes investigated with the Hayling task.

The cortical areas involved in inhibition processes were examined with positron emission tomography (PET). The tasks administered to subjects were an adaptation of the Hayling test. In the first condition (response initiation), subjects had to complete sentences with a word clearly suggested by the context, whereas in the second condition (response inhibition), subjects had to produce a word that made no sense in the context of the sentence. Results indicated that the response initiation processes were associated to increases of activity in the left inferior frontal gyrus (BA 45/47), whereas response inhibition processes led to increases in a network of left prefrontal areas, including the middle (BA 9 and BA 10) and inferior (BA 45) frontal areas.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

10.1016/s0028-3932(96)00104-2

Neuropsychologia

Neuropsychologia

The functional anatomy of verbal initiation and suppression using the Hayling Test.

This study utilised positron emission tomography (PET) to identify the cortical areas involved in verbal initiation and suppression in normal subjects whilst performing a sentence completion test (the Hayling Test). In the first condition (response initiation) subjects were required to complete a sentence from which the last word was omitted, whereas in the second condition (response suppression) subjects were asked to complete a sentence with a word which made no sense in the context of the sentence. Subjects were also required to perform a control task in which they had to read out the last word of given sentences. Compared to the control task, response initiation was associated with left-sided activation of the frontal operculum, inferior frontal gyrus, middle temporal gyrus and the right anterior cingulate gyrus, whereas response suppression was associated with left frontal operculum, inferior frontal gyrus and right anterior cingulate gyrus activation. The difference in activation between the two conditions of the Hayling Test lay in the increased activation of the left middle temporal gyrus and the left inferior frontal gyrus during response initiation.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

10.1017/s0033291700034784

Psychological medicine

Psychol Med

Confabulation in schizophrenia: evidence of a new form?

This study is an attempt to demonstrate confabulation in schizophrenia. Twelve patients who met DSM-III-R criteria for schizophrenia were matched for age, sex and pre-morbid IQ with 12 volunteers, 9 of whom were normal healthy subjects, with the remainder being depressed patients. To elicit confabulation, subjects were asked to recall narratives. In addition, subjects were examined on a number of neuropsychological tests. Confabulation was defined as recall of information not present in the narrative. Variable amounts of confabulation were observed in all schizophrenics, while only one control subject confabulated. The content and structure of their productions differed from previously reported forms of confabulation in that schizophrenic patients spontaneously rearranged the original narratives to produce new ideas. The amount of confabulation was found to be related to difficulties in suppressing inappropriate responses (Hayling test) and formal thought disorder, but unrelated to understanding of the gist or moral of the narratives. Tentative mechanisms for the process of confabulation are proposed, based on specific difficulties with comprehension, response monitoring and response suppression.

CognitiveTask

Hayling_test

10.1016/j.neunet.2021.07.011

Neural networks : the official journal of the International Neural Network Society

Neural Netw

Bio-instantiated recurrent neural networks: Integrating neurobiology-based network topology in artificial networks.

Biological neuronal networks (BNNs) are a source of inspiration and analogy making for researchers that focus on artificial neuronal networks (ANNs). Moreover, neuroscientists increasingly use ANNs as a model for the brain. Despite certain similarities between these two types of networks, important differences can be discerned. First, biological neural networks are sculpted by evolution and the constraints that it entails, whereas artificial neural networks are engineered to solve particular tasks. Second, the network topology of these systems, apart from some analogies that can be drawn, exhibits pronounced differences. Here, we examine strategies to construct recurrent neural networks (RNNs) that instantiate the network topology of brains of different species. We refer to such RNNs as bio-instantiated. We investigate the performance of bio-instantiated RNNs in terms of: (i) the prediction performance itself, that is, the capacity of the network to minimize the cost function at hand in test data, and (ii) speed of training, that is, how fast during training the network reaches its optimal performance. We examine bio-instantiated RNNs in working memory tasks where task-relevant information must be tracked as a sequence of events unfolds in time. We highlight the strategies that can be used to construct RNNs with the network topology found in BNNs, without sacrificing performance. Despite that we observe no enhancement of performance when compared to randomly wired RNNs, our approach demonstrates how empirical neural network data can be used for constructing RNNs, thus, facilitating further experimentation with biologically realistic network topologies, in contexts where such aspect is desired.

CognitiveTask

AnalogyMakingTask

10.1111/nyas.14619

Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences

Ann N Y Acad Sci

Abstraction and analogy-making in artificial intelligence.

Conceptual abstraction and analogy-making are key abilities underlying humans' abilities to learn, reason, and robustly adapt their knowledge to new domains. Despite a long history of research on constructing artificial intelligence (AI) systems with these abilities, no current AI system is anywhere close to a capability of forming humanlike abstractions or analogies. This paper reviews the advantages and limitations of several approaches toward this goal, including symbolic methods, deep learning, and probabilistic program induction. The paper concludes with several proposals for designing challenge tasks and evaluation measures in order to make quantifiable and generalizable progress in this area.

CognitiveTask

AnalogyMakingTask

10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00563

Frontiers in psychology

Front Psychol

Relation-Based Categorization and Category Learning as a Result From Structural Alignment. The Model.

Relational categories are structure-based categories, defined not only by their internal properties but also by their extrinsic relations with other categories. For example, predator could not be defined without referring to hunt and prey. Even though they are commonly used, there are few models taking into account any relational information. A category learning and categorization model aiming to fill this gap is presented. Previous research addresses the hypothesis that the acquisition and the use of relational categories are underlined by structural alignment. That is why the proposed model is based on mechanisms often studied as the analogy-making sub-processes, developed on a suitable for this cognitive architecture. is conceived in such a way that relation-based category learning and categorization emerge while other tasks are performed. The assumption it steps on is that people constantly make structural alignments between what they experience and what they know. During these alignments various mappings and anticipations emerge. The mappings capture commonalities between the target (the representation of the current situation) and the memory, while the anticipations try to fill the missing information in the target, based on the conceptual system. Because some of the mappings are highly important, they are transformed into a distributed representation of a new concept for further use, which denotes the category learning. When some knowledge is missing in the target, meaning it is uncategorized, that knowledge is transferred from memory in the form of anticipations. The wining anticipation is transformed into a category member, denoting the act of categorization. The model's behavior emerges from the competition between these two pressures - to categorize and to create new categories. Several groups of simulations demonstrate that the model can deal with relational categories in a context-dependent manner and to account for single-shot learning, challenging most of the existing approaches to category learning. The model also simulates previous empirical data pointing to the thematic categories and to the puzzling inverse base-rate effect. Finally, the model's strengths and limitations are evaluated.

CognitiveTask

AnalogyMakingTask

10.1109/TPAMI.2018.2854726

IEEE transactions on pattern analysis and machine intelligence

IEEE Trans Pattern Anal Mach Intell

Visual Dynamics: Stochastic Future Generation via Layered Cross Convolutional Networks.

We study the problem of synthesizing a number of likely future frames from a single input image. In contrast to traditional methods that have tackled this problem in a deterministic or non-parametric way, we propose to model future frames in a probabilistic manner. Our probabilistic model makes it possible for us to sample and synthesize many possible future frames from a single input image. To synthesize realistic movement of objects, we propose a novel network structure, namely a Cross Convolutional Network; this network encodes image and motion information as feature maps and convolutional kernels, respectively. In experiments, our model performs well on synthetic data, such as 2D shapes and animated game sprites, and on real-world video frames. We present analyses of the learned network representations, showing it is implicitly learning a compact encoding of object appearance and motion. We also demonstrate a few of its applications, including visual analogy-making and video extrapolation.

CognitiveTask

AnalogyMakingTask

10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005683

PLoS computational biology

PLoS Comput Biol

Towards a category theory approach to analogy: Analyzing re-representation and acquisition of numerical knowledge.

Category Theory, a branch of mathematics, has shown promise as a modeling framework for higher-level cognition. We introduce an algebraic model for analogy that uses the language of category theory to explore analogy-related cognitive phenomena. To illustrate the potential of this approach, we use this model to explore three objects of study in cognitive literature. First, (a) we use commutative diagrams to analyze an effect of playing particular educational board games on the learning of numbers. Second, (b) we employ a notion called coequalizer as a formal model of re-representation that explains a property of computational models of analogy called "flexibility" whereby non-similar representational elements are considered matches and placed in structural correspondence. Finally, (c) we build a formal learning model which shows that re-representation, language processing and analogy making can explain the acquisition of knowledge of rational numbers. These objects of study provide a picture of acquisition of numerical knowledge that is compatible with empirical evidence and offers insights on possible connections between notions such as relational knowledge, analogy, learning, conceptual knowledge, re-representation and procedural knowledge. This suggests that the approach presented here facilitates mathematical modeling of cognition and provides novel ways to think about analogy-related cognitive phenomena.

CognitiveTask

AnalogyMakingTask

10.3758/s13428-016-0788-z

Behavior research methods

Behav Res Methods

An evaluation of scanpath-comparison and machine-learning classification algorithms used to study the dynamics of analogy making.

In recent years, eyetracking has begun to be used to study the dynamics of analogy making. Numerous scanpath-comparison algorithms and machine-learning techniques are available that can be applied to the raw eyetracking data. We show how scanpath-comparison algorithms, combined with multidimensional scaling and a classification algorithm, can be used to resolve an outstanding question in analogy making-namely, whether or not children's and adults' strategies in solving analogy problems are different. (They are.) We show which of these scanpath-comparison algorithms is best suited to the kinds of analogy problems that have formed the basis of much analogy-making research over the years. Furthermore, we use machine-learning classification algorithms to examine the item-to-item saccade vectors making up these scanpaths. We show which of these algorithms best predicts, from very early on in a trial, on the basis of the frequency of various item-to-item saccades, whether a child or an adult is doing the problem. This type of analysis can also be used to predict, on the basis of the item-to-item saccade dynamics in the first third of a trial, whether or not a problem will be solved correctly.

CognitiveTask

AnalogyMakingTask

10.3389/fnhum.2014.00867

Frontiers in human neuroscience

Front Hum Neurosci

Analogy, explanation, and proof.

People are habitual explanation generators. At its most mundane, our propensity to explain allows us to infer that we should not drink milk that smells sour; at the other extreme, it allows us to establish facts (e.g., theorems in mathematical logic) whose truth was not even known prior to the existence of the explanation (proof). What do the cognitive operations underlying the inference that the milk is sour have in common with the proof that, say, the square root of two is irrational? Our ability to generate explanations bears striking similarities to our ability to make analogies. Both reflect a capacity to generate inferences and generalizations that go beyond the featural similarities between a novel problem and familiar problems in terms of which the novel problem may be understood. However, a notable difference between analogy-making and explanation-generation is that the former is a process in which a single source situation is used to reason about a single target, whereas the latter often requires the reasoner to integrate multiple sources of knowledge. This seemingly small difference poses a challenge to the task of marshaling our understanding of analogical reasoning to understanding explanation. We describe a model of explanation, derived from a model of analogy, adapted to permit systematic violations of this one-to-one mapping constraint. Simulation results demonstrate that the resulting model can generate explanations for novel explananda and that, like the explanations generated by human reasoners, these explanations vary in their coherence.

CognitiveTask

AnalogyMakingTask

10.1371/journal.pone.0085232

PloS one

PLoS One

When none of us perform better than all of us together: the role of analogical decision rules in groups.

During social interactions, groups develop collective competencies that (ideally) should assist groups to outperform average standalone individual members (weak cognitive synergy) or the best performing member in the group (strong cognitive synergy). In two experimental studies we manipulate the type of decision rule used in group decision-making (identify the best vs. collaborative), and the way in which the decision rules are induced (direct vs. analogical) and we test the effect of these two manipulations on the emergence of strong and weak cognitive synergy. Our most important results indicate that an analogically induced decision rule (imitate-the-successful heuristic) in which groups have to identify the best member and build on his/her performance (take-the-best heuristic) is the most conducive for strong cognitive synergy. Our studies bring evidence for the role of analogy-making in groups as well as the role of fast-and-frugal heuristics for group decision-making.

CognitiveTask

AnalogyMakingTask

10.1186/2193-1801-2-495

SpringerPlus

Springerplus

The dilemma of the symbols: analogies between philosophy, biology and artificial life.

This article analyzes some analogies going from Artificial Life questions about the symbol-matter connection to Artificial Intelligence questions about symbol-grounding. It focuses on the notion of the interpretability of syntax and how the symbols are integrated in a unity ("binding problem"). Utilizing the DNA code as a model, this paper discusses how syntactic features could be defined as high-grade characteristics of the non syntactic relations in a material-dynamic structure, by using an emergentist approach. This topic furnishes the ground for a confutation of J. Searle's statement that syntax is observer-relative, as he wrote in his book "Mind: A Brief Introduction". Moreover the evolving discussion also modifies the classic symbol-processing doctrine in the mind which Searle attacks as a strong AL argument, that life could be implemented in a computational mode. Lastly, this paper furnishes a new way of support for the autonomous systems thesis in Artificial Life and Artificial Intelligence, using, inter alia, the "adaptive resonance theory" (ART).

CognitiveTask

AnalogyMakingTask

10.1186/1759-4499-4-2

Automated experimentation

Autom Exp

Design preferences and cognitive styles: experimentation by automated website synthesis.

This article aims to demonstrate computational synthesis of Web-based experiments in undertaking experimentation on relationships among the participants' design preference, rationale, and cognitive test performance. The exemplified experiments were computationally synthesised, including the websites as materials, experiment protocols as methods, and cognitive tests as protocol modules. This work also exemplifies the use of a website synthesiser as an essential instrument enabling the participants to explore different possible designs, which were generated on the fly, before selection of preferred designs. The participants were given interactive tree and table generators so that they could explore some different ways of presenting causality information in tables and trees as the visualisation formats. The participants gave their preference ratings for the available designs, as well as their rationale (criteria) for their design decisions. The participants were also asked to take four cognitive tests, which focus on the aspects of visualisation and analogy-making. The relationships among preference ratings, rationale, and the results of cognitive tests were analysed by conservative non-parametric statistics including Wilcoxon test, Krustal-Wallis test, and Kendall correlation. In the test, 41 of the total 64 participants preferred graphical (tree-form) to tabular presentation. Despite the popular preference for graphical presentation, the given tabular presentation was generally rated to be easier than graphical presentation to interpret, especially by those who were scored lower in the visualization and analogy-making tests. This piece of evidence helps generate a hypothesis that design preferences are related to specific cognitive abilities. Without the use of computational synthesis, the experiment setup and scientific results would be impractical to obtain.

CognitiveTask

AnalogyMakingTask

10.3758/PBR.17.4.569

Psychonomic bulletin & review

Psychon Bull Rev

Cognitive load and semantic analogies: Searching semantic space.

The aim of the present study is to investigate the performance of children of different ages on an analogy-making task involving semantic analogies in which there are competing semantic matches. We suggest that this can best be studied in terms of developmental changes in executive functioning. We hypothesize that the selection of common relational structure requires the inhibition of other salient features, in particular semantically related matches. Our results show that children's performance in classic A: B:: C: D analogy-making tasks seems to depend crucially on the nature of the distractors and the association strength between both the A and B terms and the C and D terms. These results agree with an analogy-making account (Richland, Morrison, & Holyoak, 2006) based on different limitations in executive functioning at different ages.

CognitiveTask

AnalogyMakingTask

10.1007/s10339-010-0367-7

Cognitive processing

Cogn Process

Analogical insight: toward unifying categorization and analogy.

The purpose of this paper is to present two kinds of analogical representational change, both occurring early in the analogy-making process, and then, using these two kinds of change, to present a model unifying one sort of analogy-making and categorization. The proposed unification rests on three key claims: (1) a certain type of rapid representational abstraction is crucial to making the relevant analogies (this is the first kind of representational change; a computer model is presented that demonstrates this kind of abstraction), (2) rapid abstractions are induced by retrieval across large psychological distances, and (3) both categorizations and analogies supply understandings of perceptual input via construing, which is a proposed type of categorization (this is the second kind of representational change). It is construing that finalizes the unification.

CognitiveTask

AnalogyMakingTask

10.1080/17588921003786606

Cognitive neuroscience

Cogn Neurosci

Analogical reasoning: An incremental or insightful process? What cognitive and cortical evidence suggests.

Abstract The step-by-step, incremental nature of analogical reasoning can be questioned, since analogy making appears to be an insight-like process. This alternative view of analogical thinking can be integrated in Speed's model, even though the alleged role played by dopaminergic subcortical circuits needs further supporting evidence.

CognitiveTask

AnalogyMakingTask

10.1016/j.jecp.2010.01.001

Journal of experimental child psychology

J Exp Child Psychol

The development of analogy making in children: cognitive load and executive functions.

The aim of the current study was to investigate the performance of 6-, 8-, and 14-year-olds on an analogy-making task involving analogies in which there are competing perceptual and relational matches. We hypothesized that the selection of the common relational structure requires the inhibition of other salient features, in particular, perceptual matches. Using an A:B::C:D paradigm, we showed that children's performance in analogy-making tasks depends crucially on the nature of the distractors. Children chose more perceptual distractors having a common feature with C compared with A or B (Experiment 1). In addition, they were also influenced by unstructured random textures. When measuring reaction times instead of accurate responses, only the 8-year-olds' reaction times were significantly influenced by perceptual distractors. The 6-year-olds seemed to select the first match they noticed, and the 14-year-olds were not influenced (or much less influenced) by featural distractors. These results are compatible with an analogy-making account based on varying limitations in executive functioning at different ages.

CognitiveTask

AnalogyMakingTask

10.1016/j.tins.2007.04.004

Trends in neurosciences

Trends Neurosci

The topographic brain: from neural connectivity to cognition.

A hallmark feature of vertebrate brain organization is ordered topography, wherein sets of neuronal connections preserve the relative organization of cells between two regions. Although topography is often found in projections from peripheral sense organs to the brain, it also seems to participate in the anatomical and functional organization of higher brain centers, for reasons that are poorly understood. We propose that a key function of topography might be to provide computational underpinnings for precise one-to-one correspondences between abstract cognitive representations. This perspective offers a novel conceptualization of how the brain approaches difficult problems, such as reasoning and analogy making, and suggests that a broader understanding of topographic maps could be pivotal in fostering strong links between genetics, neurophysiology and cognition.

CognitiveTask

AnalogyMakingTask

10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.01.035

NeuroImage

Neuroimage

Neural correlates of intelligence as revealed by fMRI of fluid analogies.

It has been conjectured that the cognitive basis of intelligence is the ability to make fluid or creative analogical relationships between distantly related concepts or pieces of information (Hofstadter, D.R. 1995. Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies. Basic Books, New York., Hofstadter, D.R. 2001. Analogy as the Core of Cognition. In The Analogical Mind: Perspectives from Cognitive Science (D. Gentner, K. J. Holyoak and B. N. Kokinov, Ed.). pp. 504-537. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.). We hypothesised that fluid analogy-making tasks would activate specific regions of frontal cortex that were common to those of previous inferential reasoning tasks. We report here a novel self-paced event-related fMRI study employed to investigate the neural correlates of intelligence associated with undertaking fluid letter string analogy tasks. Stimuli were adapted from items of the AI program Copycat (Mitchell, M. 1993. Analogy-making as Perception: A computer model. The MIT Press, Cambridge MA.). Twelve right-handed adults chose their own "best" completions from four plausible response choices to 55 fluid letter string analogies across a range of analogical depths. An analysis using covariates determined per subject by analogical depth revealed significant bilateral neural activations in the superior, inferior, and middle frontal gyri and in the anterior cingulate/paracingulate cortex. These frontal areas have been previously associated with reasoning tasks involving inductive syllogisms, syntactic hierarchies, and linguistic creativity. A higher-order analysis covarying participants' verbal intelligence measures found correlations with individual BOLD activation strengths in two ROIs within BA 9 and BA 45/46. This is a provocative result given that verbal intelligence is conceptualised as being a measure of crystallised intelligence, while analogy making is conceptualised as requiring fluid intelligence. The results therefore support the conjecture that fluid analogising could underpin general intellectual performance.

CognitiveTask

AnalogyMakingTask

10.1186/1472-6947-4-19

BMC medical informatics and decision making

BMC Med Inform Decis Mak

Case-based medical informatics.

The "applied" nature distinguishes applied sciences from theoretical sciences. To emphasize this distinction, we begin with a general, meta-level overview of the scientific endeavor. We introduce the knowledge spectrum and four interconnected modalities of knowledge. In addition to the traditional differentiation between implicit and explicit knowledge we outline the concepts of general and individual knowledge. We connect general knowledge with the "frame problem," a fundamental issue of artificial intelligence, and individual knowledge with another important paradigm of artificial intelligence, case-based reasoning, a method of individual knowledge processing that aims at solving new problems based on the solutions to similar past problems. We outline the fundamental differences between Medical Informatics and theoretical sciences and propose that Medical Informatics research should advance individual knowledge processing (case-based reasoning) and that natural language processing research is an important step towards this goal that may have ethical implications for patient-centered health medicine. We focus on fundamental aspects of decision-making, which connect human expertise with individual knowledge processing. We continue with a knowledge spectrum perspective on biomedical knowledge and conclude that case-based reasoning is the paradigm that can advance towards personalized healthcare and that can enable the education of patients and providers. We center the discussion on formal methods of knowledge representation around the frame problem. We propose a context-dependent view on the notion of "meaning" and advocate the need for case-based reasoning research and natural language processing. In the context of memory based knowledge processing, pattern recognition, comparison and analogy-making, we conclude that while humans seem to naturally support the case-based reasoning paradigm (memory of past experiences of problem-solving and powerful case matching mechanisms), technical solutions are challenging.Finally, we discuss the major challenges for a technical solution: case record comprehensiveness, organization of information on similarity principles, development of pattern recognition and solving ethical issues. Medical Informatics is an applied science that should be committed to advancing patient-centered medicine through individual knowledge processing. Case-based reasoning is the technical solution that enables a continuous individual knowledge processing and could be applied providing that challenges and ethical issues arising are addressed appropriately.

CognitiveTask

AnalogyMakingTask

10.1016/s1364-6613(02)01882-x

Trends in cognitive sciences

Trends Cogn Sci

The computational modeling of analogy-making.

Our ability to see a particular object or situation in one context as being 'the same as' another object or situation in another context is the essence of analogy-making. It encompasses our ability to explain new concepts in terms of already-familiar ones, to emphasize particular aspects of situations, to generalize, to characterize, to explain or describe new phenomena, to serve as a basis for how to act in unfamiliar surroundings, and to understand many types of humor. Within this framework, the importance of analogy-making in modeling cognition becomes clear.

CognitiveTask

AnalogyMakingTask

10.1016/s0893-6080(99)00106-9

Neural networks : the official journal of the International Neural Network Society

Neural Netw

A neural network theory of proportional analogy-making.

A neural network model that can simulate the learning of some simple proportional analogies is presented. These analogies include, for example, (a) red-square:red-circle :: yellow-square:?, (b) apple:red :: banana: ?, (c) a:b :: c:?. Underlying the development of this network is a theory for how the brain learns the nature of association between pairs of concepts. Traditional Hebbian learning of associations is necessary for this process but not sufficient. This is because it simply says, for example, that the concepts "apple" and "red" have been associated, but says nothing about the nature of this relationship. The types of context-dependent interlevel connections in the network suggest a semilocal type of learning that in some manner involves association among more than two nodes or neurons at once. Such connections have been called synaptic triads, and related to potential cell responses in the prefrontal cortex. Some additional types of connections are suggested by the problem of modeling analogies. These types of connections have not yet been verified by brain imaging, but the work herein suggests that they may occur and, possibly, be made and broken quickly in the course of working memory encoding. These working memory connections are referred to as differential, delayed and anti-Hebbian connections. In these connections, one can learn transitions such as "keep red the same"; "change red to yellow"; "turn off red"; "turn on yellow," and so forth. Also, included in the network is a kind of weight transport so that, for example, red to red can be transported to a different instance of color, such as yellow to yellow. The network instantiation developed here, based on common connectionist building blocks such as associative learning, competition, and adaptive resonance, along with additional principles suggested by analogy data, is a step toward a theory of interactions among several brain areas to develop and learn meaningful relationships between concepts.

CognitiveTask

AnalogyMakingTask