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Modern Standard Arabic has six pure [[vowel]] (while most modern dialects have eight pure vowels which includes the long vowels ), with short and corresponding long vowels . There are also two [[diphthongs]]: and . The pronunciation of the vowels differs from speaker to speaker, in a way that tends to reflect the pronunciation of the corresponding colloquial variety. Nonetheless, there are some common trends. Most noticeable is the differing pronunciation of and , which tend towards fronted , or in most situations, but a back in the neighborhood of [[emphatic consonant]]. Some accents and dialects, such as those of the [[Hijaz|Hejaz]] region, have an open or a central in all situations. The vowel varies towards too. Listen to the final vowel in the recording of '''' at the beginning of this article, for example. The point is, Arabic has only three short vowel phonemes, so those phonemes can have a very wide range of allophones. The vowels and are often affected somewhat in emphatic neighborhoods as well, with generally more back or centralized [[allophone]], but the differences are less great than for the low vowels. The pronunciation of short and tends towards and , respectively, in many dialects. The definition of both "emphatic" and "neighborhood" vary in ways that reflect (to some extent) corresponding variations in the spoken dialects. Generally, the consonants triggering "emphatic" allophones are the [[pharyngealization|pharyngealized]] consonants ; ; and , if not followed immediately by . Frequently, the [[fricative]] also trigger emphatic allophones; occasionally also the [[pharyngeal consonant]] (the former more than the latter). Many dialects have multiple emphatic allophones of each vowel, depending on the particular nearby consonants. In most MSA accents, emphatic coloring of vowels is limited to vowels immediately adjacent to a triggering consonant, although in some it spreads a bit farther: e.g., '''' 'time'; '''' 'homeland'; '''' 'downtown' (sometimes or similar). In a non-emphatic environment, the vowel in the diphthong tends to be fronted even more than elsewhere, often pronounced or : hence '''' 'sword' but '''' 'summer'. However, in accents with no emphatic allophones of (e.g., in the [[Hijaz|Hejaz]]), the pronunciation or occurs in all situations.

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The phoneme is represented by the Arabic letter '''' () and has many standard pronunciations. is characteristic of north Algeria, Iraq, and most of the Arabian peninsula but with an allophonic in some positions; occurs in most of the [[Levant]] and most of North Africa; and is used in most of Egypt and some regions in Yemen and Oman. Generally this corresponds with the pronunciation in the colloquial dialects. In some regions in Sudan and Yemen, as well as in some Sudanese and Yemeni dialects, it may be either or , representing the original pronunciation of Classical Arabic. Foreign words containing may be transcribed with , , , , , or , mainly depending on the regional spoken variety of Arabic or the commonly diacriticized Arabic letter. In northern Egypt, where the Arabic letter '''' () is normally pronounced , a separate phoneme , which may be transcribed with , occurs in a small number of mostly non-Arabic loanwords, e.g., 'jacket'. () can be pronounced as . In some places of Maghreb it can be also pronounced as . and () are velar, post-velar, or uvular. In many varieties, () are [[epiglottal consonant|epiglottal]] in Western Asia. is pronounced as velarized in الله , the name of God, q.e. Allah, when the word follows ''a'', ''ā'', ''u'' or ''ū'' (after ''i'' or ''ī'' it is unvelarized: ''bismi l–lāh'' ). Some speakers velarize other occurrences of in MSA, in imitation of their spoken dialects. The emphatic consonant was actually pronounced , or possibly —either way, a highly unusual sound. The medieval Arabs actually termed their language '''' 'the language of the [[Ḍād]]' (the name of the letter used for this sound), since they thought the sound was unique to their language. (In fact, it also exists in a few other minority Semitic languages, e.g., Mehri.) Arabic has consonants traditionally termed "emphatic" (), which exhibit simultaneous [[pharyngealization]] as well as varying degrees of [[velarization]] (depending on the region), so they may be written with the "Velarized or pharyngealized" diacritic () as: . This simultaneous articulation is described as "Retracted Tongue Root" by phonologists. In some transcription systems, emphasis is shown by capitalizing the letter, for example, is written ; in others the letter is underlined or has a dot below it, for example, . Vowels and consonants can be phonologically short or long. Long ([[gemination|geminate]]) consonants are normally written doubled in Latin transcription (i.e. bb, dd, etc.), reflecting the presence of the [[Arabic diacritics|Arabic diacritic]] mark '''', which indicates doubled consonants. In actual pronunciation, doubled consonants are held twice as long as short consonants. This consonant lengthening is phonemically contrastive: '''' 'he accepted' vs. '''' 'he kissed'.

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Arabic

Arabic has two kinds of syllables: open syllables (CV) and (CVV)—and closed syllables (CVC), (CVVC) and (CVCC). The syllable types with two [[morae]] (units of time), i.e. CVC and CVV, are termed ''[[heavy syllable]]'', while those with three morae, i.e. CVVC and CVCC, are ''[[superheavy syllable]]''. Superheavy syllables in Classical Arabic occur in only two places: at the end of the sentence (due to [[pausa]] pronunciation) and in words such as '''' 'hot', '''' 'stuff, substance', '''' 'they disputed with each other', where a long '''' occurs before two identical consonants (a former short vowel between the consonants has been lost). (In less formal pronunciations of Modern Standard Arabic, superheavy syllables are common at the end of words or before [[clitic]] suffixes such as '''' 'us, our', due to the deletion of final short vowels.) In surface pronunciation, every vowel must be preceded by a consonant (which may include the [[glottal stop]] ). There are no cases of [[hiatus (linguistics)|hiatus]] within a word (where two vowels occur next to each other, without an intervening consonant). Some words do have an underlying vowel at the beginning, such as the definite article ''al-'' or words such as '''' 'he bought', '''' 'meeting'. When actually pronounced, one of three things happens: (-) If the word occurs after another word ending in a consonant, there is a smooth transition from final consonant to initial vowel, e.g., '''' 'meeting' . (-) If the word occurs after another word ending in a vowel, the initial vowel of the word is [[elision|elided]], e.g., '''' 'house of the director' . (-) If the word occurs at the beginning of an utterance, a glottal stop is added onto the beginning, e.g., '''' 'The house is ...' .

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Word stress is not phonemically contrastive in Standard Arabic. It bears a strong relationship to vowel length. The basic rules for Modern Standard Arabic are: (-) A final vowel, long or short, may not be stressed. (-) Only one of the last three syllables may be stressed. (-) Given this restriction, the last [[heavy syllable]] (containing a long vowel or ending in a consonant) is stressed, if it is not the final syllable. (-) If the final syllable is super heavy and closed (of the form CVVC or CVCC) it receives stress. (-) If no syllable is heavy or super heavy, the first possible syllable (i.e. third from end) is stressed. (-) As a special exception, in Form VII and VIII verb forms stress may not be on the first syllable, despite the above rules: Hence '''' 'he subscribed' (whether or not the final short vowel is pronounced), '''' 'he subscribes' (whether or not the final short vowel is pronounced), '''' 'he should subscribe (juss.)'. Likewise Form VIII '''' 'he bought', '''' 'he buys'. Examples:'''' 'book', '''' 'writer', '''' 'desk', '''' 'desks', '''' 'library' (but '''' 'library' in short pronunciation), '''' (Modern Standard Arabic) 'they wrote' = '''' (dialect), '''' (Modern Standard Arabic) 'they wrote it' = '''' (dialect), '''' (Modern Standard Arabic) 'they (dual, fem) wrote', '''' (Modern Standard Arabic) 'I wrote' = '''' (short form or dialect). Doubled consonants count as two consonants: '''' 'magazine', '''' "place". These rules may result in differently stressed syllables when final case endings are pronounced, vs. the normal situation where they are not pronounced, as in the above example of '''' 'library' in full pronunciation, but '''' 'library' in short pronunciation. The restriction on final long vowels does not apply to the spoken dialects, where original final long vowels have been shortened and secondary final long vowels have arisen from loss of original final ''-hu/hi''. Some dialects have different stress rules. In the Cairo (Egyptian Arabic) dialect a heavy syllable may not carry stress more than two syllables from the end of a word, hence '''' 'school', '''' 'Cairo'. This also affects the way that Modern Standard Arabic is pronounced in Egypt. In the Arabic of [[Sana'a|Sanaa]], stress is often retracted: '''' 'two houses', '''' 'their table', '''' 'desks', '''' 'sometimes', '''' 'their school'. (In this dialect, only syllables with long vowels or diphthongs are considered heavy; in a two-syllable word, the final syllable can be stressed only if the preceding syllable is light; and in longer words, the final syllable cannot be stressed.)

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The final short vowels (e.g., the case endings ''-a -i -u'' and mood endings ''-u -a'') are often not pronounced in this language, despite forming part of the formal paradigm of nouns and verbs. The following levels of pronunciation exist:

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This is the most formal level actually used in speech. All endings are pronounced as written, except at the end of an utterance, where the following changes occur: (-) Final short vowels are not pronounced. (But possibly an exception is made for feminine plural ''-na'' and shortened vowels in the jussive/imperative of defective verbs, e.g., ''irmi!'' 'throw!'".) (-) The entire indefinite noun endings ''-in'' and ''-un'' (with [[nunation]]) are left off. The ending ''-an'' is left off of nouns preceded by a ''[[tāʾ marbūṭah]]'' ة (i.e. the ''-t'' in the ending ''-at-'' that typically marks feminine nouns), but pronounced as ''-ā'' in other nouns (hence its writing in this fashion in the Arabic script). (-) The ''tāʼ marbūṭah'' itself (typically of feminine nouns) is pronounced as ''h''. (At least, this is the case in extremely formal pronunciation, e.g., some Quranic recitations. In practice, this ''h'' is usually omitted.)

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This is a formal level of pronunciation sometimes seen. It is somewhat like pronouncing all words as if they were in pausal position (with influence from the [[varieties of Arabic|colloquial varieties]]). The following changes occur: (-) Most final short vowels are not pronounced. However, the following short vowels ''are'' pronounced: (-) feminine plural ''-na'' (-) shortened vowels in the jussive/imperative of defective verbs, e.g., ''irmi!'' 'throw!' (-) second-person singular feminine past-tense ''-ti'' and likewise ''anti'' 'you (fem. sg.)' (-) sometimes, first-person singular past-tense ''-tu'' (-) sometimes, second-person masculine past-tense ''-ta'' and likewise ''anta'' 'you (masc. sg.)' (-) final ''-a'' in certain short words, e.g., ''laysa'' 'is not', ''sawfa'' (future-tense marker) (-) The [[nunation]] endings ''-an -in -un'' are not pronounced. However, they ''are'' pronounced in adverbial accusative formations, e.g., '''' تَقْرِيبًا 'almost, approximately', '''' عَادَةً 'usually'. (-) The ''[[tāʾ marbūṭah]]'' ending ة is unpronounced, ''except'' in [[construct state]] nouns, where it sounds as ''t'' (and in adverbial accusative constructions, e.g., '''' عَادَةً 'usually', where the entire ''-tan'' is pronounced). (-) The masculine singular [[Arabic grammar#Nisba|nisbah]] ending '''' is actually pronounced '''' and is unstressed (but plural and feminine singular forms, i.e. when followed by a suffix, still sound as ''''). (-) ''Full endings'' (including case endings) occur when a [[clitic]] object or [[possessive suffix]] is added (e.g., '''' 'us/our').

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This is the pronunciation used by speakers of Modern Standard Arabic in [[extemporaneous]] speech, i.e. when producing new sentences rather than simply reading a prepared text. It is similar to formal short pronunciation except that the rules for dropping final vowels apply ''even'' when a [[clitic]] suffix is added. Basically, short-vowel case and mood endings are never pronounced and certain other changes occur that echo the corresponding colloquial pronunciations. Specifically: (-) All the rules for formal short pronunciation apply, except as follows. (-) The past tense singular endings written formally as ''-tu -ta -ti'' are pronounced ''-t -t -ti''. But masculine '''' is pronounced in full. (-) Unlike in formal short pronunciation, the rules for dropping or modifying final endings are also applied when a [[clitic]] object or possessive suffix is added (e.g., '''' 'us/our'). If this produces a sequence of three consonants, then one of the following happens, depending on the speaker's native colloquial variety: (-) A short vowel (e.g., ''-i-'' or ''-ǝ-'') is consistently added, either between the second and third or the first and second consonants. (-) Or, a short vowel is added only if an otherwise unpronounceable sequence occurs, typically due to a violation of the [[sonority hierarchy]] (e.g., ''-rtn-'' is pronounced as a three-consonant cluster, but ''-trn-'' needs to be broken up). (-) Or, a short vowel is never added, but consonants like ''r l m n'' occurring between two other consonants will be pronounced as a [[syllabic consonant]] (as in the English words "butter bottle bottom button"). (-) When a doubled consonant occurs before another consonant (or finally), it is often shortened to a single consonant rather than a vowel added. (However, Moroccan Arabic never shortens doubled consonants or inserts short vowels to break up clusters, instead tolerating arbitrary-length series of arbitrary consonants and hence Moroccan Arabic speakers are likely to follow the same rules in their pronunciation of Modern Standard Arabic.) (-) The clitic suffixes themselves tend also to be changed, in a way that avoids many possible occurrences of three-consonant clusters. In particular, ''-ka -ki -hu'' generally sound as ''-ak -ik -uh''. (-) Final long vowels are often shortened, merging with any short vowels that remain. (-) Depending on the level of formality, the speaker's education level, etc., various grammatical changes may occur in ways that echo the colloquial variants: (-) Any remaining case endings (e.g. masculine plural nominative ''-ūn'' vs. oblique ''-īn'') will be leveled, with the oblique form used everywhere. (However, in words like '''' 'father' and '''' 'brother' with special long-vowel case endings in the [[construct state]], the nominative is used everywhere, hence '''' 'father of', '''' 'brother of'.) (-) Feminine plural endings in verbs and clitic suffixes will often drop out, with the masculine plural endings used instead. If the speaker's native variety has feminine plural endings, they may be preserved, but will often be modified in the direction of the forms used in the speaker's native variety, e.g. ''-an'' instead of ''-na''.

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(-) Dual endings will often drop out except on nouns and then used only for emphasis (similar to their use in the colloquial varieties); elsewhere, the plural endings are used (or feminine singular, if appropriate).

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As mentioned above, many spoken dialects have a process of ''emphasis spreading'', where the "emphasis" ([[pharyngealization]]) of [[emphatic consonant]] spreads forward and back through adjacent syllables, pharyngealizing all nearby consonants and triggering the back allophone in all nearby [[low vowel]]. The extent of emphasis spreading varies. For example, in Moroccan Arabic, it spreads as far as the first full vowel (i.e. sound derived from a long vowel or diphthong) on either side; in many Levantine dialects, it spreads indefinitely, but is blocked by any or ; while in Egyptian Arabic, it usually spreads throughout the entire word, including prefixes and suffixes. In Moroccan Arabic, also have emphatic allophones and , respectively. Unstressed short vowels, especially , are deleted in many contexts. Many sporadic examples of short vowel change have occurred (especially → and interchange ↔). Most Levantine dialects merge short /i u/ into in most contexts (all except directly before a single final consonant). In Moroccan Arabic, on the other hand, short triggers [[labialization]] of nearby consonants (especially [[velar consonant]] and [[uvular consonant]]), and then short /a i u/ all merge into , which is deleted in many contexts. (The labialization plus is sometimes interpreted as an underlying phoneme .) This essentially causes the wholesale loss of the short-long vowel distinction, with the original long vowels remaining as half-long , phonemically , which are used to represent ''both'' short and long vowels in borrowings from Literary Arabic. Most spoken dialects have [[monophthongized]] original to in most circumstances, including adjacent to emphatic consonants, while keeping them as the original diphthongs in others e.g. . In most of the [[Moroccan Arabic|Moroccan]], [[Algerian Arabic|Algerian]] and [[Tunisian Arabic|Tunisian]] (except [[Sahel]] and Southeastern) Arabic dialects, they have subsequently merged into original .

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In most dialects, there may be more or fewer phonemes than those listed in the chart above. For example, is considered a native phoneme in most Arabic dialects except in Levantine dialects like Syrian or Lebanese where is pronounced and is pronounced . or () is considered a native phoneme in most dialects except in Egyptian and a number of Yemeni and Omani dialects where is pronounced . or and are distinguished in the dialects of Egypt, Sudan, the Levant and the Hejaz, but they have merged as in most dialects of the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq and Tunisia and have merged as in Morocco and Algeria. The usage of non-native and depends on the usage of each speaker but they might be more prevalent in some dialects than others. The Iraqi and Gulf Arabic also has the sound and writes it and with the Persian letters and , as in "plum"; "truffle". Early in the expansion of Arabic, the separate emphatic phonemes and coalesced into a single phoneme . Many dialects (such as Egyptian, Levantine, and much of the Maghreb) subsequently lost [[fricative]], converting into . Most dialects borrow "learned" words from the Standard language using the same pronunciation as for inherited words, but some dialects without interdental fricatives (particularly in Egypt and the Levant) render original in borrowed words as . Another key distinguishing mark of Arabic dialects is how they render the original velar and uvular plosives , (Proto-Semitic ), and : (-) retains its original pronunciation in widely scattered regions such as Yemen, Morocco, and urban areas of the Maghreb. It is pronounced as a [[glottal stop]] in several [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige dialects]], such as those spoken in Cairo, Beirut and Damascus. But it is rendered as a voiced velar plosive in Persian Gulf, Upper Egypt, parts of the Maghreb, and less urban parts of the Levant (e.g. Jordan). In Iraqi Arabic it sometimes retains its original pronunciation and is sometimes rendered as a voiced velar plosive, depending on the word. Some traditionally Christian villages in rural areas of the Levant render the sound as , as do Shiʻi Bahrainis. In some Gulf dialects, it is palatalized to or . It is pronounced as a voiced uvular constrictive in Sudanese Arabic. Many dialects with a modified pronunciation for maintain the pronunciation in certain words (often with religious or educational overtones) borrowed from the Classical language. (-) is pronounced as an affricate in Iraq and much of the Arabian Peninsula but is pronounced in most of North Egypt and parts of Yemen and Oman, in Morocco, Tunisia, and the Levant, and , in most words in much of the Persian Gulf. (-) usually retains its original pronunciation but is palatalized to in many words in Israel and the Palestinian Territories, Iraq, and countries in the eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula. Often a distinction is made between the suffixes ('you', masc.) and ('you', fem.), which become and , respectively. In Sana'a, Omani, and Bahrani is pronounced .

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Pharyngealization of the emphatic consonants tends to weaken in many of the spoken varieties, and to spread from emphatic consonants to nearby sounds. In addition, the "emphatic" allophone automatically triggers pharyngealization of adjacent sounds in many dialects. As a result, it may difficult or impossible to determine whether a given [[coronal consonant]] is phonemically emphatic or not, especially in dialects with long-distance emphasis spreading. (A notable exception is the sounds vs. in Moroccan Arabic, because the former is pronounced as an [[affricate]] but the latter is not.)

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As in other Semitic languages, Arabic has a complex and unusual [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] (i.e. method of constructing words from a basic [[root (linguistics)|root]]). Arabic has a [[nonconcatenative morphology|nonconcatenative]] "root-and-pattern" morphology: A root consists of a set of bare consonants (usually [[triliteral|three]]), which are fitted into a discontinuous pattern to form words. For example, the word for 'I wrote' is constructed by combining the root '''''' 'write' with the pattern '''''' 'I Xed' to form '''' 'I wrote'. Other verbs meaning 'I Xed' will typically have the same pattern but with different consonants, e.g. '''' 'I read', '''' 'I ate', '''' 'I went', although other patterns are possible (e.g. '''' 'I drank', '''' 'I said', '''' 'I spoke', where the subpattern used to signal the past tense may change but the suffix '''' is always used). From a single root '''''', numerous words can be formed by applying different patterns: (-) كَتَبْتُ '''' 'I wrote' (-) كَتَّبْتُ '''' 'I had (something) written' (-) كَاتَبْتُ '''' 'I corresponded (with someone)' (-) أَكْتَبْتُ '''' 'I dictated' (-) اِكْتَتَبْتُ '''' 'I subscribed' (-) تَكَاتَبْنَا '''' 'we corresponded with each other' (-) أَكْتُبُ '''' 'I write' (-) أُكَتِّبُ '''' 'I have (something) written' (-) أُكَاتِبُ '''' 'I correspond (with someone)' (-) أُكْتِبُ '''' 'I dictate' (-) أَكْتَتِبُ '''' 'I subscribe' (-) نَتَكَتِبُ '''' 'we correspond each other' (-) كُتِبَ '''' 'it was written' (-) أُكْتِبَ '''' 'it was dictated' (-) مَكْتُوبٌ '''' 'written' (-) مُكْتَبٌ '''' 'dictated' (-) كِتَابٌ '''' 'book' (-) كُتُبٌ '''' 'books' (-) كَاتِبٌ '''' 'writer' (-) كُتَّابٌ '''' 'writers' (-) مَكْتَبٌ '''' 'desk, office' (-) مَكْتَبَةٌ '''' 'library, bookshop' (-) etc.

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Nouns in Literary Arabic have three grammatical [[noun case|cases]] ([[nominative case|nominative]], [[accusative case|accusative]], and [[genitive case|genitive]] [also used when the noun is governed by a preposition]); three [[grammatical number|numbers]] (singular, dual and plural); two [[gender (grammar)|genders]] (masculine and feminine); and three "states" (indefinite, definite, and [[Status constructus|construct]]). The cases of singular nouns (other than those that end in long ā) are indicated by [[suffix]] short vowels (/-u/ for nominative, /-a/ for accusative, /-i/ for genitive). The feminine singular is often marked by ـَة /-at/, which is pronounced as /-ah/ before a pause. Plural is indicated either through endings (the [[sound plural]]) or internal modification (the [[broken plural]]). Definite nouns include all proper nouns, all nouns in "construct state" and all nouns which are [[prefix]] by the definite article اَلْـ /al-/. Indefinite singular nouns (other than those that end in long ā) add a final /-n/ to the case-marking vowels, giving /-un/, /-an/ or /-in/ (which is also referred to as [[nunation]] or [[tanwīn]]). [[Adjective]] in Literary Arabic are marked for case, number, gender and state, as for nouns. However, the plural of all non-human nouns is always combined with a singular feminine adjective, which takes the ـَة /-at/ suffix. [[Pronoun]] in Literary Arabic are marked for person, number and gender. There are two varieties, independent pronouns and [[Enclitic#Enclitic|enclitics]]. Enclitic pronouns are attached to the end of a verb, noun or preposition and indicate verbal and prepositional objects or possession of nouns. The first-person singular pronoun has a different enclitic form used for verbs (ـنِي /-nī/) and for nouns or prepositions (ـِي /-ī/ after consonants, ـيَ /-ya/ after vowels). Nouns, verbs, pronouns and adjectives agree with each other in all respects. However, non-human plural nouns are grammatically considered to be feminine singular. Furthermore, a verb in a verb-initial sentence is marked as singular regardless of its semantic number when the subject of the verb is explicitly mentioned as a noun. Numerals between three and ten show "chiasmic" agreement, in that grammatically masculine numerals have feminine marking and vice versa.

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Verbs in Literary Arabic are marked for person (first, second, or third), gender, and number. They are [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugated]] in two major paradigms ([[past]] and [[non-past]]); two [[grammatical voice|voices]] (active and passive); and six [[grammatical mood|moods]] ([[indicative]], [[imperative mood|imperative]], [[subjunctive]], [[Irrealis mood#Jussive|jussive]], shorter [[energetic mood|energetic]] and longer energetic), the fifth and sixth moods, the energetics, exist only in Classical Arabic but not in MSA. There are also two [[participle]] (active and passive) and a [[verbal noun]], but no [[infinitive]]. The past and non-past paradigms are sometimes also termed [[perfective]] and [[imperfective]], indicating the fact that they actually represent a combination of [[Grammatical tense|tense]] and [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]]. The moods other than the [[indicative]] occur only in the non-past, and the [[future tense]] is signaled by prefixing سَـ '''' or سَوْفَ '''' onto the non-past. The past and non-past differ in the form of the stem (e.g., past كَتَبـ'''' vs. non-past ـكْتُبـ ''''), and also use completely different sets of affixes for indicating person, number and gender: In the past, the person, number and gender are fused into a single [[suffix]] morpheme, while in the non-past, a combination of [[prefix]] (primarily encoding person) and suffixes (primarily encoding gender and number) are used. The passive voice uses the same person/number/gender affixes but changes the vowels of the stem. The following shows a paradigm of a regular Arabic verb, كَتَبَ '''' 'to write'. In Modern Standard, the energetic mood (in either long or short form, which have the same meaning) is almost never used.

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Like other [[Semitic languages]], and unlike most other languages, Arabic makes much more use of [[nonconcatenative morphology]] (applying many templates applied roots) to [[Morphological derivation|derive]] words than adding prefixes or suffixes to words. For verbs, a given root can occur in many different [[Derived stem|derived verb stems]] (of which there are about fifteen), each with one or more characteristic meanings and each with its own templates for the past and non-past stems, active and passive participles, and verbal noun. These are referred to by Western scholars as "Form I", "Form II", and so on through "Form XV" (although Forms XI to XV are rare). These stems encode grammatical functions such as the [[causative]], [[intensive]] and [[reflexive verb|reflexive]]. Stems sharing the same root consonants represent separate verbs, albeit often semantically related, and each is the basis for its own [[Verb conjugation|conjugational]] paradigm. As a result, these derived stems are part of the system of [[derivational morphology]], not part of the [[inflection]] system. Examples of the different verbs formed from the root كتب '''' 'write' (using حمر '''' 'red' for Form IX, which is limited to colors and physical defects): Form II is sometimes used to create transitive [[denominative verb]] (verbs built from nouns); Form V is the equivalent used for intransitive denominatives. The associated participles and verbal nouns of a verb are the primary means of forming new lexical nouns in Arabic. This is similar to the process by which, for example, the [[English gerund]] "meeting" (similar to a verbal noun) has turned into a noun referring to a particular type of social, often work-related event where people gather together to have a "discussion" (another lexicalized verbal noun). Another fairly common means of forming nouns is through one of a limited number of patterns that can be applied directly to roots, such as the "nouns of location" in ''ma-'' (e.g. '''' 'desk, office' < '''' 'write', '''' 'kitchen' < '''' 'cook'). The only three genuine suffixes are as follows: (-) The feminine suffix ''-ah''; variously derives terms for women from related terms for men, or more generally terms along the same lines as the corresponding masculine, e.g. '''' 'library' (also a writing-related place, but different from '''', as above). (-) The [[Arabic grammar#Nisba|nisbah]] suffix ''-iyy-''. This suffix is extremely productive, and forms adjectives meaning "related to X". It corresponds to English adjectives in ''-ic, -al, -an, -y, -ist'', etc. (-) The feminine [[Arabic grammar#Nisba|nisbah]] suffix ''-iyyah''. This is formed by adding the feminine suffix ''-ah'' onto nisba adjectives to form abstract nouns. For example, from the basic root '''' 'share' can be derived the Form VIII verb '''' 'to cooperate, participate', and in turn its verbal noun '''' 'cooperation, participation' can be formed. This in turn can be made into a nisbah adjective '''' 'socialist', from which an abstract noun '''' 'socialism' can be derived. Other recent formations are '''' 'republic' (lit. "public-ness", < '''' 'multitude, general public'), and the [[Gaddafi]]-specific variation '''' 'people's republic' (lit. "masses-ness", < '''' 'the masses', pl. of '''', as above).

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The spoken dialects have lost the case distinctions and make only limited use of the dual (it occurs only on nouns and its use is no longer required in all circumstances). They have lost the mood distinctions other than imperative, but many have since gained new moods through the use of prefixes (most often /bi-/ for indicative vs. unmarked subjunctive). They have also mostly lost the indefinite "nunation" and the internal passive. The following is an example of a regular verb paradigm in Egyptian Arabic.

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The Arabic alphabet derives from the Aramaic through [[Nabatean alphabet|Nabatean]], to which it bears a loose resemblance like that of [[Coptic alphabet|Coptic]] or [[Cyrillic script]] to [[Greek alphabet|Greek script]]. Traditionally, there were several differences between the Western (North African) and Middle Eastern versions of the alphabet—in particular, the ''faʼ'' had a dot underneath and ''qaf'' a single dot above in the Maghreb, and the order of the letters was slightly different (at least when they were used as numerals). However, the old Maghrebi variant has been abandoned except for calligraphic purposes in the Maghreb itself, and remains in use mainly in the Quranic schools ([[zaouia]]) of West Africa. Arabic, like all other Semitic languages (except for the Latin-written Maltese, and the languages with the [[Ge'ez script]]), is written from right to left. There are several styles of scripts such as thuluth, muhaqqaq, tawqi, rayhan and notably [[Naskh (script)|naskh]], which is used in print and by computers, and [[Ruq'ah|ruqʻah]], which is commonly used for correspondence. Originally Arabic was made up of only ''rasm'' without diacritical marks Later diacritical points (which in Arabic are referred to as ''nuqaṯ'') were added (which allowed readers to distinguish between letters such as b, t, th, n and y). Finally signs known as ''[[Arabic diacritics#Tashkil (marks used as phonetic guides)|Tashkil]]'' were used for short vowels known as ''[[Arabic diacritics#Harakat (short vowel marks)|harakat]]'' and other uses such as final postnasalized or long vowels.

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After [[Khalil ibn Ahmad al Farahidi]] finally fixed the Arabic script around 786, many styles were developed, both for the writing down of the Quran and other books, and for inscriptions on monuments as decoration. Arabic calligraphy has not fallen out of use as calligraphy has in the Western world, and is still considered by [[Arabs]] as a major art form; calligraphers are held in great esteem. Being cursive by nature, unlike the Latin script, Arabic script is used to write down a [[ayah|verse]] of the Quran, a [[hadith]], or simply a [[proverb]]. The composition is often abstract, but sometimes the writing is shaped into an actual form such as that of an animal. One of the current masters of the genre is [[Hassan Massoudy]]. In modern times the intrinsically calligraphic nature of the written Arabic form is haunted by the thought that a typographic approach to the language, necessary for digitized unification, will not always accurately maintain meanings conveyed through calligraphy.

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There are a number of different standards for the [[romanization of Arabic]], i.e. methods of accurately and efficiently representing Arabic with the Latin script. There are various conflicting motivations involved, which leads to multiple systems. Some are interested in [[transliteration]], i.e. representing the ''spelling'' of Arabic, while others focus on [[Phonetic transcription|transcription]], i.e. representing the ''pronunciation'' of Arabic. (They differ in that, for example, the same letter is used to represent both a consonant, as in "'''y'''ou" or "'''y'''et", and a vowel, as in "m'''e'''" or "'''ea'''t".) Some systems, e.g. for scholarly use, are intended to accurately and unambiguously represent the phonemes of Arabic, generally making the phonetics more explicit than the original word in the Arabic script. These systems are heavily reliant on [[diacritic]] marks such as "š" for the sound equivalently written ''sh'' in English. Other systems (e.g. the [[Bahá'í orthography]]) are intended to help readers who are neither Arabic speakers nor linguists with intuitive pronunciation of Arabic names and phrases. These less "scientific" systems tend to avoid [[diacritics]] and use [[digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] (like ''sh'' and ''kh''). These are usually simpler to read, but sacrifice the definiteness of the scientific systems, and may lead to ambiguities, e.g. whether to interpret ''sh'' as a single sound, as in ''gash'', or a combination of two sounds, as in ''gashouse''. The [[ALA-LC]] romanization solves this problem by separating the two sounds with a [[Prime (symbol)|prime]] symbol ( ′ ); e.g., ''as′hal'' 'easier'. During the last few decades and especially since the 1990s, Western-invented text communication technologies have become prevalent in the Arab world, such as [[personal computer]], the [[World Wide Web]], [[email]], [[bulletin board system]], [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]], [[instant messaging]] and [[mobile phone text messaging]]. Most of these technologies originally had the ability to communicate using the Latin script only, and some of them still do not have the Arabic script as an optional feature. As a result, Arabic speaking users communicated in these technologies by transliterating the Arabic text using the Latin script, sometimes known as IM Arabic. To handle those Arabic letters that cannot be accurately represented using the Latin script, numerals and other characters were appropriated. For example, the numeral "3" may be used to represent the Arabic letter . There is no universal name for this type of transliteration, but some have named it [[Arabic Chat Alphabet]]. Other systems of transliteration exist, such as using dots or capitalization to represent the "emphatic" counterparts of certain consonants. For instance, using capitalization, the letter , may be represented by '''d'''. Its emphatic counterpart, , may be written as '''D'''.

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In most of present-day North Africa, the [[Western Arabic numerals]] (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) are used. However, in Egypt and Arabic-speaking countries to the east of it, the [[Eastern Arabic numerals]] ( – – – – – – – – – ) are in use. When representing a number in Arabic, the lowest-valued [[positional notation|position]] is placed on the right, so the order of positions is the same as in left-to-right scripts. Sequences of digits such as telephone numbers are read from left to right, but numbers are spoken in the traditional Arabic fashion, with units and tens reversed from the modern English usage. For example, 24 is said "four and twenty" just like in the German language (''vierundzwanzig'') and [[Classical Hebrew]], and 1975 is said "a thousand and nine-hundred and five and seventy" or, more eloquently, "a thousand and nine-hundred five seventy"

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[[Academy of the Arabic Language (disambiguation)|Academy of the Arabic Language]] is the name of a number of language-regulation bodies formed in the Arab League. The most active are in [[Academy of the Arabic Language in Damascus|Damascus]] and Cairo. They review language development, monitor new words and approve inclusion of new words into their published standard dictionaries. They also publish old and historical Arabic manuscripts.

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Arabic has been taught worldwide in many [[elementary school|elementary]] and [[secondary school|secondary]] schools, especially Muslim schools. Universities around the world have classes that teach Arabic as part of their [[Foreign Languages|foreign languages]], [[Middle Eastern studies]], and [[religious studies]] courses. [[Arabic language school]] exist to assist students to learn Arabic outside the academic world. There are many Arabic [[language school]] in the Arab world and other [[Muslim world|Muslim]] countries. Because the Quran is written in Arabic and all [[Glossary of Islam|Islamic terms]] are in Arabic, millions of Muslims (both Arab and non-Arab) study the language. Software and books with tapes are also important part of Arabic learning, as many of Arabic learners may live in places where there are no academic or Arabic language school classes available. Radio series of Arabic language classes are also provided from some radio stations. A number of websites on the [[Internet]] provide online classes for all levels as a means of distance education; most teach Modern Standard Arabic, but some teach regional varieties from numerous countries.

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With the sole example of Medieval linguist [[Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati]] – who, while a scholar of the Arabic language, was not ethnically Arab – Medieval scholars of the Arabic language made no efforts at studying comparative linguistics, considering all other languages inferior. In modern times, the educated upper classes in the Arab world have taken a nearly opposite view. [[Yasir Suleiman]] wrote in 2011 that "studying and knowing English or French in most of the Middle East and North Africa have become a badge of sophistication and modernity and ... feigning, or asserting, weakness or lack of facility in Arabic is sometimes paraded as a sign of status, class, and perversely, even education through a mélange of code-switching practises."

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'''Sir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock''' (13 August 1899 – 29 April 1980) was an English film director, producer, and screenwriter. He is one of the most influential and widely studied filmmakers in the history of cinema. Known as the "'''Master of Suspense'''", he directed over 50 feature films in a career spanning six decades, becoming as well known as any of his actors thanks to his many interviews, his [[List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances|cameo roles]] in most of his films, and his hosting and producing the television anthology ''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'' (1955–65). His films garnered 46 [[Academy Awards|Academy Award]] nominations including six wins, although he never won for [[Academy Award for Best Director|Best Director]] despite having had five nominations. Born in [[Leytonstone]], London, Hitchcock entered the film industry in 1919 as a [[Intertitle|title card]] designer after training as a technical clerk and copy writer for a telegraph-cable company. He made his directorial debut with the British-German silent film ''[[The Pleasure Garden (1925 film)|The Pleasure Garden]]'' (1925). His first successful film, ''[[The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog]]'' (1927), helped to shape the [[Thriller film|thriller]] genre, while his 1929 film, ''[[Blackmail (1929 film)|Blackmail]]'', was the first British "[[Sound film#Transition: Europe|talkie]]". Two of his 1930s thrillers, ''[[The 39 Steps (1935 film)|The 39 Steps]]'' (1935) and ''[[The Lady Vanishes]]'' (1938), are ranked among the [[BFI Top 100 British films|greatest British films]] of the 20th century. By 1939, Hitchcock was a filmmaker of international importance, and film producer [[David O. Selznick]] persuaded him to move to Hollywood. A string of successful films followed, including ''[[Rebecca (1940 film)|Rebecca]]'' (1940), ''[[Foreign Correspondent (film)|Foreign Correspondent]]'' (1940), ''[[Suspicion (1941 film)|Suspicion]]'' (1941), ''[[Shadow of a Doubt]]'' (1943), and ''[[Notorious (1946 film)|Notorious]]'' (1946). ''Rebecca'' won the [[Academy Award for Best Picture#1940s|Academy Award for Best Picture]], although Hitchcock himself was only nominated as [[Academy Award for Best Director|Best Director]]; he was also nominated for ''[[Lifeboat (1944 film)|Lifeboat]]'' (1944) and ''[[Spellbound (1945 film)|Spellbound]]'' (1945). The "[[Hitchcockian]]" style includes the use of camera movement to mimic a person's gaze, thereby turning viewers into [[voyeurism|voyeurs]], and framing [[Shot (filmmaking)|shots]] to maximise anxiety and fear. The film critic [[Robin Wood (critic)|Robin Wood]] wrote that the meaning of a Hitchcock film "is there in the method, in the progression from shot to shot. A Hitchcock film is an organism, with the whole implied in every detail and every detail related to the whole." Hitchcock made multiple films with some of the biggest stars of Hollywood, including four with [[Cary Grant]] in the 1940s and 50s, three with [[Ingrid Bergman]] in the last half of the 1940s, four with [[James Stewart]] over a ten-year span commencing in 1948, and three with [[Grace Kelly]] in the mid-1950s.

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After a brief lull of commercial success in the late 1940s, Hitchcock returned to form with ''[[Strangers on a Train (film)|Strangers on a Train]]'' (1951) and ''[[Dial M For Murder]]'' (1954). Between 1954 and 1960, Hitchcock directed four films [[List of films considered the best|often ranked]] among the greatest of all time: ''[[Rear Window]]'' (1954), ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'' (1958), ''[[North by Northwest]]'' (1959), and ''[[Psycho (1960 film)|Psycho]]'' (1960), the first and last of these garnering him Best Director nominations. In 2012, his psychological thriller ''Vertigo'', starring Stewart, displaced [[Orson Welles]]' ''[[Citizen Kane]]'' (1941) as the [[British Film Institute]]'s greatest film ever made based on its world-wide poll of hundreds of film critics. By 2018 eight of his films had been selected for preservation in the United States [[National Film Registry]], including ''[[The Birds (film)|The Birds]]'' (1963) and his personal favourite, ''[[Shadow of a Doubt]]'' (1943). He received the [[BAFTA Fellowship]] in 1971, the [[AFI Life Achievement Award]] in 1979 and was [[Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire|knighted]] in December that year, four months before he died.

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Hitchcock was born on 13 August 1899 in the flat above his parents' leased grocer's shop at 517 High Road, [[Leytonstone]], on the outskirts of [[east London]] (then part of [[Essex]]), the youngest of three children: William Daniel (1890–1943), Ellen Kathleen ("Nellie") (1892–1979), and Alfred Joseph (1899-1980). His parents, Emma Jane Hitchcock ('''' Whelan; 1863–1942), and William Edgar Hitchcock (1862–1914), were both [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]], with partial roots in Ireland; William was a greengrocer as his father had been. There was a large extended family, including Uncle John Hitchcock with his five-bedroom Victorian house on Campion Road, [[Putney]], complete with maid, cook, chauffeur and gardener. Every summer John rented a seaside house for the family in [[Cliftonville]], Kent. Hitchcock said that he first became class-conscious there, noticing the differences between tourists and locals. Describing himself as a well-behaved boy—his father called him his "little lamb without a spot"—Hitchcock said he could not remember ever having had a playmate. One of his favourite stories for interviewers was about his father sending him to the local police station with a note when he was five; the policeman looked at the note and locked him in a cell for a few minutes, saying, "This is what we do to naughty boys." The experience left him, he said, with a lifelong fear of policemen; in 1973 he told [[Tom Snyder]] that he was "scared stiff of anything ... to do with the law" and wouldn't even drive a car in case he got a parking ticket. When he was six, the family moved to [[Limehouse]] and leased two stores at 130 and 175 Salmon Lane, which they ran as a [[fish and chips|fish-and-chips]] shop and fishmongers' respectively; they lived above the former. Hitchcock attended his first school, the Howrah House Convent in [[Poplar, London|Poplar]], which he entered in 1907, at age 7. According to biographer [[Patrick McGilligan (biographer)|Patrick McGilligan]], he stayed at Howrah House for at most two years. He also attended a convent school, the Wode Street School "for the daughters of gentlemen and little boys", run by the [[Faithful Companions of Jesus]]. He then attended a primary school near his home and was for a short time a boarder at [[Salesian College, Battersea|Salesian College]] in [[Battersea]]. The family moved again when he was 11, this time to [[Stepney]], and on 5 October 1910 Hitchcock was sent to [[St Ignatius' College|St Ignatius College]] in Stamford Hill, Tottenham (now in the London Borough of [[London Borough of Haringey|Haringey]]), a [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] grammar school with a reputation for discipline. The priests used a hard rubber cane on the boys, always at the end of the day, so the boys had to sit through classes anticipating the punishment if they had been written up for it. He later said that this is where he developed his sense of fear. The school register lists his year of birth as 1900 rather than 1899; biographer [[Donald Spoto]] says he was deliberately enrolled as a 10-year-old because he was a year behind with his schooling.

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While biographer Gene Adair reports that Hitchcock was "an average, or slightly above-average, pupil", Hitchcock said that he was "usually among the four or five at the top of the class"; at the end of his first year, his work in Latin, English, French and [[religious education]] was noted. His favourite subject was [[geography]], and he became interested in maps, and railway and bus timetables; according to [[John Russell Taylor]], he could recite all the stops on the [[Orient Express]]. He told [[Peter Bogdanovich]]: "The Jesuits taught me organization, control and, to some degree, analysis."

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Hitchcock told his parents that he wanted to be an engineer, and on 25 July 1913, he left St Ignatius and enrolled in night classes at the London County Council School of Engineering and Navigation in Poplar. In a [[Hitchcock/Truffaut|book-length interview]] in 1962, he told [[François Truffaut]] that he had studied "mechanics, electricity, acoustics, and navigation". Then on 12 December 1914 his father, who had been suffering from [[Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|emphysema]] and kidney disease, died at the age of 52. To support himself and his mother—his older siblings had left home by then—Hitchcock took a job, for 15 [[Shilling (British coin)|shillings]] a week (£ in 2017), as a technical clerk at the [[William Thomas Henley|Henley Telegraph and Cable Company]] in Blomfield Street near [[London Wall]]. He continued night classes, this time in art history, painting, economics, and political science. His older brother ran the family shops, while he and his mother continued to live in Salmon Lane. Hitchcock was too young to enlist when the [[First World War]] started in July 1914, and when he reached the required age of 18 in 1917, he received a C3 classification ("free from serious organic disease, able to stand service conditions in garrisons at home ... only suitable for sedentary work"). He joined a cadet regiment of the [[Royal Engineers]] and took part in theoretical briefings, weekend drills, and exercises. John Russell Taylor wrote that, in one session of practical exercises in [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]], Hitchcock was required to wear [[puttees]]. He could never master wrapping them around his legs, and they repeatedly fell down around his ankles. After the war, Hitchcock took an interest in creative writing. In June 1919 he became a founding editor and business manager of Henley's in-house publication, ''The Henley Telegraph'' (sixpence a copy), to which he submitted several short stories. Henley's promoted him to the advertising department, where he wrote copy and drew graphics for advertisements for electric cable. He enjoyed the job and would stay late at the office to examine the proofs; he told Truffaut that this was his "first step toward cinema". He enjoyed watching films, especially American cinema, and from the age of 16 read the trade papers; he watched [[Charlie Chaplin]], [[D. W. Griffith]] and [[Buster Keaton]], and particularly liked [[Fritz Lang]]'s ''[[Destiny (1921 film)|Der müde Tod]]'' (1921).

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While still at Henley's, he read in a trade paper that [[Famous Players-Lasky]], the production arm of [[Paramount Pictures]], was opening a studio in London. They were planning to film ''[[The Sorrows of Satan]]'' by [[Marie Corelli]], so he produced some drawings for the [[Intertitle|title cards]] and sent his work to the studio. They hired him, and in 1919 he began working for [[Islington Studios]] in Poole Street, [[Hoxton]], as a title-card designer. Donald Spoto wrote that most of the staff were Americans with strict job specifications, but the English workers were encouraged to try their hand at anything, which meant that Hitchcock gained experience as a co-writer, art director and production manager on at least 18 silent films. ''The Times'' wrote in February 1922 about the studio's "special art title department under the supervision of Mr. A. J. Hitchcock". His work included ''[[Number 13 (film)|Number 13]]'' (1922), also known as ''Mrs. Peabody;'' it was cancelled because of financial problems—the few finished scenes are [[Lost film|lost]]—and ''[[Always Tell Your Wife]]'' (1923), which he and [[Seymour Hicks]] finished together when Hicks was about to give up on it. Hicks wrote later about being helped by "a fat youth who was in charge of the property room ... [n]one other than Alfred Hitchcock".

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When Paramount pulled out of London in 1922, Hitchcock was hired as an assistant director by a new firm run in the same location by [[Michael Balcon]], later known as [[Gainsborough Pictures]]. Hitchcock worked on ''[[Woman to Woman (1923 film)|Woman to Woman]]'' (1923) with the director [[Graham Cutts]], designing the set, writing the script and producing. He said: "It was the first film that I had really got my hands onto." The editor and "script girl" on ''Woman to Woman'' was [[Alma Reville]], his future wife. He also worked as an assistant to Cutts on ''[[The White Shadow (film)|The White Shadow]]'' (1924), ''[[The Passionate Adventure]]'' (1924), ''[[The Blackguard]]'' (1925), and ''[[The Prude's Fall]]'' (1925). ''The Blackguard'' was produced at the [[Babelsberg Studios]] in Potsdam, where Hitchcock watched part of the making of [[F. W. Murnau]]'s film ''[[The Last Laugh (1924 film)|The Last Laugh]]'' (1924). He was impressed with Murnau's work and later used many of his techniques for the set design in his own productions. In the summer of 1925, Balcon asked Hitchcock to direct ''[[The Pleasure Garden (1925 film)|The Pleasure Garden]]'' (1925), starring [[Virginia Valli]], a co-production of Gainsborough and the German firm [[Emelka]] at the [[Bavaria Studios|Geiselgasteig studio]] near Munich. Reville, by then Hitchcock's fiancée, was assistant director-editor. Although the film was a commercial flop, Balcon liked Hitchcock's work; a ''Daily Express'' headline called him the "Young man with a master mind". Production of ''The Pleasure Garden'' encountered obstacles which Hitchcock would later learn from: on arrival to [[Brenner Pass]], he failed to declare his [[film stock]] to customs and it was confiscated; one actress could not enter the water for a scene because she was on her [[Menstrual cycle|period]]; budget overruns meant that he had to borrow money from the actors. Hitchcock also needed a translator to give instructions to the cast and crew. In Germany, Hitchcock observed the nuances of [[Cinema of Germany|German cinema]] and filmmaking which had a big influence on him. When he was not working, he would visit Berlin's art galleries, concerts and museums. He would also meet with actors, writers, and producers to build connections. Balcon asked him to direct a second film in Munich, ''[[The Mountain Eagle]]'' (1926), based on an original story titled ''Fear o' God''. The film is lost, and Hitchcock called it "a very bad movie". A year later, Hitchcock wrote and directed ''[[The Ring (1927 film)|The Ring]]''; although the screenplay was credited solely to his name, [[Eliot Stannard|Elliot Stannard]] assisted him with the writing. ''The Ring'' garnered positive reviews; the ''Bioscope'' magazine critic called it "the most magnificent British film ever made". When he returned to England, Hitchcock was one of the early members of the London Film Society, newly formed in 1925. Through the Society, he became fascinated by the work by Soviet filmmakers: [[Dziga Vertov]], [[Lev Kuleshov]], [[Sergei Eisenstein]], and [[Vsevolod Pudovkin]]. He would also socialise with fellow English filmmakers [[Ivor Montagu]] and [[Adrian Brunel]], and [[Walter C. Mycroft]].

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Hitchcock's luck came with his first thriller, ''[[The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog]]'' (1927), about the hunt for a serial killer, wearing a black cloak and carrying a black bag, is murdering young blonde women in London, and only on Tuesdays. A landlady suspects that her lodger is the killer, but he turns out to be innocent. To convey the impression footsteps were being heard from an upper floor, Hitchcock had a glass floor made so that the viewer could see the lodger pacing up and down in his room above the landlady. Hitchcock had wanted the leading man to be guilty, or for the film at least to end ambiguously, but the star was [[Ivor Novello]], a [[matinée idol]], and the "[[star system (filmmaking)|star system]]" meant that Novello could not be the villain. Hitchcock told Truffaut: "You have to clearly spell it out in big letters: 'He is innocent.'" (He had the same problem years later with [[Cary Grant]] in ''[[#Suspicion|Suspicion]]'' (1941).) Released in January 1927, ''The Lodger'' was a commercial and critical success in the UK. Hitchcock told Truffaut that the film was the first of his to be influenced by [[German Expressionism]]: "In truth, you might almost say that ''The Lodger'' was my first picture." He made his first [[Cameo appearance|cameo]] appearances in the film; he was depicted sitting in a newsroom, and in the second, standing in a crowd as the leading man is arrested.

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On 2 December 1926, Hitchcock married the English-American screenwriter [[Alma Reville]] (1899–1982) at the [[Church of the Immaculate Heart of Mary|Brompton Oratory]] in [[South Kensington]]. The couple honeymooned in Paris, [[Lake Como]] and St. Moritz, before returning to London to live in a leased flat on the top two floors of 153 [[Cromwell Road]], Kensington. Reville, who was born just hours after Hitchcock, converted from Protestantism to Catholicism, apparently at the insistence of Hitchcock's mother; she was baptised on 31 May 1927 and confirmed at [[Westminster Cathedral]] by Cardinal [[Francis Bourne]] on 5 June. In 1928, when they learned that Reville was pregnant, the Hitchcocks purchased "Winter's Grace", a [[Tudor architecture|Tudor]] farmhouse set in 11 acres on Stroud Lane, [[Wonersh#Shamley Green|Shamley Green]], Surrey, for £2,500. Their daughter and only child, [[Patricia Hitchcock|Patricia Alma Hitchcock]], was born on 7 July that year. Reville became her husband's closest collaborator; [[Charles Champlin]] wrote in 1982: "The Hitchcock touch had four hands, and two were Alma's." When Hitchcock accepted the [[AFI Life Achievement Award]] in 1979, he said that he wanted to mention "four people who have given me the most affection, appreciation and encouragement, and constant collaboration. The first of the four is a film editor, the second is a scriptwriter, the third is the mother of my daughter, Pat, and the fourth is as fine a cook as ever performed miracles in a domestic kitchen. And their names are Alma Reville." Reville wrote or co-wrote on many of Hitchcock's films, including ''[[Shadow of a Doubt]]'', [[Suspicion (1941 film)|''Suspicion'']] and [[The 39 Steps (1935 film)|''The 39 Steps'']].

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Hitchcock began work on his tenth film, ''[[Blackmail (1929 film)|Blackmail]]'' (1929), when its production company, [[Associated British Picture Corporation|British International Pictures]] (BIP), converted its [[Elstree Studios (Shenley Road)|Elstree studios]] to [[Sound film|sound]]. The film was the first British "[[Sound film#Transition: Europe|talkie]]"; this followed the rapid development of sound films in the United States, from the use of brief sound segments in ''[[The Jazz Singer]]'' (1927) to the first full sound feature ''[[The Lights of New York]]'' (1928). ''Blackmail'' began the Hitchcock tradition of using famous landmarks as a backdrop for suspense sequences, with the climax taking place on the dome of the [[British Museum]]. It also features one of his longest cameo appearances, which shows him being bothered by a small boy as he reads a book on the [[London Underground]]. In the [[PBS]] series ''The Men Who Made The Movies'', Hitchcock explained how he used early sound recording as a special element of the film, stressing the word "knife" in a conversation with the woman suspected of murder. During this period, Hitchcock directed segments for a BIP [[revue]], ''[[Elstree Calling]]'' (1930), and directed a short film, ''[[An Elastic Affair]]'' (1930), featuring two ''Film Weekly'' scholarship winners. ''An Elastic Affair'' is one of the lost films. In 1933 Hitchcock signed a multi-film contract with [[Gaumont-British]], once again working for Michael Balcon. His first film for the company, ''[[The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)|The Man Who Knew Too Much]]'' (1934), was a success; his second, ''[[The 39 Steps (1935 film)|The 39 Steps]]'' (1935), was acclaimed in the UK and gained him recognition in the United States. It also established the quintessential English "Hitchcock blonde" ([[Madeleine Carroll]]) as the template for his succession of ice-cold, elegant leading ladies. Screenwriter [[Robert Towne]] remarked, "It's not much of an exaggeration to say that all contemporary escapist entertainment begins with ''The 39 Steps''". This film was one of the first to introduce the "[[MacGuffin]]" plot device, a term coined by the English screenwriter [[Angus MacPhail]]. The MacGuffin is an item or goal the protagonist is pursuing, one that otherwise has no narrative value; in ''The 39 Steps'', the MacGuffin is a stolen set of design plans. Hitchcock released two spy thrillers in 1936. ''[[Sabotage (1936 film)|Sabotage]]'' was loosely based on [[Joseph Conrad]]'s novel, ''[[The Secret Agent]]'' (1907), about a woman who discovers that her husband is a terrorist, and ''[[Secret Agent (1936 film)|Secret Agent]]'', based on two stories in ''[[Ashenden: Or the British Agent]]'' (1928) by [[W. Somerset Maugham]].

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At this time, Hitchcock also became notorious for pranks against the cast and crew. These jokes ranged from simple and innocent to crazy and maniacal. For instance, he hosted a dinner party where he dyed all the food blue because he claimed there weren't enough blue foods. He also had a horse delivered to the dressing room of his friend, actor [[Gerald du Maurier]]. Hitchcock followed up with ''[[Young and Innocent]]'' in 1937, a crime thriller based on the 1936 novel ''[[A Shilling for Candles]]'' by [[Josephine Tey]]. Starring [[Nova Pilbeam]] and [[Derrick De Marney]], the film was relatively enjoyable for the cast and crew to make. To meet distribution purposes in America, the film's runtime was cut and this included removal of one of Hitchcock's favourite scenes: a children's tea party which becomes menacing to the protagonists. Hitchcock's next major success was ''[[The Lady Vanishes]]'' (1938), "one of the greatest train movies from the genre's golden era", according to [[Philip French]], in which Miss Froy ([[May Whitty]]), a British spy posing as a governess, disappears on a train journey through the fictional European country of Bandrika. The film saw Hitchcock receive the [[1938 New York Film Critics Circle Awards|1938 New York Film Critics Circle Award]] for Best Director. Benjamin Crisler of the ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]'' wrote in June 1938: "Three unique and valuable institutions the British have that we in America have not: [[Magna Carta]], the [[Tower Bridge]] and Alfred Hitchcock, the greatest director of screen melodramas in the world." By 1938 Hitchcock was aware that he had reached his peak in Britain. He had received numerous offers from producers in the United States, but he turned them all down because he disliked the contractual obligations or thought the projects were repellent. However, producer [[David O. Selznick]] offered him a concrete proposal to make a film based on the sinking of [[Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']], which was eventually shelved, but Selznick persuaded Hitchcock to come to [[Hollywood]]. In July 1938, Hitchcock flew to New York, and found that he was already a celebrity; he was featured in magazines and gave interviews to radio stations. In Hollywood, Hitchcock met Selznick for the first time. Selznick offered him a four-film contract, approximately $40,000 for each picture ().

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Selznick signed Hitchcock to a seven-year contract beginning in April 1939, and the Hitchcocks moved to Hollywood. The Hitchcocks lived in a spacious flat on [[Wilshire Boulevard]], and slowly acclimatised themselves to the Los Angeles area. He and his wife Alma kept a low profile, and were not interested in attending parties or being celebrities. Hitchcock discovered his taste for fine food in West Hollywood, but still carried on his way of life from England. He was impressed with Hollywood's filmmaking culture, expansive budgets and efficiency, compared to the limits that he had often faced in Britain. In June that year, ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' magazine called him the "greatest master of melodrama in screen history". Although Hitchcock and Selznick respected each other, their working arrangements were sometimes difficult. Selznick suffered from constant financial problems, and Hitchcock was often unhappy about Selznick's creative control and interference over his films. Selznick was also displeased with Hitchcock's method of shooting just what was in the script, and nothing more, which meant that the film could not be cut and remade differently at a later time. As well as complaining about Hitchcock's "goddamn jigsaw cutting", their personalities were mismatched: Hitchcock was reserved whereas Selznick was flamboyant. Eventually, Selznick generously lent Hitchcock to the larger film studios. Selznick made only a few films each year, as did fellow independent producer [[Samuel Goldwyn]], so he did not always have projects for Hitchcock to direct. Goldwyn had also negotiated with Hitchcock on a possible contract, only to be outbid by Selznick. In a later interview, Hitchcock said: "[Selznick] was the Big Producer. ... Producer was king. The most flattering thing Mr. Selznick ever said about me—and it shows you the amount of control—he said I was the 'only director' he'd 'trust with a film'." Hitchcock approached American cinema cautiously; his first American film was set in England in which the "Americanness" of the characters was incidental: ''[[Rebecca (1940 film)|Rebecca]]'' (1940) was set in a Hollywood version of England's Cornwall and based on a novel by English novelist [[Daphne du Maurier]]. Selznick insisted on a faithful adaptation of the book, and disagreed with Hitchcock with the use of humour. The film, starring [[Laurence Olivier]] and [[Joan Fontaine]], concerns an unnamed naïve young woman who marries a widowed aristocrat. She lives in his large [[English country house]], and struggles with the lingering reputation of his elegant and worldly first wife Rebecca, who died under mysterious circumstances. The film won [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]] at the [[13th Academy Awards]]; the statuette was given to producer Selznick. Hitchcock received his first nomination for [[Academy Award for Best Director|Best Director]], his first of five such nominations.

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Hitchcock's second American film was the thriller ''[[Foreign Correspondent (film)|Foreign Correspondent]]'' (1940), set in Europe, based on [[Vincent Sheean]]'s book ''Personal History'' (1935) and produced by [[Walter Wanger]]. It was nominated for Best Picture that year. Hitchcock felt uneasy living and working in Hollywood while Britain was at [[World War II|war]]; his concern resulted in a film that overtly supported the British war effort. Filmed in 1939, it was inspired by the rapidly changing events in Europe, as covered by an American newspaper reporter played by [[Joel McCrea]]. By mixing footage of European scenes with scenes filmed on a Hollywood [[backlot]], the film avoided direct references to [[Nazism]], [[Nazi Germany]], and Germans, to comply with the [[Motion Picture Production Code]] at the time.

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In September 1940 the Hitchcocks bought the Cornwall Ranch near [[Scotts Valley]], California, in the [[Santa Cruz Mountains]]. Their primary residence was an English-style home in [[Bel Air, Los Angeles|Bel Air]], purchased in 1942. Hitchcock's films were diverse during this period, ranging from the romantic comedy ''[[Mr. & Mrs. Smith (1941 film)|Mr. & Mrs. Smith]]'' (1941) to the bleak [[film noir]] ''[[Shadow of a Doubt]]'' (1943). ''[[Suspicion (1941 film)|Suspicion]]'' (1941) marked Hitchcock's first film as a producer and director. It is set in England; Hitchcock used the north coast of [[Santa Cruz, California|Santa Cruz]] for the English coastline sequence. The film is the first of four in which [[Cary Grant]] was cast by Hitchcock, and it is one of the rare occasions that Grant plays a sinister character. Grant plays Johnnie Aysgarth, an English [[Confidence trick|conman]] whose actions raise suspicion and anxiety in his shy young English wife, Lina McLaidlaw ([[Joan Fontaine]]). In one scene, Hitchcock placed a light inside a glass of milk, perhaps poisoned, that Grant is bringing to his wife; the light ensures that the audience's attention is on the glass. Grant's character is actually a killer, as per written in the book, ''[[Before the Fact]]'' by [[Francis Iles]], but the studio felt that Grant's image would be tarnished by that. Hitchcock therefore settled for an ambiguous finale, although he would have preferred to end with the wife's murder. Fontaine won [[Academy Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]] for her performance. ''[[Saboteur (film)|Saboteur]]'' (1942) is the first of two films that Hitchcock made for [[Universal Pictures|Universal Studios]] during the decade. Hitchcock was forced by Universal to use Universal contract player [[Robert Cummings]] and [[Priscilla Lane]], a freelancer who signed a one-picture deal with the studio, both known for their work in comedies and light dramas. The story depicts a confrontation between a suspected saboteur (Cummings) and a real saboteur ([[Norman Lloyd]]) atop the [[Statue of Liberty]]. Hitchcock took a three-day tour of New York City to scout for ''Saboteur''s filming locations. He also directed ''Have You Heard?'' (1942), a photographic dramatisation for ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' magazine of the [[Loose lips sink ships|dangers of rumours during wartime]]. In 1943 he wrote a mystery story for ''[[Look (American magazine)|Look]]'' magazine, "The Murder of [[Monty Woolley]]", a sequence of captioned photographs inviting the reader to find clues to the murderer's identity; Hitchcock cast the performers as themselves, such as Woolley, Doris Merrick, and make-up man Guy Pearce.

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Back in England, Hitchcock's mother Emma was severely ill; she died on 26 September 1942 at age 79. Hitchcock never spoke publicly about his mother, but his assistant said that he admired her. Four months later, on 4 January 1943, his brother William died of an overdose at age 52. Hitchcock was not very close to William, but his death made Hitchcock conscious about his own eating and drinking habits. He was overweight and suffering from back aches. His New Year's resolution in 1943 was to take his diet seriously with the help of a physician. In January that year, ''[[Shadow of a Doubt]]'' was released, which Hitchcock had fond memories of making. In the film, Charlotte "Charlie" Newton ([[Teresa Wright]]) suspects her beloved uncle Charlie Oakley ([[Joseph Cotten]]) of being a serial killer. Hitchcock filmed extensively on location, this time in the Northern California city of [[Santa Rosa, California|Santa Rosa]]. At [[20th Century Fox]], Hitchcock approached [[John Steinbeck]] with an idea for a film, which recorded the experiences of the survivors of a German [[U-boat]] attack. Steinbeck began work on the script which would become the ''[[Lifeboat (1944 film)|Lifeboat]]'' (1944). However, Steinbeck was unhappy with the film and asked that his name be removed from the credits, to no avail. The idea was rewritten as a short story by [[Harry Sylvester]] and published in ''[[Collier's]]'' in 1943. The action sequences were shot in a small boat in the studio water tank. The locale posed problems for Hitchcock's traditional cameo appearance; it was solved by having Hitchcock's image appear in a newspaper that [[William Bendix]] is reading in the boat, showing the director in a before-and-after advertisement for "Reduco-Obesity Slayer". He told Truffaut in 1962: Hitchcock's typical dinner before his weight loss had been a roast chicken, boiled ham, potatoes, bread, vegetables, relishes, salad, dessert, a bottle of wine and some brandy. To lose weight, his diet consisted of black coffee for breakfast and lunch, and steak and salad for dinner, but it was hard to maintain; Donald Spoto wrote that his weight fluctuated considerably over the next 40 years. At the end of 1943, despite the weight loss, the Occidental Insurance Company of Los Angeles refused his application for life insurance.

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Hitchcock returned to the UK for an extended visit in late 1943 and early 1944. While there he made two short [[propaganda film]], ''[[Bon Voyage (1944 film)|Bon Voyage]]'' (1944) and ''[[Aventure Malgache]]'' (1944), for the [[Ministry of Information (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Information]]. In June and July 1945, Hitchcock served as "treatment advisor" on a [[Holocaust]] documentary that used [[Allies of World War II|Allied Forces]] footage of the liberation of [[Nazi concentration camps]]. The film was assembled in London and produced by [[Sidney Bernstein, Baron Bernstein|Sidney Bernstein]] of the Ministry of Information, who brought Hitchcock (a friend of his) on board. It was originally intended to be broadcast to the Germans, but the British government deemed it too traumatic to be shown to a shocked post-war population. Instead, it was transferred in 1952 from the [[British War Office]] film vaults to London's [[Imperial War Museum]] and remained unreleased until 1985, when an edited version was broadcast as an episode of [[PBS]] ''[[Frontline (U.S. TV series)|Frontline]]'', under the title the Imperial War Museum had given it: ''Memory of the Camps''. The full-length version of the film, ''[[German Concentration Camps Factual Survey]]'', was restored in 2014 by scholars at the Imperial War Museum.

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Hitchcock worked for David Selznick again when he directed ''[[Spellbound (1945 film)|Spellbound]]'' (1945), which explores [[psychoanalysis]] and features a [[dream sequence]] designed by [[Salvador Dalí]]. The dream sequence as it appears in the film is ten minutes shorter than was originally envisioned; Selznick edited it to make it "play" more effectively. [[Gregory Peck]] plays amnesiac Dr. Anthony Edwardes under the treatment of analyst Dr. Peterson ([[Ingrid Bergman]]), who falls in love with him while trying to unlock his repressed past. Two [[Point-of-view shot|point-of-view]] shots were achieved by building a large wooden hand (which would appear to belong to the character whose point of view the camera took) and out-sized props for it to hold: a bucket-sized glass of milk and a large wooden gun. For added novelty and impact, the climactic gunshot was hand-coloured red on some copies of the black-and-white film. The original musical score by [[Miklós Rózsa]] makes use of the [[theremin]], and some of it was later adapted by the composer into Rozsa's Piano Concerto Op. 31 (1967) for piano and orchestra. The spy film ''[[Notorious (1946 film)|Notorious]]'' was followed next in 1946. Hitchcock told François Truffaut that Selznick sold him, Ingrid Bergman, Cary Grant, and [[Ben Hecht]]'s screenplay, to RKO Radio Pictures as a "package" for $500,000 () because of cost overruns on Selznick's ''[[Duel in the Sun (film)|Duel in the Sun]]'' (1946). ''Notorious'' stars Bergman and Grant, both Hitchcock collaborators, and features a plot about Nazis, [[uranium]] and South America. His prescient use of uranium as a plot device led to him being briefly placed under surveillance by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]. According to Patrick McGilligan, in or around March 1945, Hitchcock and Hecht consulted [[Robert Millikan]] of the [[California Institute of Technology]] about the development of a uranium bomb. Selznick complained that the notion was "science fiction", only to be confronted by the news of the detonation of two atomic bombs on [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|Hiroshima and Nagasaki]] in Japan in August 1945.

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Hitchcock formed an independent production company, [[Transatlantic Pictures]], with his friend [[Sidney Bernstein, Baron Bernstein|Sidney Bernstein]]. He made two films with Transatlantic, one of which was his first colour film. With ''[[Rope (film)|Rope]]'' (1948), Hitchcock experimented with marshalling suspense in a confined environment, as he had done earlier with ''Lifeboat''. The film appears as a very limited number of continuous shots, but it was actually shot in 10 ranging from 4- to 10 minutes each; a 10-minute length of film was the most that a camera's film magazine could hold at the time. Some transitions between reels were hidden by having a dark object fill the entire screen for a moment. Hitchcock used those points to hide the cut, and began the next take with the camera in the same place. The film features [[James Stewart]] in the leading role, and was the first of four films that Stewart made with Hitchcock. It was inspired by the [[Leopold and Loeb]] case of the 1920s. Critical response at the time was mixed. ''[[Under Capricorn]]'' (1949), set in 19th-century Australia, also uses the short-lived technique of long takes, but to a more limited extent. He again used [[Technicolor]] in this production, then returned to [[Black and white|black-and-white]] for several years. Transatlantic Pictures became inactive after the last two films. Hitchcock filmed ''[[Stage Fright (1950 film)|Stage Fright]]'' (1950) at [[Elstree Studios|Elstree]] studios in England, where he had worked during his British International Pictures contract many years before. He paired one of [[Warner Bros.]]' most popular stars, [[Jane Wyman]], with the expatriate German actor [[Marlene Dietrich]] and used several prominent British actors, including [[Michael Wilding (actor)|Michael Wilding]], [[Richard Todd]] and [[Alastair Sim]]. This was Hitchcock's first proper production for Warner Bros., which had distributed ''Rope'' and ''Under Capricorn'', because Transatlantic Pictures was experiencing financial difficulties. His thriller ''[[Strangers on a Train (film)|Strangers on a Train]]'' (1951) was based on the [[Strangers on a Train (novel)|novel of the same name]] by [[Patricia Highsmith]]. Hitchcock combined many elements from his preceding films. He approached [[Dashiell Hammett]] to write the dialogue, but [[Raymond Chandler]] took over, then left over disagreements with the director. In the film, two men casually meet, one of whom speculates on a foolproof method to murder; he suggests that two people, each wishing to do away with someone, should each perform the other's murder. [[Farley Granger]]'s role was as the innocent victim of the scheme, while [[Robert Walker (actor, born 1918)|Robert Walker]], previously known for "boy-next-door" roles, played the villain. ''[[I Confess (film)|I Confess]]'' (1953) was set in [[Quebec City|Quebec]] with [[Montgomery Clift]] as a Catholic priest.

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''I Confess'' was followed by three colour films starring [[Grace Kelly]]: ''[[Dial M for Murder]]'' (1954), ''[[Rear Window]]'' (1954), and ''[[To Catch a Thief]]'' (1955). In ''Dial M for Murder'', [[Ray Milland]] plays the villain who tries to murder his unfaithful wife (Kelly) for her money. She kills the hired assassin in self-defence, so Milland manipulates the evidence to make it look like murder. Her lover, Mark Halliday ([[Robert Cummings]]), and Police Inspector Hubbard ([[John Williams (actor)|John Williams]]) save her from execution. Hitchcock experimented with [[3-D film|3D cinematography]] for ''Dial M for Murder''. Hitchcock moved to [[Paramount Pictures]] and filmed ''[[Rear Window]]'' (1954), starring James Stewart and Grace Kelly again, as well as [[Thelma Ritter]] and [[Raymond Burr]]. Stewart's character is a photographer called Jeff (based on [[Robert Capa]]) who must temporarily use a wheelchair. Out of boredom, he begins observing his neighbours across the courtyard, then becomes convinced that one of them (Raymond Burr) has murdered his wife. Jeff eventually manages to convince his policeman buddy ([[Wendell Corey]]) and his girlfriend (Kelly). As with ''Lifeboat'' and ''Rope'', the principal characters are depicted in confined or cramped quarters, in this case Stewart's studio apartment. Hitchcock uses close-ups of Stewart's face to show his character's reactions, "from the comic voyeurism directed at his neighbours to his helpless terror watching Kelly and Burr in the villain's apartment".

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From 1955 to 1965, Hitchcock was the host of the television series ''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]''. With his droll delivery, gallows humour and iconic image, the series made Hitchcock a celebrity. The title-sequence of the show pictured a minimalist caricature of his profile (he drew it himself; it is composed of only nine strokes), which his real silhouette then filled. The series theme tune was ''Funeral March of a Marionette'' by the French composer [[Charles Gounod]] (1818–1893). His introductions always included some sort of wry humour, such as the description of a recent multi-person execution hampered by having only one [[electric chair]], while two are shown with a sign "Two chairs—no waiting!" He directed 18 episodes of the series, which aired from 1955 to 1965. It became ''[[The Alfred Hitchcock Hour]]'' in 1962, and NBC broadcast the final episode on 10 May 1965. In the 1980s, a [[Alfred Hitchcock Presents (1985 TV series)|new version]] of ''Alfred Hitchcock Presents'' was produced for television, making use of Hitchcock's original introductions in a [[colourised]] form. Hitchcock's success in television spawned a set of short-story collections in his name; these included ''[[Alfred Hitchcock's Anthology]]'', ''Stories They Wouldn't Let Me Do on TV,'' and ''Tales My Mother Never Told Me''. In 1956 HSD Publications also licensed the director's name to create ''[[Alfred Hitchcock's Mystery Magazine]]'', a monthly [[Digest size|digest]] specialising in crime and detective fiction. Hitchcock's television series' were very profitable, and his foreign-language versions of books were bringing revenues of up to $100,000 a year ().

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In 1955 Hitchcock became a United States citizen. In the same year, his third Grace Kelly film, ''[[To Catch a Thief]]'', was released; it is set in the [[French Riviera]], and stars Kelly and Cary Grant. Grant plays retired thief John Robie, who becomes the prime suspect for a spate of robberies in the Riviera. A thrill-seeking American heiress played by Kelly surmises his true identity and tries to seduce him. "Despite the obvious age disparity between Grant and Kelly and a lightweight plot, the witty script (loaded with double entendres) and the good-natured acting proved a commercial success." It was Hitchcock's last film with Kelly; she married [[Prince Rainier]] of Monaco in 1956, and ended her film career afterward. Hitchcock then remade his own [[The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)|1934 film]] ''The Man Who Knew Too Much'' [[The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956 film)|in 1956]]. This time, the film starred James Stewart and [[Doris Day]], who sang the theme song "[[Que Sera, Sera (Whatever Will Be, Will Be)|Que Sera, Sera]]", which won the [[Academy Award for Best Original Song]] and became a big hit. They play a couple whose son is kidnapped to prevent them from interfering with an assassination. As in the 1934 film, the climax takes place at the [[Royal Albert Hall]]. ''[[The Wrong Man]]'' (1957), Hitchcock's final film for Warner Bros., is a low-key black-and-white production based on a real-life case of [[mistaken identity]] reported in ''Life'' magazine in 1953. This was the only film of Hitchcock to star [[Henry Fonda]], playing a [[Stork Club]] musician mistaken for a liquor store thief, who is arrested and tried for robbery while his wife ([[Vera Miles]]) emotionally collapses under the strain. Hitchcock told Truffaut that his lifelong fear of the police attracted him to the subject and was embedded in many scenes. While directing episodes for ''Alfred Hitchcock Presents'' during the summer of 1957, Hitchcock was admitted to hospital for [[hernia]] and [[gallstone]], and had to have his [[gallbladder]] removed. Following a successful surgery, he immediately returned to work to prepare for his next project. Hitchcock's next film, ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'' (1958) again starred James Stewart, with [[Kim Novak]] and [[Barbara Bel Geddes]]. He had wanted [[Vera Miles]] to play the lead, but she was pregnant. He told [[Oriana Fallaci]]: "I was offering her a big part, the chance to become a beautiful sophisticated blonde, a real actress. We'd have spent a heap of dollars on it, and she has the bad taste to get pregnant. I hate pregnant women, because then they have children."

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In ''Vertigo'', Stewart plays Scottie, a former police investigator suffering from [[acrophobia]], who develops an obsession with a woman he has been hired to shadow (Novak). Scottie's obsession leads to tragedy, and this time Hitchcock does not opt for a happy ending. Some critics, including Donald Spoto and [[Roger Ebert]], agree that ''Vertigo'' is the director's most personal and revealing film, dealing with the ''[[Pygmalion (mythology)|Pygmalion]]''-like obsessions of a man who crafts a woman into the woman he desires. ''Vertigo'' explores more frankly and at greater length his interest in the relation between sex and death, than any other work in his filmography. ''Vertigo'' contains a camera technique developed by Irmin Roberts, commonly referred to as a [[dolly zoom]], which has been copied by many filmmakers. The film premiered at the [[San Sebastián International Film Festival]], and Hitchcock won the Silver Seashell prize. ''Vertigo'' is considered a classic, but it attracted mixed reviews and poor box-office receipts at the time; the critic from ''[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]'' magazine opined that the film was "too slow and too long". [[Bosley Crowther]] of the ''New York Times'' thought it was "devilishly far-fetched", but praised the cast performances and Hitchcock's direction. The picture was also the last collaboration between Stewart and Hitchcock. In the 2002 ''[[Sight & Sound]]'' polls, it ranked just behind ''[[Citizen Kane]]'' (1941); ten years later, in the same magazine, critics chose it as the best film ever made.

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After ''Vertigo'', the rest of 1958 had been a difficult year for Hitchcock. During [[pre-production]] of ''[[North by Northwest]]'' (1959), which was a "slow" and "agonising" process, his wife Alma was diagnosed with cancer. While Alma was in hospital, Hitchcock kept himself occupied with his television work and would visit her everyday. Alma underwent surgery and made a full recovery but it caused Hitchcock to imagine, for the first time, life without her. Hitchcock followed up with three more successful films, which are also recognised as among his best: ''North by Northwest'', ''[[Psycho (1960 film)|Psycho]]'' (1960) and ''[[The Birds (film)|The Birds]]'' (1963). In ''North by Northwest'', Cary Grant portrays Roger Thornhill, a [[Madison Avenue]] advertising executive who is mistaken for a government secret agent. He is hotly pursued across the United States by enemy agents, including Eve Kendall ([[Eva Marie Saint]]). At first, Thornhill believes Kendall is helping him, but then realises that she is an enemy agent; he learns that she is working undercover for the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]. During its opening two-week run at [[Radio City Music Hall]], the film grossed $404,056 (), setting a record in that theatre's non-holiday gross. ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine called the film "smoothly troweled and thoroughly entertaining". ''[[Psycho (1960 film)|Psycho]]'' (1960) is arguably Hitchcock's best-known film. Based on [[Robert Bloch]]'s 1959 novel ''[[Psycho (novel)|Psycho]]'', which was inspired by the case of [[Ed Gein]], the film was produced on a tight budget of $800,000 () and shot in black-and-white on a spare set using crew members from ''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]''. The unprecedented violence of the shower scene, the early death of the heroine, and the innocent lives extinguished by a disturbed murderer became the hallmarks of a new horror-film genre. The film proved popular with audiences, with queues stretching outside theatres as viewers waited for the next showing. It broke box-office records in the United Kingdom, France, South America, the United States and Canada and was a moderate success in Australia for a brief period. ''Psycho'' was the most profitable of Hitchcock's career, and he personally earned in excess of $15 million (equivalent to $ million in ). He subsequently swapped his rights to ''Psycho'' and his TV anthology for 150,000 shares of [[MCA Inc.|MCA]], making him the third largest shareholder and his own boss at Universal, in theory at least, although that did not stop them from interfering with him. Following the first film, ''Psycho'' became an American horror [[Media franchise|franchise]]: ''[[Psycho II (film)|Psycho II]]'', ''[[Psycho III]]'', ''[[Bates Motel (film)|Bates Motel]]'', ''[[Psycho IV: The Beginning]]'', and a colour [[Psycho (1998 film)|1998 remake]] of the original.

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On 13 August 1962, Hitchcock's 63rd birthday, the French director [[François Truffaut]] began a 50-hour interview of Hitchcock, filmed over eight days at Universal Studios, during which Hitchcock agreed to answer 500 questions. It took four years to transcribe the tapes and organise the images; it was published as a book in 1967, which Truffaut nicknamed the "Hitchbook". The audio tapes were used as the basis of a documentary in 2015. Truffaut sought the interview because it was clear to him that Hitchcock was not simply the mass-market entertainer the American media made him out to be. It was obvious from his films, Truffaut wrote, that Hitchcock had "given more thought to the potential of his art than any of his colleagues". He compared the interview to "Oedipus' consultation of the oracle".

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The film scholar Peter William Evans wrote that ''[[The Birds (film)|The Birds]]'' (1963) and ''[[Marnie (film)|Marnie]]'' (1964) are regarded as "undisputed masterpieces". Hitchcock had intended to film ''Marnie'' first, and in March 1962 it was announced that Grace Kelly, Princess Grace of Monaco since 1956, would come out of retirement to star in it. When Kelly asked Hitchcock to postpone ''Marnie'' until 1963 or 1964, he recruited [[Ed McBain|Evan Hunter]], author of ''The Blackboard Jungle'' (1954), to develop a screenplay based on a [[Daphne du Maurier]] short story, "[[The Birds (story)|The Birds]]" (1952), which Hitchcock had republished in his ''My Favorites in Suspense'' (1959). He hired [[Tippi Hedren]] to play the lead role. It was her first role; she had been a model in New York when Hitchcock saw her, in October 1961, in an NBC television advert for [[Sego (diet drink)|Sego]], a diet drink: "I signed her because she is a classic beauty. Movies don't have them any more. Grace Kelly was the last." He insisted, without explanation, that her first name be written in single quotation marks: 'Tippi'. In ''The Birds'', Melanie Daniels, a young socialite, meets lawyer Mitch Brenner ([[Rod Taylor]]) in a bird shop; [[Jessica Tandy]] plays his possessive mother. Hedren visits him in [[Bodega Bay, California|Bodega Bay]] (where ''The Birds'' was filmed) carrying a pair of [[lovebird]] as a gift. Suddenly waves of birds start gathering, watching, and attacking. The question: "What do the birds want?" is left unanswered. Hitchcock made the film with equipment from the Revue Studio, which made ''Alfred Hitchcock Presents''. He said it was his most technically challenging film, using a combination of trained and mechanical birds against a backdrop of wild ones. Every shot was sketched in advance. An [[HBO]]/[[BBC]] television film, ''[[The Girl (2012 TV film)|The Girl]]'' (2012), depicted Hedren's experiences on set; she said that Hitchcock [[Tippi Hedren#Troubled relations|became obsessed with her]] and sexually harassed her. He reportedly isolated her from the rest of the crew, had her followed, whispered obscenities to her, had her handwriting analysed, and had a ramp built from his private office directly into her trailer. [[Diane Baker]], her co-star in ''Marnie'', said: "[N]othing could have been more horrible for me than to arrive on that movie set and to see her being treated the way she was." While filming the attack scene in the attic—which took a week to film—she was placed in a caged room while two men wearing elbow-length protective gloves threw live birds at her. Toward the end of the week, to stop the birds' flying away from her too soon, one leg of each bird was attached by nylon thread to elastic bands sewn inside her clothes. She broke down after a bird cut her lower eyelid, and filming was halted on doctor's orders.

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In June 1962, Grace Kelly announced that she had decided against appearing in ''[[Marnie (film)|Marnie]]'' (1964). Hedren had signed an exclusive seven-year, $500-a-week contract with Hitchcock in October 1961, and he decided to cast her in the lead role opposite [[Sean Connery]]. In 2016, describing Hedren's performance as "one of the greatest in the history of cinema", [[Richard Brody]] called the film a "story of sexual violence" inflicted on the character played by Hedren: "The film is, to put it simply, sick, and it's so because Hitchcock was sick. He suffered all his life from furious sexual desire, suffered from the lack of its gratification, suffered from the inability to transform fantasy into reality, and then went ahead and did so virtually, by way of his art." A 1964 [[The New York Times|''New York Times'']] film review called it Hitchcock's "most disappointing film in years", citing Hedren's and Connery's lack of experience, an amateurish script and "glaringly fake cardboard backdrops". In the film, Marnie Edgar (Hedren) steals $10,000 from her employer and goes on the run. She applies for a job at Mark Rutland's (Connery) company in Philadelphia and steals from there too. Earlier she is shown having a panic attack during a thunderstorm and fearing the colour red. Mark tracks her down and blackmails her into marrying him. She explains that she does not want to be touched, but during the "honeymoon", Mark rapes her. Marnie and Mark discover that Marnie's mother had been a prostitute when Marnie was a child, and that, while the mother was fighting with a client during a thunderstorm—the mother believed the client had tried to molest Marnie—Marnie had killed the client to save her mother. Cured of her fears when she remembers what happened, she decides to stay with Mark. Hitchcock told cinematographer [[Robert Burks]] that the camera had to be placed as close as possible to Hedren when he filmed her face. [[Ed McBain|Evan Hunter]], the screenwriter of ''The Birds'' who was writing ''Marnie'' too, explained to Hitchcock that, if Mark loved Marnie, he would comfort her, not rape her. Hitchcock reportedly replied: "Evan, when he sticks it in her, I want that camera right on her face!" When Hunter submitted two versions of the script, one without the rape scene, Hitchcock replaced him with [[Jay Presson Allen]].

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Failing health reduced Hitchcock's output during the last two decades of his life. Biographer [[Stephen Rebello]] claimed Universal imposed two films on him, ''[[Torn Curtain]]'' (1966) and ''[[Topaz (1969 film)|Topaz]]'' (1969), the latter of which is based on a [[Leon Uris]] novel, partly set in Cuba. Both were spy thrillers with [[Cold War]]-related themes. ''Torn Curtain'', with [[Paul Newman]] and [[Julie Andrews]], precipitated the bitter end of the 12-year collaboration between Hitchcock and composer [[Bernard Herrmann]]. Hitchcock was unhappy with Herrmann's score and replaced him with [[John Addison]], [[Jay Livingston]] and [[Ray Evans]]. Upon release, ''Torn Curtain'' was a box office failure, and ''Topaz'' was disliked by critics and the studio. Hitchcock returned to Britain to make his penultimate film, ''[[Frenzy]]'' (1972), based on the novel ''[[Goodbye Piccadilly, Farewell Leicester Square]]'' (1966). After two espionage films, the plot marked a return to the murder-thriller genre. Richard Blaney ([[Jon Finch]]), a volatile barman with a history of explosive anger, becomes the prime suspect in the investigation into the "Necktie Murders", which are actually committed by his friend Bob Rusk ([[Barry Foster (actor)|Barry Foster]]). This time, Hitchcock makes the victim and villain kindreds, rather than opposites as in ''Strangers on a Train''. In ''Frenzy'', Hitchcock allowed nudity for the first time. Two scenes show naked women, one of whom is being raped and strangled; Donald Spoto called the latter "one of the most repellent examples of a detailed murder in the history of film". Both actors, [[Barbara Leigh-Hunt]] and [[Anna Massey]], refused to do the scenes, so models were used instead. Biographers have noted that Hitchcock had always pushed the limits of film censorship, often managing to fool [[Joseph Breen]], the head of the [[Motion Picture Production Code]]. Hitchcock would add subtle hints of improprieties forbidden by censorship until the mid-1960s. Yet Patrick McGilligan wrote that Breen and others often realised that Hitchcock was inserting such material and were actually amused, as well as alarmed by Hitchcock's "inescapable inferences". ''[[Family Plot]]'' (1976) was Hitchcock's last film. It relates the escapades of "Madam" Blanche Tyler, played by [[Barbara Harris (actress)|Barbara Harris]], a fraudulent spiritualist, and her taxi-driver lover [[Bruce Dern]], making a living from her phony powers. While ''Family Plot'' was based on the [[Victor Canning]] novel ''[[The Rainbird Pattern]]'' (1972), the novel's tone is more sinister. Screenwriter [[Ernest Lehman]] originally wrote the film, under the working title Deception, with a dark tone but was pushed to a lighter, more comical tone by Hitchcock where it took the name Deceit, then finally, Family Plot.

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Toward the end of his life, Hitchcock was working on the script for a spy thriller, ''[[The Short Night]]'', collaborating with [[James Costigan]], [[Ernest Lehman]] and [[David Freeman (screenwriter)|David Freeman]]. Despite preliminary work, it was never filmed. Hitchcock's health was declining and he was worried about his wife, who had suffered a stroke. The screenplay was eventually published in Freeman's book ''The Last Days of Alfred Hitchcock'' (1999). Having refused a [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] in 1962, Hitchcock was appointed a [[Order of the British Empire|Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire]] (KBE) in the [[1980 New Year Honours]]. He was too ill to travel to London—he had a [[Artificial cardiac pacemaker|pacemaker]] and was being given [[cortisone]] injections for his arthritis—so on 3 January 1980 the British consul general presented him with the papers at Universal Studios. Asked by a reporter after the ceremony why it had taken the Queen so long, Hitchcock quipped, "I suppose it was a matter of carelessness." Cary Grant, Janet Leigh, and others attended a luncheon afterwards. His last public appearance was on 16 March 1980, when he introduced the next year's winner of the American Film Institute award. He died of kidney failure the following month, on 29 April, in his [[Bel Air, Los Angeles|Bel Air]] home. [[Donald Spoto]], one of Hitchcock's biographers, wrote that Hitchcock had declined to see a priest, but according to Jesuit priest Mark Henninger, he and another priest, Tom Sullivan, celebrated Mass at the filmmaker's home, and Sullivan heard his [[Sacrament of Penance|confession]]. Hitchcock was survived by his wife and daughter. His funeral was held at Good Shepherd Catholic Church in Beverly Hills on 30 April, after which his body was cremated. His remains were scattered over the Pacific Ocean on 10 May 1980.

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Alfred Hitchcock

Hitchcock's film production career evolved from small-scale silent films to financially significant sound films. Hitchock remarked that he was influenced by early filmmakers George Méliès, D.W. Griffith and Alice Guy-Blaché. His silent films between 1925 and 1929 were in the crime and suspense genres, but also included melodramas and comedies. Whilst [[Visual narrative|visual storytelling]] was pertinent during the silent era, even after the arrival of sound, Hitchcock still relied on visuals in cinema. In Britain, he honed his craft so that by the time he moved to Hollywood, the director had perfected his style and camera techniques. Hitchcock later said that his British work was the "sensation of cinema", whereas the American phase was when his "ideas were fertilised". Scholar [[Robin Wood (critic)|Robin Wood]] writes that the director's first two films, ''The Pleasure Garden'' and ''The Mountain Eagle'', were influenced by [[German Expressionism]]. Afterward, he discovered [[Cinema of the Soviet Union|Soviet cinema]], and [[Sergei Eisenstein]]'s and [[Vsevolod Pudovkin]]'s theories of [[Soviet montage theory|montage]]. 1926's ''The Lodger'' was inspired by both German and Soviet aesthetics, styles which solidified the rest of his career. Although Hitchcock's work in the 1920s found some success, several British reviewers criticised Hitchcock's films for being unoriginal and conceited. [[Raymond Durgnat]] opined that Hitchcock's films were carefully and intelligently constructed, but thought they can be shallow and rarely present a "coherent worldview". Earning the title "Master of Suspense", the director experimented with ways to generate tension in his work. He said, "My suspense work comes out of creating nightmares for the audience. And I ''play'' with an audience. I make them gasp and surprise them and shock them. When you have a nightmare, it's awfully vivid if you're dreaming that you're being led to the electric chair. Then you're as happy as can be when you wake up because you're relieved." During filming of ''North by Northwest'', Hitchcock explained his reasons for recreating the set of [[Mount Rushmore]]: "The audience responds in proportion to how realistic you make it. One of the dramatic reasons for this type of photography is to get it looking so natural that the audience gets involved and believes, for the time being, what's going on up there on the screen."

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Alfred Hitchcock

Hitchcock's films, from the silent to the sound era, contained a number of recurring themes that he is famous for. His films explored audience as a [[Voyeurism|voyeur]], notably in ''Rear Window'', ''Marnie'' and ''Psycho''. He understood that human beings enjoy voyeuristic activities and made the audience participate in it through the character's actions. Of his fifty-three films, eleven revolved around stories of [[mistaken identity]], where an innocent protagonist is accused of a crime and is pursued by police. In most cases, it is an ordinary, everyday person who finds themselves in a dangerous situation. Hitchcock told Truffaut: "That's because the theme of the innocent man being accused, I feel, provides the audience with a greater sense of danger. It's easier for them to identify with him than with a guilty man on the run." One of his constant themes were the struggle of a personality torn between "order and chaos"; known as the notion of "double", which is a comparison or contrast between two characters or objects: the double representing a dark or evil side. According to Robin Wood, Hitchcock had mixed feelings towards homosexuality despite working with gay actors in his career. Donald Spoto suggests that Hitchcock's [[Sexual repression|sexually repressive]] childhood may have contributed to his exploration of [[Deviance (sociology)|deviancy]]. During the 1950s, the [[Motion Picture Production Code]] prohibited direct references to homosexuality but the director was known for his subtle references, and pushing the boundaries of the censors. Moreover, ''Shadow of a Doubt'' has a double [[incest]] theme through the storyline, expressed implicitly through images. Author Jane Sloan argues that Hitchcock was drawn to both conventional and unconventional sexual expression in his work, and the theme of marriage was usually presented in a "bleak and skeptical" manner. It was also not until after his mother's death in 1942, that Hitchcock portrayed motherly figures as "notorious monster-mothers". The [[espionage]] backdrop, and murders committed by characters with [[Psychopathy|psychopathic]] tendencies were common themes too. In Hitchcock's depiction of villains and murderers, they were usually charming and friendly, forcing viewers to identify with them. The director's strict childhood and Jesuit education may have led to his distrust of authoritarian figures such as policemen and politicians; a theme which he has explored. Also, he used the “[[MacGuffin]]”—the use of an object, person or event to keep the plot moving along even if it was non-essential to the story. Some examples include the microfilm in ''North by Northwest'' and the $40,000 stolen money in ''Psycho''. Hitchcock appears briefly in most of his own films. For example, he is seen struggling to get a double bass onto a train (''[[Strangers on a Train (film)|Strangers on a Train]]''), walking dogs out of a pet shop (''[[The Birds (film)|The Birds]]''), fixing a neighbour's clock (''[[Rear Window]]''), as a shadow (''[[Family Plot]]''), sitting at a table in a photograph (''[[Dial M for Murder]]''), and riding a bus (''[[North by Northwest]]'','' [[To Catch a Thief]]'').

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Hitchcock's portrayal of women has been the subject of much scholarly debate. [[Bidisha]] wrote in ''The Guardian'' in 2010: "There's the vamp, the tramp, the snitch, the witch, the slink, the double-crosser and, best of all, the demon mommy. Don't worry, they all get punished in the end." In a widely cited essay in 1975, [[Laura Mulvey]] introduced the idea of the [[male gaze]]; the view of the spectator in Hitchcock's films, she argued, is that of the heterosexual male protagonist. "The female characters in his films reflected the same qualities over and over again", [[Roger Ebert]] wrote in 1996. "They were blonde. They were icy and remote. They were imprisoned in costumes that subtly combined fashion with fetishism. They mesmerised the men, who often had physical or psychological handicaps. Sooner or later, every Hitchcock woman was humiliated." The victims in ''The Lodger'' are all blondes. In ''[[The 39 Steps (1935 film)|The 39 Steps]]'', [[Madeleine Carroll]] is put in handcuffs. [[Ingrid Bergman]], whom Hitchcock directed three times (''[[Spellbound (1945 film)|Spellbound]]'', ''[[Notorious (1946 film)|Notorious]]'', and ''[[Under Capricorn]]''), is dark blonde. In ''Rear Window'', Lisa ([[Grace Kelly]]) risks her life by breaking into Lars Thorwald's apartment. In ''To Catch a Thief'', Francie (also Kelly) offers to help a man she believes is a burglar. In ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'' and ''North by Northwest'' respectively, [[Kim Novak]] and [[Eva Marie Saint]] play the blonde heroines. In ''[[Psycho (1960 film)|Psycho]]'', [[Janet Leigh]]'s character steals $40,000 and is murdered by [[Norman Bates]], a reclusive psychopath. [[Tippi Hedren]], a blonde, appears to be the focus of the attacks in ''The Birds''. In ''[[Marnie (film)|Marnie]]'', the title character, again played by Hedren, is a thief. In ''[[Topaz (1969 film)|Topaz]]'', French actresses [[Dany Robin]] as Stafford's wife and [[Claude Jade]] as Stafford's daughter are blonde heroines, the mistress was played by brunette [[Karin Dor]]. Hitchcock's last blonde heroine was [[Barbara Harris (actress)|Barbara Harris]] as a phony psychic turned amateur sleuth in ''[[Family Plot]]'' (1976), his final film. In the same film, the diamond smuggler played by [[Karen Black]] wears a long blonde wig in several scenes. His films often feature characters struggling in their relationships with their mothers, such as Norman Bates in ''Psycho''. In ''North by Northwest'', Roger Thornhill ([[Cary Grant]]) is an innocent man ridiculed by his mother for insisting that shadowy, murderous men are after him. In ''The Birds'', the Rod Taylor character, an innocent man, finds his world under attack by vicious birds, and struggles to free himself from a clinging mother ([[Jessica Tandy]]). The killer in ''Frenzy'' has a loathing of women but idolises his mother. The villain Bruno in ''Strangers on a Train'' hates his father, but has an incredibly close relationship with his mother (played by [[Marion Lorne]]). Sebastian ([[Claude Rains]]) in ''Notorious'' has a clearly conflicting relationship with his mother, who is (rightly) suspicious of his new bride, Alicia Huberman ([[Ingrid Bergman]]).

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Alfred Hitchcock

Hitchcock became known for having remarked that "actors should be treated like cattle". During the filming of ''[[Mr. & Mrs. Smith (1941 film)|Mr. & Mrs. Smith]]'' (1941), [[Carole Lombard]] brought three cows onto the set wearing the name tags of Lombard, [[Robert Montgomery (actor)|Robert Montgomery]], and [[Gene Raymond]], the stars of the film, to surprise him. In an episode of ''[[The Dick Cavett Show]]'', originally broadcast on 8 June 1972, [[Dick Cavett]] stated as fact that Hitchcock had once called actors cattle. Hitchcock responded by saying that, at one time, he had been accused of calling actors cattle. “I said that I would never say such an unfeeling, rude thing about actors at all. What I probably said, was that all actors should be treated like cattle...In a nice way of course.” He then described Carole Lombard's joke, with a smile. Hitchcock believed that actors should concentrate on their performances and leave work on script and character to the directors and screenwriters. He told [[Bryan Forbes]] in 1967: "I remember discussing with a method actor how he was taught and so forth. He said, 'We're taught using improvisation. We are given an idea and then we are turned loose to develop in any way we want to.' I said 'That's not acting. That's writing.' “ Recalling their experiences on ''Lifeboat'' for Charles Chandler, author of ''It's Only a Movie: Alfred Hitchcock A Personal Biography,'' [[Walter Slezak]] said that Hitchcock “knew more about how to help an actor than any director I ever worked with”, and [[Hume Cronyn]] dismissed the idea that Hitchcock was not concerned with his actors as “utterly fallacious”, describing at length the process of rehearsing and filming ''Lifeboat''. Critics observed that, despite his reputation as a man who disliked actors, actors who worked with him often gave brilliant performances. He used the same actors in many of his films; Cary Grant and James Stewart both worked with Hitchcock four times, and Ingrid Bergman and Grace Kelly three. [[James Mason]] said that Hitchcock regarded actors as "animated props". For Hitchcock, the actors were part of the film's setting. He told François Truffaut: "The chief requisite for an actor is the ability to do nothing well, which is by no means as easy as it sounds. He should be willing to be used and wholly integrated into the picture by the director and the camera. He must allow the camera to determine the proper emphasis and the most effective dramatic highlights."

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Alfred Hitchcock

Hitchcock planned his scripts in detail with his writers. In ''Writing with Hitchcock'' (2001), Steven DeRosa noted that Hitchcock supervised them through every draft, asking that they tell the story visually. Hitchcock told [[Roger Ebert]] in 1969: Hitchcock's films were extensively [[storyboard]] to the finest detail. He was reported to have never even bothered looking through the [[viewfinder]], since he did not need to, although in publicity photos he was shown doing so. He also used this as an excuse to never have to change his films from his initial vision. If a studio asked him to change a film, he would claim that it was already shot in a single way, and that there were no alternative takes to consider. This view of Hitchcock as a director who relied more on pre-production than on the actual production itself has been challenged by Bill Krohn, the American correspondent of French film magazine ''[[Cahiers du cinéma]]'', in his book ''Hitchcock at Work''. After investigating script revisions, notes to other production personnel written by or to Hitchcock, and other production material, Krohn observed that Hitchcock's work often deviated from how the screenplay was written or how the film was originally envisioned. He noted that the myth of storyboards in relation to Hitchcock, often regurgitated by generations of commentators on his films, was to a great degree perpetuated by Hitchcock himself or the publicity arm of the studios. For example, the celebrated crop-spraying sequence of ''North by Northwest'' was not storyboarded at all. After the scene was filmed, the publicity department asked Hitchcock to make storyboards to promote the film, and Hitchcock in turn hired an artist to match the scenes in detail. Even when storyboards were made, scenes that were shot differed from them significantly. Krohn's analysis of the production of Hitchcock classics like ''Notorious'' reveals that Hitchcock was flexible enough to change a film's conception during its production. Another example Krohn notes is the American remake of ''The Man Who Knew Too Much,'' whose shooting schedule commenced without a finished script and moreover went over schedule, something that, as Krohn notes, was not an uncommon occurrence on many of Hitchcock's films, including ''[[Strangers on a Train (film)|Strangers on a Train]]'' and ''[[Topaz (1969 film)|Topaz]]''. While Hitchcock did do a great deal of preparation for all his films, he was fully cognisant that the actual film-making process often deviated from the best-laid plans and was flexible to adapt to the changes and needs of production as his films were not free from the normal hassles faced and common routines used during many other film productions.

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Alfred Hitchcock

Krohn's work also sheds light on Hitchcock's practice of generally shooting in chronological order, which he notes sent many films over budget and over schedule and, more importantly, differed from the standard operating procedure of Hollywood in the Studio System Era. Equally important is Hitchcock's tendency to shoot alternative takes of scenes. This differed from coverage in that the films were not necessarily shot from varying angles so as to give the editor options to shape the film how they chose (often under the producer's aegis). Rather they represented Hitchcock's tendency to give himself options in the editing room, where he would provide advice to his editors after viewing a rough cut of the work. According to Krohn, this and a great deal of other information revealed through his research of Hitchcock's personal papers, script revisions and the like refute the notion of Hitchcock as a director who was always in control of his films, whose vision of his films did not change during production, which Krohn notes has remained the central long-standing myth of Alfred Hitchcock. Both his fastidiousness and attention to detail also found their way into each [[film poster]] for his films. Hitchcock preferred to work with the best talent of his day—film poster designers such as [[Bill Gold]] and [[Saul Bass]]—who would produce posters that accurately represented his films.

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Alfred Hitchcock

Hitchcock was inducted into the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] on 8 February 1960 with two stars: one for television and a second for his motion pictures. In 1978 [[John Russell Taylor]] described him as "the most universally recognizable person in the world" and "a straightforward middle-class Englishman who just happened to be an artistic genius". In 2002 ''[[MovieMaker Magazine|MovieMaker]]'' named him the most influential director of all time, and a 2007 ''The Daily Telegraph'' critics' poll ranked him Britain's greatest director. David Gritten, the newspaper's film critic, wrote: "Unquestionably the greatest filmmaker to emerge from these islands, Hitchcock did more than any director to shape modern cinema, which would be utterly different without him. His flair was for narrative, cruelly withholding crucial information (from his characters and from us) and engaging the emotions of the audience like no one else." In 1992, the ''[[Sight & Sound]]'' Critics' Top Ten Poll ranked Hitchcock at No. 4 in its list of "Top 10 Directors" of all time. In 2002, Hitchcock was ranked 2nd in the critics' top ten poll and 5th in the director's top ten poll in the list of greatest directors of all time compiled by the same magazine. He won two [[Golden Globes]], eight [[Laurel Awards]], and five [[lifetime achievement awards]], including the first [[BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award]] and, in 1979, an [[AFI Life Achievement Award]]. He was nominated five times for an [[Academy Award for Best Director]]. ''[[Rebecca (1940 film)|Rebecca]]'', nominated for 11 Oscars, won the [[Academy Award for Best Picture#1940s|Academy Award for Best Picture of 1940]]; another Hitchcock film, ''[[Foreign Correspondent (film)|Foreign Correspondent]]'', was also nominated that year. By 2018, eight of his films had been selected for preservation by the US [[National Film Registry]]: ''Rebecca'' (1940; inducted 2018), ''Shadow of a Doubt'' (1943; inducted 1991), ''Notorious'' (1946; inducted 2006), ''Rear Window'' (1954; inducted 1997), ''Vertigo'' (1958; inducted 1989), ''North by Northwest'' (1959; inducted 1995), ''Psycho'' (1960; inducted 1992), and ''The Birds'' (1963; inducted 2016). In 2012 Hitchcock was selected by artist [[Peter Blake (artist)|Sir Peter Blake]], author of the Beatles' ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]'' album cover, to appear in a new version of the cover, along with other British cultural figures, and he was featured that year in a [[BBC Radio 4]] series, ''[[The New Elizabethans]]'', as someone "whose actions during the reign of Elizabeth II have had a significant impact on lives in these islands and given the age its character". In June 2013 nine restored versions of Hitchcock's early silent films, including ''The Pleasure Garden'' (1925), were shown at the [[Brooklyn Academy of Music]]'s Harvey Theatre; known as "The Hitchcock 9", the travelling tribute was organised by the [[British Film Institute]].

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Alfred Hitchcock

The Alfred Hitchcock Collection is housed at the [[Academy Film Archive]] in Hollywood, California. It includes home movies, 16mm film shot on the set of ''Blackmail'' (1929) and ''Frenzy'' (1972), and the earliest known colour footage of Hitchcock. The Academy Film Archive has preserved many of his home movies. The Alfred Hitchcock Papers are housed at the Academy's [[Margaret Herrick Library]]. The David O. Selznick and the Ernest Lehman collections housed at the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center in Austin, Texas, contain material related to Hitchcock's work on the production of ''The Paradine Case'', ''Rebecca'', ''Spellbound'', ''North by Northwest'' and ''Family Plot.''

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(-) [[Anthony Hopkins]] in ''[[Hitchcock (film)|Hitchcock]]'' (2012) (-) [[Toby Jones]] in ''[[The Girl (2012 TV film)|The Girl]]'' (2012) (-) [[Roger Ashton-Griffiths]] in ''[[Grace of Monaco (film)|Grace of Monaco]]'' (2014)

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Alfred Hitchcock

'''Anacondas''' or '''water boas''' are a group of large [[snake]] of the [[genus]] ''[[Eunectes]]''. They are found in tropical [[South America]]. Four [[species]] are currently recognized.

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Anaconda

Although the name applies to a group of snakes, it is often used to refer only to one species, in particular, the common or [[green anaconda]] (''Eunectes murinus''), which is the largest snake in the world by weight, and the second longest.

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Anaconda

The South American names ''anacauchoa'' and ''anacaona'' were suggested in an account by [[Peter Martyr d'Anghiera]], but the idea of a South American origin was questioned by [[Henry Walter Bates]] who, in his travels in South America, failed to find any similar name in use. The word anaconda is derived from the name of a snake from Ceylon ([[Sri Lanka]]) that [[John Ray]] described in Latin in his ''Synopsis Methodica Animalium'' (1693) as ''serpens indicus bubalinus anacandaia zeylonibus, ides bubalorum aliorumque jumentorum membra conterens''. Ray used a catalogue of snakes from the [[Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie|Leyden museum]] supplied by Dr. [[Tancred Robinson]], but the description of its habit was based on [[Andreas Cleyer]] who in 1684 described a gigantic snake that crushed large animals by coiling around their bodies and crushing their bones. [[Henry Yule]] in his [[Hobson-Jobson]] notes that the word became more popular due to a piece of fiction published in 1768 in the Scots Magazine by a certain R. Edwin. Edwin described a '[[tiger]]' being crushed to death by an anaconda, when there actually never were any tigers in Sri Lanka. Yule and [[Frank Wall (herpetologist)|Frank Wall]] noted that the snake was in fact a python and suggested a [[Tamil language|Tamil]] origin ''anai-kondra'' meaning elephant killer. A [[Sinhala language|Sinhalese]] origin was also suggested by Donald Ferguson who pointed out that the word ''Henakandaya'' (''hena'' lightning/large and ''kanda'' stem/trunk) was used in Sri Lanka for the small whip snake (''[[Ahaetulla pulverulenta]]'') and somehow got misapplied to the python before myths were created. The name commonly used for the anaconda in Brazil is ''sucuri'', ''sucuriju'' or ''sucuriuba''.

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Anaconda

The term "anaconda" has been used to refer to: (-) Any member of the genus ''[[Eunectes]]'', a group of large, aquatic snakes found in South America: (-) ''[[Eunectes murinus]]'', the green anaconda – the largest species, found east of the Andes in Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil and [[Trinidad and Tobago]] (-) ''[[Eunectes notaeus]]'', the yellow anaconda – a small species, found in eastern Bolivia, southern Brazil, Paraguay, and northeastern Argentina (-) ''[[Eunectes deschauenseei]]'', the darkly-spotted anaconda – a rare species, found in northeastern Brazil and coastal French Guiana (-) ''[[Eunectes beniensis]]'', the Bolivian anaconda – the most recently defined species, found in the Departments of Beni and Pando in [[Bolivia]] (-) The term was previously applied imprecisely, indicating any large snake that [[constriction|constricts]] its prey, though this usage is now archaic. (-) "Anaconda" is also used as a metaphor for an action aimed at constricting and suffocating an opponent – for example, the [[Anaconda Plan]] proposed at the beginning of the [[American Civil War]], in which the Union Army was to effectively "suffocate" the Confederacy. Another example is the [[Arm triangle choke#Anaconda choke|anaconda choke]] in the martial art [[Brazilian jiu-jitsu]], which is performed by wrapping your arms under the opponent's neck and through the armpit, and grasping the biceps of the opposing arm, when caught in this move, you will lose consciousness if you do not tap out.

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Anaconda

'''Altaic''' (; also called '''Transeurasian''') is a ''[[sprachbund]]'' (i.e. a linguistic area) and proposed [[language family]] that would include the [[Turkic languages|Turkic]], [[Mongolic languages|Mongolian]] and [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic language families]] and possibly also the [[Japonic languages|Japonic]] and [[Koreanic languages]]. Speakers of these languages are currently scattered over most of [[Asia]] north of 35 °N and in some eastern parts of [[Europe]], extending in longitude from [[Turkey]] to [[Japan]]. The group is named after the [[Altai Mountains|Altai mountain range]] in the center of Asia. The hypothetical language family has long been rejected by most [[Comparative linguistics|comparative linguists]], although it continues to be supported by a small but stable scholarly minority. The Altaic family was first proposed in the 18th century. It was widely accepted until the 1960s and is still listed in many encyclopedias and handbooks. Since the 1950s, many comparative linguists have rejected the proposal, after supposed [[cognate]] were found not to be valid, hypothesized sound shifts were not found and Turkic and Mongolic languages were found to be converging rather than diverging over the centuries. Opponents of the theory proposed that the similarities are due to [[language contact|mutual linguistic influences]] between the groups concerned. Modern supporters of Altaic acknowledge that many shared features are the result of contact and [[Language convergence|convergence]] and thus cannot be taken as evidence for a genetic relationship, but nevertheless argue that a core of existing correspondences goes back to a common ancestor. The original hypothesis unified only the Turkic, Mongolian and Tungusic groups. Later proposals to include the Korean and Japanese languages into a "Macro-Altaic" family have always been controversial. (The original proposal was sometimes called "Micro-Altaic" by [[retronym]].) Most proponents of Altaic continue to support the inclusion of Korean. A common ancestral [[Proto-Altaic language]] for the "Macro" family has been tentatively reconstructed by [[Sergei Starostin]] and others. Micro-Altaic includes about 66 living languages, to which Macro-Altaic would add Korean, [[Jeju language|Jeju]], Japanese and the [[Ryukyuan languages]], for a total of 74 (depending on what is considered a language and what is considered a [[Language or dialect|dialect]]). These numbers do not include earlier states of languages, such as [[Middle Mongol language|Middle Mongol]], [[Old Korean]] or [[Old Japanese]].

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Altaic languages

The earliest known texts in a Turkic language are the [[Orkhon inscriptions]], 720–735 AD. They were deciphered in 1893 by the Danish linguist [[Vilhelm Thomsen]] in a scholarly race with his rival, the German–Russian linguist [[Vasily Radlov|Wilhelm Radloff]]. However, Radloff was the first to publish the inscriptions. The first Tungusic language to be attested is [[Jurchen language|Jurchen]], the language of the ancestors of the [[Qing dynasty|Manchus]]. A writing system for it was devised in 1119 AD and an inscription using this system is known from 1185 (see [[List of Jurchen inscriptions]]). The earliest [[Mongolic languages|Mongolic]] language of which we have written evidence is known as [[Middle Mongol language|Middle Mongol]]. It is first attested by an inscription dated to 1224 or 1225 AD, the [[Stele of Yisüngge]], and by the ''[[Secret History of the Mongols]]'', written in 1228 (see [[Mongolic languages]]). The earliest Para-Mongolic text is the [[Memorial for Yelü Yanning]], written in the [[Khitan large script]] and dated to 986 AD. However, the [[Inscription of Hüis Tolgoi]], discovered in 1975 and analysed as being in an early form of Mongolic, has been dated to 604-620 AD. The [[Bugut inscription]] dates back to 584 AD. Japanese is first attested in the form of names contained in a few short inscriptions in [[Classical Chinese]] from the 5th century AD, such as found on the [[Inariyama Sword]]. The first substantial text in Japanese, however, is the [[Kojiki]], which dates from 712 AD. It is followed by the [[Nihon Shoki|Nihon shoki]], completed in 720, and then by the [[Man'yōshū]], which dates from [[circa|c.]] 771–785, but includes material that is from about 400 years earlier. The most important text for the study of early Korean is the [[Hyangga]], a collection of 25 poems, of which some go back to the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea|Three Kingdoms]] period (57 BC–668 AD), but are preserved in an [[orthography]] that only goes back to the 9th century AD. Korean is copiously attested from the mid-15th century on in the phonetically precise [[Hangul]] system of writing.

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Altaic languages

A proposed grouping of the Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages was published in 1730 by [[Philip Johan von Strahlenberg]], a Swedish officer who traveled in the eastern [[Russian Empire]] while a prisoner of war after the [[Great Northern War]]. However, he may not have intended to imply a closer relationship among those languages.

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Altaic languages

In 1844, the Finnish [[Philology|philologist]] [[Matthias Castrén]] proposed a broader grouping, that later came to be called the [[Ural–Altaic languages|Ural–Altaic family]], which included Turkic, Mongolian, and Manchu-Tungus (=Tungusic) as an "Altaic" branch, and also the [[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]] and [[Samoyedic languages]] as the "Uralic" branch (though Castrén himself used the terms "Tataric" and "Chudic"). The name "Altaic" referred to the [[Altai Mountains]] in East-Central Asia, which are approximately the center of the geographic range of the three main families. The name "Uralic" referred to the [[Ural Mountains]]. While the Ural-Altaic family hypothesis can still be found in some encyclopedias, atlases, and similar general references, after the 1960s it has been heavily criticized. Even linguists who accept the basic Altaic family, like [[Sergei Starostin]], completely discard the inclusion of the "Uralic" branch.

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In 1857, the Austrian scholar [[Anton Boller]] suggested adding [[Japanese language|Japanese]] to the Ural–Altaic family. In the 1920s, [[Gustaf John Ramstedt|G.J. Ramstedt]] and [[Yevgeny Polivanov|E.D. Polivanov]] advocated the inclusion of Korean. Decades later, in his 1952 book, Ramstedt rejected the Ural–Altaic hypothesis but again included Korean in Altaic, an inclusion followed by most leading Altaicists (supporters of the theory) to date. His book contained the first comprehensive attempt to identify regular correspondences among the sound systems within the Altaic language families. In 1960, Nicholas Poppe published what was in effect a heavily revised version of Ramstedt's volume on phonology that has since set the standard in Altaic studies. Poppe considered the issue of the relationship of Korean to Turkic-Mongolic-Tungusic not settled. In his view, there were three possibilities: (1) Korean did not belong with the other three genealogically, but had been influenced by an Altaic substratum; (2) Korean was related to the other three at the same level they were related to each other; (3) Korean had split off from the other three before they underwent a series of characteristic changes. [[Roy Andrew Miller]]'s 1971 book ''Japanese and the Other Altaic Languages'' convinced most Altaicists that Japanese also belonged to Altaic. Since then, the "Macro-Altaic" has been generally assumed to include Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, and Japanese. In 1990, Unger advocated a family consisting of Tungusic, Korean, and Japonic languages, but not Turkic or Mongolic. However, many linguists dispute the alleged affinities of Korean and Japanese to the other three groups. Some authors instead tried to connect Japanese to the [[Austronesian languages]]. In 2017 [[Martine Robbeets]] proposed that Japanese (and possibly Korean) originated as a [[creole language|hybrid language]]. She proposed that the [[urheimat|ancestral home]] of the Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages was somewhere in northwestern [[Manchuria]]. A group of those proto-Altaic ("Transeurasian") speakers would have migrated south into the modern [[Liaoning]] province, where they would have been mostly assimilated by an agricultural community with an [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]]-like language. The fusion of the two languages would have resulted in proto-Japanese and proto-Korean. In a typological study that does not directly evaluate the validity of the Altaic hypothesis, Yurayong and Szeto (2020) discuss for Koreanic and Japonic the stages of convergence to the Altaic typological model and subsequent divergence from that model, which resulted in the present typological similarity between Koreanic and Japonic. They state that both are "still so different from the Core Altaic languages that we can even speak of an independent Japanese-Korean type of grammar. Given also that there is neither a strong proof of common Proto-Altaic lexical items nor solid regular sound correspondences but, rather, only lexical and structural borrowings between languages of the Altaic typology, our results indirectly speak in favour of a “Paleo-Asiatic” origin of the Japonic and Koreanic languages."

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In 1962 John C. Street proposed an alternative classification, with Turkic-Mongolic-Tungusic in one grouping and Korean-Japanese-[[Ainu language|Ainu]] in another, joined in what he designated as the "North Asiatic" family. The inclusion of Ainu was adopted also by [[James Patrie]] in 1982. The Turkic-Mongolic-Tungusic and Korean-Japanese-Ainu groupings were also posited in 2000–2002 by [[Joseph Greenberg]]. However, he treated them as independent members of a larger family, which he termed [[Eurasiatic languages|Eurasiatic]]. The inclusion of Ainu is not widely accepted by Altaicists. In fact, no convincing genealogical relationship between Ainu and any other language family has been demonstrated, and it is generally regarded as a [[language isolate]].

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Starting in the late 1950s, some linguists became increasingly critical of even the minimal Altaic family hypothesis, disputing the alleged evidence of genetic connection between Turkic, Mongolic and Tungusic languages. Among the earlier critics were [[Gerard Clauson]] (1956), [[Gerhard Doerfer]] (1963), and [[Alexander Shcherbak]]. They claimed that the words and features shared by Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages were for the most part borrowings and that the rest could be attributed to chance resemblances. In 1988, Doerfer again rejected all the genetic claims over these major groups.

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A major continuing supporter of the Altaic hypothesis has been S. Starostin, who published a comparative lexical analysis of the Altaic languages in (1991). He concluded that the analysis supported the Altaic grouping, although it was "older than most other language families in Eurasia, such as Indo-European or Finno-Ugric, and this is the reason why the modern Altaic languages preserve few common elements". In 1991 and again in 1996, Roy Miller defended the Altaic hypothesis and claimed that the criticisms of Clauson and Doerfer apply exclusively to the lexical correspondences, whereas the most pressing evidence for the theory is the similarities in verbal morphology. In 2003, Claus Schönig published a critical overview of the history of the Altaic hypothesis up to that time, siding with the earlier criticisms of Clauson, Doerfer, and Shcherbak. In 2003, Starostin, [[Anna Dybo]] and Oleg Mudrak published the ''[[Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages]]'', which expanded the 1991 lexical lists and added other phonological and grammatical arguments. Starostin's book was criticized by Stefan Georg in 2004 and 2005, and by Alexander Vovin in 2005. Other defenses of the theory, in response to the criticisms of Georg and Vovin, were published by Starostin in 2005, Blažek in 2006, Robbeets in 2007, and Dybo and G. Starostin in 2008 In 2010, [[Lars Johanson]] echoed Miller's 1996 rebuttal to the critics, and called for a muting of the polemic.

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The list below comprises linguists who have worked specifically on the Altaic problem since the publication of the first volume of Ramstedt's ''Einführung'' in 1952. The dates given are those of works concerning Altaic. For supporters of the theory, the version of Altaic they favor is given at the end of the entry, if other than the prevailing one of Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean–Japanese.

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(-) [[Pentti Aalto]] (1955). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean. (-) [[Anna V. Dybo]] (S. Starostin et al. 2003, A. Dybo and G. Starostin 2008). (-) [[Frederik Kortlandt]] (2010). (-) [[Karl H. Menges]] (1975). Common ancestor of Korean, Japanese and traditional Altaic dated back to the 7th or 8th millennium BC (1975: 125). (-) [[Roy Andrew Miller]] (1971, 1980, 1986, 1996). Supported the inclusion of Korean and Japanese. (-) [[Oleg A. Mudrak]] (S. Starostin et al. 2003). (-) [[Nicholas Poppe]] (1965). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic and perhaps Korean. (-) [[Alexis Manaster Ramer]]. (-) [[Martine Robbeets]] (2004, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2015) (in the form of "Transeurasian"). (-) [[Gustaf John Ramstedt|G. J. Ramstedt]] (1952–1957). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean. (-) [[Georgiy Starostin|George Starostin]] (A. Dybo and G. Starostin 2008). (-) [[Sergei Starostin]] (1991, S. Starostin et al. 2003). (-) [[John C. Street]] (1962). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic and Korean–Japanese–Ainu, grouped as "North Asiatic". (-) [[Talat Tekin]] (1994). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean.

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(-) [[Gerard Clauson]] (1956, 1959, 1962). (-) [[Gerhard Doerfer]] (1963, 1966, 1967, 1968, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1981, 1985, 1988, 1993). (-) [[Susumu Ōno]] (1970, 2000) (-) [[Juha Janhunen]] (1992, 1995) (tentative support of Mongolic-Tungusic). (-) [[Claus Schönig]] (2003). (-) [[Stefan Georg]] (2004, 2005). (-) [[Alexander Vovin]] (2005, 2010). Formerly an advocate of Altaic (1994, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2001), now a critic. (-) [[Alexander Shcherbak]]. (-) [[Alexander B. M. Stiven]] (2008, 2010).

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(-) [[James Patrie]] (1982) and [[Joseph Greenberg]] (2000–2002). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic and Korean–Japanese–Ainu, grouped in a common [[taxon]] (cf. John C. Street 1962), called [[Eurasiatic languages|Eurasiatic]] by Greenberg. (-) [[J. Marshall Unger]] (1990). Tungusic–Korean–Japanese ("'''Macro-Tungusic'''"), with Turkic and Mongolic as separate language families. (-) [[Lars Johanson]] (2010). Agnostic, proponent of a "Transeurasian" verbal morphology not necessarily genealogically linked.

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The original arguments for grouping the "micro-Altaic" languages within a Uralo-Altaic family were based on such shared features as [[vowel harmony]] and [[agglutinative language|agglutination]]. According to Roy Miller, the most pressing evidence for the theory is the similarities in [[verb]] [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]]. The ''Etymological Dictionary'' by Starostin and others (2003) proposes a set of sound change laws that would explain the evolution from Proto-Altaic to the descendant languages. For example, although most of today's Altaic languages have vowel harmony, Proto-Altaic as reconstructed by them lacked it; instead, various vowel assimilations between the first and second syllables of words occurred in Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, and Japonic. They also included a number of grammatical correspondences between the languages.

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Starostin claimed in 1991 that the members of the proposed Altaic group shared about 15–20% of apparent cognates within a 110-word [[Swadesh list#Shorter lists|Swadesh-Yakhontov list]]; in particular, Turkic–Mongolic 20%, Turkic–Tungusic 18%, Turkic–Korean 17%, Mongolic–Tungusic 22%, Mongolic–Korean 16%, and Tungusic–Korean 21%. The 2003 ''Etymological Dictionary'' includes a list of 2,800 proposed [[cognate]] sets, as well as a few important changes to the reconstruction of Proto-Altaic. The authors tried hard to distinguish loans between Turkic and Mongolic and between Mongolic and Tungusic from cognates; and suggest words that occur in Turkic and Tungusic but not in Mongolic. All other combinations between the five branches also occur in the book. It lists 144 items of shared basic vocabulary, including words for such items as 'eye', 'ear', 'neck', 'bone', 'blood', 'water', 'stone', 'sun', and 'two'. [[Martine Robbeets|Robbeets]] and Bouckaert (2018) use [[Bayesian phylogeny|Bayesian phylolinguistic methods]] to argue for the coherence of the "narrow" Altaic languages (Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic) together with Japonic and Koreanic, which they refer to as the ''Transeurasian'' languages. Their results include the following phylogenetic tree: [[Martine Robbeets]] (2020) argues that early Transeurasian speakers were originally agriculturalists in northeastern China, only becoming pastoralists later on. Some lexical reconstructions of agricultural terms by Robbeets (2020) are listed below. (-) Abbreviations (-) PTEA = Proto-Transeurasian (-) PA = Proto-Altaic (-) PTk = Proto-Turkic (-) PMo = Proto-Mongolic (-) PTg = Proto-Tungusic (-) PJK = Proto-Japano-Koreanic (-) PK = Proto-Koreanic (-) PJ = Proto-Japonic Additional family-level reconstructions of agricultural vocabulary from Robbeets et al. (2020): (-) Proto-Turkic *ek- ‘to sprinkle with the hand; sow’ > *ek-e.g. ‘plow’ (-) Proto-Turkic *tarï- ‘to cultivate (the ground)’ > *tarï-g ‘what is cultivated; crops, main crop, cultivated land’ (-) Proto-Turkic *ko- ‘to put’ > *koːn- ‘to settle down (of animals), to take up residence (of people), to be planted (of plants)’ > *konak ‘foxtail millet (''[[Setaria italica]]'')’ (-) Proto-Turkic *tög- ‘to hit, beat; to pound, crush (food in a mortar); to husk, thresh (cereals)’ > *tögi ‘husked millet; husked rice’ (-) Proto-Turkic *ügür ‘(broomcorn) millet’ (-) Proto-Turkic *arpa ‘barley (''[[Hordeum vulgare]]'')' < ? Proto-Iranian *arbusā ‘barley’ (-) Proto-Mongolic *amun ‘cereals; broomcorn millet (''[[Panicum miliaceum]]'')’ (Nugteren 2011: 268) (-) Proto-Mongolic *konag ‘foxtail millet’ < PTk *konak ‘foxtail millet (''[[Setaria italica]]'')’ (-) Proto-Mongolic *budaga ‘cooked cereals; porridge; meal’ (-) Proto-Mongolic *tari- ‘to sow, plant’ (Nugteren 2011: 512–13) (-) Proto-Macro-Mongolic *püre ‘seed; descendants’ (-) Proto-Tungusic *pisi-ke ‘broomcorn millet (''[[Panicum miliaceum]]'')’ (-) Proto-Tungusic *jiya- ‘foxtail millet (''[[Setaria italica]]'')’ (-) Proto-Tungusic *murgi ‘barley (''[[Hordeum vulgare]]'')’ (-) Proto-Tungusic *üse- ~ *üsi- ‘to plant’ üse ~ üsi ‘seed, seedling’, üsi-n ‘field for cultivation’ (-) Proto-Tungusic *tari- ‘to sow, to plant’ (-) Proto-Koreanic *pisi ‘seed’, *pihi ‘[[barnyard millet]]’ < Proto-Transeurasian (PTEA) *pisi-i (sow-NMLZ) ‘seed’ ~ *pisi-ke (sow-RES.NMLZ) ‘what is sown, major crop’ (-) Proto-Koreanic *patʌ-k ‘dry field’ < Proto-Japano-Koreanic (PJK) *pata ‘dry field’ < PTEA *pata ‘field for cultivation’ (-) Proto-Koreanic *mutʌ-k ‘dry land’ < PJK *muta ‘land’ < PTEA *mudu ‘uncultivated land’ (-) Proto-Koreanic *mat-ʌk ‘garden plot’ < PJK *mat ‘plot of land for cultivation’ (-) Proto-Koreanic *non ‘rice paddy field’ < PJK *non ‘field’

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(-) Proto-Koreanic *pap ‘any boiled preparation of cereal; boiled rice’ (-) Proto-Koreanic *pʌsal ‘hulled (of any grain); hulled corn of grain; hulled rice’ < Proto-Japonic *wasa-ra ‘early ripening (of any grain)’ (-) Proto-Koreanic *ipi > *pi > *pye ‘(unhusked) rice’ < Proto-Japonic *ip-i (eat-NMLZ) ‘cooked millet, steamed rice’ (-) Proto-Japonic *nuka ‘rice bran’ < PJ *nuka- (remove.NMLZ) (-) Proto-Japonic *məmi ‘hulled rice’ < PJ *məm-i (move.back.and.forth.with.force-NMLZ) (-) Proto-Japonic *ipi ‘cooked millet, steamed rice’ < *ip-i (eat-NMLZ) < PK *me(k)i ‘rice offered to a higher rank’ < *mek-i (eat-NMLZ) ‘what you eat, food’ < Proto-Austronesian *ka-en eat-OBJ.NMLZ (-) Proto-Japonic *wasa- ~ *wəsə- ‘to be early ripening (of crops); an early ripening variety (of any crop); early-ripening rice plant’ (-) Proto-Japonic *usu ‘(rice and grain) mortar’ < Para-Austronesian *lusuŋ ‘(rice) mortar’; cf. [[Proto-Austronesian]] *lusuŋ ‘(rice) mortar’ (-) Proto-Japonic *kəmai ‘dehusked rice’ < Para-Austronesian *hemay < Proto-Macro-Austronesian *Semay ‘cooked rice’; cf. [[Proto-Austronesian]] *Semay ‘cooked rice’

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A study published in February 2020 in the ''Evolutionary Human Sciences'' supports the coherence of the Transeurasian (Altaic) family through archaeolinguistic evidence. It posits that the sophisticated [[textile]] technology and [[millet]] [[Agriculture|farming]] expansion from Northeast China in [[East Asia]] can be linked with the expansion of the Transeurasian languages. The researchers were also able to reconstruct a textile vocabulary for the proto-Transeurasian language. However, Kim and Park (2020) in the same journal criticized the conclusions and favoured the rice farming hypothesis for Korean and Japanese. According to their results, Koreanic (and Japonic) language spread can be linked to the spread of rice-cultivation and rice farming related vocabulary as opposed to millet farming which was practiced in a geographical nearby region in Manchuria. The authors point out that isotopic studies clearly show that sea resources and wild plants were the main diet of the people in Korea during the [[Jeulmun pottery period|Chulmun period]] (period including the arrival of millet agriculture), that introduction of millet agriculture didn't heavily affect the material culture and subsistence economy of the Chulmun culture and noted with a summary of previous demographic studies that the population seems to suddenly decrease in a period coinciding with the arrival of millet whereas it should increase in the context of a people migration. They suggest two scenarios explaining the spread of Koreanic and Japonic (which they agree to reunite in the [[Comparison of Japanese and Korean|Japano-Koreanic family]]) : The first one is that Proto-Japonic and Proto-Koreanic already split before their entrance in [[Korean peninsula]] and migrated together, bringing with them the dry farming of rice and giving way to the [[Mumun pottery period|Mumun period]]; Proto-Japonic speakers would later have aggregated in southern Korea and developed the [[Songguk-ri|Songgukri culture]]. The second one suggests that Proto-Japano-Koreanic speakers migrated to Korea and that Proto-Japonic and Proto-Koreanic respectively developed in the southwestern and central parts of the peninsula. However they admit themselves that both scenarios have problems, the first one is difficult to reconcile with the fact that Early Mumun archeological was homogenous throughout the peninsula, the two groups cannot be clearly distinguished; the second scenario assumes a relatively recent split between Japonic and Koreanic whereas the linguistic distance is too great to assume it. Anyway they support a rice farming dispersal and argue that they can not be linked to the millet farming cultures, rejecting Robbeets' proposal of a Northeast China origin for Koreanic and Japonic (on which the modern Transeurasian theory is based ).

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However, Hudson and Robbeets (2020) responded to this study and still maintain that archaeological elements relating to sedentism, pottery, stone tools and weaving technology supports a Northeast China agricultural origin for proto-Koreanic and proto-Japonic. They pointed out several problems in the arguments of Kim and Park. Many of the isotope studies are from coastal shell middens, where human bones are better preserved, and not inland sites. The farming/language hypotheses doesn't require that farming was the only nor the largest component of a subsistence economy. A language shift does not require a massive initial influx of speakers and the possibility of a small number of speakers which later grew is not evaluated, it has been proved in previous studies that even small technological advantages can heavily impact the language shift; Kim and Park placed the introduction of millet agriculture in 3500 BC and interpreted its arrival as a population decrease whereas previous studies they didn't consider showed several evidences for an arrival of millet one or two centuries earlier, which is actually consistent with a population increase, recent studies have even noted an 'explosive' and rapid demographic increase with the arrival of millet agriculture in Korea. Hudson and Robbeets suggest that a ''[[Yersina pestis]]'' epidemic was probably the main reason of this drastic decrease, pointing out many evidences. They argue that there is in fact no common rice vocabulary shared between proto-Koreanic and proto-Japonic, indicating that the separation between the two families would have occurred before the introduction of rice farming and placing it in Northeast China rather than Korea. In addition to the problems cited by Kim and Park for their scenarios, Hudson and Robbeets also support that Proto-Japonic was spoken in the north of the peninsula and not the south, arguing that the [[Puyŏ languages]] — spoken in Northern Korea and Liaodong peninsula by the beginning of the [[Eastern Han dynasty]] — were more closely related to Japanese than to Korean.

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According to G. Clauson (1956), G. Doerfer (1963), and A. Shcherbak (1963), many of the [[linguistic typology|typological]] features of the supposed Altaic languages, particularly [[agglutinative language|agglutinative]] strongly suffixing [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] and [[subject–object–verb]] (SOV) word order, often occur together in languages. Those critics also argued that the words and features shared by Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages were for the most part borrowings and that the rest could be attributed to chance resemblances. They noted that there was little vocabulary shared by Turkic and Tungusic languages, though more shared with Mongolic languages. They reasoned that, if all three families had a common ancestor, we should expect losses to happen at random, and not only at the geographical margins of the family; and that the observed pattern is consistent with borrowing. According to C. Schönig (2003), after accounting for areal effects, the shared lexicon that could have a common genetic origin was reduced to a small number of monosyllabic lexical roots, including the personal pronouns and a few other deictic and auxiliary items, whose sharing could be explained in other ways; not the kind of sharing expected in cases of genetic relationship.

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Instead of a common genetic origin, Clauson, Doerfer, and Shcherbak proposed (in 1956–1966) that Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages form a ''[[Sprachbund]]'': a set of languages with similarities due to [[Language convergence|convergence]] through intensive borrowing and long contact, rather than common origin. [[Asya Pereltsvaig]] further observed in 2011 that, in general, [[genetic relationship (linguistics)|genetically related]] languages and families tend to diverge over time: the earlier forms are more similar than modern forms. However, she claims that an analysis of the earliest written records of Mongolic and Turkic languages shows the opposite, suggesting that they do not share a common traceable ancestor, but rather have become more similar through language contact and areal effects.

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The prehistory of the peoples speaking the "Altaic" languages is largely unknown. Whereas for certain other language families, such as the speakers of [[Proto-Indo-European language|Indo-European]], [[Proto-Uralic language|Uralic]], and [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]], it is possible to frame substantial hypotheses, in the case of the proposed Altaic family much remains to be done. Some scholars have hypothesised a possible Uralic and Altaic homeland in the [[Central Asian steppes]]. According to [[Juha Janhunen]], the ancestral languages of Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, and Japanese were spoken in a relatively small area comprising present-day North Korea, Southern Manchuria, and Southeastern Mongolia. However Janhunen is sceptical about an affiliation of Japanese to Altaic, while [[András Róna-Tas]] remarked that a relationship between Altaic and Japanese, if it ever existed, must be more remote than the relationship of any two of the Indo-European languages. Ramsey stated that "the genetic relationship between Korean and Japanese, if it in fact exists, is probably more complex and distant than we can imagine on the basis of our present state of knowledge". Supporters of the Altaic hypothesis formerly set the date of the Proto-Altaic language at around 4000 BC, but today at around 5000 BC or 6000 BC. This would make Altaic a language family about as old as [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] (around 3000 to 7000 BC according to several hypotheses) but considerably younger than [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] (c. 10,000 BC or 11,000 to 16,000 BC according to different sources).

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