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Question: How much taxes does one no capital did Danish law require to start a company ?
context: In regard to companies , the Court of Justice held in R ( Daily Mail and General Trust plc ) v HM Treasury that member states could restrict a company moving its seat of business , without infringing TFEU article 49 . This meant the Daily Mail newspaper ' s parent company could not evade tax by shifting its residence to the Netherlands without first settling its tax bills in the UK . The UK did not need to justify its action , as rules on company seats were not yet harmonised . By contrast , in Centros Ltd v Erhversus - og Selkabssyrelsen the Court of Justice found that a UK limited company operating in Denmark could not be required to comply with Denmark ' s minimum share capital rules . UK law only required £ 1 of capital to start a company , while Denmark ' s legislature took the view companies should only be started up if they had 200 , 000 Danish krone ( around € 27 , 000 ) to protect creditors if the company failed and went insolvent . The Court of Justice held that Denmark ' s minimum capital law infringed Centros Ltd ' s freedom of establishment and could not be justified , because a company in the UK could admittedly provide services in Denmark without being established there , and there were less restrictive means of achieving the aim of creditor protection . This approach was criticised as potentially opening the EU to unjustified regulatory competition , and a race to the bottom in standards , like in the US where the state Delaware attracts most companies and is often argued to have the worst standards of accountability of boards , and low corporate taxes as a result . Similarly in Überseering BV v Nordic Construction GmbH the Court of Justice held that a German court could not deny a Dutch building company the right to enforce a contract in Germany on the basis that it was not validly incorporated in Germany . Although restrictions on freedom of establishment could be justified by creditor protection , labour rights to participate in work , or the public interest in collecting taxes , denial of capacity went too far : it was an " outright negation " of the right of establishment . However , in Cartesio Oktató és Szolgáltató bt the Court of Justice affirmed again that because corporations are created by law , they are in principle subject to any rules for formation that a state of incorporation wishes to impose . This meant that the Hungarian authorities could prevent a company from shifting its central administration to Italy while it still operated and was incorporated in Hungary . Thus , the court draws a distinction between the right of establishment for foreign companies ( where restrictions must be justified ) , and the right of the state to determine conditions for companies incorporated in its territory , although it is not entirely clear why .
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] |
Question: What could criticise or uh sorry justify restrictions on freedom of establishment ?
context: In regard to companies , the Court of Justice held in R ( Daily Mail and General Trust plc ) v HM Treasury that member states could restrict a company moving its seat of business , without infringing TFEU article 49 . This meant the Daily Mail newspaper ' s parent company could not evade tax by shifting its residence to the Netherlands without first settling its tax bills in the UK . The UK did not need to justify its action , as rules on company seats were not yet harmonised . By contrast , in Centros Ltd v Erhversus - og Selkabssyrelsen the Court of Justice found that a UK limited company operating in Denmark could not be required to comply with Denmark ' s minimum share capital rules . UK law only required £ 1 of capital to start a company , while Denmark ' s legislature took the view companies should only be started up if they had 200 , 000 Danish krone ( around € 27 , 000 ) to protect creditors if the company failed and went insolvent . The Court of Justice held that Denmark ' s minimum capital law infringed Centros Ltd ' s freedom of establishment and could not be justified , because a company in the UK could admittedly provide services in Denmark without being established there , and there were less restrictive means of achieving the aim of creditor protection . This approach was criticised as potentially opening the EU to unjustified regulatory competition , and a race to the bottom in standards , like in the US where the state Delaware attracts most companies and is often argued to have the worst standards of accountability of boards , and low corporate taxes as a result . Similarly in Überseering BV v Nordic Construction GmbH the Court of Justice held that a German court could not deny a Dutch building company the right to enforce a contract in Germany on the basis that it was not validly incorporated in Germany . Although restrictions on freedom of establishment could be justified by creditor protection , labour rights to participate in work , or the public interest in collecting taxes , denial of capacity went too far : it was an " outright negation " of the right of establishment . However , in Cartesio Oktató és Szolgáltató bt the Court of Justice affirmed again that because corporations are created by law , they are in principle subject to any rules for formation that a state of incorporation wishes to impose . This meant that the Hungarian authorities could prevent a company from shifting its central administration to Italy while it still operated and was incorporated in Hungary . Thus , the court draws a distinction between the right of establishment for foreign companies ( where restrictions must be justified ) , and the right of the state to determine conditions for companies incorporated in its territory , although it is not entirely clear why .
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3,
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]
] |
Question: How much capital did Danish law require to start a company no not Danish but UK law ?
context: In regard to companies , the Court of Justice held in R ( Daily Mail and General Trust plc ) v HM Treasury that member states could restrict a company moving its seat of business , without infringing TFEU article 49 . This meant the Daily Mail newspaper ' s parent company could not evade tax by shifting its residence to the Netherlands without first settling its tax bills in the UK . The UK did not need to justify its action , as rules on company seats were not yet harmonised . By contrast , in Centros Ltd v Erhversus - og Selkabssyrelsen the Court of Justice found that a UK limited company operating in Denmark could not be required to comply with Denmark ' s minimum share capital rules . UK law only required £ 1 of capital to start a company , while Denmark ' s legislature took the view companies should only be started up if they had 200 , 000 Danish krone ( around € 27 , 000 ) to protect creditors if the company failed and went insolvent . The Court of Justice held that Denmark ' s minimum capital law infringed Centros Ltd ' s freedom of establishment and could not be justified , because a company in the UK could admittedly provide services in Denmark without being established there , and there were less restrictive means of achieving the aim of creditor protection . This approach was criticised as potentially opening the EU to unjustified regulatory competition , and a race to the bottom in standards , like in the US where the state Delaware attracts most companies and is often argued to have the worst standards of accountability of boards , and low corporate taxes as a result . Similarly in Überseering BV v Nordic Construction GmbH the Court of Justice held that a German court could not deny a Dutch building company the right to enforce a contract in Germany on the basis that it was not validly incorporated in Germany . Although restrictions on freedom of establishment could be justified by creditor protection , labour rights to participate in work , or the public interest in collecting taxes , denial of capacity went too far : it was an " outright negation " of the right of establishment . However , in Cartesio Oktató és Szolgáltató bt the Court of Justice affirmed again that because corporations are created by law , they are in principle subject to any rules for formation that a state of incorporation wishes to impose . This meant that the Hungarian authorities could prevent a company from shifting its central administration to Italy while it still operated and was incorporated in Hungary . Thus , the court draws a distinction between the right of establishment for foreign companies ( where restrictions must be justified ) , and the right of the state to determine conditions for companies incorporated in its territory , although it is not entirely clear why .
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] |
Question: Why did the UK not have to justify its actions no sorry why did they have to justify them ?
context: In regard to companies , the Court of Justice held in R ( Daily Mail and General Trust plc ) v HM Treasury that member states could restrict a company moving its seat of business , without infringing TFEU article 49 . This meant the Daily Mail newspaper ' s parent company could not evade tax by shifting its residence to the Netherlands without first settling its tax bills in the UK . The UK did not need to justify its action , as rules on company seats were not yet harmonised . By contrast , in Centros Ltd v Erhversus - og Selkabssyrelsen the Court of Justice found that a UK limited company operating in Denmark could not be required to comply with Denmark ' s minimum share capital rules . UK law only required £ 1 of capital to start a company , while Denmark ' s legislature took the view companies should only be started up if they had 200 , 000 Danish krone ( around € 27 , 000 ) to protect creditors if the company failed and went insolvent . The Court of Justice held that Denmark ' s minimum capital law infringed Centros Ltd ' s freedom of establishment and could not be justified , because a company in the UK could admittedly provide services in Denmark without being established there , and there were less restrictive means of achieving the aim of creditor protection . This approach was criticised as potentially opening the EU to unjustified regulatory competition , and a race to the bottom in standards , like in the US where the state Delaware attracts most companies and is often argued to have the worst standards of accountability of boards , and low corporate taxes as a result . Similarly in Überseering BV v Nordic Construction GmbH the Court of Justice held that a German court could not deny a Dutch building company the right to enforce a contract in Germany on the basis that it was not validly incorporated in Germany . Although restrictions on freedom of establishment could be justified by creditor protection , labour rights to participate in work , or the public interest in collecting taxes , denial of capacity went too far : it was an " outright negation " of the right of establishment . However , in Cartesio Oktató és Szolgáltató bt the Court of Justice affirmed again that because corporations are created by law , they are in principle subject to any rules for formation that a state of incorporation wishes to impose . This meant that the Hungarian authorities could prevent a company from shifting its central administration to Italy while it still operated and was incorporated in Hungary . Thus , the court draws a distinction between the right of establishment for foreign companies ( where restrictions must be justified ) , and the right of the state to determine conditions for companies incorporated in its territory , although it is not entirely clear why .
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] |
Question: Which newspaper ' s parent company could evade no sorry could not evade tax by shifting its residence to the Netherlands ?
context: In regard to companies , the Court of Justice held in R ( Daily Mail and General Trust plc ) v HM Treasury that member states could restrict a company moving its seat of business , without infringing TFEU article 49 . This meant the Daily Mail newspaper ' s parent company could not evade tax by shifting its residence to the Netherlands without first settling its tax bills in the UK . The UK did not need to justify its action , as rules on company seats were not yet harmonised . By contrast , in Centros Ltd v Erhversus - og Selkabssyrelsen the Court of Justice found that a UK limited company operating in Denmark could not be required to comply with Denmark ' s minimum share capital rules . UK law only required £ 1 of capital to start a company , while Denmark ' s legislature took the view companies should only be started up if they had 200 , 000 Danish krone ( around € 27 , 000 ) to protect creditors if the company failed and went insolvent . The Court of Justice held that Denmark ' s minimum capital law infringed Centros Ltd ' s freedom of establishment and could not be justified , because a company in the UK could admittedly provide services in Denmark without being established there , and there were less restrictive means of achieving the aim of creditor protection . This approach was criticised as potentially opening the EU to unjustified regulatory competition , and a race to the bottom in standards , like in the US where the state Delaware attracts most companies and is often argued to have the worst standards of accountability of boards , and low corporate taxes as a result . Similarly in Überseering BV v Nordic Construction GmbH the Court of Justice held that a German court could not deny a Dutch building company the right to enforce a contract in Germany on the basis that it was not validly incorporated in Germany . Although restrictions on freedom of establishment could be justified by creditor protection , labour rights to participate in work , or the public interest in collecting taxes , denial of capacity went too far : it was an " outright negation " of the right of establishment . However , in Cartesio Oktató és Szolgáltató bt the Court of Justice affirmed again that because corporations are created by law , they are in principle subject to any rules for formation that a state of incorporation wishes to impose . This meant that the Hungarian authorities could prevent a company from shifting its central administration to Italy while it still operated and was incorporated in Hungary . Thus , the court draws a distinction between the right of establishment for foreign companies ( where restrictions must be justified ) , and the right of the state to determine conditions for companies incorporated in its territory , although it is not entirely clear why .
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] |
Question: When no wait if there is a conflict between EU law and national law , which law take precedence ?
context: Since its founding , the EU has operated among an increasing plurality of national and globalising legal systems . This has meant both the European Court of Justice and the highest national courts have had to develop principles to resolve conflicts of laws between different systems . Within the EU itself , the Court of Justice ' s view is that if EU law conflicts with a provision of national law , then EU law has primacy . In the first major case in 1964 , Costa v ENEL , a Milanese lawyer , and former shareholder of an energy company , named Mr Costa refused to pay his electricity bill to Enel , as a protest against the nationalisation of the Italian energy corporations . He claimed the Italian nationalisation law conflicted with the Treaty of Rome , and requested a reference be made to both the Italian Constitutional Court and the Court of Justice under TFEU article 267 . The Italian Constitutional Court gave an opinion that because the nationalisation law was from 1962 , and the treaty was in force from 1958 , Costa had no claim . By contrast , the Court of Justice held that ultimately the Treaty of Rome in no way prevented energy nationalisation , and in any case under the Treaty provisions only the Commission could have brought a claim , not Mr Costa . However , in principle , Mr Costa was entitled to plead that the Treaty conflicted with national law , and the court would have a duty to consider his claim to make a reference if there would be no appeal against its decision . The Court of Justice , repeating its view in Van Gend en Loos , said member states " albeit within limited spheres , have restricted their sovereign rights and created a body of law applicable both to their nationals and to themselves " on the " basis of reciprocity " . EU law would not " be overridden by domestic legal provisions , however framed . . . without the legal basis of the community itself being called into question . " This meant any " subsequent unilateral act " of the member state inapplicable . Similarly , in Amministrazione delle Finanze v Simmenthal SpA , a company , Simmenthal SpA , claimed that a public health inspection fee under an Italian law of 1970 for importing beef from France to Italy was contrary to two Regulations from 1964 and 1968 . In " accordance with the principle of the precedence of Community law , " said the Court of Justice , the " directly applicable measures of the institutions " ( such as the Regulations in the case ) " render automatically inapplicable any conflicting provision of current national law " . This was necessary to prevent a " corresponding denial " of Treaty " obligations undertaken unconditionally and irrevocably by member states " , that could " imperil the very foundations of the " EU . But despite the views of the Court of Justice , the national courts of member states have not accepted the same analysis .
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13
],
[
17,
10,
28
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[
15,
18,
3
],
[
4,
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31
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[
30,
7,
18
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19,
22,
20
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],
[
[
7,
9,
24
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22
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3,
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26
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] |
Question: What court I mean which court did not argue that the Treaty of Rome did not prevent energy nationalism ?
context: Since its founding , the EU has operated among an increasing plurality of national and globalising legal systems . This has meant both the European Court of Justice and the highest national courts have had to develop principles to resolve conflicts of laws between different systems . Within the EU itself , the Court of Justice ' s view is that if EU law conflicts with a provision of national law , then EU law has primacy . In the first major case in 1964 , Costa v ENEL , a Milanese lawyer , and former shareholder of an energy company , named Mr Costa refused to pay his electricity bill to Enel , as a protest against the nationalisation of the Italian energy corporations . He claimed the Italian nationalisation law conflicted with the Treaty of Rome , and requested a reference be made to both the Italian Constitutional Court and the Court of Justice under TFEU article 267 . The Italian Constitutional Court gave an opinion that because the nationalisation law was from 1962 , and the treaty was in force from 1958 , Costa had no claim . By contrast , the Court of Justice held that ultimately the Treaty of Rome in no way prevented energy nationalisation , and in any case under the Treaty provisions only the Commission could have brought a claim , not Mr Costa . However , in principle , Mr Costa was entitled to plead that the Treaty conflicted with national law , and the court would have a duty to consider his claim to make a reference if there would be no appeal against its decision . The Court of Justice , repeating its view in Van Gend en Loos , said member states " albeit within limited spheres , have restricted their sovereign rights and created a body of law applicable both to their nationals and to themselves " on the " basis of reciprocity " . EU law would not " be overridden by domestic legal provisions , however framed . . . without the legal basis of the community itself being called into question . " This meant any " subsequent unilateral act " of the member state inapplicable . Similarly , in Amministrazione delle Finanze v Simmenthal SpA , a company , Simmenthal SpA , claimed that a public health inspection fee under an Italian law of 1970 for importing beef from France to Italy was contrary to two Regulations from 1964 and 1968 . In " accordance with the principle of the precedence of Community law , " said the Court of Justice , the " directly applicable measures of the institutions " ( such as the Regulations in the case ) " render automatically inapplicable any conflicting provision of current national law " . This was necessary to prevent a " corresponding denial " of Treaty " obligations undertaken unconditionally and irrevocably by member states " , that could " imperil the very foundations of the " EU . But despite the views of the Court of Justice , the national courts of member states have not accepted the same analysis .
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Question: In which case did the Court of Justice hold that a German court couldn ' t deny a Dutch building company the right to enforce a contract based in the Netherlands no no sorry based in Germany ?
context: In regard to companies , the Court of Justice held in R ( Daily Mail and General Trust plc ) v HM Treasury that member states could restrict a company moving its seat of business , without infringing TFEU article 49 . This meant the Daily Mail newspaper ' s parent company could not evade tax by shifting its residence to the Netherlands without first settling its tax bills in the UK . The UK did not need to justify its action , as rules on company seats were not yet harmonised . By contrast , in Centros Ltd v Erhversus - og Selkabssyrelsen the Court of Justice found that a UK limited company operating in Denmark could not be required to comply with Denmark ' s minimum share capital rules . UK law only required £ 1 of capital to start a company , while Denmark ' s legislature took the view companies should only be started up if they had 200 , 000 Danish krone ( around € 27 , 000 ) to protect creditors if the company failed and went insolvent . The Court of Justice held that Denmark ' s minimum capital law infringed Centros Ltd ' s freedom of establishment and could not be justified , because a company in the UK could admittedly provide services in Denmark without being established there , and there were less restrictive means of achieving the aim of creditor protection . This approach was criticised as potentially opening the EU to unjustified regulatory competition , and a race to the bottom in standards , like in the US where the state Delaware attracts most companies and is often argued to have the worst standards of accountability of boards , and low corporate taxes as a result . Similarly in Überseering BV v Nordic Construction GmbH the Court of Justice held that a German court could not deny a Dutch building company the right to enforce a contract in Germany on the basis that it was not validly incorporated in Germany . Although restrictions on freedom of establishment could be justified by creditor protection , labour rights to participate in work , or the public interest in collecting taxes , denial of capacity went too far : it was an " outright negation " of the right of establishment . However , in Cartesio Oktató és Szolgáltató bt the Court of Justice affirmed again that because corporations are created by law , they are in principle subject to any rules for formation that a state of incorporation wishes to impose . This meant that the Hungarian authorities could prevent a company from shifting its central administration to Italy while it still operated and was incorporated in Hungary . Thus , the court draws a distinction between the right of establishment for foreign companies ( where restrictions must be justified ) , and the right of the state to determine conditions for companies incorporated in its territory , although it is not entirely clear why .
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Question: When was no what were the years two Regulations that conflicted with an Italian law originate in the Simmenthal SpA case ?
context: Since its founding , the EU has operated among an increasing plurality of national and globalising legal systems . This has meant both the European Court of Justice and the highest national courts have had to develop principles to resolve conflicts of laws between different systems . Within the EU itself , the Court of Justice ' s view is that if EU law conflicts with a provision of national law , then EU law has primacy . In the first major case in 1964 , Costa v ENEL , a Milanese lawyer , and former shareholder of an energy company , named Mr Costa refused to pay his electricity bill to Enel , as a protest against the nationalisation of the Italian energy corporations . He claimed the Italian nationalisation law conflicted with the Treaty of Rome , and requested a reference be made to both the Italian Constitutional Court and the Court of Justice under TFEU article 267 . The Italian Constitutional Court gave an opinion that because the nationalisation law was from 1962 , and the treaty was in force from 1958 , Costa had no claim . By contrast , the Court of Justice held that ultimately the Treaty of Rome in no way prevented energy nationalisation , and in any case under the Treaty provisions only the Commission could have brought a claim , not Mr Costa . However , in principle , Mr Costa was entitled to plead that the Treaty conflicted with national law , and the court would have a duty to consider his claim to make a reference if there would be no appeal against its decision . The Court of Justice , repeating its view in Van Gend en Loos , said member states " albeit within limited spheres , have restricted their sovereign rights and created a body of law applicable both to their nationals and to themselves " on the " basis of reciprocity " . EU law would not " be overridden by domestic legal provisions , however framed . . . without the legal basis of the community itself being called into question . " This meant any " subsequent unilateral act " of the member state inapplicable . Similarly , in Amministrazione delle Finanze v Simmenthal SpA , a company , Simmenthal SpA , claimed that a public health inspection fee under an Italian law of 1970 for importing beef from France to Italy was contrary to two Regulations from 1964 and 1968 . In " accordance with the principle of the precedence of Community law , " said the Court of Justice , the " directly applicable measures of the institutions " ( such as the Regulations in the case ) " render automatically inapplicable any conflicting provision of current national law " . This was necessary to prevent a " corresponding denial " of Treaty " obligations undertaken unconditionally and irrevocably by member states " , that could " imperil the very foundations of the " EU . But despite the views of the Court of Justice , the national courts of member states have not accepted the same analysis .
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[
30,
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22
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[
19,
22,
5
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[
[
30,
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[
24,
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0
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[
2,
31,
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[
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3
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12,
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31,
25,
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3,
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15,
12,
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4,
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[
30,
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19,
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[
[
30,
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12,
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7,
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] |
Question: Which provision sorry entities have had to develop principles dedicated to conflict resolution between laws of different systems ?
context: Since its founding , the EU has operated among an increasing plurality of national and globalising legal systems . This has meant both the European Court of Justice and the highest national courts have had to develop principles to resolve conflicts of laws between different systems . Within the EU itself , the Court of Justice ' s view is that if EU law conflicts with a provision of national law , then EU law has primacy . In the first major case in 1964 , Costa v ENEL , a Milanese lawyer , and former shareholder of an energy company , named Mr Costa refused to pay his electricity bill to Enel , as a protest against the nationalisation of the Italian energy corporations . He claimed the Italian nationalisation law conflicted with the Treaty of Rome , and requested a reference be made to both the Italian Constitutional Court and the Court of Justice under TFEU article 267 . The Italian Constitutional Court gave an opinion that because the nationalisation law was from 1962 , and the treaty was in force from 1958 , Costa had no claim . By contrast , the Court of Justice held that ultimately the Treaty of Rome in no way prevented energy nationalisation , and in any case under the Treaty provisions only the Commission could have brought a claim , not Mr Costa . However , in principle , Mr Costa was entitled to plead that the Treaty conflicted with national law , and the court would have a duty to consider his claim to make a reference if there would be no appeal against its decision . The Court of Justice , repeating its view in Van Gend en Loos , said member states " albeit within limited spheres , have restricted their sovereign rights and created a body of law applicable both to their nationals and to themselves " on the " basis of reciprocity " . EU law would not " be overridden by domestic legal provisions , however framed . . . without the legal basis of the community itself being called into question . " This meant any " subsequent unilateral act " of the member state inapplicable . Similarly , in Amministrazione delle Finanze v Simmenthal SpA , a company , Simmenthal SpA , claimed that a public health inspection fee under an Italian law of 1970 for importing beef from France to Italy was contrary to two Regulations from 1964 and 1968 . In " accordance with the principle of the precedence of Community law , " said the Court of Justice , the " directly applicable measures of the institutions " ( such as the Regulations in the case ) " render automatically inapplicable any conflicting provision of current national law " . This was necessary to prevent a " corresponding denial " of Treaty " obligations undertaken unconditionally and irrevocably by member states " , that could " imperil the very foundations of the " EU . But despite the views of the Court of Justice , the national courts of member states have not accepted the same analysis .
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Question: when was no what was the reason the Italian Constitutional court gave that resulted in Mr . Costa losing his his claim against ENEL ?
context: Since its founding , the EU has operated among an increasing plurality of national and globalising legal systems . This has meant both the European Court of Justice and the highest national courts have had to develop principles to resolve conflicts of laws between different systems . Within the EU itself , the Court of Justice ' s view is that if EU law conflicts with a provision of national law , then EU law has primacy . In the first major case in 1964 , Costa v ENEL , a Milanese lawyer , and former shareholder of an energy company , named Mr Costa refused to pay his electricity bill to Enel , as a protest against the nationalisation of the Italian energy corporations . He claimed the Italian nationalisation law conflicted with the Treaty of Rome , and requested a reference be made to both the Italian Constitutional Court and the Court of Justice under TFEU article 267 . The Italian Constitutional Court gave an opinion that because the nationalisation law was from 1962 , and the treaty was in force from 1958 , Costa had no claim . By contrast , the Court of Justice held that ultimately the Treaty of Rome in no way prevented energy nationalisation , and in any case under the Treaty provisions only the Commission could have brought a claim , not Mr Costa . However , in principle , Mr Costa was entitled to plead that the Treaty conflicted with national law , and the court would have a duty to consider his claim to make a reference if there would be no appeal against its decision . The Court of Justice , repeating its view in Van Gend en Loos , said member states " albeit within limited spheres , have restricted their sovereign rights and created a body of law applicable both to their nationals and to themselves " on the " basis of reciprocity " . EU law would not " be overridden by domestic legal provisions , however framed . . . without the legal basis of the community itself being called into question . " This meant any " subsequent unilateral act " of the member state inapplicable . Similarly , in Amministrazione delle Finanze v Simmenthal SpA , a company , Simmenthal SpA , claimed that a public health inspection fee under an Italian law of 1970 for importing beef from France to Italy was contrary to two Regulations from 1964 and 1968 . In " accordance with the principle of the precedence of Community law , " said the Court of Justice , the " directly applicable measures of the institutions " ( such as the Regulations in the case ) " render automatically inapplicable any conflicting provision of current national law " . This was necessary to prevent a " corresponding denial " of Treaty " obligations undertaken unconditionally and irrevocably by member states " , that could " imperil the very foundations of the " EU . But despite the views of the Court of Justice , the national courts of member states have not accepted the same analysis .
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Question: All french no Italian chocolate is made from what alone ?
context: Often rules apply to all goods neutrally , but may have a greater practical effect on imports than domestic products . For such " indirect " discriminatory ( or " indistinctly applicable " ) measures the Court of Justice has developed more justifications : either those in article 36 , or additional " mandatory " or " overriding " requirements such as consumer protection , improving labour standards , protecting the environment , press diversity , fairness in commerce , and more : the categories are not closed . In the most famous case Rewe - Zentral AG v Bundesmonopol für Branntwein , the Court of Justice found that a German law requiring all spirits and liqueurs ( not just imported ones ) to have a minimum alcohol content of 25 per cent was contrary to TFEU article 34 , because it had a greater negative effect on imports . German liqueurs were over 25 per cent alcohol , but Cassis de Dijon , which Rewe - Zentrale AG wished to import from France , only had 15 to 20 per cent alcohol . The Court of Justice rejected the German government ' s arguments that the measure proportionately protected public health under TFEU article 36 , because stronger beverages were available and adequate labelling would be enough for consumers to understand what they bought . This rule primarily applies to requirements about a product ' s content or packaging . In Walter Rau Lebensmittelwerke v De Smedt PVBA the Court of Justice found that a Belgian law requiring all margarine to be in cube shaped packages infringed article 34 , and was not justified by the pursuit of consumer protection . The argument that Belgians would believe it was butter if it was not cube shaped was disproportionate : it would " considerably exceed the requirements of the object in view " and labelling would protect consumers " just as effectively " . In a 2003 case , Commission v Italy Italian law required that cocoa products that included other vegetable fats could not be labelled as " chocolate " . It had to be " chocolate substitute " . All Italian chocolate was made from cocoa butter alone , but British , Danish and Irish manufacturers used other vegetable fats . They claimed the law infringed article 34 . The Court of Justice held that a low content of vegetable fat did not justify a " chocolate substitute " label . This was derogatory in the consumers ' eyes . A ‘ neutral and objective statement ’ was enough to protect consumers . If member states place considerable obstacles on the use of a product , this can also infringe article 34 . So , in a 2009 case , Commission v Italy , the Court of Justice held that an Italian law prohibiting motorcycles or mopeds pulling trailers infringed article 34 . Again , the law applied neutrally to everyone , but disproportionately affected importers , because Italian companies did not make trailers . This was not a product requirement , but the Court reasoned that the prohibition would deter people from buying it : it would have " a considerable influence on the behaviour of consumers " that " affects the access of that product to the market " . It would require justification under article 36 , or as a mandatory requirement .
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Question: What is the , uh actually , which country did Rewe - Zentrale AG not wish to import from ?
context: Often rules apply to all goods neutrally , but may have a greater practical effect on imports than domestic products . For such " indirect " discriminatory ( or " indistinctly applicable " ) measures the Court of Justice has developed more justifications : either those in article 36 , or additional " mandatory " or " overriding " requirements such as consumer protection , improving labour standards , protecting the environment , press diversity , fairness in commerce , and more : the categories are not closed . In the most famous case Rewe - Zentral AG v Bundesmonopol für Branntwein , the Court of Justice found that a German law requiring all spirits and liqueurs ( not just imported ones ) to have a minimum alcohol content of 25 per cent was contrary to TFEU article 34 , because it had a greater negative effect on imports . German liqueurs were over 25 per cent alcohol , but Cassis de Dijon , which Rewe - Zentrale AG wished to import from France , only had 15 to 20 per cent alcohol . The Court of Justice rejected the German government ' s arguments that the measure proportionately protected public health under TFEU article 36 , because stronger beverages were available and adequate labelling would be enough for consumers to understand what they bought . This rule primarily applies to requirements about a product ' s content or packaging . In Walter Rau Lebensmittelwerke v De Smedt PVBA the Court of Justice found that a Belgian law requiring all margarine to be in cube shaped packages infringed article 34 , and was not justified by the pursuit of consumer protection . The argument that Belgians would believe it was butter if it was not cube shaped was disproportionate : it would " considerably exceed the requirements of the object in view " and labelling would protect consumers " just as effectively " . In a 2003 case , Commission v Italy Italian law required that cocoa products that included other vegetable fats could not be labelled as " chocolate " . It had to be " chocolate substitute " . All Italian chocolate was made from cocoa butter alone , but British , Danish and Irish manufacturers used other vegetable fats . They claimed the law infringed article 34 . The Court of Justice held that a low content of vegetable fat did not justify a " chocolate substitute " label . This was derogatory in the consumers ' eyes . A ‘ neutral and objective statement ’ was enough to protect consumers . If member states place considerable obstacles on the use of a product , this can also infringe article 34 . So , in a 2009 case , Commission v Italy , the Court of Justice held that an Italian law prohibiting motorcycles or mopeds pulling trailers infringed article 34 . Again , the law applied neutrally to everyone , but disproportionately affected importers , because Italian companies did not make trailers . This was not a product requirement , but the Court reasoned that the prohibition would deter people from buying it : it would have " a considerable influence on the behaviour of consumers " that " affects the access of that product to the market " . It would require justification under article 36 , or as a mandatory requirement .
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Question: Which country did Rewe - Zentrale AG not want to import from no rather which country did they want to import from ?
context: Often rules apply to all goods neutrally , but may have a greater practical effect on imports than domestic products . For such " indirect " discriminatory ( or " indistinctly applicable " ) measures the Court of Justice has developed more justifications : either those in article 36 , or additional " mandatory " or " overriding " requirements such as consumer protection , improving labour standards , protecting the environment , press diversity , fairness in commerce , and more : the categories are not closed . In the most famous case Rewe - Zentral AG v Bundesmonopol für Branntwein , the Court of Justice found that a German law requiring all spirits and liqueurs ( not just imported ones ) to have a minimum alcohol content of 25 per cent was contrary to TFEU article 34 , because it had a greater negative effect on imports . German liqueurs were over 25 per cent alcohol , but Cassis de Dijon , which Rewe - Zentrale AG wished to import from France , only had 15 to 20 per cent alcohol . The Court of Justice rejected the German government ' s arguments that the measure proportionately protected public health under TFEU article 36 , because stronger beverages were available and adequate labelling would be enough for consumers to understand what they bought . This rule primarily applies to requirements about a product ' s content or packaging . In Walter Rau Lebensmittelwerke v De Smedt PVBA the Court of Justice found that a Belgian law requiring all margarine to be in cube shaped packages infringed article 34 , and was not justified by the pursuit of consumer protection . The argument that Belgians would believe it was butter if it was not cube shaped was disproportionate : it would " considerably exceed the requirements of the object in view " and labelling would protect consumers " just as effectively " . In a 2003 case , Commission v Italy Italian law required that cocoa products that included other vegetable fats could not be labelled as " chocolate " . It had to be " chocolate substitute " . All Italian chocolate was made from cocoa butter alone , but British , Danish and Irish manufacturers used other vegetable fats . They claimed the law infringed article 34 . The Court of Justice held that a low content of vegetable fat did not justify a " chocolate substitute " label . This was derogatory in the consumers ' eyes . A ‘ neutral and objective statement ’ was enough to protect consumers . If member states place considerable obstacles on the use of a product , this can also infringe article 34 . So , in a 2009 case , Commission v Italy , the Court of Justice held that an Italian law prohibiting motorcycles or mopeds pulling trailers infringed article 34 . Again , the law applied neutrally to everyone , but disproportionately affected importers , because Italian companies did not make trailers . This was not a product requirement , but the Court reasoned that the prohibition would deter people from buying it : it would have " a considerable influence on the behaviour of consumers " that " affects the access of that product to the market " . It would require justification under article 36 , or as a mandatory requirement .
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27,
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[
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[
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[
[
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[
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17,
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[
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1
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[
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5
],
[
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0,
23
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[
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10,
4
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[
[
5,
9,
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[
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[
0,
14,
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[
16,
15,
26
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[
1,
17,
18
],
[
12,
8,
14
]
]
] |
Question: What was least excuse me the maximum percent of alcohol content a German law requires all spirits and liqueurs to have ?
context: Often rules apply to all goods neutrally , but may have a greater practical effect on imports than domestic products . For such " indirect " discriminatory ( or " indistinctly applicable " ) measures the Court of Justice has developed more justifications : either those in article 36 , or additional " mandatory " or " overriding " requirements such as consumer protection , improving labour standards , protecting the environment , press diversity , fairness in commerce , and more : the categories are not closed . In the most famous case Rewe - Zentral AG v Bundesmonopol für Branntwein , the Court of Justice found that a German law requiring all spirits and liqueurs ( not just imported ones ) to have a minimum alcohol content of 25 per cent was contrary to TFEU article 34 , because it had a greater negative effect on imports . German liqueurs were over 25 per cent alcohol , but Cassis de Dijon , which Rewe - Zentrale AG wished to import from France , only had 15 to 20 per cent alcohol . The Court of Justice rejected the German government ' s arguments that the measure proportionately protected public health under TFEU article 36 , because stronger beverages were available and adequate labelling would be enough for consumers to understand what they bought . This rule primarily applies to requirements about a product ' s content or packaging . In Walter Rau Lebensmittelwerke v De Smedt PVBA the Court of Justice found that a Belgian law requiring all margarine to be in cube shaped packages infringed article 34 , and was not justified by the pursuit of consumer protection . The argument that Belgians would believe it was butter if it was not cube shaped was disproportionate : it would " considerably exceed the requirements of the object in view " and labelling would protect consumers " just as effectively " . In a 2003 case , Commission v Italy Italian law required that cocoa products that included other vegetable fats could not be labelled as " chocolate " . It had to be " chocolate substitute " . All Italian chocolate was made from cocoa butter alone , but British , Danish and Irish manufacturers used other vegetable fats . They claimed the law infringed article 34 . The Court of Justice held that a low content of vegetable fat did not justify a " chocolate substitute " label . This was derogatory in the consumers ' eyes . A ‘ neutral and objective statement ’ was enough to protect consumers . If member states place considerable obstacles on the use of a product , this can also infringe article 34 . So , in a 2009 case , Commission v Italy , the Court of Justice held that an Italian law prohibiting motorcycles or mopeds pulling trailers infringed article 34 . Again , the law applied neutrally to everyone , but disproportionately affected importers , because Italian companies did not make trailers . This was not a product requirement , but the Court reasoned that the prohibition would deter people from buying it : it would have " a considerable influence on the behaviour of consumers " that " affects the access of that product to the market " . It would require justification under article 36 , or as a mandatory requirement .
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Question: What does not held er help the free movement of goods ?
context: Free movement of goods within the European Union is achieved by a customs union , and the principle of non - discrimination . The EU manages imports from non - member states , duties between member states are prohibited , and imports circulate freely . In addition under the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union article 34 , ‘ Quantitative restrictions on imports and all measures having equivalent effect shall be prohibited between Member States ’ . In Procureur du Roi v Dassonville the Court of Justice held that this rule meant all " trading rules " that are " enacted by Member States " which could hinder trade " directly or indirectly , actually or potentially " would be caught by article 34 . This meant that a Belgian law requiring Scotch whisky imports to have a certificate of origin was unlikely to be lawful . It discriminated against parallel importers like Mr Dassonville , who could not get certificates from authorities in France , where they bought the Scotch . This " wide test " , to determine what could potentially be an unlawful restriction on trade , applies equally to actions by quasi - government bodies , such as the former " Buy Irish " company that had government appointees . It also means states can be responsible for private actors . For instance , in Commission v France French farmer vigilantes were continually sabotaging shipments of Spanish strawberries , and even Belgian tomato imports . France was liable for these hindrances to trade because the authorities ‘ manifestly and persistently abstained ' from preventing the sabotage . Generally speaking , if a member state has laws or practices that directly discriminate against imports ( or exports under TFEU article 35 ) then it must be justified under article 36 . The justifications include public morality , policy or security , " protection of health and life of humans , animals or plants " , " national treasures " of " artistic , historic or archaeological value " and " industrial and commercial property . " In addition , although not clearly listed , environmental protection can justify restrictions on trade as an overriding requirement derived from TFEU article 11 . More generally , it has been increasingly acknowledged that fundamental human rights should take priority over all trade rules . So , in Schmidberger v Austria the Court of Justice held that Austria did not infringe article 34 by failing to ban a protest that blocked heavy traffic passing over the A13 , Brenner Autobahn , en route to Italy . Although many companies , including Mr Schmidberger ' s German undertaking , were prevented from trading , the Court of Justice reasoned that freedom of association is one of the ‘ fundamental pillars of a democratic society ’ , against which the free movement of goods had to be balanced , and was probably subordinate . If a member state does appeal to the article 36 justification , the measures it takes have to be applied proportionately . This means the rule must be pursue a legitimate aim and ( 1 ) be suitable to achieve the aim , ( 2 ) be necessary , so that a less restrictive measure could not achieve the same result , and ( 3 ) be reasonable in balancing the interests of free trade with interests in article 36 .
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Question: Article 33 meant states could be responsible for what no sorry 34 ?
context: Free movement of goods within the European Union is achieved by a customs union , and the principle of non - discrimination . The EU manages imports from non - member states , duties between member states are prohibited , and imports circulate freely . In addition under the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union article 34 , ‘ Quantitative restrictions on imports and all measures having equivalent effect shall be prohibited between Member States ’ . In Procureur du Roi v Dassonville the Court of Justice held that this rule meant all " trading rules " that are " enacted by Member States " which could hinder trade " directly or indirectly , actually or potentially " would be caught by article 34 . This meant that a Belgian law requiring Scotch whisky imports to have a certificate of origin was unlikely to be lawful . It discriminated against parallel importers like Mr Dassonville , who could not get certificates from authorities in France , where they bought the Scotch . This " wide test " , to determine what could potentially be an unlawful restriction on trade , applies equally to actions by quasi - government bodies , such as the former " Buy Irish " company that had government appointees . It also means states can be responsible for private actors . For instance , in Commission v France French farmer vigilantes were continually sabotaging shipments of Spanish strawberries , and even Belgian tomato imports . France was liable for these hindrances to trade because the authorities ‘ manifestly and persistently abstained ' from preventing the sabotage . Generally speaking , if a member state has laws or practices that directly discriminate against imports ( or exports under TFEU article 35 ) then it must be justified under article 36 . The justifications include public morality , policy or security , " protection of health and life of humans , animals or plants " , " national treasures " of " artistic , historic or archaeological value " and " industrial and commercial property . " In addition , although not clearly listed , environmental protection can justify restrictions on trade as an overriding requirement derived from TFEU article 11 . More generally , it has been increasingly acknowledged that fundamental human rights should take priority over all trade rules . So , in Schmidberger v Austria the Court of Justice held that Austria did not infringe article 34 by failing to ban a protest that blocked heavy traffic passing over the A13 , Brenner Autobahn , en route to Italy . Although many companies , including Mr Schmidberger ' s German undertaking , were prevented from trading , the Court of Justice reasoned that freedom of association is one of the ‘ fundamental pillars of a democratic society ’ , against which the free movement of goods had to be balanced , and was probably subordinate . If a member state does appeal to the article 36 justification , the measures it takes have to be applied proportionately . This means the rule must be pursue a legitimate aim and ( 1 ) be suitable to achieve the aim , ( 2 ) be necessary , so that a less restrictive measure could not achieve the same result , and ( 3 ) be reasonable in balancing the interests of free trade with interests in article 36 .
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Question: What enables or rather helps the process of free movement of goods ?
context: Free movement of goods within the European Union is achieved by a customs union , and the principle of non - discrimination . The EU manages imports from non - member states , duties between member states are prohibited , and imports circulate freely . In addition under the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union article 34 , ‘ Quantitative restrictions on imports and all measures having equivalent effect shall be prohibited between Member States ’ . In Procureur du Roi v Dassonville the Court of Justice held that this rule meant all " trading rules " that are " enacted by Member States " which could hinder trade " directly or indirectly , actually or potentially " would be caught by article 34 . This meant that a Belgian law requiring Scotch whisky imports to have a certificate of origin was unlikely to be lawful . It discriminated against parallel importers like Mr Dassonville , who could not get certificates from authorities in France , where they bought the Scotch . This " wide test " , to determine what could potentially be an unlawful restriction on trade , applies equally to actions by quasi - government bodies , such as the former " Buy Irish " company that had government appointees . It also means states can be responsible for private actors . For instance , in Commission v France French farmer vigilantes were continually sabotaging shipments of Spanish strawberries , and even Belgian tomato imports . France was liable for these hindrances to trade because the authorities ‘ manifestly and persistently abstained ' from preventing the sabotage . Generally speaking , if a member state has laws or practices that directly discriminate against imports ( or exports under TFEU article 35 ) then it must be justified under article 36 . The justifications include public morality , policy or security , " protection of health and life of humans , animals or plants " , " national treasures " of " artistic , historic or archaeological value " and " industrial and commercial property . " In addition , although not clearly listed , environmental protection can justify restrictions on trade as an overriding requirement derived from TFEU article 11 . More generally , it has been increasingly acknowledged that fundamental human rights should take priority over all trade rules . So , in Schmidberger v Austria the Court of Justice held that Austria did not infringe article 34 by failing to ban a protest that blocked heavy traffic passing over the A13 , Brenner Autobahn , en route to Italy . Although many companies , including Mr Schmidberger ' s German undertaking , were prevented from trading , the Court of Justice reasoned that freedom of association is one of the ‘ fundamental pillars of a democratic society ’ , against which the free movement of goods had to be balanced , and was probably subordinate . If a member state does appeal to the article 36 justification , the measures it takes have to be applied proportionately . This means the rule must be pursue a legitimate aim and ( 1 ) be suitable to achieve the aim , ( 2 ) be necessary , so that a less restrictive measure could not achieve the same result , and ( 3 ) be reasonable in balancing the interests of free trade with interests in article 36 .
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Question: In the 2009 Commission v Italy case , the Court of Justice ruled that all goods neutrally no , held that an Italian low prohibiting what infringed article 34 ?
context: Often rules apply to all goods neutrally , but may have a greater practical effect on imports than domestic products . For such " indirect " discriminatory ( or " indistinctly applicable " ) measures the Court of Justice has developed more justifications : either those in article 36 , or additional " mandatory " or " overriding " requirements such as consumer protection , improving labour standards , protecting the environment , press diversity , fairness in commerce , and more : the categories are not closed . In the most famous case Rewe - Zentral AG v Bundesmonopol für Branntwein , the Court of Justice found that a German law requiring all spirits and liqueurs ( not just imported ones ) to have a minimum alcohol content of 25 per cent was contrary to TFEU article 34 , because it had a greater negative effect on imports . German liqueurs were over 25 per cent alcohol , but Cassis de Dijon , which Rewe - Zentrale AG wished to import from France , only had 15 to 20 per cent alcohol . The Court of Justice rejected the German government ' s arguments that the measure proportionately protected public health under TFEU article 36 , because stronger beverages were available and adequate labelling would be enough for consumers to understand what they bought . This rule primarily applies to requirements about a product ' s content or packaging . In Walter Rau Lebensmittelwerke v De Smedt PVBA the Court of Justice found that a Belgian law requiring all margarine to be in cube shaped packages infringed article 34 , and was not justified by the pursuit of consumer protection . The argument that Belgians would believe it was butter if it was not cube shaped was disproportionate : it would " considerably exceed the requirements of the object in view " and labelling would protect consumers " just as effectively " . In a 2003 case , Commission v Italy Italian law required that cocoa products that included other vegetable fats could not be labelled as " chocolate " . It had to be " chocolate substitute " . All Italian chocolate was made from cocoa butter alone , but British , Danish and Irish manufacturers used other vegetable fats . They claimed the law infringed article 34 . The Court of Justice held that a low content of vegetable fat did not justify a " chocolate substitute " label . This was derogatory in the consumers ' eyes . A ‘ neutral and objective statement ’ was enough to protect consumers . If member states place considerable obstacles on the use of a product , this can also infringe article 34 . So , in a 2009 case , Commission v Italy , the Court of Justice held that an Italian law prohibiting motorcycles or mopeds pulling trailers infringed article 34 . Again , the law applied neutrally to everyone , but disproportionately affected importers , because Italian companies did not make trailers . This was not a product requirement , but the Court reasoned that the prohibition would deter people from buying it : it would have " a considerable influence on the behaviour of consumers " that " affects the access of that product to the market " . It would require justification under article 36 , or as a mandatory requirement .
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Question: What supplanted LAPD er Frame Relay and X . 25
context: Both X . 25 and Frame Relay provide connection - oriented operations . But X . 25 does it at the network layer of the OSI Model . Frame Relay does it at level two , the data link layer . Another major difference between X . 25 and Frame Relay is that X . 25 requires a handshake between the communicating parties before any user packets are transmitted . Frame Relay does not define any such handshakes . X . 25 does not define any operations inside the packet network . It only operates at the user - network - interface ( UNI ) . Thus , the network provider is free to use any procedure it wishes inside the network . X . 25 does specify some limited re - transmission procedures at the UNI , and its link layer protocol ( LAPB ) provides conventional HDLC - type link management procedures . Frame Relay is a modified version of ISDN ' s layer two protocol , LAPD and LAPB . As such , its integrity operations pertain only between nodes on a link , not end - to - end . Any retransmissions must be carried out by higher layer protocols . The X . 25 UNI protocol is part of the X . 25 protocol suite , which consists of the lower three layers of the OSI Model . It was widely used at the UNI for packet switching networks during the 1980s and early 1990s , to provide a standardized interface into and out of packet networks . Some implementations used X . 25 within the network as well , but its connection - oriented features made this setup cumbersome and inefficient . Frame relay operates principally at layer two of the OSI Model . However , its address field ( the Data Link Connection ID , or DLCI ) can be used at the OSI network layer , with a minimum set of procedures . Thus , it rids itself of many X . 25 layer 3 encumbrances , but still has the DLCI as an ID beyond a node - to - node layer two link protocol . The simplicity of Frame Relay makes it faster and more efficient than X . 25 . Because Frame relay is a data link layer protocol , like X . 25 it does not define internal network routing operations . For X . 25 its packet IDs - - - the virtual circuit and virtual channel numbers have to be correlated to network addresses . The same is true for Frame Relays DLCI . How this is done is up to the network provider . Frame Relay , by virtue of having no network layer procedures is connection - oriented at layer two , by using the HDLC / LAPD / LAPB Set Asynchronous Balanced Mode ( SABM ) . X . 25 connections are typically established for each communication session , but it does have a feature allowing a limited amount of traffic to be passed across the UNI without the connection - oriented handshake . For a while , Frame Relay was used to interconnect LANs across wide area networks . However , X . 25 and well as Frame Relay have been supplanted by the Internet Protocol ( IP ) at the network layer , and the Asynchronous Transfer Mode ( ATM ) and or versions of Multi - Protocol Label Switching ( MPLS ) at layer two . A typical configuration is to run IP over ATM or a version of MPLS . < Uyless Black , X . 25 and Related Protocols , IEEE Computer Society , 1991 > < Uyless Black , Frame Relay Networks , McGraw - Hill , 1998 > < Uyless Black , MPLS and Label Switching Networks , Prentice Hall , 2001 > < Uyless Black , ATM , Volume I , Prentice Hall , 1995 >
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Question: What does data link , oh sorry , Frame Relay provide ?
context: Both X . 25 and Frame Relay provide connection - oriented operations . But X . 25 does it at the network layer of the OSI Model . Frame Relay does it at level two , the data link layer . Another major difference between X . 25 and Frame Relay is that X . 25 requires a handshake between the communicating parties before any user packets are transmitted . Frame Relay does not define any such handshakes . X . 25 does not define any operations inside the packet network . It only operates at the user - network - interface ( UNI ) . Thus , the network provider is free to use any procedure it wishes inside the network . X . 25 does specify some limited re - transmission procedures at the UNI , and its link layer protocol ( LAPB ) provides conventional HDLC - type link management procedures . Frame Relay is a modified version of ISDN ' s layer two protocol , LAPD and LAPB . As such , its integrity operations pertain only between nodes on a link , not end - to - end . Any retransmissions must be carried out by higher layer protocols . The X . 25 UNI protocol is part of the X . 25 protocol suite , which consists of the lower three layers of the OSI Model . It was widely used at the UNI for packet switching networks during the 1980s and early 1990s , to provide a standardized interface into and out of packet networks . Some implementations used X . 25 within the network as well , but its connection - oriented features made this setup cumbersome and inefficient . Frame relay operates principally at layer two of the OSI Model . However , its address field ( the Data Link Connection ID , or DLCI ) can be used at the OSI network layer , with a minimum set of procedures . Thus , it rids itself of many X . 25 layer 3 encumbrances , but still has the DLCI as an ID beyond a node - to - node layer two link protocol . The simplicity of Frame Relay makes it faster and more efficient than X . 25 . Because Frame relay is a data link layer protocol , like X . 25 it does not define internal network routing operations . For X . 25 its packet IDs - - - the virtual circuit and virtual channel numbers have to be correlated to network addresses . The same is true for Frame Relays DLCI . How this is done is up to the network provider . Frame Relay , by virtue of having no network layer procedures is connection - oriented at layer two , by using the HDLC / LAPD / LAPB Set Asynchronous Balanced Mode ( SABM ) . X . 25 connections are typically established for each communication session , but it does have a feature allowing a limited amount of traffic to be passed across the UNI without the connection - oriented handshake . For a while , Frame Relay was used to interconnect LANs across wide area networks . However , X . 25 and well as Frame Relay have been supplanted by the Internet Protocol ( IP ) at the network layer , and the Asynchronous Transfer Mode ( ATM ) and or versions of Multi - Protocol Label Switching ( MPLS ) at layer two . A typical configuration is to run IP over ATM or a version of MPLS . < Uyless Black , X . 25 and Related Protocols , IEEE Computer Society , 1991 > < Uyless Black , Frame Relay Networks , McGraw - Hill , 1998 > < Uyless Black , MPLS and Label Switching Networks , Prentice Hall , 2001 > < Uyless Black , ATM , Volume I , Prentice Hall , 1995 >
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Question: What supplanted no uh What is a typical configuration ?
context: Both X . 25 and Frame Relay provide connection - oriented operations . But X . 25 does it at the network layer of the OSI Model . Frame Relay does it at level two , the data link layer . Another major difference between X . 25 and Frame Relay is that X . 25 requires a handshake between the communicating parties before any user packets are transmitted . Frame Relay does not define any such handshakes . X . 25 does not define any operations inside the packet network . It only operates at the user - network - interface ( UNI ) . Thus , the network provider is free to use any procedure it wishes inside the network . X . 25 does specify some limited re - transmission procedures at the UNI , and its link layer protocol ( LAPB ) provides conventional HDLC - type link management procedures . Frame Relay is a modified version of ISDN ' s layer two protocol , LAPD and LAPB . As such , its integrity operations pertain only between nodes on a link , not end - to - end . Any retransmissions must be carried out by higher layer protocols . The X . 25 UNI protocol is part of the X . 25 protocol suite , which consists of the lower three layers of the OSI Model . It was widely used at the UNI for packet switching networks during the 1980s and early 1990s , to provide a standardized interface into and out of packet networks . Some implementations used X . 25 within the network as well , but its connection - oriented features made this setup cumbersome and inefficient . Frame relay operates principally at layer two of the OSI Model . However , its address field ( the Data Link Connection ID , or DLCI ) can be used at the OSI network layer , with a minimum set of procedures . Thus , it rids itself of many X . 25 layer 3 encumbrances , but still has the DLCI as an ID beyond a node - to - node layer two link protocol . The simplicity of Frame Relay makes it faster and more efficient than X . 25 . Because Frame relay is a data link layer protocol , like X . 25 it does not define internal network routing operations . For X . 25 its packet IDs - - - the virtual circuit and virtual channel numbers have to be correlated to network addresses . The same is true for Frame Relays DLCI . How this is done is up to the network provider . Frame Relay , by virtue of having no network layer procedures is connection - oriented at layer two , by using the HDLC / LAPD / LAPB Set Asynchronous Balanced Mode ( SABM ) . X . 25 connections are typically established for each communication session , but it does have a feature allowing a limited amount of traffic to be passed across the UNI without the connection - oriented handshake . For a while , Frame Relay was used to interconnect LANs across wide area networks . However , X . 25 and well as Frame Relay have been supplanted by the Internet Protocol ( IP ) at the network layer , and the Asynchronous Transfer Mode ( ATM ) and or versions of Multi - Protocol Label Switching ( MPLS ) at layer two . A typical configuration is to run IP over ATM or a version of MPLS . < Uyless Black , X . 25 and Related Protocols , IEEE Computer Society , 1991 > < Uyless Black , Frame Relay Networks , McGraw - Hill , 1998 > < Uyless Black , MPLS and Label Switching Networks , Prentice Hall , 2001 > < Uyless Black , ATM , Volume I , Prentice Hall , 1995 >
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[
26,
28,
1
],
[
20,
23,
16
],
[
8,
9,
4
]
]
] |
Question: Where is sorry How is X . 25 connection - oriented at layer two ?
context: Both X . 25 and Frame Relay provide connection - oriented operations . But X . 25 does it at the network layer of the OSI Model . Frame Relay does it at level two , the data link layer . Another major difference between X . 25 and Frame Relay is that X . 25 requires a handshake between the communicating parties before any user packets are transmitted . Frame Relay does not define any such handshakes . X . 25 does not define any operations inside the packet network . It only operates at the user - network - interface ( UNI ) . Thus , the network provider is free to use any procedure it wishes inside the network . X . 25 does specify some limited re - transmission procedures at the UNI , and its link layer protocol ( LAPB ) provides conventional HDLC - type link management procedures . Frame Relay is a modified version of ISDN ' s layer two protocol , LAPD and LAPB . As such , its integrity operations pertain only between nodes on a link , not end - to - end . Any retransmissions must be carried out by higher layer protocols . The X . 25 UNI protocol is part of the X . 25 protocol suite , which consists of the lower three layers of the OSI Model . It was widely used at the UNI for packet switching networks during the 1980s and early 1990s , to provide a standardized interface into and out of packet networks . Some implementations used X . 25 within the network as well , but its connection - oriented features made this setup cumbersome and inefficient . Frame relay operates principally at layer two of the OSI Model . However , its address field ( the Data Link Connection ID , or DLCI ) can be used at the OSI network layer , with a minimum set of procedures . Thus , it rids itself of many X . 25 layer 3 encumbrances , but still has the DLCI as an ID beyond a node - to - node layer two link protocol . The simplicity of Frame Relay makes it faster and more efficient than X . 25 . Because Frame relay is a data link layer protocol , like X . 25 it does not define internal network routing operations . For X . 25 its packet IDs - - - the virtual circuit and virtual channel numbers have to be correlated to network addresses . The same is true for Frame Relays DLCI . How this is done is up to the network provider . Frame Relay , by virtue of having no network layer procedures is connection - oriented at layer two , by using the HDLC / LAPD / LAPB Set Asynchronous Balanced Mode ( SABM ) . X . 25 connections are typically established for each communication session , but it does have a feature allowing a limited amount of traffic to be passed across the UNI without the connection - oriented handshake . For a while , Frame Relay was used to interconnect LANs across wide area networks . However , X . 25 and well as Frame Relay have been supplanted by the Internet Protocol ( IP ) at the network layer , and the Asynchronous Transfer Mode ( ATM ) and or versions of Multi - Protocol Label Switching ( MPLS ) at layer two . A typical configuration is to run IP over ATM or a version of MPLS . < Uyless Black , X . 25 and Related Protocols , IEEE Computer Society , 1991 > < Uyless Black , Frame Relay Networks , McGraw - Hill , 1998 > < Uyless Black , MPLS and Label Switching Networks , Prentice Hall , 2001 > < Uyless Black , ATM , Volume I , Prentice Hall , 1995 >
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Question: In which trading rules oops I mean case were French vigilantes sabotaging shipments of Spanish Strawberries ?
context: Free movement of goods within the European Union is achieved by a customs union , and the principle of non - discrimination . The EU manages imports from non - member states , duties between member states are prohibited , and imports circulate freely . In addition under the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union article 34 , ‘ Quantitative restrictions on imports and all measures having equivalent effect shall be prohibited between Member States ’ . In Procureur du Roi v Dassonville the Court of Justice held that this rule meant all " trading rules " that are " enacted by Member States " which could hinder trade " directly or indirectly , actually or potentially " would be caught by article 34 . This meant that a Belgian law requiring Scotch whisky imports to have a certificate of origin was unlikely to be lawful . It discriminated against parallel importers like Mr Dassonville , who could not get certificates from authorities in France , where they bought the Scotch . This " wide test " , to determine what could potentially be an unlawful restriction on trade , applies equally to actions by quasi - government bodies , such as the former " Buy Irish " company that had government appointees . It also means states can be responsible for private actors . For instance , in Commission v France French farmer vigilantes were continually sabotaging shipments of Spanish strawberries , and even Belgian tomato imports . France was liable for these hindrances to trade because the authorities ‘ manifestly and persistently abstained ' from preventing the sabotage . Generally speaking , if a member state has laws or practices that directly discriminate against imports ( or exports under TFEU article 35 ) then it must be justified under article 36 . The justifications include public morality , policy or security , " protection of health and life of humans , animals or plants " , " national treasures " of " artistic , historic or archaeological value " and " industrial and commercial property . " In addition , although not clearly listed , environmental protection can justify restrictions on trade as an overriding requirement derived from TFEU article 11 . More generally , it has been increasingly acknowledged that fundamental human rights should take priority over all trade rules . So , in Schmidberger v Austria the Court of Justice held that Austria did not infringe article 34 by failing to ban a protest that blocked heavy traffic passing over the A13 , Brenner Autobahn , en route to Italy . Although many companies , including Mr Schmidberger ' s German undertaking , were prevented from trading , the Court of Justice reasoned that freedom of association is one of the ‘ fundamental pillars of a democratic society ’ , against which the free movement of goods had to be balanced , and was probably subordinate . If a member state does appeal to the article 36 justification , the measures it takes have to be applied proportionately . This means the rule must be pursue a legitimate aim and ( 1 ) be suitable to achieve the aim , ( 2 ) be necessary , so that a less restrictive measure could not achieve the same result , and ( 3 ) be reasonable in balancing the interests of free trade with interests in article 36 .
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Question: What do x . 25 and Frame Relay both provide no sorry what do they require ?
context: Both X . 25 and Frame Relay provide connection - oriented operations . But X . 25 does it at the network layer of the OSI Model . Frame Relay does it at level two , the data link layer . Another major difference between X . 25 and Frame Relay is that X . 25 requires a handshake between the communicating parties before any user packets are transmitted . Frame Relay does not define any such handshakes . X . 25 does not define any operations inside the packet network . It only operates at the user - network - interface ( UNI ) . Thus , the network provider is free to use any procedure it wishes inside the network . X . 25 does specify some limited re - transmission procedures at the UNI , and its link layer protocol ( LAPB ) provides conventional HDLC - type link management procedures . Frame Relay is a modified version of ISDN ' s layer two protocol , LAPD and LAPB . As such , its integrity operations pertain only between nodes on a link , not end - to - end . Any retransmissions must be carried out by higher layer protocols . The X . 25 UNI protocol is part of the X . 25 protocol suite , which consists of the lower three layers of the OSI Model . It was widely used at the UNI for packet switching networks during the 1980s and early 1990s , to provide a standardized interface into and out of packet networks . Some implementations used X . 25 within the network as well , but its connection - oriented features made this setup cumbersome and inefficient . Frame relay operates principally at layer two of the OSI Model . However , its address field ( the Data Link Connection ID , or DLCI ) can be used at the OSI network layer , with a minimum set of procedures . Thus , it rids itself of many X . 25 layer 3 encumbrances , but still has the DLCI as an ID beyond a node - to - node layer two link protocol . The simplicity of Frame Relay makes it faster and more efficient than X . 25 . Because Frame relay is a data link layer protocol , like X . 25 it does not define internal network routing operations . For X . 25 its packet IDs - - - the virtual circuit and virtual channel numbers have to be correlated to network addresses . The same is true for Frame Relays DLCI . How this is done is up to the network provider . Frame Relay , by virtue of having no network layer procedures is connection - oriented at layer two , by using the HDLC / LAPD / LAPB Set Asynchronous Balanced Mode ( SABM ) . X . 25 connections are typically established for each communication session , but it does have a feature allowing a limited amount of traffic to be passed across the UNI without the connection - oriented handshake . For a while , Frame Relay was used to interconnect LANs across wide area networks . However , X . 25 and well as Frame Relay have been supplanted by the Internet Protocol ( IP ) at the network layer , and the Asynchronous Transfer Mode ( ATM ) and or versions of Multi - Protocol Label Switching ( MPLS ) at layer two . A typical configuration is to run IP over ATM or a version of MPLS . < Uyless Black , X . 25 and Related Protocols , IEEE Computer Society , 1991 > < Uyless Black , Frame Relay Networks , McGraw - Hill , 1998 > < Uyless Black , MPLS and Label Switching Networks , Prentice Hall , 2001 > < Uyless Black , ATM , Volume I , Prentice Hall , 1995 >
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Question: When do , or tell me what is the \ " hand shake \ " between communication parties ?
context: Both X . 25 and Frame Relay provide connection - oriented operations . But X . 25 does it at the network layer of the OSI Model . Frame Relay does it at level two , the data link layer . Another major difference between X . 25 and Frame Relay is that X . 25 requires a handshake between the communicating parties before any user packets are transmitted . Frame Relay does not define any such handshakes . X . 25 does not define any operations inside the packet network . It only operates at the user - network - interface ( UNI ) . Thus , the network provider is free to use any procedure it wishes inside the network . X . 25 does specify some limited re - transmission procedures at the UNI , and its link layer protocol ( LAPB ) provides conventional HDLC - type link management procedures . Frame Relay is a modified version of ISDN ' s layer two protocol , LAPD and LAPB . As such , its integrity operations pertain only between nodes on a link , not end - to - end . Any retransmissions must be carried out by higher layer protocols . The X . 25 UNI protocol is part of the X . 25 protocol suite , which consists of the lower three layers of the OSI Model . It was widely used at the UNI for packet switching networks during the 1980s and early 1990s , to provide a standardized interface into and out of packet networks . Some implementations used X . 25 within the network as well , but its connection - oriented features made this setup cumbersome and inefficient . Frame relay operates principally at layer two of the OSI Model . However , its address field ( the Data Link Connection ID , or DLCI ) can be used at the OSI network layer , with a minimum set of procedures . Thus , it rids itself of many X . 25 layer 3 encumbrances , but still has the DLCI as an ID beyond a node - to - node layer two link protocol . The simplicity of Frame Relay makes it faster and more efficient than X . 25 . Because Frame relay is a data link layer protocol , like X . 25 it does not define internal network routing operations . For X . 25 its packet IDs - - - the virtual circuit and virtual channel numbers have to be correlated to network addresses . The same is true for Frame Relays DLCI . How this is done is up to the network provider . Frame Relay , by virtue of having no network layer procedures is connection - oriented at layer two , by using the HDLC / LAPD / LAPB Set Asynchronous Balanced Mode ( SABM ) . X . 25 connections are typically established for each communication session , but it does have a feature allowing a limited amount of traffic to be passed across the UNI without the connection - oriented handshake . For a while , Frame Relay was used to interconnect LANs across wide area networks . However , X . 25 and well as Frame Relay have been supplanted by the Internet Protocol ( IP ) at the network layer , and the Asynchronous Transfer Mode ( ATM ) and or versions of Multi - Protocol Label Switching ( MPLS ) at layer two . A typical configuration is to run IP over ATM or a version of MPLS . < Uyless Black , X . 25 and Related Protocols , IEEE Computer Society , 1991 > < Uyless Black , Frame Relay Networks , McGraw - Hill , 1998 > < Uyless Black , MPLS and Label Switching Networks , Prentice Hall , 2001 > < Uyless Black , ATM , Volume I , Prentice Hall , 1995 >
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Question: In Schmidberger v Austria , the Court of Justice came to the conclusion that France ugh sorry Austria didn ' t infringe upon article 34 by failing to ban a what ?
context: Free movement of goods within the European Union is achieved by a customs union , and the principle of non - discrimination . The EU manages imports from non - member states , duties between member states are prohibited , and imports circulate freely . In addition under the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union article 34 , ‘ Quantitative restrictions on imports and all measures having equivalent effect shall be prohibited between Member States ’ . In Procureur du Roi v Dassonville the Court of Justice held that this rule meant all " trading rules " that are " enacted by Member States " which could hinder trade " directly or indirectly , actually or potentially " would be caught by article 34 . This meant that a Belgian law requiring Scotch whisky imports to have a certificate of origin was unlikely to be lawful . It discriminated against parallel importers like Mr Dassonville , who could not get certificates from authorities in France , where they bought the Scotch . This " wide test " , to determine what could potentially be an unlawful restriction on trade , applies equally to actions by quasi - government bodies , such as the former " Buy Irish " company that had government appointees . It also means states can be responsible for private actors . For instance , in Commission v France French farmer vigilantes were continually sabotaging shipments of Spanish strawberries , and even Belgian tomato imports . France was liable for these hindrances to trade because the authorities ‘ manifestly and persistently abstained ' from preventing the sabotage . Generally speaking , if a member state has laws or practices that directly discriminate against imports ( or exports under TFEU article 35 ) then it must be justified under article 36 . The justifications include public morality , policy or security , " protection of health and life of humans , animals or plants " , " national treasures " of " artistic , historic or archaeological value " and " industrial and commercial property . " In addition , although not clearly listed , environmental protection can justify restrictions on trade as an overriding requirement derived from TFEU article 11 . More generally , it has been increasingly acknowledged that fundamental human rights should take priority over all trade rules . So , in Schmidberger v Austria the Court of Justice held that Austria did not infringe article 34 by failing to ban a protest that blocked heavy traffic passing over the A13 , Brenner Autobahn , en route to Italy . Although many companies , including Mr Schmidberger ' s German undertaking , were prevented from trading , the Court of Justice reasoned that freedom of association is one of the ‘ fundamental pillars of a democratic society ’ , against which the free movement of goods had to be balanced , and was probably subordinate . If a member state does appeal to the article 36 justification , the measures it takes have to be applied proportionately . This means the rule must be pursue a legitimate aim and ( 1 ) be suitable to achieve the aim , ( 2 ) be necessary , so that a less restrictive measure could not achieve the same result , and ( 3 ) be reasonable in balancing the interests of free trade with interests in article 36 .
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Question: How many days or rather hours was the Dutch woman in question working in Germany in the case Geven v Land Nordrhein - Westfalen ?
context: The Free Movement of Workers Regulation articles 1 to 7 set out the main provisions on equal treatment of workers . First , articles 1 to 4 generally require that workers can take up employment , conclude contracts , and not suffer discrimination compared to nationals of the member state . In a famous case , the Belgian Football Association v Bosman , a Belgian footballer named Jean - Marc Bosman claimed that he should be able to transfer from R . F . C . de Liège to USL Dunkerque when his contract finished , regardless of whether Dunkerque could afford to pay Liège the habitual transfer fees . The Court of Justice held " the transfer rules constitute [ d ] an obstacle to free movement " and were unlawful unless they could be justified in the public interest , but this was unlikely . In Groener v Minister for Education the Court of Justice accepted that a requirement to speak Gaelic to teach in a Dublin design college could be justified as part of the public policy of promoting the Irish language , but only if the measure was not disproportionate . By contrast in Angonese v Cassa di Risparmio di Bolzano SpA a bank in Bolzano , Italy , was not allowed to require Mr Angonese to have a bilingual certificate that could only be obtained in Bolzano . The Court of Justice , giving " horizontal " direct effect to TFEU article 45 , reasoned that people from other countries would have little chance of acquiring the certificate , and because it was " impossible to submit proof of the required linguistic knowledge by any other means " , the measure was disproportionate . Second , article 7 ( 2 ) requires equal treatment in respect of tax . In Finanzamt Köln Altstadt v Schumacker the Court of Justice held that it contravened TFEU art 45 to deny tax benefits ( e . g . for married couples , and social insurance expense deductions ) to a man who worked in Germany , but was resident in Belgium when other German residents got the benefits . By contrast in Weigel v Finanzlandesdirektion für Vorarlberg the Court of Justice rejected Mr Weigel ' s claim that a re - registration charge upon bringing his car to Austria violated his right to free movement . Although the tax was " likely to have a negative bearing on the decision of migrant workers to exercise their right to freedom of movement " , because the charge applied equally to Austrians , in absence of EU legislation on the matter it had to be regarded as justified . Third , people must receive equal treatment regarding " social advantages " , although the Court has approved residential qualifying periods . In Hendrix v Employee Insurance Institute the Court of Justice held that a Dutch national was not entitled to continue receiving incapacity benefits when he moved to Belgium , because the benefit was " closely linked to the socio - economic situation " of the Netherlands . Conversely , in Geven v Land Nordrhein - Westfalen the Court of Justice held that a Dutch woman living in the Netherlands , but working between 3 and 14 hours a week in Germany , did not have a right to receive German child benefits , even though the wife of a man who worked full - time in Germany but was resident in Austria could . The general justifications for limiting free movement in TFEU article 45 ( 3 ) are " public policy , public security or public health " , and there is also a general exception in article 45 ( 4 ) for " employment in the public service " .
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Question: In which case did the Free Movement no was a Dutch national not entitled to continue receiving benefits when he moved to Belgium ?
context: The Free Movement of Workers Regulation articles 1 to 7 set out the main provisions on equal treatment of workers . First , articles 1 to 4 generally require that workers can take up employment , conclude contracts , and not suffer discrimination compared to nationals of the member state . In a famous case , the Belgian Football Association v Bosman , a Belgian footballer named Jean - Marc Bosman claimed that he should be able to transfer from R . F . C . de Liège to USL Dunkerque when his contract finished , regardless of whether Dunkerque could afford to pay Liège the habitual transfer fees . The Court of Justice held " the transfer rules constitute [ d ] an obstacle to free movement " and were unlawful unless they could be justified in the public interest , but this was unlikely . In Groener v Minister for Education the Court of Justice accepted that a requirement to speak Gaelic to teach in a Dublin design college could be justified as part of the public policy of promoting the Irish language , but only if the measure was not disproportionate . By contrast in Angonese v Cassa di Risparmio di Bolzano SpA a bank in Bolzano , Italy , was not allowed to require Mr Angonese to have a bilingual certificate that could only be obtained in Bolzano . The Court of Justice , giving " horizontal " direct effect to TFEU article 45 , reasoned that people from other countries would have little chance of acquiring the certificate , and because it was " impossible to submit proof of the required linguistic knowledge by any other means " , the measure was disproportionate . Second , article 7 ( 2 ) requires equal treatment in respect of tax . In Finanzamt Köln Altstadt v Schumacker the Court of Justice held that it contravened TFEU art 45 to deny tax benefits ( e . g . for married couples , and social insurance expense deductions ) to a man who worked in Germany , but was resident in Belgium when other German residents got the benefits . By contrast in Weigel v Finanzlandesdirektion für Vorarlberg the Court of Justice rejected Mr Weigel ' s claim that a re - registration charge upon bringing his car to Austria violated his right to free movement . Although the tax was " likely to have a negative bearing on the decision of migrant workers to exercise their right to freedom of movement " , because the charge applied equally to Austrians , in absence of EU legislation on the matter it had to be regarded as justified . Third , people must receive equal treatment regarding " social advantages " , although the Court has approved residential qualifying periods . In Hendrix v Employee Insurance Institute the Court of Justice held that a Dutch national was not entitled to continue receiving incapacity benefits when he moved to Belgium , because the benefit was " closely linked to the socio - economic situation " of the Netherlands . Conversely , in Geven v Land Nordrhein - Westfalen the Court of Justice held that a Dutch woman living in the Netherlands , but working between 3 and 14 hours a week in Germany , did not have a right to receive German child benefits , even though the wife of a man who worked full - time in Germany but was resident in Austria could . The general justifications for limiting free movement in TFEU article 45 ( 3 ) are " public policy , public security or public health " , and there is also a general exception in article 45 ( 4 ) for " employment in the public service " .
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Question: Which resident no articles of the Free Movement of Workers Regulation set out the primary provisions on equal treatment of workers ?
context: The Free Movement of Workers Regulation articles 1 to 7 set out the main provisions on equal treatment of workers . First , articles 1 to 4 generally require that workers can take up employment , conclude contracts , and not suffer discrimination compared to nationals of the member state . In a famous case , the Belgian Football Association v Bosman , a Belgian footballer named Jean - Marc Bosman claimed that he should be able to transfer from R . F . C . de Liège to USL Dunkerque when his contract finished , regardless of whether Dunkerque could afford to pay Liège the habitual transfer fees . The Court of Justice held " the transfer rules constitute [ d ] an obstacle to free movement " and were unlawful unless they could be justified in the public interest , but this was unlikely . In Groener v Minister for Education the Court of Justice accepted that a requirement to speak Gaelic to teach in a Dublin design college could be justified as part of the public policy of promoting the Irish language , but only if the measure was not disproportionate . By contrast in Angonese v Cassa di Risparmio di Bolzano SpA a bank in Bolzano , Italy , was not allowed to require Mr Angonese to have a bilingual certificate that could only be obtained in Bolzano . The Court of Justice , giving " horizontal " direct effect to TFEU article 45 , reasoned that people from other countries would have little chance of acquiring the certificate , and because it was " impossible to submit proof of the required linguistic knowledge by any other means " , the measure was disproportionate . Second , article 7 ( 2 ) requires equal treatment in respect of tax . In Finanzamt Köln Altstadt v Schumacker the Court of Justice held that it contravened TFEU art 45 to deny tax benefits ( e . g . for married couples , and social insurance expense deductions ) to a man who worked in Germany , but was resident in Belgium when other German residents got the benefits . By contrast in Weigel v Finanzlandesdirektion für Vorarlberg the Court of Justice rejected Mr Weigel ' s claim that a re - registration charge upon bringing his car to Austria violated his right to free movement . Although the tax was " likely to have a negative bearing on the decision of migrant workers to exercise their right to freedom of movement " , because the charge applied equally to Austrians , in absence of EU legislation on the matter it had to be regarded as justified . Third , people must receive equal treatment regarding " social advantages " , although the Court has approved residential qualifying periods . In Hendrix v Employee Insurance Institute the Court of Justice held that a Dutch national was not entitled to continue receiving incapacity benefits when he moved to Belgium , because the benefit was " closely linked to the socio - economic situation " of the Netherlands . Conversely , in Geven v Land Nordrhein - Westfalen the Court of Justice held that a Dutch woman living in the Netherlands , but working between 3 and 14 hours a week in Germany , did not have a right to receive German child benefits , even though the wife of a man who worked full - time in Germany but was resident in Austria could . The general justifications for limiting free movement in TFEU article 45 ( 3 ) are " public policy , public security or public health " , and there is also a general exception in article 45 ( 4 ) for " employment in the public service " .
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[
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] |
Question: Which German footballer claimed that he should be allowed to transfer from one football club to another when his contract was fulfilled no correction I meant Belgian footballer not German ?
context: The Free Movement of Workers Regulation articles 1 to 7 set out the main provisions on equal treatment of workers . First , articles 1 to 4 generally require that workers can take up employment , conclude contracts , and not suffer discrimination compared to nationals of the member state . In a famous case , the Belgian Football Association v Bosman , a Belgian footballer named Jean - Marc Bosman claimed that he should be able to transfer from R . F . C . de Liège to USL Dunkerque when his contract finished , regardless of whether Dunkerque could afford to pay Liège the habitual transfer fees . The Court of Justice held " the transfer rules constitute [ d ] an obstacle to free movement " and were unlawful unless they could be justified in the public interest , but this was unlikely . In Groener v Minister for Education the Court of Justice accepted that a requirement to speak Gaelic to teach in a Dublin design college could be justified as part of the public policy of promoting the Irish language , but only if the measure was not disproportionate . By contrast in Angonese v Cassa di Risparmio di Bolzano SpA a bank in Bolzano , Italy , was not allowed to require Mr Angonese to have a bilingual certificate that could only be obtained in Bolzano . The Court of Justice , giving " horizontal " direct effect to TFEU article 45 , reasoned that people from other countries would have little chance of acquiring the certificate , and because it was " impossible to submit proof of the required linguistic knowledge by any other means " , the measure was disproportionate . Second , article 7 ( 2 ) requires equal treatment in respect of tax . In Finanzamt Köln Altstadt v Schumacker the Court of Justice held that it contravened TFEU art 45 to deny tax benefits ( e . g . for married couples , and social insurance expense deductions ) to a man who worked in Germany , but was resident in Belgium when other German residents got the benefits . By contrast in Weigel v Finanzlandesdirektion für Vorarlberg the Court of Justice rejected Mr Weigel ' s claim that a re - registration charge upon bringing his car to Austria violated his right to free movement . Although the tax was " likely to have a negative bearing on the decision of migrant workers to exercise their right to freedom of movement " , because the charge applied equally to Austrians , in absence of EU legislation on the matter it had to be regarded as justified . Third , people must receive equal treatment regarding " social advantages " , although the Court has approved residential qualifying periods . In Hendrix v Employee Insurance Institute the Court of Justice held that a Dutch national was not entitled to continue receiving incapacity benefits when he moved to Belgium , because the benefit was " closely linked to the socio - economic situation " of the Netherlands . Conversely , in Geven v Land Nordrhein - Westfalen the Court of Justice held that a Dutch woman living in the Netherlands , but working between 3 and 14 hours a week in Germany , did not have a right to receive German child benefits , even though the wife of a man who worked full - time in Germany but was resident in Austria could . The general justifications for limiting free movement in TFEU article 45 ( 3 ) are " public policy , public security or public health " , and there is also a general exception in article 45 ( 4 ) for " employment in the public service " .
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Question: What did the Court of Justice no no hmm the Dutch health authorities regard as necessary ?
context: The " freedom to provide services " under TFEU article 56 applies to people who give services " for remuneration " , especially commercial or professional activity . For example , in Van Binsbergen v Bestuur van de Bedrijfvereniging voor de Metaalnijverheid a Dutch lawyer moved to Belgium while advising a client in a social security case , and was told he could not continue because Dutch law said only people established in the Netherlands could give legal advice . The Court of Justice held that the freedom to provide services applied , it was directly effective , and the rule was probably unjustified : having an address in the member state would be enough to pursue the legitimate aim of good administration of justice . The Court of Justice has held that secondary education falls outside the scope of article 56 , because usually the state funds it , though higher education does not . Health care generally counts as a service . In Geraets - Smits v Stichting Ziekenfonds Mrs Geraets - Smits claimed she should be reimbursed by Dutch social insurance for costs of receiving treatment in Germany . The Dutch health authorities regarded the treatment unnecessary , so she argued this restricted the freedom ( of the German health clinic ) to provide services . Several governments submitted that hospital services should not be regarded as economic , and should not fall within article 56 . But the Court of Justice held health was a " service " even though the government ( rather than the service recipient ) paid for the service . National authorities could be justified in refusing to reimburse patients for medical services abroad if the health care received at home was without undue delay , and it followed " international medical science " on which treatments counted as normal and necessary . The Court requires that the individual circumstances of a patient justify waiting lists , and this is also true in the context of the UK ' s National Health Service . Aside from public services , another sensitive field of services are those classified as illegal . Josemans v Burgemeester van Maastricht held that the Netherlands ' regulation of cannabis consumption , including the prohibitions by some municipalities on tourists ( but not Dutch nationals ) going to coffee shops , fell outside article 56 altogether . The Court of Justice reasoned that narcotic drugs were controlled in all member states , and so this differed from other cases where prostitution or other quasi - legal activity was subject to restriction . If an activity does fall within article 56 , a restriction can be justified under article 52 or overriding requirements developed by the Court of Justice . In Alpine Investments BV v Minister van Financiën a business that sold commodities futures ( with Merrill Lynch and another banking firms ) attempted to challenge a Dutch law that prohibiting cold calling customers . The Court of Justice held the Dutch prohibition pursued a legitimate aim to prevent " undesirable developments in securities trading " including protecting the consumer from aggressive sales tactics , thus maintaining confidence in the Dutch markets . In Omega Spielhallen GmbH v Bonn a " laserdrome " business was banned by the Bonn council . It bought fake laser gun services from a UK firm called Pulsar Ltd , but residents had protested against " playing at killing " entertainment . The Court of Justice held that the German constitutional value of human dignity , which underpinned the ban , did count as a justified restriction on freedom to provide services . In Liga Portuguesa de Futebol v Santa Casa da Misericórdia de Lisboa the Court of Justice also held that the state monopoly on gambling , and a penalty for a Gibraltar firm that had sold internet gambling services , was justified to prevent fraud and gambling where people ' s views were highly divergent . The ban was proportionate as this was an appropriate and necessary way to tackle the serious problems of fraud that arise over the internet . In the Services Directive a group of justifications were codified in article 16 that the case law has developed .
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Question: The freedom to provide services under TFEU article 56 applies to what or no sorry to who ?
context: The " freedom to provide services " under TFEU article 56 applies to people who give services " for remuneration " , especially commercial or professional activity . For example , in Van Binsbergen v Bestuur van de Bedrijfvereniging voor de Metaalnijverheid a Dutch lawyer moved to Belgium while advising a client in a social security case , and was told he could not continue because Dutch law said only people established in the Netherlands could give legal advice . The Court of Justice held that the freedom to provide services applied , it was directly effective , and the rule was probably unjustified : having an address in the member state would be enough to pursue the legitimate aim of good administration of justice . The Court of Justice has held that secondary education falls outside the scope of article 56 , because usually the state funds it , though higher education does not . Health care generally counts as a service . In Geraets - Smits v Stichting Ziekenfonds Mrs Geraets - Smits claimed she should be reimbursed by Dutch social insurance for costs of receiving treatment in Germany . The Dutch health authorities regarded the treatment unnecessary , so she argued this restricted the freedom ( of the German health clinic ) to provide services . Several governments submitted that hospital services should not be regarded as economic , and should not fall within article 56 . But the Court of Justice held health was a " service " even though the government ( rather than the service recipient ) paid for the service . National authorities could be justified in refusing to reimburse patients for medical services abroad if the health care received at home was without undue delay , and it followed " international medical science " on which treatments counted as normal and necessary . The Court requires that the individual circumstances of a patient justify waiting lists , and this is also true in the context of the UK ' s National Health Service . Aside from public services , another sensitive field of services are those classified as illegal . Josemans v Burgemeester van Maastricht held that the Netherlands ' regulation of cannabis consumption , including the prohibitions by some municipalities on tourists ( but not Dutch nationals ) going to coffee shops , fell outside article 56 altogether . The Court of Justice reasoned that narcotic drugs were controlled in all member states , and so this differed from other cases where prostitution or other quasi - legal activity was subject to restriction . If an activity does fall within article 56 , a restriction can be justified under article 52 or overriding requirements developed by the Court of Justice . In Alpine Investments BV v Minister van Financiën a business that sold commodities futures ( with Merrill Lynch and another banking firms ) attempted to challenge a Dutch law that prohibiting cold calling customers . The Court of Justice held the Dutch prohibition pursued a legitimate aim to prevent " undesirable developments in securities trading " including protecting the consumer from aggressive sales tactics , thus maintaining confidence in the Dutch markets . In Omega Spielhallen GmbH v Bonn a " laserdrome " business was banned by the Bonn council . It bought fake laser gun services from a UK firm called Pulsar Ltd , but residents had protested against " playing at killing " entertainment . The Court of Justice held that the German constitutional value of human dignity , which underpinned the ban , did count as a justified restriction on freedom to provide services . In Liga Portuguesa de Futebol v Santa Casa da Misericórdia de Lisboa the Court of Justice also held that the state monopoly on gambling , and a penalty for a Gibraltar firm that had sold internet gambling services , was justified to prevent fraud and gambling where people ' s views were highly divergent . The ban was proportionate as this was an appropriate and necessary way to tackle the serious problems of fraud that arise over the internet . In the Services Directive a group of justifications were codified in article 16 that the case law has developed .
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Question: What did the Court of Justice sorry What did the Dutch health authorities regard as unnecessary in Geraets - Smits v Stichting Ziekenfonds ?
context: The " freedom to provide services " under TFEU article 56 applies to people who give services " for remuneration " , especially commercial or professional activity . For example , in Van Binsbergen v Bestuur van de Bedrijfvereniging voor de Metaalnijverheid a Dutch lawyer moved to Belgium while advising a client in a social security case , and was told he could not continue because Dutch law said only people established in the Netherlands could give legal advice . The Court of Justice held that the freedom to provide services applied , it was directly effective , and the rule was probably unjustified : having an address in the member state would be enough to pursue the legitimate aim of good administration of justice . The Court of Justice has held that secondary education falls outside the scope of article 56 , because usually the state funds it , though higher education does not . Health care generally counts as a service . In Geraets - Smits v Stichting Ziekenfonds Mrs Geraets - Smits claimed she should be reimbursed by Dutch social insurance for costs of receiving treatment in Germany . The Dutch health authorities regarded the treatment unnecessary , so she argued this restricted the freedom ( of the German health clinic ) to provide services . Several governments submitted that hospital services should not be regarded as economic , and should not fall within article 56 . But the Court of Justice held health was a " service " even though the government ( rather than the service recipient ) paid for the service . National authorities could be justified in refusing to reimburse patients for medical services abroad if the health care received at home was without undue delay , and it followed " international medical science " on which treatments counted as normal and necessary . The Court requires that the individual circumstances of a patient justify waiting lists , and this is also true in the context of the UK ' s National Health Service . Aside from public services , another sensitive field of services are those classified as illegal . Josemans v Burgemeester van Maastricht held that the Netherlands ' regulation of cannabis consumption , including the prohibitions by some municipalities on tourists ( but not Dutch nationals ) going to coffee shops , fell outside article 56 altogether . The Court of Justice reasoned that narcotic drugs were controlled in all member states , and so this differed from other cases where prostitution or other quasi - legal activity was subject to restriction . If an activity does fall within article 56 , a restriction can be justified under article 52 or overriding requirements developed by the Court of Justice . In Alpine Investments BV v Minister van Financiën a business that sold commodities futures ( with Merrill Lynch and another banking firms ) attempted to challenge a Dutch law that prohibiting cold calling customers . The Court of Justice held the Dutch prohibition pursued a legitimate aim to prevent " undesirable developments in securities trading " including protecting the consumer from aggressive sales tactics , thus maintaining confidence in the Dutch markets . In Omega Spielhallen GmbH v Bonn a " laserdrome " business was banned by the Bonn council . It bought fake laser gun services from a UK firm called Pulsar Ltd , but residents had protested against " playing at killing " entertainment . The Court of Justice held that the German constitutional value of human dignity , which underpinned the ban , did count as a justified restriction on freedom to provide services . In Liga Portuguesa de Futebol v Santa Casa da Misericórdia de Lisboa the Court of Justice also held that the state monopoly on gambling , and a penalty for a Gibraltar firm that had sold internet gambling services , was justified to prevent fraud and gambling where people ' s views were highly divergent . The ban was proportionate as this was an appropriate and necessary way to tackle the serious problems of fraud that arise over the internet . In the Services Directive a group of justifications were codified in article 16 that the case law has developed .
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Question: Who was the Dutch lawyer who moved to Belgium while advising a client in a social society case I mean why was he told he couldn ' t continue ?
context: The " freedom to provide services " under TFEU article 56 applies to people who give services " for remuneration " , especially commercial or professional activity . For example , in Van Binsbergen v Bestuur van de Bedrijfvereniging voor de Metaalnijverheid a Dutch lawyer moved to Belgium while advising a client in a social security case , and was told he could not continue because Dutch law said only people established in the Netherlands could give legal advice . The Court of Justice held that the freedom to provide services applied , it was directly effective , and the rule was probably unjustified : having an address in the member state would be enough to pursue the legitimate aim of good administration of justice . The Court of Justice has held that secondary education falls outside the scope of article 56 , because usually the state funds it , though higher education does not . Health care generally counts as a service . In Geraets - Smits v Stichting Ziekenfonds Mrs Geraets - Smits claimed she should be reimbursed by Dutch social insurance for costs of receiving treatment in Germany . The Dutch health authorities regarded the treatment unnecessary , so she argued this restricted the freedom ( of the German health clinic ) to provide services . Several governments submitted that hospital services should not be regarded as economic , and should not fall within article 56 . But the Court of Justice held health was a " service " even though the government ( rather than the service recipient ) paid for the service . National authorities could be justified in refusing to reimburse patients for medical services abroad if the health care received at home was without undue delay , and it followed " international medical science " on which treatments counted as normal and necessary . The Court requires that the individual circumstances of a patient justify waiting lists , and this is also true in the context of the UK ' s National Health Service . Aside from public services , another sensitive field of services are those classified as illegal . Josemans v Burgemeester van Maastricht held that the Netherlands ' regulation of cannabis consumption , including the prohibitions by some municipalities on tourists ( but not Dutch nationals ) going to coffee shops , fell outside article 56 altogether . The Court of Justice reasoned that narcotic drugs were controlled in all member states , and so this differed from other cases where prostitution or other quasi - legal activity was subject to restriction . If an activity does fall within article 56 , a restriction can be justified under article 52 or overriding requirements developed by the Court of Justice . In Alpine Investments BV v Minister van Financiën a business that sold commodities futures ( with Merrill Lynch and another banking firms ) attempted to challenge a Dutch law that prohibiting cold calling customers . The Court of Justice held the Dutch prohibition pursued a legitimate aim to prevent " undesirable developments in securities trading " including protecting the consumer from aggressive sales tactics , thus maintaining confidence in the Dutch markets . In Omega Spielhallen GmbH v Bonn a " laserdrome " business was banned by the Bonn council . It bought fake laser gun services from a UK firm called Pulsar Ltd , but residents had protested against " playing at killing " entertainment . The Court of Justice held that the German constitutional value of human dignity , which underpinned the ban , did count as a justified restriction on freedom to provide services . In Liga Portuguesa de Futebol v Santa Casa da Misericórdia de Lisboa the Court of Justice also held that the state monopoly on gambling , and a penalty for a Gibraltar firm that had sold internet gambling services , was justified to prevent fraud and gambling where people ' s views were highly divergent . The ban was proportionate as this was an appropriate and necessary way to tackle the serious problems of fraud that arise over the internet . In the Services Directive a group of justifications were codified in article 16 that the case law has developed .
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Question: What did the German constitution nope the Court of Justice reason were controlled in all member states in Josemans v Burgemeester van Maastricht ?
context: The " freedom to provide services " under TFEU article 56 applies to people who give services " for remuneration " , especially commercial or professional activity . For example , in Van Binsbergen v Bestuur van de Bedrijfvereniging voor de Metaalnijverheid a Dutch lawyer moved to Belgium while advising a client in a social security case , and was told he could not continue because Dutch law said only people established in the Netherlands could give legal advice . The Court of Justice held that the freedom to provide services applied , it was directly effective , and the rule was probably unjustified : having an address in the member state would be enough to pursue the legitimate aim of good administration of justice . The Court of Justice has held that secondary education falls outside the scope of article 56 , because usually the state funds it , though higher education does not . Health care generally counts as a service . In Geraets - Smits v Stichting Ziekenfonds Mrs Geraets - Smits claimed she should be reimbursed by Dutch social insurance for costs of receiving treatment in Germany . The Dutch health authorities regarded the treatment unnecessary , so she argued this restricted the freedom ( of the German health clinic ) to provide services . Several governments submitted that hospital services should not be regarded as economic , and should not fall within article 56 . But the Court of Justice held health was a " service " even though the government ( rather than the service recipient ) paid for the service . National authorities could be justified in refusing to reimburse patients for medical services abroad if the health care received at home was without undue delay , and it followed " international medical science " on which treatments counted as normal and necessary . The Court requires that the individual circumstances of a patient justify waiting lists , and this is also true in the context of the UK ' s National Health Service . Aside from public services , another sensitive field of services are those classified as illegal . Josemans v Burgemeester van Maastricht held that the Netherlands ' regulation of cannabis consumption , including the prohibitions by some municipalities on tourists ( but not Dutch nationals ) going to coffee shops , fell outside article 56 altogether . The Court of Justice reasoned that narcotic drugs were controlled in all member states , and so this differed from other cases where prostitution or other quasi - legal activity was subject to restriction . If an activity does fall within article 56 , a restriction can be justified under article 52 or overriding requirements developed by the Court of Justice . In Alpine Investments BV v Minister van Financiën a business that sold commodities futures ( with Merrill Lynch and another banking firms ) attempted to challenge a Dutch law that prohibiting cold calling customers . The Court of Justice held the Dutch prohibition pursued a legitimate aim to prevent " undesirable developments in securities trading " including protecting the consumer from aggressive sales tactics , thus maintaining confidence in the Dutch markets . In Omega Spielhallen GmbH v Bonn a " laserdrome " business was banned by the Bonn council . It bought fake laser gun services from a UK firm called Pulsar Ltd , but residents had protested against " playing at killing " entertainment . The Court of Justice held that the German constitutional value of human dignity , which underpinned the ban , did count as a justified restriction on freedom to provide services . In Liga Portuguesa de Futebol v Santa Casa da Misericórdia de Lisboa the Court of Justice also held that the state monopoly on gambling , and a penalty for a Gibraltar firm that had sold internet gambling services , was justified to prevent fraud and gambling where people ' s views were highly divergent . The ban was proportionate as this was an appropriate and necessary way to tackle the serious problems of fraud that arise over the internet . In the Services Directive a group of justifications were codified in article 16 that the case law has developed .
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