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Anarchism is a political philosophy and movement is a political philosophy and movement that Anarchism calls for the abolition of Humans lived in societies without scepticism toward authority also rose throughout history , modern anarchism emerged history , modern anarchism emerged from , modern anarchism emerged from the Enlightenment , the anarchist movement flourished in most parts the anarchist movement flourished in most parts of Anarchists have taken part in into revolutionary and evolutionary tactics ; there is revolutionary and evolutionary tactics ; there is significant overlap ; there is significant overlap between there is significant overlap between the The etymological origin of "anarchism " is The suffix "-ism " denotes the ideological current that " denotes the ideological current that favours denotes the ideological current that favours anarchy from 1539 ; early English usages emphasised 1539 ; early English usages emphasised a sense ; early English usages emphasised a sense of early English usages emphasised a sense of disorder Various factions within the French Revolution labelled their opponents Additionally , some anarchists use "libertarian socialist , some anarchists use "libertarian socialist " some anarchists use "libertarian socialist " to Anarchism is contrasted to socialist forms is contrasted to socialist forms which contrasted to socialist forms which are Scholars of anarchism generally highlight defining " anarchism " is It was after the creation of the state ) was delineated by ) was delineated by Taoist philosophers Zhuang Zhou was delineated by Taoist philosophers Zhuang Zhou and delineated by Taoist philosophers Zhuang Zhou and Laozi were also articulated by tragedians also articulated by tragedians and articulated by tragedians and philosophers Aeschylus and Sophocles used the myth Socrates questioned Athenian authorities constantly and Cynics dismissed human law ( "nomos In medieval Europe , there was medieval Europe , there was no anarchistic activity , there was no anarchistic activity except there was no anarchistic activity except some ascetic religious movements In Basra , religious sects preached Basra , religious sects preached against , religious sects preached against the state In Europe , various sects developed Europe , various sects developed anti-state and libertarian tendencies

delegitimising the state , Max Stirner's thinking paved the state , Max Stirner's thinking paved the way , Max Stirner's thinking paved the way to Max Stirner's thinking paved the way to individualism various anarchist schools of thought had become from mutualism , Mikhail Bakunin founded mutualism , Mikhail Bakunin founded collectivist anarchism , Mikhail Bakunin founded collectivist anarchism and Mikhail Bakunin founded collectivist anarchism and entered The International became a significant political force , with became a significant political force , with Karl Marx bitter disputes , the Bakuninists were expelled the Bakuninists were expelled from the International were expelled from the International by expelled from the International by the Marxists from the First International , anarchists formed the First International , anarchists formed the St. Imier International , anarcho-communism overlapped with collectivism the century , anarchism had spread It was a notable feature of the international syndicalism movement , small groups of students imported small groups of students imported the humanistic pro-science version Tokyo was a hotspot for rebellious youth In Latin America , Argentina was Latin America , Argentina was a stronghold , Argentina was a stronghold for Argentina was a stronghold for anarcho-syndicalism , a minority of anarchists adopted a minority of anarchists adopted tactics This strategy became known as propaganda from these terrorist acts , infamy came these terrorist acts , infamy came upon , infamy came upon the movement infamy came upon the movement and however , they met harsh suppression , they met harsh suppression after they met harsh suppression after the Bolshevik government met harsh suppression after the Bolshevik government was in Russia , two new antithetical currents emerged Russia , two new antithetical currents emerged , former sought to create a coherent group sought to create a coherent group that activists turned to communist parties which turned to communist parties which grew A long tradition of Spanish anarchism led to supported by armed militias , took by armed militias , took control The 1960s witnessed a revival of anarchism During this time , anarchism found this time , anarchism found a presence

, anarchism found a presence in anarchism found a presence in other movements It also saw a transition from Anarchism became associated with punk subculture The established feminist tendencies of anarcha-feminism returned with Black anarchism began to take form of the 21st century , anarchism grew the 21st century , anarchism grew in , anarchism grew in popularity anarchism grew in popularity and Anarchists became known for their involvement Other organisational tactics pioneered in this time include A significant event of this period was the confrontations The individualist current emphasises negative liberty individualist current emphasises negative liberty in current emphasises negative liberty in opposing restraints anarchist movements which constitute political anarchism lies which constitute political anarchism lies philosophical anarchism constitute political anarchism lies philosophical anarchism which political anarchism lies philosophical anarchism which holds lies philosophical anarchism which holds that individualist anarchism , philosophical anarchism may tolerate , philosophical anarchism may tolerate the existence philosophical anarchism may tolerate the existence of Anarchism pays significant attention to moral arguments political nihilism has been espoused by has been espoused by anarchists Inceptive currents among classical anarchist currents were mutualism They were followed by the major currents were followed by the major currents of followed by the major currents of social anarchism Mutualism is an 18th-century economic theory that was is an 18th-century economic theory that was developed Its aims include reciprocity , free association , Proudhon first characterised his goal Proudhon first characterised his goal as Collectivist anarchism is a revolutionary socialist form of anarchism Collectivist anarchists advocate collective ownership of the means Anarcho-communism is a theory of anarchism is a theory of anarchism that Anarcho-communism developed from radical socialist currents after Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch of anarchism is a branch of anarchism that Individualist anarchism is a set of several traditions Anarchist principles undergird contemporary radical social movements of the left Interest in the anarchist movement developed alongside , wider embrace of anarchist principles signaled wider embrace of anarchist principles signaled a revival which emphasizes black bloc demonstrations has reinforced Its publicity has also led more scholars anarchist principles " , there is

" , there is no consensus , there is no consensus on there is no consensus on which is no consensus on which principles Anarchist schools disagree on the methods by The principle of equal liberty is closer Anarchists' tactics take various forms but in Anarchist tactics have shifted during the course During the classical era , anarchists had the classical era , anarchists had a militant tendency only did they confront state armed forces did they confront state armed forces , they confront state armed forces , as Anarchists also took part in Many of these attacks were done of these attacks were done by these attacks were done by individual assailants were done by individual assailants and done by individual assailants and the majority achieve their stateless , nonviolent ends Other anarchist groups advocate direct action , a tactic advocate direct action , a tactic which Anarchists took an active role in strike actions They saw it as a part Anarchists also reinforced their propaganda within This can take the form of been engaging with various grassroots movements that engaging with various grassroots movements that are the classical era , the newly coined term "small-a anarchism " signals , the newly coined term "small-a anarchism " signals their tendency the newly coined term "small-a anarchism " signals their tendency not The decision-making process of small anarchist affinity groups plays a significant tactical role Anarchists have employed various methods in One way is for an individual from Minorities usually accept rough consensus , Anarchists usually form small groups ( involved in developing various software that Anarchists organize themselves to squat they are often called Temporary Autonomous Zones by anarchists , squatting is anarchists , squatting is a way , squatting is a way to squatting is a way to regain Acquiring space enables anarchists to Its diversity has led to widely different uses not often discussed by classical anarchists often discussed by classical anarchists but discussed by classical anarchists but the Sexual violence was a concern for anarchists contemporary anarchism , this current survives this current survives as a tendency

current survives as a tendency to Free love advocates were against marriage , The notion of free love was much Those free love movements contributed to the establishment of , some anarchists struggled with the jealousy some anarchists struggled with the jealousy that struggled with the jealousy that arose Anarchist feminists were advocates of free love sexual identity and compulsory heterosexuality became a subject Anarchists consider proper education , one consider proper education , one which Catalan anarchist and free thinker Francisco Ferrer established the Escuela Moderna Ferrer aimed to educate the working class closed after constant harassment by the state Nonetheless , his ideas formed the inspiration , his ideas formed the inspiration for his ideas formed the inspiration for a series also established a similar school with its founding principle established a similar school with its founding principle being , there has been little consensus there has been little consensus among to the state and its institutions is the state and its institutions is a "sine qua non and its institutions is a "sine qua non " its institutions is a "sine qua non " of Anarchists consider the state as a tool their life , major decisions are taken major decisions are taken by a small elite Another anarchist argument against states is that against states is that the people states is that the people constituting is that the people constituting a government believed that the tension between authority Bakunin saw the state as meaning philosophical anarchism , believed that the state made art useful to anarchists It could depict a critique of art could appeal to the whole human The 19th-century neo-impressionist movement had an ecological aesthetic and offered The most common critique of anarchism is that of anarchism is that humans anarchism is that humans can Philosopher Bertrand Russell supported this critique , stating Philosophy lecturer Andrew G. Fiala composed a list of common arguments anarchism would turn into the ruling political theory Philosophical anarchism has met the criticism of Law professor William A. Edmundson authored an essay to argue "The Problem of Political Authority " , Michael Huemer defends

" , Michael Huemer defends philosophical anarchism , Michael Huemer defends philosophical anarchism , Michael Huemer defends philosophical anarchism , claiming One of the earliest criticisms is that of the earliest criticisms is that anarchism the earliest criticisms is that anarchism defies states that the acceptance of authority Anarchists reject this criticism because challenging or disobeying authority reject this criticism because challenging or disobeying authority does social revolution has been criticised by has been criticised by academics been criticised by academics as criticised by academics as naive Academic John Molyneux writes in his book "Anarchism: A Marxist The Marxist criticism of anarchism is that of anarchism is that it anarchism is that it has is that it has a utopian character Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by difficulties Parents often notice signs during Autism is associated with a combination Risk factors during pregnancy include certain infections Controversies surround other proposed environmental causes ; for about 1.5% of children are diagnosed Autism is a highly variable neurodevelopmental disorder whose symptoms first is a highly variable neurodevelopmental disorder whose symptoms first appear Overt symptoms gradually begin after the age of six months It is distinguished by a characteristic triad is distinguished by a characteristic triad of distinguished by a characteristic triad of symptoms Autistic people have social impairments and often Autistic infants show less attention to social stimuli for example , they have example , they have less eye contact , they have less eye contact and they have less eye contact and turn-taking Three- to five-year-old autistic children are less likely , they do form attachments they do form attachments to Most autistic children display moderately less attachment security than neurotypical children Children with high-functioning autism have more intense and frequent loneliness There are many anecdotal reports , but Differences in communication may be example , they may look they may look at a pointing hand , high-functioning autistic children aged 8–15 performed high-functioning autistic children aged 8–15 performed equally Both autistic groups performed worse than controls Many individuals with ASD show superior skills Sensory abnormalities are found in over 90%

Differences are greater for under-responsivity An estimated 60–80% of autistic people have motor signs of autistic people have motor signs that autistic people have motor signs that include have motor signs that include poor muscle tone Unusual eating behavior occurs in about three-quarters of There is tentative evidence that gender dysphoria is tentative evidence that gender dysphoria occurs Gastrointestinal problems are one of the most commonly co-occurring medical conditions presumed that there is a common cause Autism has a strong genetic basis , although has a strong genetic basis , although the genetics Complexity arises due to interactions Studies of twins suggest that of twins suggest that heritability twins suggest that heritability is suggest that heritability is 0.7 Most loci individually explain less than 1% of that is , the mutation that is , the mutation that causes Intrauterine growth restriction is associated with ASD to or exacerbate autism include certain foods or exacerbate autism include certain foods , exacerbate autism include certain foods , infectious diseases The latter theory was supported by a litigation-funded study was supported by a litigation-funded study that supported by a litigation-funded study that has Autism's symptoms result from maturation-related changes in There is evidence that gut–brain axis abnormalities is evidence that gut–brain axis abnormalities may A 2015 review proposed that immune dysregulation , gastrointestinal inflammation Some rare mutations may lead to autism Gene replacement studies in mice suggest that in mice suggest that autistic symptoms mice suggest that autistic symptoms are Diagnosis is based on behavior the DSM-5 , autism is characterized autism is characterized by persistent deficits is characterized by persistent deficits in characterized by persistent deficits in social communication These deficits are present in early childhood Sample symptoms include lack of social or emotional reciprocity better accounted for by Rett syndrome accounted for by Rett syndrome , the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R ) is a semistructured parent interview is a semistructured parent interview , and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule A pediatrician commonly performs a preliminary investigation by Commercial availability of tests may precede the UK the National Autism Plan for Children recommends

the National Autism Plan for Children recommends at Signs of autism may be include making oneself perform normative facial expressions Autism is one of the five pervasive developmental disorders is one of the five pervasive developmental disorders ( , people with Asperger syndrome have people with Asperger syndrome have no substantial delay The terminology of autism can be causes has been hampered by has been hampered by the inability been hampered by the inability to hampered by the inability to identify The United States Preventive Services Task Force in 2016 found it in 2016 found it was 2016 found it was unclear The Japanese practice is to screen all children in the UK , children whose families Screening tools include the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers ( M-CHAT The main goals when treating autistic children are higher IQs are correlated with greater responsiveness Families and the educational system are the main resources be carried out by behavior analysts carried out by behavior analysts , Studies of interventions have methodological problems of interventions have methodological problems that interventions have methodological problems that prevent have methodological problems that prevent definitive conclusions the development of evidence-based interventions has advanced Intensive , sustained special education programs and Educational interventions often used include applied behavior analysis these approaches , interventions either treat , interventions either treat autistic features interventions either treat autistic features comprehensively Two theoretical frameworks outlined for early childhood intervention include One interventional strategy utilizes a parent training model , which utilizes a parent training model , which teaches in preschool children ; it is preschool children ; it is also known whether treatment programs for children used to treat ASD symptoms that There is scant reliable research about the effectiveness few are supported by scientific studies Treatment approaches have little empirical support in quality Some alternative treatments may place the child at In 2005 , botched chelation therapy killed 2005 , botched chelation therapy killed a five-year-old child , botched chelation therapy killed a five-year-old child with botched chelation therapy killed a five-year-old child with autism recommended for autistic people since the associated risks

as of 2018 there is of 2018 there is no good evidence 2018 there is no good evidence to there is no good evidence to recommend The authors analyzed the prospective trials conducted to All of them compared gluten- and casein-free diet 3 months , no significant effect was observed concluded that a longer duration of the diet This includes decreasing stress , There is tentative evidence that music therapy is tentative evidence that music therapy may There has been early research looking There is no known cure for autism of ASD ; this occurs ASD ; this occurs sometimes this occurs sometimes after intensive treatment ; reported rates in unselected samples reported rates in unselected samples have Most autistic children acquire language by age five Many autistic children lack social support , future employment opportunities no study has focused on autism Many autistic people face significant obstacles in transitioning Compared to the general population autistic people are to the general population autistic people are more the general population autistic people are more likely of 2007 , reviews estimate 2007 , reviews estimate a prevalence , reviews estimate a prevalence of reviews estimate a prevalence of 1–2 A 2016 survey in the United States reported a rate Globally , autism affects an estimated 24.8 million people , autism affects an estimated 24.8 million people , autism affects an estimated 24.8 million people , while affects an estimated 24.8 million people , while Asperger syndrome In 2012 , the NHS estimated 2012 , the NHS estimated that estimated that the overall prevalence of autism from 1998 to 2018 , the autism diagnoses increased 1998 to 2018 , the autism diagnoses increased by , the autism diagnoses increased by 787% a real increase would suggest directing more attention Males are at higher risk for cognitive impairment : it may be the risk of autism is associated with older mothers ; two potential explanations are older mothers ; two potential explanations are the known increase ; two potential explanations are the known increase in two potential explanations are the known increase in mutation burden

contains the story of a 12-year-old boy who The earliest well-documented case of autism is that He derived it from the Greek word "autós "autism " first took its modern sense Asperger was investigating an ASD now Leo Kanner of the Johns Hopkins Hospital first used late as the mid-1970s there was as the mid-1970s there was little evidence the mid-1970s there was little evidence of there was little evidence of a genetic role It took until 1980 for In 1987 , the DSM-III-R provided 1987 , the DSM-III-R provided a checklist , the DSM-III-R provided a checklist for the DSM-III-R provided a checklist for diagnosing May 2013 , the DSM-5 was released The Internet has helped autistic individuals bypass nonverbal cues emerged , accompanied by the autistic rights Events include World Autism Awareness Day , Autism Sunday Social-science scholars study those with autism The autism rights movement is a social movement within the context This perspective is distinct from fringe theories About half of autistic people are unemployed work , most are employed most are employed in sheltered settings , experienced employers of autistic people give experienced employers of autistic people give positive reports of autism is caused by autism is caused by decreased earnings is caused by decreased earnings in caused by decreased earnings in the job market Surface albedo is defined as the ratio not only determined by properties only determined by properties of determined by properties of the surface These factors vary with atmospheric composition , the Sun ) , albedo is ) , albedo is the directional integration , albedo is the directional integration of albedo is the directional integration of reflectance , albedo refers to the entire spectrum albedo refers to the entire spectrum of it is often given for Albedo is an important concept in climatology Any albedo in visible light falls within Deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an effective albedo approaching from a distance , the ocean surface has a distance , the ocean surface has a low albedo , the ocean surface has a low albedo , the ocean surface has a low albedo , as

Most land areas are in an albedo range of The average albedo of Earth is about 0.3 These calculations are based on the bidirectional reflectance distribution function the average temperature of the planet would drop the mean temperature of the planet would drop In 2021 , scientists reported 2021 , scientists reported that co - caused by climate change ; high albedo areas in the Arctic and Antarctic regions are high albedo areas in the Arctic and Antarctic regions are cold Tropical and sub-tropical rainforest areas have low albedo , and Arctic regions notably release more heat back This has been a concern since has been a concern since arctic ice been a concern since arctic ice and Albedo affects climate by determining A layer of snowfall increases local albedo , the albedo of snow-covered sea ice is the albedo of snow-covered sea ice is far Sea water absorbs more solar radiation than would absorbs more solar radiation than would the same surface The extra absorbed energy heats the sea water , which heats the sea water , which in Albedo works on a smaller scale , Albedo can affect the electrical energy output of the effects of a spectrally responsive albedo are illustrated of a spectrally responsive albedo are illustrated by a spectrally responsive albedo are illustrated by the differences are illustrated by the differences between illustrated by the differences between the spectrally weighted albedo Research showed impacts of over 10% suggested that greater heat absorption by trees Trees also impact climate in , causes heating where it causes heating where it condenses , winter albedos of treeless areas are winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% Deciduous trees have an albedo value of about 0.15 to 0.18 Studies by the Hadley Centre have investigated Water reflects light very differently the wavelength of light even wavy water is of light even wavy water is always light even wavy water is always smooth of incident light , it becomes incident light , it becomes very above , waviness causes an appreciable reduction Note that white caps on waves Cloud albedo has substantial influence over atmospheric temperatures

Different types of clouds exhibit different reflectivity about half of Earth is covered of Earth is covered by Earth is covered by clouds is covered by clouds , covered by clouds , which Clouds keep Earth cool by in some areas are affected by some areas are affected by artificial clouds are affected by artificial clouds , affected by artificial clouds , such Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from of what we know comes what we know comes from we know comes from the study Another notable high-albedo body is Eris , with in the outer Solar System and asteroid belt have the outer Solar System and asteroid belt have low albedos and asteroid belt have low albedos down asteroid belt have low albedos down to A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04 The overall albedo of the Moon is measured One of these five parameters is yet planetary radar astronomy , a microwave (or radar) pulse is transmitted a microwave (or radar) pulse is transmitted toward a planetary target a smooth or mirror-like surface ) are dominated by ) are dominated by the OC component are dominated by the OC component as dominated by the OC component as there where the denominator is the effective cross-sectional area of the denominator is the effective cross-sectional area of the target object Its name in English is " It is similar in shape The uppercase version consists of the two slanting sides of it is also called an abjad the letter — so they used — so they used their version so they used their version of they used their version of the sign The Etruscans brought the Greek alphabet to their civilization During Roman times , there were Roman times , there were many variant forms , there were many variant forms of there were many variant forms of the letter First was the monumental or lapidary style , which was the monumental or lapidary style , which was There was also a cursive style used of these surfaces , there are these surfaces , there are not

, there are not as many examples there are not as many examples of , several variants of the cursive minuscule developed several variants of the cursive minuscule developed through to the present-day form , was the principal form the present-day form , was the principal form used was the principal form used in book-making 15th-century Italy saw the formation of the two main variants saw the formation of the two main variants that in most current handwriting ; it consists most current handwriting ; it consists of ; it consists of a circle it consists of a circle and in most printed material ; it consists most printed material ; it consists of ; it consists of a small loop it consists of a small loop with In Greek handwriting , it was Greek handwriting , it was common these , the serif that the serif that began the right leg stroke serif that began the right leg stroke developed that use the Latin alphabet , denotes Alabama ( ) is a state Alabama is nicknamed the "Yellowhammer State " The state tree is the longleaf pine , and is the longleaf pine , and the state flower Alabama's capital is Montgomery , and is Montgomery , and its largest city Its oldest city is Mobile , founded is Mobile , founded by of the Deep South , Alabama is the Deep South , Alabama is now , Alabama is now a predominantly conservative state Alabama is now a predominantly conservative state , to many native tribes , present-day Alabama was many native tribes , present-day Alabama was a Spanish territory , present-day Alabama was a Spanish territory beginning present-day Alabama was a Spanish territory beginning in The British won the territory in 1763 Spain held Mobile as part December 1819 , Alabama was recognized Alabama was recognized as a state During the antebellum period , Alabama was the antebellum period , Alabama was a major producer , Alabama was a major producer of Alabama was a major producer of cotton until World War II , Alabama suffered World War II , Alabama suffered economic hardship

, Alabama suffered economic hardship , Alabama suffered economic hardship , in to other former slave states , Alabamian legislators employed other former slave states , Alabamian legislators employed Jim Crow laws , Alabamian legislators employed Jim Crow laws to Alabamian legislators employed Jim Crow laws to disenfranchise urban centers , white rural interests dominated the state legislature , white rural interests dominated the state legislature from white rural interests dominated the state legislature from 1901 the Selma to Montgomery march made the state to Montgomery march made the state a Montgomery march made the state a major Following World War II , Alabama grew World War II , Alabama grew as in different dialects ; the plural form is different dialects ; the plural form is ) The word's spelling varies significantly among historical sources of 1540 : Garcilaso de la Vega used 1540 : Garcilaso de la Vega used , As early as 1702 , the French called the tribe , the French called the tribe the the French called the tribe the , Other spellings of the name have included suggest the word comes from the Choctaw The state has numerous place names of Native American origin An 1842 article in the "Jacksonville Republican " proposed in the "Jacksonville Republican " proposed it the "Jacksonville Republican " proposed it meant This notion was popularized in the 1850s Indigenous peoples of varying cultures lived in The agrarian Mississippian culture covered most of the state This is the second-largest complex of the classic Middle Mississippian era Moundville were the basis of scholars were the basis of scholars ' to popular belief , the SECC appears popular belief , the SECC appears to the SECC appears to have no direct links the time of European contact were the Cherokee of European contact were the Cherokee , European contact were the Cherokee , an Iroquoian language people The Spanish were the first Europeans to reach The expedition of Hernando de Soto passed through More than 160 years later , the French founded the region's first European settlement , the French founded the region's first European settlement at

the French founded the region's first European settlement at Old Mobile The city was moved to the current site in the Seven Years' War , it became the Seven Years' War , it became part , it became part of it became part of British West Florida the American Revolutionary War , the territory was divided the territory was divided between the United States He settled in the Tombigbee District during the northern two-thirds of Alabama was known Alabama was known as the Yazoo was known as the Yazoo lands known as the Yazoo lands beginning It was claimed by the Province of was claimed by the Province of Georgia claimed by the Province of Georgia from the lower one-third of Alabama was made The Yazoo lands were added to the territory half of the territory was separated The United States Congress created the Alabama Territory on March 3, 1817 Alabama was admitted as the 22nd state From July5 to August 2, 1819 , delegates met July5 to August 2, 1819 , delegates met to delegates met to prepare the new state constitution was built around large cotton plantations whose owners' wealth built around large cotton plantations whose owners' wealth grew The area also drew many poor, disenfranchised people who also drew many poor, disenfranchised people who became drew many poor, disenfranchised people who became subsistence farmers Alabama had an estimated population of under 10,000 people , Tuscaloosa served as Alabama's capital On January 30, 1846 , the Alabama legislature announced January 30, 1846 , the Alabama legislature announced it The first legislative session in the new capital met in A new capitol building was erected under the direction The first structure burned down in 1849 This second capitol building in Montgomery remains to 1860 , the population had increased the population had increased to 964,201 people On January 11, 1861 , Alabama declared January 11, 1861 , Alabama declared its secession , Alabama declared its secession from Alabama declared its secession from the Union for a few days , it joined a few days , it joined the Confederate States of America

The Confederacy's capital was initially at Montgomery The company wore new uniforms with yellow trim Alabama's slaves were freed by the 13th Amendment were freed by the 13th Amendment in freed by the 13th Amendment in 1865 Alabama was under military rule from , many African Americans emerged as political leaders many African Americans emerged as political leaders in Following the war , the state remained the war , the state remained chiefly During Reconstruction , state legislators ratified Reconstruction , state legislators ratified a new state constitution , state legislators ratified a new state constitution in state legislators ratified a new state constitution in 1868 ratified a new state constitution in 1868 which Legislators funded numerous public road and railroad projects , although funded numerous public road and railroad projects , although these resistance groups tried to suppress the freedmen Reconstruction in Alabama ended in They wrote another constitution in 1875 approved that called for racially segregated schools The new 1901 Constitution of Alabama included provisions included provisions for voter registration that The 1901 constitution required racial segregation of public schools By 1903 only 2,980 African Americans were registered 1903 only 2,980 African Americans were registered in only 2,980 African Americans were registered in Alabama This compared to more than 181,000 African Americans eligible suppress black voting , the new restrictions resulted black voting , the new restrictions resulted in , the new restrictions resulted in their disenfranchisement the new restrictions resulted in their disenfranchisement as By 1941 , whites constituted 1941 , whites constituted a slight majority , whites constituted a slight majority of whites constituted a slight majority of those Nearly all Blacks had lost the ability to certain provisions , the state legislature would create , the state legislature would create new ones the state legislature would create new ones to in the South , the Rosenwald Fund began the South , the Rosenwald Fund began funding , the Rosenwald Fund began funding the construction the Rosenwald Fund began funding the construction of began funding the construction of what In Alabama these schools were designed Alabama these schools were designed and

The fund required the local community and state Black residents effectively taxed themselves twice 1913 , the first 80 Rosenwald Schools were built the first 80 Rosenwald Schools were built in Alabama several vocational buildings were completed by 1937 At the same time , many rural people migrated the same time , many rural people migrated to , many rural people migrated to the city many rural people migrated to the city of Birmingham experienced such rapid growth it was experienced such rapid growth it was called By 1920 , Birmingham was 1920 , Birmingham was the 36th-largest city , Birmingham was the 36th-largest city in Birmingham was the 36th-largest city in the United States Heavy industry and mining were the basis Rural workers poured into the largest cities in , more than 89,000 people moved into the city more than 89,000 people moved into the city to the state from 1901 to 1961 , the rural-dominated legislature refused the rural-dominated legislature refused to reapportion House and Senate seats They held on to old representation since 1901 , the legislature completed 1901 , the legislature completed the congressional redistricting , the legislature completed the congressional redistricting based the legislature completed the congressional redistricting based on This benefited the urban areas that had benefited the urban areas that had developed In 1954 , the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 1954 , the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in " Brown v. Board of Education under Governor George Wallace , Alabama resisted Governor George Wallace , Alabama resisted compliance , Alabama resisted compliance with Alabama resisted compliance with federal demands The civil rights movement had notable events in Alabama Legal segregation ended in the states in many of Alabama's African-Americans were living the Black Belt region across central Alabama " is is home to largely poor counties that These counties include Dallas , Lowndes Alabama has made some changes since At-large voting had diluted the votes of This has resulted in more proportional representation of proportional representation , 23 jurisdictions use proportional representation , 23 jurisdictions use limited voting

, 23 jurisdictions use limited voting , 23 jurisdictions use limited voting , as in the 1960s , the state's economy shifted the 1960s , the state's economy shifted away the state's economy shifted away from its traditional lumber, steel, and textile industries In 2001 , Alabama Supreme Court chief justice Roy Moore installed 2001 , Alabama Supreme Court chief justice Roy Moore installed a statue , Alabama Supreme Court chief justice Roy Moore installed a statue of Alabama Supreme Court chief justice Roy Moore installed a statue of the Ten Commandments In 2002 , the 11th US Circuit Court ordered 2002 , the 11th US Circuit Court ordered the statue , the 11th US Circuit Court ordered the statue removed the 11th US Circuit Court ordered the statue removed , A few natural disasters have occurred in the state It was among the most destructive storms to : 3.2% of the area is 3.2% of the area is water About three-fifths of the land area is part Alabama is bordered by the states is bordered by the states of bordered by the states of Tennessee Alabama has coastline at the Gulf of Mexico Alabama's land consists of of forest Alabama administered by the National Park Service include administered by the National Park Service include Horseshoe Bend National Military Park by the National Park Service include Horseshoe Bend National Military Park near Additionally , Alabama has four National Forests , Alabama has four National Forests : Alabama has four National Forests : Conecuh A -wide meteorite impact crater is located in Elmore County This is the Wetumpka crater , the site A -wide meteorite hit the area about 80 showcase the eroded remains of the impact crater that The average annual temperature is 64°F ( 18°C Generally , Alabama has very hot summers , Alabama has very hot summers and Alabama has very hot summers and mild winters Summers in Alabama are among averages between 70 and 80 days per year with thunder reported ; the central and northern parts of the state are the central and northern parts of the state are most

Several long-tracked F5/EF5 tornadoes have contributed to Alabama The state was affected by the 1974 Super Outbreak was affected by the 1974 Super Outbreak and affected by the 1974 Super Outbreak and was The 2011 Super Outbreak produced a record amount of tornadoes The peak season for tornadoes varies from Alabama is one of the few places Historic snowfall events include New Year's Eve 1963 snowstorm and the 1993 Storm of the Century The annual average snowfall for the Birmingham area is per Alabama is home to a diverse array Alabama is in the subtropical coniferous forest biome and Indigenous animal species in the state include 62 mammal species Invertebrates include 97 crayfish species and 383 mollusk species the 2020 United States Census the population of Alabama was the population of Alabama was 5,024,279 Immigration from outside the U.S. resulted overwhelmingly English extraction , however most English Americans identify estimate that a minimum of 20–23% under the Davis–Strong Act , the state legislature established the Davis–Strong Act , the state legislature established the Alabama Indian Affairs Commission The state has officially recognized nine American Indian tribes In the major Southern speech region , there is the major Southern speech region , there is the decreasing loss , there is the decreasing loss of there is the decreasing loss of the final "r of the state , there is the state , there is a South Midland "arm , there is a South Midland "arm " there is a South Midland "arm " and , 86% of Alabama respondents reported 86% of Alabama respondents reported their religion Alabama is located in the middle 1,380,121 ; this is followed this is followed by the United Methodist Church is followed by the United Methodist Church with followed by the United Methodist Church with 327,734 adherents Many Baptist and Methodist congregations became established in the Great Awakening had almost 60,000 members , the Churches of Christ had almost 60,000 members , the Churches of Christ had nearly 120,000 members nearly 70% of respondents could name indicated a religious preference , 59% said a religious preference , 59% said they

59% said they possessed a "full understanding said they possessed a "full understanding " The oldest Jewish congregation in the state is Congregation Sha'arai Shomayim was formally recognized by the state legislature formally recognized by the state legislature on recognized by the state legislature on January 25, 1844 Later immigrants in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries tended to There are six Dharma centers and organizations Most monastic Buddhist temples are concentrated in southern Mobile County This area has attracted an influx of was founded in 1896 by founded in 1896 by Paul K. Dealy , life expectancy in Alabama was life expectancy in Alabama was 75.1 years Disease Control and Prevention study in 2008 showed that obesity in 2008 showed that obesity in 2008 showed that obesity in Alabama showed that obesity in Alabama is On May 14, 2019 , Alabama passed May 14, 2019 , Alabama passed the Human Life Protection Act , Alabama passed the Human Life Protection Act , Alabama passed the Human Life Protection Act , banning , would punish doctors who would punish doctors who perform punish doctors who perform abortions The state has invested in aerospace crop and animal production in Alabama was valued of the previous century , this was the previous century , this was only about one percent , this was only about one percent of this was only about one percent of the state's gross domestic product to the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis , the 2008 total gross state product was the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis , the 2008 total gross state product was $170billion , the 2008 total gross state product was $170billion , the 2008 total gross state product was $170billion , or Alabama's 2012 GDP increased 1.2% from the previous year The single largest increase came in the area of The state's seasonally adjusted unemployment rate was 5.8% in April 2015 Alabama has no minimum wage and in Alabama's agricultural outputs include poultry and eggs Aquaculture is a large part of the economy Alabamians began to practice aquaculture U.S. farm-raised catfish is the 8th most popular seafood product in America

approximately 4,000 people in Alabama were employed in Alabama were employed by Alabama were employed by the catfish industry were employed by the catfish industry and employed by the catfish industry and Alabama In 2020 , Alabama produced 2020 , Alabama produced ⅓ , Alabama produced ⅓ of Alabama produced ⅓ of the United States' farm-raised catfish the early 2000s to 2020 , the Alabamian catfish industry has declined the Alabamian catfish industry has declined from 250 farms Alabama's industrial outputs include iron and steel products ( including 1993 , the automobile industry has generated , the automobile industry has generated more than 67,800 new jobs the automobile industry has generated more than 67,800 new jobs in Automakers accounted for approximately a third of The eight models produced at the state's auto factories totaled May 2007 , German steelmaker ThyssenKrupp selected , German steelmaker ThyssenKrupp selected Calvert German steelmaker ThyssenKrupp selected Calvert in ThyssenKrupp selected Calvert in Mobile County The remaining portion of the ThyssenKrupp plant had final bids the ThyssenKrupp plant had final bids submitted by had final bids submitted by ArcelorMittal Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional submitted a combined bid for the mill The company also operates terminals in The Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company operates a large plant in Gadsden operates a large plant in Gadsden which Mobile was formally announced by was formally announced by Airbus CEO Fabrice Brégier formally announced by Airbus CEO Fabrice Brégier from announced by Airbus CEO Fabrice Brégier from the Mobile Convention Center The plans include a $600million factory at the Brookley Aeroplex Construction began in 2013 , The assembly plant is the company's first factory to be to Business Insider , Alabama ranked Business Insider , Alabama ranked 14th Alabama ranked 14th in most popular states It was also host to In 2018 , Mobile's Mardi Gras parade was 2018 , Mobile's Mardi Gras parade was the state's top event , Mobile's Mardi Gras parade was the state's top event , Mobile's Mardi Gras parade was the state's top event , producing The top attraction was the U.S. Space & Rocket Center in Huntsville

Alabama has historically been a popular region , and Children's Hospital of Alabama are the only LevelI trauma centers and Children's Hospital of Alabama are the only LevelI trauma centers in Children's Hospital of Alabama are the only LevelI trauma centers in Alabama UAB is the largest state government employer in Alabama Regions Financial Corporation is the largest bank headquartered in Wells Fargo has a regional headquarters , an operations center campus The foundational document for Alabama's government is the Alabama Constitution Alabama's government is the Alabama Constitution , which is the Alabama Constitution , which was There has been a significant movement to argue that Alabama's constitution maintains highly centralized power Most counties do not have home rule the state must be approved by must be approved by the entire Alabama legislature be approved by the entire Alabama legislature and approved by the entire Alabama legislature and , Alabama's government is divided into three coequal branches The legislative branch is the Alabama Legislature , a bicameral assembly The Legislature is responsible for writing The Republican Party currently holds a majority in Until 1964 , the state elected 1964 , the state elected state senators , the state elected state senators on the state elected state senators on a geographic basis as a result , urbanized areas were a result , urbanized areas were grossly It had not changed legislative districts ) , the U.S. Supreme Court implemented the principle , the U.S. Supreme Court implemented the principle of the U.S. Supreme Court implemented the principle of "one man This had caused decades of The executive branch is responsible for the execution It is headed by the governor is headed by the governor of headed by the governor of Alabama Other members of the executive branch include the cabinet The members of the Legislature take office Alabama uses partisan elections to select The current chief justice of the Alabama Supreme Court is Republican Tom Parker All sitting justices on the Alabama Supreme Court are members Some critics believe the election of judges believe the election of judges has Alabama has the highest per capita death penalty rate in the country

In some years , it imposes some years , it imposes more death sentences , it imposes more death sentences than it imposes more death sentences than does imposes more death sentences than does Texas , executions per capita are executions per capita are significantly ; the U.S. Supreme Court has overturned 24 convictions the U.S. Supreme Court has overturned 24 convictions in ; in 10 cases judges overturned in 10 cases judges overturned sentences 10 cases judges overturned sentences of judges overturned sentences of life imprisonment Taxes are collected by the Alabama Department of Revenue Alabama levies a 2% , 4% The corporate income tax rate in Alabama is 6.5% Each county has its own elected legislative branch , usually It also has limited executive authority in The state legislature has retained power over Legislative delegations retain certain powers over each county 1964 ) required that both houses required that both houses have districts that , each county was represented each county was represented by one state senator was represented by one state senator , represented by one state senator , leading A significant part of each legislative session is spent Alabama is an alcoholic beverage control state , meaning is an alcoholic beverage control state , meaning the state government The Alabama Alcoholic Beverage Control Board controls the sale and distribution the American Civil War , Alabama was occupied Alabama was occupied by federal troops was occupied by federal troops of occupied by federal troops of the Third Military District , a coalition of White Democratic politicians passed a coalition of White Democratic politicians passed laws Provisions which disenfranchised blacks resulted which disenfranchised blacks resulted in the state did not redraw election districts not redraw election districts as population redraw election districts as population grew Alabama state politics gained nationwide and international attention in the 1950s the state's only four-term governor , was a controversial figure who , was a controversial figure who vowed was a controversial figure who vowed to of 1965 did African Americans regain 1965 did African Americans regain the ability did African Americans regain the ability to

African Americans regain the ability to exercise In many jurisdictions , they continued many jurisdictions , they continued to In 2007 , the Alabama Legislature passed 2007 , the Alabama Legislature passed , in 1901 , the state became 1901 , the state became part , the state became part of the state became part of the "Solid South nearly a hundred years local and state elections in Alabama were decided white conservatives started shifting to the Republican Party all ten seats on the state appellate courts are elected Until 1994 , no Republicans held 1994 , no Republicans held any , no Republicans held any of no Republicans held any of the court seats Hornsby sued Alabama and defiantly In the early 21st century , Republicans hold the early 21st century , Republicans hold all , Republicans hold all seven Republicans hold all seven of Republicans hold six of the eight elected seats In 2010 , Republicans took 2010 , Republicans took large majorities , Republicans took large majorities of Republicans took large majorities of both chambers the state are still held by are still held by Democrats Many rural counties have voters who are have voters who are majority Democrats Alabama's 67 county sheriffs are elected in partisan The current split is 35 Democrats , 31 Republicans , most of the Democratic sheriffs preside most of the Democratic sheriffs preside over The state's two U.S. senators are Republican Richard C. Shelby and Republican Tommy Tuberville Public primary and secondary education in Alabama is under Public school funding is appropriated through the Alabama Legislature In FY 2006–2007 , Alabama appropriated FY 2006–2007 , Alabama appropriated $ , Alabama appropriated $ 3,775,163,578 Alabama appropriated $ 3,775,163,578 for That represented an increase of $ in recent decades , it lags recent decades , it lags behind it lags behind in achievement Alabama's programs of higher education include 14 four-year public universities Public, post-secondary education in Alabama is overseen in Alabama is overseen by Alabama is overseen by the Alabama Commission is overseen by the Alabama Commission on overseen by the Alabama Commission on Higher Education

The largest single campus is the University of Alabama , located Troy University was the largest institution in the state The Talladega Superspeedway motorsports complex hosts a series of It has a seating capacity of 143,000 Alabama averages over 100,000 fans per game Bryant – Denny Stadium is the home Legion Field is home of the UAB Blazers football program Alabama-Mississippi All Star Classic ; the stadium seats 40,646 In addition , there are addition , there are currently , there are currently five auxiliary interstate routes there are currently five auxiliary interstate routes in The Port of Mobile was ranked 12th by tons of The newly expanded container terminal at the Port of Mobile was ranked Achilles' most notable feat during the Trojan War was the slaying the "Iliad " , other sources concur Linear B tablets attest to the personal name "Achilleus has been construed by Gregory Nagy been construed by Gregory Nagy , construed by Gregory Nagy , following rightly , his men bring distress , his men bring distress to his men bring distress to the enemy Another etymology relates the name to a Proto-Indo-European compound "*h₂eḱ-pṓds" "sharp foot Some researchers deem the name a loan word , led to speculations about his Achilles was the son of the Thetis also brought up by Hera brought up by Hera , , he was left vulnerable he was left vulnerable at of this story , Thetis anointed this story , Thetis anointed the boy , Thetis anointed the boy in Thetis anointed the boy in ambrosia Miletus ) , there is ) , there is no trace , there is no trace of there is no trace of any reference Peleus entrusted Achilles to Chiron the Centaur foretold that her son's fate was either Achilles chose the former , by Ptolemy Hephaestion reported that Thetis Ptolemy Hephaestion reported that Thetis burned , Achilles there fathered two sons Achilles there fathered two sons , to this story , Odysseus learned this story , Odysseus learned from , Odysseus learned from the prophet Odysseus learned from the prophet Calchas Odysseus went to Skyros in

up the spear , Odysseus saw the spear , Odysseus saw through , Odysseus saw through his disguise Odysseus saw through his disguise and of the story , Odysseus arranged the story , Odysseus arranged for , Odysseus arranged for a trumpet alarm Odysseus arranged for a trumpet alarm to the "Iliad " , Achilles arrived , Achilles arrived at Troy Achilles arrived at Troy with the Trojan War , they accidentally stopped they accidentally stopped in Mysia heal ; Telephus consulted an oracle ; Telephus consulted an oracle , Telephus consulted an oracle , who consulted an oracle , who stated about Telephus , he went Telephus , he went to , he went to Aulis he went to Aulis pretending Alternatively , Telephus held Orestes , Telephus held Orestes for Telephus held Orestes for ransom in older accounts , Troilus was older accounts , Troilus was a young Trojan prince , Troilus was a young Trojan prince , Troilus was a young Trojan prince , the Despite his youth , he was his youth , he was one , he was one of he was one of the main Trojan war leaders Prophecies linked Troilus' fate to that Later versions of the story suggested versions of the story suggested Troilus of the story suggested Troilus was the story suggested Troilus was accidentally the myth , Achilles' death therefore came Achilles' death therefore came in retribution Ancient writers treated Troilus as the epitome The Homeric epic only covers a few weeks of the decade-long war , It begins with Achilles' withdrawal from Agamemnon has taken a woman named The prophet Calchas correctly determines the source Calchas correctly determines the source of his mother Thetis , Achilles refuses of Zeus , Nestor declares Zeus , Nestor declares that Agamemnon agrees and sends Odysseus by Hector , subsequently push of absolute destruction , Patroclus leads absolute destruction , Patroclus leads the Myrmidons , Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into battle of Nestor , Achilles grieves Nestor , Achilles grieves over , Achilles grieves over his beloved companion's death

She persuades Hephaestus to make of Patroclus , Achilles ends Patroclus , Achilles ends his refusal , Achilles ends his refusal to Achilles ends his refusal to fight Achilles even engages in battle The god tries to drown Achilles Zeus himself takes note of Finally , Achilles finds his prey realizes the trick , he knows the trick , he knows the battle , he charges at Achilles he charges at Achilles with Accepting his fate , Hector begs his fate , Hector begs Achilles , Hector begs Achilles not Hector begs Achilles not to Achilles tells Hector it is tells Hector it is hopeless Achilles then kills Hector and Hector , Achilles is referred Hector's father Priam goes to Achilles' tent in Troy , Priam hopes Troy , Priam hopes that with Priam , Achilles fights Priam , Achilles fights and Achilles fights and kills the warrior queen of Ethiopia , slays Antilochus Ethiopia , slays Antilochus , argued that episode inspired many details The episode then formed the basis of the "Iliad " , it appears it appears to be the model lovers , this theory was expressed this theory was expressed by some later authors were a couple ; Phaedrus argues a couple ; Phaedrus argues that However , ancient Greek had no words , ancient Greek had no words to ancient Greek had no words to distinguish his dying breath , the hero's death was brought was brought about by Paris brought about by Paris with some versions , the god Apollo guided , the god Apollo guided Paris' arrow death , Achilles' bones were mingled Achilles' bones were mingled with those Another version of Achilles' death is that of Achilles' death is that he Achilles' death is that he fell Achilles asks Priam for Polyxena's hand the "Odyssey " , Agamemnon informs " , Agamemnon informs Achilles , Agamemnon informs Achilles of Agamemnon informs Achilles of his pompous burial He claims they built a massive burial mound claims they built a massive burial mound on But Achilles then asks Odysseus Achilles then asks Odysseus of Achilles' armour was the object of a feud

They competed for it by Furious , Ajax cursed Odysseus , Ajax cursed Odysseus , Ajax cursed Odysseus , which cursed Odysseus , which earned killing sheep , he was sheep , he was so Odysseus eventually gave the armour to Numerous paintings on pottery have suggested They were absorbed in the game Troad , was venerated by , was venerated by Thessalians was venerated by Thessalians , venerated by Thessalians , but An archaic cult is attested for the Milesian colony clay disks , these possibly being , these possibly being votive offerings these possibly being votive offerings , from this island , he places this island , he places a peninsula , he places a peninsula " he places a peninsula " which places a peninsula " which stretches This last feature of Pliny's account is considered of his book , Pliny refers his book , Pliny refers to , Pliny refers to the same island Pliny refers to the same island as Achilles , were discovered by , were discovered by Captain Kritzikly were discovered by Captain Kritzikly in discovered by Captain Kritzikly in 1823 A second exploration in 1840 showed that in 1840 showed that the construction 1840 showed that the construction of showed that the construction of a lighthouse his untimely death , Thetis had snatched , Thetis had snatched her son Thetis had snatched her son from , Pindar had mentioned a cult Pindar had mentioned a cult of known is the connection of these mythological Fortunate Isles is the connection of these mythological Fortunate Isles (μακαρῶν νῆσοι the first century CE , wrote that the island Similarly , others relate the island's name , others relate the island's name to others relate the island's name to its white cliffs In this island there is also this island there is also Achilles' temple there is also Achilles' temple and Leuce had also a reputation as reports that the Delphic Pythia sent a lord Later attestations point to an "Achílleion attestations point to an "Achílleion " The kings of Epirus claimed to The Greek tragedian Aeschylus wrote a trilogy of

The tragedies relate the deeds of Achilles with Agamemnon ; only a few lines survive Agamemnon ; only a few lines survive today The tragedian Sophocles also wrote " The Lovers of Achilles The philosopher Zeno of Elea centred The two get into a discussion two get into a discussion about Socrates uses various analogies , discussing The two also reference Homer two also reference Homer extensively believes that Achilles was a generally honest man Virgil refers to Achilles as was an American lawyer and statesman who Lincoln was born into poverty In 1849 , he returned 1849 , he returned to , he returned to his law practice he returned to his law practice but He reentered politics in 1854 Lincoln ran for President in Pro-slavery elements in the South equated his success despised Lincoln , and irreconcilable pro-Confederate elements He managed the factions by exploiting His Gettysburg Address appealed to nationalistic, republican , Lincoln scrutinized the strategy and tactics He suspended " habeas corpus He engineered the end to slavery He sought to heal the war-torn nation Appomattox , he was attending , he was attending a play he was attending a play at Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809 He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln The family then migrated west , The captain was killed in an Indian raid The heritage of Lincoln's mother Nancy remains Thomas Lincoln bought or leased farms In 1816 , the family moved 1816 , the family moved to , the family moved to Indiana the family moved to Indiana where moved to Indiana where the land surveys Indiana was a "free" (non-slaveholding) territory , and was a "free" (non-slaveholding) territory , and they , Thomas worked as a farmer Thomas worked as a farmer , On October 5, 1818 , Nancy Lincoln succumbed October 5, 1818 , Nancy Lincoln succumbed to , Nancy Lincoln succumbed to milk sickness Nancy Lincoln succumbed to milk sickness , On December 2, 1819 , Thomas married December 2, 1819 , Thomas married Sarah Bush Johnston , Thomas married Sarah Bush Johnston , Thomas married Sarah Bush Johnston , a widow

Abraham became close to his stepmother Lincoln disliked the hard labor associated with It included two short stints in Kentucky He persisted as an avid reader and As a teen , Lincoln took a teen , Lincoln took responsibility , Lincoln took responsibility for Lincoln took responsibility for chores He was an active wrestler during his youth He became county wrestling champion at the age of 21 He made his home in New Salem 1865 , Lincoln was asked He answered that in the practice So , he left Springfield , he left Springfield for he left Springfield for his father's home Lincoln's first romantic interest was Ann Rutledge , whom was Ann Rutledge , whom he By 1835 , they were 1835 , they were in , they were in a relationship they were in a relationship but She died on August 25, 1835 , in 1836 , Lincoln agreed 1836 , Lincoln agreed to , Lincoln agreed to a match Lincoln agreed to a match with , they both had second thoughts In 1839 , Lincoln met 1839 , Lincoln met Mary Todd , Lincoln met Mary Todd in Lincoln met Mary Todd in Springfield She was the daughter of Robert Smith Todd To hell , I suppose hell , I suppose . In 1844 , the couple bought 1844 , the couple bought a house , the couple bought a house in the couple bought a house in Springfield Lincoln was an affectionate husband and father Willie" Lincoln was born on December 21, 1850 Lincoln did not note what did not note what his children not note what his children were note what his children were doing In 1832 , Lincoln joined 1832 , Lincoln joined with , Lincoln joined with a partner Lincoln joined with a partner , That March he entered politics March he entered politics , he entered politics , running Lincoln briefly interrupted his campaign to returning , he observed a supporter , he observed a supporter in he observed a supporter in the crowd Lincoln served as New Salem's postmaster and the custom , Lincoln borrowed legal texts

, Lincoln borrowed legal texts from Lincoln borrowed legal texts from attorneys John Todd Stuart He championed construction of the Illinois and Michigan Canal He voted to expand suffrage In 1837 , he declared 1837 , he declared , He was admitted to the Illinois bar Lincoln emerged as a formidable trial combatant during to his record , Lincoln professed his record , Lincoln professed to , Lincoln professed to friends Lincoln professed to friends in the U.S. House of Representatives ; he was defeated he was defeated by John J. Hardin was defeated by John J. Hardin though defeated by John J. Hardin though he He was the only Whig in the Illinois delegation He was assigned to the Committee on Post Office and Post Roads and the Committee on Expenditures in Lincoln teamed with Joshua R. Giddings on On foreign and military policy , Lincoln spoke foreign and military policy , Lincoln spoke against , Lincoln spoke against the Mexican–American War Lincoln spoke against the Mexican–American War , Lincoln emphasized his opposition to Polk The war had begun with a Mexican slaughter demanded that Polk show Congress The resolution was ignored in both Congress One Illinois newspaper derisively nicknamed him "spotty Lincoln Lincoln had pledged in 1846 win the presidency , he supported the presidency , he supported General Zachary Taylor , he supported General Zachary Taylor for he supported General Zachary Taylor for the Whig nomination The administration offered to appoint him In his Springfield practice , Lincoln handled his Springfield practice , Lincoln handled " , Lincoln handled " every kind Lincoln handled " every kind of in the Midstate county courts ; this continued the Midstate county courts ; this continued for ; this continued for 16 years Lincoln handled transportation cases in the midst a riverboat man , Lincoln initially favored , Lincoln initially favored those interests Lincoln initially favored those interests , He later represented a bridge company against In 1849 , he received 1849 , he received a patent , he received a patent for he received a patent for a flotation device

in 175 cases ; he was 175 cases ; he was sole counsel ; he was sole counsel in he was sole counsel in 51 cases , one of his largest clients was one of his largest clients was the Illinois Central Railroad Lincoln argued in an 1858 criminal trial , The case is famous for Lincoln's use in the moonlight , Lincoln produced the moonlight , Lincoln produced a "Farmers' Almanac produced a "Farmers' Almanac " showing the moon was a third cousin ; Harrison was a third cousin ; Harrison was also ; Harrison was also the grandson Harrison was also the grandson of Harrison was charged with the murder Lincoln angrily protested the judge's initial decision to argued that the testimony involved a dying declaration for Clay , Lincoln highlighted Clay , Lincoln highlighted the latter's support , Lincoln highlighted the latter's support for Lincoln highlighted the latter's support for gradual emancipation a compromise ; the measure would allow would allow the electorate of each territory allow the electorate of each territory to Lincoln then declared his opposition to He said the Kansas Act had a "declared" indifference said the Kansas Act had a "declared" indifference , I hate it because of I hate it because it hate it because it deprives were irreparably split by the Kansas–Nebraska Act irreparably split by the Kansas–Nebraska Act and split by the Kansas–Nebraska Act and other efforts of his party , Lincoln wrote his party , Lincoln wrote in , Lincoln wrote in 1855 Lincoln wrote in 1855 , I do no more than combining Free Soil, Liberty, and antislavery Democratic Party members , Lincoln resisted Free Soil, Liberty, and antislavery Democratic Party members , Lincoln resisted early Republican entreaties , Lincoln resisted early Republican entreaties , Lincoln resisted early Republican entreaties , fearing 1854 , Lincoln was elected Lincoln was elected to the Illinois legislature The year's elections showed the strong opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act that time , senators were elected senators were elected by the state legislature of voting , he was voting , he was unable Lincoln instructed his backers to vote

Violent political confrontations in Kansas continued , Kansas continued , and opposition approached , Lincoln joined the Republicans , Lincoln joined the Republicans and Lincoln joined the Republicans and attended The convention platform endorsed Congress's right to regulate Lincoln gave the final speech of the convention the June 1856 Republican National Convention , though Lincoln received , though Lincoln received support though Lincoln received support to Lincoln received support to run Dred Scott was a slave whose master took was a slave whose master took him returned to the slave state he petitioned to the slave state he petitioned a federal court the slave state he petitioned a federal court for he petitioned a federal court for his freedom Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger B. Taney in the decision wrote that in the decision wrote that blacks the decision wrote that blacks were in the territories , the decision sparked the territories , the decision sparked further outrage , the decision sparked further outrage in the decision sparked further outrage in the North Lincoln denounced it as the product In 1858 , Douglas was 1858 , Douglas was up Douglas was up for re Many in the party felt that in the party felt that a former Whig the party felt that a former Whig should Some eastern Republicans supported Douglas from his opposition Lincoln accepted the nomination with great enthusiasm It will become all one thing , The speech created a stark image of the danger of Lincoln's nomination , Douglas stated Lincoln's nomination , Douglas stated , The Senate campaign featured seven debates between Lincoln in American history ; they had American history ; they had an atmosphere ; they had an atmosphere akin they had an atmosphere akin to The principals stood in stark contrast both Douglas emphasized his Freeport Doctrine , that emphasized his Freeport Doctrine , that local settlers Lincoln's argument assumed a moral tone , as assumed a moral tone , as he won more popular votes , the Democrats won more popular votes , the Democrats won more seats , the Democrats won more seats ,

the Democrats won more seats , and won more seats , and the legislature Lincoln's articulation of the issues gave him ; most of the state's 130,000 German Americans voted most of the state's 130,000 German Americans voted Democratically the state's 130,000 German Americans voted Democratically but the German-language paper the 1858 election , newspapers frequently mentioned , newspapers frequently mentioned Lincoln newspapers frequently mentioned Lincoln as in the Midwest , he lacked the Midwest , he lacked support , he lacked support in he lacked support in the Northeast Traveling untiringly Lincoln made about fifty speeches , he quickly became the champion he quickly became the champion of the Midwestern United States his support in the east was his support in the east was not On February 27, 1860 , powerful New York Republicans invited February 27, 1860 , powerful New York Republicans invited Lincoln , powerful New York Republicans invited Lincoln to powerful New York Republicans invited Lincoln to give He insisted that morality required opposition to slavery Many in the audience thought he in the audience thought he appeared the audience thought he appeared awkward thought he appeared awkward and But Lincoln demonstrated intellectual leadership that Lincoln demonstrated intellectual leadership that brought demonstrated intellectual leadership that brought him Historian David Herbert Donald described the speech as a "superb political move about his ambitions , Lincoln said his ambitions , Lincoln said , May 9–10, 1860 , the Illinois Republican State Convention was held the Illinois Republican State Convention was held in Decatur Lincoln's followers organized a campaign team led by organized a campaign team led by David Davis fence rails ) , Lincoln's supporters adopted ) , Lincoln's supporters adopted the label , Lincoln's supporters adopted the label of Lincoln's supporters adopted the label of "The Rail Candidate In 1860 , Lincoln described 1860 , Lincoln described himself , Lincoln described himself : Lincoln described himself : " described himself : " I Michael Martinez wrote about the effective imaging of in Chicago , Lincoln won Chicago , Lincoln won the nomination , Lincoln won the nomination on

Lincoln won the nomination on the third ballot Pennsylvania put him over the top on the national government , most Republicans agreed the national government , most Republicans agreed with , most Republicans agreed with Lincoln most Republicans agreed with Lincoln that agreed with Lincoln that the North the 1850s , Lincoln had doubted , Lincoln had doubted the prospects Lincoln had doubted the prospects of of the Democratic convention ; they opposed the Democratic convention ; they opposed Douglas's position ; they opposed Douglas's position on they opposed Douglas's position on popular sovereignty to the Republican convention , the Lincoln campaign began the Republican convention , the Lincoln campaign began cultivating , the Lincoln campaign began cultivating a nationwide youth organization the Lincoln campaign began cultivating a nationwide youth organization , campaigned , Lincoln gave no speeches , Lincoln gave no speeches , Lincoln gave no speeches , relying The party did the leg work that produced did the leg work that produced majorities Republican speakers focused first on the party platform The goal was to demonstrate the power dwarfed the combined opposition ; a "Chicago Tribune" writer produced the combined opposition ; a "Chicago Tribune" writer produced a pamphlet ; a "Chicago Tribune" writer produced a pamphlet that a "Chicago Tribune" writer produced a pamphlet that detailed produced a pamphlet that detailed Lincoln's life give public appearances , many sought public appearances , many sought to many sought to visit him to the election , he took the election , he took an office , he took an office in he took an office in the Illinois state capitol November 6, 1860 , Lincoln was elected , Lincoln was elected the 16th president He was the first Republican president and his victory No ballots were cast for him Lincoln received 1,866,452 votes , or The South was outraged by Lincoln's election was outraged by Lincoln's election , outraged by Lincoln's election , and Six of these states declared themselves of these states declared themselves to these states declared themselves to be declared themselves to be a sovereign nation Attempts at compromise followed but

at compromise followed but Lincoln compromise followed but Lincoln and Lincoln tacitly supported the Corwin Amendment to That doomed amendment would have protected slavery Lincoln cited his plans for banning the South : " We are " We are not enemies We are not enemies , We must not be enemies of 1861 signaled that legislative compromise 1861 signaled that legislative compromise was no leaders of the insurrection had proposed agreed that the dismantling of the Union In his second inaugural address , Lincoln looked his second inaugural address , Lincoln looked back Lincoln looked back on the situation On April 12, 1861 , Confederate forces fired April 12, 1861 , Confederate forces fired on , Confederate forces fired on Union troops Confederate forces fired on Union troops at William Tecumseh Sherman talked to Lincoln during fire the first shot ; they did the first shot ; they did just that On April 15 , Lincoln called April 15 , Lincoln called on , Lincoln called on the states Lincoln called on the states to This call forced states to choose of the rail links attacked Union troops who the rail links attacked Union troops who were attacked Union troops who were changing Local leaders' groups later burned critical rail bridges to Lincoln suspended the writ of " ex parte Merryman , issued the writ which , issued the writ which he issued the writ which he felt Lincoln took executive control of the war He responded to the unprecedented political and military crisis as He expanded his war powers , imposed Lincoln gained the support of Congress It was clear from the outset Copperheads criticized Lincoln for refusing The Radical Republicans criticized him for moving On August 6, 1861 , Lincoln signed August 6, 1861 , Lincoln signed the Confiscation Act , Lincoln signed the Confiscation Act that Lincoln signed the Confiscation Act that authorized signed the Confiscation Act that authorized judicial proceedings Lincoln canceled the illegal proclamation as politically Lincoln painstakingly monitored the telegraph reports coming He tracked all phases of the effort in the War Department , Lincoln replaced

the War Department , Lincoln replaced War Secretary Simon Cameron , Lincoln replaced War Secretary Simon Cameron with Lincoln replaced War Secretary Simon Cameron with Edwin Stanton Stanton centralized the War Department's activities , auditing Stanton was a staunch Unionist, pro-business, conservative Democrat who gravitated was a staunch Unionist, pro-business, conservative Democrat who gravitated toward Lincoln's war strategy embraced two priorities : ensuring , Lincoln met with his cabinet Lincoln met with his cabinet in Occasionally Mary prevailed on him Mary prevailed on him to Elements of Military Art and Science " ; Halleck was " ; Halleck was a disciple ; Halleck was a disciple of Halleck was a disciple of the European strategist Antoine-Henri Jomini Lincoln began to appreciate the critical need at Bull Run and Winfield Scott's retirement , Lincoln appointed Bull Run and Winfield Scott's retirement , Lincoln appointed Major General George B. McClellan , Lincoln appointed Major General George B. McClellan general Lincoln appointed Major General George B. McClellan general - McClellan then took months to McClellan's slow progress frustrated Lincoln , as In 1862 , Lincoln removed 1862 , Lincoln removed McClellan , Lincoln removed McClellan for Lincoln removed McClellan for the general's continued inaction He elevated Henry Halleck in July Pope satisfied Lincoln's desire to advance reinforce Pope , Lincoln restored Pope , Lincoln restored him , Lincoln restored him to Lincoln restored him to command to command , General Robert E. Lee's forces crossed command , General Robert E. Lee's forces crossed the Potomac River , General Robert E. Lee's forces crossed the Potomac River into General Robert E. Lee's forces crossed the Potomac River into Maryland McClellan then resisted the president's demand that then resisted the president's demand that he resisted the president's demand that he pursue Lincoln replaced Buell with William Rosecrans In the 1862 midterm elections the Republicans suffered severe losses the 1862 midterm elections the Republicans suffered severe losses due the Republicans suffered severe losses due to Hooker was routed by Lee was routed by Lee at routed by Lee at the Battle of Chancellorsville Meade followed Lee north into

end slavery was limited by slavery was limited by the Constitution was limited by the Constitution , limited by the Constitution , which He sought to persuade the states In June 1862 , Congress passed June 1862 , Congress passed an act , Congress passed an act banning Congress passed an act banning slavery aiding the rebellion ; Lincoln approved the rebellion ; Lincoln approved the bill ; Lincoln approved the bill despite Lincoln approved the bill despite his belief Lincoln's comment on signing the Proclamation was the Proclamation was : " I By the spring of 1863 , Lincoln was the spring of 1863 , Lincoln was ready raising black troops , Lincoln wrote black troops , Lincoln wrote , Lincoln spoke at the dedication of and three minutes , Lincoln asserted three minutes , Lincoln asserted that He defined the war as dedicated Shiloh , Lincoln had said in command , Lincoln felt command , Lincoln felt the Union Army the Senate " was provided by " was provided by a new bill was provided by a new bill which provided by a new bill which Lincoln Grant in 1864 waged the bloody Overland Campaign 1864 waged the bloody Overland Campaign , which waged the bloody Overland Campaign , which exacted Lincoln traveled to Grant's headquarters at Lincoln reacted to Union losses by Lincoln authorized Grant to target He emphasized defeat of the Confederate armies Legend has it that while has it that while Lincoln efforts to discuss peace began Confederate Vice President Stephens led a group meeting with Lincoln The Confederate government evacuated Richmond and Lincoln Lincoln ran for reelection in Lincoln used conversation and his patronage powers At its convention , the Republicans selected its convention , the Republicans selected Johnson , the Republicans selected Johnson as the Republicans selected Johnson as his running mate The Democratic platform followed the "Peace wing " of Meanwhile , Lincoln emboldened Grant , Lincoln emboldened Grant with Lincoln emboldened Grant with more troops and David Farragut's capture of Mobile ended David Farragut's capture of Mobile ended defeatism The National Union Party was united by Lincoln's support

was united by Lincoln's support for united by Lincoln's support for emancipation State Republican parties stressed the perfidy of the Copperheads Reconstruction preceded the war's end , as preceded the war's end , as Lincoln Lincoln led the moderates in Reconstruction policy alienate the South , Lincoln urged the South , Lincoln urged that urged that speedy elections under generous terms fell , they needed leaders , they needed leaders while they needed leaders while their administrations needed leaders while their administrations were , Lincoln respectively appointed Johnson Lincoln respectively appointed Johnson and In Louisiana , Lincoln ordered Louisiana , Lincoln ordered General Nathaniel P. Banks , Lincoln ordered General Nathaniel P. Banks to Lincoln ordered General Nathaniel P. Banks to promote Democratic opponents accused Lincoln of using The Radicals denounced his policy as too implementing the Emancipation Proclamation , Lincoln increased the Emancipation Proclamation , Lincoln increased pressure , Lincoln increased pressure on Lincoln increased pressure on Congress This first attempt fell short of the required two-thirds majority Passage became part of Lincoln's reelection platform believed the federal government had limited responsibility He signed Senator Charles Sumner's Freedmen's Bureau bill that set signed Senator Charles Sumner's Freedmen's Bureau bill that set up The law opened land for a lease Lincoln's experience with Indians followed the death in 1832 , he saw 1832 , he saw no significant action Lincoln's policy toward Indians was driven toward Indians was driven by Indians was driven by politics He used the Indian Bureau as a source supported by the Yankton Indians , killed by the Yankton Indians , killed hundreds Some believed it was a conspiracy believed it was a conspiracy by Lincoln sent General John Pope , the former head Lincoln ordered thousands of Confederate prisoners fight Indians , Lincoln revoked Indians , Lincoln revoked the policy Pope fought against the Indians mercilessly Aiding Pope , Minnesota Congressman Col. Henry H. Sibley led ; hostilities ceased on December 26 killing innocent farmers ; he commuted innocent farmers ; he commuted the sentences ; he commuted the sentences of he commuted the sentences of all

He also faced significant public pressure , Former Governor of Minnesota Alexander Ramsey told Lincoln of his cabinet , Lincoln employed his cabinet , Lincoln employed the strengths , Lincoln employed the strengths of Lincoln employed the strengths of his opponents Lincoln commented on his thought process , We needed to hold our own people I had looked the party over Then I had no right to I had no right to deprive Lincoln adhered to the Whig theory of Lincoln vetoed only four bills , including The 1862 Homestead Act made millions of acres of Western government-held land The 1862 Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act provided government grants for agricultural colleges There were two measures passed to In 1861 , Lincoln signed 1861 , Lincoln signed the second and third Morrill Tariffs , Lincoln signed the second and third Morrill Tariffs , Lincoln signed the second and third Morrill Tariffs , following He also signed the Revenue Act of Lincoln presided over the expansion of The National Banking Act created the system of national banks The US issued paper currency for the first time and the "Journal of Commerce " published a false draft proclamation the "Journal of Commerce " published a false draft proclamation that " published a false draft proclamation that created published a false draft proclamation that created an opportunity Thanksgiving had become a regional holiday in been sporadically proclaimed by the federal government sporadically proclaimed by the federal government on proclaimed by the federal government on irregular dates The prior proclamation had been during James Madison's presidency Lincoln's philosophy on court nominations was that court nominations was that " we Therefore we must take a man we must take a man whose opinions must take a man whose opinions are take a man whose opinions are known Lincoln made five appointments to the Supreme Court Noah Haynes Swayne was an anti-slavery lawyer who was was an anti-slavery lawyer who was committed Samuel Freeman Miller supported Lincoln in the 1860 election David Davis was Lincoln's campaign manager in 1860 joined the Confederate army , he had the Confederate army , he had contacts

, he had contacts with he had contacts with the Confederate secret service for blacks , Booth hatched blacks , Booth hatched a plot , Booth hatched a plot to Booth hatched a plot to assassinate with General Grant , he planned General Grant , he planned to he planned to assassinate Lincoln Lincoln and his wife attended the play At 10:15 in the evening , Booth entered 10:15 in the evening , Booth entered the back , Booth entered the back of Booth entered the back of Lincoln's theater box Major Henry Rathbone momentarily grappled with Booth Lincoln was taken across the street for eight hours , Lincoln died eight hours , Lincoln died at Lincoln's body was placed in a flag-wrapped coffin placed in a flag-wrapped coffin , which The late President lay in state , The train followed a circuitous route from Washington D.C. Many others gathered along the tracks as gathered along the tracks as the train they had lost ' their Moses In a larger sense , the reaction was a larger sense , the reaction was in , the reaction was in response the reaction was in response to Historians emphasized the widespread shock and sorrow As a young man , Lincoln was a young man , Lincoln was a religious skeptic He was private about his position He never made a clear profession of Through his entire public career , Lincoln had his entire public career , Lincoln had a proneness , Lincoln had a proneness for Lincoln had a proneness for quoting In the 1840s , Lincoln subscribed the 1840s , Lincoln subscribed to , Lincoln subscribed to the Doctrine of Necessity Lincoln subscribed to the Doctrine of Necessity , 1850 he more frequently expressed he more frequently expressed a dependence of the evangelicals ; he regarded the evangelicals ; he regarded the republicanism ; he regarded the republicanism of he regarded the republicanism of the Founding Fathers February 1862 may have caused him After Willie's death , he questioned Willie's death , he questioned the divine necessity , he questioned the divine necessity of

he questioned the divine necessity of the war's severity He wrote at this time that wrote at this time that God , He could give the final victory He could give the final victory to Lincoln did believe in an all-powerful God did believe in an all-powerful God that believe in an all-powerful God that shaped in Kentucky : I claim Kentucky : I claim not , at the end of three years struggle the nation's condition at the end of three years struggle the nation's condition is the end of three years struggle the nation's condition is not struggle the nation's condition is not what God alone can claim it it is tending seems plain wrong , impartial history will find impartial history will find therein new cause Lincoln explains therein the cause , He took blue mass pills , which took blue mass pills , which contained has been stressed by historians been stressed by historians such stressed by historians such as Lincoln called the Declaration of Independence — which called the Declaration of Independence — which emphasized He did this at a time His position on war was founded Furthermore , it was a national duty , it was a national duty to it was a national duty to ensure was a national duty to ensure the republic As a Whig activist , Lincoln was a Whig activist , Lincoln was a spokesman , Lincoln was a spokesman for Lincoln was a spokesman for business interests found that Lincoln's "reverence for the Founding Fathers James G. Randall emphasizes his tolerance and moderation In Lincoln's first inaugural address , he explored Lincoln's first inaugural address , he explored the nature , he explored the nature of he explored the nature of democracy He denounced secession as anarchy The successful reunification of the states had consequences had consequences for how people since 1948 , the top three presidents are 1948 , the top three presidents are Lincoln , the top three presidents are Lincoln , the top three presidents are Lincoln , Washington He was viewed by abolitionists was viewed by abolitionists as

viewed by abolitionists as a champion Republicans linked Lincoln's name to their party said he was " a classical liberal by Lincoln , " helped Sociologist Barry Schwartz argues that in the 1930s Lincoln served " as a means Americans asked , " What In the Cold War years , Lincoln's image shifted the Cold War years , Lincoln's image shifted to , Lincoln's image shifted to a symbol Lincoln's image shifted to a symbol of led by Lerone Bennett Jr. , rejected by Lerone Bennett Jr. , rejected Lincoln's role Bennett won wide attention when he won wide attention when he called noted that Lincoln used ethnic slurs argued that Lincoln opposed social equality the 1970s , Lincoln had become , Lincoln had become a hero Lincoln had become a hero to Historian Barry Schwartz wrote in 2009 that wrote in 2009 that Lincoln's image In the 21st century , President Barack Obama named the 21st century , President Barack Obama named Lincoln , President Barack Obama named Lincoln his favorite president President Barack Obama named Lincoln his favorite president and Lincoln's portrait appears on two denominations of His likeness also appears on many postage stamps he did n't grow a beard Lincoln Memorial is one of the most visited monuments in Springfield , Illinois include Springfield , Illinois include Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library , Illinois include Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Illinois include Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum ; 384–322 BC ) was a Greek philosopher 384–322 BC ) was a Greek philosopher and by Plato , he was Plato , he was the founder , he was the founder of he was the founder of the Lyceum His writings cover many subjects including physics Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies Little is known about his life Aristotle was born in the city died when Aristotle was a child At seventeen or eighteen years of age he joined Plato's Academy seventeen or eighteen years of age he joined Plato's Academy in he joined Plato's Academy in Athens died , Aristotle left Athens , Aristotle left Athens and

Aristotle left Athens and , He established a library in the Lyceum established a library in the Lyceum which He also influenced Judeo-Islamic philosophies ( Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars Aristotle's influence on logic continued well , the details of Aristotle's life are the details of Aristotle's life are not , Aristotle learned about biology Aristotle learned about biology and Both of Aristotle's parents died when of Aristotle's parents died when he Aristotle's parents died when he was of seventeen or eighteen , Aristotle moved seventeen or eighteen , Aristotle moved to , Aristotle moved to Athens Aristotle moved to Athens to He probably experienced the Eleusinian Mysteries as probably experienced the Eleusinian Mysteries as he experienced the Eleusinian Mysteries as he wrote Aristotle remained in Athens for The traditional story about his departure records that he Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to of Hermias , Aristotle travelled Hermias , Aristotle travelled with , Aristotle travelled with his pupil Aristotle travelled with his pupil Theophrastus in Lesbos , Aristotle married Lesbos , Aristotle married Pythias , Aristotle married Pythias , Aristotle married Pythias , either Hermias's adoptive daughter She bore him a daughter , Aristotle was appointed as the head in the Macedonian court , he gave the Macedonian court , he gave lessons , he gave lessons not he gave lessons not only Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest In one famous example , he counsels one famous example , he counsels Alexander , he counsels Alexander to he counsels Alexander to be 335 BC , Aristotle had returned Aristotle had returned to Athens Aristotle conducted courses at the school Athens , his wife Pythias died BC , is when Aristotle He wrote many dialogues , of His most important treatises include " Physics " Aristotle studied and made significant contributions A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled Aristotle is credited with the earliest study It goes from the basics , The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory Aristotle examines the concepts of substance In Book VIII , he distinguishes

Book VIII , he distinguishes the matter , he distinguishes the matter of he distinguishes the matter of the substance , the matter of a house is the matter of a house is the bricks his teacher Plato , Aristotle's philosophy aims , Aristotle's philosophy aims at the universal whereas for Plato the universal is for Plato the universal is a separately existing form Plato the universal is a separately existing form which the universal is a separately existing form which actual things is a separately existing form which actual things imitate argued that all things have a universal form for example , one sees example , one sees an apple , one sees an apple , one sees an apple , and sees an apple , and one In this distinction , there is this distinction , there is a particular apple , there is a particular apple and there is a particular apple and a universal form , one can place an apple one can place an apple next argued that there are some universal forms For example , it is example , it is possible Aristotle disagreed with Plato on In addition , Aristotle disagreed addition , Aristotle disagreed with , Aristotle disagreed with Plato Aristotle disagreed with Plato about Where Plato spoke of the world Plato spoke of the world of The coming to be is a change be is a change where nothing is a change where nothing persists In that particular change he introduces the concept that particular change he introduces the concept of he introduces the concept of potentiality to potentiality , this is potentiality , this is what , this is what a thing this is what a thing is is what a thing is capable Actuality is the fulfilment of the end ("telos " ) is the principle the final house are actualities , which are actualities , which is , " what is it " what is it that what is it that makes is it that makes a man how then is man a unity Aristotle's "natural philosophy " spans a wide range of

Aristotle's terminology , "natural philosophy " is , "natural philosophy " is a branch "natural philosophy " is a branch of Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense his use of the term "science " carries " , Aristotle related each , Aristotle related each of Aristotle related each of the four elements the Empedoclean scheme , all matter was made all matter was made of the four elements Aristotle describes two kinds of motion , the natural state of an object is the natural state of an object is to Aristotle implies that in a vacuum implies that in a vacuum the speed Aristotle's writings on motion remained influential A contrary opinion is given by Carlo Rovelli is given by Carlo Rovelli , given by Carlo Rovelli , who suggested that the reason for anything Aristotle describes experiments in optics The apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with the hole , the sun's image always remained chance are causes of some things are causes of some things , as an incidental cause lies in the realm an incidental cause lies in the realm of In astronomy , Aristotle refuted astronomy , Aristotle refuted Democritus's claim , Aristotle refuted Democritus's claim that Aristotle refuted Democritus's claim that the Milky Way refuted Democritus's claim that the Milky Way was Aristotle was one of the first people noted that Aristotle described such change Aristotle also made many observations about Aristotle was the first person to study He spent two years observing and Aristotle reports on the sea-life visible He describes the catfish , electric ray Aristotle's writings can seem to modern readers Aristotle did not do experiments He used the ancient Greek term "pepeiramenoi " to Instead , he practiced a different style , he practiced a different style of he practiced a different style of science This style is common in modern biology documented , Aristotle inferred quite a number , Aristotle inferred quite a number of Aristotle inferred quite a number of rules Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass , Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of animals

His system had eleven grades of animal Animals came above plants , also : He grouped what : He grouped what the modern zoologist He grouped what the modern zoologist would grouped what the modern zoologist would call Those with blood were divided Those without blood were insects The human soul incorporates the powers of the other kinds For Aristotle , the soul is Aristotle , the soul is the form , the soul is the form of the soul is the form of a living being , the form of living beings is the form of living beings is that of living beings is that which living beings is that which endows is that which endows them with the Egyptians , he placed the Egyptians , he placed the rational soul , he placed the rational soul in he placed the rational soul in the heart " , memory is the ability , memory is the ability to memory is the ability to hold In other words , a memory is other words , a memory is a mental picture , a memory is a mental picture (phantasm a memory is a mental picture (phantasm ) is a mental picture (phantasm ) that Aristotle uses the term 'memory ' for of the past , prediction is the past , prediction is of , prediction is of the future prediction is of the future , for these impressions , people search these impressions , people search the memory , people search the memory itself a specific memory , that person will reject , that person will reject this experience that person will reject this experience until will reject this experience until they reject this experience until they find one memory will stimulate the next recall experiences , they stimulate experiences , they stimulate certain previous experiences , they stimulate certain previous experiences until they stimulate certain previous experiences until they stimulate certain previous experiences until they reach Recollection is thus the self-directed activity of Only humans can remember impressions of Aristotle believed the chain of thought A force operates to awaken the hidden material

Aristotle describes sleep in " digestion , so it is it is vital to the body sleep they can not have they can not have desire not have desire , which have desire , which is of their attention , it leaves their attention , it leaves an impression , a person constantly encounters new stimuli a person constantly encounters new stimuli to the day are noticed as there noticed as there are no new distracting sensory experiences , dreams result from these lasting impressions dreams do not resemble the actual waking experience During sleep , a person is sleep , a person is in , a person is in an altered state a person is in an altered state of Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person compares a sleeping person to a person who This leads the person to believe leads the person to believe the dream If a person had an image appear a person had an image appear for , this sensory experience is not part this sensory experience is not part of considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study Aristotle taught that virtue has to An eye is only a good eye in so Aristotle identified such an optimum activity ( the virtuous mean Aristotle taught that to achieve address the individual , Aristotle addressed the individual , Aristotle addressed the city , Aristotle addressed the city in Aristotle addressed the city in his work considered the city to be a natural community Aristotle conceived of politics as the natural community according to Aristotle was This is distinguished from modern approaches Aristotle made substantial contributions to economic thought "Politics " , Aristotle addresses " , Aristotle addresses the city , Aristotle addresses the city , Aristotle addresses the city , property "Politics " , Aristotle offers " , Aristotle offers one , Aristotle offers one of Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts Money came into use because came into use because people He had a low opinion of retail It thus uses goods as Aristotle gave a summary of the function

He wrote that because it wrote that because it is Money thus allows for the association He also categorizes rhetoric into Aristotle writes in his "Poetics " He applies the term "mimesis " both of this , Aristotle believed this , Aristotle believed that believed that each of the mimetic arts For example , music imitates example , music imitates with , music imitates with the media music imitates with the media of The forms also differ in their object The characters in a tragedy are merely Tragedy is the imitation of action Aristotle concludes "Poetics " with Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an proponents of feminist metaphysics have accused after his death , Aristotle remains his death , Aristotle remains one , Aristotle remains one of Aristotle remains one of the most influential people remains one of the most influential people who He contributed to almost every field of Among countless other achievements , Aristotle was countless other achievements , Aristotle was the founder , Aristotle was the founder of Aristotle was the founder of formal logic The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum Aristotle's notable students included Aristoxenus , Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen He had also learned a great deal After Theophrastus , the Lyceum failed Theophrastus , the Lyceum failed to the Lyceum failed to produce any original work Herophilus also distinguished between veins a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers Alkindus greatly admired Aristotle's philosophy , admired Aristotle's philosophy , and Averroes Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as in the early medieval Latin West , Aristotle was the early medieval Latin West , Aristotle was practically , interest in Aristotle revived interest in Aristotle revived and in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had revived and Latin Christians had translations , the demand for Aristotle's writings grew the demand for Aristotle's writings grew , Aristotle's writings grew , and the Greek manuscripts

These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity held that Aristotle advised his pupil Phyllis had secretly told Alexander Dante built up the philosophy of Dante knew Aristotle directly from considered Aristotle to be the greatest philosopher observes that there is no need Harvey demonstrated the circulation of the blood Aristotle rigidly separated action from The English mathematician George Boole fully accepted Aristotle's logic , Charles Darwin regarded Aristotle as the most important contributor In an 1882 letter he wrote that an 1882 letter he wrote that " James Joyce's favoured philosopher was Aristotle , whom was Aristotle , whom he Ayn Rand acknowledged Aristotle as her greatest influence Russell called Aristotle's ethics " repulsive The Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis wrote science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis wrote that Aristotle state in "pure seventeenth century" tones that Aristotle attempted to reform what he Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls His writings are divisible into two groups Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterization surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes works mostly resemble lecture notes not of Aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings Aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings were has been depicted by major artists been depicted by major artists including depicted by major artists including Lucas Cranach The Aristotle Mountains in Antarctica are named He was the first person known to An American in Paris " is Gershwin scored the piece for the standard instruments He brought back four Parisian taxi horns for It was Damrosch who had was Damrosch who had commissioned He completed the orchestration on November 18 Gershwin strongly encouraged Ravel to Gershwin greeted Ravel in New York Ravel's tour reignited Gershwin's desire to return an introductory letter to Nadia Boulanger caused Gershwin to Nadia Boulanger caused Gershwin to Nadia Boulanger caused Gershwin to seriously for her , she told her , she told him , she told him she she told him she could told him she could not " What could I give What could I give you could I give you that I give you that you give you that you have

This did not set Gershwin Gershwin based "An American in Paris Gershwin explained in " Musical America The piece is structured into five sections structured into five sections , which Gershwin's first A episode introduces the two main "walking" themes in the "Allegretto grazioso The style of this A section is written This A section featured duple meter , singsong rhythms The B section's "Andante ma con ritmo deciso " introduces the American Blues and In the B section , Gershwin uses the B section , Gershwin uses common time , Gershwin uses common time , Gershwin uses common time , syncopated rhythms , it had been Gershwin's intention it had been Gershwin's intention to This became the standard performing edition until 2000 September 22, 2013 , it was announced announced that a musicological critical edition of the full orchestral score Two urtext editions of the work were published of the work were published by the work were published by the German publisher B-Note Music were published by the German publisher B-Note Music in published by the German publisher B-Note Music in 2015 made by Campbell-Watson were withdrawn by Campbell-Watson were withdrawn in 120 bars of music were re On September 9, 2017 , The Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra gave September 9, 2017 , The Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra gave the world premiere , The Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra gave the world premiere of The Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra gave the world premiere of the long-awaited critical edition The first recording was made for the Victor Talking Machine Company play the solo ; Gershwin said the solo ; Gershwin said he he briefly participated in the actual recording In 1951 , Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer released 1951 , Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer released the musical film , Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer released the musical film , Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer released the musical film , "An American The Academy Award for Best Production Design recognizes achievement for art direction The category's original name was Best Art Direction , but This change resulted from the Art Director's branch of 1947 , the award is shared the award is shared with the set decorator(s They are regarded by many

are regarded by many as regarded by many as the most prestigious and significant awards the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS ) , the awards are ) , the awards are an international recognition , the awards are an international recognition of the awards are an international recognition of excellence The various category winners are awarded a copy of was originally sculpted by George Stanley originally sculpted by George Stanley from sculpted by George Stanley from a design sketch AMPAS first presented it in was first broadcast by radio first broadcast by radio in broadcast by radio in 1930 It is the oldest worldwide entertainment awards ceremony and is with the two previous ceremonies , there was the two previous ceremonies , there was no host The ceremony was broadcast on ABC The post-awards party was held at the Mayfair Hotel Winners were announced to the media That was changed for the second ceremony the first decade , the results were given , the results were given to the results were given to newspapers The first Best Actor awarded was Emil Jannings , the prize earlier ; this made for example , Jannings received example , Jannings received the award , Jannings received the award for Jannings received the award for two movies Perhaps the most widely seen streaker in history was the most widely seen streaker in history was 34-year-old Robert Opel history was 34-year-old Robert Opel , who was 34-year-old Robert Opel , who streaked 2020 , all Academy Awards ceremonies have ended Tom Hanks announced at the 2020 Oscar Ceremony , The museum development started in 2017 under The best known award is the Academy Award of Merit on a black metal base , it is a black metal base , it is 13.5 , it is 13.5   it is 13.5   in The statuettes presented at the initial ceremonies were a few years , the bronze was abandoned the bronze was abandoned in favor World War II , Oscars were made Oscars were made of painted plaster Following the war , the Academy invited the war , the Academy invited recipients

, the Academy invited recipients to the Academy invited recipients to redeem it was created is a minor streamlining The original Oscar mold was cast in 1928 made each year in Chicago by In 2016 , the Academy returned 2016 , the Academy returned to , the Academy returned to bronze the Academy returned to bronze as of an original 1929 Oscar , the statuettes retain an original 1929 Oscar , the statuettes retain their modern-era dimensions , the statuettes retain their modern-era dimensions and the statuettes retain their modern-era dimensions and black pedestal then electroplated in 24-karat gold by electroplated in 24-karat gold by Brooklyn The Academy officially adopted the name "Oscar in 1941 , claims she 1941 , claims she named , claims she named the award claims she named the award after The 1934 awards appeared again in another early media mention of the ceremony , Oscar statuettes presented the ceremony , Oscar statuettes presented at , Oscar statuettes presented at the ceremony Oscar statuettes presented at the ceremony have Until 2010 , winners returned 2010 , winners returned their statuettes , winners returned their statuettes to winners returned their statuettes to the Academy 2010 , winners have had , winners have had the option winners have had the option of The R.S. Owens company has engraved nameplates made been legally encumbered by the requirement legally encumbered by the requirement that encumbered by the requirement that the statuette this stipulation , then the Academy keeps , then the Academy keeps the statuette In 1989 , Michael Todd's grandson tried 1989 , Michael Todd's grandson tried to Michael Todd's grandson tried to sell Todd's Best Picture Oscar In 1992 , Harold Russell consigned 1992 , Harold Russell consigned his 1946 Oscar for Best Supporting Actor , Harold Russell consigned his 1946 Oscar for Best Supporting Actor for Harold Russell consigned his 1946 Oscar for Best Supporting Actor for " Russell defended his action , saying that , the results were announced the results were announced in early February Academy membership is divided into different branches Actors constitute the largest voting bloc , numbering

have been certified by the auditing firm been certified by the auditing firm PricewaterhouseCoopers certified by the auditing firm PricewaterhouseCoopers ( stated that it has just under 6,000 voting members by the "Los Angeles Times " were published confirmed , 94% were Caucasian the official Academy Awards Rules , a film must open a film must open in the previous calendar year This followed the win of ' The Best International Feature Film award does not require a U.S. release The Best Documentary Feature award requires either week-long releases in both Los Angeles County The qualifying theatrical runs must meet the same requirements as the defined deadline , the film will be The form includes the production credits for all related categories Second , there are multiple methods , there are multiple methods of there are multiple methods of qualification The main method is a week-long theatrical release in " The requirements for the qualifying theatrical run are also Only one screening per day is required of Best Picture , all voting members are Best Picture , all voting members are eligible a variant of the single transferable vote is used most categories , the winner is selected selected from among the nominees by has been chosen by instant runoff voting Film companies will spend as much as several million dollars on The Academy enforces rules to limit overt campaigning It has an awards czar on staff has an awards czar on staff who The major awards are presented at a live televised ceremony It is the culmination of the film awards season This is an elaborate extravaganza , with is an elaborate extravaganza , with the invited guests Black tie dress is the most common outfit for men The Academy Awards is the world's longest-running awards show televised is the world's longest-running awards show televised live first televised in 1953 by televised in 1953 by NBC for five years then ABC resumed five years then ABC resumed broadcast duties then ABC resumed broadcast duties in ABC resumed broadcast duties in 1976 The Academy has also produced condensed versions Another reason was because of the growing TV ratings success

ABC's regained Oscars were moved from Tuesday The earlier date is also to the advantage the ceremony is moved into the first Sunday of March the 1999 ceremonies , it was moved it was moved to Sundays The reasons given for the move were for the move were that more viewers the move were that more viewers would For many years the film industry opposed a Sunday broadcast many years the film industry opposed a Sunday broadcast because the film industry opposed a Sunday broadcast because it opposed a Sunday broadcast because it would In 2010 , the Academy contemplated 2010 , the Academy contemplated moving , the Academy contemplated moving the ceremony the Academy contemplated moving the ceremony even such an accelerated schedule would dramatically decrease the voting period a January ceremony on Sunday would clash April 8, 1968 , the 40th Academy Awards ceremony was postponed the 40th Academy Awards ceremony was postponed for two days Memoriam " segment was introduced introduced , honoring those who This segment has drawn criticism over broadcast length , the ceremony generally averages , the ceremony generally averages three and a half hours of the spectrum , the 2002 ceremony lasted the spectrum , the 2002 ceremony lasted four hours , the organizers of the Academy Awards announced the organizers of the Academy Awards announced winners' acceptance speeches of the Academy Awards announced winners' acceptance speeches must the Academy Awards announced winners' acceptance speeches must not speeches , winners' dedications were displayed During the 2018 ceremony , host Jimmy Kimmel acknowledged the 2018 ceremony , host Jimmy Kimmel acknowledged how the show , "Variety " reported AMPAS is responsible for most aspects More than 57.25 million viewers tuned to the telecast for 2008 , the 80th Academy Awards telecast was watched the 80th Academy Awards telecast was watched by 31.76 million viewers was watched by 31.76 million viewers on watched by 31.76 million viewers on average of 23.6 million viewers , the 93rd Academy Awards drew 23.6 million viewers , the 93rd Academy Awards drew an even lower viewership , the 93rd Academy Awards drew an even lower viewership of

the 93rd Academy Awards drew an even lower viewership of 10.4 million The Academy Film Archive holds copies of every Academy Awards ceremony 1929 , the first Academy Awards were presented the first Academy Awards were presented at a banquet dinner Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood then hosted 1950 to 1960 , the awards were presented the awards were presented at Hollywood's Pantages Theatre , the awards from 1953 to 1957 took the awards from 1953 to 1957 took place The Oscars moved to the Santa Monica Civic Auditorium in By 1969 , the Academy decided 1969 , the Academy decided to the Academy decided to move the ceremonies the awards , the Best Directing award was split the Best Directing award was split into two categories from Academy members , they announced Academy members , they announced that are voted on by special committees voted on by special committees , of the Academy Awards , many studios spend the Academy Awards , many studios spend millions of dollars , many studios spend millions of dollars and many studios spend millions of dollars and hire This has generated accusations of The Academy Awards have long received criticism This criticism is based on the statistics The 88th awards ceremony became the target of a boycott concerned that Netflix as a movie production and distribution studio Nichols boycotted the 8th Academy Awards ceremony because of Nichols eventually accepted the 1935 award three years later George C. Scott became the second person to refuse Scott described it as a "meat parade The third person to refuse the award was the award was Marlon Brando , who was Marlon Brando , who refused unsegregated categories , other categories are unsegregated It has become a tradition to 2014 , the value was reported Oscar gift bags have included vacation packages to 2014 , the adult products retailer Adam & Eve had , the adult products retailer Adam & Eve had a "Secret Room Gifting Suite the adult products retailer Adam & Eve had a "Secret Room Gifting Suite " The film has no male actors , with

"Movie - Film - Review " , Christopher Tookey wrote wrote " This cinematic adaptation of a theatrical work " Animalia " is an illustrated children's book Animalia " is an illustrated children's book by " Animalia " is an alliterative alphabet book Animalia " is an alliterative alphabet book and Each illustration features an animal from the animal kingdom Julia MacRae Books published an "Animalia" colouring book in 2008 It also airs on Minimax It is a continuous scale of time It is the principal realisation of Terrestrial Time It is also the basis for into effect , UTC is effect , UTC is currently , UTC is currently exactly 37 seconds UTC is currently exactly 37 seconds behind TAI is a weighted average of the time The clocks are compared using GPS signals signal with timecodes , which These time scales are denoted in the form "UTC(NPL This time scale is expressed in the form In hindsight , it is hindsight , it is possible Atomic timekeeping services started experimentally in 1955 It was used as a basis The SI second was defined in terms corrections were applied to the output above sea level , this meant sea level , this meant that three of these time scales were defined TAI was henceforth a realisation of The continued existence of TAI was questioned is occasionally adjusted by leap seconds these adjustments , it is composed it is composed of segments is composed of segments that composed of segments that are December 1971 , the adjustments were made This was a compromise arrangement in order Altruism is the principle and moral practice of concern It is a traditional virtue in many cultures the object(s ) of concern vary is an individual performing an action which Steinberg suggests a definition for altruism latter are predicated upon social relationships The theory of psychological egoism suggests that of psychological egoism suggests that no act psychological egoism suggests that no act of suggests that no act of sharing also refer to an ethical doctrine that refer to an ethical doctrine that claims contrasted with egoism , which

The concept has a long history in philosophical and ethical thought originally coined in the 19th century by coined in the 19th century by the founding sociologist can affect the other fields , the different methods affect the other fields , the different methods and Alms are the fruits of a moral notion Generosity is an obligation , because is an obligation , because Nemesis This is the ancient morality of the gift of social evolution , altruism refers social evolution , altruism refers to , altruism refers to behaviour altruism refers to behaviour by Theories of apparently altruistic behavior were accelerated of apparently altruistic behavior were accelerated by apparently altruistic behavior were accelerated by the need were accelerated by the need to accelerated by the need to produce The study of altruism was the initial impetus An interesting example of altruism is found in October 2006 , they showed October 2006 , they showed that , was not a superior moral faculty that was not a superior moral faculty that suppresses showed that subjects with damage " Psychopaths often feel no empathy Psychopaths often feel no empathy or reasoning seem to find it There has been some debate on Some definitions specify a self-sacrificial nature to altruism the selflessness of altruistic acts is brought Daniel Batson is a psychologist who examined is a psychologist who examined this question He identified four major motives : to Feelings of empathic concern are contrasted People with empathic concern help others altruism , studies often observe , studies often observe altruism studies often observe altruism as suggests that the number of bystanders Greater numbers of bystanders decrease individual feelings Many studies have observed the effects of One study examined the physical health of mothers examined the physical health of mothers who prior health status , it was determined , one study on volunteerism found one study on volunteerism found that on volunteerism found that feeling volunteerism found that feeling overwhelmed about themselves , it is themselves , it is also This type of sociology seeks contributions of sociology seeks contributions that sociology seeks contributions that aid

seeks contributions that aid grassroots motivates it at the group level is of study ; some publications link study ; some publications link the occurrence ; some publications link the occurrence of some publications link the occurrence of moral outrage Most, if not all , of the world's religions promote Altruism figures prominently in Buddhism all beings equally : love is equally : love is the wish : love is the wish that love is the wish that all beings is the wish that all beings be can be cured by the one medicine be cured by the one medicine of cured by the one medicine of love Buddhism is characterized by the belief is characterized by the belief that characterized by the belief that negative (unhappy) consequences The fundamental principles of Jainism revolve around Jainism preaches the view of "Ahimsa Jainism prescribes a path of non A major characteristic of Jain belief is the emphasis and uncontrolled sense organs are the powerful enemies uncontrolled sense organs are the powerful enemies of organs are the powerful enemies of humans The monks have to observe them The principle of nonviolence seeks to seeks to minimize karmas which Jainism views every soul as worthy Jainism emphasizes the equality of all life This policy extends even to microscopic organisms ourselves " , he concluded thinks we should love God Many biblical authors draw a strong connection between love Thomas Jay Oord has argued in several books argued in several books that altruism An altruistic action is not always a loving action German philosopher Max Scheler distinguishes two ways in which One way is a sincere expression of Christian love Another way is merely " one For Sufis , this means Sufis , this means devotion , this means devotion to this means devotion to others This is similar to the notion Judaism defines altruism as the desired goal stated that love is the most important attribute This is defined as bestowal This can be altruism towards be altruism towards humanity that Kabbalah defines God as the force proposed that such a framework is the purpose

Altruism is essential to the Sikh religion The central faith in Sikhism is that in Sikhism is that the greatest deed Sikhism is that the greatest deed any one He gave water to both friends Some of the enemy began to Sikh soldiers brought Bhai Kanhaiya before Guru Gobind Singh them " , replied Bhai Kanhaiya You were practicing what you were practicing what you were practicing what you were coached of the Brahma Sutras , Sivananda notes the Brahma Sutras , Sivananda notes that karma can not bestow the fruits argue that karma generates apurva act unless moved by an intelligent being text , the Bhagavad Gita supports the doctrine , the Bhagavad Gita supports the doctrine of the Bhagavad Gita supports the doctrine of karma yoga There exists a wide range of philosophical views Proponents of ethical altruism maintain that of ethical altruism maintain that individuals ethical altruism maintain that individuals are The opposing view is ethical egoism , which is ethical egoism , which maintains A related concept in descriptive ethics is psychological egoism Effective altruism is a philosophy and social movement is a philosophy and social movement that Effective altruism encourages individuals to consider It is the broad, evidence-based and cause-neutral approach that distinguishes is the broad, evidence-based and cause-neutral approach that distinguishes effective altruism , the philosophy of effective altruism applies the philosophy of effective altruism applies more She is known for her fiction in Russia , she moved Russia , she moved to , she moved to the United States she moved to the United States in She wrote a play that opened wrote a play that opened on unsuccessful , she achieved fame , she achieved fame with she achieved fame with her 1943 novel In 1957 , Rand published 1957 , Rand published her best-known work , Rand published her best-known work , Rand published her best-known work , the novel acquiring knowledge ; she rejected knowledge ; she rejected faith ; she rejected faith and she rejected faith and religion She supported rational and ethical egoism and rejected In politics , she condemned

politics , she condemned the initiation , she condemned the initiation of she condemned the initiation of force , she supported " laissez-faire" capitalism she supported " laissez-faire" capitalism , In art , Rand promoted art , Rand promoted romantic realism Rand's fiction received mixed reviews from literary critics Her writings have politically influenced some libertarians Rand was born Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum on She was the eldest of three daughters of Zinovy Zakharovich Rosenbaum She was twelve at the time under Vladimir Lenin disrupted the life the family Vladimir Lenin disrupted the life the family had disrupted the life the family had enjoyed high school there , Rand concluded Rand concluded she was an atheist concluded she was an atheist and the Russian Revolution , universities were opened universities were opened to women At 16 , she began 16 , she began her studies , she began her studies in she began her studies in the department Rand came to see their differing views many other bourgeois students , she was purged she was purged from the university many of the purged students were allowed She then studied for a year this time , she had decided had decided her professional surname for writing decided her professional surname for writing would late 1925 , Rand was granted , Rand was granted a visa Rand was granted a visa to She departed on January   become a screenwriter , she lived a screenwriter , she lived for , she lived for a few months she lived for a few months with One of them owned a movie theater owned a movie theater and allowed her The King of Kings " , she met " , she met an aspiring young actor , she met an aspiring young actor , she met an aspiring young actor , Frank O'Connor She became a permanent American resident in July 1929 , Rand's first literary success came with the sale Rand's first literary success came with the sale of in Soviet Russia , it focused Soviet Russia , it focused on , it focused on the struggle

it focused on the struggle between She adapted the story as a stage play of her later novels , Rand was her later novels , Rand was able to the 1959 edition , Rand wrote the 1959 edition , Rand wrote that Rand wrote her novella "Anthem " It presents a vision of a dystopian future world Rand could not find an American publisher During the 1940s , Rand became the 1940s , Rand became politically Rand's first public speaking experiences ; she enjoyed fielding ; she enjoyed fielding sometimes hostile questions she enjoyed fielding sometimes hostile questions from fielding sometimes hostile questions from New York City audiences who Her work brought her into contact She became friends with journalist Henry Hazlitt them , Rand strongly endorsed , Rand strongly endorsed the writings Rand strongly endorsed the writings of Mises once referred to her Rand became friends with libertarian writer Isabel Paterson Rand's first major success as a writer came in Twelve publishers rejected it before the Bobbs-Merrill Company rejected it before the Bobbs-Merrill Company finally the novel , Rand was prescribed , Rand was prescribed the amphetamine Benzedrine Rand was prescribed the amphetamine Benzedrine to helped her to work long hours " The Fountainhead " became a worldwide success The Fountainhead " became a worldwide success , In 1943 , she sold 1943 , she sold the film rights , she sold the film rights to she sold the film rights to Warner Bros. Producer Hal B. Wallis hired her afterwards as Her work for him included the screenplays Rand extended her involvement with free-market and anti-communist activism She became involved with the anti-Communist Motion Picture Alliance during the Second Red Scare , Rand testified the Second Red Scare , Rand testified as , Rand testified as a "friendly witness Rand testified as a "friendly witness " of whom the book had influenced whom the book had influenced profoundly In 1951 , Rand moved 1951 , Rand moved from , Rand moved from Los Angeles Rand moved from Los Angeles to Initially , the group was an informal gathering , the group was an informal gathering of

the group was an informal gathering of friends was an informal gathering of friends who "Atlas Shrugged " was considered Rand's "magnum opus She described the novel's theme as " It advocates the core tenets of Rand's philosophy The plot involves a dystopian United States in which involves a dystopian United States in which the most creative industrialists With this fictional strike , Rand intended this fictional strike , Rand intended to In 1958 , Nathaniel Branden established 1958 , Nathaniel Branden established the Nathaniel Branden Lectures , Nathaniel Branden established the Nathaniel Branden Lectures , Nathaniel Branden established the Nathaniel Branden Lectures , later Collective members gave lectures for the NBI She later published some of Rand was unimpressed by many was unimpressed by many of unimpressed by many of the NBI students Some described the NBI or the Objectivist movement Rand expressed opinions on a wide range Some of her followers mimicked her preferences Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy She began delivering annual lectures at these appearances , she often took , she often took controversial stances she often took controversial stances on These included : supporting abortion rights In 1964 , Nathaniel Branden began 1964 , Nathaniel Branden began an affair , Nathaniel Branden began an affair with Nathaniel Branden began an affair with the young actress Nathaniel and Barbara Branden kept the affair ended , Rand ended her relationship , Rand ended her relationship with Rand ended her relationship with both Brandens She published an article in " Rand underwent surgery for lung cancer In 1976 , she retired 1976 , she retired from she retired from writing her newsletter , her activities within the Objectivist movement declined her activities within the Objectivist movement declined , On March 6, 1982 , Rand died March 6, 1982 , Rand died of , Rand died of heart failure Rand died of heart failure at She was interred in the Kensico Cemetery Rand described her approach to literature wanted her fiction to present the world This approach led her to create Her fiction typically has protagonists who typically has protagonists who are

has protagonists who are heroic individualists In school Rand read works by school Rand read works by Fyodor Dostoevsky , her depictions of her heroes show her depictions of her heroes show the influence for movies ; her novels have movies ; her novels have many narrative descriptions ; her novels have many narrative descriptions that her novels have many narrative descriptions that resemble have many narrative descriptions that resemble early Hollywood movie scenarios Rand called her philosophy "Objectivism " , In metaphysics , Rand supported metaphysics , Rand supported philosophical realism , Rand supported philosophical realism and Rand supported philosophical realism and opposed In epistemology , she considered epistemology , she considered all knowledge Rand rejected all claims of non In ethics , Rand argued ethics , Rand argued for , Rand argued for rational and ethical egoism Rand argued for rational and ethical egoism ( Rand referred to egoism as In it , she presented it , she presented her solution , she presented her solution to she presented her solution to the She condemned ethical altruism as incompatible Rand's political philosophy emphasized individual rights — including She considered "laissez-faire" capitalism the only moral social system because Rand opposed statism , which opposed statism , which she believed a constitutionally limited government should protect natural rights libertarian , Rand preferred the term , Rand preferred the term " Rand preferred the term " radical She worked with conservatives on Rand denounced libertarianism , which denounced libertarianism , which she In aesthetics , Rand defined aesthetics , Rand defined art , Rand defined art as Rand defined art as a "selective re to her , art allows her , art allows philosophical concepts a writer , the art form Rand focused Rand said her most important contributions to philosophy said her most important contributions to philosophy were She believed epistemology was a foundational branch believed epistemology was a foundational branch of it consistently , all the rest follows Rand's ethics and politics are the most criticized areas of her ideas , said she her ideas , said she failed said she failed in her attempt

Critics have called her definitions of Critics from religious traditions oppose her rejection Nozick , have said her attempt said her attempt to justify individual rights as her greatest influence , Rand remarked her greatest influence , Rand remarked that Rand remarked that in the history I devised the rest of my philosophy the "Claremont Review of Books " , political scientist Charles Murray criticized " , political scientist Charles Murray criticized her claim , political scientist Charles Murray criticized her claim that political scientist Charles Murray criticized her claim that her only "philosophical debt criticized her claim that her only "philosophical debt " He asserted her ideas were derivative Rand found early inspiration from Nietzsche In 1928 , she alluded 1928 , she alluded to , she alluded to his idea she alluded to his idea of There are other indications of Nietzsche's influence mankind's history " ; she believed she believed his epistemology undermined reason believed his epistemology undermined reason and Rand's relationship with contemporary philosophers was mostly She was not an academic She was dismissive toward critics Reviews of the Broadway production were largely received far fewer reviews than " We " was one that Rand was one that Rand greatly Pruette called her "a writer of There were other positive reviews , but were other positive reviews , but Rand on the novel's length ; one called the novel's length ; one called it ; one called it " one called it " a whale National Review " , conservative author Whittaker Chambers called " , conservative author Whittaker Chambers called the book "sophomoric , conservative author Whittaker Chambers called the book "sophomoric " conservative author Whittaker Chambers called the book "sophomoric " and He described the book's tone as " He accused Rand of supporting " Atlas Shrugged " received positive reviews Atlas Shrugged " received positive reviews from Rand's nonfiction received far fewer reviews than her novels Philosopher Sidney Hook likened her certainty to " likened her certainty to " the way philosophy over 30 million copies sold , Rand's books continue Rand's "Atlas Shrugged " was the second most popular choice ,

; she has influenced later writers she has influenced later writers like Rand provided a positive view of business Television shows including animated sitcoms , Throughout her life she was the subject her life she was the subject of she was the subject of many articles 2002 , the Ayn Rand Institute has provided , the Ayn Rand Institute has provided free copies the Ayn Rand Institute has provided free copies of The Institute had distributed 4.5 million copies in , Rand has had a continuing influence Rand has had a continuing influence on Rand is often considered one of that movement , journalist Brian Doherty described that movement , journalist Brian Doherty described her , journalist Brian Doherty described her as journalist Brian Doherty described her as " She faced intense opposition from William F. Buckley Jr. Opinion articles compared real-world events with the novel's plot Rand and her fictional hero John Galt appeared her fictional hero John Galt appeared at Tea Party protests There was increased criticism of her ideas Critics blamed the economic crisis on her support In 2015 , Adam Weiner said 2015 , Adam Weiner said that Adam Weiner said that through Greenspan said that Rand's novels had "incalculable impact During Rand's lifetime , her work received Rand's lifetime , her work received little attention , her work received little attention from her work received little attention from academic scholars interest in her work has increased In 2009 , historian Jennifer Burns identified 2009 , historian Jennifer Burns identified "three overlapping waves , historian Jennifer Burns identified "three overlapping waves " historian Jennifer Burns identified "three overlapping waves " of of that same year , few universities included that same year , few universities included Rand , few universities included Rand or few universities included Rand or Objectivism in some cases , the grants were some cases , the grants were controversial In 2020 , media critic Eric Burns said 2020 , media critic Eric Burns said that In 1967 , John Hospers discussed 1967 , John Hospers discussed Rand's ethical ideas , John Hospers discussed Rand's ethical ideas in

John Hospers discussed Rand's ethical ideas in the second edition That same year , Hazel Barnes included a chapter , Hazel Barnes included a chapter critiquing Hazel Barnes included a chapter critiquing Objectivism in 1971 , its author declared 1971 , its author declared writing its author declared writing about Rand "a treacherous undertaking A few articles about Rand's ideas appeared in One of these was " the same publication , argued that Nozick argued that Nozick misstated Rand's case edited by Den Uyl and Rasmussen , was by Den Uyl and Rasmussen , was the first academic book In one essay , political writer Jack Wheeler wrote one essay , political writer Jack Wheeler wrote that Contemporary Women Philosophers " , Jenny A. Heyl described " , Jenny A. Heyl described a divergence , Jenny A. Heyl described a divergence in Jenny A. Heyl described a divergence in how different academic specialties described a divergence in how different academic specialties viewed literary academia , Ayn Rand is considered , Ayn Rand is considered a philosopher Ayn Rand is considered a philosopher . the "Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy " , political theorist Chandran Kukathas summarized " , political theorist Chandran Kukathas summarized the mainstream philosophical reception , political theorist Chandran Kukathas summarized the mainstream philosophical reception of political theorist Chandran Kukathas summarized the mainstream philosophical reception of her work He said most commentators view her ethical argument said most commentators view her ethical argument as for the Cato Institute , libertarian philosopher Michael Huemer argued the Cato Institute , libertarian philosopher Michael Huemer argued very few people He attributed the attention she receives attributed the attention she receives to In 2012 , the Pennsylvania State University Press agreed 2012 , the Pennsylvania State University Press agreed to Mimi Reisel Gladstein could not find any scholarly articles scholars of English and American literature have continued Several academic book series about important authors cover Rand These include Twayne's United States Authors ( " in 2001 , John David Lewis declared 2001 , John David Lewis declared that of the Nathaniel Branden Institute , the Objectivist movement continued

the Nathaniel Branden Institute , the Objectivist movement continued in , the Objectivist movement continued in other forms In the 1970s , Leonard Peikoff began the 1970s , Leonard Peikoff began delivering , Leonard Peikoff began delivering courses Leonard Peikoff began delivering courses on In 1979 , Objectivist writer Peter Schwartz started 1979 , Objectivist writer Peter Schwartz started a newsletter , Objectivist writer Peter Schwartz started a newsletter called Objectivist writer Peter Schwartz started a newsletter called "The Intellectual Activist In 1985 , Peikoff worked 1985 , Peikoff worked with , Peikoff worked with businessman Ed Snider Peikoff worked with businessman Ed Snider to with Peikoff , philosopher David Kelley founded Peikoff , philosopher David Kelley founded the Institute for Objectivist Studies , philosopher David Kelley founded the Institute for Objectivist Studies , philosopher David Kelley founded the Institute for Objectivist Studies , now He is a Professor at the Collège de France in the 1970s , he succeeded the 1970s , he succeeded in he succeeded in obtaining the almost complete classification also formulated the Connes embedding problem Following this , he made this , he made contributions , he made contributions in he made contributions in operator K-theory He also introduced cyclic cohomology in Connes was awarded the Fields Medal in He was an invited speaker at the ICM The family moved to the United States when moved to the United States when he Allan Dwan studied engineering at the University of Notre Dame He had a strong interest in the fledgling motion picture industry , some of the East Coast movie makers began some of the East Coast movie makers began to , a number of movie companies worked a number of movie companies worked there Dwan operated Flying A Studios in La Mesa Flying A was one of the first motion pictures studios comedies , Dwan directed fellow Canadian-American Mary Pickford , Dwan directed fellow Canadian-American Mary Pickford in Dwan directed fellow Canadian-American Mary Pickford in several very successful movies Dwan directed Gloria Swanson in eight feature films Dwan helped launch the career of spanning almost 50 years , Dwan directed

almost 50 years , Dwan directed 125 motion pictures , Dwan directed 125 motion pictures , Dwan directed 125 motion pictures , some directed 125 motion pictures , some of Daniel Eagan of "Film Journal International " described It is the largest country by total area It is bordered to the northeast The country has a semi-arid geography , with has a semi-arid geography , with most Algeria covers an area of , of 44 million , Algeria is 44 million , Algeria is the ninth-most populous country , Algeria is the ninth-most populous country in Algeria is the ninth-most populous country in Africa Pre-1962 Algeria has seen many empires and The vast majority of Algeria's population is Arab-Berber , French serves as an administrative and educational language French serves as an administrative and educational language in Algeria is a semi-presidential republic , with Algeria is a regional power in North Africa It has the highest Human Development Index of all non-island African countries Algeria has the world's sixteenth-largest oil reserves and the ninth-largest reserves Algeria's military is one of the Other forms of the name are : shows that ancestral hominins inhabited the Mediterranean fringe Neanderthal tool makers produced hand axes in the Levalloisian and Mousterian styles Algeria was the site of the highest state The earliest blade industries in North Africa are called by 600 BC , a Phoenician presence existed 600 BC , a Phoenician presence existed at , a Phoenician presence existed at Tipasa a Phoenician presence existed at Tipasa , , its impact on the indigenous population increased its impact on the indigenous population increased dramatically Berber civilisation was already at a stage the early 4th century BC , Berbers formed BC , Berbers formed the single largest element , Berbers formed the single largest element of Berbers formed the single largest element of the Carthaginian army of the Mercenaries , Berber soldiers rebelled the Mercenaries , Berber soldiers rebelled from , Berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 BC Berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 BC after They succeeded in obtaining control the city of Carthage was destroyed

BC , several large but loosely administered Berber kingdoms had emerged Two of them were established West of Numidia lay Mauretania Numidia lay Mauretania , which lay Mauretania , which extended 148 BC , the Berber kingdoms were divided For several centuries Algeria was ruled several centuries Algeria was ruled by Algeria was ruled by the Romans was ruled by the Romans , ruled by the Romans , who of North Africa , Algeria was North Africa , Algeria was one , Algeria was one of Algeria was one of the breadbaskets Saint Augustine was the bishop of Hippo Regius The Germanic Vandals of Geiseric moved into North Africa in They did not make any significant settlement the Msellata region was occupied by the indigenous Laguatan was occupied by the indigenous Laguatan who occupied by the indigenous Laguatan who had The collapse of the Western Roman Empire led to It was succeeded by another Kingdom was succeeded by another Kingdom based succeeded by another Kingdom based in , Muslim Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate conquered Muslim Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate conquered Algeria Large numbers of the indigenous Berber people converted to of the Umayyad Caliphate , numerous local dynasties emerged the Umayyad Caliphate , numerous local dynasties emerged , numerous local dynasties emerged , including the Rustamids The Christians left in three waves : During the Middle Ages , North Africa was the Middle Ages , North Africa was home , North Africa was home to North Africa was home to many great scholars It was during this time that was during this time that the Fatimids to punish them the Fatimids sent punish them the Fatimids sent the Arab Banu Hilal them the Fatimids sent the Arab Banu Hilal and the Fatimids sent the Arab Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym The resultant war is recounted in the epic Tāghribāt as Fatimid Caliphate made an Islamic empire that Fatimid Caliphate made an Islamic empire that included made an Islamic empire that included North Africa The Amazighs historically consisted of several tribes The two main branches were the Botr and Barnès tribes , who

were the Botr and Barnès tribes , who were Each region of the Maghreb contained several tribes Several Amazigh dynasties emerged during the Middle Ages in Ibn Khaldun provides a table summarising the Amazigh dynasties well as the Fatimids established their rule as the Fatimids established their rule in the Fatimids established their rule in all The Zirids ruled land in what ruled land in what is The Hammadids captured and held important regions In Algeria the Rustamid Kingdom was established The Zirids recognized nominal suzerainty of the Fatimid caliphs the Zirid ruler decided to end this recognition attempt a direct invasion , they found a direct invasion , they found another means , they found another means of they found another means of revenge The then Fatimid vizier decided to destroy what decided to destroy what he Whole tribes set off with women Some stopped on the way , The Zirid ruler tried to stop this rising tide there they gradually gained the upper Algiers they gradually gained the upper Algiers and forcibly taken back by the Almohads taken back by the Almohads in The influx of Bedouin tribes was a major factor , were the main supporters of the throne were the main supporters of the throne and of modern-day Western Algeria , Yaghmurasen Ibn Zyan declared modern-day Western Algeria , Yaghmurasen Ibn Zyan declared his independence , Yaghmurasen Ibn Zyan declared his independence and Yaghmurasen Ibn Zyan declared his independence and established The Zayyanids retained their control over Algeria by the Zayyanid sultans , Spain decided the Zayyanid sultans , Spain decided to Spain decided to invade Algeria In 1505 , they invaded 1505 , they invaded and they invaded and captured Mers el Kébir of Algeria , the Spanish decided Algeria , the Spanish decided to In 1510 , they led 1510 , they led a series , they led a series of they led a series of sieges They succeeded in conquering Jijel of Tlemcen , Hayreddin succeeded Tlemcen , Hayreddin succeeded him , Hayreddin succeeded him as Hayreddin succeeded him as military commander The Ottoman sultan gave him the title of

The next beylerbey was Hayreddin's son Hasan , was Hayreddin's son Hasan , who He was a Kouloughli or of 1587 Beylerbeylik of Algiers was governed of Algiers was governed by Algiers was governed by Beylerbeys was governed by Beylerbeys who governed by Beylerbeys who served The pasha was assisted by an autonomous janissary unit was assisted by an autonomous janissary unit , assisted by an autonomous janissary unit , known Discontent among the ojaq rose in rose in the mid-1600s because they Plague had repeatedly struck the cities The Barbary pirates preyed on Christian and The pirates often took the passengers and They also did a brisk business in from the 16th to 19th century , pirates captured the 16th to 19th century , pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans , pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves They often made raids , for example , Hayreddin Barbarossa captured example , Hayreddin Barbarossa captured the island , Hayreddin Barbarossa captured the island of Hayreddin Barbarossa captured the island of Ischia The new leader received the title of Dey the right to select the dey passed In 1710 , the dey persuaded 1710 , the dey persuaded the sultan , the dey persuaded the sultan to the dey persuaded the sultan to recognise The dey was in effect a constitutional autocrat The dey was elected for a life term the tribal chieftains , it never had , it never had the unanimous allegiance it never had the unanimous allegiance of Barbary raids in the Mediterranean continued to in 1784 , the Spanish fleet was 1784 , the Spanish fleet was to In 1792 , Algiers took 1792 , Algiers took back , Algiers took back Oran and Mers el Kébir Algiers took back Oran and Mers el Kébir , resulted in the First and Second Barbary Wars , which to their consul , the French invaded their consul , the French invaded and the French invaded and captured Algiers Historian Ben Kiernan wrote on the French conquest of

The war had killed approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians since French losses from 1831 to 1851 were 92,329 A combination of violence and disease epidemics caused the indigenous Algerian population of violence and disease epidemics caused the indigenous Algerian population to violence and disease epidemics caused the indigenous Algerian population to decline On September 17, 1860 , Napoleon III declared September 17, 1860 , Napoleon III declared " until independence , France administered independence , France administered the whole Mediterranean region , France administered the whole Mediterranean region of France administered the whole Mediterranean region of Algeria of France's longest-held overseas territories , Algeria became France's longest-held overseas territories , Algeria became a destination , Algeria became a destination for Algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands , 50,000 French people emigrated to Algeria These settlers benefited from the French government's confiscation of early 20th century , the European share was almost a fifth , the European share was almost a fifth of the European share was almost a fifth of the population the uprising against the occupying French forces was suppressed the occupying French forces was suppressed through what Tensions between the two population groups came to The war led to the death of state that the actual number of Algerian Muslim war Horne estimated Algerian casualties during the span of eight years " who fled Algeria totaled who fled Algeria totaled more than 900,000 Ben Bella was overthrown in 1965 was overthrown in 1965 by overthrown in 1965 by Houari Boumédiène authoritarian ; Boumédienne continued this trend He collectivised agriculture and launched under President Houari Boumediene , Algeria pursued President Houari Boumediene , Algeria pursued a program , Algeria pursued a program of Algeria pursued a program of industrialisation He promoted a policy of Arabisation by the end of the decade , Bendjedid introduced the end of the decade , Bendjedid introduced a multi-party system In December 1991 the Islamic Salvation Front dominated the December 1991 the Islamic Salvation Front dominated the first the Islamic Salvation Front dominated the first of of an Islamist government , the authorities intervened

an Islamist government , the authorities intervened on , the authorities intervened on 11 January 1992 the authorities intervened on 11 January 1992 , It banned the FIS , triggering The Islamist militants conducted a violent campaign of civilian massacres , the situation in Algeria became the situation in Algeria became a point Algeria held elections in 1999 He worked to restore political stability disbanded and levels of insurgent violence The programme comprised economic, institutional, political and social reform to modernise It also included a second amnesty initiative , November 2008 , the Algerian Constitution was amended the Algerian Constitution was amended following a vote This change enabled Bouteflika to stand On 24 February 2011 , the government lifted 24 February 2011 , the government lifted Algeria's 19-year-old state , the government lifted Algeria's 19-year-old state of the government lifted Algeria's 19-year-old state of emergency The government enacted legislation dealing with In April 2011 , Bouteflika promised April 2011 , Bouteflika promised further constitutional and political reform In December 2019 , Abdelmadjid Tebboune became December 2019 , Abdelmadjid Tebboune became Algeria's president , Abdelmadjid Tebboune became Algeria's president , Abdelmadjid Tebboune became Algeria's president , after South Sudan , Algeria has been , Algeria has been the largest country Algeria has been the largest country in Its southern part includes a significant portion of the Sahara To the north , the Tell Atlas form the north , the Tell Atlas form with , the Tell Atlas form with the Saharan Atlas the Tell Atlas form with the Saharan Atlas , Algeria lies mostly between latitudes They are located about south this region , midday desert temperatures can be however , the clear, dry air permits rapid loss , the clear, dry air permits rapid loss of the clear, dry air permits rapid loss of heat Algeria also has ergs , The varied vegetation of Algeria includes coastal, mountainous and grassy desert-like regions of Algeria includes coastal, mountainous and grassy desert-like regions which Algeria includes coastal, mountainous and grassy desert-like regions which all includes coastal, mountainous and grassy desert-like regions which all support

The most commonly seen animals include the wild boars , jackals Algeria also has a small African leopard and A variety of bird species makes the country of bird species makes the country an bird species makes the country an attraction The forests are inhabited by boars are inhabited by boars and inhabited by boars and jackals , some of the native flora includes some of the native flora includes Macchia scrub The mountain regions contain large forests of evergreens The grape vine is indigenous to the coast In the Sahara region , some oases have the Sahara region , some oases have palm trees Acacias with wild olives are the predominant flora Elected politicians have relatively little sway over Algeria The most powerful man might have been Mohamed Mediène many of these generals have died The head of state is the President elected as president after the election Protestors refused to recognise Tebboune Algeria has universal suffrage at 18 years of age The President is the head of the army the People's National Assembly , has 462 members who , has 462 members who are has 462 members who are directly In 2009 , the French government agreed 2009 , the French government agreed to the French government agreed to compensate victims The military of Algeria consists of Total military personnel include 147,000 active , Service in the military is compulsory The military expenditure was 4.3% of the gross domestic product Algeria has the second largest military in North Africa In 2007 , the Algerian Air Force signed 2007 , the Algerian Air Force signed a deal , the Algerian Air Force signed a deal with the Algerian Air Force signed a deal with Russia has been categorised by Freedom House been categorised by Freedom House as categorised by Freedom House as " December 2016 , the "Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor " issued , the "Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor " issued a report the "Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor " issued a report regarding clarified that the Algerian government imposed restriction Independent and autonomous trade unions face routine harassment from the government

Homosexuality is illegal in Algeria Public homosexual behavior is punishable by up to two years , about 26% of Algerians think about 26% of Algerians think that of Algerians think that homosexuality Algerians think that homosexuality should Algeria is divided into 58 provinces the numbers of old provinces are kept Algeria's currency is the dinar ( The economy remains dominated by the state remains dominated by the state , dominated by the state , a legacy recent years , the Algerian government has halted , the Algerian government has halted the privatization the Algerian government has halted the privatization of Public spending has increased by 27% to strong hydrocarbon revenues , Algeria has strong hydrocarbon revenues , Algeria has a cushion , Algeria has a cushion of Algeria has a cushion of $173 billion In addition , Algeria's external debt is addition , Algeria's external debt is extremely Its crude oil production stands at around 1.1 million barrels / Hydrocarbons have long been the backbone Algeria has the 10th-largest reserves of natural gas The U.S. Energy Information Administration reported that in 2005 Non-hydrocarbon growth for 2011 was projected with social demands , the authorities raised social demands , the authorities raised expenditure , the authorities raised expenditure , the authorities raised expenditure , especially The Algerian national oil company is Sonatrach , which is Sonatrach , which plays In 2016 , Algeria had 2016 , Algeria had 0.53 global hectares , Algeria had 0.53 global hectares of Algeria had 0.53 global hectares of biocapacity In 2016 , Algeria used 2016 , Algeria used 2.4 global hectares , Algeria used 2.4 global hectares of Algeria used 2.4 global hectares of biocapacity This means they use just under 4.5 times as much biocapacity means they use just under 4.5 times as much biocapacity as Algeria has invested an estimated 100 billion dinars towards Currently , Algeria has 20,000 research professors , Algeria has 20,000 research professors at Algeria has 20,000 research professors at various universities The overall rate of unemployment was 10% There are several UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Algeria Africa ; its length is estimated

will be complemented by the East-West Highway be complemented by the East-West Highway , complemented by the East-West Highway , a major infrastructure project It is a 3-way, highway , linking is also crossed by the Trans-Sahara Highway also crossed by the Trans-Sahara Highway , crossed by the Trans-Sahara Highway , which Algeria has a population of an estimated of the 20th century , its population was the 20th century , its population was approximately four million Between 90,000 and 165,000 Sahrawis from Western Sahara live Sahrawis from Western Sahara live in There are also more than 4,000 Palestinian refugees , are also more than 4,000 Palestinian refugees , who French have contributed to the history Descendants of Andalusian refugees are also , the majority of Algerians identify the majority of Algerians identify with During the colonial period , there was the colonial period , there was a large (10% , there was a large (10% in there was a large (10% in 1960 They were primarily of French, Spanish and Italian origin Modern Standard Arabic and Berber are the official languages ) is the language used by is the language used by the majority recognised as a "national language " by in Algeria , it has Algeria , it has one , it has one of it has one of the largest Francophone populations 2008 , 11.2 million Algerians could read An Abassa Institute study in April 2000 found that in April 2000 found that 60% April 2000 found that 60% of found that 60% of households Algeria emerged as a bilingual state after Islam is the predominant religion in Algeria There are about 290,000 Ibadis in the M'zab Valley There has been an increase in found that the percentage of Algerians In 2018 , Algeria had 2018 , Algeria had the highest numbers , Algeria had the highest numbers of Algeria had the highest numbers of physicians Access to "improved water sources " was the World Bank , Algeria is making , Algeria is making progress Algeria is making progress toward Given Algeria's young population , policy favours Algeria's young population , policy favours preventive health care

, policy favours preventive health care and policy favours preventive health care and clinics with this policy , the government maintains this policy , the government maintains an immunisation program independence , now the literacy rate is 1972 , Arabic is used Arabic is used as the language the third year , French is taught The students can also learn English from the 122 private schools , the Universities of the State are the 122 private schools , the Universities of the State are free the Universities of the State are free of charge primary school , students can go students can go to the high school The school offers two programs : general Algeria has 26 universities and 67 institutions the oldest , it offers oldest , it offers education , it offers education in it offers education in various disciplines Among the most important universities , there are the most important universities , there are the University of Sciences and Technology Houari Boumediene , there are the University of Sciences and Technology Houari Boumediene , there are the University of Sciences and Technology Houari Boumediene , the University of Mentouri Constantine been strongly influenced by the country's recent history Famous novelists of the 20th century include Mohammed Dib Augustine of Hippo was born Contemporary Algerian cinema is various in terms The historic roots of Algerian literature go back This period had also known Augustine of the Algerian national entity , there is the Algerian national entity , there is the publication , there is the publication of there is the publication of novels the 1990s , the other party is defined the other party is defined in a different style Chaâbi music is a typically Algerian musical genre characterized by is a typically Algerian musical genre characterized by specific rhythms The undisputed master of this music is El Hadj M'Hamed El Anka Folk music styles include Bedouin music , characterized include Bedouin music , characterized by Rahaba music style is unique to the Aures Other Algerian singers of the diaspora include Manel Filali Tuareg languages generally , Tinariwen had

generally , Tinariwen had a worldwide success Modern music is available in several facets 2013 , FDATIC subsidised 98 films , FDATIC subsidised 98 films ( FDATIC subsidised 98 films ( feature films ; 21 films in this repertoire were 21 films in this repertoire were Algerian-French co The country was considered as the "granary It offers a component of dishes The cuisine uses cereals as the main products Algerian cuisine varies from one region to Among these cakes , there are these cakes , there are Tamina Marketed and home-made bread products include varieties such as Various games have existed in Algeria In the Aures , people played the Aures , people played several games , people played several games such people played several games such as The first Algerian and African gold medalist is Boughera El Ouafi in 1928 Olympics The second Algerian Medalist was Alain Mimoun in 1956 Summer Olympics Football is the most popular sport in Algeria Several names are engraved in the history The Algeria national football team qualified for the 1982 FIFA World Cup , addition , several football clubs have won , several football clubs have won continental and international trophies several football clubs have won continental and international trophies as The fennec fox is the national animal of Algeria Dagny Taggart is the protagonist of the novel She is vice - president Francisco d'Anconia is one of the central characters He is a childhood friend , and exceptional talents , Francisco was dubbed , Francisco was dubbed the "climax Francisco was dubbed the "climax " He was a classmate of John Galt Later , Francisco bankrupts the d'Anconia business , Francisco bankrupts the d'Anconia business to Francisco bankrupts the d'Anconia business to put John Galt is the primary male hero of " He initially appears as an unnamed menial worker Only Eddie's side of their conversations is given for Taggart Transcontinental , Galt worked Taggart Transcontinental , Galt worked as , Galt worked as an engineer Galt worked as an engineer for This prototype was found by Dagny Taggart was found by Dagny Taggart and

found by Dagny Taggart and Hank Rearden Hank " ) Rearden is " ) Rearden is one ) Rearden is one of Rearden is one of the central characters He owns the most important steel company in the United States He lives in Philadelphia with Edwin "Eddie" Willers is the Special Assistant to the Vice-President Willers does not possess the creative ability of the book , Danneskjöld makes the book , Danneskjöld makes a personal appearance , Danneskjöld makes a personal appearance to Danneskjöld makes a personal appearance to encourage written , there were sections , there were sections written there were sections written describing at a lecture , Ayn Rand admitted a lecture , Ayn Rand admitted that admitted that Danneskjöld's name was a tribute Taggart is an expert influence peddler but incapable He relies on his sister , In a sense , he is a sense , he is the antithesis , he is the antithesis of he is the antithesis of Dagny This contradiction leads to the recurring absurdity of The unsupportive wife of Hank Rearden , who Lillian achieves this , when achieves this , when she Ferris is a biologist who works is a biologist who works as He uses his position there to He clashes on several occasions with He is also one of Ferris hosts the demonstration of the Project X weapon by the looters , Ferris uses the looters , Ferris uses the device , Ferris uses the device on Ferris uses the device on Galt He has since become a sell-out become a sell-out , one who He works at the State Science Institute where works at the State Science Institute where all his inventions The character was , in part The incompetent and treacherous lobbyist whom Hank Rearden reluctantly employs , he is given a senior position he is given a senior position at Later in the novel he becomes in the novel he becomes its Top Co the novel he becomes its Top Co - he becomes its Top Co - ordinator Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity Linguistic anthropology studies how language influences social life

Its present use first appeared in Renaissance Germany ( Its adjectival form appeared in the works Its adjectival form appeared in the works of These anthropologists of the times were liberal Anthropology and many other current fields are the intellectual results was the epiphany of everything they Darwin and Wallace unveiled evolution There was an immediate rush to bring Paul Broca in Paris was in read Darwin , he became Darwin , he became an immediate convert , he became an immediate convert to he became an immediate convert to "Transformisme He wanted to localize the difference He discovered the speech center of the human brain His interest was mainly in Biological anthropology Waitz defined anthropology as " Following Broca's lead , Waitz points Broca's lead , Waitz points out stresses that the data of comparison Waitz was influential among British ethnologists It was the 2nd society dedicated to Representatives from the French "Société " were " , Hunt stressed the work , Hunt stressed the work of Hunt stressed the work of Waitz Among the first associates were the young Edward Burnett Tylor , the first associates were the young Edward Burnett Tylor , inventor Similar organizations in other countries followed : The majority of these were evolutionists One notable exception was the Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology , and They supported the gradual osmosis of anthropology curricula , 48 educational institutions in 13 countries had 48 educational institutions in 13 countries had some curriculum This meager statistic expanded in the 20th century to Anthropology has diversified from a few major subdivisions the presence of buried victims might stimulate been distinguished from other social sciences by distinguished from other social sciences by their emphasis , the British tradition of social anthropology tends the British tradition of social anthropology tends to divided into the four field approach developed by European countries with overseas colonies tended to Anthropology is a global discipline involving humanities Anthropology builds upon knowledge from Early anthropology originated in Classical Greece and been heavily influenced by structuralist and postmodern theories heavily influenced by structuralist and postmodern theories ,

influenced by structuralist and postmodern theories , as 1990s , there was an epistemological shift , there was an epistemological shift away there was an epistemological shift away from Sociocultural anthropology draws together the principle axes of Cultural anthropology is the comparative study of the manifold ways ( how one's culture affects the experience how one's culture affects the experience for one's culture affects the experience for self In that , it helps that , it helps develop , it helps develop an understanding it helps develop an understanding of Inquiry in sociocultural anthropology is guided is guided in part by guided in part by cultural relativism Accepting other cultures in their own terms moderates Ethnography can refer to both a methodology a methodology , ethnography is based ethnography is based upon long-term fieldwork Participant observation is one of the foundational methods Ethnology involves the systematic comparison of different cultures Comparison across cultures is a key element Biological anthropology and physical anthropology are synonymous terms Archaeology is the study of the human past examine material remains in order It is the branch of anthropology is the branch of anthropology that Ethnography is a method of analysing It often involves participant observation though often involves participant observation though an ethnographer involves participant observation though an ethnographer may Tim Ingold distinguishes ethnography from anthropology anthropologists of art have focused The types of ethnographic contexts explored range Other types include cyber anthropology , a relatively new area ethnographic film , visual anthropology also encompasses , visual anthropology also encompasses the anthropological study visual anthropology also encompasses the anthropological study of Economic anthropology attempts to explain human economic behavior It has a complex relationship with the discipline - field of anthropology begin field of anthropology begin with Economic Anthropology remains , for the most part Political economy in anthropology is the application Political economy introduced questions of history Three main areas of interest rapidly developed first of these areas was concerned was concerned with the "pre-capitalist" societies that concerned with the "pre-capitalist" societies that were The second area was concerned with the vast majority The third area was on colonialism ,

Applied anthropology refers to the application of It is a " complex of anthropological research ; it includes anthropological research ; it includes researcher involvement ; it includes researcher involvement and it includes researcher involvement and activism Anthropology of development tends to Why is there such a gap between is there such a gap between plans are those working in development Kinship " can refer both its history , anthropology has developed , anthropology has developed a number anthropology has developed a number of Within kinship you have two different families People have their biological families and it have their biological families and it is This is called consanguineal relations or People can also have a chosen family have a chosen family in which they Feminist anthropology is a four field approach to anthropology Anthropology engages often with feminists This correction of systemic bias may include to St. Clair Drake , Vera Mae Green was St. Clair Drake , Vera Mae Green was , She studied ethnic and family relations in the Caribbean Nutritional anthropology is a synthetic concept that deals is a synthetic concept that deals with Psychological anthropology is an interdisciplinary subfield of anthropology is an interdisciplinary subfield of anthropology that Cognitive anthropology seeks to explain patterns Transpersonal anthropology studies the relationship between altered states with transpersonal psychology , the field is transpersonal psychology , the field is much Political anthropology concerns the structure of political systems The turn towards complex societies meant that towards complex societies meant that political themes complex societies meant that political themes were anthropologists continued to study political organization An anthropology of the state developed , the state developed , and it Cyborg anthropology originated as a sub-focus group within Digital anthropology is the study of the relationship Ecological anthropology is defined as the "study helped human populations adapt to their environments Many characterize this new perspective as more , the observer has become an active part the observer has become an active part of ( The troubling problem is borrowing non indigenous practices The troubling problem is borrowing non indigenous practices and addressing environmental problems - anthropology is

environmental problems - anthropology is now - anthropology is now a study anthropology is now a study of Human activity is the most important agent in creating anthropology contributes to environmental discourse is contributes to environmental discourse is by environmentalism - the term typically refers the term typically refers to a concern refers to a concern that the environment Ethnohistory is the study of ethnographic cultures It is also the study of Ethnohistory uses both historical and ethnographic data as its foundation The anthropology of religion involves the study Urban anthropology is concerned with issues Ulf Hannerz quotes a 1960s remark that traditional anthropologists quotes a 1960s remark that traditional anthropologists were There are two main approaches to urban anthropology cities , one would use , one would use social factors one would use social factors as It is an interdisciplinary field that overlaps is an interdisciplinary field that overlaps with A major focus of anthrozoologic research is the quantifying Biocultural anthropology is the scientific exploration of the relationships from a racial perspective ; that is a racial perspective ; that is , that is , from the assumption Evolutionary anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of the evolution Evolutionary anthropology is based in natural science Evolutionary anthropology is concerned with both biological and cultural evolution It is based on a scientific approach Forensic anthropology is the application of the science A forensic anthropologist can assist in the identification Paleoanthropology combines the disciplines of paleontology and physical anthropology It is the study of ancient humans Contemporary anthropology is an established science with academic departments The single largest organization of anthropologists is the American Anthropological Association scientific objectivity , present-day anthropologists typically urge , present-day anthropologists typically urge cultural relativism present-day anthropologists typically urge cultural relativism , typically urge cultural relativism , which urge cultural relativism , which has This is the notion that cultures is the notion that cultures should Ethical commitments in anthropology include noticing and documenting genocide , many of Boas' anthropologist contemporaries were many of Boas' anthropologist contemporaries were active Many served in the armed forces , Professional anthropological bodies often object to the use

addition , HTS teams are working HTS teams are working with the US military There are several characteristics that tend are several characteristics that tend to One of the central characteristics is that of the central characteristics is that anthropology the central characteristics is that anthropology tends calls for clarification of what Biological anthropologists are interested in both human variation They use many different methods of study theoretical emphasis , anthropologists typically divide , anthropologists typically divide the world anthropologists typically divide the world up Human time on Earth is divided Anthropologists and geographers share approaches Now there exist many works focusing there exist many works focusing on Since the 1980s it has become the 1980s it has become common Agricultural science is a broad multidisciplinary field of biology is a broad multidisciplinary field of biology that , a scientific revolution in agriculture began a scientific revolution in agriculture began with The Hatch Act was driven by farmers' interest was driven by farmers' interest in driven by farmers' interest in knowing The Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 shifted agricultural education khumeía " ) is an ancient branch Common aims were chrysopoeia , the Islamic and European alchemists developed a basic set of laboratory techniques They did not abandon the Ancient Greek philosophical idea not abandon the Ancient Greek philosophical idea that everything abandon the Ancient Greek philosophical idea that everything is former is pursued by historians is pursued by historians of pursued by historians of the physical sciences The word alchemy comes from Old French alchemy comes from Old French "alquemie was itself brought from the Arabic word itself brought from the Arabic word " first was proposed by Zosimos was proposed by Zosimos of proposed by Zosimos of Panopolis Others trace its roots to the Egyptian name This Coptic word derives from Demotic "kmỉ " Alchemy encompasses several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to One can distinguish at least three major strands , can distinguish at least three major strands , which

distinguish at least three major strands , which appear In contrast , Western alchemy developed contrast , Western alchemy developed its philosophical system , Western alchemy developed its philosophical system mostly Western alchemy developed its philosophical system mostly independent of André-Jean Festugière , modern scholars see André-Jean Festugière , modern scholars see alchemical practice , modern scholars see alchemical practice in modern scholars see alchemical practice in the Roman Empire in Egypt is complicated by Egypt is complicated by the pseudepigraphic nature is complicated by the pseudepigraphic nature of complicated by the pseudepigraphic nature of texts Zosimus based his work on that Recent scholarship tends to emphasize the testimony argued that early alchemical writers borrowed the vocabulary Zosimos of Panopolis wrote in explains that the ancient practice of "tinctures Mythology – Zosimos of Panopolis asserted of Panopolis asserted that alchemy Panopolis asserted that alchemy dated Alchemical writers used Classical figures from Greek His name is derived from the god of Alexandria , he wrote Alexandria , he wrote what wrote what were called the "forty-two books   250–300 , they contained 250–300 , they contained recipes , they contained recipes for they contained recipes for dyeing These writings lack the mystical, philosophical elements of alchemy – Alexandria acted as a melting pot Alexandria acted as a melting pot for developed by Aristotle , was by Aristotle , was that Aristotle , was that all things was that all things in the universe to Aristotle , each element had Aristotle , each element had a sphere , each element had a sphere to each element had a sphere to which had a sphere to which it The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects The four elements are simply the primary , believed Hermes Trismegistus had prophesied its birth St Augustine later affirmed this in Zosimos are known only by are known only by pseudonyms known only by pseudonyms , we only know through fragments 400 , Greek alchemical writers occupied themselves , Greek alchemical writers occupied themselves solely Greek alchemical writers occupied themselves solely in The 2nd millennium BC text Vedas describe a connection between

Vedas describe a connection between eternal life Buddhist texts from the 2nd to 5th centuries mention the transmutation Some early alchemical writings seem to have their origins Two famous early Indian alchemical authors were Nāgārjuna Siddha and Nityanātha Siddha Nityanātha Siddha wrote " Rasaratnākara " , the focus of alchemical development moved the focus of alchemical development moved to known about Islamic alchemy because it The early Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to The most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms each metal two of these qualities were two of these qualities were interior these qualities were interior and two For example , lead was example , lead was externally the search for the philosopher's stone was introduced His original system consisted of seven elements , consisted of seven elements , which , this evolved into eight elements this evolved into eight elements , From the 9th to 14th centuries , alchemical theories faced the 9th to 14th centuries , alchemical theories faced criticism , alchemical theories faced criticism from alchemical theories faced criticism from a variety into noble metals , Chinese alchemy had noble metals , Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection , Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine compared to the Grand Elixir of Immortality sought by Black powder may have been an important invention said that the Chinese invented gunpowder the 10th century , it was used it was used in cannons was used in cannons by used in cannons by 1290 , the use of gunpowder spread the use of gunpowder spread to would ingest mercuric sulfide , which ingest mercuric sulfide , which , to the Taoist heavens , the ensuing deaths encouraged the Taoist heavens , the ensuing deaths encouraged people , the ensuing deaths encouraged people to the ensuing deaths encouraged people to eschew Translations of the time included the Turba Philosophorum These brought with them many new words , theologian contemporaries of the translators made

theologian contemporaries of the translators made strides The 11th-century St Anselm put forth the opinion that put forth the opinion that faith In the early 12th century , Peter Abelard followed the early 12th century , Peter Abelard followed Anselm's work , Peter Abelard followed Anselm's work , Peter Abelard followed Anselm's work , laying In the early 13th century , Robert Grosseteste used the early 13th century , Robert Grosseteste used Abelard's methods , Robert Grosseteste used Abelard's methods of Robert Grosseteste used Abelard's methods of analysis The efforts of the translators were succeeded of the translators were succeeded by the translators were succeeded by that were succeeded by that of succeeded by that of the encyclopaedists Albertus critically compared these to the 15th century , more than 28 alchemical tracts were misattributed more than 28 alchemical tracts were misattributed to him the topic , he did consider Bacon's writings integrated morality , salvation His correspondence with Clement highlighted this before him , Bacon acknowledged him , Bacon acknowledged the division , Bacon acknowledged the division of Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy The practical confirmed the theoretical , practical confirmed the theoretical , and confirmed the theoretical , and Bacon In later European legend , he became later European legend , he became an archmage His "Summa Perfectionis " remained a staple summary of It was notable for its inclusion the end of the 13th century , alchemy had developed alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system They believed in the four elements and their art : they actively experimented they actively experimented with chemicals Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that revolved around their belief that man's soul In the 14th century , alchemy became the 14th century , alchemy became more Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to , Henry IV of England banned Henry IV of England banned the practice Nicolas Flamel is a well-known alchemist , but Flamel was not a religious scholar as His work spends a great deal of time aimed at gathering alchemical knowledge that like Flamel : they concentrated

Flamel : they concentrated on Bernard Trevisan and George Ripley made similar contributions In the late 15th century , Marsilo Ficino translated the late 15th century , Marsilo Ficino translated the Corpus Hermeticum , Marsilo Ficino translated the Corpus Hermeticum and Marsilo Ficino translated the Corpus Hermeticum and the works Esoteric systems developed that blended alchemy developed that blended alchemy into A key figure in this development was German Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa his "De Occulta Philosophia " , he attempted he attempted to merge Kabbalah Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals For me such is not me such is not the aim such is not the aim , He took an approach different from His writing portrayed alchemy as a sort , a short-lived "supernatural" interpretation of alchemy became a short-lived "supernatural" interpretation of alchemy became popular Entrepreneurial opportunities were common for the alchemists Alchemists were contracted by the elite were contracted by the elite for contracted by the elite for practical purposes , the trend of pseudo-alchemical fraud continued the trend of pseudo-alchemical fraud continued through Betrüger " would use sleight There were important overlaps between practitioners Sendivogious taught his technique to Cornelius Drebbel taught his technique to Cornelius Drebbel who Isaac Newton devoted considerably more of The decline of European alchemy was brought European alchemy was brought about by was brought about by the rise brought about by the rise of the 17th century , alchemy still flourished alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years Early modern European alchemy continued to exhibit a diversity He assumed nothing in his experiments Boyle would note the place in note the place in which the experiment , academic writers during the 18th-century scientific Enlightenment attempted academic writers during the 18th-century scientific Enlightenment attempted , of the early 19th century , alchemy received the early 19th century , alchemy received new attention , alchemy received new attention as alchemy received new attention as an occult science of alchemy , the two most seminal figures were alchemy , the two most seminal figures were Mary Anne Atwood , the two most seminal figures were Mary Anne Atwood and

the two most seminal figures were Mary Anne Atwood and Ethan Allen Hitchcock Both forwarded a completely esoteric view of alchemy Atwood's work influenced subsequent authors of the occult revival In 1946 , Louis Cattiaux published 1946 , Louis Cattiaux published the Message Retrouvé , Louis Cattiaux published the Message Retrouvé , Louis Cattiaux published the Message Retrouvé , a work published the Message Retrouvé , a work that Several women appear in the earliest history of The first alchemist whose name we know was whose name we know was Mary the Jewess we know was Mary the Jewess ( of pseudepigrapha and anonymous works , it is pseudepigrapha and anonymous works , it is difficult After the Greco-Roman period , women's names appear the Greco-Roman period , women's names appear less Women vacate the history of alchemy The history of alchemy has become Institutions involved in this research include kabbalah based book features step based book features step by book features step by step instructions features step by step instructions on Western alchemical theory corresponds to the worldview of Concepts were imported from Neoplatonism , the classical elements appear in alchemical writings the classical elements appear in alchemical writings , been strongly influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations These scholars have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they say of modern esoteric and Neo-Hermeticist practitioners , alchemy is modern esoteric and Neo-Hermeticist practitioners , alchemy is fundamentally the alchemist himself , the twin goal symbolized himself , the twin goal symbolized his evolution , the twin goal symbolized his evolution from the twin goal symbolized his evolution from ignorance A process , which he called He regarded the alchemical images as symbols , Jung began collecting all the old alchemical texts Jung began collecting all the old alchemical texts available of work he wrote brought work he wrote brought new light he wrote brought new light into Alchemy has had a long-standing relationship with Literary alchemy " appears throughout the history characters or plot structure follow an alchemical magnum opus

Visual artists had a similar relationship with alchemy of satire , others worked satire , others worked with , others worked with the alchemists others worked with the alchemists themselves An astronomer is a scientist in the field They observe astronomical objects such as Astronomers usually fall under either Observational astronomers make direct observations of celestial objects In contrast , theoretical astronomers create contrast , theoretical astronomers create and theoretical astronomers create and investigate models a life cycle , astronomers must observe , astronomers must observe snapshots astronomers must observe snapshots of Professional astronomers are highly educated individuals who typically are highly educated individuals who typically have This number includes scientists from other fields includes scientists from other fields such through the dark hours of the night , it is the dark hours of the night , it is far Before CCDs , photographic plates were CCDs , photographic plates were a common method , photographic plates were a common method of photographic plates were a common method of observation Modern astronomers spend relatively little time at telescopes who serve as faculty spend who become astronomers usually have of professional astronomers , the field is professional astronomers , the field is popular the field is popular among amateurs Most cities have amateur astronomy clubs that meet have amateur astronomy clubs that meet on The Astronomical Society of the Pacific is the largest general astronomical society in the world Like any hobby , most people who think ASCII codes represent text in computers ASCII was developed from telegraph code Its first commercial use was as a seven-bit teleprinter code promoted was as a seven-bit teleprinter code promoted by Work on the ASCII standard began in the English alphabet , ASCII encodes 128 specified , ASCII encodes 128 specified characters ASCII encodes 128 specified characters into printable : these include the digits : these include the digits " these include the digits " 0 ( "i " is the ninth letter ASCII was published as ASA X3.4 There was some debate at the time May 1963 the CCITT Working Party on the New Telegraph Alphabet proposed

the CCITT Working Party on the New Telegraph Alphabet proposed to The X3.2.4 task group voted its approval for the change others ( RU was removed the X3.15 standard , the X3 committee also addressed Like other character encodings , ASCII specifies other character encodings , ASCII specifies a correspondence , ASCII specifies a correspondence between ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns , the encodings in use included the encodings in use included 26 alphabetic characters The committee debated the possibility of a shift function In a shifted code , some character codes determine a shifted code , some character codes determine choices , some character codes determine choices between some character codes determine choices between options It allows compact encoding , but The committee considered an eight-bit code , since considered an eight-bit code , since eight bits , it would require all data transmission it would require all data transmission to The committee voted to use a seven-bit code one position , it also allowed it also allowed for a parity bit , so it became position 20hex so it became position 20hex ; it became position 20hex ; for the special and numeric codes were arranged before the letters on typewriters ; an important subtlety is typewriters ; an important subtlety is that Mechanical typewriters followed the standard set by followed the standard set by the Remington No. 2 was accommodated by removing codice 6 accommodated by removing codice 6 ( ) , used a somewhat different layout that , used a somewhat different layout that has used a somewhat different layout that has become The codice 7 pair also dates to the No Some common characters were not included , notably codice 14 included , notably codice 14 , while codice 15 The control codes felt essential for data transmission example , character 10 represents refers to control characters that ASCII does not define any mechanism The original ASCII standard used only short descriptive phrases for each control character these characters was the Teletype Model 33 ASR , which was the Teletype Model 33 ASR , which was

Paper tape was a very popular medium for long-term program storage of impending overflow ; it persists impending overflow ; it persists to ; it persists to this day it persists to this day in On some systems Control-S retains its meaning some systems Control-S retains its meaning but Control-S retains its meaning but Control-Q retains its meaning but Control-Q is it did not put a key Instead there was a key marked there was a key marked that was a key marked that sent in a hand-typed paper tape : the operator had a hand-typed paper tape : the operator had to the operator had to push a button Digital Equipment Corporation , so these systems had these systems had to use the available key The Unix terminal driver could only use one code This is the same meaning of " time this meaning has been co The best example of this is the newline problem required that a line of text created M he was inspired M he was inspired by he was inspired by some command line interface conventions was inspired by some command line interface conventions used inspired by some command line interface conventions used in in 1981 , IBM had 1981 , IBM had no hand , IBM had no hand in IBM had no hand in this Computers attached to the ARPANET included The Telnet protocol defined an ASCII "Network Virtual Terminal " ( Telnet used ASCII along with The File Transfer Protocol adopted the Telnet protocol , including Some operating systems such as CP/M tracked Codes 20hex to 7Ehex , this chart ; it is covered it is covered in the previous section's chart TWX originally used the earlier five-bit ITA2 , originally used the earlier five-bit ITA2 , which used the earlier five-bit ITA2 , which was Bob Bemer introduced features such as His British colleague Hugh McGregor Ross helped to popularize this work different standards bodies and corporations developed many variations One could class some of Other international standards bodies have ratified character encodings such Almost every country needed an adapted version of ASCII

Many other countries developed variants of ASCII It would share most characters in Many programmers kept their computers on US-ASCII a variation of ASCII is used used , in which the backslash as the norm , it became the norm , it became common Encodings include ISCII ( India Most early home computer systems developed their own 8-bit character sets containing line-drawing and game glyphs The PETSCII code Commodore International used for their 8-bit systems is The IBM PC defined code page 437 , defined code page 437 , which Operating systems such as DOS supported supported these code pages , and manufacturers Digital Equipment Corporation developed the Multinational Character Set ( DEC-MCS finally provided a standard that most systems provided a standard that most systems copied ASCII was incorporated into the Unicode (1991) character Animation is a method in which is a method in which figures traditional animation , images are drawn drawn or painted by hand most animations are made with computer-generated imagery Computer animation can be very detailed 3D animation , be very detailed 3D animation , while 2D computer animation An animated cartoon is an animated film , usually a short film The style takes inspiration from comic strips Commonly , animators achieved the effect , animators achieved the effect by animators achieved the effect by a rapid succession Television and video are popular electronic animation media and video are popular electronic animation media that video are popular electronic animation media that originally are popular electronic animation media that originally were The word "animation " stems from the Latin "animātiōn people all over the world enjoyed enjoyed shows with moving figures that The average 19th-century animation contained about 12 images that were contained about 12 images that were displayed The flip book often contained more pictures and commercialized until a few years later by manufacturers ) is the oldest known example of what is the oldest known example of what became the production of animated "cartoons " became animator Earl Hurd , patented the cel animation process that , patented the cel animation process that dominated patented the cel animation process that dominated the animation industry

The enormous success of Mickey Mouse is seen The United States dominated the world market of animation In 1917 , Italian-Argentine director Quirino Cristiani made 1917 , Italian-Argentine director Quirino Cristiani made the first feature-length film , Italian-Argentine director Quirino Cristiani made the first feature-length film " Italian-Argentine director Quirino Cristiani made the first feature-length film " El Apóstol In 1937 , Walt Disney Studios premiered 1937 , Walt Disney Studios premiered their first animated feature , Walt Disney Studios premiered their first animated feature , Walt Disney Studios premiered their first animated feature , " The Fleischer studios followed this example in 1939 , Disney would be the only American studio Disney would be the only American studio to as Disney's features , other countries developed Disney's features , other countries developed their own animation industries , other countries developed their own animation industries that other countries developed their own animation industries that produced developed their own animation industries that produced both Many classic cartoons found a new life on the small screen successes internationally , many other countries produced internationally , many other countries produced their own child-oriented programming , many other countries produced their own child-oriented programming , many other countries produced their own child-oriented programming , relatively " The Rescuers Down Under " was the first feature film The Rescuers Down Under " was the first feature film to Most of the cel animation studios switched to In 2008 , the animation market was 2008 , the animation market was worth Animated feature-length films returned the highest gross margins ( around 52% The clarity of animation makes it of animation makes it a animation makes it a powerful Some animated characters in commercials have survived moving image media , The Walt Disney Company is image media , The Walt Disney Company is the best known and most extreme example Disneyland opened in 1955 and Its enormous success spawned several other Disney theme parks and resorts Criticism of animation has been a large amount of criticism has arisen Subliminal messages are hidden in these animations , “ There is a good chance

“ There is a good chance that There is a good chance that some is a good chance that some of 1989 ) is a Disney movie that ) is a Disney movie that tells is a Disney movie that tells the story the prince , Ariel must forfeit , Ariel must forfeit her thoughts Ariel must forfeit her thoughts and , animated movies have portrayed female characters animated movies have portrayed female characters struggling time , Disney has adapted , Disney has adapted their representation Disney has adapted their representation of the first time , Disney has created , Disney has created the story Disney has created the story of created the story of a princess that media , animation has instituted , animation has instituted awards animation has instituted awards for The original awards for animation were presented for animation were presented by animation were presented by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences were presented by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for presented by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for animated shorts The first winner of the Academy Award was the short "Flowers and Trees It was won by the film was won by the film "Shrek won by the film "Shrek " " Beauty and the Beast " was the first animated film Beauty and the Beast " was the first animated film nominated Several other countries have instituted an award for animation studios starting with Disney began Another problem unique to animation is Character designers on the visual development team draw model sheets the storyboard artists would then receive credit The individual frames of a traditionally animated film are photographs of movement , each drawing differs movement , each drawing differs slightly each drawing differs slightly from the one The traditional cel animation process became obsolete by the beginning of the 21st century The final animated piece is output to one Examples of traditionally animated feature films include "Pinocchio Full animation refers to the process of Many of the Disney animated features are examples Limited animation involves the use of less detailed or more stylized drawings

Limited animation uses fewer drawings per second Rotoscoping is a technique patented by is a technique patented by Max Fleischer animation is a technique combining hand-drawn characters One of the earlier uses was in was in Koko the Clown when Koko Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks created a series - motion animation is used motion animation is used to There are many different types of stop-motion animation Computer animation encompasses a variety of techniques 2D animation has many applications , including Final line advection animation is a technique used in Paperman " , John Kahrs said modeled and manipulated by an animator A mesh typically includes many vertices that typically includes many vertices that are includes many vertices that are connected , the mesh is given an internal digital skeletal structure the mesh is given an internal digital skeletal structure called given an internal digital skeletal structure called an armature that Apollo is one of the Olympian deities of the Greek gods , he is the Greek gods , he is the son , he is the son of he is the son of Zeus ) , Apollo is an oracular god , Apollo is an oracular god — Apollo is an oracular god — the prophetic deity off evil ; various epithets call evil ; various epithets call him ; various epithets call him the "averter various epithets call him the "averter of Apollo delivered people from epidemics make youths grow is one youths grow is one of Apollo is concerned with the health He presided over their passage into Apollo is an important pastoral deity , and the other hand , Apollo also encouraged Apollo also encouraged founding new towns He is associated with dominion mousike " , Apollo presides , Apollo presides over all music Apollo presides over all music , He is the inventor of string-music The lyre is a common attribute of Apollo "Apollo Helios " he became identified however , there was no conflation , there was no conflation of there was no conflation of Apollo The etymology of the name is uncertain It probably is a cognate to

some scholars , the words are derived the words are derived from the Doric word Apella ( ) is the name Several instances of popular etymology are attested the Greeks most often associated Apollo's name Hesychius connects the name Apollo with The Hittite testimony reflects an early form ' , reflects an early form ' , which The name of the Lydian god "Qλdãns" /kʷʎðãns/ may reflect Apollo's chief epithet was Phoebus (; , " very commonly used by both the Greeks commonly used by both the Greeks and used by both the Greeks and Romans Like other Greek deities , he had other Greek deities , he had a number , he had a number of he had a number of others Apollo was worshipped throughout the Roman Empire Delphi , Apollo was venerated Apollo was venerated as the slayer For the Greeks , Apollo was the Greeks , Apollo was the most Greek , Apollo was the most Greek of Apollo was the most Greek of all the gods In Archaic Greece he was the prophet Archaic Greece he was the prophet , he was the prophet , the oracular god was the prophet , the oracular god who In Classical Greece he was the god Classical Greece he was the god of he was the god of light Walter Burkert discerned three components in the prehistory , his major function in popular religion was his major function in popular religion was to Apollo also had many epithets relating Paean serves as the healer of of adulation ; its object was adulation ; its object was either It was in this way that was in this way that Apollo the "Iliad " , Apollo is " , Apollo is the healer , Apollo is the healer under Apollo is the healer under the gods He sends a plague ( ) The "Homeric Hymn to Apollo " depicts " is reinforced by the month is reinforced by the month "Apellaios reinforced by the month "Apellaios " The family-festival was dedicated to Apollo " Apellaios " is the month Apellaios " is the month of

However it can explain only the Doric type it can explain only the Doric type of George Huxley regarded the identification of Apollo the "Homeric Hymn " , Apollo appeared , Apollo appeared as a dolphin Apollo appeared as a dolphin and The name of Apollo's mother Leto has has Lydian origin , and she Homer pictures Apollo on the side He is pictured as a terrible god also be bolstered by references be bolstered by references to bolstered by references to the parallel worship The Greeks gave to him the name "agyieus Here we have an apotropaic situation , we have an apotropaic situation , where have an apotropaic situation , where a god Homer interprets Apollo as a terrible god "Iliad " , his priest prays , his priest prays to "Apollo Smintheus his priest prays to "Apollo Smintheus " The Vedic Rudra has some similar functions with Apollo The terrible god is called "the archer " called "the archer " and the bow Rudra could bring diseases with among the Olympic deities , Apollo had the Olympic deities , Apollo had two cult sites , Apollo had two cult sites that Apollo had two cult sites that had had two cult sites that had widespread influence Lycia was sacred to the god Oracular sanctuaries to Apollo were established In the 3rd century , Apollo fell the 3rd century , Apollo fell silent Apollo had a famous oracle in Delphi Many temples were dedicated to Apollo They show the spread of the cult seems that the first peripteral temples were rectangular wooden structures The different wooden elements were considered divine , considered divine , and their forms The Greeks used standard types because they used standard types because they believed From the earliest times there were certain rules the earliest times there were certain rules strictly there were certain rules strictly observed Apollo appears often in the myths Zeus' favorite son , Apollo had direct access , Apollo had direct access to Apollo had direct access to the mind Apollo was the son of Zeus pregnant , she banned Leto

, she banned Leto from she banned Leto from giving Leto sought shelter in many lands , the voice of unborn Apollo informed the voice of unborn Apollo informed his mother All the goddesses except Hera were present stated that Hera kidnapped Eileithyia , everything on Delos turned everything on Delos turned into turned into gold and the island Swans circled the island seven times was washed clean by the goddesses washed clean by the goddesses who tasting the divine food , Apollo broke the divine food , Apollo broke free , Apollo broke free of Apollo broke free of the bands Apollo's birth fixed the floating Delos to the earth to some , Apollo secured some , Apollo secured Delos , Apollo secured Delos to Apollo secured Delos to the bottom Apollo was born on the seventh day a vast forest of beautiful trees was called Apollo spent the winter months among the Hyperboreans His absence from the world caused coldness the world caused coldness and this caused coldness and this was No prophecies were issued during this time He returned to the world during Henceforth , Hyperborea became Apollo's winter home , Hyperborea became Apollo's winter home and Hyperborea became Apollo's winter home and wolves His intimate connection to wolves is evident But Apollo was also the wolf-slayer Apollo was also the wolf-slayer in The Hyperborean worship of Apollo bears the strongest marks , the tears of amber Apollo shed the tears of amber Apollo shed when of amber Apollo shed when his son amber Apollo shed when his son Asclepius Apollo also buried in Hyperborea a child , Apollo is said cows , he was reared he was reared by Thriae was reared by Thriae , reared by Thriae , the bee nymphs He then taught to the humans Python was the nurse of the giant Typhon Python was sent by Hera was sent by Hera to sent by Hera to hunt to his mother , Apollo went his mother , Apollo went in , Apollo went in search Apollo went in search of who were present encouraged Apollo