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[
"The thirty-five- to forty-five-year-old age group is one in which people tend to have comparatively high levels of income and are involved in making household purchases.",
"People in the thirty-five- to forty-five-year-old age group are more likely to listen to the radio for news than for music.",
"In a number of cities demographically similar to Greenfield, radio stations that play recordings of popular music from fifteen to twenty-five years ago have succeeded commercially.",
"Among the few radio stations in the Greenfield area, there is none that plays music from this particular period for more than a few hours per week."
] | A new commercial radio station in Greenfield plans to play songs that were popular hits fifteen to twenty-five years ago. It hopes in this way to attract an audience made up mainly of people between thirty-five and forty-five years old and thereby to have a strong market appeal to advertisers. | 1 | train_100 | Each of the following, if true, strengthens the prospects that the radio station's plan will succeed EXCEPT: |
[
"In most cultures art is owned by a small social elite.",
"Our own standard of beauty was strongly influenced by our exposure to works that were considered beautiful in earlier cultures.",
"Few contemporary artists have been significantly exposed to the art of earlier cultures.",
"The arts held a much more important place in earlier cultures than they do in our culture."
] | It is often said that beauty is subjective. But this judgment has to be false. If one tries to glean the standard of beauty of earlier cultures from the artistic works they considered most beautiful, one cannot but be impressed by its similarity to our own standard. In many fundamental ways, what was considered beautiful in those cultures is still considered beautiful in our own time. | 1 | train_101 | Which one of the following statements, if true, most weakens the argument? |
[
"Mr. Rowe's Milton Elementary School class raised more money by selling candy bars than Ms. Hunt's class raised by holding a raffle. Ttherefore, the number of candy bars sold by Mr. Rowe's class was greater than the number of raffle tickets sold by Ms. Hunt's class.",
"More than half of Milton Elementary School's students play in the band and more than half of the school's students sing in the choir. Ttherefore, every student at Milton Elementary School either plays in the band or sings in the choir.",
"The total number of tickets to the school fair sold by the students in Ms. Ramirez's Milton Elementary School class was greater than the number sold by Milton students from any other class. Ttherefore, the Milton student who sold the most tickets to the school fair was a student in Ms. Ramirez's class.",
"Ms. Ventura's Milton Elementary School class assembled more birdhouses than did any of the school's other classes. Since Ms. Ventura's class had fewer students than any other Milton class, her students assembled more birdhouses, on average, than did the students in any other Milton class."
] | Altogether, the students in Ms. Tarnowski' s Milton Elementary School class collected more aluminum cans than did the students in any of the school' s other classes. Ttherefore, the Milton student who collected the most aluminum cans was in Ms. Tarnowski' s class. | 2 | train_102 | Which one of the following arguments contains flawed reasoning that is most parallel to that in the argument above? |
[
"Few people depend exclusively on apricots and carrots to supply vitamin C to their diets.",
"A liquid can lose vitamins if it stands in contact with the air for a protracted period of time.",
"The amount of vitamin C provided by a serving of the advertised soup is less than the amount furnished by a serving of fresh strawberries.",
"Apricots and fresh carrots are widely known to be nutritious, but their contribution consists primarily in providing a large amount of vitamin A, not a large amount of vitamin C."
] | Our tomato soup provides good nutrition: for instance, a warm bowl of it contains more units of vitamin C than does a serving of apricots or fresh carrots! | 3 | train_103 | The advertisement is misleading if which one of the following is true? |
[
"world travel is only possible via routes serviced by airlines",
"most forms of world travel are not affordable for most people",
"anyone can afford to travel long distances by air",
"the majority of people are rich"
] | Harry: Airlines have made it possible for anyone to travel around the world in much less time than was formerly possible. Judith: That is not true. Many nights are too expensive for all but the rich. | 2 | train_104 | Judith's response shows that she interprets Harry's statement to imply that |
[
"One is justified in performing an act if one is willing to submit oneself to the consequences of that action performed by oneself or others.",
"One should always choose to act in a way that will benefit the greatest number of people.",
"One is justified in performing an act if other people are also planning to perform that kind of act.",
"One should never perform an act until one has fully analyzed all the ways in which that act could impact others."
] | Food company engineer: I stand by my decision to order the dumping of small amounts of chemicals into the local river even though there is some evidence that this material may pose health problems. 1 fish in the river myself and will continue to do so. Furthermore, I will have no problem if other food manufacturers do what our company does. | 0 | train_105 | The engineer's reasoning most closely conforms to which one of the following principles? |
[
"One gram of saturated fat in food has roughly the same effect on blood cholesterol as 25 milligrams of cholesterol in food.",
"Light cream, a dairy product that contains 5 times more cholesterol than does whole milk, is often chosen as a lightener by consumers who normally prefer whole milk.",
"Certain nondairy coffee lighteners made without coconut oil contain less saturated fat and less cholesterol than does whole milk.",
"Nutritionists recommend that adults consume as little saturated fat as possible and no more than 250 milligrams of cholesterol a day."
] | Although nondairy coffee lighteners made with coconut oil contain 2 grams of saturated fat per tablespoon, or 7 times more than does whole milk, those lighteners usually contain no cholesterol. Yet one tablespoon of such lighteners causes the consumer' s blood cholesterol to rise to a higher level than does an identical amount of whole milk, which contains 2 milligrams of cholesterol per tablespoon. | 0 | train_106 | Which one of the following, if true, contributes most to an explanation of the apparent discrepancy noted above? |
[
"A substantial number of fish species are in danger of imminent extinction.",
"The rate of extinction of North American fishes is parallel to the rate of extinction of all animal species taken together.",
"There is evidence that the rate of extinction of animal species is accelerating.",
"Forty species and subspecies of North American fishes have vanished in the twentieth century."
] | The authors of a recent article examined warnings of an impending wave of extinctions of animal species within the next 100 years. These authors say that no evidence exists to support the idea that the rate of extinction of animal species is now accelerating. They are wrong, however. Consider only the data on fishes: 40 species and subspecies of North American fishes have vanished in the twentieth century, 13 between 1900 and 1950, and 27 since 1950. | 2 | train_107 | Which one of the following is the main point of the argument? |
[
"Ethanol is comparable in price to gasoline.",
"When burned as fuel, ethanol does not release any pollutants at higher levels than does gasoline.",
"Available supplies of corn are sufficient to supply several years' worth of ethanol.",
"Ethanol can be used as heating fuel."
] | Ethanol is a derivative of corn and other grains. When burned as fuel, it emits significantly lower levels of carbon monoxide, a major atmospheric pollutant, than does gasoline. For that reason, environmentalists claim that ethanol is a better source of energy than gasoline. | 1 | train_108 | Which of the following, if true, most strongly supports the environmentalists' claim? |
[
"It presents as evidence in support of a claim information that is inconsistent with other evidence presented in support of the same claim.",
"It establishes an effect that must exist well before its cause.",
"It makes a distinction that presupposes the truth of the conclusions that is to be established.",
"The conclusion supports facts that directly contradict the evidence given to support it."
] | Anselm of Canterbury (1033 -- 1109) was a medieval theologian. According to Anselm' s ontological argument for the existence of God, "accidental beings" are all those things -- essentially all sense objects -- whose non-existence could be imagined without inherent contradiction, and "necessary beings" are those things whose existence is guaranteed precisely by what they are. Because accidental beings could not have guaranteed that they ever would come into existence, there must be a necessary being upon whom all the accidental beings depends to bring them into existence; and this necessary being Anselm identifies with God, who ttherefore clearly must exist. | 2 | train_109 | In our modern analysis, this eleventh century argument is most vulnerable to what criticism? |
[
"Indigenous people of Australia developed hunting implements like the boomerang and the spear-thrower after the disappearance of the land bridge.",
"After the disappearance of the land bridge the indigenous Tasmanians simply abandoned certain practices and technologies that they had originally shared with their Australian relatives.",
"Although the technological and cultural innovations were developed in Australia more than 10, 000 years ago, they were developed by groups in northern Australia with whom the indigenous Tasmanians had no contact prior to the disappearance of the land bridge.",
"Devices such as the spear-thrower and the boomerang were developed by the indigenous Tasmanians more than 10, 000 years ago."
] | The indigenous people of Tasmania are clearly related to the indigenous people of Australia, but were separated from them when the land bridge between Australia and Tasmania disappeared approximately 10, 000 years ago. Two thousand years after the disappearance of the land bridge, however, there were major differences between the culture and technology of the indigenous Tasmanians and those of the indigenous Australians. The indigenous Tasmanians, unlike their Australian relatives, had no domesticated dogs, fishing nets, polished stone tools, or hunting implements like the boomerang and the spear-thrower. | 3 | train_110 | Each of the following, if true, would contribute to an explanation of differences described above EXCEPT: |
[
"The research conducted by most professors should be clearly related to their teaching activities.",
"Monetary incentives would probably be less effective than some other ways that professors might be induced to focus more on teaching activities.",
"Increased financial compensation would be a somewhat effective way to motivate professors to focus their activities on teaching.",
"Effective incentives to encourage larger course loads or longer office hours would shift the focus of professors toward teaching."
] | While studies indicate that university professors spend much of their time engaged in personal research not clearly related to teaching, it is unlikely that additional financial compensation for, say, a larger course load or longer office hours would be the most effective of various possible means of shifting the focus of their activities; this would be the best means only if their motivation to educate were no more than a mechanical response to the prospect of more money, which surely is not the case. | 1 | train_111 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument? |
[
"One could be immoral without ever having caused any other person any harm",
"What is social in nature could not be a matter of morality.",
"It is more important to be moral than to have good manners.",
"The rules of morality apply only when one is alone."
] | The difference between manners and morals is that the former are necessarily social in nature whereas the latter are not necessarily social in nature. So the rules of etiquette do not apply when one is alone. | 0 | train_112 | The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following inferences? |
[
"at best weakly, because the passage fails to establish that economic decision-makers do not by and large take adequate account of environmental factors",
"not at all, since the argument is circular, taking that conclusion as one of its premises",
"strongly, on the assumption that monetary values for environmental factors cannot be assigned unless people make economic decisions about these factors",
"strongly, unless economic decision-making has not yet had any effect on the things categorized as environmental factors"
] | The problem that environmental economics aims to remedy is the following: people making economic decisions cannot readily compare environmental factors, such as clean air and the survival of endangered species, with other costs and benefits. As environmental economists recognize, solving this problem requires assigning monetary values to environmental factors. But monetary values result from people comparing costs and benefits in order to arrive at economic decisions. Thus, environmental economics is stymied by what motivates it. | 2 | train_113 | If the considerations advanced in its support are true, the passage's conclusion is supported |
[
"Antilock brakes require expensive specialized maintenance to be even as effective as unmaintained regular brakes.",
"Antilock brakes were designed for safety in congested urban driving, but accidents of the most serious nature take place on highways.",
"Most people who drive cars equipped with antilock brakes do not know how to use those brakes properly.",
"Antilock brakes malfunction more often than regular brakes."
] | Despite the fact that antilock brakes are designed to make driving safer, research suggests that people who drive cars equipped with antilock brakes have more accidents than those who drive cars not equipped with antilock brakes. | 1 | train_114 | Each of the following, if true, would help resolve the apparent discrepancy described above EXCEPT: |
[
"takes for granted that it is more important for a complete aesthetic theory to account for the beauty of traditional art than for it to account for the beauty of self-consciously rebellious art",
"presumes, without providing justification, that eighteenth-century European aesthetics is as encompassing as an aesthetic theory can be",
"presumes, without providing justification, that an aesthetic theory developed in one part of the world cannot be applied in another",
"presumes, without providing justification, that artists' rebellion in the 1960s against earlier notions of art was not guided by their knowledge of eighteenth-century European aesthetic theory"
] | Eighteenth-century European aesthetics was reasonably successful in providing an understanding of all art, including early abstract art, until the 1960s, when artists self-consciously rebelled against earlier notions of art. Since the work of these rebellious artists is quite beautiful but outside the bounds of the aesthetic theory then current, there can be no complete theory of aesthetics. | 1 | train_115 | The reasoning above is most vulnerable to criticism in that it |
[
"A beehive's honeycomb cannot have some sections that contain toxic honey and other sections that contain nontoxic honey",
"The incidents of honey poisoning that are related in the ancient texts occurred in the springtime or in the early summer",
"Whether the honey in a beehive is toxic depends solely on which plants were the source of that was used to make the honey.",
"There are no plants that Greece in ancient times that produce more nectar than rhododendrons or oleanders does."
] | Several ancient Greek texts provide accounts of people being poisoned by honey that texts suggest was made from the nectar of rhododendron or oleander plants. Honey made from such nectar can cause the effects the texts describe, but only if eaten fresh, since the honey loses its toxicity within a few weeks of being made. In Greece, rhododendrons and oleander bloom only in springtime, when they are the predominant sources of nectar. | 1 | train_116 | Which of the following, if true, most strongly support the accounts of Greek texts? |
[
"It takes a condition to be the effect of something that has happened only after the condition already existed.",
"It takes one possible cause of a condition to be the actual cause of that condition without considering any other possible causes.",
"It makes a distinction that presupposes the truth of the conclusions that is to be established.",
"It presents as evidence in support of a claim information that is inconsistent with other evidence presented in support of the same claim."
] | When a married couple has frequent emotionally satisfying conversations, they tend in overwhelming percentages to remain married throughout their lives. Queen Melinda and Prince Jonathan, Duke of Westphalia, have been married for over sixty years, so clearly they must have emotionally satisfying conversations all the time. | 1 | train_117 | This argument is most vulnerable to what criticism? |
[
"One can become informed about the world provided that one reads the newspaper daily. If one is informed about the world, then one has an appreciation of other cultures. So if one reads the newspaper daily, then one can come to appreciate other cultures.",
"If you learn Latin, you can improve your vocabulary, and you can improve your vocabulary if you study great works of literature. So you will study great works of literature if you learn Latin.",
"Traveling to other countries deepens one's appreciation for their cultures, and this appreciation often encourages one to study the history of those lands. So the study of history increases one's desire to travel.",
"By studying ancient art you begin to appreciate how much was accomplished with limited materials. Appreciation of ancient art leads to a deeper understanding of modem art. Ttherefore, studying ancient art can engender a profound new appreciation for modem art."
] | If you study history, then you will appreciate the vast differences among past civilizations, and you will appreciate these differences provided that you reflect on your own civilization. Hence, if you study history you will reflect on your own civilization. | 1 | train_118 | Which one of the following is most closely parallel in its flawed reasoning to the flawed reasoning in the argument above? |
[
"Reptile behavior appears more complex in the field than laboratory experiments reveal it to be.",
"If reptiles were capable of complex reasoning, they would sometimes be able to make major changes in their behavior.",
"Simple stimulus-response explanations can in principle account for all reptile behaviors.",
"Animals could make major changes in their behavior only if they were capable of complex reasoning."
] | Herpetologist: Some psychologists attribute complex reasoning to reptiles, claiming that simple stimulus-response explanations of some reptiles' behaviors, such as food gathering, cannot account for the complexity of such behavior. But since experiments show that reptiles are incapable of making major alterations in their behavior, for example, when faced with significant changes in their environment, these animals must be incapable of complex reasoning. | 1 | train_119 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the herpetologist's argument? |
[
"Anyone who does not care for his or her own health cannot help others become healthier.",
"Anyone who cares about his or her own health does not smoke.",
"Anyone who cares about the health of others can help others become healthier.",
"Anyone who does not care for the health of others cannot help them become healthier."
] | Clearly, fitness consultants who smoke cigarettes cannot help their clients become healthier. If they do not care about their own health, they cannot really care for their clients' health, and if they do not care for their clients' health, they cannot help them to become healthier. | 1 | train_120 | The conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
[
"For some consumers the convenience of front- loaders outweighs the advantages of top-loaders in assessing which is superior.",
"Convenience is the only important factor in determining which type of washing machine is superior.",
"Retrieving clothes from front-loaders is inconvenient for people who are not wheelchair users.",
"Retrieving clothes from a top-loader is convenient for people who do not use wheelchairs."
] | Consumer advocate: A recent study concluded that top-loading washing machines are superior overall to front-loaders. But front-loaders have the controls and access in front. This is more convenient for wheelchair users, some of whom find it highly inconvenient to remove laundry from top-loaders. So for some consumers front-loaders are superior. | 0 | train_121 | Which one of the following is an assumption upon which the consumer advocate's argument depends? |
[
"fails to address the possibility that in some cases the primary goal of criticism is something other than bringing about change in the person being criticized",
"takes for granted that everyone who is motivated to change will change",
"infers that something that is sufficient to provide a motive is necessary to provide a motive",
"confuses a motive for doing something with a motive for avoiding something"
] | Counselor: Those who believe that criticism should be gentle rather than harsh should consider the following: change requires a motive, and criticism that is unpleasant provides a motive. Since harsh criticism is unpleasant, harsh criticism provides a motive. Ttherefore, only harsh criticism will cause the person criticized to change. | 2 | train_122 | The reasoning in the counselor's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument |
[
"None of the studies that suggested that taking melatonin tablets can induce sleep examined a fully representative sample of the human population.",
"Several people who were in control groups and only given placebos claimed that the tablets induced sleep.",
"If melatonin were helpful in treating insomnia, then every person with insomnia who took doses of melatonin would appear to be significantly affected by it.",
"In the studies that included subjects with insomnia, only subjects without insomnia were significantly affected by doses of melatonin."
] | Many scientific studies have suggested that taking melatonin tablets can induce sleep. But this does not mean that melatonin is helpful in treating insomnia. Most of the studies examined only people without insomnia, and in many of the studies, only a few of the subjects given melatonin appeared to be significantly affected by it. | 3 | train_123 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
[
"It is offered as an explanation of the success of vegetarian diets in reducing cholesterol levels.",
"It is a conclusion for which the claim that dramatic changes in one's diet are sometimes required to reduce cholesterol levels is offered as support.",
"It is a premise offered in support of the claim that reducing cholesterol levels may require greater than moderate dietary changes.",
"It is a premise offered in support of the claim that vegetarian diets are more healthful than any diets containing meat."
] | Doctors urge people to reduce their cholesterol levels through dietary changes. But moderate dietary changes often do not work to lower cholesterol levels. One may need, ttherefore, to make more dramatic changes, such as switching to a vegetarian diet. | 2 | train_124 | The statement that moderate dietary changes often do not work to lower cholesterol levels plays which one of the following roles in the argument? |
[
"It provides evidence for the assumption that requirements for degrees in the humanities differ from requirements for degrees in other disciplines.",
"It confirms the observation that the requirement for a dissertation can frustrate the goals of a doctoral program.",
"It is what the argument is attempting to establish.",
"It provides essential support for the conclusion."
] | Ph. D. programs are valuable only if they inculcate good scholarship and expedite the student' s full participation in the field. Hence, doctoral dissertations should not be required in the humanities. Undertaking a quality book-length dissertation demands an accumulation of knowledge virtually impossible for those relatively new to their disciplines. The student consequently either seeks to compensate for poor quality with quantity or ends up spending years producing a work of quality. Either way, the dissertation is counterproductive and frustrates the appropriate goals of the doctoral program. | 2 | train_125 | The claim that doctoral dissertations should not be required in the humanities plays which one of the following roles in the argument? |
[
"During drought conditions, the weather promotes the growth of plants that produce small, hard seeds.",
"A lengthy period of rainy weather results in fewer large, hard seeds being produced.",
"In rainy periods, the small finches gather enough food to grow much larger and heavier, but their ultimate size is limited by their inability to eat small seeds fast.",
"The Galapagos climate during this fourteen- year period had about as much dry weather as it had wet weather."
] | A fourteen-year study of finches on the Galapagos islands concluded that there is a definite relationship between climate and the population size of finch species that thrive at various times. During droughts, more members of large finch species survive because their bills are large enough to crack large, hard seeds, giving them a food supply unavailable to smaller birds. In rainy years, fewer members of the large finch species survive because the additional moisture fosters the growth of plants that produce small seeds. The larger finch varieties have to consume enormous numbers of small seeds to meet their energy demands, and some just cannot eat them fast enough. | 1 | train_126 | Which one of the following must be assumed in order to justify the conclusion that climatic variations cause a major difference in survival rates of small and large finches? |
[
"Automobiles become less fuel efficient and ttherefore contribute more to air pollution as they age.",
"Currently, the sales tax on new tax on new automobiles is considerably lower than 50 percent.",
"Some of the proceeds from the new tax would go toward expanding the nonpolluting commuter rail system.",
"The scrapping of automobiles causes insignificant amounts of air pollution."
] | Certain politicians in the country of Birangi argue that a 50 percent tax on new automobiles would halt the rapid increase of automobiles on Birangi' s roads and thereby slow the deterioration of Birangi' s air quality. Although most experts agree that such a tax would result in fewer Birangians buying new vehicles and gradually reduce the number of automobiles on Birangi' s roads, they contend that it would have little impact on Birangi' s air-quality problem. | 0 | train_127 | Which of the following, if true in Birangi, would most strongly support the experts' contention about the effect of the proposed automobile tax on Birangi's air-quality problem? |
[
"Gamma interferon stops white blood cells from producing myelin-destroying compounds.",
"Administering gamma interferon to those without multiple sclerosis causes an increase in the number of white blood cells.",
"The drug now used to treat multiple sclerosis is known to inhibit the activity of gamma interferon.",
"Medical researchers have discovered that the gamma interferon level in the cerebrospinal fluid skyrockets just before and during multiple sclerosis attacks."
] | Multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune disease: white blood cells attack the myelin sheath that protects nerve fibers in the spinal cord and brain. Medical science now has a drug that can be used to successfully treat multiple sclerosis, but the path that led medical researchers to this drug was hardly straightforward. Initially, some scientists believed attacks characteristic of multiple sclerosis might be triggered by chronic viral infections. So in 1984 they began testing gamma interferon, one of the body' s own antiviral weapons. To their horror, all the multiple sclerosis patients tested became dramatically worse. The false step proved to be instructive however. | 0 | train_128 | Which one of the following is LEAST compatible with the results of the gamma interferon experiment? |
[
"The first identifies the content of the conclusion of the argument; the second provides support for that conclusion",
"Each provides evidence that calls the conclusion of the argument into question.",
"Each provides support for the conclusion of the argument",
"The first states the position that the argument opposes; the second states the conclusion of the argument"
] | <b> Delta products, Inc. , has recently switched at least partly from older technologies using fossil fuels to new technologies powered by electricity </b>. The question has been raised whether it can be concluded that for a given level of output, Delta' s operation now causes less fossil fuel to be consumed than it did formerly. The answer, clearly, is yes, since <b> the amount of fossil fuel used to generate the electricity needed to power the new technologies is less than the amount needed to power the older technologies, provided that the level of output is held constant. </b> | 2 | train_129 | In the argument given, the two boldface portions play which of the following roles? |
[
"Whenever it is rational not to acquire detailed information about a product, it would be irrational to bother to acquire such information.",
"The benefits of acquiring detailed information about a product one might purchase usually do not outweigh the cost and difficulty of doing so.",
"Rational consumers who do not expect that the benefits outweigh the cost and difficulty of acquiring detailed information about a product they might purchase usually do not bother to acquire such information.",
"Consumers who do not bother to acquire complete detailed information about a product they might purchase do not expect that the benefits of acquiring such information will outweigh the cost and difficulty of doing so."
] | Acquiring complete detailed information about all the pros and cons of a product one might purchase would clearly be difficult and expensive. It is rational not to acquire such information unless one expects that the benefits of doing so will outweigh the cost and difficulty of doing so. Ttherefore, consumers who do not bother to acquire such information are thereby behaving rationally. | 3 | train_130 | The conclusion of the argument is properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed? |
[
"presumes without providing adequate justification that most treasure hunters excavate artifacts to sell them",
"assumes without providing warrant that any use of illegally recovered material is itself illegal",
"ignores the possibility that not all members of the excavation team were archaeologists",
"fails to consider that not all treasure hunters act illegally"
] | Archaeologist: The allegation that members of the excavation team recovered artifacts outside the authorized site is unfounded. Archaeologists, unlike most treasure hunters, excavate artifacts to publish the results of their findings. But material recovered illegally could not be used in a publication without the illegal act being discovered. So it would be of no use to an archaeologist. | 2 | train_131 | The archaeologist's reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism because it |
[
"International troops enforcing the cease-fire have demonstrated that they can counter aggression from either of the two sides.",
"A major incentive for the two sides to resume hostilities has been suppressed.",
"The cease-fire has not been violated by either of the two sides.",
"The negotiations' reaching an agreement depends in part on the actions of other countries."
] | Unless negotiations begin soon, the cease-fire will be violated by one of the two sides to the dispute. Negotiations will be held only if other countries have pressured the two sides to negotiate; an agreement will emerge only if other countries continue such pressure throughout the negotiations. But no negotiations will be held until international troops enforcing the cease-fire have demonstrated their ability to counter any aggression from either side, thus suppressing a major incentive for the two sides to resume fighting. | 2 | train_132 | If the statements above are true, and if negotiations between the two sides do begin soon, at the time those negotiations begin each of the following must also be true EXCEPT: |
[
"It provides a basis for excluding as unacceptable one obvious alternative to the proposal of fining owners of burglar alarm systems for false alarms.",
"It explains why a disproportionate number of the burglar alarms responded to by police come from alarm systems owned by businesses.",
"It gives a reason why police might be more inclined to respond to burglar alarms than to car alarms.",
"It provides background information needed to make plausible the claim that the number of burglar alarms police are called on to answer is great enough to be a drain on public resources."
] | Of every 100 burglar alarms police answer, 99 are false alarms. This situation causes an enormous and dangerous drain on increasingly scarce public resources. Each false alarm wastes an average of 45 minutes of police time. As a result police are consistently taken away from responding to other legitimate calls for service, and a disproportionate share of police service goes to alarm system users, who are mostly businesses and affluent homeowners. However, burglar alarm systems, unlike car alarm systems, are effective in deterring burglaries, so the only acceptable solution is to fine burglar alarm system owners the cost of 45 minutes of police time for each false alarm their systems generate. | 0 | train_133 | The statement that burglar alarm systems, unlike car alarm systems, are effective in deterring burglaries plays which one of the following roles in the argument? |
[
"The number of eggs laid yearly by a female songbird varies widely according to the songbird's species.",
"Although magpies eat the eggs and chicks of songbirds, magpies' diets consist of a wide variety of other foods as well.",
"The population of magpies has increased because farmers no longer shoot or trap magpies to any great extent, though farmers still consider magpies to be pests.",
"Although the overall population of magpies has increased, in most areas of England in which the songbird population has decreased, the number of magpies has remained stable."
] | The population of songbirds throughout England has decreased in recent years. Many people explain this decrease as the result of an increase during the same period in the population of magpies, which eat the eggs and chicks of songbirds. | 3 | train_134 | Which one of the following, if true, argues most strongly against the explanation reported in the passage? |
[
"There can never be any living thing that does not have a genetic code.",
"Any two living things made of the same basic kinds of matter have the same origin.",
"Without the existence of other life forms, human life would never have come into existence.",
"There are not any living beings that have genetic codes but are not carbon based."
] | All known living things are made of the same basic kinds of matter, are carbon based, and are equipped with genetic codes. So human life has the same origin as all other known life. | 1 | train_135 | The conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
[
"If the city does not burn trash, it will not waste resources.",
"By recycling more trash, the city can stop wasting resources entirely.",
"If the city is to avoid wasting resources, huge amounts of trash cannot be burned in any city incinerator.",
"The most effective way to conserve resources is to recycle trash."
] | It is wrong to waste our natural resources, and it is an incredible waste of resources to burn huge amounts of trash in incinerators. When trash is recycled, fewer resources are wasted. Because less trash will be recycled if an incinerator is built, the city should not build an incinerator. | 2 | train_136 | Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the statements above? |
[
"Even if seaweed farms prove effective, some people will be reluctant to switch to this new fuel.",
"Some areas of ocean in the Southern Hemisphere do not contain sufficient nutrients to support large seaweed farms.",
"Each year about seven billion tons of carbon dioxide are released into the atmosphere but only about five billion tons are absorbed by plant life.",
"When a seaweed plant is burned, it releases an amount of carbon dioxide comparable to the amount it has absorbed in its lifetime."
] | Scientists are discussing ways to remove excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by increasing the amount that is absorbed by plant life. One plan to accomplish this is to establish giant floating seaweed farms in the oceans. When the seaweed plants die, they will be disposed of by being burned for fuel. | 3 | train_137 | Which of the following, if true, would indicate the most serious weakness in the plan above? |
[
"The number of customers purchasing angora has increased every year for the past decade in steady increments.",
"In a recent study, shoppers who had recently purchased a garment in a luxury material cited similar reasons for buying angora as buying cashmere.",
"Most consumers cannot tell the difference between cashmere and angora, which are both expensive and similar in texture.",
"The same disease that affected the livestock producing cashmere has also affected the farms that produce angora."
] | Research has shown that shoppers who purchase garments in a "luxury" material, such as cashmere or angora, are likely to purchase garments in more than one other luxury materials, as well. A recent livestock disease has significantly reduced the amount of cashmere available on the market. This, in turn, has driven up the prices of the cashmere products still available for purchase. We can ttherefore conclude that more people will be buying angora items of clothing this year than they did in previous years. | 1 | train_138 | Which of the following, if true, best supports the claim that more people will be buying angora clothing this year? |
[
"providing examples in order to show that two seemingly dissimilar situations are in fact the same",
"defending a general principle by presenting two separate successful applications of that principle",
"arguing for taking a course of action based on results of taking such action in an analogous situation",
"justifying the introduction of a set of procedures by outlining undesirable results in an analogous situation in which those procedures were not followed"
] | Like airplane accidents, most accidents in medical care result from human error, particularly failures in communication, leadership, and decision making. Following the introduction of standard procedures governing these three areas, the airline industry succeeded in significantly reducing the number and severity of accidents. Since airplane flights and health care delivery both require the cooperation of groups of people with diverse knowledge and skills, the medical care community should adopt a similar set of procedures in order to reduce errors. | 2 | train_139 | Which one of the following is a technique of reasoning used in the argument? |
[
"The federal government's expenditures for soil conservation in the various states have been inequitable.",
"Corn is not a cost-effective product and substitutes should be found where possible.",
"Soil conservation is a responsibility of the federal government, not the states.",
"The federal government should spend much more on soil conservation than it has been spending."
] | The United States government generally tries to protect valuable natural resources. But one resource has been ignored for too long. In the United States, each bushel of corn produced might result in the loss of as much as two bushels of topsoil. Moreover, in the last 100 years, the topsoil in many states, which once was about fourteen inches thick, has been eroded to only six or eight inches. Nonetheless, federal expenditures for nationwide soil conservation programs have remained at ridiculously low levels. Total federal expenditures for nationwide soil conservation programs have been less than the allocations of some individual states. | 3 | train_140 | Which one of the following best expresses the main point of the argument? |
[
"To express a worldview is to interpret reality.",
"All visual art expresses the artist's worldview.",
"Any interpretation of reality involves the expression of a worldview.",
"Nonrealistic photographs, like realistic photographs, express the worldviews of the photographers who take them."
] | Critic: Photographers, by deciding which subjects to depict and how to depict them, express their own worldviews in their photographs, however realistically those photographs may represent reality. Thus, photographs are interpretations of reality. | 0 | train_141 | The argument's conclusion is properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed? |
[
"If the Japanese drive on the left side of the road, then they are not inclined to buy cars with left-side steering wheels.",
"Given a choice between similar Japanese and North American models, all with right-side steering wheels, most Japanese would choose the North American model.",
"Japanese automotive safety standards require that all new domestic automobiles have rightside steering wheels.",
"The automotive trade imbalance can be lessened only if North American manufacturers produce automobiles that more effectively meet the needs of Japanese buyers."
] | Columnist: Over the last 20 years the demand in North America for Japanese-made automobiles has increased, whereas the Japanese demand for North American-made automobiles has been stagnant. Until recently, this imbalance could plausibly be attributed to Japanese models' superior fuel efficiency and reliability, but now cars made in North America are by these standards the equal of any Japanese model. What North American exporters continue to ignore is that the Japanese drive on the left side of the road. Ttherefore, one obstacle to reducing the automotive trade imbalance will be removed if North American manufacturers simply produce more cars with right-side steering wheels. | 0 | train_142 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the columnist's argument? |
[
"To appreciate fully the French language, one must understand the other languages that share its linguistic ancestry.",
"To understand properly any academic discipline, one must have at least a superficial acquaintance with the practices of the wider academic community.",
"To understand fully the historical events of this century, a historian must have an understanding of similar events in earlier centuries.",
"To understand completely Aristotle's philosophy, one must be well acquainted with the philosophy of his intellectual mentor, Plato."
] | The tendency toward overspecialization in the study of artifacts is unfortunate. Scholars can enhance their understanding of a certain artistic period by studying art from earlier periods that had a significant influence on it. For instance, because of its influence on Spanish artisans, a proper understanding of Arabic porcelain is indispensable for a proper understanding of Spanish porcelain. | 3 | train_143 | Of the following, which one most closely conforms to the principle that the passage as a whole illustrates? |
[
"Children are often described by adults as engaging in thrill-seeking behavior simply because they act impulsively.",
"Many impulsive adults are not unusually sensitive to dopamine.",
"Many people exhibit behavioral tendencies as adults that they did not exhibit as children.",
"It is not possible to reliably distinguish impulsive behavior from other behavior."
] | Scientist: My research indicates that children who engage in impulsive behavior similar to adult thrill-seeking behavior are twice as likely as other children to have a gene variant that increases sensitivity to dopamine. From this, I conclude that there is a causal relationship between this gene variant and an inclination toward thrill-seeking behavior. | 3 | train_144 | Which one of the following, if true, most calls into question the scientist's argument? |
[
"In considering where to invest, most potential shareholders are interested in more than just the profitability of a corporation.",
"Shareholders sometimes will be satisfied even if dividends paid to them from company profits are not high.",
"The president and the board of directors of a corporation are jointly responsible for advancing the key interests of the shareholders.",
"Keeping a corporation's profits high is likely to advance the important interests of the corporation's shareholders."
] | Editorialist: In a large corporation, one of the functions of the corporation' s president is to promote the key interests of the shareholders. Ttherefore, the president has a duty to keep the corporation' s profits high. | 3 | train_145 | Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the editorialist's argument? |
[
"Molecules of rhodopsin are the only pigment molecules that occur naturally in the retina.",
"The visual systems of animals whose body temperature matches that of their surroundings are more error-prone in hot surroundings than in cold ones.",
"As the temperature of the retina rises, rhodopsin molecules react more slowly to being struck by photons.",
"The temperature of an animal's retina depends on the amount of light the retina is absorbing."
] | Light is registered in the retina when photons hit molecules of the pigment rhodopsin and change the molecules' shape. Even when they have not been struck by photons of light, rhodopsin molecules sometimes change shape because of normal molecular motion, thereby introducing error into the visual system. The amount of this molecular motion is directly proportional to the temperature of the retina. | 1 | train_146 | Which one of the following conclusions is most strongly supported by the information above? |
[
"offers an explanation of the glowing lights different from Phoebe's",
"criticizes Phoebe's explanation as unsubstantiated",
"accuses Phoebe of introducing irrelevant information",
"challenges the accuracy of the data about sightings that Phoebe takes for granted"
] | Phoebe: There have been many reported sightings of strange glowing lights, but a number of these sightings have a straightforward, natural explanation. They occurred clustered in time and location around the epicenters of three earthquakes, and so were almost certainly earthquake lights, a form of ball lightning caused by stresses in the ground. Quincy: I am skeptical that the association between the lights and the earthquakes is anything more than a coincidence. The theory that ground stresses related to earthquakes can cause any kind of lightning is extremely speculative. | 1 | train_147 | In responding to Phoebe, Quincy |
[
"Manufacturers should be held responsible for the consequences of any of their actions that harm innocent people if those consequences were preventable.",
"Manufacturers have an obligation to inform workers of health risks of which they are aware.",
"Employees who are harmed by substances they handle on the job should be compensated for medical costs they incur as a result.",
"Manufacturers should be held responsible only for the preventable consequences of their actions."
] | Many workers who handled substance T in factories became seriously ill years later. We now know T caused at least some of their illnesses. Earlier ignorance of this connection does not absolve T' s manufacturer of all responsibility. For had it investigated the safety of T before allowing workers to be exposed to it, many of their illnesses would have been prevented. | 0 | train_148 | Which one of the following principles most helps to justify the conclusion above? |
[
"The more severe the penalty for an infraction is, the more certain one must be of the guilt of a party before being justified in imposing the penalty on that party.",
"The more severe the penalty for an offense is, the less likely it is that someone will come forward and admit responsibility for the offense.",
"The severity of the penalty imposed for an infraction should be proportional to the harm caused by that infraction.",
"Penalties for crimes should be severe enough to deter people from committing them, but not so severe as to undermine one's willingness to impose them."
] | The quantity and type of pollution that entered the river last Thursday night suggest that the local auto repair shop is responsible. But the penalty for this type of pollution is so severe that, unless stronger evidence is discovered or the perpetrator admits responsibility, we cannot be sufficiently certain of the identity of the polluter to justify imposing the penalty. | 0 | train_149 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning in the argument? |
[
"Some Greek temples were not themselves inspired by older models.",
"Some Roman architecture exemplifies the creation of fresh architectural compositions out of familiar forms.",
"Buildings with unfamiliar forms are likely to be either bland or architectural disasters.",
"Roman architects designed many buildings with little or no originality of thought."
] | The striking similarities between Greek temples and subsequent Roman villas testify to the fact that great architects typically draw inspiration from the work of other architects. Such drawing of inspiration does not mean, however, a slavish lack of originality; building according to formulas does not make good buildings. When formulas are used, the results are either bland or disastrous. By contrast, a great architect creates fresh architectural compositions out of familiar forms and synthesizes past and present into a new, richer whole. | 1 | train_150 | Which one of the following can be inferred from the passage? |
[
"bases its conclusion on a sample that is too small",
"employs as a premise the contention it purports to show",
"misinterprets a key word in the newspaper's advertisement",
"criticizes the source of a claim rather than the claim itself"
] | Letter to the editor: Your newspaper' s advertisement claims that you provide coverage of the high school' s most popular sports. Clearly this is false advertising. Of the school' s students, 15 percent compete on the track team, while only 5 percent of the students play basketball. Hence, track is far more popular than basketball, yet track gets no coverage and basketball gets full-page coverage. | 2 | train_151 | The reasoning in the letter to the editor is most vulnerable to the criticism that it |
[
"The first is a position that the argument seeks to reject; the second is evidence that the argument uses against that position.",
"The first is a judgment that serves as the basis for the main conclusion of the argument; the second states that main conclusion.",
"The first is an intermediate conclusion drawn in order to support a further conclusion stated in the argument; the second provides evidence in support of that intermediate conclusion.",
"The first presents the main conclusion of the argument; the second provides evidence in support of that conclusion."
] | Stylistic evidence and laboratory evidence strongly support the claim that the magnificent painting Garden of Eden is a work of the Flemish master van Eyck. Nevertheless, the painting must have been the work of someone else, as any one with a little historical and zoological knowledge can tell merely by looking at the painting. The animals in the painting are all vivid representations of actual animals, including armadillos. Yet armadillos are native only to the Americas, and van Eyck died decades before Europeans reached the Americas. | 3 | train_152 | In the argument given, the two highlighted portions play which of the following roles? |
[
"Salmonella has been shown to spread easily along the distribution chains of certain vegetables, such as raw tomatoes.",
"Use of antibiotics in two countries that neighbor the country where the outbreak occurred has risen over the past decade.",
"Physicians in the country where the outbreak occurred have become hesitant to prescribe antibiotics since they are frequently in short supply.",
"People in the country where the outbreak occurred often consume foods produced from animals that eat antibiotics-laden livestock feed."
] | Microbiologist: A lethal strain of salmonella recently showed up in a European country, causing an outbreak of illness that killed two people and infected twenty-seven others. Investigators blame the severity of the outbreak on the overuse of antibiotics, since the salmonella bacteria tested were shown to be drug-resistant. But this is unlikely because patients in the country where the outbreak occurred cannot obtain antibiotics to treat illness without a prescription, and the country's doctors prescribe antibiotics less readily than do doctors in any other European country. | 3 | train_153 | Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the microbiologist's reasoning? |
[
"It is the overall conclusion of the argument.",
"It denies a claim that the argument takes to be assumed in the reasoning that it rejects.",
"It is a general principle whose validity the argument questions.",
"It is a component of reasoning disputed in the argument."
] | Consumer advocate: Economists reason that price gouging -- increasing the price of goods when no alternative seller is available -- is efficient because it allocates goods to people whose willingness to pay more shows that they really need those goods. But willingness to pay is not proportional to need. In the real world, some people simply cannot pay as much as others. As a result, a price increase will allocate goods to the people with the most money, not to those with the most need. | 1 | train_154 | Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the consumer advocate's argument by the claim that willingness to pay is not proportional to need? |
[
"All economic indicators suggest that household incomes in Salisbury have risen substantially over the past ten years.",
"The Culinary Bill provides no benefit to restaurants that are members of national franchise chains",
"Most of the consumers in Salisbury who patronize these local restaurants are aware of the provisions of the Culinary Bill and approve of them.",
"Of the local non-franchise restaurants in Salisbury ten years ago, fewer than 85 have closed."
] | Ten years ago, the Salisbury City Council passed the Culinary Bill, new legislation to protect the interests of local non-franchise restaurants. Of the 120 local non-franchise restaurants in Salisbury today, 85 opened during the last ten years. Clearly the Culinary Bill has caused a surge in the number of local non-franchise restaurants operating in Salisbury over the past ten years. | 3 | train_155 | Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
[
"Every human being has a physiological need for at least some sodium.",
"Any sodium not used by the body will increase blood pressure unless it is excreted.",
"Excess sodium intake over time often destroys the body's ability to process excess sodium.",
"High blood pressure is more harmful than was previously believed."
] | Studies suggest that, for the vast majority of people who have normal blood pressure, any amount of sodium greater than that required by the body is simply excreted and does not significantly raise blood pressure. So only persons who have high blood pressure and whose bodies are incapable of safely processing excess sodium need to restrict their sodium intake. | 2 | train_156 | Which one of the following, if true, would most seriously weaken the argument? |
[
"After 1588, no bridges were built on pilings that were driven to the point of refusal.",
"Da Ponte's standard of refusal was less strict than that of other bridge builders of his day.",
"The Rialto Bridge was built on unsafe pilings.",
"It is possible that the pilings of the Rialto Bridge could have been driven deeper even after the standard of refusal had been met."
] | The solidity of bridge piers built on pilings depends largely on how deep the pilings are driven. Prior to 1700, pilings were driven to "refusal, " that is, to the point at which they refused to go any deeper. In a 1588 inquiry into the solidity of piers for Venice' s Rialto Bridge, it was determined that the bridge' s builder, Antonio Da Ponte, had met the contemporary standard for refusal: he had caused the pilings to be driven until additional penetration into the ground was no greater than two inches after twenty-four hammer blows. | 3 | train_157 | Which one of the following can properly be inferred from the passage? |
[
"If corruption is rampant among a certain group, then the person in charge cannot be expected to take corrective action if that person has not been in charge for very long.",
"A supervisor should not be held accountable for widespread corruption among his or her subordinates unless the supervisor could reasonably be expected to know about that corruption.",
"Any supervisor who knowingly tolerates widespread corruption among his or her subordinates should be held accountable .",
"If a person has been in a position of authority for a long time, then there is no excuse that can absolve the person of responsibility for widespread corruption among subordinates."
] | In view of the considerable length of the police chief' s tenure as head of the department, the chief should be held accountable for the widespread corruption in the department. That no evidence was discovered that the chief was involved in any way in the corruption does not allow us to escape this conclusion. | 3 | train_158 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the argument? |
[
"Today's mixed-age classrooms, unlike those of the past, emphasize group projects that are engaging to students of different ages.",
"On average, mixed-age classrooms today are somewhat larger in enrollment than were the ones of the past.",
"Few of the teachers who are reviving mixed- age classrooms today were students in mixed-age classrooms when they were young.",
"Mixed-age classrooms of the past were better equipped than are those of today."
] | In the past, combining children of different ages in one classroom was usually a failure; it resulted in confused younger children, who were given inadequate attention and instruction, and bored older ones, who had to sit through previously learned lessons. Recently, however, the practice has been revived with excellent results. Mixed-age classrooms today are stimulating to older children and enable younger children to learn much more efficiently than in standard classrooms. | 0 | train_159 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the passage? |
[
"people who tend to address problems quickly and directly will invariably seek dental care at the first sign of problems",
"painful conditions will interfere with a person's ability to address problems quickly and directly",
"people who have highly stressful lives tend to address problems quickly and directly",
"refusing to think about something troubling contributes to a person's level of stress"
] | A recent study showed that people who address problems quickly and directly are significantly less likely to have gum disease than are people who react to problems by refusing to think about them. Since stress can have a negative effect on the immune system, the study' s results clearly indicate that some forms of gum disease are caused or aggravated by suppression of the immune system. | 3 | train_160 | The argument requires the assumption that |
[
"People prefer objective reporting to partisan reporting that merely reinforces their own partisan leanings.",
"Journalists at traditional newspapers are just as partisan as journalists who work for newer media outlets.",
"Newspapers have regarded objective reporting as less likely to offend people than openly partisan reporting.",
"The newer media outlets are increasing in popularity at the expense of traditional newspapers."
] | Blogger: Traditionally, newspapers have taken objectivity to be an essential of good journalism . However, today' s newer media are more inclined to try to create a stir with openly partisan reporting. This contrast in journalistic standards is best understood in terms of differing business strategies. The newer media outlets need to differentiate themselves in a crowded marketplace. The standard of objectivity developed primarily among newspapers with no serious rivals, so the most important objective was to avoid offending potential readers. | 2 | train_161 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the blogger's argument? |
[
"Voters are unlikely to be influenced by what a politician's views were in the past if the voters agree with the politician's current positions.",
"Voters are likely to elect a politician who they believe understands their financial concerns.",
"Voters are likely to question the sincerity of a politician who does not hold the same beliefs they do.",
"Voters are unlikely to vote for a politician whom they perceive to be insincere."
] | Pundit: Grenier will almost certainly not be elected as mayor. Although she says she believes in raising city employees' wages, it was only a few years ago that she was arguing that their wages should not be increased. Her claim that she has learned more about the issue since then -- though sincere -- will not matter to most voters, who will see her as insincere. | 3 | train_162 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the pundit's reasoning? |
[
"Comets tend to be composed largely of ice while asteroids are composed mainly of rock.",
"The post-collision analysis of Jupiter showed that the formations all had exactly the same composition.",
"The deeper the explosion occurred in Jupiter's atmosphere, the more difficult it would be to detect from Earth.",
"If Jupiter's lower atmosphere had been penetrated by the comet's fragments, the resulting formations would show signs of water."
] | One of the most important events for modern astronomy was the series of collisions, during a single week in 1994, of more than a dozen large objects with Jupiter. The collision of these objects, which once formed most of the comet Shoemaker-Levy 9, resulted in formations that showed no signs of water. There was thus no water involved in the collisions, so we know that none of the comet' s fragments penetrated to Jupiter' s lower atmosphere and that the comet was composed of rock rather than ice. | 3 | train_163 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
[
"If lying is morally wrong, telling a lie is as bad as murdering someone.",
"Risking one's life to save the lives of a hundred people is morally no better than risking one's life to save one person.",
"If stealing is morally wrong, it is equally important to society to prevent people from stealing as it is to prevent them from committing murder.",
"Accidentally causing the death of a person is just as bad as murdering that person."
] | To perform an act that is morally wrong is to offend against humanity, and all offenses against humanity are equally bad. Because murder is morally wrong, it is just as bad to have murdered one person by setting off a bomb as it would have been to have murdered a hundred people by setting off that bond. | 0 | train_164 | Which one of the following judgments conforms to the principles invoked above? |
[
"Most of the tropical rain forest plants that contain substances of medicinal value can also be found growing in other types of environment.",
"The tropical rain forests should be preserved to make it possible for important medicines to be developed from plant species that have not yet been studied by scientists.",
"Any substance of medicinal value contained in plant species indigenous to tropical rain forests will eventually be discovered if those species are studied by scientists.",
"There are substances of medicinal value contained in tropical rain forest plants not yet studied by scientists that differ from those substances already discovered in tropical rain forest plants."
] | Many important types of medicine have been developed from substances discovered in plants that grow only in tropical rain forests. There are thousands of plant species in these rain forests that have not yet been studied by scientists, and it is very likely that many such plants also contain substances of medicinal value. Thus, if the tropical rain forests are not preserved, important types of medicine will never be developed. | 3 | train_165 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? |
[
"Lopez will run in tomorrow's marathon. Lopez will win the marathon only if his sponsors do a good job of keeping him hydrated. But his sponsors are known to be poor at keeping their athletes hydrated. So it is probable that Lopez will not win the marathon.",
"Rodriguez will donate her paintings to the museum only if the new wing is named after her. The only other person the new wing could be named after is the museum's founder, Wu. But it was decided yesterday that the gardens, not the new wing, would be named after Wu. So Rodriguez will donate her paintings to the museum.",
"The company will downsize unless more stock is issued. Furthermore, if the company downsizes, the shareholders will demand a change. Since no more stock is being issued, we can be sure that the shareholders will demand a change.",
"The new course in microeconomics is offered either in the fall or in the spring. The new course will be offered in the spring if there is a qualified instructor available. Since the economics department currently lacks a qualified instructor for such courses, however, the course will not be offered in the spring."
] | Journalist: The trade union members at AutoFaber Inc. are planning to go on strike. Independent arbitration would avert a strike, but only if both sides agree to accept the arbitrator' s recommendations as binding. However, based on past experience, the union is quite unlikely to agree to this, so a strike is likely. | 0 | train_166 | Which one of the following arguments exhibits a pattern of reasoning most similar to that exhibited by the journalist's argument? |
[
"Evidence suggests that certain regions of ocean remained frozen until much more recently than 2 billion years ago.",
"Our atmosphere currently holds in significantly less heat than it did 3. 8 billion years ago.",
"When large portions of the globe are ice-covered, more of the sun's heat is reflected and not absorbed by the earth than when only the poles are ice-covered.",
"The liquid water present 3. 8 billion years ago later froze, only to melt again about 2 billion years ago."
] | Up until about 2 billion years ago, the sun was 30 percent dimmer than it is now. If the sun were that dim now, our oceans would be completely frozen. According to fossil evidence, however, life and liquid water were both present as early as 3. 8 billion years ago. | 1 | train_167 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy described above? |
[
"Success is usually more a matter of luck or determination than of skill.",
"Self-doubt can hamper as well as aid the development of the skills necessary for success.",
"Genuine confidence is often a by-product of pretended self-confidence.",
"Those who convince others that they are capable of succeeding usually have few self-doubts."
] | If one wants to succeed, then one should act as though one were genuinely confident about one' s abilities, even if one actually distrusts one' s skills. Success is much more easily obtained by those who genuinely believe themselves capable of succeeding than by those filled with self-doubts. | 2 | train_168 | Which one of the following statements, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
[
"Scientists theorize that some plants can develop a resistance to air pollution.",
"Black spot and tar spot returned when the air in the cities became less polluted.",
"For many plant species, scientists have not determined the effects of air pollution.",
"Black spot and tar spot were the only plant diseases that disappeared in any English cities during the Industrial Revolution."
] | In polluted industrial English cities during the Industrial Revolution, two plant diseases -- black spot, which infects roses, and tar spot, which infects sycamore trees -- disappeared. It is likely that air pollution eradicated these diseases. | 1 | train_169 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the reasoning above? |
[
"After fertilizer has been added to soil for several years, adding fertilizer to the soil in subsequent years does not significantly improve crop production.",
"Several varieties of crop plants that have become popular recently, such as soybeans, are as responsive to fertilizer as are traditional grain crops.",
"Between 1950 and 1985 farmers were able to increase the yield of many varieties of crop plants.",
"Between 1975 and 1980 fertilizer prices temporarily increased because of labor disputes in several fertilizer-exporting nations, and these disputes disrupted worldwide fertilizer production."
] | After 1950, in response to record growth in worldwide food demand, farmers worldwide sharply increased fertilizer use. As a result, the productivity of farmland more than doubled by 1985. Since 1985, farmers have sought to increase farmland productivity even further. Nevertheless, worldwide fertilizer use has declined by 6 percent between 1985 and the present. | 0 | train_170 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the information above? |
[
"An antiviral medication that eliminates the most severe symptoms of chronic fatigue syndrome thereby cures chronic fatigue syndrome.",
"It is more likely that the new drug counteracts one virus than that it counteracts several viruses.",
"Most syndromes that are characterized by related symptoms are each caused by a single viral infection.",
"All those who suffer from prolonged fatigue also suffer from neurological problems."
] | Chronic fatigue syndrome is characterized by prolonged fatigue, muscular pain, and neurological problems. It is not known whether these symptoms are all caused by a single virus or whether each symptom is the result of a separate viral infection. A newly synthesized drug has been tested on those who suffer from chronic fatigue syndrome. Although the specific antiviral effects of this drug are unknown, it has lessened the severity of all of the symptoms of chronic fatigue syndrome. Thus there is evidence that chronic fatigue syndrome is, in fact, caused by one virus. | 1 | train_171 | The argument assumes which one of the following? |
[
"The first is a position that the ecologist rejects; the second provides evidence in support of that rejection.",
"The first is evidence that, in light of the evidence provided in the second, serves as grounds for the ecologist's rejection of a certain position.",
"The first is a position for which the ecologist argues; the second provides evidence to support that position.",
"The first is evidence that has been used in support of a position that the ecologist rejects; the second is a finding that the ecologist uses to counter that evidence."
] | Ecologist: The Scottish Highlands were once the site of extensive forests, but these forests have mostly disappeared and been replaced by peat bogs. The common view is that the Highlands' deforestation was caused by human activity, especially agriculture. However, <b> agriculture began in the Highlands less than 2, 000 years ago </b>. Peat bogs, which consist of compressed decayed vegetable matter, build up by only about one foot per 1, 000 years and, <b> throughout the Highlands, remains of trees in peat bogs are almost all at depths great than four feet </b>. Since climate changes that occurred between 7, 000 and 4, 000 years ago favored the development of peat bogs rather than the survival of forests, the deforestation was more likely the result of natural processes than of human activity. | 1 | train_172 | In the ecologist's argument the two portions in boldface play which of the following roles? |
[
"the survey results are misleading regardless of how they are interpreted",
"people tend to lie on certain kinds of surveys",
"the raw numbers collected are serious underestimates",
"a different type of measure than a survey would produce results that are less misleading"
] | Rita: No matter how you look at them, your survey results are misleading. Since people generally lie on such surveys, the numbers you collected are serious underestimates. Hiro: I have no doubt that people lie on surveys of this type. The question is whether some people lie more than others. While the raw numbers surely underestimate what I' m trying to measure, the relative rates those numbers represent are probably close to being accurate. | 0 | train_173 | Rita and Hiro disagree over whether |
[
"mistakes a temporal relationship for a causal relationship",
"judges only by subjective standards something that can be readily evaluated according to objective standards",
"confuses a result with something that is sufficient for bringing about that result",
"generalizes on the basis of what could be exceptional cases"
] | A number of Grandville' s wealthiest citizens have been criminals. So, since it is of utmost importance that the Grandville Planning Committee be composed solely of individuals whose personal standards of ethics are beyond reproach, no wealthy person should be appointed to that committee. | 3 | train_174 | The argument is most vulnerable to the criticism that it |
[
"Every organism that generates carbon dioxide reproduces more quickly at high temperatures.",
"The microbes' activity will soon diminish as the organic molecules in exposed sediments are depleted.",
"If global warming occurs, it will be exacerbated by the activity of the microbes.",
"The microbes do not remove any element other than oxygen from the atmosphere."
] | Scientists conjecture that certain microbes consume organic molecules in exposed shale and similar sediments. In so doing, the microbes remove oxygen from the atmosphere and generate carbon dioxide, a gas that, evidence indicates, promotes global warming. They also conjecture that these microbes reproduce more quickly at higher temperatures. | 2 | train_175 | The scientists' conjectures, if true, provide the most support for which one of the following statements? |
[
"showing that Whittaker's argument relies on analyzing an extreme and unrepresentative case",
"showing that a relevantly analogous argument leads to an untenable conclusion",
"citing a specific example to counter Whittaker's general claim",
"claiming that what Whittaker says cannot be true because Whittaker acts as if it were false"
] | Whittaker: There can be no such thing as the number of medical school students who drop out before their second year, because if they drop out, they never have a second year. Hudson: By your reasoning I cannot help but become rich, because there is similarly no such thing as my dying before my first million dollars is in the bank. | 1 | train_176 | Hudson responds to Whittaker by |
[
"Some dog owners believe their dogs are emotionally attached to them. Since no one could believe that and also believe dogs are incapable of thought, it follows that some dog owners do not believe dogs are incapable of thought.",
"Some people believe there is life on planets other than Earth. Since anyone who believes that must also believe other planets have atmospheres that can support life, it follows that other planets do have atmospheres that can support life.",
"Some cat owners believe cats are incapable of feeling guilty. Since one could think that an animal is capable of feeling guilty only if one thought the animal had a conception of morality, it follows that some cat owners do not believe cats have a conception of morality.",
"Some people believe computers are capable of thought. Since no one who does not believe computer chess programs sometimes beat human chess masters believes computers can think, it follows that computer chess programs do sometimes beat human chess masters."
] | Some people believe there is intelligent life somewhere in the universe besides Earth. But no one who believes that could also believe all planets other than Earth are devoid of life. Thus, some people do not believe all planets other than Earth are devoid of life. | 0 | train_177 | The reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to the reasoning in the argument above? |
[
"There is no reason to doubt the possibility that there are technologically advanced civilizations on planets more than 50 light years from Earth.",
"A technologically advanced civilization on another planet would want to communicate with intelligent life that it detected on Earth.",
"Intelligent life forms on other planets would be able to recognize all signs of intelligent life on Earth.",
"Scientists who are searching for evidence of extraterrestrial life forms generally focus their search on evidence of technologically advanced life forms."
] | If a civilization as technologically advanced as human civilization existed on another planet and that planet were within 50 light years of Earth, that civilization would have found evidence of intelligent life on Earth and could have easily contacted us. Scientists can thus rule out the possibility of finding a civilization as technologically advanced as our own within 50 light years of Earth. | 1 | train_178 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? |
[
"Every client the trainer has worked with has weight loss as a goal.",
"Every client the trainer has worked with has prior experience lifting weights.",
"Every client the trainer has worked with has also adopted a healthy diet.",
"Losing weight is always a healthy outcome."
] | Trainer: I recently developed an exercise routine that can get anybody to meet his or her goals. The routine combines cardio and bodybuilding during each session for the purpose of losing weight. Every person I' ve trained has lost weight on the program. | 0 | train_179 | The strength of the argument depends on which one of the following? |
[
"Faden presumes, without providing justification, that the more conclusive the evidence is for a claim, the less believable the claim becomes.",
"Faden presumes, without providing justification, that the evidence for a claim has not been undermined unless that evidence has been proven false.",
"Greenwall ignores the possibility that some people stopped using the equipment but were not embarrassed about it.",
"Greenwall presumes, without giving justification, that most people are dishonest about their personal habits."
] | Faden: Most of our exercise machines are still in use after one year. A recent survey of our customers shows this. Greenwall: But many of those customers could easily be lying because they are too embarrassed to admit that they don' t exercise anymore. Faden: You have no way of showing that customers were lying. Your objection is absurd. | 1 | train_180 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the reasoning above? |
[
"the fossil on which the engraving was made was not a mammoth bone",
"when mammoths disappeared from eastern North America, there were no mammoths left anywhere in North America",
"there is no scientific way of dating when the engraving of the mammoth was made",
"the engraving was made during the time when the settlement was occupied"
] | Ancient humans in eastern North America hunted mammoths until the mammoth disappeared from the area around 13, 000 years ago. Recently, a fossil bone with an engraving that depicts a mammoth was found in an ancient settlement in eastern North America. This shows that the settlement was occupied at a time when mammoths lived in this area. | 3 | train_181 | The argument requires the assumption that |
[
"The unemployment rate changed very little throughout the 1980s",
"During the 1980s there were some employees with no college degree who earned incomes comparable to the top incomes earned by employees with a college degree.",
"During the 1980s a growing percentage of college graduates, unable to find jobs requiring a college degree, took unskilled jobs.",
"The average age of all employees increased slightly during the 1980s."
] | The difference in average annual income in favor of employees who have college degrees, compared with those who do not have such degrees, doubled between 1980 and 1990. Some analysts have hypothesized that increased competition between employers for employees with college degrees drove up income for such employees. | 2 | train_182 | Which of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the explanation described above? |
[
"At least some of this country's universities are not meeting their moral responsibilities or their intellectual responsibilities or both.",
"People who purchase publications that are devoted primarily to gossip or to television programming are intellectually irresponsible.",
"Many people who attend this country's universities fail to live up to both their moral and their intellectual responsibilities.",
"It is irresponsible for university bookstores to carry publications such as Gossip Review and TV Today."
] | Editorial: It is clear that if this country' s universities were living up to both their moral and their intellectual responsibilities, the best-selling publications in most university bookstores would not be frivolous ones like TV Today and Gossip Review. However, in most university bookstores the only publication that sells better than Gossip Review is TV Today. | 0 | train_183 | If the statements in the editorial are true, which one of the following must also be true on the basis of them? |
[
"Recent research has shown that a diet high in fruits, vegetables, and skim milk is even healthier than the Beta Diet.",
"The Beta Diet is used primarily as a treatment for a condition that adversely affects overall health.",
"The Beta Diet provides dramatic health benefits for some people but only minor benefits for others.",
"On average, people who have followed the Beta Diet for their entire lives are much more likely to have a variety of healthful habits than are people whose diet is more conventional."
] | Medical research has established that the Beta Diet is healthier than a more conventional diet. But on average, people who have followed the Beta Diet for several decades are much more likely to be in poor health than are people whose diet is more conventional. | 1 | train_184 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent conflict between the two statements above? |
[
"In heavily populated areas the introduction of water power would have been certain to cause social unrest by depriving large numbers of people of their livelihood.",
"In the areas in which water power was not used, water flow in rivers and streams was substantial throughout the year but nevertheless exhibited some seasonal variation.",
"In most areas to which the use of water power was not extended, other, more traditional sources of energy continued to be used.",
"The ancient Romans were adept at constructing and maintaining aqueducts that could carry quantities of water sufficient to supply large cities over considerable distances."
] | The ancient Romans understood the principles of water power very well, and in some outlying parts of their empire they made extensive and excellent use of water as an energy source. This makes it all the more striking that the Romans made do without water power in regions dominated by large cities. | 0 | train_185 | Which one of the following, if true, contributes most to an explanation of the difference described above in the Romans' use of water power? |
[
"Data are scarce as to the geographical distribution of the pollens of many ancient plants.",
"Pollens are often transported from one region to another by wind or human movement.",
"Many types of pollen were common to several geographical regions in the ancient world.",
"Pollen analysis is a painstaking process that is also expensive to conduct."
] | One good clue as to which geographical regions an ancient relic was moved through in the past involves the analysis of pollen that clings to the surface of the relic. A relic is linked to a geographical area by the identification of pollen from plants that are known to have been unique to that area. | 1 | train_186 | Which one of the following, if true, casts the most doubt on the reliability of the method described above? |
[
"Personnel costs for the distribution of power to consumers are unrelated to the type of raw materials an electric company uses.",
"Most electric companies would be willing to incorporate cold-fusion technology into their power plants.",
"Cold-fusion power plants would be more expensive to build and maintain than traditional electric generators are.",
"Only a relatively small portion of any residential electric bill is determined by the electric company's expenses for fuel."
] | If cold fusion worked, it would provide almost limitless power from very inexpensive raw materials, materials far cheaper than coal or oil. But replacing all the traditional electric generators that use these fuels with cold-fusion power plants would result in a reduction of no more than 25 percent in the average residential electric bill. | 1 | train_187 | Each of the following, if true, would help to resolve the apparent discrepancy between the predictions above EXCEPT: |
[
"Students who learn FANTOD tend to have much lower SAT scores than do their peers.",
"Most people who learn to program in FANTOD do so to commit some kind of hacking.",
"The college admissions process possibly places some students with a knowledge of FANTOD at a disadvantage.",
"Colleges should rely on their own admissions tests instead of the SATs"
] | In a few recent cases, some teenagers with advanced programming abilities used a new programming language, FANTOD, to hack into ETS and change their own SAT scores. All of the teenagers convicted of this crime were highly skilled in programming FANTOD. In light of these cases, some colleges have discounted the official SAT scores of applicants with a knowledge of FANTOD, and have required them to take special admission tests in supervised conditions on their own campuses. | 2 | train_188 | Which of following conclusions can most properly be drawn from the information above? |
[
"Orthodox medicine will eventually produce a solution for the diseases that are currently incurable.",
"There are some medical conditions for which no orthodox or alternative treatment is effective.",
"There are some trivial illnesses that can be treated effectively by the methods of alternative medicine.",
"Practitioners of alternative medicine are acting in bad faith."
] | Orthodox medicine is ineffective at both ends of the spectrum of ailments. At the more trivial end, orthodox medicine is largely ineffective in treating aches, pains, and allergies, and, at the other extreme, it has yet to produce a cure for serious, life-threatening diseases such as advanced cancer and lupus. People turn to alternative medicine when orthodox medicine fails to help them and when it produces side effects that are unacceptable to them. One of the reasons alternative medicine is free of such side effects is that it does not have any effects at all. | 1 | train_189 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following can be properly inferred from them? |
[
"The argument leads with a generalization, offers some examples, and then finishes with a conclusion.",
"The argument offers several premises and then creates a false dichotomy to support its conclusion.",
"The argument leads with a conclusion, offers several premises, and then sets up a false dichotomy to support its conclusion.",
"The argument leads with a conclusion then provides several illustrative examples."
] | Direct democracy is the best system of government for every society. No other system of government maximizes individual freedom more than democracy. In direct democracies, the people' s will is manifested in the state' s policies, as they can directly vote on every political issue. All of the politicians who killed the most people, like Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin, led dictatorships. Direct democracy is obviously better than a dictatorship, so it is the best form of government. | 2 | train_190 | Which one of the following most accurately describes how the argument proceeds? |
[
"Of the readers who received questionnaires, 90 percent returned them.",
"The percentage of surveyed readers who like the format change was almost the same as the percentage of the entire potential readership who would like the format change.",
"Ninety percent of the readers who were dissatisfied with the old format and only 50 percent of the readers who liked the old format returned their questionnaires.",
"It was determined that the new format would be less costly than the old format."
] | A medical journal used a questionnaire survey to determine whether a particular change in its format would increase its readership. Sixty-two percent of those who returned the questionnaire supported that change. On the basis of this outcome, the decision was made to introduce the new format. | 1 | train_191 | Which one of the following, if it were determined to be true, would provide the best evidence that the journal's decision will have the desired effect? |
[
"Experimental evidence suggests that the checkerspot butterfly can adapt easily to a wide range of temperatures and geographic conditions.",
"Climate does not affect checkerspot butterflies themselves directly, but the plants they depend on thrive best in warm climates.",
"Several studies have shown that several other species of butterfly closely related to the checkerspot butterfly survive only in warm climates.",
"Checkerspot butterfly colonies observed under laboratory conditions are critically affected by small temperature changes."
] | Dr. Theresa Pagano, a biologist, has found that the checkerspot butterfly is becoming more prevalent in regions farther north than before and less prevalent in regions farther south. The northward shift of the butterflies is almost perfectly correlated with the northward shift of the warm zones in the global climate, and Dr. Pagano has ttherefore concluded that the changing climate is responsible for the northward movement of the butterflies. | 0 | train_192 | Each of the following, if true, supports Dr. Pagano's reasoning EXCEPT: |
[
"Criminal organizations are already heavily involved in every activity that promises to generate enormous profits.",
"At least some criminal organizations are or will at some point become aware that the ongoing revolutions in biotechnology and information technology promise to generate enormous profits.",
"Any organization whose main purpose is to generate profits will try to become increasingly involved in any technological revolution that promises to generate enormous profits.",
"Most criminal organizations are willing to become involved in legal activities if those activities are sufficiently profitable."
] | Criminologist: The main purpose of most criminal organizations is to generate profits. The ongoing revolutions in biotechnology and information technology promise to generate enormous profits. Ttherefore, criminal organizations will undoubtedly try to become increasingly involved in these areas. | 2 | train_193 | The conclusion of the criminologist's argument is properly inferred if which one of the following is assumed? |
[
"concludes that a phenomenon will have a certain property merely because the phenomenon's cause has that property",
"rejects a claim by attacking the proponent of the claim rather than addressing the claim itself",
"draws a conclusion about what ought to be the case from premises that are entirely about what is the case",
"takes the condition of one member of a category to be representative of the category in general"
] | Why would anyone want to make nonprofits as inefficient as Byworks Corporation, which has posted huge losses for years? The reasoning of the argument in the letter is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument | 3 | train_194 | Letter to the editor: You have asserted that philanthropists want to make the nonprofit sector as efficient as private business in this country. Philanthropists want no such thing, of course. |
[
"The character of Demosthenes in Knights is not based on a historical figure.",
"Only rarely in ancient Greece were prophecies written down on writing tablets.",
"In ancient Greece, people did not read silently to themselves.",
"In ancient Greek plays, the reading aloud of written texts commonly occurred as part of the on-stage action."
] | In a scene in an ancient Greek play, Knights, the character Demosthenes opens a writing tablet on which an oracle had written a prophecy, and while looking at the tablet, he continuously expresses his amazement at its contents. His companion presses him for information, whereupon Demosthenes explains what the oracle had written. | 2 | train_195 | Of the following claims, which one can most justifiably be rejected on the basis of the statements above? |
[
"One should never break a promise.",
"It is sometimes better to act in a friend's best interests than to keep a promise to that friend.",
"Some implicit promises are worse to break than some explicit ones.",
"Breaking a promise leads to worse consequences than does telling a lie."
] | Teacher to a student: You agree that it is bad to break promises. But when we speak to each other we all make an implicit promise to tell the truth, and lying is the breaking of that promise. So even if you promised Jeanne that you would tell me she is home sick, you should not tell me that, if you know that she is well. | 2 | train_196 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the teacher's argument depends? |
[
"It is compatible with accepting the argument's conclusion and with denying it.",
"It is a position that the argument simply takes for granted is false.",
"It is an assumption that is required in order to establish the argument's conclusion.",
"It expresses the position the argument as a whole is directed toward discrediting."
] | People often admonish us to learn the lessons of history, but, even if it were easy to discover what the past was really like, it is nearly impossible to discover its lessons. We are supposed, for example, to learn the lessons of World War I. But what are they? And were we ever to discover what they are, it is not clear that we could ever apply them, for we shall never again have a situation just like World War I. | 3 | train_197 | That we should learn the lessons of history figures in the argument in which one of the following ways? |
[
"stress sometimes reduces the amount of pain a heart patient experiences",
"heart patients suffering from reduced blood flow to the heart who are experiencing pain from the condition are more likely to require surgery than are such patients who are not experiencing pain",
"the severity of a heart patient's condition is usually worsened by withholding information from the patient about the treatment that that patient will receive",
"stress is probably an effect rather than a cause of reduced blood flow to the heart"
] | In a study of heart patients awaiting treatment for reduced blood flow to the heart, those still waiting to find out whether they would need surgery were less likely to experience pain from the condition than were those who knew what type of treatment they would receive. Assuming that this uncertainty is more stressful than knowing what one' s future holds, then it is reasonable to conclude that__. | 0 | train_198 | Which one of the following most logically completes the argument? |
[
"This evening's television news reported that the cruise ship was only damaged in the fire last night, whereas the newspaper reported that it was destroyed. The television news is based on more recent information, so probably the ship was not destroyed.",
"The newspaper is generally more reliable than the television news, and the newspaper reported that the damage from last night's fire in the port was not severe. Ttherefore, the damage probably was not severe.",
"Among the buildings that are near the port is the newspaper's printing plant. Early editions of this morning's paper were very late. Ttherefore, the fire at the port probably affected areas beyond the port itself.",
"Neither today's newspapers nor this evening's television news mentioned a huge fire that was rumored to have happened in the port last night. Ttherefore, there probably was no such fire."
] | Various mid-fourteenth-century European writers show an interest in games, but no writer of this period mentions the playing of cards. Nor do any of the mid-fourteenth-century statutes that proscribe or limit the play of games mention cards, though they do mention dice, chess, and other games. It is ttherefore likely that, contrary to what is sometimes claimed, at that time playing cards was not yet common in Europe. | 3 | train_199 | The pattern of reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to that in the argument above? |